142 files changed, 17 insertions, 20459 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7b82bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+*.txt text eol=lf
+*.htm text eol=lf
+*.html text eol=lf
+*.md text eol=lf
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..104e07b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #52932 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52932)
diff --git a/old/52932-0.txt b/old/52932-0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index f274d98..0000000
--- a/old/52932-0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,9012 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Book
-       Its History and Development
-
-Author: Cyril Davenport
-
-Release Date: August 29, 2016 [EBook #52932]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_), and ^ precedes
-a superscript (x^2).
-
-Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The “Westminster” Series.
-
-THE BOOK
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration: Golden Binding of “The Gospels of Charlemagne,” with
-Jewels and Enamels, 11th or 12th Century. [_Frontispiece._]
-
-
-
-
-THE BOOK
-
-
-  ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
-
-  BY CYRIL DAVENPORT, V.D. F.S.A.
-
-  _ILLUSTRATED_
-
-  LONDON
-  ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. LTD.
-  10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C.
-  1907
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-  BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS
-  LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE OF CONTENTS.
-
-
-  CHAPTER I. EARLY RECORDS.
-
-  Rock inscriptions--Marks on wood--Quipus--Wampum--Modern
-    ideographs--Indian palm-leaf books--Ideographs and
-    alphabets--Diptychs                                        _p._ 1
-
-  CHAPTER II. ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS.
-
-  Papyrus and vellum rolls--Quaternions--The sewing
-    of books--Headbands--The rounding and backing of
-    books--Mediæval books--Irish cumdachs--Byzantine
-    bindings--Oriental books--Modern methods of sewing and
-    binding                                                   _p._ 26
-
-  CHAPTER III. PAPER.
-
-  Paper--Watermarks and quiring                               _p._ 62
-
-  CHAPTER IV. PRINTING.
-
-  Assyrian bricks with printed inscriptions--Oiron
-    ware--Chinese types--Block books--Costeriana--Types and
-    stereotypes--Printing presses                             _p._ 85
-
-  CHAPTER V. ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-  Wood engraving--Line
-    engraving--Etching--Stipple--Mezzotint--Aquatint--Lithography
-    --Photography                                            _p._ 102
-
-  CHAPTER VI. MISCELLANEA.
-
-  Book edges and their decoration--Embroidered books--Cloth
-    bindings--Account books--End papers--Small metal-bound
-    books--Books bound in tortoiseshell--Chained books--Horn
-    books                                                    _p._ 141
-
-  CHAPTER VII. LEATHERS.
-
-  Vellum--Calf--Pig skin--Sheep skin--Goat skin--Seal skin,
-    etc.                                                     _p._ 169
-
-  CHAPTER VIII. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS
-    WITHOUT GOLD.
-
-  Blind tooling and stamping--Panel stamps--Cut
-    leather--Stained calf--Cut vellum--Transparent vellum    _p._ 181
-
-  CHAPTER IX. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH
-    GOLD.
-
-  Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to
-    Venice--Early Italian gold tooled work--The spread of
-    gold tooling in Europe--Modern work--Gold tooling in
-    leather--Early Venetian gold tooled bindings--The work
-    of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John Gibson, Mary Collet,
-    Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and Chapman, Roger Payne,
-    Richard Wier, Charles Hering, Kalthœber, Staggemeier,
-    Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, Sir Edw.
-    Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, S. Prideaux,
-    Adams, Woolrich, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas
-    and Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Macé Ruette,
-    L. A. Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. le Monnier, Derome le
-    Jeune, Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic  _p._ 205
-
-  INDEX                                                      _p._ 245
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF PLATES.
-
-
-  1. GOLDEN BINDING OF “THE GOSPELS OF CHARLEMAGNE,” WITH
-      JEWELS AND ENAMELS, 11TH OR 12TH CENTURY. (_See_ p. 54)
-                                                       _Frontispiece_
-
-  2. PAGE FROM WILLIAM CASLON’S “SPECIMEN OF PRINTING TYPES.”
-      (LONDON, 1766)                                 _To face p._  98
-
-  3. PAGE FROM THE “HYPNEROTOMACHIA POLIPHILI.” (VENICE, 1499)
-                                                     _To face p._ 104
-
-  4. PAGE FROM CAXTON’S “MYRROUR OF THE WORLDE.” (LONDON, 1481)
-                                                     _To face p._ 108
-
-  5. “THE PEACOCK.” WOOD ENGRAVING BY THOS. BEWICK, FROM THE
-      “HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS.” (NEWCASTLE, 1797-1804)
-                                                     _To face p._ 110
-
-  6. TITLE-PAGE OF GRIMM’S “GERMAN POPULAR STORIES.” (LONDON,
-      1824)                                          _To face p._ 124
-
-  7. FRENCH SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BINDING BY LE GASCON. RED
-      MOROCCO, INLAID WITH OLIVE AND CITRON MOROCCO AND GOLD
-      TOOLED IN THE POINTILLÉ MANNER                 _To face p._ 238
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I. EARLY RECORDS.
-
-
-  Rock inscriptions--Marks on wood--Quipus--Wampum--Modern
-  ideographs--Indian palm leaf books--Ideographs and
-  alphabets--Diptychs.
-
-The idea of making records by means of marks cut on stone or wood did
-not originate in any one place, for signs of it are found more or less
-all over the world wherever primitive man has existed. It was not until
-a comparatively late period that the various kinds of record keeping
-were unified after a fashion and true writing evolved itself out of the
-chaos.
-
-There are some forms of record keeping that have been largely used
-by the human race which, as far as we can at present tell, have not
-influenced our present form of book except negatively; but indirectly
-they may still have done so in some manner that we cannot distinguish.
-
-Mankind is naturally imitative, and among his early efforts in this
-direction are the scratchings on bones and antlers. They comprise
-outlines of deer, mammoths, reindeer, seals, bears, horses and other
-animals. Several instances of these early drawings have been found in
-the caves of the Dordogne in France. These, however, are not records,
-they are only pictures of what the artist saw, and a large proportion
-of rock and stone markings come into the same category. But there is
-no doubt that many of the latter are intended to commemorate certain
-events; they show groupings of marks, animals and men in positions and
-attitudes which are clearly intended to mean something, and now and
-then it has been possible to make a good guess at their interpretation.
-
-The earliest marks made by man that still exist are to be found
-among the rock markings or carvings, as these are often in protected
-places where the weather has not worn them away. Prehistoric caves
-and tombs are prolific in such treasures, and the marks, ideographs
-or hieroglyphics are always of the greatest interest. There seems to
-be some analogy between the great megalithic temples like that on
-Salisbury Plain and many of the rock inscriptions, but little is at
-present known on this point.
-
-Cup and ring markings on rocks or stones are among the most remarkable
-of rock inscriptions because they are not isolated as to their design.
-From Ireland to India these marks are found possessing the same radical
-forms, and it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that they have been
-made by tribes of men who had some thought or idea in common. What this
-idea was is still a disputed point among archæologists.
-
-Cup and ring markings are held by some authorities to be astronomical,
-sun signs, but these speculations, especially in Scandinavian examples,
-soon land us in pure symbolism, ring crosses, swastikas, triskeles and
-the rest.
-
-Apart from these, marks are found in the British Isles and in India
-particularly through which a dominant idea is clearly present. It seems
-likely that some common religious symbolism is really the key to the
-mystery, and this belief, disavowed by Sir J. Simpson, is strongly
-held by Col. J. H. Rivett-Carnac, as well as by many others. By these
-archæologists the cup and ring markings are considered to be the
-ideographic expressions of one of the primitive religions of the world
-which was very widely spread, and the remains of which exist in India
-at the present day.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stone cist with ring marks. Found at Coilsford
-in Ayrshire.]
-
-But even admitting the possibility of this interpretation, there are
-still many points left unexplained. For instance, in the drawing, it
-will be seen that the cups with their rings are cunningly attached to
-each other, and the whole design appears as if it “means something.” No
-doubt some day further light will be thrown upon this curious form of
-record.
-
-The Assyrian and Babylonian sculptures both in the round and in
-bas-reliefs are commonly covered with cuneiform inscriptions, and
-these are also plentifully found inscribed on stone stelæ and bronze
-figurines. The famous Rosetta stone is a familiar example of a
-tri-lingual inscription that will probably last as long as the world
-lasts. It is now in the British Museum, and bears an inscription in
-Hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek. The Greek being understood, it gave at
-once the key to the interpretation of the Hieroglyphic. The date of
-the cutting of this stone is about the beginning of the second century
-before the birth of Christ. An earlier stone of a similar kind is known
-as the tablet of Sen; it contains a decree of the priests at Canopus in
-honour of Ptolemy Evergetes I. It was made in B.C. 238, but has not yet
-got to England.
-
-The ten commandments were engraved on stone, and instances of
-inscriptions on small stones are very numerous. From Egypt to North
-America amulets bearing mystical sentences have been commonly made.
-Familiar to most of us are the turquoises engraved with Arabic words
-run in with gold, and the curious “Garuda” and other stones, with
-magical inscriptions and credited with magical powers, have been common
-in the East from time immemorial.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Garuda amulet.]
-
-In India inscriptions, holy names, invocations and quotations are cut
-on small flat pieces of jasper, agate, onyx, carnelian, amethyst,
-hematite, jade, and materials of less value like coral or glass, some
-of the old and some new. Musulman amulets of similar kinds are also
-sometimes found on gold, silver, iron, and even on small bricks of
-baked clay.
-
-Many of these amulets have pierced ears for suspension, and they were
-worn as jewellery on the neck or ears or sewn on girdles. They were
-also fixed on weapons of war and horse furniture. Some of the stones
-are engraved in reverse so as to make impressions. These are seal
-stones, but the greater number are engraved simply so as to read
-straightforwardly. They are in Arabic, Persian, and rarely Turkish.
-
-Greek and Roman cameos and intaglios are often found bearing short
-inscriptions as well as the names of their engravers. Even the diamond
-has not escaped, but inscriptions on this stone are very rare because
-of the difficulty of engraving it. Numbers of inscriptions, names and
-mottoes can be found on ring stones of all times as well as on real
-stones.
-
-Curious Chinese books are made of leaves of jade, and in these
-inscriptions are cut in the decorative Chinese character, run in with
-gold.
-
-It should be noted that the forms of letters have always been much
-influenced by the manner in which they could be most easily made. It
-is easier to cut a square form of letter on stone than a cursive form,
-so we find that the majority of rock or stone inscriptions favour the
-square form rather than the rounded form of letter. We derive our
-angular forms of letters from the distant past, but the rounded forms
-are adapted from the later times of papyrus or vellum, when reed or pen
-writing was understood.
-
-Writings on metal have been made from time to time, but never very
-largely. In India inscribed plaques of bronze, kept together by
-metal rings, have been often used. Tablets of lead are recorded as
-having been used by ancient peoples, and Oriental as well as European
-talismanic formulæ have been engraved on small plates of silver,
-bronze, brass or lead, the letters being now and then damascened with
-gold and silver. In ancient Rome name-brands were cut in bronze, and
-impressions could have been printed from them. They were beautifully
-cut.
-
-The Nicene creed was cut in silver by order of Pope Leo III., and in
-the East strips of metal have constantly been substituted for the long
-thin pieces of palm leaf which formed the normal books. The metal
-leaves are found of gold, silver, or gilded copper particularly. The
-plates are quite thin, and the characters upon them are generally
-engraved, but sometimes they are chased with tracer and hammer. Such
-records are not only very permanent but they are also very decorative.
-The modern engraving of inscriptions on metal has mainly found refuge
-in monumental brasses, and in this case the letterings are usually run
-in with some pigment.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Runic calendar on bone.]
-
-Another primitive form of record is found in the case of notches cut in
-wood. A savage warrior of a literary turn of mind would naturally wish
-to keep some record of the number of his enemies that he had killed
-and perhaps eaten, and an obvious way of doing this would be to cut or
-scratch marks on his war club. Such records would, no doubt, become
-customary among war-like tribes. The handles of war axes or spears
-would offer excellent ground for such marks, and presently, especially
-in peace times, similar marks may well have kept tallies of the numbers
-of game killed.
-
-From such personal notes the transition to others of wider interest
-is not difficult, and so we find the notches used, on bits of wood or
-sticks, for almanacks and calendars.
-
-Ogham and Runic inscriptions follow the ancient idea of notches cut
-along an angular edge, and these notches and rods are the very distant
-ancestors of our modern types of metal; the German word “Buchstab,”
-meaning type, is etymologically “a wooden rod.”
-
-In Denmark and Sweden in ancient times almanacks were cut on flat
-pieces of metal, bone, horn, box, fir or oak. The majority of them
-are of wood, but the other materials were sometimes used. They are
-variously known as Rune staves or stocks, Prime staves, Messe dag
-staves or Brim stocks, and they are generally hinged along one side by
-cords run through holes, several slabs being thus fastened together.
-Wooden calendars are also often found among the records kept by
-primitive peoples; they have been found in Sumatra and in many other
-places.
-
-Similar almanacks were used by our Saxon ancestors, who no doubt
-borrowed the idea from the Scandinavians. One side was kept for the
-summer and the other for the winter, and notches for the days were made
-across the edges.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Staffordshire clog almanack.]
-
-During the reign of Queen Elizabeth a modification of the Scandinavian
-Rune staves was largely used in England, chiefly in Staffordshire, but
-not exclusively. These are known as “clog almanacks,” and Dr. Plott
-says that “Clogg may mean Logg, or that they are like the cloggs with
-which we restrain our doggs.”
-
-English clog almanacks are squared pieces of wood, measuring from about
-two feet to nine or ten inches in length, and the larger ones are
-sometimes as much as three inches square. They are notched along the
-angles, small notches without ornamentation indicating week days, big
-notches stand for Sundays, and Saints days have all kinds of ornamental
-flourishes, which now and then show familiar forms such as Saint
-Catherine’s wheel and Saint Lawrence’s gridiron.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Modern hop-tally of wood.]
-
-Some of the clogs show a hole at the lower end, evidently so that they
-could stand upright upon a peg, others, and these are the most usual,
-have a flat pierced handle so that they can be suspended by a loop.
-They were commonly kept in churches. Details of several well known
-examples of clog almanacks will be found figured in _The Reliquary_ for
-January, 1865, in illustration of an excellent article on the subject
-by Mr. John Harland. Exchequer and other wooden tallies were common
-in England in the 14th century, and in modern days a certain survival
-of them exists in the form of hop-tallies. These are two strips of
-wood which fit closely together with a tongue, and when in contact
-notches are made across the two edges in apposition, so that when the
-two pieces are apart, neither party can falsify the notches without it
-being at once apparent when the slips are finally brought together.
-The principle is exactly the same as that utilised in the old legal
-“indentures,” by virtue of which a piece of vellum was cut in two
-by an indentured, or toothed line, and if these did not exactly fit
-whenever they were brought together it became evident that they had
-been tampered with. In parts of France tallies like these are still
-used by bakers.
-
-Wooden tallies are also found among the inhabitants of Torres Straits,
-where they use them made of short sticks tied together at their tops.
-
-Curious inscriptions, as yet undecipherable, have been found at Easter
-Island; they are cut in thick slabs of wood and are ideographic.
-
-Bones have been from very early times the recipients of men’s marks;
-the earliest of these, however, were only copies of things seen. But
-inscriptions and symbols were presently scratched on them, and the
-blade bones of buffaloes in North America as well as the shoulder
-blades of sheep used by the Arabs are equally convenient for writing
-upon. In Sumatra inscriptions are commonly cut in flat pieces of bone.
-Instances of inscriptions in ivory are very numerous, and the finest
-examples of these occur in the case of the Roman consular diptychs
-which are described a little further on.
-
-Information as to direction is still often given by means of marks
-or “blazes” on trees, a survival of a primitive method, and American
-lumbermen or “loggers” cut hieroglyphic marks of ownership on their
-logs when they send them down stream.
-
-In times of trouble it often happens that primitive methods of
-communication are resorted to, like that received by a Cavalier from
-his lady love who heard that the Roundheads were after him--she sent
-him a feather, and he flew away and escaped.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
-
-Such symbolical messages are common enough among savage tribes, but
-without some key it is almost impossible to interpret them. They are
-so various in their composition that no useful analysis of them can
-be made. On one such message from West Africa, strung on a string of
-flat fibre knotted at each end, are a bit of shell, a bit of fur, a
-bean, a cylindrical stick, a piece of leather, a mass of frog’s eggs
-or something like it, a flat piece of bark, a feather, a tooth and a
-shell. In another are two pieces of flat glass kept together with red
-thread, and two teeth on each side of it, all strung on fibre, and so
-on.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
-
-The Battas of Sumatra use different and probably more elaborate
-messages, as they consist of carefully cut strips of wood, resembling
-the old spillikins with which our childhood’s days were made happy.
-These strips of thin wood, about three inches in length, are cut into
-various shapes which have no obvious collective meaning. In one of
-them is a capital model of a little broom, accompanied apparently by a
-series of little clubs and spikes. Such a message might have been sent
-by an absent brave to his squaw at home, and may have meant that if
-she didn’t sweep up the wigwam before his arrival she would experience
-the effect of one or other of the clubs.
-
-The Incas of Peru had a regular system of keeping records by means of
-coloured pieces of string knotted in a peculiar way.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Peruvian Quipu.]
-
-These knotted records, or Quipus, had special keepers who held office
-in the provinces, and the results of their energy were forwarded
-annually to the capital city for examination and preservation. The
-provincial keepers were called “Quipu Camayas,” and the records they
-kept were mainly statistics concerning the people of their districts.
-The knots were arranged either on a strong piece of cord or upon a
-stick, and formed a sort of fringe; the word “Quipu” means a knot.
-According to the position of the knot a certain number was probably
-indicated, and the class of person referred to is shown by the colour
-of the bit of string which represents it.
-
-But it is also likely that more elaborate interpretations could be
-made by skilled interpreters of Quipus. Little is really known as to
-that, but it is suggested by competent observers that, for instance,
-red meant war, yellow meant gold, white meant peace, and silver. But
-this is probably guess work. The same idea has been utilised in the
-case of a rare Chinese book, the leaves of which were of differently
-coloured silks. Each colour was supposed to convey a certain emotion
-to the student, and when he had exhausted the emotion caused by one
-colour, he turned over the leaf so as to experience the effect of
-another.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Cardinal’s hat.]
-
-The use of knots as reminders is not quite obsolete, as it is common
-enough even now to make a knot in one’s handkerchief, if anything easy
-is to be remembered. It is curious if this custom is really a survival
-of the Peruvian Quipu!
-
-A form of knotted record is used among several of the tribes in the
-Pacific Islands, and the Jewish “Taleth,” or scarf, has fringes which
-imply certain facts.
-
-The ordinary rosary with its ten beads for Ave Maria’s and single ones
-for Pater Nosters has also something in common with knots, and possibly
-the abacus of the Greeks and the Chinese may have a similar origin. But
-probably these last are only used as aids in mathematical calculations.
-
-Something analogous to the Peruvian knots is to be found in the
-tasselled and knotted fringes which adorn the ceremonial hats of
-dignitaries in the Romish church.
-
-The hats themselves are always of the same shape, round shallow crowns
-with broad brims. The fringes, however, differ in size and colour
-according to the rank of the wearer. The master cord is drawn through
-the brim of the hat at its inner edge, at a point over each ear, and
-kept in place by a large ornamental knot on the outside.
-
-The tassels start from one, and from this two others depend, and from
-these three, and so on, one more in each row. An abbot wears a black
-hat with six green tassels on each side; a bishop wears a green hat
-with six green tassels on each side on a gold cord; an archbishop has
-a violet hat with ten violet tassels on each side on a gold cord, and
-a cardinal has a red hat with fifteen red tassels on a gold cord,
-depending on each side.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Portion of North American wampum belt.]
-
-The wampum belts of North America were primarily used as money, but
-they were also made sometimes in such a way that they formed historical
-records.
-
-The true “Six Nation” wampum belts were made of little white and
-purple cylinders of shell very laboriously cut, and the purple ones
-very difficult to get. “Wampum” means white, and there is generally
-a preponderance of this colour. The short beads are strung upon long
-threads or strips of leather, and the design shows sometimes in purple
-on a white ground and sometimes in white on a purple ground.
-
-The designs are sometimes easy to decipher, like the belt which
-typifies the Iroquois League, showing the one heart of the ruling
-nation in the centre, and the allied nations, each shown by a square,
-united together in one bond.
-
-A very fine and interesting wampum belt was given as a record of
-friendship to William Penn at the Great Treaty in 1682, by the Sachems
-of the Lenni Lenape. It is now preserved by the Historical Society
-at Philadelphia. It is made of eighteen rows of white and purple
-cylindrical shell beads, the ground white and the designs in purple.
-The beads are laced upon nineteen parallel “horizontal” strips of
-leather by means of thinner strips running vertically across them and
-brought twice through each bead, one running being above the horizontal
-strip and the other below it. It is a curious way of stringing
-beads, and was practised in England some sixty or seventy years ago
-in the making of small bead ribbons. In the centre of the belt is a
-conventional figure of Penn shaking hands with the chief Sachem.
-
-Many of the wampum belts seem to have only geometrical designs upon
-them, but doubtless, without exception, these fine white and purple
-shell belts, cut with infinite patience and skill, and put together
-with the greatest care, always have some meaning. The Iroquois could,
-until recently, interpret them at once, but now they are less able to
-understand the work of their ancestors.
-
-There are plenty of imitation wampum belts, usually made of small
-shells or ordinary beads. The genuine belts are flat and strong, and
-the little shell cylinders nearly all of the same size. The imitations
-are much more irregularly and carelessly made, and they are often
-without any colour but white.
-
-A common form of book in Oriental countries consists of long narrow
-strips of palm leaf, kept together by two strings run through holes
-near each end. The writing upon the leaves is carried right along the
-length of each leaf in successive lines, and is scratched in, and
-usually strengthened by means of lamp black rubbed over it so as to
-stick in the scratches.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Oriental palm-leaf book.]
-
-This form of book rests by itself. Apparently it has never altered
-materially, neither has it in any way affected the production of the
-book as we know it. The palm leaves are brittle, they are troublesome
-to turn over, and are likely to split and break where the cord touches
-them. But the leaves are frequently made of stronger materials than
-palm leaf, some of them being of gold, silver, or gilded copper, and in
-these cases the lettering is engraved or punched. Others are written on
-plates of ivory, the letters being gilded, others again on plates of
-lacquer with letters inlaid with mother-of-pearl; indeed, the variety
-is large.
-
-The leaves are always enclosed between two covers of stronger make
-but of the same shape, and these covers are often very elaborately
-ornamented. Some of them have exquisite carved work and inlaid work
-and others are painted. In the case of Indian examples they are often
-messed over with red stains. When this is found the manuscript has
-belonged to some shrine, and worshippers have daubed it with rice and
-red paint as a sort of peace offering. The strings with which the
-leaves are bound together are also sometimes handsomely ornamented.
-
-Ancient rock inscriptions, tallies, quipus and wampums are all more or
-less ideographic, and among trade signs there are still many ideographs
-in common use, some of them of considerable antiquity. There are the
-three golden balls of the pawnbroker, which mean that money can be
-borrowed there. They are derived from the coat of arms of the Medici of
-Lombardy. The Lombards were mediæval bankers and money lenders, and for
-their badge they took three of the golden balls, or pills, out of the
-Medici coat.
-
-These balls varied in number and colour, they were sometimes red, and
-sometimes blue, and three blue balls upon a white ground was one of the
-mediæval signs used by money lenders, but the three golden balls have
-proved more lasting.
-
-Another old ideograph is the white barber’s pole, with its red spiral,
-the image of the red bandage used to tie up an arm which had just been
-bled. It was originally the mark of a barber surgeon, but the barber
-still uses it although he no longer bleeds his clients. An old sign for
-a barber is also a shaving dish. This is oftener seen on the continent
-than it is here.
-
-The embowed arm holding a hammer is an old sign of a gold beater,
-and is generally itself gilded. It is clearly an ideograph, as is
-also the fishing rod with a golden fish, which is a usual sign over a
-fishing tackle maker’s shop. A modern instance of the same kind is a
-gilded ham which is not uncommonly seen over provision shops, quite
-a modern sign. The rapidly disappearing Highlander taking snuff is
-another modern ideograph. There are plenty more of such signs, most of
-which tell their story directly and simply, while others, the older
-ones particularly, may at first seem arbitrary, but often a little
-examination will reveal a simple origin.
-
-The curious hieroglyphics still used by gypsies are no doubt derived
-from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and although most of them have changed
-considerably, a certain resemblance in some of the forms can still be
-traced.
-
-Ideograms are still used in North America in out of the way places. A
-common mark for a cheese is a circle, and this sign was found opposite
-a farmer’s name, but he had never had one. He did, however, owe for
-a grindstone, and the draughtsman clerk had forgotten to put in the
-centre dot which would have marked the difference between the stone and
-the edible.
-
-In common use more or less all over the civilised world is the pointing
-hand, meaning either “Look there” or “This way.”
-
-Some signs are also ideographic in character; among these are certain
-of the deaf and dumb signs, and also some of the arm signals used
-in the navy. In the army some of the bugle calls imitate as far as
-possible the sounds to which they refer. For instance, the “prepare for
-cavalry” has some resemblance to horses galloping.
-
-Ideographs used in written languages soon change in character. No
-longer do they mean simply what they portray, but the sound of its
-name, and then by degrees they represented the first syllable, and
-eventually only the first letter of its name. These changes of meaning
-are accompanied by changes of form, and it is very curious to trace
-how an apparently arbitrary letter form is really only the survival
-of the main lines of an ancient ideogram. There are several most
-interesting instances of these changes given by Dr. Isaac Taylor in his
-classic “History of the Alphabet,” as well as by other writers on the
-subject, particularly Sir E. Maunde Thompson and Mr. Falconer Madan.
-
-Egyptian inscriptions show both ideographs, hieroglyphics and
-alphabetic signs, as there is usually a word spelt out in syllables
-or letters, and at the end of it the complete word shown as a little
-picture. The hieroglyphics altered into a style of writing which was
-not so pictorial about the nineteenth century B.C., and although
-alphabetical symbols were actually used as early as 4,000 B.C., yet it
-was very many years later than this that they became of general use.
-The earliest piece of hieroglyphic known is cut upon stone on a tablet
-now preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It is supposed to have
-been made about 4,000 B.C., and on it the name of King Send is written
-alphabetically.
-
-Our present alphabetic writing is by no means final, as it is even
-now undergoing a remarkable change, in which neither ideograph,
-hieroglyphic, nor alphabet plays any part. Shorthand will in time
-supersede our comparatively cumbrous process, and it is purely phonetic.
-
-Chinese writing is still in the syllabic state, but the Japanese, which
-is formed from it, has advanced many steps towards the alphabetical
-stage.
-
-The earliest handwriting known is that on the Papyrus Prisse, now in
-Paris. It is in Egyptian hieratic writing, and is supposed to date
-perhaps from about 4,000 B.C. The hieratic is a cursive form of
-hieroglyphic, and was used particularly by priests.
-
-We derive our present letters “longo intervallo” from Egyptian
-hieroglyphics, and the history of their evolution is full of interest.
-
-It may be well here to review rapidly how it is that we have acquired
-an alphabet for printing purposes which is clear, though not beautiful.
-Our present type shows two alphabets; one, the capital letters, are of
-Roman origin, the other, the small letters, are a modification of what
-are called Carolingian minuscules, and both alphabets have reached us
-through the Latin, Greek, Phœnician and Semitic.
-
-Up to the seventh or eighth centuries in Europe the various styles of
-writing were in a mixed condition, but about that time the different
-forms of letters began to arrange themselves, and to follow distinctive
-lines of development in different countries.
-
-Charlemagne interested himself in the matter, and saw that the time
-had arrived when something could be done towards clearing away the
-many difficulties which cropped up by reason of the different forms of
-letters which then existed. He caused careful studies to be made of
-existing styles so that some sort of common ground could be found. At
-Tours the Emperor set up a sort of Royal Commission to enquire into the
-matter, and at the head of it he placed a learned Englishman, Alcuin of
-York, who was known as a great student and was himself a calligraphist.
-Alcuin was trained in the beautiful Hiberno-Saxon hand, of which so
-many magnificent examples still remain--the Book of Kells, the Gospels
-of Lindisfarne, and several more.
-
-At Tours the Carolingian minuscules, which are the direct ancestors of
-our small, or lower-case letters, were developed.
-
-Our capital letters have developed themselves on different lines. They
-are like the ancient Roman types, which in the twelfth century had
-modified themselves somewhat and become very clear, and these forms
-commended themselves to the scribes of the Renaissance period, and
-underwent still more improvement in details. The early type cutters who
-formed their letters directly after the shapes of letters written by
-hand, soon saw that these capitals were not only easy to cut but were
-in every way the best they could find to copy.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Roman diptych.]
-
-During some excavations at Pompeii in 1875 a large collection of small
-wax writing tablets or Pugillaria was found. These tablets resemble
-small slates; they are of wood, and one side is slightly hollowed
-out so as to receive a filling of blackened wax. Generally two of
-the tablets were hinged together, hence their name of diptychs, but
-sometimes they were in threes or even more, like a tail or “Caudex,”
-from which it is said we derive our word Codex. Diptychs are the direct
-prototypes of our modern books.
-
-The writing was marked on the wax by means of a style in the same way
-that writing was formerly done in England on the curious sand tables.
-These styles are usually of iron, sometimes inlaid with brass, but they
-were also made of bronze, brass, wood or bone. They always have one
-end pointed to write with and the other flat to erase with. A space was
-often left in the thickness of the wooden edge of a diptych to keep
-the style in. The erasing in the case of the diptych was effected by
-rubbing the flat end of the style over it, and in the case of the sand
-writing-tablet by a plasterer’s level or a good shake. Sand tablets
-have been used up to quite recent times in elementary schools. But
-the sand writing was always temporary, whereas the wax writing is
-very lasting, one of those found at Pompeii bearing the date A.D. 55.
-It records a payment to Umbricia Januaria, and is the earliest Latin
-manuscript known.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Roman diptych stylus.]
-
-Diptychs of similar form were widely used. They have been found in
-Egypt, and in England--remains of the Roman occupation--together with
-numbers of the styles used for writing with.
-
-Diptychs were kept together at the back by means of metal rings or
-thongs of leather, run through holes made in the wood, so that they
-are true prototypes of our modern books both as to form and manner
-of keeping together, the “stabbed” form of binding, that is to say,
-threads or bands or wires run through holes pierced along the back edge
-of the sections of a book, having been in continual use ever since
-rolls were first turned into books.
-
-When the diptychs were used as private letters they were further
-fastened with a tie or clasp in front, and this tie was often sealed
-with the sender’s signet in wax or clay.
-
-The Pompeian and all the other small wooden diptychs are unornamented,
-but at a later period, particularly from the second to the seventh
-century, Roman diptychs became of much importance and were often
-decoratively treated, being made of ivory and elaborately carved.
-
-Labarte, Gori, Westwood and Maskell have all written valuable works
-concerning these ornamental diptychs, and specimens of more or less
-excellence can be found in most museums that have any collection of
-carvings in ivory. The earlier examples are the best; later specimens
-rapidly decline in art value, although they are always of great
-historical interest.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Byzantine diptych of ivory.]
-
-One leaf of one of the finest diptychs in existence is fortunately in
-the British Museum; it shows a full-length figure of an archangel with
-globe, cross and long-staff, and is supposed to have been made in the
-third or fourth century. A curious point about this leaf is its unusual
-size, about 16 by 6 inches, and it is said that such a piece could not
-be cut from any known elephant tusk. It is possibly mammoth ivory.
-
-For a long time the supreme power at Rome was vested in the consuls
-who held office for one year. Naturally anyone elected to this high
-position was anxious to inform everyone holding any high place or
-office of his accession to the dignity, and the usual way of doing
-this was to send round diptychs of ivory announcing the event, as well
-as subsequent ones concerning any other important matters which might
-occur during the consulate.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Ivory diptych, of the consul Valentinian, A.D.
-380.]
-
-Not only was the communication inscribed upon the wax, all of which is
-now gone, but the outside ivory was carved with invaluable portraits,
-scenes and inscriptions. By examining these carvings we can frequently
-ascertain who was the consul that issued them, and often enough we can
-find his portrait carefully drawn. In one of the many excavations made
-in the Forum at Rome, tablets containing a list of Roman consuls were
-found, and these serve as an official check upon our interpretation of
-the records existing upon the consular diptychs.
-
-Consular diptychs were generally larger than the wooden pugillaria,
-which were always small. Ivory diptychs are rarely less than six or
-seven inches in length.
-
-The privilege of giving away finely carved ivory diptychs was highly
-esteemed, and in the fourth century the Emperor Theodosius issued an
-edict forbidding any but one of the two consuls, one at Rome and the
-other at Constantinople, to issue them.
-
-In the matter of consular and official costume the Roman carved ivory
-diptychs are of great importance.
-
-Figures often appear on coins or gems, but they are always very small.
-On the diptychs, however, they are sufficiently large to show full
-details. The subjects depicted on them are various. There are games,
-combats in the circus, scenes from the Passion, boys emptying sacks of
-prizes, figures of Saints, Adam and Eve, busts and portraits of consuls
-both in medallions and full length. The best collections of consular
-diptychs are to be found at Rome, Milan, Monza, Paris, Munich, Berlin,
-Liverpool and London.
-
-Besides the consular there are also ecclesiastical diptychs, the
-majority of which were probably only diverted from their original
-intention and altered and adapted to a new use. The original wax was
-removed and new inscriptions engraved on the ivory, mostly lists of
-martyrs or benefactors to the particular church which had possession of
-the diptych.
-
-There is one at Liège on which the names of the bishops of Tongres are
-written, and there is another similar one at Novara. It is probable
-that the liking for ivory carvings on books arose from the lead given
-by the ivory diptychs. Indeed in several instances the sides of ivory
-diptychs are actually inlaid in late bindings of MSS.
-
-
-WORKS TO CONSULT.
-
-AGLIO, A.--Antiquities of Mexico. _London_, 1830-48. (Vol. 4, at end.)
-(Quipus.)
-
-BERGER.--Histoire de l’ecriture dans l’antiquité. _Paris_, 1891.
-
-GORI, A. F.--Thesaurus reterum diptychorum consularium et
-ecclesiasticorum. _Florentiae_, 1759.
-
-HARLAND, J.--_The Reliquary_, Jan., 1865. (Clog almanacks.)
-
-LABARTE, J.--Histoire des Arts Industrielles au moyen age. (Diptychs.)
-_Paris_, 1864-66.
-
-LACROIX, P.--Les arts au moyen age. (Diptychs.) _Paris_, 1809.
-
-LUBBOCK, SIR J.--Prehistoric Times. _London_, 1865.
-
-MADAN, F.--Books in Manuscript. _London_, 1893.
-
-MASKELL, W.--Ivories Ancient and Mediæval. _London_, 1875.
-
-MASKELL, A.--Ivories. _London_, 1904.
-
-PLOTT, R.--Natural History of Staffordshire. (Clog almanacks.)
-_Oxford_, 1686.
-
-PRESCOTT, W. H.--History of the Conquest of Peru. (Quipus.) _London._
-
-REINAUD.--(Description des monumens Musulmanes du cabinet de M. le Duc
-de Blacas.) (Indian amulets.) _Paris_, 1828.
-
-RIVETT-CARNAC, J. H.--Prehistoric Remains in Central India. _Calcutta._
-
-RIVETT-CARNAC, J. H.--Ancient Rock Sculptures in Kamaon. _Calcutta_,
-1877.
-
-SIMPSON, SIR J. Y.--Archaic Sculpturings. _Edinburgh_, 1867.
-
-SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1879, p. 389. (Wampum.)
-
-TAVERNIER, J. B.--Voyages. _Paris_, 1810.
-
-TAYLOR, I.--The Alphabet. _London_, 1883.
-
-THOMPSON, SIR E. M.--Handbook of Greek and Roman Palæography. _London_,
-1893.
-
-WESTWOOD, J. O.--Cat. of Fictile Ivories. _London_, 1876.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II. ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS.
-
-
-  Rolls of papyrus and vellum--Quaternions--The sewing of
-  books--Headbands--The rounding and backing of books--Mediæval
-  books--Irish cumdachs--Byzantine bindings--Oriental books--Modern
-  methods of sewing and binding.
-
-The length of ancient rolls of vellum has often puzzled bibliophiles.
-Rolls of narrow breadth are found 16 or 17 feet or more in length. A
-learned scholar on being asked how he accounted for this extraordinary
-length was quite puzzled, never having realised that the roll was in
-one piece. The neck of the giraffe seemed the only possible solution.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Egyptian papyrus roll, with mud seals.]
-
-The writer however consulted a clever leather worker and gave him a
-skin measuring about 3 feet by 2, suggesting certain ways of cutting
-it. He produced eventually, by wetting, pulling and pinning, a
-beautiful roll of nearly 4 inches in breadth and 16 feet 9 inches in
-length.
-
-Mediæval leather workers were no doubt more skilled and practised in
-this particular art than anyone now is, and the experiment showed that
-there is really nothing out of the way in the very long rolls which at
-first sight seem so surprising.
-
-Rolls were written upon in three ways. In the oldest rolls the usual
-way was to write lines across the breadth of the roll, which was held
-upright before the reader, and unrolled from the top downwards.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Roll written upon across its shorter diameter.]
-
-A rare form of writing upon rolls is that found in the prayers written
-on the strips which are rolled up inside Buddhist prayer wheels. Such
-prayers, however, are never read, but are counted as being read through
-on each revolution of the wheel. Each line of manuscript runs along
-the entire length of the roll, which is unrolled sideways. The prayer
-wheels vary immensely in size, the best known being the little hand
-ones chiefly used in Thibet; they are variously ornamented.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Roll written upon longitudinally.]
-
-The form of writing in rolls that is of most interest so far as books
-is concerned is a modification of the Thibetan form. Instead of each
-line running the whole length of the roll, a space limit is now fixed,
-and the lines of writing follow under each other, so that the page form
-is at once apparent. This form, a late one, can be seen in the case of
-the Jewish scrolls of the law. The roll is unrolled sideways, and the
-rollers at each end are often very handsomely decorated.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Thibetan prayer wheel.]
-
-But writing of this last kind on rolls has suggested another
-arrangement in which the reading is more easy, and the re-rolling of
-the roll itself avoided.
-
-It will be seen that a blank space is left between each of the written
-“pages.” Now if the vellum, bark, or paper be folded across these
-vacant spaces, one after the other, backwards and forwards, like
-accordion pleating, we shall find that we get a form of book well known
-in the East and also among primitive nations.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Roll written upon in page form.]
-
-Curious examples of such converted rolls can be seen in most museums,
-and they are generally kept flat by means of two boards front and back,
-but not otherwise fastened.
-
-The Chinese and Japanese have taken this particular form of evolution
-from the roll to the book a step further, and by help of the ancient
-device of “stabbing” the flattened roll along one of its sides, they
-produce a form called an “Orihon,” easy to consult, strong, and the
-blank back of the roll so hidden up that its existence is frequently
-not realised. But if some of the leaves of an Orihon are cut, its real
-structure becomes at once evident, and a book will be produced with
-letterpress and blank paper alternately in pairs. A similar kind of
-alternation shows now and then in the case of MS. rolls that have been
-cut up, but they are oftener arranged letterpress and blank alternately.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Sumatran bark book in the form of a folded
-roll.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Orihon.]
-
-Without realising it we still preserve this blank and letterpress
-sequence, found in the converted roll, in official and legal
-manuscripts as well as in those intended for the printer.
-
-When the printing press took the place of the scribe, the blank leaves
-had no further _raison d’être_, so they dropped out for good.
-
-Following the rule that the forms of binding have always followed
-tolerably closely the forms of the manuscript they have covered, we
-find that rolls were kept in cylindrical boxes, called “scrinia.” Each
-roll was usually provided with a little tag, so that if there were
-several of them in one box they could easily be distinguished. The same
-sort of tags are used to-day in the case of rolled maps kept on shelves.
-
-Until a late period the term parchment must be understood to mean
-vellum. Now we call sheep skin “parchment” and calf skin “vellum,” and
-they are prepared in the same way with lime, so that not being tanned
-they are not strictly “leather.” The finest vellum is prepared from
-the very youngest and smallest calves, and it is the most beautiful
-and suitable material for writing or printing upon that has ever
-yet been found. The surface is singularly even and offers little or
-no resistance to a pen, so that every sort of handwriting, square or
-round, is put upon it with equal ease. Vellum has one fault alone,
-particularly when bound in book form as distinct from a roll, and this
-is that the edges are apt to cockle, and by so doing they not only make
-the pages look ugly, but they also admit the dust. Often and often
-magnificent vellum books, especially at the top, show large vandykes
-of dust-stained spaces due to this cockling, and all such books should
-be provided with a close fitting cardboard cap, to be kept upon them
-whenever they are not in use.
-
-Parchment and vellum were both well-known to the ancients, but their
-value as materials for writing upon does not seem to have been fully
-acknowledged until the second century B.C., until which period papyrus
-had held undisputed pre-eminence for that purpose. At that time for
-some reason the supply of papyrus from Egypt ran short, and Eumenes
-II., King of Pergamum, successfully introduced parchment in its stead.
-Parchment is so called because it was first produced at Pergamum.
-
-Until about the fifth century A.D., vellum MSS. were in the roll form,
-but then came a change to the book form as we now know it. This change
-was probably due to the fact that stabbed binding, the only sort then
-used, was not suited to vellum. The few papyri that exist in book
-form were stabbed, that is to say, the rectangular pages were kept
-in position by a binding cord laced through holes pierced sideways
-right through the entire thickness of the back of the book. The marks
-of these holes can often be seen along the inner margins of ancient
-papyri, and they also show in many instances of rebound copies of our
-early English printed books. To-day plenty of examples of this form of
-sewing can be seen in the Chinese and Japanese books, “Orihons,” which
-are really links between the roll and the book form. It is also largely
-used for thin books of little value, and a modification of it can be
-seen in numbers of magazines, books of advertisements, and the like,
-which are kept together by abominable little clamps of wire attached
-on the same principle. When such books have to be properly bound the
-little clamps have to be carefully removed, and it is generally found
-that they have made an indelible stain of rust on the paper, even if
-they have not also torn it considerably.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Stabbed binding.]
-
-In mediæval libraries or monasteries when a book was to be made,
-vellum leaves were cut into the required size and folded once across
-the middle. The folded leaves were then fitted inside each other in
-groups of four (quaternions) or five (quinternions), or whatever other
-number seemed good to the bookmaker. The leaves were then marked in
-some slight way so that their order might not be lost, and sent to the
-scribe to be written upon.
-
-The books count as folios because each original sheet only forms two
-pages; the fact of their being arranged in groups is accidental,
-and does not theoretically alter the size of the book. For this the
-original skin of vellum would have to be folded with certain further
-divisions, and in the case of early manuscripts this was never done.
-
-Vellum shows a different surface on the flesh side to that on the hair
-side, and the scribe usually made his rule marks with a blunt style
-to guide his writing on the hair side, so that on this side the ruled
-lines are slightly indented, whereas on the flesh side they show as
-little ridges.
-
-This point is apparently trivial, but if, as seems likely, both Greek
-and Latin scribes were really very particular and consistent in the way
-they alternated the two sides of the vellum, then the matter becomes
-one of much critical importance. Indeed, it has already been of the
-utmost value in deciding questions as to whether new pages had been
-added or not to an old book.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Quaternion threaded together.]
-
-When the scribe had made his rulings he then doubled up his sheets
-once, and arranged them as he desired with regard to the hair or flesh
-sides. When a section of four sheets were fitted into each other,
-so that when pressed together they made a solid gathering, such a
-gathering is called a “Quaternion,” from which term we derive our word
-“Quire.” This is a normal state of things, but it is obvious that
-abnormal arrangements might easily be made, from the insertion of a
-single leaf to that of an entirely additional section.
-
-Now the question arose of how best to fasten the quaternions together,
-not only as to themselves but also as to the other quaternions, which
-together formed the entire book.
-
-As to the quaternion itself, it must have been evident at once that
-a stitch of thread or fibre run from the innermost fold right through
-to the outermost would hold the leaves firmly together. It is likely
-enough that this was done separately at first, and then the binder
-would have looked at a small heap of such gatherings wondering how best
-to keep them together, and it would soon occur to any constructive
-mind to knot the loose ends of the threads together, or else to supply
-a supplementary cord or cords laid at right angles to the back of the
-sections on which the projecting ends of the threads might be tied or
-sewn.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Four threaded quaternions ready to be tied
-together.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Four threaded quaternions tied on to
-transverse bands.]
-
-This, in fact, was done, and very shortly the best way of fastening the
-sections on to such cords or threads was hit upon--a method indeed that
-we have never bettered, and which can still be found in the work of
-many of our best modern binders.
-
-At first this fastening together of the sections of a book was no doubt
-done uncomfortably and roughly by hand, but it soon became evident
-that some simple device in the form of a skeleton frame might be
-contrived which would render the operations of sewing and binding much
-easier. Not only easier to execute but also giving a more regular and
-workmanlike result.
-
-The earliest known sewing frames were the same as are used now. There
-are two strong columns of wood fixed on a broad platform, with a slot
-between their bases. From capital to capital extends a bar, and the
-strips of leather, vellum, or hempen cords which are to form the bands
-of the book are looped upon it, and are kept taut by means of metal
-keys attached to the other end, which lock into the slot at the bottom.
-The bands can be quite easily adjusted to any space the worker desires.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Modern hand-sewing press.]
-
-The book, ready for sewing and in proper order of sections, is laid
-near the worker’s hand, and he, or she, takes it up by sections, one at
-a time. The section to be worked upon is laid downwards on the little
-platform, with its back close against the bands, and the worker’s left
-hand keeps the section open in the middle, while with the right hand a
-thread is drawn through the back fold, from the inside to the outside,
-round the band, and then back from the outside to the inside, and so
-on until all the bands have been caught round. Then to end up, the
-thread is passed through near the extreme end of the fold and knotted,
-forming what is called a “kettle stitch,” and from this point the whole
-operation is repeated, backwards, with the next section. It sounds
-complicated, but is not so really, and several sections could have been
-sewn together in the time that it has taken me to describe the sewing
-of one of them.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Faulty sewing over a band.]
-
-Now comes an interesting point, and that is the exact way in which the
-threads are passed over the bands. We will first see that if the thread
-is drawn through the back fold of the section, round a hand and back
-again through another hole, that there is a weak construction, inasmuch
-as the thread will have a strong tendency to cut through the paper at
-_a_ and _b_, because there is in each case a side strain. It therefore
-seemed necessary that the thread should make its return journey by the
-same hole through which it emerged, but if simply done, this did not
-mend matters much, as the strain still tended to pull this hole open
-wider. A line of exit and entrance without any side pull was needed,
-and this was found by means of a very clever device. A broad band of
-leather or vellum was cut through lengthways, leaving a solid piece at
-each end.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Mediæval sewing round double band.]
-
-Now when the sewer came to this band he ran the thread straight through
-the slot, then brought it round the entire band, under it, between it
-and the back of the book, and down again, back through the slot, and
-in at the same point from which it emerged. The result of this is that
-there is no strain at all on the needle hole through which the thread
-passes, as the pull is quite straight both coming and going. This is
-undoubtedly the best form of sewing a book on bands, and a book so
-treated is said to be sewn on “double bands.” But our recent work is
-not always true, although from the outside it appears correct, because
-in numbers of cases such double bands are simply glued on the outside
-of the back, the real sewing, of a very inferior kind, possibly even
-done by machinery, being hidden underneath the leather. Few great
-binders except Charles Lewis have ever used sham bands.
-
-Flexible sewn books can be had now if wanted, but the sewing on the
-bands is not quite the same as the fine mediæval double bands I have
-described. It is, however, practically nearly as good, and the bands
-themselves can be made smaller.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Modern sewing round single band.]
-
-The modern method is to bring the needle and thread through the back
-of the section as usual, then give it one turn onwards over the band
-and back again through the same hole. It will be seen that this is a
-thoroughly sound principle, and brings no strain upon the back of the
-section.
-
-The ends of the bands of limp vellum books have always been treated in
-the same way; they are drawn straight through the vellum at the joint
-and then back again and fastened inside by means of the end paper.
-
-The manner of drawing the bands of a “limp” vellum bound book through
-the limp vellum cover is of much interest, and it survives in many
-instances where boards are used.
-
-In principle it is the same process as is described further on with
-regard to boarded books, but in the case of the limp vellum bindings
-the ends of the bands are normally visible for a short length, but in
-the case of boarded books they are always covered up with the exception
-of some vellum-covered boarded books in which the limp vellum
-peculiarity is preserved.
-
-Another small point of interest about the old limp vellum bindings is
-that the head and tail bands are made of the same sort of thin vellum
-strip as the main bands and carefully drawn diagonally through the
-vellum at the corners and fastened inside. Dealt with in this way the
-head band becomes of real structural value, much of which is lost if it
-is cut off short as is done in the large majority of cases.
-
-William Morris liked limp vellum bindings and often used them, but
-without head bands. Instead of the short strips of vellum used for
-bands in old books Morris used specially prepared silk tapes, and
-brought them through the vellum at the joint in the old-fashioned way.
-Instead of being cut short and pasted down as the old limp vellum
-bands were, Morris continued his tapes and brought them out again near
-the front edge of the vellum, where they could be tied. This is an
-excellent arrangement and keeps such a book together in an admirable
-and effective way.
-
-Vellum bindings required flat backs because the material would not
-yield sufficiently to be tucked round the projecting bands of a normal
-flexible bound book, in which the leather back is firmly fixed over the
-bands. Nevertheless in several instances old vellum books, in boards,
-which have been sewn on raised bands show traces of these bands in low
-relief across the back. In such cases it is common to find that some
-padding has been put in the spaces between the bands so as to level
-the back up. Books treated in this way are usually stiff to open and
-uncomfortable to consult.
-
-The flat back, which was necessary for the same reason in the case
-of books bound at a later date in velvet, cloth, silk or canvas,
-necessitated some modification of the thick projecting bands of the
-ordinary book, and the requisite flatness was attained by using strips
-of vellum or tape instead of cords of hemp. Then it was found that it
-was not necessary to fasten the back of the cover to the back of the
-sections, so the “hollow back” came into existence.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Book bound with “open” or “hollow” back, and
-modern headband, cut off at each end.]
-
-The majority of modern books are bound with hollow backs; it can be
-recognised by opening a book to the full and seeing if the back is
-separate, and it has one real virtue as well as several vices. If a
-book should happen to be printed too far back, a hollow back binding
-will enable it to “throw up,” and show the printing right down to the
-inner edge of the paper, whereas a flexible binding always tends to
-open less freely, especially in the middle.
-
-For books that are likely to be much used hollow backs are unadvisable
-as they are sooner worn out, but for small light books there is no
-doubt much to be said in their favour.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Back of book prepared with cut trenches to
-hold the bands.]
-
-Among English binders of note I think Charles Lewis was the first to
-use hollow backs extensively. But for fine books there is no doubt that
-the old-fashioned flexible sewing on raised bands is the best in the
-long run. Books bound with hollow backs often have the bands “sawn in,”
-that is to say, a trench is cut for each band across the back of the
-sections. In these trenches the bands are laid, and the sewing is of a
-simpler and quicker sort than it is when the thread is brought round
-each band as it is in the flexible style. Moreover, there is a weak
-point where the thread touches the edge of the saw cut, and at this
-place the paper is always apt to give. It is obvious that to cut away
-paper from the back of a section must always be not only a barbarism
-but also structurally wrong. Such a method of sewing a book can only
-be excused on the score of cheapness, and it may be urged that in this
-case it does not matter.
-
-Towards the end of the fifteenth century it was found that the extreme
-tops and bottoms of the backs of the sections of bound books not only
-looked untidy and unfinished, but also that they tended to gape, in
-fact they were weak points both structurally and artistically. When it
-was once realised it was soon rectified, and a small additional band
-was made of a strip of leather or vellum, to fit along the outer edge
-of the top and bottom at the back. This slip was then sewn on by means
-of thread and button-hole stitching, being caught in at intervals by a
-long stitch drawn through the centre of one or other of the sections
-of the book. The loose ends of the headband itself were drawn in to
-the boards, forming in fact an additional band. The headband is a
-point in the forwarding of a book which has not received much notice
-as yet, but it is of some importance, as there is no doubt that much
-attention has been paid by binders to the ornamentation of headbands
-from mediæval times until now, and it is the first point in the binding
-of a book in which ornament is considered.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33.--French sixteenth century headband.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Italian fifteenth century headband.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35.--German fifteenth century headband.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36.--English seventeenth century headband.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 37.--English eighteenth century headband, by Roger
-Payne.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38.--English nineteenth century headband, by
-Charles Lewis.]
-
-Some of the early headbands are sewn over with strips of soft leather,
-and at a later time they are cut in distinctive ways, flat or round,
-and sewn over with silks of particular colours or combinations of
-colours.
-
-Of late years the vice of cutting off the ends of the headband has
-come into being; these ends ought to be drawn properly into the boards,
-as Mr. Douglas Cockerell has indeed done for me in several instances.
-But no words can adequately condemn the miserable ready-made coloured
-slips which are often found simply _stuck on_ in the proper place.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39.--What a book may do if the back is not properly
-rounded.]
-
-Vellum books were the first to be properly bound. The papyri which were
-stabbed are so rare that they may be passed by. As I have already said,
-vellum is apt to be curly; for this reason the boards used for binding
-in early days were made of thick wood, the heaviness of which, even
-when unaided by clasps, tended to keep the vellum flat.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Book with flat back.]
-
-Beech wood was largely used for these old covers, and from the German
-word “Buch,” meaning beech, we derive our word “book.” Beechen boards
-were light, decorative, and very carefully dried and seasoned. It is
-remarkable how flat such old boards are, and they were no doubt very
-highly valued as they often have upon them the stamp of the monastery
-in which they were used.
-
-The edges of the boards are sometimes bevelled, from the upper side in
-English or French books, and from the under side in German books--but
-such a distinction must not be taken as invariable. Boards often show
-signs of having been used more than once, and it is rarely that any
-decoration shows on the wood. In a few cases of German books may be
-found outline drawings of an heraldic nature.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Book with flat back falling in.]
-
-The first bound books were made with flat backs, and the boards fitted
-close upon the outer sheets of vellum, papyrus or paper. In this
-formation, however, it was found that there was a strong liability for
-the back to fall in and the foredge to project outwards.
-
-As early as the fifteenth century, in the case of printed books on
-paper, this fault of the back falling in led some few binders to
-neutralise it by giving the back of the book a rounded form by means
-of hammering, and this quite prevented the falling in of the back. The
-exact extent of the rounding can easily be seen by looking at the front
-edge of a book, because the curves of the back and front correspond.
-The boards, however, remained in their first position, flat on the
-outer sheets.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Book with rounded back.]
-
-But another trouble was apparent in both these cases, namely, that
-when such books were opened, the joint between the boards and the back
-showed a tendency to pull up the few pages next adjacent. In time these
-pages became torn and injured, and constructively there was something
-wrong with the principle of attachment.
-
-Paper is soft, and when a “rounded” book was fitted with hard boards
-and strongly pressed there would be a certain tendency for the boards
-to sink into the mass of the paper and to throw up a small ridge along
-the edge of the back. Such a small accidental ridge is often found on
-old paper books.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Book with back rounded and backed.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Book rounded and backed, before the boards are
-put on.]
-
-But there is no doubt that the actual process of making an intentional
-groove for the boards to fit in was practised by a few fifteenth
-century binders in England. This groove is made by an extension of the
-process of rounding the back, and it is produced by hammering the back
-over two hard boards carefully placed in the proper position. The shape
-of a back thus treated is theoretically as shown in Fig. 44, and it
-will be seen that the actual joint now falls away from the body of the
-book and is removed to the artificial line along the outer edge of the
-groove, and from this line the projecting bands are drawn in to the
-boards. If this operation of “backing” is properly done it is almost
-impossible for the back of a book to fall in. It will always open
-easily and return to its original form, and if the bands are properly
-attached to the boards, the latter will never fall off.
-
-Although the principle of backing was known at the early time
-mentioned, it was not universally understood and practised until quite
-recent times. Now, however, it is fully recognised as one of the most
-important processes in the binding of books, especially large ones.
-
-We have seen that the book sewn in leather bands has the ends of these
-bands left loose, projecting in the case of a large book some two or
-three inches. Holes were now carefully cut along the back edge of the
-board to fit the ends of the bands, sloping upwards, and some little
-way in other slots were cut from the upper surface of the board to meet
-them. Into these holes the ends of the bands were drawn, and when in
-proper position they were pegged down with one or more small wooden
-pegs. Sometimes the bands were drawn right through the boards and
-fastened inside. Numbers and numbers of instances of this work exist
-and are quite sound to-day. But such books do not open satisfactorily,
-as there is a disagreeable pull upon the outer sections when the book
-is opened. In fact, the junction between the bands and the boards is
-not scientifically correct, because the backs are not rounded.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Half-bound book.]
-
-The vulnerable part of the binding will now be seen to be the soft
-threads which cover the bands where they adjoin the back of the
-sections of the book, and to protect these delicate threads a strip of
-leather was cut, damped and pressed over the bands so as to fit quite
-closely, and fastened on with glue, projecting a short way over on to
-the board itself so as to cover up the holes used for the bands. This
-is called a “half-binding.” On the leather of such half-bindings there
-is usually some blind tooling, lines or rolls or even small cameo
-stamps.
-
-Mediæval bindings are commonly provided with clasps. The original
-reason of this was to help to keep the vellum leaves flat, but of
-course artistic binders saw that clasps might be made very ornamental,
-and so many of them are. They have survived as ornamental adjuncts to a
-binding until the present day, although there is no necessity for them.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Mediæval book with bosses, corner pieces and
-clasps.]
-
-Bosses in the centre and at the corners of mediæval bindings were of
-structural use, as they protected the actual boards of the book from
-wear. In early days books were kept upon their sides and probably
-had flat boards between each volume. So the bosses took the wear and
-preserved the books. Many of the mediæval bosses and corners have
-ornamental settings; they are generally of brass, but sometimes of
-silver or wood. The titles of such books were sometimes written on the
-front edges and sometimes on a slip of paper fastened under horn on
-the upper board, and in the late fifteenth century they were sometimes
-lettered in gold or blind, also on the boards.
-
-It happened that the art of Byzantium was in its prime just about
-the same time that vellum began to be arranged in sections--in book
-form--in contradistinction to the roll form. So we find some of the
-finest examples of Byzantine art on bookbindings. Of course it must be
-understood that these richly worked covers are only ornamentally added
-to the true binding underneath, and the actual work of the binding is
-more or less as I have already described it. But the decorative art
-in these cases is so predominant that they are generically known as
-“Byzantine” bindings.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 47.--German binding of about the eleventh century,
-with cabochon crystals.]
-
-The large majority of the known specimens of this kind are no longer
-in company with their original manuscripts. Many of them are preserved
-simply as loose covers, and alien manuscripts have been inserted in
-others. I expect that there are still considerable numbers of these
-bindings preserved in remote churches and monasteries in Central
-Europe, and some day perhaps some traveller with sufficient knowledge
-and time at his command will make search for them. But for the present
-fine and genuine examples of Byzantine bindings are of great rarity. It
-is said that there are not more than about three hundred of them known.
-The life history of many of these is well known, and so are many of
-the additions and alterations to which they have been subjected during
-their long life. Luckily some of the finest are now safely housed in
-our London museums, and others are, or are likely to be, safe in a
-great local museum.
-
-To be able to judge whether these bindings are genuine, a librarian
-must be an antiquary, a goldsmith and silversmith, skilled both in
-repoussé work, engraving and cast work, a gem cutter, an enameller,
-a skilled bookbinder, and an artist, and if he fails in one of these
-knowledges his judgment cannot be relied on. An ordinary art critic who
-possesses “Flaire” can pick up a certain amount of knowledge by reason
-of having made many mistakes and profited by them, and if he has been
-fortunately able to associate himself only with true and known fine
-examples for a long time, he may eventually be a good guesser. But no
-true judgment can be given without actual technical knowledge.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 48.--French binding of the thirteenth century with
-enamels.]
-
-The result of all this is, that collectors of such bindings have been
-freely victimised. It is not really difficult to copy or to imitate a
-Byzantine binding--it is not nearly so difficult as to counterfeit a
-fine Le Gascon or a fine Roger Payne. It does not so much concern the
-binder as the metal worker, and in metal a little skill goes a long
-way, and so it does in the cloisonne enamel work which alone is found
-in these bindings. The present market price of a very fine Byzantine
-binding--a known one--will run into five figures, so it is little to be
-wondered at that it pays the clever _faussaires_ of the Continent to
-direct their attention to covers of this kind. They need not even take
-the trouble to provide manuscripts for the inside; loose covers will
-sell with equal readiness.
-
-Ivory carving played an important part on early bindings. Apart from
-diptychs, the earliest known decorative binding consists of plaques
-of ivory carved with Biblical scenes, and having in the centre a lamb
-within a wreath of cloisonne work, with inlays of coloured glass. It
-is now kept in the cathedral treasury at Milan, and is without its
-original inside; it is attributed to the fifth century.
-
-Early Irish manuscripts were usually bound in quite simple limp leather
-covers, but these were kept in book boxes or “Cumdachs,” all of which
-still existing are of the greatest interest.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 49.--The upper cover of the Cumdach of the Stowe
-Missal.]
-
-One of the finest is that of the Stowe Missal, dating from about the
-eleventh century. It belonged originally to the monastery of Lorrha in
-Tipperary, whence it was taken to the Irish monastery of Ratisbon. In
-1784 it was found by Mr. John Grace in Austria, and afterwards belonged
-to the Stowe Library, and Lord Ashburnham, from whom it was purchased
-by the nation in 1883 with the rest of his library, and then deposited
-in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy.
-
-The lid is ornamented with a large cross set with pearls and metal
-bosses, having in the centre a large oval crystal over a pink ground,
-and enclosed with recent enamels, no doubt replacing old ones. At each
-end of the cross is a large jewel. The spaces between the arms of the
-cross contain silver gilt plates engraved with figures of Saints, and
-on the silver edge plates is an inscription in Irish inviting the
-reader to “Pray for Dunchad descendant of Taccan of the family of
-Cluan who made this.” This may therefore be called the earliest signed
-binding in the world, if a cumdach can be considered a binding. No
-doubt much of the work now on this lid, as well as some of the jewels
-and their settings, have been added since the original work was made.
-
-The base of the box has a similar ornamentation upon it, but the jewels
-and enamels are all gone, the spaces between the arms of the cross
-being filled with silver plates cut into an open pattern set over
-bronze gilt.
-
-The sides of the box are much destroyed, but they have fortunately
-not been restored. The ornamentation consists of enamelled bosses or
-curious castings in the centre of each side, flanked by panels of open
-designs cut out of thin silver over gilt, and corner ornaments of cast
-work. There are small bosses of blue enamel.
-
-The remarkable open work over gilt bronze occurs again in the base of
-the cumdach containing Molaise gospels, it also belongs to the eleventh
-century, and this sort of ornamentation seems to be characteristic
-of Irish work of that time. The lid of the box is ornamented in a
-modification of the same idea, but in this case the bronze showing
-through the silver is beautifully worked. The main idea is a cross,
-and between the arms are the evangelistic emblems, and with their
-names, Leo, Aquila, Homo, Taurus. An inscription asks us to “Pray for
-Cenn, for the successor of Molaise for whom this case was made by
-Gillabaithain the artisan.” It is possible that this may be a little
-earlier than the Stowe cumdach.
-
-A few more cumdachs are known, about ten of them altogether, and others
-are recorded only.
-
-There is that of Dimma’s book, of the Cathach of the O’Donnells, and
-several others, some of which are quite plain.
-
-Other book cases were made of beautifully worked leather. The satchel
-of the Book of Armagh is one of these, and leather cases or “Forels”
-were made of cuirbouilli in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
-particularly in Italy. These forels were in the shape now known as
-“slip off” cases, and they generally had attachments for a strap. They
-are always charmingly chased, and often bear heraldic ornamentation.
-
-Cuirbouilli was calf or hide, worked with knife, style, or hammer, and
-then probably boiled in oil, but the exact process that was used is now
-unknown. It is very strong, and its value was known in England, where
-it was used to make wrist guards for archery, but as far as I know it
-was never used here for bindings or covers for bindings. I have heard
-the calf or sheep bindings of the early sixteenth century, bearing
-panel stamps, described as cuirbouilli, but they are not so.
-
-The earliest cover still containing its original manuscript is probably
-that given with other treasure to Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards,
-by Pope Gregory the Great, in the seventh century. It is now kept in
-the cathedral treasury at Monza.
-
-The manuscript is described in a contemporary document as being “theca
-persica inclusam,” and, so far, its cover resembles the Irish cumdachs.
-The case is of gold, ornamented with a large cross, outlined with lines
-of small flat garnets, with sapphires and emeralds, set in cloisons.
-The body of the cross is richly jewelled with cabochon cut stones and
-pearls, and at the extremity of each arm is a curious glass bead of
-millefiori glass, green with a little red flower in the centre.
-
-Between the arms of the cross are four gamma shaped ornaments, each set
-with small flat jewels. Across the sides are bands of gold on which are
-engraved the words DE DONIS DEI OFFERIT THEODELENDA REG. GLORIOSISSIMA
-SANCTO JOANNI BAPTISTE IN BASILICA QUEM IPSA FUNDAVIT IN MODICIA
-PROPE PALATIUM SUUM. A handsome border with flat garnets enclosed the
-whole, and the four cameos set near the gammas are a recent addition.
-Byzantine art is generally considered as a decadent form of Roman art,
-but in this particular instance there is much Greek feeling, and it is
-in all respects, excepting perhaps the inscription, a magnificent piece
-of work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 50.--The binding of the Gospels of Lindau, the
-older side.]
-
-The binding of the Gospels of Lindau has now two sides of different
-dates, each of which has been repaired and added to in recent times.
-The earlier of the two, far the finer, is probably contemporary with
-the manuscript, having been made about the later half of the ninth
-century, as the Abbey of the Noble Canonesses at Lindau was founded by
-the Emperor Lewis the Pious in A.D. 834. A large golden cross pattée is
-the chief motive of this beautiful piece of work, and it is ornamented
-with rare enamels showing bust figures wearing stoles, and jewels in
-great variety, the borderings being inlaid with small flat pieces of
-garnet. The spaces between the arms of the cross are filled with bronze
-plaques elaborately ornamented with Celtic interlacings in chiselled
-work. The workmanship is probably Irish, and was most likely done
-abroad, possibly enough at Lindau itself, by some Irish artists who
-had emigrated. Irish jewellers and enamellers of this early time were
-justly celebrated, and their services were secured whenever possible.
-
-The later side of the binding is one of the finest existing specimens
-of Carlovingian art. It is radically different from the earlier side
-and was probably added about the eleventh or twelfth century.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 51.--The binding of the Gospels of Lindau, the more
-recent side.]
-
-In the centre is a large cross on which is a gilt figure of our Lord in
-the attitude of the crucifixion. The cross is outlined by a structure
-of open work of gold ornamented with filagree work and thickly set with
-jewels. Between the arms of the cross are angels worked in repoussé,
-and rich bosses of gold and jewels, raised on arcades of open work. The
-border is of great richness, and is thickly sown with large jewels cut
-“en cabochon,” many of them pierced longitudinally, betraying in all
-probability an Oriental provenance. No doubt this was originally made
-for some valuable manuscript now lost, and it was used to replace the
-original simple lower cover of the Gospels of Lindau at some unknown
-time.
-
-The book was formerly in the possession of the Earl of Ashburnham, but
-now it is gone to America.
-
-Beautiful Byzantine work of the twelfth century is to be seen upon the
-carved and jewelled binding of the Psalter of Melissenda, daughter of
-Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem, and wife of Fulk, his successor. The
-ivory covers measure eight by six inches, and are elaborately carved in
-bas relief with Biblical scenes. On each side are six circles, and in
-each circle a little figure group, on one side representing episodes in
-the life of David and on the other works of mercy. There is lettering
-run in with red, giving the names of each of the personages shown, and
-their eyes are set with tiny rubies or emeralds cut “en cabochon” like
-coloured grains of sand. The spaces between the circles are filled
-with other Biblical or symbolical figures, scrolls and animals, and a
-beautiful interlacing border encloses the whole, set with turquoises
-and rubies.
-
-The carver’s name, “HERODIUS,” is cut in the lower cover. The
-workmanship on these ivories is extremely fine, and there is no doubt
-they were made to be used as a binding. The majority of ivory carvings
-found on mediæval bookbindings appear to have been simply added, having
-been originally made for some other purpose. But there are notable
-exceptions, particularly in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. The
-shape in which the plaque of ivory is cut will often give a valuable
-indication in this matter.
-
-The finest Byzantine binding now in England is probably that known as
-the Gospels of Charlemagne, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
-It is nearly square, and the upper side is overlaid with gilt metal,
-enamels and gems. In the centre is a seated figure of Our Lord in
-the attitude of Benediction, in repoussé work. Round this is a band
-of white and green enamelled lettering, restored, on which are two
-hexameter lines: “MATHEVS ET MARCVS LVCAS SCSQ JOHANE VOX HORV QVATVOR
-REBOAT TE XPE REDEMPTOR.” The outer border is made up of rectangular
-plaques of enamels, gold work and jewels.
-
-The work here is also largely restored, but it is, as a rule, admirably
-done, and where the old work remains, especially in the gold, it is of
-a high excellence. The jewels have, for the most part, been restored.
-As the book is now it is a splendid and dignified example of its kind;
-the under side is simply covered with strong red leather, with a cross
-marked by small studs. Like many of these splendid altar books, this
-one is said to have served as a Pax.
-
-The manuscript itself is of the tenth century, and belonged to the
-Abbey Church of St. Maurice d’Agaune, and from here it was stolen in
-the fourteenth century. It afterwards found a home at Sion, and was
-purchased for the Victoria and Albert Museum at the Spitzer sale in
-1893.
-
-No doubt examples of rich monastic bindings did exist in England,
-but none of them are now known. It is likely enough that their value
-condemned them, and that they were entirely destroyed in the earlier
-half of the sixteenth century to swell the revenues of the king. The
-manuscripts belonging to these destroyed covers have, luckily, been
-kept, and numbers of them came to the British Museum by gift of George
-II.
-
-Two ornamental bindings only of English origin now remain; these are
-both simple, they are the St. Cuthbert’s Gospels and the English
-coronation book of Henry I. These are described in Chapter VIII.
-
-There were plenty of leather bindings ornamented with blind tooling or
-cut leather work in mediæval times, and these also are described later
-on.
-
-The idea of ornamenting bindings with sunk panels is of Arab origin.
-The fashion came to Europe by way of Venice, and the Venetians
-themselves quickly saw that the possibilities of decorating bindings
-were largely increased by this device. It is done by means of two
-boards, the upper of which is pierced, then the whole is covered
-with leather and ornamented with painted work or stamped work as the
-case may be. In inferior bindings of this sort, the sunk panels are
-sometimes produced simply by hard pressure, but the state of the edges
-of the panels will soon show how they are made. If they are steep
-there are the double boards, if very sloping there may only be one.
-
-Queen Elizabeth had some of these Venetian sunk bindings presented to
-her and she liked them. Consequently there were a few examples of it
-made in England in the sixteenth century. At a later time Charles Lewis
-bound several large books with double boards in this way, and I think
-he was the only important English binder who has ever done so to any
-great extent.
-
-The double boards have left a trace of their existence in the form of
-a trench which is frequently found along the edges of the boards of
-sixteenth century bindings of English, Italian, and French workmanship.
-The trench, however, is merely a survival and does not necessarily
-imply the actual existence of double boards. It is a distant tribute to
-our indebtedness to the East.
-
-In some of the double-board books bound for Queen Elizabeth, with
-sunk panels, the headband is curiously produced away from its normal
-finishing point and is carried right round the entire edge of the
-boards in the trench between the boards. It is a decorative and curious
-peculiarity, and I have never met with it in any foreign books.
-
-Wooden boards were used for bindings until about the end of the
-fifteenth century, when the idea of using several layers of paper
-pasted together--paste boards--was thought of. In fact, paste boards
-may be considered to have been introduced about the same time as
-printing, and waste printed matter was often used for making them with.
-
-There are many instances in which valuable printed matter has been
-found hidden up in binder’s boards, and as these can generally be
-soaked apart and cleaned, we already owe the preservation of several
-unique fragments to the fact of their having been used for bindings.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Painted Persian binding (Nadir Shah at the
-battle of Karnul).]
-
-Persian manuscripts of the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries are
-often ornamented in a manner which is of considerable interest. They
-are bound in paste boards like all other Oriental bindings known to
-me, and are covered with some sort of gesso applied in a thin layer.
-On this gesso are paintings of varied merit; some of them, especially
-the historical and hunting scenes, are extremely well done, and others,
-mostly floral, are of a commonplace character. The boards are sometimes
-painted inside and out.
-
-The painting is done in water-colours, and is of the same sort as is
-found with the manuscript inside, but generally by an inferior artist.
-When finished the painting was thickly varnished, and this varnish
-has darkened by time into a mellow golden colour which improves the
-appearance of the colour work underneath.
-
-The darkening of this varnish has, however, had a remarkable result:
-the photographic ray cannot pierce it except here and there--in fact,
-the painting is covered by a non-actinic curtain. A photograph will
-only show the surface of the varnish with here and there a patch where
-the blue colour underneath succeeds in making itself felt.
-
-Ornamental though these painted and varnished bindings are, there is
-unfortunately a great and inherent delicacy about them, and it is that
-the varnished surface is badly given to chipping off. It is difficult
-to say what the best remedy for this chipping or flaking off is; it is
-probably due to the discrepancy in hardness between the hard varnish
-and the soft boards; it seems to be radical.
-
-Experiments are needed in this matter, but owners of fine specimens,
-even if chipped, are naturally chary of allowing experiments which may
-do harm as well as good. I should say that probably much good might be
-done by dropping a little collodion so as to make it run down between
-the loosened surfaces; it will act as a cement and strengthen as well
-as fasten them together. It is also likely that thin glue applied
-several times might also do good used in the same way, but I believe
-collodion is better and penetrates weak places more readily.
-
-The same styles of ornamentation are used on mirror cases and other
-small objects, so that although many bindings are so treated, yet the
-method is not one exclusively used for such purpose. But no doubt the
-finest work was put on bindings, some of which are large.
-
-Another Persian manner is that of using large metal stamps impressed
-with elaborate arabesques. The impressions from these stamps of course
-give a design in relief. The whole impression is generally gilded in
-various tints, and the small design itself is often picked out with a
-little colour. Many of these arabesque panel stamps are of wonderful
-beauty.
-
-Arabic and other Oriental bindings have a curious flap projecting from
-one of the boards, which covers and protects the front edges. The flaps
-are ornamented in the same way as the rest of the binding.
-
-The sewing and the paper of all these books is weak and light, but
-there is always work of much interest on the bindings. The backs are
-flat and the paste boards are thin and covered with very thin leather.
-They are usually ornamented inside and outside with blind and gilt
-work, stamped and cut work, and hand painting, in much variety.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Oriental binding with flap.]
-
-The open work cut with a knife from thin leather is remarkable for
-its extraordinary precision and delicacy; it is usually in arabesques
-with small flowers, and often coloured by hand. It is always set on a
-background of colour, either painted or a bit of coloured paper. But
-the work is very frail, and panels of it are rarely found perfect.
-
-Oriental bindings are altogether weak, and they will not stand hard
-wear.
-
-Now we have, chiefly from America, machines that will do almost every
-one of the hand-operations for binding a book. There are sewing
-machines that only want to be fed with thread and the books to be sewn;
-there are casing machines of wonderful speed and accuracy, backing
-machines and binding machines. The only one thing that cannot yet be
-done by a machine is the pasting down the ends of the bands or tapes
-inside the boards. I rather think that many of these machines strain
-the paper badly, and also they require setting elaborately to a certain
-size. They are very useful for large, cheap editions, but little
-use for good miscellaneous work. Nothing is really so good as the
-old-fashioned sewing on raised bands by hand.
-
-
-BOOKS TO CONSULT.
-
-COCKERELL, D. Bookbinding. _London_, 1901.
-
-DAVENPORT, C. Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding. _London_, 1898.
-
-DAVENPORT, C. (Encyc. Brit. Article Bookbinding). _London_, 1902.
-
-DU SOMMERARD, A. Les arts au Moyen Age. _Paris_, 1838-46.
-
-GORI, A. F. Thesaurus vet. Diptychorum. _Florentiæ_, 1759.
-
-LABARTE, J. Hist. des Arts au Moyen Age. _Paris_, 1864.
-
-LIBRI, COUNT G. Catalogue. _Paris_, 1857.
-
-MADAN, F. Books in Manuscript. _London_, 1893.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III. PAPER.
-
-
-  Paper--Watermarks--Quiring.
-
-Although we get our word “paper” from “papyrus,” this latter was not
-a paper at all. The essential characteristic of a true paper is the
-matting or felting together of small fibres, whether these be of wood,
-linen, or other substance. Papyrus was the inner bark of a beautiful
-reed, which grows along the banks of the Nile, and from a very remote
-period strips of this bark were laid over each other at right angles,
-fixed together with gum, or perhaps a little Nile mud, and used for
-writing upon with a soft pen. The right-angular lines of the two layers
-of papyrus bark can easily be seen on any papyrus MS.
-
-Papyrus is not a good substance for writing upon; it is at first too
-soft, and then it gets brittle and is apt to crumble away. By sticking
-successive strips of papyrus to each other ancient scribes produced
-long rolls of manuscript, and from these rolls we derive many of the
-book terms which are still in use. The most obvious is “volume,” which
-is from “volvere,” “to roll up”; and “Bible” comes from the Greek
-“βυβλοἱ,” meaning the inner bark of papyrus.
-
-In China the possibility of making thin feltings with silk fibre was
-probably known at a very remote period, and it is likely enough that
-from some such unsatisfactory production the better and usable kinds
-made of vegetable fibres evolved itself. We cannot now say when the
-possibility of felting together fibres of wood or grass first became
-known to the Chinese, but it was certainly well understood in the fifth
-or sixth centuries, because specimens of it still exist.
-
-In the middle of the eighth century, in 751 A.D., there were certain
-tribal disturbances on the Chinese frontier of Persia, and one of the
-combatants called in the help of the Chinese. These, however, suffered
-defeat at the hands of the Arab governor of Samarkand, who brought back
-some Chinese prisoners to his town. These men were acquainted with the
-Chinese methods of making paper.
-
-From these Chinese prisoners the Arabs and their friends the Persians
-learnt the art of paper-making with vegetable fibres, but the supply in
-this particular very soon gave out, and because enough suitable fibres
-were difficult to get they mixed them with pulped rags. Eventually
-the Samarkand paper-makers used rags only, and these they easily got
-in sufficient quantities from old linen clothes, and also the mummy
-wrappings from Egypt were made use of in the same way.
-
-From the Arabs the knowledge of paper-making passed rapidly to Europe,
-and by the middle of the tenth century it had entirely superseded the
-use of papyrus.
-
-The researches of Dr. J. Wiesner and Dr. J. Karabacek, both professors
-of the University of Vienna, have been of incalculable value as
-regards the composition and history of ancient paper, and they were
-fortunate enough to have the opportunity of examining the papers in the
-collection of the Archduke Rainer, among which are specimens of very
-early work. The professors have examined these and other old papers
-microscopically and chemically, and found that from the beginning it
-was considered necessary to load papers with some binding or filling
-substance; they found starch, starch flour, probably from rice, and
-among the Chinese papers a dressing of powdered gypsum. Without some
-such dressing the papers would have resembled our blotting paper, and
-it would have been almost impossible to write upon them.
-
-Professor Wiesner found that Chinese papers of the eighth century were
-really mixed papers; they contained fibres of mulberry bark, hemp and
-rags. Rags of fishing nets themselves would contain fibres of flax,
-hemp, and China grass. But the main constituent of ancient Chinese
-paper is fibre of mulberry-bark, and I believe it is so still, although
-China grass fibre is also much used.
-
-Specimens of Chinese papers from the eighth century onwards can be seen
-at the British Museum. They are soft, but have lasted fairly well, and
-do not appear to show any wire marks. The colour of these papers is
-much the same as Chinese papers made now, but in some instances they
-have certainly darkened as modern wood pulp papers also do.
-
-One of the later specimens, a bank note issued during the reign of the
-Emperor Hung-wu, A.D. 1368-1399, is made of a darkened pulp, probably
-due to admixture with a little lamp black, and on it are lighter
-impressions from large stamps bearing the square seal letters. It is
-just possible that these marks may be of the nature of watermarks, and
-were impressed while the pulp was soft and wet, but it is not possible
-now to take the bank note up from the cardboard on which it has been
-pasted, as to do so would probably cause it to fall to pieces, so it
-cannot, for the moment, be properly examined.
-
-Corean and Japanese papers were the same as Chinese, and they all look
-as if there are no wire marks or watermarks upon them, with the one
-exception I have mentioned, but Dr. Wiesner says that by the ninth
-century marks show in many instances which prove that papers were made
-in moulds or sieves with network bottoms, the impression of which
-remains like our “chains” or laid marks. In the King’s Library at the
-British Museum is shown a piece of Oriental paper, an official letter
-in Coptic, dated A.D. 1048. It does not look so strong or good as the
-Chinese paper, but resembles thin blotting paper, and shows no wire
-mark.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Watermark used by John Tate in 1495.]
-
-An early example of European paper is preserved in the Record Office in
-London. It is a letter from the Count of Toulouse to Henry III., and is
-dated A.D. 1216. In France, however, by this time, the making of paper
-had been understood for some time, as it was made there in 1189. In
-Belgium it was not made until 1551, in which year a paper mill was set
-up at Tourneppe by Henri de Nevere.
-
-By the end of the fifteenth century paper-making in Europe was
-perfectly understood, and the papers of that date, and for some time
-after it, are frequently excellent in every way, and as sound, strong,
-and good now as they were when first made.
-
-The first English book printed on English paper is Bartholomaeus, _De
-Proprietatibus Rerum_, published 1495-6. The paper is of high quality,
-it shows a fine wire mark, and a watermark of a double circle enclosing
-an eight-pointed star. The paper was made at Hertford by John Tate, who
-was afterwards Lord Mayor of London; the title page is cut in wood, and
-the book is illustrated with outline wood-cuts.
-
-At the end are some verses, and among these occur the lines:--
-
-  “And John Tate the younger Joye mote he broke,
-  Which late hath in England doo make this paper thynne,
-  That now in our Englysch this boke is prynted Inne.”
-
-It is paper to be proud of, and John Tate the younger would
-unquestionably look upon the large majority of our modern papers with
-the utmost scorn, and he would be perfectly justified in doing so.
-
-The early method of making paper was to allow the pulp to settle at the
-bottom of a trough like a sieve, with a wire bottom, in which the wires
-were arranged in a certain way, thick and thin, the trade mark of the
-maker also being outlined in wire. The faint marks these wires cause
-in the paper are called watermarks, and although at first they were
-makers’ marks, they eventually denoted the size of the sheet of paper
-on which they were shown.
-
-The present method of making paper from rags is to pulp them thoroughly
-in water, and let the white particles become so thoroughly diffused
-that the liquid in which they float looks like thin milk.
-
-This thin mixture, however, if left quiet, very quickly resolves itself
-into a sediment of white fibres with clear water above them. If now
-the superambient water can be drawn off, and the sediment pressed
-flat, paper is the result. But it is not so easily done as said. In
-order to catch the sediment in the most satisfactory way, the milky
-fluid containing the rag fibres is allowed to flow in a thin stream
-over a long, shallow trough, which is kept moving onwards and is also
-so arranged that it has a sideways tremble, backwards and forwards as
-well. The effect of this is that when the further end of the trough
-is reached, on its floor there is a thin continuous film of slightly
-matted fibres, the water from which has flowed away along the sides of
-the trough. Now another device comes into play; a thin light roller of
-wire presses lightly on the wet film, and by this pressure the little
-fibres are pressed upon each other so that they mat, interlace, and
-cohere together. The paper in this state is of course very delicate,
-but by reason of a quick drying and carrying off on light rollers it
-soon acquires the strength necessary to enable it to hold together
-until it is quite dry. Then it goes through several other stages,
-the most important of which is pressing. The various processes can
-obviously be modified easily enough so as to make a thin paper or a
-thick one. Paper made in this way with a vibratory trough is called
-“machine made,” and by reason of its fibres laying more or less in
-a uniform direction the resulting paper is more easily torn in one
-direction than in the other. If a circular piece be cut out of such
-pulp and laid on water it will tend to fold up two of its opposite
-sides.
-
-But ancient paper was made in a trough held by hands and given a
-lateral movement, then pressed and dried in some simple way. By such
-a procedure the fibres are thoroughly mixed, and do not lie in one
-direction more than in another, so that if a circular bit of such
-paper be laid in water it will turn upwards at the edge evenly all
-round, and look like a little saucer.
-
-I have mentioned a light wire roller which presses the wet film more
-or less into shape just before it leaves the long trough to be dried.
-As long ago as the thirteenth century in Europe the fact that devices
-could be impressed upon the undried film by thinning it and making it
-more transparent where touched appears to have been known, and from
-about that time onwards “watermarks” have fortunately been applied in
-the same manner, namely, so as to come in the middle of the first leaf
-of the pair forming a folio. It is also fortunate that the “chains” or
-wires forming the rollers have always been laid in the same way; it is
-certainly the obvious one, but obvious ways are not always adopted. The
-result is that by observing the direction of the strong chain marks
-and the fine “laid” marks between them much information concerning the
-folding of the original sheets can be obtained.
-
-In very early papers these rules cannot be safely followed, because
-early chain marks as well as early watermarks were not produced in the
-same reliable way. The paper being made in moulds with wire netting at
-the bottom, the impression came below the paper instead of above it as
-in the case of the roller, and also the sizes of the sheets were more
-likely to differ.
-
-Watermarks are the semi-transparent devices which show on certain pages
-of a printed book. They are to be seen on most papers of the fourteenth
-to the eighteenth centuries, and there has been a good deal written
-about them, especially abroad. The devices were outlined in wire and
-set in the bottom of the trough or on the wire roller I have just
-described, so that the lines are impressed upon the pulp just when it
-is in its most sensitive condition. The pressure from the wire device
-thins the pulp wherever it is touched, and so when dry the device shows
-lighter than the rest of the paper.
-
-These marks should be called wire marks rather than watermarks, and
-the French word for them, “Filigranes,” is more correct than ours. The
-difference in tint between a watermark and the rest of the paper is so
-distinct that a photographic negative placed under one will render a
-capital photograph of it, far better than any drawing, but it needs a
-long exposure.
-
-Watermarks are already of considerable value to Bibliographers, and
-it is likely that in the near future they will be much more noticed,
-especially in English books. Many frauds have already been detected by
-reason of the watermarks, as it is a point that _faussaires_ have so
-far paid little attention to. The marks are, however, not to be relied
-on after about 1750, as they do not run reliably in machine made or
-wove papers.
-
-Armorial devices have been largely used as watermarks. Many of the
-earlier marks show the arms of towns, especially continental ones, and
-among others there are the arms of France, Portugal, William and Mary
-and Queen Anne, shown in full heraldic outlines.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 55.--English “hand” watermark, 1512.]
-
-The Holbein family of Ravensburg bore a bull’s head as their armorial
-badge, and they were paper makers, so the bull’s head shows on their
-paper as a watermark. It was afterwards much copied, and during the
-fifteenth and sixteenth centuries it became a favourite mark on German
-papers. There does not seem to have been any strict copyright in any of
-the devices used as watermarks. They were freely used by any one who
-cared to do so, but the copies were never very carefully made, they
-were always variants of the original. They were moreover generally
-accompanied by another mark, that of the maker, on another part of the
-paper. The same privilege of using a “maker’s” mark was also allowed to
-the silversmiths in addition to the official hall mark.
-
-To some slight extent watermarks on paper made for particular books
-have followed the subjects of those books, and in accordance with a
-loyal feeling there are instances of a crown watermark being used on
-paper prepared for special copies of books intended for presentation to
-reigning sovereigns.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 56.--English “crown” watermark, 1745.]
-
-On papers used for early English printed books we find the favourite
-German bull’s head, bunches of grapes, unicorns, dogs, hands with
-stars, and shears. These appear in several sizes, and show many
-varieties and modifications of their original designs.
-
-In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a greater variety occur;
-on English paper there is found the post horn and the fool’s cap,
-sometimes showing as a cap only and sometimes as a fool’s head with
-cap and bells. A similar design was largely used abroad. In the time
-of Charles I. a crown was a usual watermark on official folio paper,
-but the Rump Parliament ordered that the foolscap should be in future
-substituted for it, which was done. “Double foolscap” is still used
-as a designation for a certain size of printing paper, so also is
-“double-crown.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 57.--English “foolscap” watermark, 1661.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 58.--English “Britannia” watermark, 1907.]
-
-The foolscap itself shortly gave way to a figure of Britannia or a lion
-rampant. The post horn was another common watermark here; it gave its
-name to its paper about 1670, when the mail carrier was accustomed to
-announce his approach by a blast from his horn. The name “Post” still
-designates a certain size of printing paper. The smallest folio paper
-of the seventeenth century was marked with a watermark of a “pot,” and
-hence the name.
-
-For specially printed books it is a pretty fancy to have a coat-of-arms
-set as a watermark, and it is now and then done, but I fear few readers
-notice it. Many papers are now made without watermarks, and it is
-likely enough that, except for trade terminology, they will gradually
-die out altogether as being unnecessary.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 59.--English “post” watermark, 1679.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 60.--English “pot” watermark, 1640.]
-
-The possibilities of artistic watermarking have not yet been fully
-realised. At the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 there was a German
-exhibit which showed the remarkable effect which could be made by
-impressing paper pulp by means of a photographic plate in relief.
-
-The papers which had been so treated were set up in a frame with a
-light behind them, and they looked like most delicate paintings in
-monotone. Those exhibited were portraits of celebrities, and they
-were not only excellent but possessed the quality of permanence in a
-remarkable degree.
-
-Printing papers are generally white, but sometimes they have been used
-in colour, green, pink, blue or yellow. Such papers are now and then
-found in Italian, German, and English books, more rarely in French.
-Silk and satin have both been used for printing on in England from the
-seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Vellum has also been largely
-used for special copies of fine printed books.
-
-A recent French book of prayers is entirely woven in white and black
-silk. It looks like a beautifully printed book with monotone borders.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 61.--“Chain lines” thick, and “laid lines” thin, on
-paper.]
-
-An original sheet of paper can of course be made and cut to any size,
-and the terms folio, quarto, octavo, and duodecimo do not indicate
-any actual size except in bookbinders’ specifications. The terms only
-indicate the number of times the original sheet has been folded, and
-this obviously is a matter which is subject to as much variation as the
-printers choose. But fortunately such foldings do not vary much, and
-so we may safely mention those that are most commonly used. There are
-several ways of finding this out, the most obvious being to count the
-leaves which follow any one letter in the white line at the bottom of
-the leaf. This letter is called the “signature.” If there is an A or
-A 1 at the bottom of the first leaf, and when eight leaves have been
-turned over a B or B 1 appears, then the book is an octavo, and so on.
-Another way of determining the same thing is by means of the direction
-taken by the chain or wire marks all over the paper, and yet another
-is to be found by studying the position of the watermark. But neither
-of these tests are conclusive, and often enough there are neither chain
-marks nor watermarks to be found at all, and the sheets are not always
-rightly or carefully cut, which brings the watermark all wrong, so the
-following notes are only what may be expected in normal books.
-
-If a piece of paper or page of a book printed before 1750, and possibly
-in later work, be held up to the light, certain lines may be seen all
-over it in a lighter tint than the rest of the page. These appear as
-long thick lines crossed at right angles by short thin ones. The long
-thicker lines are known as “chain” lines, and the shorter ones “laid”
-lines, and they are of some value when they exist for helping to
-determine the “size” of the book.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Fol.]
-
---Fol. If the original sheet is folded once it is called a folio, and
-in this case the chain marks are perpendicular and the watermark is in
-the middle of the first leaf. In a folio there is one fold, two leaves
-or four pages, and nothing to cut. Most of Caxton’s books are folios
-although they are quite small.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 63.--4^o.]
-
---4^o in size. If the once folded sheet be folded again across the
-other way we get a gathering with four leaves, or eight pages, called
-a quarto. The chain lines are horizontal, and the watermark in the
-middle of the back of pp. 4 and 5; there are two foldings and two tops
-of leaves to be cut.
-
---8^o. If the quarto be again folded we get a gathering of eight
-leaves, or 16 pp., called an octavo, which is the commonest size for
-English books. In an octavo there are three foldings, the chain lines
-are perpendicular, the watermark is quartered at the tops of pp. 3, 4,
-11 and 12, and there are two tops and two fronts to be cut.
-
-The further foldings of 16^o, 32^o, and 64^o are the same operations
-carried further, but although such sizes do exist they are so uncommon
-that a further description of them is not necessary.
-
---12^o. In the case of a duodecimo a different initial folding is
-followed. The original sheet instead of being folded once across the
-middle, as in the case of a folio, is now folded into three equal
-divisions. The parallelogram thus formed is folded across its shorter
-diameter, and this again along its longer diameter. There is now a
-gathering of twelve leaves, or 24 pp., with four foldings, the chain
-marks perpendicular, the watermark halved at the tops of pp. 3 and 9,
-and there are two tops and four fronts to be cut. It is the commonest
-size of the smaller French books.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 64.--8^o.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 65.--12^o.]
-
-As to sizes, folios run from the great Atlas of Charles II., measuring
-five feet nine inches and a half by three feet two inches and a
-half, and requiring eight skins of morocco for its binding, to the
-tiny _Galileo a Madame Cristina de Lorena_, 1615, “imprimé en 1897,”
-measuring one half by one quarter of an inch. A folio cannot be
-recognised by its shape.
-
-The sizes of quartos and octavos are also very varied, but, roughly
-speaking, they can be recognised by their shapes, especially in the
-case of modern books. A quarto is generally squarish in outline, nearly
-as broad as it is long; an octavo is an elongated rectangle, its
-breadth considerably less than its length. A duodecimo is always much
-longer than its breadth.
-
-As curiosities, books have been made in many forms, circular,
-heart-shaped, octagonal, flower or animal forms, but they are of small
-importance, and have been chiefly made as Christmas cards, valentines,
-and such ephemeral publications.
-
-The rules as to quiring of books printed on paper do not apply to books
-printed on vellum. Such books are always folios, and they are generally
-quired in gatherings of ten leaves, following the fashion used in the
-ancient manuscripts, but, of course, they can equally well be gathered
-together in any even number that may be preferred. There is no rule.
-
-In Europe, until the nineteenth century, paper was always made from
-triturated rags, but the demand for cheap literature which has become
-so urgent in recent years has compelled paper manufacturers to find
-some commoner material from which to make their paper.
-
-It is possible that the way out of the difficulty was suggested by an
-analysis of Japanese paper. This has been known here for some time. It
-is strong, soft, and valuable for many reasons, and is cheaply made of
-fibres from plants of the mulberry tree species. Japanese paper is hand
-made and has a certain amount of dressing, its surface is dull, but
-takes impressions from engraved plates or type easily. It appears to
-last fairly well, but would probably not stand much wear at the joints.
-
-The idea of using pulped vegetable matter for paper was, however, not
-new, even to the Japanese, as there was such a thing as paper made from
-papyrus, but it does not seem to have been much employed, because it
-was not necessary in view of the fact that the papyrus did quite well
-by itself without any further manipulation.
-
-For reliable papers, the Committee on the Deterioration of Paper
-appointed by the Society of Arts in 1898 give in their report a
-statement that 70 per cent. should consist of fibres of cotton,
-flax, or hemp, but about the middle of the nineteenth century it was
-found that passable paper could be very cheaply made from straw and
-from esparto grass, and this paved the way for the disastrous use of
-mechanical wood pulp for cheap newspapers and books.
-
-Many sorts of wood pulps are now made for this purpose, and there is no
-doubt that the industry of breaking up wood for the purpose of paper
-making is a large and increasing one. In Norway there are several large
-establishments already working at this output. The fibres of spruce,
-pine, birch, poplar, jute, and manilla are all extensively used. The
-wood is cut up into small pieces and triturated until it is in a state
-of fine dissemination, a mass of small fibres, in which condition it
-is mixed in certain proportions with the other materials of which the
-paper is to be composed. In spite of the warnings of the Society of
-Arts Committee, there is no doubt that the use of “mechanical” wood
-pulp for paper is increasing, and this regardless of the fact that
-there is no lasting quality in such material, for the fibres of the
-wood are invariably brittle, and they also darken rapidly under the
-influence of light.
-
-The dressing of such papers with resin or gelatine effects a certain
-improvement; gelatine particularly adds to the life of a paper and
-increases the elasticity of the wood fibres, but this good effect tends
-to die out in time. Resin is of less use.
-
-One particularly troublesome result of having to deal with wood pulp
-papers is that it will not hold the threads used in ordinary binding;
-the thread cuts right through the paper because of the shortness or
-brittleness of the fibres, and if a book printed on such paper has to
-be bound, the only safe way to do it is to frame each page in a border
-of sound rag paper, and then have it sewn as usual. Wood paper will not
-stand bending, but breaks off short if there is anything like a joint
-or fold in it, and the framing or mounting prevents this. The process
-of mounting every leaf of a book is, however, a very expensive one; a
-couple of pounds may well be spent on a comparatively small book for
-this operation alone, so that the prospect before owners of libraries
-who wish to keep their books in good order is not brilliant. No amount
-of dressing can make such paper really strong, as it is the fibres
-themselves that are in fault.
-
-But there is another form in which the use of wood is not so harmful,
-and in this case the fibres are no longer there to be found fault with.
-“Chemical” wood pulp is a form of cellulose, and it is likely that it
-is destined to play an important part in the paper of the future, in
-conjunction with fibres of various sorts.
-
-Chemical wood pulp is prepared from the wood fibres by “digesting” with
-caustic soda or bisulphide of lime, as reducing agents. The process is
-one of much interest, and moreover a good deal of wood has to be used
-to make a comparatively small amount of wood cellulose. Esparto and
-straw celluloses are not so good as wood cellulose.
-
-The invention of the “half-tone” process, by which a dotted block can
-be produced from a toned drawing, print, or photograph, can be made, is
-responsible for much dangerous procedure with regard to the paper upon
-which the prints from the dotted blocks are to be made.
-
-In itself the invention of the half-tone process is a wonderful and
-beautiful one, but it has done more to ruin the already decadent modern
-paper than anything else, because it has made the dressing of the paper
-of greater importance than the paper itself.
-
-Incidentally, the half-tone block has given the death-blow to the old
-and beautiful art of wood engraving, which is now only found in quite
-exceptional instances. But the half-tone block has, nevertheless,
-provided some small solace for the dispossessed wood engravers, because
-the soft metal blocks go wrong in light places and themselves need
-careful revision with a graver. This touching-up is so general, and
-so much technical skill is required for its proper execution, that it
-has already become a recognised profession, and the engraver’s name is
-often enough recognised in the lettering of the prints made from such
-blocks, especially in American publications.
-
-The dots of half-tone blocks were at first of an easily visible size,
-but as the method of production became better understood it was found
-that they could be made so small that they were no longer visible as
-separate dots to the unaided vision, but that the effect produced was
-really that of a tone-wash.
-
-But the very finely grained blocks were difficult to print from, the
-ink stuck too readily between the dots, where it was not wanted,
-and the surface of the paper was not even enough to give a clear
-impression, even if it was calendered and super-calendered. So
-something had to be done to give the paper a more level surface, and
-the needed material was found in china clay mixed more or less with
-barytes. It is laid down in the _Society of Arts Report_ that the
-amount of this dressing should in no case exceed 10 per cent. in any
-paper, but modern “art” papers have for a long time much exceeded this
-fair proportion.
-
-From the beginning some kind of dressing has always been found
-necessary in the manufacture of paper, but nothing so dangerous as
-china clay has ever been used. The net result is that almost all modern
-editions-de-luxe, and fine illustrated books generally, either having
-half-tone plates or colour plates done by the three colour process,
-consist of little else but thin sheets of china clay supported by the
-smallest possible skeleton of wood or other cheap fibres.
-
-It must be at once granted that the impressions from delicate half-tone
-blocks made on clay paper are admirable, and it is also true that the
-printing ink makes the clay insoluble in water wherever it touches it.
-But the clay has a certain affinity for damp, and books printed on clay
-paper very readily show damp stains, and if left for any time in a
-really damp place they are liable to become solid bricks of white mud,
-quite impossible to repair.
-
-If very dry the non-cohesive clay will turn to a white powder.
-Moreover, this clay-laden paper will not hold binding threads, so again
-it has to be preserved. A book printed on such material has to be
-treated in the same way as I have described in the case of wood pulp
-paper.
-
-There is, however, a plan of preserving prints on clay, and this is
-to fasten down the printed portion on a piece of sound paper from
-the beginning. This is already done to some extent, and it should
-be universal in the case of isolated plates, but when a book is all
-printed on clay paper, as many fine and valuable books unfortunately
-are, it is difficult to say what is best to be done. The only real
-remedy seems to be a refusal on the part of purchasers to buy such
-books. But purchasers do not always know when they are buying clay
-instead of paper. It is, however, not difficult to tell, as the
-clay-laden paper feels very smooth and soft to the touch of a dry
-finger. This peculiarity can be easily detected in one or other of the
-American magazines, Harper’s or Scribner’s, and the difference between
-the feel of a page holding an impression from a fine half-tone block,
-and that having only text, will at once be evident.
-
-If a mark may be made on a suspected sheet, a drop of water should be
-put upon one corner, left a second or two, and then dried off with
-blotting-paper. Now a light scrape with a knife over the damped place
-will remove a layer of white clay if it is there.
-
-There is no doubt that the large majority of our modern books will not
-be in readable condition in about a hundred years’ time from the date
-of their publishing.
-
-
-BOOKS TO CONSULT.
-
-
-PAPER.
-
-ARTS, SOCIETY OF.--Report on the Deterioration of Paper. _London_, 1898.
-
-BLADES, W.--(_Athenæum_, March 30th, 1889, p. 409. Paper on Watermarks).
-
-BLANCHET, A.--Essai sur l’histoire des Papier. _Paris_, 1890.
-
-BREITKOPF.--Versuch die Einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres. _Leipzig_,
-1784-1801.
-
-BRIQUET, C. M.--La Legende Paléographique du Papier de Coton. _Genève_,
-1884.
-
-BRIQUET, C. M.--Recherches sur les Papiers du x^e au XIV^e siècles.
-_Paris_, 1886.
-
-CAMPREDON, E.--Le Papier. _Paris_, 1901.
-
-CHARPENTIER, P.--Le Papier. 1890. (Frémy, E.)
-
-DUNBAR, J.--Notes on the Manufacture of Wood Pulp Papers. _Leith_, 1892.
-
-ERFURT, J.--The Dyeing of Paper Pulp. _London_, 1901.
-
-EVANS, L.--Ancient Paper Making. _London_, 1896.
-
-GIRARD, A.--Le Papier. _Lille_, 1892.
-
-GOODCHILD, G. F., and TWENEY, C. F.--A Technological and Scientific
-Dictionary. _London._
-
-GRIFFIN, R. B., and LITTLE, A. D.--The Chemistry of Paper Making. _New
-York_, 1894.
-
-HERRING, R.--Paper and Paper Making. _London_, 1855.
-
-HOERNLE, A. F. R.--Who was the inventor of Rag Paper? (_Royal Asiatic
-Society Journal_, October, 1903).
-
-HOYER, E.--Die fabrikation des Papiers, 1886. (Bolley, P. A.)
-
-KARABACEK, J.--Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus Erz. Rainer.
-Bd. II., III., 1887.
-
-KAY, J.--Paper. _London_, 1893.
-
-KLEMM, P.--Handbuch der Papierkunde. _Leipzig_, 1904.
-
-LLOYD, E.--Account of a sort of Paper made of Linum Asbestinum found in
-Wales. (Phil. Trans., Abr. III., p. 105, 1684).
-
-MIERZINSKI, S.--Handbuch der Praktischen Papier Fabrikation. _Wien_,
-1886.
-
-PAYEN, A.--La fabrication du Papier. _Paris_, 1873.
-
-PIOT, G. J. C., and PINCHART, A.--Specimens des Papiers recueillis dans
-les diverses coll. de documents qui composent les archives générales du
-Royaume de Belgique. _Bruxelles_, 1872.
-
-SARTORI, L.--L’Industria della Carta. _Milano_, 1897.
-
-SCHAEFER, J. C.--Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and Wood.
-(German.) _Regensburg_, 1765.
-
-STONHILL, W. J.--Paper Pulp from Wood and other fibres. 1885. (Rattray,
-J.)
-
-VALENTA, E.--Das Papier. _Halle_, 1904.
-
-WATT, A.--The Art of Paper Making. _London_, 1890.
-
-WIESNER, J.--Mikroskopische untersuchung alter ostturkestanischer und
-anderer asiatischer Papiere. _Wien_, 1902.
-
-
-WATERMARKS.
-
-BRIQUET, C. M.--De la valeur des Filigranes du Papier comme Moyen de
-determiner l’age de documents. _Genève_, 1892.
-
-BRIQUET, C. M.--Papiers et Filigranes des archives de Gêves 1154 à
-1700. _Genève_, 1888.
-
-BRIQUET, C. M.--Les Filigranes. Dict. Hist. des Marques du Papier. 4
-vols. _Paris_, 1907.
-
-CASTAN, A.--Catalogue des Incunables. _Besançon_, 1893.
-
-DEL MARMOL, F.--Dictionnaire des Filigranes. _Paris_, 1900.
-
-DENNE, S.--Observations on Paper Marks, 1796. (_Archæologia_, XII., p.
-114).
-
-HEITZ, P.--Les Filigranes avec la crosse de Bâle. _Strasbourg_, 1904.
-
-HEITZ, P.--Les Filigranes des Papiers contenus dans les archives de la
-ville de Strasbourg. _Strasbourg_, 1902-04.
-
-HEITZ, P.--Les Filigranes des Papiers de la Bibliothèque de Strasbourg.
-_Strasbourg_, 1903.
-
-LEMON, R.--Collection of Water Marks. 1891.
-
-MIDOUX, E., and MATTON, A.--Etudes sur les Filigranes des Papiers
-employés en France au XIV^e et XV^e siécles. _Paris_, 1868.
-
-PIOT, G. J. C., and PINCHART, A.--Specimens des Papiers recueillis dans
-les diverses coll. des documents qui composent les archives générales
-du Royaume de Belgique. _Bruxelles_, 1872.
-
-SERMA SANTANDER, C. A. de.--Supplément au Catalogue des livres de la
-Bibliothèque de M. C. de Serma Santander. _Bruxelles_, 1803.
-
-SOTHEBY, S. L.--Principia Typographica (with examples of foreign
-watermarks). _London_, 1858.
-
-SOTHEBY, S. L.--Typography of the fifteenth century (with examples of
-watermarks). _London_, 1845.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV. PRINTING.
-
-
-  Assyrian bricks, with printed inscriptions--Oiron ware--Chinese
-  types--Block books--Costeriana--Types and stereotypes--Printing
-  presses.
-
-There are numbers of instances of impressions from small devices,
-cyphers and letterings cut on blocks of wood or soft metal and made
-on pieces of pottery. These stamps are the forerunners of the types
-with which our modern books are printed. Among these impressions those
-which are made on the tablets or cylinders of baked clay, many of which
-have been found among the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, are by far
-the earliest. They are covered with inscriptions printed in cuneiform
-characters, and contain records of sales of slaves, loans of money,
-sales of land and the like, and on the larger bricks and cylinders are
-longer inscriptions of greater interest, among them stories of the
-Flood. Many of these records are contained within an outer shell of
-the same shape, in which is either a short title with seal or even a
-duplicate inscription. These outer cases are the earliest examples of
-anything in the shape of a cover or binding over written or printed
-matter. Some of the cuneiform bricks are said to date from the third
-thousand years B.C., and many of the later examples belonged to the
-libraries of Sennacherib and Ashurhani-Pal, Kings of Assyria.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Assyrian tablet of clay, impressed with
-cuneiform inscription. With outer case.]
-
-Similar bricks, impressed with inscriptions, have been found in North
-America. The letters on these bricks, tablets, or cylinders were
-printed letter by letter by hand upon the clay when it was wet and
-soft, without ink, then the brick was dried either in an oven or in the
-sun, so that this earliest method of printing is diametrically opposite
-to the modern process, in which case the letters are inked and kept
-rigid, while the paper or other substance on which the impression is to
-come is lightly pressed upon them.
-
-In the eleventh century the Chinese made types of clay or porcelain,
-and set them up in a frame and printed from them, and afterwards they
-cut the original types in wood and made impressions, or stereotypes
-from them in porcelain, and when this had been baked they cast leaden
-types from it. Chinese and Japanese letters are always most decorative,
-whether in the cursive or square seal characters.
-
-Babylonian and Assyrian tablets, cylinders, and cones of baked clay
-impressed with cuneiform inscriptions have proved themselves to be the
-most permanent and reliable form of record that has yet been invented
-by mankind. The hammer alone seems to be able to destroy them.
-
-The most precious faience in the world is that variously known as
-“Oiron,” “Henri Deux,” “Diane de Poictiers,” or “Faience de Saint
-Porchaire.” There are fewer than seventy pieces of this ware known,
-and each example is a masterpiece, no two being alike.
-
-It is said to consist mainly of clay found at Saint Porchaire, a
-village in Poiton, and not far from Oiron, and at one of these places
-it was probably made.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Italian book stamps impressed upon the faience
-de St. Porchaire.]
-
-The pieces are often ornamented with armorials and devices of Francis
-I., Henri II., and Diane de Poictiers, as well as those of members of
-the French nobility of about the middle of the sixteenth century.
-
-There are jugs, covered cups, biberons, dishes, salts, flower
-vases, and candlesticks, all curiously put together in sections,
-and ornamented with impressions from binders’ stamps run in with
-differently coloured clays.
-
-This use of binders’ stamps is unique, and has been made with the
-utmost skill and taste. Sometimes casts have been made from the stamps
-so that the impression shows in reversed colours. The ornamentation
-is like a book-finisher’s work, and several of the same stamps and
-rolls show on contemporary Italian bookbindings. At that time there
-was a strong Italian influence both in French as well as in English
-decorative bookbindings.
-
-It has already been supposed that the ware may have been sent as a
-present to Henri II. from the family of Catherine de Medici, and M. H.
-Delange even goes so far as to credit Girolamo della Robbia with the
-work. He, as well as many other Florentine craftsmen, worked in France
-for Francis I.
-
-It is not now likely that any definite knowledge as to the maker of the
-Saint Porchaire Faience will ever be obtained, but it will always be a
-notable example of the high decorative importance of binders’ stamps,
-which are designed upon certain principles, especially with regard to
-their combination in groups or lines of groups.
-
-Attempts to imitate this ware have often been made, but so far they
-have failed; the original seems to possess qualities and peculiarities
-that are impossible to imitate closely. Art forgeries are now so common
-and so excellent that there are really very few things that cannot
-be copied so exactly that it is difficult to distinguish between the
-original and the copy, but the Saint Porchaire ware is so far one of
-the very few things that completely baffle the cleverest artist, and
-this is largely due to the curious use of the binders’ stamps.
-
-Engraved wooden blocks were used in China, Corea, and Japan as early
-as the sixth century, and quite likely long before. These blocks were
-cut in the same manner as the European block books, except that type
-and illustrations were not shown on the same block. In Thibet similar
-blocks were cut and charms were printed from them.
-
-The use of separately engraved types which could be arranged as desired
-seems to have been known in these countries at about the same time, but
-it was not so suitable to their then requirements, and so it made no
-headway. They soon reverted to the simple block engraving as better. No
-doubt the reason of this was that the number of separate letters that
-might be required was so great that it was practically prohibitive. The
-letters both in China and Japan are still mainly in the syllabic stage,
-and so there are a great number of them. The alphabetical stage is,
-however, gradually being reached, especially in Japan.
-
-It is very likely that the European idea of cutting block books was
-borrowed from China, and here from the later half of the fifteenth
-century until the earlier half of the sixteenth century such books were
-produced plentifully in Germany, Holland, and England, and more rarely
-in France.
-
-Single-sheet pictures were made at first, the earliest dated example
-known being the “St. Christopher” of 1423, now in the Rylands Library
-in Manchester. From being cut on wood these curious prints are
-generally known as xylographs. Criticism and comparison of them is a
-very difficult matter, as they were designed and cut on such broad and
-easy lines that they were easily copied almost exactly, but now all
-the important and very early specimens are so well known and have been
-so carefully listed and described by competent bibliographers like
-Mr. Gordon Duff, Sir Martin Conway, Hain, Ottley, Bradshaw, Hessels,
-Proctor, and others, that there is little risk of fraudulent imitation
-remaining long unrecognised.
-
-The block book proper however, shows text as well as illustrations,
-the text gradually becoming more and more important. Block books are
-printed in pale coloured ink, so that they may take colour as well as
-possible, and are usually coloured more or less, sometimes by hand
-and sometimes by means of stencil plates, or perhaps a combination of
-both methods. Many of them are astronomical, but as a rule the subjects
-are more or less religious, such as the “Ars Moriendi” or “Biblia
-Pauperum”; the illustrations and the text being variously arranged.
-Each page is cut on one block, sometimes printed page by page,
-sometimes two pages at a time, and always on one side of the paper only.
-
-Now and then, as in the case of the “Speculum Humanae Salvationis,” the
-text is separately cut; this remarkable book is supposed to have been
-printed at Utrecht about 1470-72. Block books are always printed on
-paper of excellent quality.
-
-Printing from moveable types in Europe is considered by many
-authorities to have been invented by Laurens Janszoon Coster, of
-Haarlem, during the earlier half of the fifteenth century. Actual
-proofs are wanting, but there exist several books and fragments of
-books, many of which have been recovered from the boards of old
-bindings, which certainly are not the work of Gutenberg. These
-fragments were printed in Holland, and are known as “Costeriana”;
-several of the letters used correspond to the Dutch manuscript letters
-of the time, and many of them are copies of the school books known as
-“Donatus’.” Some of the letters look much as if they had been cut in
-wood. At Avignon it is recorded that in 1444 experiments with printing
-types were made.
-
-The Coster legend appears to have been started by Adrianus Junius, who
-in his _Batavia_, published at Antwerp in 1588, speaking of Haarlem,
-says: “Redeo ad urbem nostram cui primam inventae ist hic artis
-typographical gloriam deberi.”
-
-There is no doubt that the Costeriana have a family likeness between
-them, and the types used in them have been carefully compared by Mr.
-Hessels with those found in the edition of Ælius Donatus’ grammars, and
-in the _Doctrinale_ of Alex. de Villa Dei, and in his opinion they have
-the same origin.
-
-Whether the rival claims of Avignon, Haarlem, or Mainz, for the honour
-of having been the first town in which printing from moveable types was
-done in Europe will ever be finally settled, is questionable. But there
-is no doubt that Johann Gutenberg was the first printer in Europe who
-made printing with moveable type of real usefulness. In 1472, Fichet
-wrote that Gutenberg, who worked in Mayence, was the first inventor
-of the art of printing by means of moveable types. Curiously enough
-the work credited to him shows no amateur feeling whatever. Both the
-Indulgences of 1454, which may be his, and the Mazarin Bible of about
-1455, which certainly is, are as finely and perfectly printed as any
-books ever have been since.
-
-It must be noted here that certain authorities still maintain that
-this Bible was printed by Fust and Schöffer, but the weight of expert
-opinion is nevertheless strongly in favour of Gutenberg.
-
-But however this may be, in the case of the beautiful Mainz Psalter,
-we are on absolutely safe ground. In this book appears the date 1457,
-and also the names of the printers Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer. It
-is in every way a magnificent specimen of typography, and the letters
-are very large. It is also a fine example of colour printing, as the
-initial letters are cut in wood and printed in red and blue. Peter
-Schöffer was originally an illuminator of manuscripts, and no doubt we
-owe the splendid initials of the Mainz Psalter to his liking for colour.
-
-The first printed date in a Dutch book is 1473, when books were printed
-both at Utrecht and Alost.
-
-The moment separate letters were cut in wood for the purpose of
-printing, it must have been obvious to any workman interested in the
-matter that it would be far better to use them as models only, and that
-for actual use casts in soft metal would be more economical. In J. E.
-Hodgkin’s “_Rariora_” there is an excellent detailed account of the
-manner in which types are cast.
-
-At first the method of casting type was probably much the same as it
-is now, except that it was done slowly by hand instead of quickly
-by machines. The matrix was set at the bottom of a short funnel in
-a little hand press. This press was held in the left hand, funnel
-upwards, then a little melted metal was run in from a ladle held in the
-right hand. The metal set almost immediately, and the little letter was
-jerked out, to be trimmed by hand. What the earliest metal used for
-types was cannot now be known for certain, but it was probably much the
-same as is now used, lead with tin and antimony, and perhaps a little
-copper--a composition which expands in cooling. By this hand process a
-good workman could produce two or three thousand letters in a day.
-
-Now things are managed differently, and there are several automatic
-machines which not only save the handwork of a type caster, but do the
-work equally well and at a much greater speed.
-
-For the casting of separate letters the Wick Rotary type casting
-machine is perhaps one of the most ingenious. It consists of a
-horizontal wheel with radiating channels in which the matrices of the
-various letters are set. The wheel revolves, and as the opening of each
-little channel reaches a certain point a jet of type metal is driven
-into it and forms a letter. A little more revolution and the letter is
-automatically ejected and caught on an endless chain. This machine is
-capable of producing 50,000 letters in an hour.
-
-The monotype is, however, even a cleverer invention because it only
-casts the particular letter that is wanted. An operator translates
-the manuscript, by means of a key-board, into a series of holes on a
-strip of paper. This strip then moves on to the monotype machine, which
-not only casts the letter indicated by each hole, but puts it in its
-proper place, and jerks it forward until one line is complete. On the
-completion of a line the machine has a spasm, and the line is driven
-bodily upwards, leaving a space for the next line. This is probably the
-printing machine of the future, as it only requires the one operator,
-who translates the manuscript into dots.
-
-The methods used in the Linotype and the Monoline are somewhat similar,
-and effected by the use of a key-board, but instead of casting each
-letter, like the monotype, they cast complete lines, which are more
-troublesome to correct if any mistake creeps in.
-
-When the printing press was first used is not known, but the printing
-of the block books would no doubt have suggested some sort of board
-press long before types were used in Europe. A block book might be
-printed by hand only, but it would be a troublesome and laborious
-process, and the use of a flat padded board to put over the whole
-block and press upon it seems obvious enough, and the screw press
-evolved itself out of some such expedient. The familiar napkin press
-with a large wooden screw and cross handle is the type of the earliest
-printing presses of which we possess any record, the screw presently
-giving way before the more effective lever handles, and it should not
-be forgotten that excellent results can be obtained from these old
-presses acting with a direct downward pressure. They are, however, very
-slow in action, and that is not consistent with modern requirements.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Printing press of about 1600. From Stradanus.]
-
-The Dutch were the pioneers in improvements in these presses, and W. J.
-Blaew, of Amsterdam, a clever engraver, printer, and mechanician of the
-seventeenth century, made several improvements in many of the details,
-especially as regards the box, table, or forme, in which the type was
-set. But until Charles, third Earl Stanhope, invented the iron printing
-press with levers, in 1800, they were always made of wood, with screw
-handles.
-
-Lord Stanhope was a most remarkable man. He was not only an ardent
-politician but also a notable man of science and an inventor. Among
-other things we owe to him the Stanhope lens; a system of logotypes,
-which was not received by the printing trade with much sympathy,
-because it lessened the need for hand labour, improvements in
-stereotyping, and above all the Stanhope press, which would have made a
-fortune for its inventor if he had wanted it. Lord Stanhope, however,
-gave his press to the Clarendon Press at Oxford, in exchange for a
-pension to his assistant. This press with its levers was for a long
-time the model for all printing presses used in this country.
-
-But before the Stanhope press was invented, W. Nicholson, of London,
-had patented, in 1790, a device which was destined to supersede Lord
-Stanhope’s lever press and all others like it. This was the use of a
-revolving iron cylinder driven by steam to carry the paper over the
-inked surface of the type. Nicholson’s invention fell flat so long as
-it remained in his hands, but in about 1807 it was taken up by Koenig,
-of London, improved, and put upon the market, and it attracted the
-attention of Mr. Walter, of _The Times_.
-
-In the issue of this paper on the 20th of November, 1814, readers were
-informed that it was printed by steam machinery driving the cylinders
-holding the paper. By cylinder presses upwards of 9,600 impressions
-can be made in an hour. Minor improvements since that time have been
-legion, and it may safely be said that no more wonderful sight is to be
-seen in the whole of London than the printing of one of our great daily
-papers.
-
-Newspapers are usually printed from stereotypes fixed on cylinders; but
-books are always printed from _flat_ formes, the paper being applied by
-cylinders. Paper can now be printed on both sides simultaneously. In
-Rotary machines both the printing as well as the receiving surfaces are
-arranged on cylinders.
-
-The locking up of type in the case of long books was soon found to
-be a great inconvenience, and the idea of making a cast of such type
-in the form of a block, so as to set the original type free, was
-an obvious one. It was not, however, put into practical form until
-the early part of the nineteenth century, when someone unknown made
-casts from book types in plaster of Paris. Lord Stanhope made several
-improvements in this, and it is possible that the use of softened paper
-pulp--flong--for this purpose was his invention. Whether this is true
-or not, paper was certainly used for stereotyping in France about 1850,
-and it has been universally used in this important connection ever
-since.
-
-The paper pulp is hammered on to the type by means of a hard brush, in
-exactly the same way that antiquaries make impressions from incised
-rock sculptures. The antiquaries, however, make their casts from the
-paper moulds in plaster of Paris, but the printer makes his in soft
-metal.
-
-When the paper mould is properly dry and hard the melted metal is
-poured over it, and makes a perfect cast. Such casts can either be used
-flat for book printing, or curved to fix on cylinders for newspaper
-printing. The metal used is practically the same as type metal. It sets
-very quickly, and the heat necessary to melt it is so low, that several
-casts can be made from one paper mould.
-
-Another way of making a harder printing plate is by means of a galvanic
-battery. In this case the mould from the type is made in wax, either
-impregnated or carefully dusted with black lead, and these moulds, when
-correct, are put into a galvanic bath, where a strong metallic deposit
-is laid all over them, the deposit being afterwards backed up with
-alloy.
-
-Good types have always been difficult to design. The types used in
-block books, and in early printed books generally, were simply copies
-of the handwriting of the periods to which they belonged. Even in later
-and in modern times certain founts have been designed on the lines of
-cheirographic writing, for example, the “caractères de civilité,” much
-liked by French printers, imitated the graceful calligraphy of the
-eighteenth century.
-
-But a certain differentiation in the direction of squareness soon
-became apparent, as we have already noticed in the case of rock
-inscriptions; it was found easier to cut squarely-shaped letters than
-rounded or cursive forms.
-
-So letters cut for the purpose of being printed tended gradually to
-differentiate themselves from their written analogues, and a new kind
-of designing came into existence. It was, however, always necessary
-to preserve as much of the original form of the letters as possible,
-otherwise they might fail to be recognised.
-
-Printers have always liked to show their types, and from the catalogue
-printed by Schöffer about 1469 to Caslon’s eighteenth century
-specimens, there have been numbers of them made and issued. A short
-study of these specimens will show, firstly, how very much they are
-copied one from another, and secondly, that no designer of genius seems
-ever to have appeared. All that can be said is that some are uglier
-than others. It has not been for want of trying, as Geoffrey Tory shows
-in his _Champfleury_, but, except as to Greek types, in which Robert
-Procter has, by his counsel, met with much success, there is no doubt
-that good types for printing are rare.
-
-In the eighteenth century P. E. Fournier caused much improvement in
-French types, both by his example and his writings. He was the son of
-a typefounder, and began as a wood engraver, but eventually followed
-in his father’s footsteps and became a typefounder himself. Fournier
-published a table of types in 1737, with suggestions for designing
-them, but his most important work is the _Manuel typographique_, which
-is an important work on the subject, and had widespread influence.
-
-In the matter of facsimiles of early printed books, it may be well here
-to say a word or two of warning. Photography has revolutionised many
-things, it has destroyed some of the minor arts, but in book production
-it has had far-reaching effect, much of which is good.
-
-It has also opened up several new industries, and now photo-lithographs,
-collotypes, half-tone blocks, and prints from line blocks made by the
-swelled gelatine or other processes, can be so wonderfully like the
-original, that a page of old printing made by one or other of these
-methods will often deceive an ordinary purchaser. There are many such
-facsimiles in the market, and the best advice I can give as to them is
-that very great attention should be given to the _paper_ on which they
-are done, as this will often give the secret away. The texture and
-appearance of old paper is worthy of careful study, because nearly all
-the photo-mechanical processes need a paper which is radically different
-to the thick good rag-made papers which were used before cheap modern
-papers were thought of.
-
-Type founding in England was first carried on in the sixteenth
-century, when John Day made some Anglo-Saxon types for Archbishop
-Parker.
-
-Moxon, who wrote the “Mechanics of Printing” in 1693, issued the first
-English specimen sheet of types in 1669, and in 1776 William Caslon,
-“Letter-founder of London,” issued a specimen of his printing types.
-
-[Illustration: Page from William Caslon’s “Specimen of Printing Types.”
-(_London_, 1766.) [_To face p._ 98.]
-
-John Baskerville, who lived and worked about the same period, was also
-a very eminent typefounder, but Baskerville’s types were too thin in
-the up-strokes to be considered equal to Caslon’s. Since that time such
-sheets of types have become common.
-
-Late in the nineteenth century William Morris revived several of the
-old English block-letter types, and called them by the old names,
-“Chaucer,” “Golden,” “Troy.”
-
-
-WORKS TO CONSULT.
-
-AMERICAN ART REVIEW, I.--1880, pp. 75-80. _Boston._
-
-BERLAN, F.--La invenzione della stampa a tipo mobile fuso rivendicata
-all’Italia. _Firenze_, 1882.
-
-BLADES, W.--Who was the inventor of Printing? _London_, 1887.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--Le Livre. _Paris_, 1886.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--L’Œuvre de Gutenberg. _Paris_, 1888.
-
-BREITKOPF, J. G. L.--Versuch die einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres, &c.
-_Leipzig_, 1784-1801.
-
-BUCHER, B.--Die Faiencen von Oiron. _Wien_, 1879.
-
-DEGEORGE, L.--L’Imprimerie en Europe aux XV^e et XVI^e siécles.
-_Paris_, 1892.
-
-DELANGE, H. & C.--Recueil de ... la Faience dite de Henri II. _Paris_,
-1861.
-
-DELON, C.--Gutenberg et l’invention de l’Imprimerie. _Paris_, 1881.
-
-DUPONT, P.--Histoire de l’Imprimerie. _Paris_, 1883.
-
-ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA.--Typography and Printing. By JOHN SOUTHWARD.
-
-ENTSCHEDE, C.--L. J. Coster de uitvinder van de boekdrukkunst.
-_Haarlem_, 1904.
-
-FAULMANN, C.--Illustrirte geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst. _Wien_, 1881.
-
-FILLON, B.--Les Faïences d’Oiron. _Paris_, 1862.
-
-FOURNIER, P. S.--Manuel typographique. _Paris_, 1764-66.
-
-GOEBEL, T.--Fr. Koenig und die Erfindung der Schnellpresse. _Stutt._,
-1883.
-
-HESSELS, J. H.--Gutenberg. _London_, 1882.
-
-HESSELS, J. H.--Haarlem the birthplace of Printing. _London_, 1887.
-
-HODGKIN, J. E.--Rariora. _London_, 1902.
-
-JULIEN.--L’Imprimerie en chine au sixième siécle de notre eré. _Paris_,
-1850.
-
-JUNIUS, A.--Batavia. _Antwerp_, 1588.
-
-LINDE, A. V. D.--Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst.
-_Berlin_, 1886.
-
-MAITTAIRE, M.--Annales Typographical. _Hagae_, 1719.
-
-MALINKROT, B. A.--De ortu artis Typographical. _Col. Agripp_, 1639.
-
-MARTENS, W. J.--Gutenberg und die Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst.
-_Karlsruhe_, 1900.
-
-MIDDLETON-WAKE, C. H.--The Invention of Printing. _London_, 1897.
-
-MOUET.--Les machines et appareils Typographiques. _Paris_, 1879.
-
-MONNOYER, C.--Recherches sur les origines de l’Imprimerie avant
-Gutenberg. _Le Mans_, 1888.
-
-NOBLE.--Machine Printing. _London_, 1883.
-
-POLLARD, A. W.--Titlepages and Colophons.
-
-RENAULT, R.--Debuts de l’Imprimerie. _Quebec_, 1905.
-
-SCHAAFER, J. C.--Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and Wood.
-(German.) _Regensburg_, 1765.
-
-SINGER.--Researches into the History of Playing Cards.
-
-SMITH, G.--Assyrian Discoveries. _London_, 1875.
-
-SOLON, H. L.--History of old French Faïence. (Saint Porchaire.)
-_London_, 1903.
-
-TAINTURIER, A.--Les Faïences dites de Henri II. _Paris_, 1860.
-
-VITU, A. C.--Histoire de la Typographie. _Paris_, 1886.
-
-WOLFIUS, J. C.--Monumenta Typographica. _Hamburg_, 1740.
-
-WILSON, F. J. F.--Typographic Printing Machines. _London_, 1883.
-
-WILSON, F. J. F.--Stereotyping and Electrotyping. _London_, 1880.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-N.B.--There are a large number of works on this subject, both general
-and concerning Printing in particular countries.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V. ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-
-  Wood engraving--Line
-  engraving--Etching--Stipple--Mezzotint--Aquatint--Lithography
-  --Photography.
-
-Writing in early manuscripts was continuous, no stops, no spaces,
-no initials. The inconvenience of such an arrangement soon became
-apparent; the effect of it can be well seen in the case of the _Codex
-Alexandrinus_, written in the fifth century, although this has large
-initials, and the difficulty of knowing when a word ends is bad enough,
-to say nothing of sentences. The manuscript is at the British Museum.
-
-Presently the first letters of sentences, or perhaps of important
-words, were enlarged or rubricated--marked in red--and from that
-starting point came the gradual development of beautiful ornamental
-letters with sprays starting from them. These sprays ultimately became
-rich borderings and spread all over the page, and at last we get to
-the illuminated manuscripts of mediæval times filled with exquisite
-miniatures, borders, and arabesques of all imaginable kinds.
-
-The subject of illuminated manuscripts has been fully dealt with by
-several competent authorities, and it is not necessary here to enter
-into it, but so far as printed books are concerned it will be of
-interest to survey shortly the chief styles of illustrations with
-which they have been provided.
-
-When printed books first began there were no illustrations in them, but
-initial letters were often added in red, by hand, and other important
-printed letters were marked by a dab of red or yellow across them. The
-outline wood cuts which shortly made their appearance were frequently
-intended to serve as guides for hand colouring, and many of them are so
-treated.
-
-Wood cutting in the case of block books was well understood in the
-fifteenth century, but when similar illustrations appear, in company
-with the text, in early printed books, the art level both of the
-designer and wood cutter is singularly low. This criticism only applies
-to the pictorial illustrations, as in the matter of scroll work or
-ornamental initials the work is excellent.
-
-The great letter “B” in Fust and Schöffer’s _Mainz Psalter_, issued in
-1457, is as fine as anything of its kind that has ever been done. It is
-printed from two wood blocks which fit into each other, and which were
-inked alternately either red or blue, and then printed together with
-the text. A slow process but thoroughly effective. The initial letters
-throughout this book seem to have been touched up in places by hand,
-especially in the long scrolls which meander up and down the margins of
-the pages.
-
-The earliest known book illustration cut on wood is a beautiful outline
-sketch of the Goddess of Mercy. It is full page and illustrates a
-chapter from a Chinese version of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra, and was
-printed in 1331, nearly a hundred years before the earliest European
-print from a wood block, the St. Christopher, of 1423, which moreover
-was not a book illustration.
-
-Chinese, Japanese, and Korean wood cuts are always in outline,
-thickened here and there, but quite different in character and far
-better in drawing and execution than early European work of the same
-sort. Most of the blocks from which these prints are made are of soft
-wood, not box, and are cut with a short knife of peculiar form set in a
-handle.
-
-The drawings are made on thin paper and stuck downwards on the blocks;
-then the knife is carefully run along the edges of the various lines,
-cutting outwards, the interlinear spaces being cut away with a gouge
-and hammer. The wood cutting was often done by women. The method of
-work is probably the same as was used in Europe in the case of early
-blocks.
-
-Besides the design block, always printed in dark neutral tint or
-black, during the eighteenth and succeeding centuries, the Chinese and
-Japanese cut accessory blocks which were inked in various colours. The
-registering of the various colour blocks was managed either by pegs
-or notches, and the colours were mixed with water or rice paste. Most
-of the European colour processes of printing require oil colours, but
-water colours on the Japanese principle have been used with admirable
-effect in some of the illustrations to Henry Shaw’s books on Mediæval
-Dresses and Decorative Arts, and notably by Edmund Evans and his
-successors in more recent times.
-
-From the earliest illustration, mentioned above, until the present day,
-the style of Chinese and Japanese wood illustrations has not altered.
-There have been several engravers of great skill in both countries,
-but I think the Japanese colour prints are best known to us.
-
-The blocks are frequently signed with the names of the designers,
-particularly in later times, and many names are already well known to
-collectors.
-
-In the seventeenth century Korin was one of the best of the Japanese
-illustrators; in the eighteenth century there is admirable work signed
-by Hokusai and Hiroshige, and among the many skilled designers of the
-nineteenth century the work of Kitigawa Utamaro is perhaps the best
-known.
-
-[Illustration: Page from the “Hypnerotomachia Poliphili.” (_Venice_,
-1499.) [_To face p._ 104.]
-
-The first Italian book in which wood engravings were used is, as far
-as is now known, the “Meditations” of Turrecremata, printed at Rome
-in 1467, by Ulrich Hahn. The illustrations are of a simple character
-in outline. Then came instances in books printed at Naples, Rome,
-Verona, and especially at Venice, where Erhard Ratdolt produced several
-with beautiful initials, borders, and pictures. Numbers of the books
-published at Venice in the later part of the fifteenth century are
-illustrated with exquisite wood cuts; among them the most celebrated
-and the most beautiful is the _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, printed in
-1499.
-
-This celebrated book was written by Francesco Colonna, whose name is
-curiously shown by the initials of the chapters, which read “Poliam
-Frater Franciscus Columna peramavit,” “Brother Franciscus Columna loved
-Polia very much.” Polia has been presumably identified with Lucretia
-Lelio, who was a native of Treviso, the place of Polifilo’s dream. The
-many engravings are in outline, and several of them are full page.
-
-Italians have always excelled in wood cutting, but although there have
-been numbers of illustrated books issued in the sixteenth and later
-centuries, those of the fifteenth century still remain pre-eminent. Dr.
-Paul Kristeller has, moreover, shown that the Italian printers devices
-are well worthy of attention, and many of them are very fine both in
-design and execution.
-
-Block books, Japanese wood blocks, and all very early wood cuts, were
-cut by a knife, and such outline work, not too small, is easier to
-execute with a properly shaped knife than with anything else. But as
-soon as wood cutters began to be more skilled, and compared their work
-with line engraving, they found that a knife was not so useful as an
-engraver’s burin, and so wood _engraving_, as distinct from _cutting_,
-came into being. The cuts in the _Nuremberg Chronicle_ of 1493 show
-some sort of a transitional stage; there are hatchings and shadowings
-which would have been much more easily done with a graver than with a
-knife, but I believe, nevertheless, they are all knife work.
-
-Roughly speaking, it is easier to cut a broad outline drawing with
-a knife than with a graver, and it is easier to cut a small detail
-drawing with a graver than with a knife. At the same time we must
-remember that a skilled engraver could execute either sort of engraving
-in the wrong way, just as William Harvey cut his well known wood blocks
-of the Death of Dentatus in such a way as to show every technical
-peculiarity, except one, of an engraving on metal.
-
-Both wood blocks and metal blocks intended to illustrate printed books
-were always made of the same depth as the type, so that they could all
-be printed together, and that is done to-day in the case of process
-or half-tone blocks, which are actually wooden blocks faced with the
-soft metal bearing the design. There is always some interest in the
-question as to whether a certain print has been cut on a wood block
-or on a metal block, and if the print is in perfect condition it is
-a very difficult matter to decide. But it is rarely that some small
-defect or peculiarity does not appear by help of which a tolerably
-certain judgment can be arrived at. Early engraved blocks were often
-used again and again until they became quite old, and at last they were
-got at by insects who ate small holes in them. If therefore a print
-shows little white circular marks upon it there is no doubt that it
-was made from a wood block. Instances are by no means unknown in which
-experts have decided that a certain block had been cut on metal, and a
-later impression has turned up _with worm holes in it_! The grain of
-wood will sometimes show on an old print, or a broken edge will show a
-sharp fracture indicating wood, in contradistinction to a rounded one,
-indicating metal.
-
-The blacks on prints from an engraved metal plate always show very even
-spaces, and there are usually plenty of them, often broken, however,
-by small white dots, the presence of which denotes the style known as
-Pointille, the finest examples of which can be found among the French
-Horæ printed for Pigouchet in the fifteenth century. The metal used
-was probably a sort of pewter, lead and tin, very easy to engrave
-upon, and strong enough to bear many printings. But in many instances
-these little blocks seem to have been roughly treated and have fallen
-about, and the result is that outer lines which show perfectly straight
-in early copies, show as slightly rounded lines on late ones. This
-is taken as a decided proof that the original block was made of soft
-metal, although I am by no means certain that it is impossible for a
-straight edge on wood to warp into a curved line.
-
-Prints from old wood cuts in outlines were frequently added to early
-printed books and painted over thickly with opaque colour so as to
-produce a different design. The original outline has only been used
-as a slight guide. Instances of these curious changes can be found
-in numbers of the fine vellum books illustrated in colour which were
-printed for Antoine Vérard at Paris in the fifteenth century.
-
-In other cases, particularly in Italy and France, ornamental printed
-borders and illustrations have been very carefully painted by hand
-just as if they belonged to ordinary illuminated manuscripts. But the
-art work in all these cases is not good. The true _illuminatores_ were
-obsolescent. A few instances of attempts at colour printing either
-by means of blocks or stencil plates were made by Erhard Ratdolt at
-Venice, and a few others.
-
-There are two distinct schools of wood engraving, and they are easily
-recognised from each other whenever either of them is exclusively new,
-but the large majority of the more recent book illustrations cut on
-wood show traces of both styles.
-
-These styles are firstly that of the black line, the type of which
-may be found in Caxton’s _Myrrour of the Worlde_ printed in 1481, and
-secondly that of the white line, the best type of which may be found in
-the _History of British Birds_, illustrated with engravings by Thomas
-Bewick in 1797.
-
-[Illustration: Page from Caxton’s “Myrrour of the Worlde.” (_London_,
-1481.) [_To face p._ 108.]
-
-In judging whether an illustration in a book is printed from a block
-cut and printed in the manner of a wood block, the first thing to
-observe is whether the black lines are pressed into the paper or not.
-The amount of the depression of the black lines may be very slight, but
-it must always be looked for because although the necessary pressure
-for printing from type and block is slight, still there is always some
-of it, and before the introduction of the modern clay-laden papers,
-the paper used for printing upon was always softened by damp, and
-consequently very susceptible to pressure. If the depression of the
-black lines can be recognised, the print is made from a block of some
-sort, and printed with a slight pressure.
-
-William Blake’s curious illustrated poems are exceptions to any rule.
-He was very poor and unable to afford to have his writings properly
-published, so he wrote and drew them out himself on copper, and then
-etched away the ground very strongly so as to leave his lines in
-relief. The plates were then printed as relief blocks. As curiosities
-they are of great interest, and they preserve the individual touch
-of the artist to just about the same extent as an etching does. The
-process is exactly analogous to the manner in which names or designs
-are etched on sword blades, key rings, knife blades and the like, only
-Blake allowed the acid to work a little more strongly so as to get a
-slightly higher relief.
-
-The first English printed book that is illustrated is Caxton’s _Myrrour
-of the Worlde_, printed in 1481; the cuts are quite elementary in
-character, like all the wood cuts in English books for a long time.
-Ornamental borders are found in Caxton’s _Fifteen Oes._, printed about
-1490.
-
-Early English books were not freely illustrated, and it must be
-supposed that wood cutters were scarce. Many of the cuts used are of
-foreign origin. One early book is charmingly illustrated in colour;
-Dame Juliana Bernes’ so-called _Book of St. Albans_, printed in 1486,
-has a long series of coats-of-arms printed from wood blocks. The colour
-has been added either from other blocks separately inked or else by
-means of stencil plates.
-
-In the sixteenth century wood illustrations became more numerous, but
-many of them were still of foreign workmanship.
-
-Borders and designs by Holbein were used by Pynson, and these had a
-renaissance feeling which was quite foreign to the existing style. The
-mixed style which consequently made its appearance is very curious.
-It shows well in the semi-classical device of Lucretia used by Thomas
-Berthelet, royal printer to Henry VIII. Towards the end of the century
-there were several large volumes of chronicles published in England,
-Halle, Grafton and Holinshed, and these and similar volumes are all
-well illustrated with wood cuts. Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs,” published in
-1563 by John Day, is also an example of a well illustrated and popular
-book, the cuts in which were all probably made here.
-
-[Illustration: “The Peacock.” Wood engraving by Thos. Bewick, from the
-“History of British Birds.” (_Newcastle_, 1797-1804.) [_To face p._
-110.]
-
-Wood engravings in England gave way gradually in the seventeenth and
-the earlier half of the eighteenth centuries before the advancing tide
-of line engraving, but in the latter half of the eighteenth century
-Thomas Bewick came to give it a new impetus. Bewick’s style was quite
-original, and although his particular “white line” style, good as it
-was, does not ever seem to have retained any hold upon the mass of
-engravers, yet somehow or other we find that the revival of wood
-cutting, both here and abroad, is generally put down to his influence.
-
-Bewick worked on an entirely different principle to that of any of his
-predecessors. He gave up imitating the black line of the metal engraver
-and used the white line to gain his effects. No doubt this is the true
-theory of wood engraving. Bewick took several apprentices, many of whom
-afterwards became famous, but, curiously enough, none of them kept long
-to their master’s style. In modern days Timothy Cole has revived the
-use of the white line; his work is most excellent and learned in every
-way. I have never found a wrong line in it, and if Bewick had not shown
-the way, and therefore put Mr. Cole in the position of a follower, the
-latter would have ranked as the greatest master who has ever worked on
-wood on the white line principle.
-
-William Harvey was one of Bewick’s apprentices; he did an immense
-quantity of work, which is always excellent. He soon gave up Bewick’s
-“white line,” and most of his wood engravings are like line engravings
-on copper. The engraving of the Death of Dentatus, after B. R. Haydon,
-is Harvey’s most celebrated piece of work. It shows every appearance
-and characteristic of a line engraving, but the black marks are in
-intaglio. It is a _tour de force_, and cannot but be considered as a
-waste of energy. It was engraved upon several blocks clamped together
-by an iron band, and prints of it can now and then be picked up at
-printsellers for two or three shillings, as it is seldom recognised as
-a wood engraving.
-
-Luke Clennell also worked with and helped Bewick, and much of his early
-work is like that of his master. But, like Harvey, Clennell soon
-evolved a style of his own. He cut some of the beautiful little cuts,
-after Stothard, in Rogers’ “Pleasures of Memory.” No doubt the Bewick
-training had much influence for good over Clennell’s manner.
-
-Charlton Nesbit followed Bewick closely for a time, and then, like his
-fellow apprentices, he worked out his own style. His work is very good
-and true, and he was particularly successful in his illustrations to
-Northcote’s _Fables_ and _Rinaldo and Armida_.
-
-John Thompson was quite one of our greatest wood engravers. He worked
-well into the nineteenth century, and did an immense quantity of
-work. He engraved a celebrated set of illustrations to the _Vicar of
-Wakefield_, after Mulready, and was also very successful with those to
-Tasso’s _La Gerusalemme Liberata_ in 1826. His work is quite different
-from that of Bewick.
-
-The nineteenth century in England was rich in numbers of excellent wood
-engravers, and a list of their names alone would be a long one. A proof
-of the high estimation in which the work of many of these artists was
-held is to be found in the fact that their services as engravers were
-freely sought by continental publishers of finely illustrated books.
-
-J. B. Jackson, who introduced tone colour-printing, actually worked
-with J. M. Papillon in France in the eighteenth century. Then there
-were the Landells, Gray, Whimper, Wright, Folkard, and Green, and,
-quite late in the century, J. W. Whymper, Horace Harral, James Cooper,
-W. J. Linton, the Dalziels, and Swain. These two last have signed an
-immense quantity of excellent work, but they were large firms, and
-the greater part of their work was done by their workmen. Many of the
-artists of this time did most excellent work as designers for wood
-engravings, especially Sir John Millais, D. G. Rossetti, Fred. Walker,
-Fred. Sandys, Lord Leighton, Birket Foster, Sir E. Burne-Jones, G. du
-Maurier, and Cecil Lawson.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Knife for engraving on soft wood.]
-
-J. M. Papillon, who worked during the earlier half of the eighteenth
-century, belonged to a French family of wood engravers, and wrote a
-treatise about wood-cutting with the knife, which is of great interest.
-His work is small and excellent. Papillon makes mention of a foreigner
-who worked with him and used the _end_ of the wood to work upon, and
-that he used a graver. This foreigner is supposed to have been the
-English artist J. B. Jackson, who was eminent here not only as an
-engraver, but also as the pioneer in the matter of colour-printing from
-wood blocks.
-
-No doubt up to about the beginning of the eighteenth century wood
-cuts had been made on planed pieces of pear or other soft wood cut
-lengthways. The grain upon such a piece of wood necessitating the use
-of a knife to cut it, the knife may be a single blade or a double blade
-of the kind known as a “scrive,” but it cannot be cut with a solid
-graver.
-
-It is possible enough that to Jackson we owe the idea of making
-engravings on the cross-cut of a piece of wood, and if so he is
-entitled to great honour, as all wood work since his time has been done
-in that way. The graver had long been used on metal, but until the
-device of cutting blocks across the grain of a hard wood was thought
-of it could not be used on wood. Hard wood was now wanted with as
-little grain as possible, and box is the ideal.
-
-In the nineteenth century much excellent wood engraving was done in
-France. Indeed, after a period of practical non-existence the art once
-more became one of great importance, and a school of wood engraving
-grew up that was not only very large, but the work done was of very
-high quality.
-
-Bewick’s style is not there, although it seems likely that the revival
-was really due to his influence; the old black line, resembling the
-engraved metal line, holds undisputed sway. Moreover, the French
-nineteenth century revival owes much directly to the work and influence
-of another great English wood engraver, J. Thompson, and with him
-worked an equally great French engraver, H. L. Brevière. These two men
-were highly gifted, and their work is always of a high order, and they
-met with much powerful support from contemporary engravers, followers
-of their own, the excellence of whose work in many instances ran their
-own very close.
-
-Among the many engravers of this time whose work is always pleasant
-to meet with and admire we may particularly note Thiébault, S. Soyer,
-Sears, Porret, Roux, La Coste and both his sons, Rouget, and Nivet.
-
-The work of many of our contemporary English engravers was also much
-liked in France, and they often helped to illustrate fine French books.
-Among the more notable of these engravers we find the names of Orrin
-Smith, Thomas, Samuel, and Mary Ann Williams, and A. Best.
-
-It must be noted that the work of the artists whose work was
-interpreted by this school of highly-skilled engravers was admirably
-fitted for small book vignettes, especially the military designs so
-profusely issued by Meissonier, Horace Vernet, and Raffet, and, for
-larger work, the charming figures of Gavarni.
-
-Augsburg in the fifteenth century was a great centre of wood engraving.
-A Bible with small woodcuts was issued there about 1470 by Jodoc
-Pflanzmann. These cuts were meant to be coloured by hand. Several other
-books illustrated with woodcuts were issued by Gunther Zainer and Johan
-Bamler.
-
-Then notable illustrated books were published at Ulm and Lubeck,
-and from Nuremberg we have the great “Nuremberg Chronicle,” full of
-woodcuts, the best of which are cut by Wilhelm Pleydenwurff and Michael
-Wohlgemuth. The work in this book gets away from the mere outline, and
-we find much clever hatching and shading, but there is much coarseness.
-From Basle came Seb. Brant’s celebrated “Narrenschiff,” one of the
-most popular books ever written, and illustrated with most amusing
-cuts of the various follies of the various sorts of fools described.
-Albrecht Dürer did a few illustrations for books towards the end of the
-fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries.
-
-Several more illustrated wood books were issued from Nuremberg, Basle
-and Zurich, and some of the printers’ devices were designed by Holbein.
-
-During the seventeenth century a lull occurred in the production of
-German books illustrated with woodcuts; but the art has always been
-popular in Germany, and it never quite died out.
-
-The very decorative “Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian,” with large
-woodcuts, designed by Hans Burgkmeier of Augsburg in the early
-sixteenth century, was published in 1796. German wood engraving for
-books revived in the nineteenth century, and became of high excellence.
-German wood engravings have had a certain strength and vigour all their
-own from the time of the “Nuremberg Chronicle” until modern times.
-
-Artists, moreover, have not been wanting; the quite delightful
-vignettes of A. Schrödter, L. Richter, G. Osterwald, R. Jordan and
-others, have received adequate and sympathetic treatment at the hands
-of engravers who are second to none. Nuzelmann, E. Kretschmar, A.
-Vogel, Beneworth, Joch, and the Leipzig firms of Allanson and Sears,
-Nicholls and Bosse, and Peupin, some of whom were foreigners.
-
-Line engraving on a small scale plays an important part in book
-illustration. It is the simplest, and yet requires the most technical
-skill of all the methods of marking metal surfaces for the purpose
-of making prints. The engraver cuts out a thread of metal, producing
-a little track on the surface, and to do this properly requires the
-utmost skill.
-
-It has been held for a long time that prints from engraved metal plates
-owe their existence to the proofs in sulphur which were taken from time
-to time from engravings intended to be filled with niello.
-
-In the museum at Berlin there is a print on paper from an engraved
-metal plate, representing the Flagellation of Christ. It is German
-work and dated 1446. The lettering shows rightly on the print, so the
-engraving was made with the intent that prints should be made from it.
-
-There is in the Bargello Museum at Florence a beautiful Pax with a
-nielloed plate attributed to Maso Finiguerra, the date of which is
-put at 1452. From this plate, before it was nielloed, prints on paper
-were taken, and one of them is at Paris. But the letterings on this
-engraving read rightly on the metal, so it was not engraved with the
-intent that prints should be made from it; indeed, they, as well as the
-impressions in sulphur, were only made to help in the working.
-
-So that it is only safe to say that the possibility of making prints
-on paper from engraved metal plates was known about the middle of the
-fifteenth century both in Germany and in Italy.
-
-To make a print from an engraved plate requires great pressure, as the
-paper has to be forced down into every mark, and the resulting mark on
-the paper is consequently always in relief.
-
-The principle of a print made from an engraved wood block is that the
-projecting parts are covered with a thin film of ink, and when the
-paper is lightly pressed down upon these lines it picks up the ink from
-the surface wherever it touches it. In the case of an engraved metal
-plate, the lines on which are cut in the same way and with a similar
-graver to that used for white line engraving on wood, the inking and
-printing is quite different. Now it is the incised lines which print
-black, and in order to ensure this the whole plate is well rubbed
-over with ink so as to fill up all the incised lines, and then the
-unengraved polished surface is carefully wiped clean so as to leave
-the ink sticking in all the dots, lines and curves. Now damped paper
-is very strongly pressed upon the inked plate, so as to be squeezed
-right down into every dot, line and curve. The paper consequently is
-in relief wherever it has been pressed into a depression, and as there
-was ink there waiting for it, it will be found to have picked up and
-absorbed all the ink, so that the print shows black lines in low relief.
-
-It will be easily realised that a print from an engraved metal plate
-cannot be printed with ordinary type at the same operation a wood-block
-can, so that whenever a book occurs in which such engravings show on
-the same page with type, there must have been two printings, one strong
-for the engraving and one light for the type.
-
-We find, therefore, that in several instances where engraved
-illustrations have been used for a book which is for the most part
-printed from type, that the small piece of text which comes on the same
-page as the engraving, is also engraved. Not only this, but from time
-to time entire books have been engraved, illustrations as well as text.
-The finest English example of such work is to be found in the beautiful
-edition of the works of Horace, plentifully illustrated and engraved
-throughout on copper by John Pine. It was published in 1733-7.
-
-John Sturt, who engraved numbers of book frontispieces, also produced a
-Book of Common Prayer, engraved throughout on silver, in 1717. He also
-engraved many of John Ayres’ calligraphic works. Abroad, especially in
-France and Germany, small books have been engraved, in the seventeenth
-and eighteenth centuries, by P. Moreau, F. Mazot, Druet, and others,
-but none of them are as important as the English. Music books are
-engraved, and so are numbers of calligraphic books of small interest.
-
-The first line engravings illustrating any book appear in Bettini’s
-“Monte Santo di Deo,” printed in 1477. They are said to be after
-designs by Botticelli. Some of the prints are full page and others are
-printed on the same paper as the text. They are not very good. The same
-kind of illustration appears in Dante’s “Divina Commedia,” printed in
-1481. Some of these prints are, however, pasted in, but a few are on
-the same paper as the text.
-
-The great excellence of Italian book illustrators on wood seems to
-have eclipsed all other kinds. Italian line engravers have excelled in
-large plates, but in books there is little of this kind of work that
-is at all good. Examples of small work of the kind were done in the
-eighteenth century by Grandi, Schedl, Pomarade, I. Frey, and C. Gregori.
-
-In English books line engravings do not appear until 1521, when an
-edition of Galen published at Cambridge possesses an engraved border.
-
-Raynald’s “Byrthe of Mankind,” published in 1540, has engraved plates.
-From this time engravings appear at intervals until towards the end of
-the sixteenth century, when frontispieces and portraits, always printed
-on separate paper and inserted as extra leaves, became common.
-
-In the seventeenth century the same style prevailed, engraved portraits
-and frontispieces, but gradually small pictures came into use. The
-plates are often signed, and we find the name of Renold Elstrack, who
-worked also in the preceding century, Marshall, Hole, Cecil, Grover,
-and others of less merit.
-
-In the eighteenth century native engravers seem to have given way to
-foreigners, and the same thing happened during the early nineteenth
-century. We find many beautiful engravings in English books signed
-by Du Bosc, Grignion, Scotin, De Launay, and others. Later, in the
-nineteenth century, our English line engravers rallied, and we owe much
-beautiful work to them. Many of their names are widely known, and their
-work will be more highly appreciated as time goes on, especially as
-this small line engraving is practically a lost art.
-
-_The Keepsake_, published by Charles Heath, 1827-57, started the
-fashion in England of small books illustrated with delicate engravings
-on steel, but it must be noted that although there is engraved work in
-them, the greater part of the work is really etched. Exquisite work
-in this style was done by W. Finden, D. Allen, C. Rolls, T. C. Lewis,
-J. H. Robinson, E. Goodall, H. and R. Wallis, W. R. and D. Smith, W.
-Humphreys, John Pye, T. S. and F. C. Engleheart, F. and J. Goodyear,
-and these engravers were supplied with beautiful subjects by several
-of the eminent contemporary artists, J. M. W. Turner, Stothard, Samuel
-Prout, and numbers more.
-
-Among the best examples of finely illustrated books of this period the
-two volumes of Rogers’ _Italy_ and _Poems_ may safely be noted. They
-were published in London in 1830, and the very best results were aimed
-at in their production. They are uniform, and usually bound in red
-watered silk.
-
-Large numbers of small books illustrated profusely with line engravings
-were published about the middle of the nineteenth century. They often
-have engraved title-pages, with little pictures in them, the full page
-illustration being inserted throughout. The names of both artist and
-engraver are usually added at the lower edge of the print.
-
-There are _Oriental Annuals_, _Landscape Annuals_, _New Year’s Gifts_,
-_Friendship’s Offerings_, _Comic Offerings_, _Juvenile Forget-me-nots_,
-and a host of similar periodicals, and good work is to be found in all
-of them. They were either bound in thin panel stamped leather or else
-in watered silk, and in either case the binding is of interest, and
-wherever it exists it should be carefully preserved. A quaint little
-woodcut often appears in these books, printed with the text.
-
-Besides the engravers whose names I have already mentioned, there are
-many others whose work appears more particularly in small periodical
-publications; among these may be noted J. C. Armytage, Geo. Corbould,
-Charles and J. Heath, James Mitan, John Sharpe, R. J. Baker, W.
-Greatbach, J. C. Edwards, W. Fry, W. Chevalier, S. Davenport, H.
-Robins, C. Warren, T. J. Williams, J. Cousins, W. Miller, S. Sangster,
-R. Rhodes, F. Bacon, R. J. and E. Portbury, T. Willmore, R. Brandard,
-J. H. Kernot, W. D. Taylor, and G. Hollis.
-
-After about 1850 small line engravings in books began to disappear,
-and now they are rarely if ever done. In fact, line engraving has
-been killed by mezzotint and photography, and now takes refuge in its
-original goldsmiths’ use, or in book plates.
-
-Line engraving in France did not appeal to popular taste until a
-comparatively late period. The block engravings in the “Horae” of the
-fifteenth century, although they were line engravings, were cut in
-the manner of wood blocks, and the method of printing from them was
-different to that used in the case of ordinary metal engravings. In
-the seventeenth century there were several beautiful books illustrated
-by line engravings by Sebastian Leclerc, L. Gaultier, J. Sauné, F.
-Chauveau, Le Mire and H. J. Duclos.
-
-In the eighteenth century in France the graceful designs of Ch. Eisen
-and J. H. Fragonard found many worthy interpreters. La Fontaine’s
-fables and stories provided a suitable literature for these
-illustrations, and among them may perhaps be found the high water mark
-of small line engraving. Indeed, the work is all so good that any
-choice becomes almost invidious; but quite beautiful work was done by
-J. B. Patas, Choffard, N. Le Mire, De Longueil, L. Bosse, Delvaux,
-Johannot, Leroux, Lefebre, Ficquet, Mottet, Prevost, J. B. Tillard,
-J. L. Delignon, C. L. Lingée, Dupréel; and then come L. Halbon, J.
-Aliamet, J. Dambrun, J. B. Simonnet, P. Trière, C. S. Gaucher, and many
-more, some of whom worked also in the next century.
-
-In the nineteenth century the French level of small engraved
-illustrations remained exceptionally high, especially in the earlier
-half, but many of the plates have much etching mixed up with line work;
-this may very likely mean that the work was done on steel, which will
-admit of the production of large editions; but steel is very difficult
-to engrave, although it is quite easy to etch. Among the line engravers
-who used accessory etching I have noted Pauquet, Aze, P. Choffard, and
-De Villiers.
-
-The engravers whose work may be safely considered of high quality are
-R. De Launay, Bertonnier, Villerey, P. Savart, H. Dupont, Girardet, J.
-P. Marillien, L. Petit, J. F. Ribault, Chifflart, and V. Foulquier.
-Towards the end of the century photography came and gradually crowded
-out the small line engravers.
-
-An etching is a drawing done with a needle point upon a sheet of metal
-protected by a thin impervious coat of soft varnish. The lines made
-by the etching needle pierce the varnish or “ground,” and reach down
-to the metal, usually copper, exposing it in those places. When the
-drawing is complete the plate is put into a bath of strong water,
-usually dilute nitric acid, and wherever the surface is not protected
-by the ground the acid will eat away the metal.
-
-When now the ground is cleaned off with the help of turpentine, the
-original design will be seen transferred to the surface of the copper
-in the form of dull lines, shallow if the acid has only been allowed to
-act for a short time, but broad, deep and irregular if the “biting” has
-been long. So that an etching always has a little more “effect” than
-was put into the original work.
-
-It is not necessary here to enter into the mysteries of “stopping out,”
-and several other variations of procedure, but it is sufficient to say
-that variations of tone and texture _can_ be obtained; but, in fact, so
-far as book illustrations go, the etchings I know of are always simple,
-and the best of them are those by George Cruickshank.
-
-The printing of etchings is analogous to that of line engravings, and a
-similar ink is used. A strong press is required, the paper is damped,
-and the impression is in slight relief. Line engravings are always
-printed in the same way as a visiting card, the untouched parts are
-clean, and print white, but in the case of etchings more ink is usually
-left, so that the untouched surfaces often show grey, none of the ink
-having been allowed to remain upon the plate. The French call this
-“retroussage,” and printers can produce strange effects by its use. A
-bad etching can be made to look like a good one; a good etching can be
-made to look weak and wretched. In fact, a clever artist printer can
-produce a capital picture from a plate which has nothing at all on it
-but the ink.
-
-Etchings first appeared in English books about the end of the
-seventeenth century, but they are seldom signed, neither are they good.
-There is an etched frontispiece to Latroo’s “English Roque,” 1665, and
-another to “Æsop’s Fables,” published in the same year.
-
-Wenceslaus Hollar, a Bohemian who worked in London, illustrated a few
-English books with etchings in the seventeenth century. Soft ground
-etchings printed in red and black appear in Pennant’s “Account of
-London,” printed in 1795. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth
-centuries William Blake made a few etchings for book illustrations.
-In the nineteenth century came Alken’s etchings of animals, usually
-coloured, Samuel Hewitt, Doyle, and especially the excellent work of
-George Cruickshank, which was very much admired by John Ruskin.
-
-[Illustration: Title-page of Grimm’s “German Popular Stories.”
-(_London_, 1824.) Illustrated with etchings by George Cruickshank. [_To
-face p._ 124.]
-
-Combined with line engraving a number of small illustrations were
-published in the nineteenth century. They were etched on steel, and
-carefully finished with small line work, with ruled skies. They are
-generally classed as engravings, but should, I think, rather be called
-etchings.
-
-Etching has not played a very important part in French books any
-more than it has in English. There are the amusing sketches of Callot,
-good work by Abraham Bosse and Sebastian Leclerc, and in quite recent
-times the beautiful etchings by Jules Jacquemart of works of art, in
-their way unsurpassed, and marvels of technical skill. I have already
-mentioned a few French etchers who combined that work with small line
-engraving, probably on steel; of these probably Choffard is best known
-and most highly appreciated.
-
-Engraving by dots has been for a long time practised, as by its means
-a graduated tone can be more easily obtained than it can by the use of
-line alone, and stipple is the same idea carried out by the etching
-needle instead of the graver.
-
-Stipple is done by means of small bunches of needles, with which
-irregular dots are made in the etching ground and then bitten by acid,
-as usual. In most cases a few small finishing dots are put on the
-copper by hand afterwards. Stipple is excellent for faces, and is best
-known in the work of Bartolozzi, who excelled in it. It is said to have
-been invented by Jacob Bylaert, a Dutchman, in 1760.
-
-In England stipple engraving was largely used in the early nineteenth
-century for book illustrations. It is found chiefly in faces, and is
-generally supported by line engraving or etching. The best stipple
-engravers did not illustrate books, but the work of W. Finden, C.
-Knight, J. Parker, C. Marr, and W. Holl is always good, though, of
-course, very small. Besides these there were numbers of lesser stipple
-engravers, whose work is fair--Jenkinson, Dean, H. Cook, C. Wagstaffe,
-H. Robinson, and many more.
-
-The same sort of usefulness was found for stipple abroad, for
-faces particularly, and it was successfully practised by Pfeiffer,
-Vangelisty, and others, but it never took the same hold upon the
-Continent that it did here, either in the case of small book
-illustrations or in the more important matter of large stipple
-engravings.
-
-Mezzotints are not satisfactory if they are on a small scale. Delicate
-and minute work cannot be done well by the mezzotint process alone, but
-require supplementary line or etched work. So we find that mezzotints
-have not been much used for book illustration.
-
-The process of mezzotinting was invented by Ludwig von Siegen, an
-officer in the Hessian Army, about 1642, and at first it was practised
-chiefly by foreigners, but it soon became the favourite method of
-engraving upon metal in England; indeed, the competition of the
-mezzotint eventually ruined the slower and more costly process of line
-engraving.
-
-Some books concerning mezzotints have explanatory plates in them,
-beginning with Le Blon’s “Coloritto,” written about 1721, but these can
-hardly be considered as fair instances of ordinary book illustrations.
-
-A copper plate is prepared for mezzotint engraving by being uniformly
-roughened all over, so that if it were inked and a print made from it,
-the print would show a uniform velvety black. The art of the “scraper”
-consists in so skilfully cutting away or burnishing down the roughened
-surface of the copper that when a print is made a picture appears. The
-scraper works from black to white whenever the surface is scraped or
-burnished away, so in exact correspondence the print will show grey
-or white. It is quick work, and easy work up to a point, but to make
-a first-rate mezzotint is a great art, and only a few engravers have
-succeeded in doing it.
-
-Among the first students of the art was Prince Rupert, who was an
-excellent artist and an accomplished workman all round. He engraved a
-large plate after Spagnoletto, called “The Great Executioner,” and when
-John Evelyn wrote a little book called “Sculptura,” which was published
-in 1662, and included in it a short description of the new art, the
-Prince mezzotinted a plate for him, showing only the head of the great
-executioner. This head, the first mezzotint done for a book, is a finer
-piece of work than the head in the larger plate.
-
-There were several anatomical plates, mostly printed in coloured
-inks, which were mezzotinted about the same time, but they are not
-important; then Faber’s portraits of founders of the Colleges of
-Oxford and Cambridge were used as illustrations to Rolt’s “Lives of
-the Reformers,” published in 1759. These plates bear Houston’s name as
-mezzotinter, but this is only one of a number of such re-letterings
-which occur in the history of mezzotints.
-
-Robert Dunkarton engraved several book illustrations, mostly
-portraits, and he also helped in the mezzotinting of some of the
-plates in Turner’s “Liber Studiorum.” He was a portrait painter, and
-his mezzotints are better than Faber’s. John Young was an eminent
-mezzotinter, and in 1815 he issued a large book of portraits of the
-Emperors of Turkey printed in colours. They are not particularly good,
-but are interesting as being the first set of mezzotints to be issued
-in colour as book illustrations. The book is rare and, if the colour is
-strong, of considerable value.
-
-Turner’s “Liber Studiorum” was issued between 1807 and 1819, and many
-mezzotinters helped in the work--F. C. Lewis, Charles Turner, W. Say,
-R. Dunkarton, G. Clint, J. C. Eastling, T. Hodgetts, W. Annis, H. Dawe,
-T. Lipton, and S. W. Reynolds. The plates were not pure mezzotint, but
-were strongly etched as well with some aquatinting; the first etching
-was done by J. M. W. Turner, and some of the mezzotinting. I think he
-probably worked finally upon all the plates in various ways with burin,
-scraper and roulette.
-
-Several books of landscapes are illustrated with mezzotints, done on
-copper or steel, by T. G. Lupton, many of them after Turner, and John
-Constable’s landscapes have been admirably mezzotinted by David Lucas;
-perhaps the best known is “English Landscape Scenery,” published in
-1855.
-
-In all mezzotints, large or small, it should be noted that the
-_condition_ of the print is important. The blacks should be deep and
-velvety; if they show greyish or spotted, the print is from an old
-plate. Mezzotints on steel last better than if they are on copper. I
-know of no foreign books illustrated with mezzotints.
-
-There are several ways of making aquatints, but the best is the oldest.
-It was invented by a Frenchman, J. B. Le Prince, towards the end of the
-eighteenth century, and although of foreign origin, the art has been
-most extensively and successfully practised in England.
-
-Le Prince allowed powdered resin to settle evenly on a copper plate,
-fixed the minute grains by heat, and then treated the plate with acid
-as if it were an etching. When the plate was cleaned the acid is found
-to have bitten a little line round each grain of resin, so that an
-aquatint made by this method consists of a series of small rings more
-or less thick. The different thicknesses are produced by stopping out
-some portions and re-biting others. The general effect of aquatint is
-delicate and pleasing, and it can be strengthened where necessary with
-a little etching. Aquatint helps its followers considerably, and a
-good aquatint made from a drawing or painting will often have luminous
-effects that are wanting in the original.
-
-There is one other method of aquatinting that must be mentioned, but
-there are more which are too numerous and too unimportant to require
-explanation here. It is a modern invention, and consists of coating the
-plate with resin dissolved in alcohol; when this dries it breaks up
-into little pieces, and the acid can penetrate between these pieces as
-in Le Prince’s method. But the resulting prints do not show Le Prince’s
-little circles, but small irregular polygons.
-
-Le Prince sold his secret to Charles Greville, and he passed it on to
-Paul Sandby, who not only became an eminent aquatinter but published
-a book in 1775 called _Twelve Views in Aquatinta_. This drew much
-attention to the beautiful new art, and it rapidly became very popular
-in England. English aquatinters, like English wood and stipple
-engravers, always liked colour, whether added by hand or printed in
-ink, and so we find that the large majority of English aquatinters
-enjoy the added beauty of colour.
-
-The publishers Ackermann and Boydell both deserve much honour for their
-consistent patronage of aquatints, and no doubt our splendid record in
-that art is largely due to their enterprise.
-
-Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century we already find
-several fine books with hand-coloured aquatint illustrations published
-in England, among these are W. Hodge’s _Select Views in India_, 1786;
-T. Hassell’s _Picturesque Guide to Bath_, 1793; Combes’ _History of the
-River Thames_, with aquatints by J. C. Stadler; E. Orme’s _Twelve Views
-of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore_, with aquatints by J. W. Edy; and
-H. Repton’s amusing _Sketches of Landscape Gardening_, with moveable
-plates to show how good his suggested improvements were, all published
-in 1794, and from this time for the next thirty years were numbers of
-books issued with coloured aquatints concerning domestic architecture.
-
-Early in the nineteenth century there are still numbers of books
-with aquatint views in them: J. Webber’s _Views in the South Seas_,
-published in 1808, and Boydell’s _Picturesque Scenery of Norway_, with
-aquatints by J. W. Edy, in 1820, and several more.
-
-Then Rowlandson, the caricaturist, aquatinted the illustrations for
-Goldsmith’s _Vicar of Wakefield_ in 1817, and the inimitable _Tour
-of Dr. Syntax_, by Combe, in 1820, thereby setting the fashion for
-caricature in aquatint, which had a considerable vogue.
-
-In Pyne’s _History of the Royal Residences_, the out-door views
-are printed in coloured inks, blue for the skies and brown for the
-foregrounds. They have additional hand-colouring. It is an important
-book, and was published in 1819; the aquatints are engraved by T.
-Sutherland, W. F. Bennett, R. Reeve, and others.
-
-Then came a series of fine books on Indian scenery, mostly engraved by
-T. Medland, Hassell and Ellis, and many books of English views, mostly
-engraved by D. Havell, T. Sutherland, T. H. Fielding, J. Baily, or T.
-Cartwright.
-
-Of less importance, but now becoming more esteemed, are the numbers of
-graceful costume and fashion plates which were done in aquatint and
-coloured by hand from about 1790 to 1840. These books are already much
-sought after, and will probably be more and more so in time; the plates
-are generally anonymous.
-
-William Daniell illustrated Ayrton’s _Voyage Round Great Britain_ with
-beautiful coloured aquatints; it was published in 1825.
-
-There are many cases in which several kinds of work appear on the same
-plate; there may be aquatint and etching, mezzotint with etching,
-engraving or aquatint, so it is very important to be able to judge from
-the aspect of a line or dot or a point by which method it has been
-produced.
-
-The magnificent account of the _Coronation of George IV._, published
-in 1825, under the care of Sir George Nayler, Garter King of Arms, is
-illustrated with mixed engravings, stipple, etching, line, aquatint and
-mezzotint, by S. W. Reynolds and other engravers, chiefly after designs
-by F. and J. Stephanoff. The plates are coloured by hand, and several
-of the special copies have much extra artistic work added. It is said
-to be the most expensive book ever published, and it never repaid its
-cost, but received a grant in aid from the Government of the day. The
-majority of the figures are careful portraits, and it is the highest
-authority for the State costume of the time.
-
-Lithography is the art of drawing upon stone in such a way that prints
-can be made from the drawing. The drawing has to be done upon a
-particular sort of stone either directly or by means of transfer from
-lithographic paper, and it can be done either with a point of solid
-lithographic ink resembling black chalk, or by a liquid ink, in which
-case the drawing is called a lithotint. J. M. Whistler was remarkably
-successful in this latter manner, but it had been used long before by
-Hullmandel and Cattermole.
-
-The discovery of lithography was due to the experiments of Aloys
-Senefelder, a native of Prague, who was born late in the eighteenth
-century. He accidentally found that some writing he had put on one of
-the stones he used for sharpening his tools upon came off easily on to
-paper or linen. Then he tried what effect acid would have, and found
-that it would eat away the stone wherever the ink did not prevent it,
-so he got a block in low relief. The protective ink is made essentially
-of wax, tallow, soap, shellac, and lamp black, and the acid renders
-this insoluble, so that when acid is applied to the stone the parts
-drawn upon remain unaffected. The drawing ink is now removed, and when
-printing ink is applied by means of a roller, it sticks only where the
-drawn lines are, and from this inked stone a print can be obtained.
-
-The surface of a lithograph is quite smooth, and the process will not
-help an artist in the least--as the drawing is so will the lithograph
-from it be; the only difference is in the power of reproduction.
-
-Senefelder was unfortunate; he introduced an art to the world which
-has been very largely followed, but his own efforts were failures from
-a business point of view. He came to London early in the nineteenth
-century, and his methods soon found votaries, but he shortly returned
-to Munich, where his brother had assisted him in setting up a
-lithographic establishment, and this practically failing, it was taken
-over by the Bavarian Government and put under the management of H. J.
-Mitterer, a professor of drawing.
-
-But it was in France that lithography made most rapid progress. The
-clever French draughtsmen that happened to exist about that time very
-quickly mastered the process, and between them they established a
-school of lithography that is unequalled. Many of the greatest French
-artists worked in it, and some of them specialised in it.
-
-Lasteyrie introduced it, and it was quickly taken up by Horace Vernet,
-Pierre Guerin, Charlet, and many others for small book illustrations,
-and about 1830 there are large numbers of caricatures done in this
-quick and easy way. Then Gericault, Henri Monnier, Eugène Delacroix,
-and J. B. Isabey swelled the list of French lithographers, most of
-the book illustrations being of small size; and a little later there
-is notable work done by Honoré Daumier, Achille Deveria, Raffet, Jean
-Gigoux and Gavarni, several of them specialising in military subjects.
-Towards the end of the century we find a new set of artists, many of
-whom use colour as well as monotint, Fantin-Latour, Chéret, O. Redon,
-Gandara and Willett.
-
-The social side of French life is perhaps the most illustrated in
-lithography.
-
-In England lithography received its first impetus from Senefelder
-himself, who came and worked in London, where in 1819 his _Complete
-Course of Lithography_ was published.
-
-C. J. Hullmandel and J. D. Harding were friends and co-workers in the
-new art, and they were both adepts at it; Hullmandel drew several of
-the beautiful plates of birds for John Gould, and they were afterwards
-coloured by hand. From the beginning colour has been much liked by
-English lithographers, either added by hand or produced by means of
-“chromo-lithography,” that is, several plates inked in different
-colours and then printed over each other on one piece of paper.
-
-Roberts’ _Holy Land_ is magnificently illustrated with lithographic
-plates by Louis Haghe, a left-handed Belgian, who worked here, and
-these plates were afterwards coloured by hand. Clarkson Stanfield and
-Cattermole both worked in lithography, and Nash’s _Mansions of England
-in the Olden Time_, 1839-49, are familiar to most of us. Nash coloured
-several copies by hand.
-
-Owen Jones’ _Plans of the Alhambra_, published 1842-5, are excellent
-chromo-lithographs. In quite modern times the old tradition is worthily
-upheld by William Griggs, whose colour plates of _Illuminated MSS. in
-the British Museum_ are in every way excellent--indeed, for truth and
-fidelity to their originals they have never been equalled.
-
-Munich was a sort of headquarters of lithography in the early part of
-the nineteenth century, when H. J. Mitterer succeeded to Senefelder’s
-establishment there. Among the first lithographers in Germany were J.
-M. Mittenleiter, who also invented the art of engraving on stone, and
-Joseph Hauber.
-
-Most of the German lithographers contented themselves with making
-copies of existing pictures, and one of the finest examples of this
-kind of lithography is to be found in the _Gemälde Galerie des K.
-Museums in Berlin_, published in 1842, and containing excellent work by
-Fr. Jentzen, C. Fischer, and others.
-
-Adolf Menzel did some notable lithographic work about the middle of the
-century, and Mouilleron, Eybl, and Ritter were all excellent workmen.
-
-Belgian lithographers have nearly always been very good; besides Haghe,
-who worked in England, there were, with others, Tuerlinckoe, Van der
-Meulen, and Van Loo.
-
-Although there have been lithographic workshops set up at Rome,
-Florence, Turin, Milan, and other towns, the art has never flourished
-much in Italy: it never appealed to the sensitive artistic Italian
-nature. Such examples as do exist are mostly portraits.
-
-Lithography has been popular in Spain, and Spanish artists have done
-excellent work in this manner.
-
-In 1824 J. de Madrazo published the most important Spanish work
-illustrated with photographs; it is called _Collection lithographica
-de cuadros del Rey ... Fernando VII., lithographiada por habiles
-artistas_, among whom are named J. Jollivet, P. Blanchard and A.
-Guerrero. The work of all of these is excellent. Lithographic work
-in Spain, so far as books are concerned, has been mostly of an
-archæological character--views of old buildings or old pictures
-particularly. F. Goya, however, worked largely in this manner.
-
-All these methods of illustrating books worked by hand have now been
-superseded by one or other of the wonderful processes made possible
-by the invention of photography. Some of these are expensive, but
-generally they are cheap.
-
-The most elaborate, and when well done the most wonderful, of these
-processes is that known as heliogravure. By means of this method
-reproductions of line engravings can be made so perfectly that
-detection is almost impossible. A metal plate is so treated by help of
-a photographic negative that the lines of the engraving are deposited
-in an insoluble form upon the plate, which is otherwise clean, then a
-thin film of metal is deposited on all the clean places by means of
-electrotyping, so that when the lines are dissolved out, they are in
-intaglio, just as they were in the original engraved plate. From this
-artificial plate prints can be made as if from an engraved plate.
-
-For the mezzotint another method is adopted, known as photogravure,
-and this is also a wonderful invention. A metal plate is slightly
-roughed--if it could be more roughed it would be better--and then a
-photographic relief in gelatine is put upon it and etched. The result
-is a plate resembling a fine grain mezzotint, but the prints made from
-it are always deficient in the blacks. To remedy this and other defects
-which at present seem to be inherent, an engraver generally goes over
-the plate with roulette and burnisher. The Photogravure has ruined the
-Mezzotint. The coating of the copper-plates with steel largely adds to
-their life.
-
-Then we come to the wood engravings, which are all perfectly imitated
-by the zinc block, made directly from the original drawing, and set
-on a wood block so as to range exactly with type in height. Wash
-drawings are closely copied by the half-tone process, which is also
-used with blocks that can be printed with type. The drawing to be
-copied is photographed through a glass screen very finely etched with
-minute lines crossing each other, so that the picture is ultimately
-represented by a series of little squares, black or white according
-to the tones of the original. But the whites are never quite
-satisfactory, the dots of the screen always show a little, so the
-dispossessed wood engraver has to be called in after all to touch
-them up with a graver. In America, where the half-tone process has
-reached a very high degree of excellence, the names of these helpful
-engravers are frequently added. A curious “shot-silk” effect is often
-seen in half-tone illustrations where the lines of the screen fall at a
-particular angle with the lines on the original. The same peculiarity
-sometimes shows in the ruled sky lines in the small nineteenth century
-line engravings.
-
-The three-colour process consists of half-tone blocks printed in
-colours one over the other, but although they look well they are not
-particularly true to their originals. The reason of this is that each
-block is a little wrongly inked, as the tint of the pigment put upon
-it depends entirely upon the printer. He has of course a carefully
-coloured key given him to match for each block, but he never quite
-succeeds in doing more than get near it. There are line keys and colour
-blocks, and half-tone and colour blocks, and many other varieties of
-combinations of processes.
-
-The half-tone process is certainly responsible for much charming and
-valuable work, but it has done one very great harm not only to itself
-but even to literature, it has been the chief cause of the introduction
-of clay-laden paper (see Chap. III.).
-
-The beauty of photographic illustrations can be best seen in some of
-the recent French illustrated books in colour published by the Société
-des Amis des Livres. Other exquisite illustrations are to be found in
-Octave Uzanne’s books, many of them from the drawings of Paul Avril.
-The way in which many of these illustrations are made to show over the
-printed page is often quite charming.
-
-
-BOOKS TO CONSULT.
-
-BAER, L.--Die Illustrirten Historienbücher des 15 Jahrhunderts.
-_Strassburg_, 1903.
-
-BAYARD, E.--Illustrations et les Illustrateurs. _Paris_, 1898.
-
-BLACKBURN, H.--The Art of Illustration. _London_, 1896-1901.
-
-BONNET, G.--Manuel de Phototypie. _Paris_, 1889.
-
-BONNET, G.--Manuel d’Héliogravure et de Photogravure en relief.
-_Paris_, 1890.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--Le Livre, L’Illustration. _Paris_, 1886.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--Les Livres a vignettes. _Paris._
-
-BRIVOIS, J.--Bibliographie des livres a gravures sur bois du XIX^e
-siècle. _Paris_, 1883.
-
-BROUGH, W. S.--Book Illustration. _Leek_, 1891.
-
-BULLOCK, J. M.--Art of Extra Illustration. 1903.
-
-CRANE, W.--Of the Decorative Illustration of Books. _London_, 1901.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Mezzotints. _London_, 1904.
-
-DOBSON, A.--(Chapter on Illustrated Books in Lang’s “The Library.”)
-_London_, 1881.
-
-DOBSON, H. A.--Bewick and his Pupils. _London_, 1884.
-
-DUCHOCHOIS, P. C.--Photographic Reproduction Processes. _London_, 1892.
-
-FARQUHAR, H. D.--Grammar of Photo-engraving. _London_, 1895.
-
-GERRING, C.--Notes on Book Illustration. _Nottingham_, 1898.
-
-GEYMET, T.--Traité de Gravure en demi-teint par l’invention du cliché
-photographique. _Paris_, 1888.
-
-GEYMET, T.--Traité de Gravure et impression sur zinc. _Paris_, 1887.
-
-GEYMET, T.--Traité de Photogravure. _Paris_, 1886.
-
-GEYMET, T.--Traité de Photo-lithographie. _Paris_, 1888.
-
-GROLIER CLUB, New York.--Catalogue of Engraved Titles and Frontispieces
-published in England during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
-_New York_, 1898.
-
-HARDIE, M.--English Coloured Books. _London_, 1906.
-
-HENRICH, M.--Iconographie de las ediciones del Quijote de M. de
-Cervantes Saavedra. _Barcelona_, 1905.
-
-HINTON, A. H.--Handbook of Illustration. _London_, 1895-1905.
-
-HODSON, J. S.--Guide to Art Illustration. _London_, 1884.
-
-HUSON, T.--Photo-Aquatint. _London_, 1897.
-
-JACKSON, J. B.--An essay on engraving in Chiaro Oscuro. _London_, 1754.
-
-KIRKBRIDGE, J.--Engraving for Illustrations. _London_, 1903.
-
-KRISTELLER, P.--Early Florentine Woodcuts. _London_, 1897.
-
-KRISTELLER, P.--Die Strassburgher Bucher-illustration im XV. und XVI.
-Jahrhunderts. _Leipzig_, 1888.
-
-LIETZE, E.--Modern Heliographic Processes. _New York_, 1888.
-
-LINTON, W. J.--The Masters of Wood Engraving. _New Haven, Conn._, 1889.
-
-LINTON, W. J.--Wood Engraving in America. _London_, 1881.
-
-MADRAZO, J. DE.--Collection lithografica cuadros del Rey ... Fernando
-VII. 1824.
-
-MARTINEAU, R.--The Mainz Psalter of 1457 (Bibliographica, Vol. I.).
-
-MASSENA, A. P. V.--Etudes sur l’art de la gravure sur bois a Venise.
-_Paris_, 1895-6.
-
-MORIN, L.--French Illustrators. _New York_, 1893.
-
-MUTHER, R.--Die deutsche Bücherillustration. _Leipzig_, 1884.
-
-PAPILLON, J. B. M.--Traité de la gravure en bois. _Paris_, 1766.
-
-PENNELL, J.--The Illustration of Books. _London_, 1896.
-
-PENNELL, J.--Modern Illustration. _London_, 1895.
-
-PENNELL, J., and E. R.--Lithography and Lithographers. _London_, 1898.
-
-PINGRENON, R.--Les livres ornés et illustrés en couleur depuis le XV^e
-Siècle en France et en Angleterre.
-
-POLLARD, A. W.--Early Illustrated Books. _London_, 1893.
-
-POLLARD, A. W.--Italian Book Illustrations. _London_, 1894.
-
-ROUX, V.--Traité de gravure héliographique en taille douce. _Paris_,
-1886.
-
-SCHNAUSS, J.--Collotype and Photo-lithography. _London_, 1889.
-
-SENEFELDER.--Complete Course of Lithography. _London_, 1879.
-
-SINGER, H. W., and STRANG, W.--Etching, Engraving, etc. _London_, 1897.
-
-SKETCHLEY, R. E. D.--English Book Illustration of To-day. _London_,
-1903.
-
-SMITH, F. H.--American Illustrators. _New York_, 1893.
-
-STRANGE, E. F.--Japanese Illustration. _London_, 1897.
-
-VERFASSER, J.--The Half-tone Process. _London_, 1904.
-
-VIDAL, L.--Traité Pratique de Photo-lithographie. _Paris_, 1893.
-
-VILLON, A. M.--Traité Pratique de Photogravure. _Paris_, 1891.
-
-WHITE, J. W. G.--English Illustration, “The Sixties.” _Westminster_,
-1897.
-
-WIESBACH, W.--Die Baseler Buchillustration des XV. Jahrhunderts.
-_Leipzig_, 1896.
-
-WILKINSON, W. T.--Photo-mechanical Processes. _London_, 1892.
-
-WOOD, H. T.--Modern Methods of Illustrating Books. _London_, 1887.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI. MISCELLANEA.
-
-
-  Book edges and their decoration--Embroidered books--Cloth
-  bindings--Account books--End papers--Small metal-bound books--Books
-  bound in tortoiseshell--Chained books--Horn books.
-
-The projecting bosses and corners which occur in mediæval bindings
-were to protect them against the friction of other books which lay
-upon them, a thin piece of wood dividing them. The books were piled
-upon each other, so that if one of the lower ones was wanted it was
-necessary to remove the upper ones. This caused much trouble, so that
-in due time it was found better to stand the books up on end on shelves.
-
-The prone position is, however, the better one for the book, and the
-respective levels of the edges of the book and the edges of the boards
-are designed for this position. When the books were set up on end, the
-discrepancy between the levels of the book edges and the board edges
-was never rectified, and the result is that a large amount of damage
-has been done. When a large book is set up on end, the weight of it
-rests entirely upon the lower edges of the boards, and the lower edges
-of the book itself are up in the air above the shelf by so much as the
-projection of the edges of the boards beyond them. The result is that
-the whole of the weight of the vellum or paper of the book pulls upon
-the bands of the back in their weakest direction, from within and more
-particularly from the top, thereby pulling the back inwards. The mass
-of the book falls forward slantingly, until the lower edge of the front
-of it rests upon the shelf.
-
-It is difficult to describe, but my sketch will show what I mean, and
-the truth of it can be easily seen in almost any library of old books
-that are kept “on end”; the edges will be found grubby from resting on
-the shelf, and the top of the back will be found pulled forward.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Inside of heavy book fallen forward, by reason
-of being kept upright.]
-
-Valuable books that are kept upright should have the edges of the
-boards level with the edges of the leaves, and then this disastrous
-pull would not occur.
-
-A remedy, however, may be found by means of a piece of wood cut the
-same size as the lower edge of the book so as to fit closely into the
-hollow between the outer edges of the boards and the lower edges of
-the leaves. Such a slip will neutralise the drop of the leaves, and
-preserve the proper form of the backs of heavy books.
-
-But before the upright position was finally adopted for books, and
-their titles were put on their backs, the front edge or “forage” of the
-leaves was always kept outwards, in view, and on this space or long
-panel all sorts of devices and letterings were put.
-
-Leaves of a book, pressed tightly together, provided too tempting a
-space to be ignored, to say nothing of the usefulness of giving the
-name or title of the book, or the device of its owner, or even a
-decorative design. So on fine mediæval books and also on later books,
-following the earlier manner in their own way, we find all sorts of
-designs on book edges. It is not a subject which has attracted much
-attention as yet, but it probably will in time, and there is already
-enough known about it to show that much valuable knowledge is lying
-hidden up in it. For instance, if a book, otherwise likely, has the
-words “Rex in Æternum Vive” painted in gold on the edges, it is a
-positive sign that it issued from the workshop of Thomas Berthelet,
-printer and binder to Henry VIII.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Forage decoration in colour. Tenth century.]
-
-Edge decoration of some sort seems to have been done from the tenth
-century onwards; at first elementary or symbolical designs were simply
-painted upon the edges, and not counting the mere book titles or press
-marks, it may be said that since the fourteenth century heraldry has
-played a very important part in edge decoration. In England this form
-of adornment for a bound book has been largely followed from that time,
-and there are fine examples of it in books bound for Henry VII. and the
-other of our Tudor sovereigns, as well as for private persons of the
-same period. The edges are treated as panels and the painting done upon
-them when pressed firmly and solidly together. The edges are generally
-coloured some neutral colour as a groundwork and sometimes lettering in
-gold is done upon them.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Italian forage decoration in gold and colour
-(1560).]
-
-Henry VIII. often had the legend “REX IN ÆTERNUM VIVE NEZ” written
-in gold on the cream coloured edges of his books, and all that are
-so lettered are attributed to Thomas Berthelet as binder. The “Nez”
-is rather a puzzle, and it was suggested by Mr. J. L. Scott, of the
-British Museum, that it stands for the three initial letters of the
-phrase in the Book of Daniel, Ναβουχοδονὀσωρ Εσαει ζῆθι--a quite
-possible solution.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 73.--German forage decoration in gold and colour.
-The arms of Nuremberg (1566).]
-
-Queen Anne Boleyn’s copy of the New Testament has her name, “ANNA
-REGINA ANGLIÆ,” written in red upon its gilt edges.
-
-For Queen Elizabeth, book edges were usually gilded, and on this
-gilding designs were impressed with ordinary binding tools. This is the
-commonest form of edge decoration, and is called “gauffring.” Gauffred
-edges are found in abundance in French, German and Italian work. There
-are fine examples of it on books bound for Henri II. of France and all
-his children, and on those made for Diane de Poictiers, Duchesse de
-Valentinois. In all these cases colour is often added to the designs
-on the gold. Le Gascon put some elaborately painted edges on some of
-his hooks; on Italian books and English books colour is sparingly used;
-on the other hand, in Germany and the Low Countries colour was often
-overdone and the result is garish.
-
-Until the time of Samuel Mearne, towards the end of the seventeenth
-century, all edge paintings were done on the edges of the leaves
-simply pressed solidly together, but Mearne invented a new fashion
-of arranging the leaves. In the case of the older manner we usually
-find the upper and lower edges painted as well as the fore-edge, or
-“forage,” but it is only the forage that can be painted in Mearne’s
-style, and so in all instances of this kind the upper and lower edges
-are left plain.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Book fanned out to show forage painting in
-Mearne’s style.]
-
-Mearne had his book forwarded, finished, and the edges gilded before
-beginning his painting. Then he opened the book by the upper board
-only, and laid it down flat on its back and kept it in that position
-by weights. In this position it will be found that the forage fans
-out into a larger panel than exists when the book is shut up. On
-this fanned-out panel the painting was done in water-colours with as
-dry a brush as possible. When the painting was finished and the book
-allowed to resume its normal shut position, the edge painting entirely
-disappeared, and the gilding on the forage looked as if nothing was
-behind it. So thoroughly does such a painting disappear that I have
-found several that were quite unknown to their owners, and I have no
-doubt that there are plenty of unrecognised examples in English private
-libraries in perfect condition and safe obscurity.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Portrait of Charles II. in colour, on the
-forage of a book bound for the king by Samuel Mearne.]
-
-The only name I have found on any of Mearne’s forage paintings is that
-of “Fletcher.”
-
-After Mearne, for about one hundred years, I know of no particular
-development of forage decoration, but towards the end of the eighteenth
-century, the same principle was revived by James Edwards of Halifax.
-Edwards had an artist brother, and it is likely enough that he painted
-the edges on his brother’s curious vellum-bound books. The designs are
-not so markedly heraldic as the earlier examples were, but are often
-biblical.
-
-Edwards’ delicate paintings, always on small books, were copied for
-some considerable period, and many little books were made with such
-work upon them for many years. Windsor and Eton are both favourite
-subjects, and country houses of all sorts. Landscapes are particularly
-suitable for this form of painting, and many specimens are very
-pleasing.
-
-All the foregoing paintings are done so as to be complete on each book,
-but some time ago a remarkable set of Italian books, I believe of
-the sixteenth century, were brought to England. The forages of these
-volumes were painted in such a manner that the complete design only
-showed when they were all arranged in proper order on a shelf with
-their forages outwards. In the case of sets of books bound uniformly,
-this manner of ornamenting them is worthy of the attention of some of
-our enterprising modern binders.
-
-Although the greater number of books, both in manuscript and printed,
-have been bound in leather or vellum, there are still very many that
-have been covered in other materials.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 76.--English velvet binding, with seals, made for
-Henry VII.]
-
-The commonest of these materials are velvet, canvas, satin, silk,
-cloth, linen, and buckram. I believe that all of these, except perhaps
-the last three in recent times, have been more used in England than
-they have been in any other country.
-
-Velvet is the most interesting, as its use is the most ancient, of
-any of these textile materials. It is strong and beautiful, the fur or
-pile being produced in a very curious manner. Two warps are used in
-the manufacture of the fabric, and small hollow brass wires, slightly
-flattened at the sides, and having a groove along the top, are inserted
-transversely under the raised “pile” warp at intervals as the weaving
-proceeds. These wires keep the thread in the form of upright loops,
-resembling those which can be seen on a Brussels carpet on a larger
-scale. The wires are then cut out by drawing a sharp specially-designed
-knife called a truvat along the groove at the top. The consequent
-separation of the warp threads which formed the rows of loops now forms
-the pile, each thread standing upright. It is wonderful how well velvet
-lasts, and what hard wear it will stand before all the pile is worn
-away.
-
-Books bound in velvet are not uncommon in Dutch work; they are
-sometimes inlaid in differently coloured velvets, and sometimes
-embroidered. In France books have rarely been bound in velvet, in Italy
-and in Germany still more rarely.
-
-In England, however, there has been a considerable output of velvet
-bindings. Examples still exist that were made in the fifteenth century
-for Henry VII., whose library was in all probability entirely bound in
-this material. Nothing earlier than Henry VII.’s books are now known
-of English bindings in velvet, but these are so fine that it is likely
-enough that earlier work of the kind was done in the case of very
-choice manuscripts.
-
-Not only are Henry VII.’s books, which are still in their original
-covers, in marvellously good condition, but they are also among the
-most decorative bindings that have ever been made, here or in any
-other country. Fine examples may be seen in the library at Westminster
-Abbey, at the Record Office, and in the British Museum, and in every
-case their beauty and interest well repay the trouble of obtaining
-access to them.
-
-These volumes all are in the same style, but they vary in detail. All
-I have seen are in red velvet, and have metal bosses in the centre and
-smaller ones in the corner.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 77.--English embroidered book, velvet. Made for
-Henry VIII.]
-
-One of the handsomest, which may be taken as a type, is a copy of the
-indentures made between Abbot Islip and Henry VII. for the foundation
-of the chantry at Westminster. It is a large manuscript on vellum, and
-is covered in rich red velvet projecting liberally over the edges, and
-bound with gold fringe. In the centre is a circular silver cup-like
-boss, containing the royal coat of arms, France and England quarterly,
-with supporters of red dragon of Cadwallader and white greyhound of De
-Beaufort, cut out of silver and enamelled in proper colours. At each
-corner is a circular silver boss containing the De Beaufort device
-of a portcullis gilt and cut in low relief, and set on an enamelled
-background of the Tudor livery colours, green and white, per pale.
-There are clasps of cloth of gold braid, fastening with a chased
-silver-gilt button bearing an enamelled rose, and dependent from the
-lower edge of the board are five silver boxes bearing Tudor emblems in
-relief, each containing an impression of the great seal.
-
-It is also recorded by Paul Hentzner that in 1598 he saw Queen
-Elizabeth’s library, and that many of them were bound in velvet and
-embroidered, a note that is fully corroborated by such of her books as
-now remain.
-
-But there were also books embroidered upon canvas in the fifteenth
-century, one of which is now in the British Museum. It is a psalter
-of the fourteenth century, and is covered in fine canvas on which are
-delicate embroideries in the manner known as “Opus Anglicanum,” which
-looks like a chain stitch, but is really a cleverly managed split
-stitch.
-
-This remarkable book, the earliest known example of an embroidered
-binding, has upon one side a beautiful representation of the
-Annunciation, and on the other a Crucifixion. It is supposed to have
-been worked by Anne de Felbrigge, a nun in the convent of Minoresses,
-at Brusyard, in Suffolk, and daughter of Sir Simon de Felbrigge, K.G.,
-standard bearer to Richard II. It is considerably worn and faded, but
-the designs can all be made out.
-
-The velvet books which were made in the next reign were ornamented with
-embroidered designs appliqués, and many of them are very handsome. The
-designs on such books were nearly always heraldic, judging from those
-that remain, but arabesques and floral ornamentation are often met
-with on satin. Queen Katharine Parr is said to have embroidered some of
-these books, and there is one in canvas in the British Museum, and one
-in canvas and one in velvet at the Bodleian, which are supposed to have
-been worked by the Princess Elizabeth, always with braid.
-
-When Elizabeth came to the throne she continued her evident liking for
-velvet bound books, and she had them of several colours--red, green,
-or black. Several of these are richly embroidered, sometimes with
-armorial designs, sometimes floral, and sometimes arabesque. Others are
-decorated with brilliant enamels or gold, centrepieces, cornerpieces,
-and clasps, and others again have appliqué pieces of coloured satin,
-on which is gold tooling, some of which is actually put on the velvet
-itself.
-
-Canvas is rarely found during Elizabeth’s reign, but it does exist, and
-is usually embroidered in a coarse manner with tent-stitch.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 78.--English embroidered book, canvas (1648).]
-
-In the seventeenth century the taste for velvet bindings still
-remained, but not so exclusively, as there were many more bound in
-silk or satin, usually white. The majority of these books are small,
-Prayers, Bibles, Psalms, and the designs upon them are of great
-variety, but generally have a symbolic tendency--figures of Faith,
-Hope, Charity, Peace, Plenty, and numbers of biblical subjects,
-David and Bathsheba, Solomon and Queen of Sheba, Jacob’s Dream, Jacob
-wrestling with the Angel, Abraham and Isaac, and many more; and besides
-these there are numbers of quaint little bindings with floral designs.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 79.--English embroidered “double” book, satin,
-seventeenth century.]
-
-The period of Nicholas Ferrar’s curious establishment at Little Gidding
-in Huntingdonshire was coincident with the reign of Charles I. Here
-were contrived most interesting Harmonies of the Scriptures, done under
-Ferrar’s superintendence by his nieces Mary Collet and her sisters.
-These ladies, moreover, bound the Harmonies themselves, and were not
-only the first English lady binders but also the first amateur binders,
-and they bound exceedingly well. Mrs. Wordsworth was another pioneer
-among lady binders. She covered her books in pieces of her own old
-dresses.
-
-Not only did the ladies of Little Gidding bind their Harmonies,
-sometimes very large, in sheep skin, morocco and calf, but also in
-velvet, curiously ornamented. I have already mentioned that in the
-sixteenth century the art of gilding upon velvet was known, but it was
-reserved for the ladies of Little Gidding to bring it to perfection.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 80.--English, embroidered binding canvas,
-seventeenth century.]
-
-There will always be some little doubt as to whether these magnificent
-gold and silver tooled velvet books were done entirely by the binders
-at Little Gidding, or with the assistance of their masters, Bucks of
-Cambridge. There is a marked similarity of general style as well as
-of detail, but the larger Little Gidding books appear particularly to
-bear the impress of more irresponsible genius than that of the orthodox
-university printers.
-
-Gilding upon velvet is still practised a little in England; the service
-books used at the wedding of the present Prince of Wales were in red
-velvet with the royal monogram impressed in gold upon it.
-
-With the eighteenth century an end came to any great output of bindings
-in velvet, canvas or satin; now and then an isolated specimen is found,
-and the era of cloth bindings began in the nineteenth century.
-
-The main difference is that the earlier books in velvet, canvas or
-satin were always specially broad, but the cloth bindings were trade
-bindings from the beginning, with very few exceptions.
-
-At first backs of paper bound books were strengthened by pieces of
-ordinary linen or calico pasted over them, the title being added on
-a label; but a special cloth for binding purposes was made early in
-the century by James Leonard Wilson, and in 1822 Pickering’s Aldine
-Classics bound in that material were issued. This use of a special
-cloth was largely helped and fostered by Mr. Archibald Leighton, who
-made a speciality of it. The cloth was sometimes watered and sometimes
-plain. Cloth soon became a favourite binding for cheap books, and in
-time Wilson found a way of gilding upon it, probably by the use of
-dried and powdered albumen.
-
-Some of the early cloth bindings were ornamented by impressions from
-engraved cylinders, the pattern showing in low relief. The great
-pressure which was used to make this impression had so hardened the
-cloth as well as the boards upon which it is fixed, that many of the
-existing examples of the work are still in perfect condition.
-
-Then gradually came ornamentation stamped in gold on the sides and gold
-lettering on the back, and of recent years designs and pictures stamped
-in colours upon cloth, canvas and buckram have become common. Many
-of these designs are excellent, and the work required for them gives
-employment to a large number of designers as well as colour printers
-and block makers. Books bound in these materials look well and last
-well for a time, but they are essentially short-lived if handled much.
-
-About the middle of the nineteenth century numbers of small illustrated
-periodicals, landscape annuals, and the like were covered in watered
-silk, generally red, blue or green. These also do not last well; but
-if any copies that are still in a good state are found, they should be
-carefully preserved as they are, and not be rebound; they represent a
-type of binding that is by no means without charm. Perhaps the most
-important books which were originally issued in this form of cover were
-the two beautiful volumes of Rogers’ _Poems_ and _Italy_. They have
-gilt edges and are bound with flat open backs and sawn in bands.
-
-Buckram is generally used for large books, as it is stiff and
-troublesome to fold over in a small way. If a large book is properly
-sewn and has proper boards it may well be covered in buckram, provided
-it is not to be much used. The joints soon look unsightly, as the hinge
-movement causes the dressing, of which there is a large proportion, to
-powder out. Buckram is rarely ornamented; indeed, it may almost be said
-that a book bound in it is only intended to keep together until such
-time as it can be properly bound in some better material.
-
-Art canvas is sometimes used for bindings, and it is fairly
-satisfactory, but has the same delicacy at the joints as buckram, and
-soon looks shabby.
-
-There is now such a quantity of cheap literature that is not likely to
-last, or to be wanted to last, that there is a large and increasing
-demand for cheap binding materials other than leather. So there is an
-important future for specially prepared binding cloths and buckrams.
-The only libraries that are likely to suffer by the more general
-introduction of such materials are the few large ones that are obliged
-to keep all their books, old or new, in working order inside and
-outside.
-
-Account book bindings are peculiar and very strong. They have been
-used for a long time in banks and business houses, and are purely
-utilitarian and comparatively quite modern.
-
-Strong sound paper is an essential for account books. The sewing is
-done in the flexible style, but on broad flat bands of vellum or
-leather instead of raised bands of hemp. The ends of the bands are
-fixed between two boards, pairs of which form the boards of the book.
-The space between the edge of the back of the book where the bands
-leave it and their inset to the boards is not drawn close, but a narrow
-margin is left so that a perfectly flexible and strong leather joint
-is left. In small books this peculiarity is known as a French joint,
-and it obviates the common failing of sides falling away from otherwise
-sound bindings along the joint-line at the back.
-
-The back of account book bindings looks very strong, but it is really
-nothing of the sort. It is only a show back, to take the lettering and
-cover up the real joints, which are securely laid along the edges of
-the boards.
-
-When an account book is opened it “sets up” so that it can be easily
-read right down to the sewing at the back. This is of great value in
-many cases other than the keeping of accounts, and it is the only
-advantage of the common, but weak, bindings with “hollow” backs. But
-there is no doubt that a modified form of account book binding, with a
-French joint, is a style which might with advantage be studied by our
-modern art binders.
-
-The study of end papers is to some extent necessary for the true
-judgment of the work of certain binders. For instance, Thomas Berthelet
-normally used white end papers, Samuel Mearne used red marbled end
-papers, and Roger Payne used purple or pink end papers. The Italian
-binder who worked for Grolier used vellum for end paper, and so on. The
-knowledge of such details is useful in detecting frauds, as they are
-apt to be under-estimated in importance by a forger.
-
-Of all end papers the most common is marbled paper, and one of the most
-curious usages of it is when a beautiful and delicate French binding
-has a charmingly gold tooled doublure of splendid leather faced by a
-wretched leaf of marbled paper.
-
-The usual marbled paper is made by means of a bed of size on which
-colour is sprinkled by a brush, the colour lies on the top of the size
-and is moved about by means of a wide-toothed comb or a pin or anything
-that is handy, until the resulting pattern is to the satisfaction of
-the operator. Then the paper is laid down in the size, and when raised
-up it brings all the colour with it. It is generally easy to see how
-the pattern has been made by looking at the paper, and it will be found
-that the most usual forms have been made by the use of a broad-toothed
-comb. I should think that the process might well have produced
-something better than it ever has; undoubtedly if J. M. Whistler had
-ever known of it we should have had some remarkable results.
-
-Marbling is probably of Oriental origin, and was most likely first
-practised in Germany, so far as Europe is concerned. It was certainly
-understood in Nuremberg in 1599, as specimens made there are to be
-seen in the _Album Amicorum_, of J. Cellarius, of that date. It is, of
-course, obviously capable of endless modifications, and of late years
-some very delicately and prettily coloured end papers have been made.
-
-More or less in continuation of the mediæval fashion of covering
-book-bindings with richly-worked metal overlays, we find, in the
-seventeenth and eighteenth centuries particularly, numbers of small
-books bound in metal or with metal enrichments in the form of
-centrepieces and cornerpieces. Clasps occur all along, and although
-I hardly think that they have followed out any very marked line of
-development, I expect that some day a careful study will be made
-of them, when some such development may possibly be discovered. No
-student, as far as I am aware, has made any attempt to classify book
-clasps.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 81.--English golden book, made for Henry VIII.]
-
-But the English, German, French, Italian, and Dutch bindings with metal
-enrichments are pretty well known and generally admired. The English
-are the finest by far, and, as far as I can ascertain, the earliest.
-In the reign of Henry VIII. it was the fashion for ladies to carry
-small books of devotion at their girdle. These little books were always
-ornamental, and they had a ring fixed on the lower edge of the binding
-so that when the book was lifted up it came right for reading. One of
-these belonged to one of the queens of Henry VIII.; it is a copy of
-the Psalms, and is bound in gold with a delicate leafy spray in high
-relief. On it are remains of enamel, and in the beginning is a tiny
-miniature of the king.
-
-Another beautiful little golden book with a design, probably by
-Holbein, in black enamel, is now the property of Lord Romney.
-
-Several small golden bindings with scriptural subjects in high
-relief and enamelled were made late in the sixteenth century. Most
-of these are now divorced from their original texts, and are only
-kept as specimens of enamel work, but in one instance the whole book
-is perfect. This is a little book of prayers that belonged to Queen
-Elizabeth. On one side of it is the Serpent in the Wilderness and on
-the other the Judgment of Solomon.
-
-For the same queen a little copy of _Christian Meditations_ was bound
-in red velvet with golden centrepieces, corners, and clasps. The
-enamels in this case are champlevé, and still perfect in colour. They
-are said to have been the work of George Heriot, Elizabeth’s goldsmith,
-who founded a hospital in Edinburgh.
-
-James VI. of Scotland wrote the βασιλικον Δωρον for his son Henry, and
-the precious MS. was bound in purple velvet with golden centrepiece and
-clasps. The gold is cut out thin and then finished by engraving. When
-king of England James had some of his books bound in velvet with silver
-enrichments. On one of these, a little book of _Christian Meditations_,
-which is bound in purple velvet, the royal coat-of-arms is engraved on
-the centre oval, and on the corners are the national crests of England
-and Scotland, the crowned harp of Ireland, and the fleur-de-lis of
-France.
-
-A beautiful little New Testament of 1643 with silver portraits of
-Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, and cornerpieces and clasps
-engraved with allegorical figures, shows that metal on velvet was still
-a popular style, but on later bindings in England metal centrepieces
-fell quite out of use. Metal corners, however, were still used for some
-time, and clasps occasionally.
-
-Bindings entirely of silver are rare in English workmanship, but they
-were not unknown, as a fine specimen with a repoussé figure of Charity
-covers a Common Prayer of 1632.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 82.--German binding in silver filigree and niello.]
-
-Of German and Dutch workmanship many metal bindings exist, and they
-are of varied styles. All these bindings have solid metal backs with
-hinges along the sides, and usually a sort of cap projecting over the
-headband. Many of the later examples are not good, but are made of bad
-metal and coarsely worked in repoussé. The worst of them are probably
-Dutch work.
-
-Some of the earlier German silver bindings are prettily ornamented
-with niello work, and others have filigree work over gilt metal, and
-the use of tortoiseshell with silver or gilt mounts is also found of
-Spanish, German, or Dutch workmanship. I should say that the best
-guide to determine to which of these countries the work belongs is to
-take the place of imprint as authoritative. The imprint on a printed
-book does not by any means always imply that a binding was made there,
-but in many doubtful cases it is undoubtedly of much value as to mere
-nationality; the style of the binding itself should always be the
-first consideration. Some Dutch bindings are made in base metal, gilt,
-often with open work and engraving. They are neither good to look upon
-nor pleasant to handle.
-
-Italian bindings in metal are rare, and it is only in the case of very
-small books that it was ever used. The manner of this is usually fine
-filigree work over a gilt groundwork. There is one example in the
-Victoria and Albert Museum, which is, however, more likely to be quite
-an exceptional production than one in any way representing a national
-type. It is an exquisitely enamelled golden book cover, having on one
-side the Garden of Eden and on the other the Fountain of Youth; it
-contains a missal, and is said to have been made for Queen Henrietta
-Maria.
-
-In France a few silver bindings of the sixteenth century with enamels
-have been made, but they are very rare, and the enamels of the basse
-taille style, usually badly chipped.
-
-I believe some small metal bindings with rough enamels upon them have
-been made in comparatively modern times in Russia. These all have a
-strong Byzantine feeling and are clear survivals of the same style
-that was in vogue in Russia in mediæval times, and was used not only
-for bindings but also for ikons and triptychs. The work is coarse and
-unsatisfactory.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Dutch binding in tortoiseshell and silver.]
-
-Tortoiseshell mounted in metal has been largely used for bindings in
-Holland, Germany, and Spain. The backs are hinged to the sides with
-long snuff-box hinges, and the shell itself is sometimes beautifully
-inlaid with silver and mother-of-pearl. Some of these covers are very
-small, particularly the Dutch ones, and designs are sometimes impressed
-upon them.
-
-Mother-of-pearl has now and then been utilised for binding very small
-books. The backs and hinges are usually of silver.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 84.--German chained book, fifteenth century.]
-
-The curious custom of fastening books to their shelves by means of
-chains was common enough in Europe in mediæval times and became almost
-universal in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in churches. It
-was of course done as a safeguard against thieves, and as far as I
-know only in the case of printed books. Although printed books soon
-became plentiful, yet no doubt in the case of Bibles and Prayer Books
-it is likely enough that a considerable leakage took place. Such small
-books were commonly chained to the backs of the pews in private chapels
-throughout England, and undoubtedly the custom, though inconvenient in
-use, was effective enough for its purpose.
-
-Larger books would naturally belong to important libraries, those of
-cathedrals and churches particularly, and of these there are still left
-plenty of examples still in chains.
-
-The chains are of iron, average 3 feet long, and are clamped to the
-front edge of the upper board by means of a rivet; the other end of
-the chain is provided with a ring which runs freely to and fro along
-a locked metal rod. Enough play is given by the chain to allow of the
-book being taken off its shelf and rested on the desk close at hand
-which is always provided for it.
-
-There is a certain fashion in the way of attaching these chains. In
-foreign books the fastening is usually found at the top of the upper
-board, while in the case of English books it is usually fixed on the
-front edge of the upper board. The books were normally kept with
-their forages outwards, and on these edges the titles were written or
-emblazoned.
-
-The Laurentian Library at Florence has a large number of chained books
-kept in beautifully carved shelves.
-
-The Church of St. Wallberg in Zutphen has several chained books. There
-is a legend that the devil carried off so many of the holy books that
-something had to be done, so the chains were blessed in due form with
-holy water, since when the books have been safely preserved.
-
-Plenty of examples of chained libraries are still left in England,
-particularly at Hereford Cathedral, the old treasure house at Wimborne
-Minster and All Saints’ Church at Hereford; a complete list of them is
-given in Blades’ “Books in Chains,” published in London in 1892.
-
-The inconvenience of chains must have been considerable, and no doubt
-careless readers often got into trouble about them. On a notice
-concerning the library at King’s College, Cambridge, in 1683, readers
-are requested to replace the volumes “decently without entangling the
-chains.”
-
-About the middle of the eighteenth century the inconvenience of
-chains on books was fully realised, and from that time there has been
-a general tendency to their removal, except in cases where their
-retention is advisable for antiquarian reasons.
-
-True horn books were used in England and America, but similar
-constructions also existed in other countries--chiefly France, Germany,
-Italy, and Holland--but without horn covering.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 85.--English seventeenth century horn book.]
-
-They were for children’s use, and the alphabet and the Lord’s Prayer
-are the commonest letterings upon them, always beginning with a cross,
-giving the first line the name of the “Christ cross” or “criss cross”
-row. The paper for true horn books is printed only on one side, and
-then laid down upon a flat piece of wood. Some unused eighteenth
-century horn book sheets are preserved in the Bagford fragments at the
-British Museum. Over the printed slip a piece of horn is put, kept in
-place by strips of brass fastened with nails having facetted tops, but
-it must be noted that after about 1820 the facetted tops were often
-replaced by flat heads.
-
-Like all books or objects which were originally cheap and common, horn
-books are now very rare, but they are so valuable that it is unluckily
-worth while to imitate them, and many fraudulent modern specimens are
-about. A horn book is, unfortunately, easy to copy, and it is sometimes
-a very difficult thing to say positively whether a given specimen
-is genuinely old or not. Modern frauds are often wrong in either the
-printing, the paper, the horn, or the nails, but they are often right
-as to the wood, which is easily made to have every proper appearance
-of age by means of soaking in water, rubbing with sand, staining by
-ammonia, and so on. Collectors should, if possible, get a properly
-authenticated history with every specimen offered to them.
-
-Small plaques for teaching the alphabet seem to have existed before the
-invention of printing, but in printed form they were most used towards
-the end of the sixteenth century until the nineteenth, when their
-character altered, the wooden frame and its horn covering disappeared,
-and a degenerate production in varnished cardboard, preserving the old
-form in some respects, took their place. These cards are often called
-battledores, but this name was an old one, and originally used for true
-horn books. The name battledore is probably derived from the batlet,
-which was used for beating clothes, the horn books somewhat resembling
-this in shape.
-
-Although the general run of horn books are simple, there are many
-instances in which they have been decorated; a certain analogy thus
-exists between the diptychs and the horn books. Lord Egerton of Tatton
-has a beautiful sixteenth century example, the back of which is
-ornamented with silver filigree work, and horn books backed with Dutch
-silver, engraved, are sometimes found. These generally have a bird or a
-tulip engraved upon them.
-
-Other ornamental examples are to be found in the Birmingham Museum and
-in private ownership. They are very decorative, and some of them have
-talc instead of horn in front.
-
-In 1851 some curious stone moulds were found at Hartley Castle by Sir
-George Musgrave, and one of them was undoubtedly used for casting
-lead “horn” books, and similar moulds have been found in Germany; the
-English ones may have been made about the earlier half of the sixteenth
-century.
-
-But more curious devices were found on the other side of the same piece
-of stone: these are undoubtedly the emblems of saints’ days as shown on
-clog almanacks of the same period, so that the horn books may possibly
-have originated from the makers of cast leaden almanacks.
-
-Horn books were also cut in ivory or bone, often with designs engraved
-on the back or on the handle. The lettering and devices were originally
-run in with heelball or some such material. They were also made of
-boxwood with letters burnt in, or engraved pewter, or gingerbread, and
-sometimes covered in paper with panel stamp impressions in blind or
-black ink.
-
-Several of the later seventeenth and early eighteenth century horn
-books were covered with leather and stamped in blind, gold, silver,
-or, in Dutch examples, Dutch metal, which nearly always turns black,
-from panel stamps; sometimes the designs were arabesques or flowers,
-and at other times we find figures of saints or kings--St. George and
-the Dragon, mermaids, and the like--and several of Charles II. on
-horseback, the Duke of Cumberland, and other great people.
-
-These same stamps are also often impressed on paper backs as well as on
-leather.
-
-The late cardboard horn books either leave out the cross at the
-beginning or replace it by a meaningless X; they also often show
-additional alphabets with little wood-cut illustrations. At last the
-horn book form is quite lost, and at last we find folded pieces of
-cardboard with stamped or marbled backs, retaining only the alphabet to
-show that they are survivals.
-
-
-WORKS TO CONSULT.
-
-BLADES, W.--Books in Chains. _London_, 1892.
-
-DAVENPORT, C.--English Embroidered Bookbindings. _London_, 1899.
-
-DAVENPORT, C.--Book Edges. (Bibliographica.)
-
-DAVENPORT, C.--Little Gidding. (Bibliographica.)
-
-DAVENPORT, C.--Royal English Bookbindings. _London_, 1897.
-
-LABARTE, J.--Hist. des Arts Industriels au Moyen Age. _Paris_, 1864-66.
-
-LACROIX, P.--Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance. _Paris_, 1848-51.
-
-LIBRI, COUNT G.--Monuments Inedits. _Londres_, 1862.
-
-PRIDEAUX, S. T.--Historical Sketch of Bookbinding. _London_, 1893.
-
-TUER, A.--History of the Horn Book. _London_, 1896.
-
-WOOLNOUGH, C. W.--The Art of Marbling.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII. LEATHERS.
-
-
-  Vellum--Calf--Pig skin--Sheep skin--Goat skin--Seal skin, etc.
-
-Prepared skins of animals have been the most generally used of all
-materials for covering bindings of manuscripts or printed books.
-Leather is tanned skin, and the hair is generally removed. Bindings
-that have the hair still left on the leather are usually of an
-elementary kind and are intended to be carried about in pockets. They
-are not common. Vellum (calf skin), and parchment (sheep skin), are
-not tanned, but are prepared with lime and are white. Not uncommonly,
-especially in Germany, other skins were so prepared. Pig skin, deer
-skin, goat skin, horse skin, and donkey skin were all “vellumised,” and
-are all very strong and take excellent impressions in blind.
-
-It is likely enough that vellum was used for the first covering of
-books, simply enclosing the sections, the ends of the bands drawn in,
-without boards. Such bindings are excellent for thin books, and they
-were successfully re-introduced in recent times by William Morris,
-always used with ties, as otherwise the vellum crinkles up.
-
-“Vellum” bindings made now, unless specially ordered, are only ordinary
-bindings in boards covered with vellum. Vellum is strong, but has
-some disadvantages. Although gold looks beautiful upon vellum it is
-difficult to work, and title labels do not stick to it well. If kept
-near the light it turns to something very like egg-shell and chips off.
-This defect was known to librarians in past times, and they met it by
-keeping their vellum books backs inwards, the forages outwards. Many
-instances of this manner of keeping vellum books occur in the Bodleian
-Library at Oxford, and they generally have their old pressmarks, and
-sometimes titles, written across the top of the forage. Old vellum
-was cut thick, and seldom ornamented, and if kept dry in the dark it
-is an excellent material. The same peculiarities exist in the case of
-parchment, which is, however, a very inferior skin, thinner, weaker,
-and not so good looking. Parchment is frequently described, and used,
-as vellum, and few purchasers know the difference; but the market value
-of parchment is less than half that of vellum. Vellum is particularly
-well suited for bindings kept in large towns, as dust does not stick
-to it, and it is easily cleaned. In time it assumes a creamy colour
-that is delightful. From the late sixteenth century until now, vellum
-stained green has been commonly used in England.
-
-White vellumised leather, probably deer skin, has always been much
-liked in England from the time of Henry VIII., many of whose books
-were bound in this material: among them a copy of Elyot’s “Image of
-Governance,” printed in London in 1541, which is one of the first books
-with gold tooling upon it done in this country. Several books were
-bound in the same thick white leather for the other Tudor sovereigns,
-as well as for some of their richer subjects, but in the seventeenth
-century limp vellum once more asserted its sway and became very popular
-in England for highly valued books. The brilliancy of the gilding upon
-some of these bindings is quite wonderful; it is certainly doubtful
-if any modern finishers could equal the technical beauty of the work.
-Then in the eighteenth century, vellum, though still much esteemed,
-only took its place as a covering for boards, and once more, in the
-nineteenth century, Morris restored it to its proper use as a limp
-binding.
-
-In 1785, James Edwards of Halifax patented a way of rendering vellum
-transparent, so that paintings underneath it showed through, and he
-used it with much success. The process has been revived of late years
-in England.
-
-The Dutch binders have always liked vellum, but it is used with boards
-and never limp. Dutch vellum bindings are usually coloured, not well
-done, but at a distance they look decorative, and were certainly very
-popular. They often have clasps and painted edges.
-
-A few bindings have been made in England, France, and Holland, covered
-with pierced vellum, showing coloured silk underneath. They are not
-very satisfactory and soon get out of order.
-
-After vellum comes calf, the outer skin of the same animal, tanned.
-Calf is a good second, and I think altogether, up to about the end
-of the eighteenth century, that it has been more used than any other
-leather. The main difference between old calf and modern calf is that
-the old leather was properly tanned with oak bark or sumach, and cut
-thick, whereas modern calf used for binding is abominably tanned,
-quickly and disastrously, and cut thin. There is no better leather than
-old calf, and it was used universally; England, France, Germany, and
-Italy all liked it; it was delightful to decorate, either in blind or
-gilt, and it mellowed with age to a rich mahogany brown. Italian and
-sixteenth century English binders stained their fillets black, and
-several of these calf bindings, richly gilded, and with black fillets,
-are quite splendid, in perfect taste.
-
-The surface of calf is smooth, and it is very sensitive to all sorts of
-stains.
-
-Calf is seen at its best when it is used to take impressions from panel
-stamps, but its beautiful surface and sensitiveness to stains of all
-kinds has made it a favourite ground for all sorts of fancy markings,
-most of which, however charming they may be at first, end by destroying
-the leather.
-
-Russia leather is calf prepared with willow bark and scented with
-birch oil. It is a modern leather, and lasts badly, and is generally
-diced,--that is to say, covered all over with diagonal rulings. It
-was a favourite leather of Roger Payne’s. It is said that a book
-bound in Russia leather will last better if much used, and no doubt
-this is true, not only of Russia but of any other leather. As a rule
-leather bindings in libraries are starved; they get dry, and readily
-absorb animal oil from the human hand. The truth of this may be found
-in the fact that numbers of dictionaries and books of reference were
-preferentially bound in Russia leather some thirty or forty years ago,
-and whereas unused books bound at the same time in the same way now
-show rotting leather, the reference books which have been continually
-used are quite sound and supple.
-
-Cow hide is like a magnified calf leather, and shows a slightly pitted
-surface. It is not often used, but is of much value for very large
-books that are worth full binding, as one piece of hide could be cut
-large enough, for instance, to full-bind the _Skibbereen Eagle_, one
-of the largest Irish newspapers. It would take three or four of the
-largest goat skins to do this, and it is always advisable to avoid
-joins, wherever possible, in a binding. But there is one drawback to
-the use of hide for binding: it is practically impossible to cut it
-smooth; however skilfully it may be pared, when it gets on the book
-it is always ridgy. This is, of course, not very important, but it
-militates against the use of hide except when absolutely necessary. For
-the rest, hide takes colour well, and it is a very handsome leather,
-and when it is finished simply with very broad gold fillets it is very
-ornamental.
-
-Pig skin is perhaps the most familiar of all bookbinding leathers to
-the outside world, because saddles are made of it. It is a thick, rich
-leather, and, so to speak, full of life. It is not suitable for small
-books, but very good for large ones, and has been used in England off
-and on for a long time, but never very much. Charles Lewis executed
-some fine examples of his larger bindings in pig skin, but I think he
-never cared much for it.
-
-Pig skin responds admirably to treatment with lime, the same method of
-preparation as used for vellum; and this white “vellumised” pig skin
-has always been the most favoured material for the covering of fine
-German books of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.
-Many of these bindings are perfect in their way, covered all over with
-delicate roll stamps showing marvellous definition and clearness on the
-hard white surface.
-
-Fine though all their impressions are, it cannot be denied that they
-are difficult to see; the impressions are shallow, and indeed the
-designs can often be more easily made out by help of a rubbing with
-heelball on soft white paper than by examining the binding itself.
-
-Pig skin can be recognised by its smooth hard surface, strongly pitted
-with bristle holes. It is closely imitated in inferior leather, bristle
-holes and all, and when such imitation is actually on a book it is very
-difficult to detect, but if in skin form it can easily be recognised.
-In real pig skin the bristle holes penetrate right through the leather,
-and show quite as much at the back as they do in the front, whereas in
-the imitation they show little, if at all, at the back. Also the back
-of real pig skin is of very firm, close texture, but the imitation
-shows a more or less woolly or loose grained back, as it is generally
-made of sheep skin. French binders have never favoured pig skin
-much--it is not dainty enough for them.
-
-Sheep skin has always been a favourite leather for bookbinding, but it
-is not a fine leather and has never been used for first-rate binding.
-It has, however, been more worked up than anything else into imitations
-of fine leathers.
-
-The imitation of fine leather in inferior sheep skin has been for a
-long time a very important industry, and it is one which is still with
-us. All fine leathers show a particular and well known grain on their
-surface, but the most largely imitated is that of goat skin or morocco.
-
-In a well grained skin of morocco, the beautiful grain is strongly
-marked, whether it be “pinhole” or “straight”--so strongly marked
-indeed that a cast of it can well be made in plaster of paris. From
-such a cast a metal die can be made, and when this die is strongly
-pressed upon a prepared piece of sheep skin, which will take an
-impression extremely well, the result is that a surface is produced
-which is so exactly like a piece of morocco that even a leather expert
-may be, and often is, taken in by it. In course of time, however, the
-impression flattens out, and the fraud betrays itself.
-
-When such a stamped sheep skin is new on a book, and finished with
-gold, no one would for a moment suspect its genuineness, but if in skin
-form, the back of the leather will at once betray it. Real morocco has
-a hard close grain, but the back of the imitation will show a loose
-soft texture. Other leathers are imitated in the same way: pig skin,
-lizard skin, and others; and although there has been, and still is,
-much of such imitation used in the matter of bookbindings, there is
-still more of it used in the furniture trade.
-
-But putting aside these base uses of sheep skin, it has a very fair
-record to show on its own unaided merits. Many early Italian bindings,
-good ones, were made in sheep skin; certainly it has not lasted well,
-but no doubt when new it was pleasing enough. In England, many of the
-early fifteenth century panel stamp bindings were made in sheep skin,
-not quite satisfactory now, but also probably well enough when new.
-
-It is impossible to say much in favour of modern roan, the trade name
-for sheep skin, which has suffered badly at the hands of the tanner
-and the dyer; also probably the binders have not been without fault,
-as in order to get the leather flexible for joints and bands they have
-acquired a pernicious habit of paring it too thin, and another, equally
-hurtful, of unduly pulling and stretching it so that the fibres, or
-what is left of them, get strained and broken.
-
-Skiver is part of a split sheep skin, the surface of which is
-altogether artificial. It is much used for cheap pamphlet bindings
-and looks well for the moment, but is not so strong as good paper. It
-is wonderful how cleverly the “paste grain” or artificial surface of
-skiver is made; it deceives most people easily. The remaining part
-of a split sheep skin is prepared quite differently and is made into
-“chamois” leather. Although this is not used for actual bindings, it is
-often enough made into linings for loose covers of fine books. It does
-well for this purpose, but must be kept in a very dry place as it has a
-certain affinity for damp.
-
-The finest of all leathers for binding is goat skin, morocco as we
-now call it, from the reputed land of its origin. “Levant morocco” is
-still the name of the finest skins. Goats, however, have of course been
-common enough all over the world for ages, and so we find very ancient
-bindings in goat skin, quite possibly the most ancient, although I
-rather incline to vellum in this connection.
-
-Many of the English twelfth to fourteenth century blind tooled bindings
-are in goat skin, tanned brown, most likely with oak bark, and from
-that period until now it has always been used here, at some periods
-more than others.
-
-Goat skin always shows small hair dots in groups all over its surface;
-it is not quite smooth like calf, and also it shows certain structural
-striations. In early goat bindings both these marks show clearly, and
-until the time of Roger Payne in the eighteenth century, the leather
-was left in its natural state so far as surface marks went.
-
-Italian bookbinders at an early date saw the beauty of natural sunk
-lines on goat skin, and accentuated them by rubbing in gold leaf. On
-such bindings the markings on the leather show as fine gold lines; it
-is a pretty idea, and can often be found on sixteenth century bindings,
-especially on those that were made for Tommaso Maioli.
-
-French morocco bindings are frequently stained with colour,
-particularly those which were made about the time of Henri II. in
-the sixteenth century. The stain is usually put on the fillets or
-arabesques surrounding a central oval, in which is often a painted
-coat-of-arms. But as a rule such coloured bindings are in calf, which
-takes stain more easily than morocco.
-
-Goat leather has never been so much liked by German binders as calf or
-pig skin. This is partly due to the fact that German bindings are as a
-rule ornamented with blind tooling, and goat skin is never satisfactory
-when treated in this way: its grain is against it; but for gold
-tooling, which has been brought to its greatest perfection by Italian,
-French and English binders, there is nothing that gives so fine a
-result as goat leather.
-
-Roger Payne saw and liked the natural grain of goat skin, or, as we
-may now call it, morocco. But he found that in many cases he could
-get a better impression from his very delicately cut stamps in Russia
-leather. Here, however, he was restricted to one colour, and his
-favourite colour, a neutral green, could only be procured in morocco.
-So he ironed the morocco to flatten its natural hills and dales, and
-produced something like what is now called “crushed” morocco. Payne’s
-smooth morocco is, however, not quite our modern “crushed”; it is
-smoother, because now we “grain” our leather strongly before crushing
-it, whereas Payne ironed his without first increasing its natural
-grain by artificial means. Morocco is often badly injured by the
-ironing being done with irons that are too hot.
-
-But Payne went a step farther. No doubt he experimented much with
-morocco, and it is likely enough that before endeavouring to smoothen
-out his skins he wetted them thoroughly. If he wetted a fine skin of
-morocco overnight and left it alone, perhaps doubling it or rolling
-it up, he would have noticed next morning that the natural grain had
-become much intensified, due to a slight shrinkage of the leather,
-and showed as a particularly effective breaking up of the surface.
-Some such chance led him to make definite experiments with a view to
-exaggerating the natural grain of morocco, and he very soon found out
-that if a damped skin was well rolled in one direction it assumed
-permanently what is now known as a “straight” grain. That is to say,
-the surface of the leather is lined in the same sort of way as a
-ploughed field is, but not quite so regularly. The ridges and furrows
-all run in one direction. Several of Payne’s bindings are bound in
-straight grain morocco, but judging from his own work, he never got any
-farther with his graining.
-
-At a later time, I think towards the middle of the nineteenth century,
-it was found out that if the process of straight graining was carried
-out a second time at right angles to the first operation, the little
-straight furrows and ridges were broken up, and a surface was produced
-that consisted of a series of minute hillocks, like a field that has
-been harrowed, and this is known as a “pin-head” grain. Both these
-grainings improve the strength of the leather, as it contracts after
-the wetting and also the wear falls on the tops of the ridges or
-hillocks before it reaches the body of the leather.
-
-French binders have always preferred smooth or crushed morocco for
-their bindings, as it is easier to gild upon. Morocco is sensitive to
-damp, and if affected it quickly betrays it by giving out the strong
-scent of goat which is normally quite absent.
-
-Two new leathers have been recently put upon the market as rivals
-of morocco: one of these is seal skin and the other the skin of the
-sea-lion.
-
-Seal skin is finished in the same way as morocco and looks very like
-it, but it is, I think, not so good. It is softer, more full of oil and
-has a peculiar, almost fishy, smell. The softness of seal leather makes
-it unfit for binding books that are likely to have much hard wear, but
-the oiliness is probably its worst fault, as books standing next to it
-are apt to be stained. But it is undoubtedly a good-looking and useful
-leather, and if it can be put upon the market at a less cost than
-morocco it is sure to have a considerable vogue. Sea-lion skin is only
-fit for use on big books; it is very strong and is curiously ridged in
-large ridges. It has the same oiliness that seal has, but not in so
-marked a degree.
-
-There are, of course, several other leathers in which books have been
-bound as curiosities, and these are generally noted in some way; a book
-in the British Museum is lettered outside “Kangaroo,” and manuscript
-notes are in others telling us in what strange materials they are
-covered. Fish skin, known as shagreen, has sometimes been used for
-bindings; it is very strong but inelastic, and soon goes at the joints.
-In the seventeenth century it was largely imitated in calf, stamped
-with a grain.
-
-Perhaps the most curious leather in which any book can be bound is
-human skin. Such treasures are by no means unknown. It is said that a
-friend of Camille Flammarion the French writer, possessed beautiful
-shoulders, and that when she died she bequeathed her skin to him as he
-had always admired it. He had the skin tanned and used some of it for
-a binding of one of his own books, “Ciel et Terre.” There are other
-examples in private ownership, but so far as public libraries are
-concerned the only instance I know of is now in the Carnavalet Library
-at Paris. It is a copy of the Constitution of 1793, and is bound in the
-skin of one of the revolutionaries who was killed at the time. The skin
-was tanned at Meudon. Human skin, undyed, looks like thick calf, and it
-is most difficult to get entirely rid of the hair.
-
-It is to be regretted that of late years the desire for beautifully
-coloured leathers has induced the need for much treatment before the
-dyes, mostly aniline, could be properly applied. In the course of
-this treatment there has been an undue use of sulphuric acid, and the
-presence of this acid is fatal to the lasting qualities of any leather.
-Attention has, however, been drawn to the evil from authoritative
-sources, and now sound leathers can be obtained, and it is to be hoped
-that the public will second the endeavours of the committee appointed
-by the Society of Arts by always insisting on the use of sound and
-certified leather to bind their valuable books in.
-
-
-BOOKS TO CONSULT.
-
-SOCIETY OF ARTS.--Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding.
-_London_, 1905.
-
-LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.--Leather for Libraries. _London_, 1905.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD.
-
-
-  Blind tooling and stamping--Panel stamps--Cut leather--Stained
-  calf--Cut vellum--Transparent vellum.
-
-The true binding of a book consists of the sewing of the sections on
-bands, and the covering of leather is really wanted to protect the
-threads on the outer surfaces of the raised bands.
-
-But this is generally taken for granted, and now when we speak of the
-binding of a book we normally mean only the outside ornamentation.
-In short, the term has changed its meaning; so in the remainder of
-this chapter, when I speak of the “binding” of a book, it is to be
-understood as the generally accepted meaning: namely, those parts of
-the leather covering that are visible.
-
-From an artistic and æsthetic point of view we are justified in
-considering only the final ornamentation of a book binding. We rightly
-presume that in all great bindings, and even in the case of most good
-bindings, the technical procedures have all been truly and properly
-carried out. It is safe to presume this in the case of all bindings
-made before the latter half of the nineteenth century, but I regret
-to say that it is not safe to say it of bindings made then and later.
-There has been much improper use made of false bands, false headbands,
-“sawn in” backs, bad leather, and scamped sewing of sections even in
-books costing upwards of a hundred pounds for their bindings.
-
-The consideration of the ornamentation of leather bindings without
-the use of gold is of itself a large study, and one that has received
-much attention of late years. In the trade, ornamental outside work is
-called “finishing,” as distinct from the previous work, which is known
-as the “forwarding.” As a rule, now, these operations are not done by
-the same hands, but a finisher does the finishing only and makes it his
-speciality.
-
-Patterns stamped on leather by means of punches or small dies are found
-in numbers of early instances on horse trappings, shoes and boots, and
-accoutrements of various sorts; and almost as soon as it was found out
-that skins of animals could be rendered soft so as to be wearable, it
-was also found out that they could be ornamented by patterns cut or
-impressed upon them.
-
-Such patterns are made when the leather is damp and soft, and on drying
-they become hard and permanent. Many of the earlier impressions made on
-leather bindings are done by means of hard styles held in the hand and
-drawn along the leather. Beautiful Celtic interlacings done in this way
-are found in the ancient Irish “polaires” or book covers. Others are
-small ornamental stamps which have been impressed on the leather in the
-same way as we now make an ordinary seal.
-
-One of the earliest instances of a leather binding with ornamental
-covers is on a Coptic MS. on papyrus, dating from about the eighth
-century, which has been originally stabbed, and the pattern is an
-interlacing one with ornamented fillets, between which are impressions
-from small cameo stamps. In time special tools were carefully cut
-in hard wood or metal for the avowed purpose of ornamenting leather
-bindings. The exact date at which this occurred it is impossible to say.
-
-So far as Europe is concerned, the earliest known blind tooled bindings
-range from about the twelfth century onwards. Earlier books were
-either covered with the rich metal and jewelled mediæval work that I
-have already noticed, or else bound in vellum with ties and without
-ornamentation.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 86.--English blind tooled binding, 12th century.
-London.]
-
-In England the art of blind tooling reached its highest level from the
-twelfth to the fourteenth century, and, thanks to the researches of
-Mr. W. H. J. Weale, there is little doubt that the English excelled in
-this art. The Germans succeeded best after the English, but German work
-never approaches the English, either for excellence of general design
-or for delicacy and beauty of the small engraved stamps. The English
-work was on goat skin or calf, the German generally on pig skin.
-
-The stamps used in blind tooling--that is to say, without gold--are
-cut in the same manner as a seal stone is, only that the cutting is
-much deeper, and in deep places needs no finishing. When this is
-pressed upon the soft, damp leather, the leather rises up of itself
-into the deep hollows cut in the stamp, and so a charming, natural, and
-apparently much studied relief is automatically given. Such stamps are
-called “cameo” stamps because of this relief.
-
-The general typical arrangements used by England, Germany, and France
-in planning out the disposition of the stamps is a subject that is
-deserving of careful attention by any student of blind stamped work.
-Some valuable plans of these dispositions can be found in Mr. W. H.
-J. Weale’s _Catalogue of Bookbindings and Rubbings of Bindings in the
-National Art Library, South Kensington_, and they are well worthy of
-study.
-
-Roughly, it will be found that the most elaborate of these bindings
-have come from Durham, London, Winchester, or Oxford, that series of
-close perpendicular lines of small stamps are characteristic of French
-early stamped work, and that the marking out of the boards with large
-lozenges is a German plan. But these types must not be studied alone,
-as they travelled about freely; the character of the stamps themselves,
-as well as the leather used, must all receive careful consideration.
-
-London bindings often show perpendicular lines of stamps, sometimes
-touching, sometimes separate; several of the stamps are round, and
-others drop-shaped.
-
-The Winchester Domesday Book, now in the library of the Society of
-Antiquaries, is a beautiful and typical specimen of English twelfth
-century blind tooling. It is bound in deep brown goat skin, and each
-side is differently ornamented.
-
-The upper board shows an arrangement of two large circles, largely
-made up by impressions of the common English drop-shaped stamps. These
-circles are flanked by two rows of rectangular stamps bearing monsters,
-and the corners are filled in with circular and drop-shaped stamps.
-
-Durham bindings must be studied at Durham Cathedral, where Bishop
-Pudsey’s books are kept. They are twelfth century work, and splendid
-examples. On some of these bindings occur interlacings of basket work
-designs, borrowed from the East.
-
-One of the most curious English bindings in existence is known as St.
-Cuthbert’s Gospels. Its history is of great interest. It is a copy
-of the Gospel of St. John, and is said to have been buried with St.
-Cuthbert at Lindisfarne in the seventh century. The saint’s coffin was
-shortly afterwards moved to Durham. The tomb was opened in the reign
-of Henry I. in 1105, when the little copy of the Gospel was found in
-it, and removed and kept in the treasury at Durham.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 87.--English binding of St. Cuthbert’s Gospels, in
-embossed leather.]
-
-It then passed through many hands, and at last found a home at Liège,
-whence one of the Jesuit Fathers brought it to Stonyhurst College,
-where it now is.
-
-The binding is of thin lime wood covered with red leather, the upper
-board is ornamented with a nearly square central panel bearing a Celtic
-scroll in raised work. Above and below this are two rectangular panels
-ornamented with scroll-work impressed with a style and coloured by
-hand with blue and yellow paint. A narrow border is ornamented with a
-twisted line painted yellow. On the lower cover is a geometrical design
-drawn in lines and also coloured yellow.
-
-It is not known what the date of this binding is, and it is likely
-enough that the extraordinary state of preservation in which it still
-is may be due either to very careful keeping, or else that the seventh
-century work has been carefully copied on one or other of the many
-occasions during which such copy could easily have been made.
-
-Mr. Gordon Duff inclines to about the tenth century, but I should
-imagine that the most likely time for such a copy to be made was when
-the tomb of St. Cuthbert was opened in 1105, and the book, then some
-four hundred years old, was removed. It is likely enough that the
-authorities of the Cathedral library treasury at Durham would have
-admired the binding, which was probably much out of condition, and had
-it carefully copied in new leather.
-
-Even if it were made then, it would still be the earliest decorative
-English binding left, apart from blind tooled work, and it is
-undoubtedly a most decorative and effective example. But it is
-permissible to think and hope that at all events it preserves the
-colour and designs of the seventh century binding, which was the first
-cover of the old manuscript.
-
-Another very early English binding, covering a Latin Psalter of the
-early twelfth century with interlinear Saxon version, is now kept in
-the British Museum among the Stowe collection.
-
-It is bound in oaken boards nearly an inch thick, the central portion
-of which is hollowed into a rectangular depression. On the lower board
-is a bronze figure of our Lord in the attitude of the Crucifixion.
-The figure has been gilded, but most of the gold has now worn off.
-The corners have small bosses set in triangular pieces of thin metal,
-which are impressed with a design of a _fleur-de-lys_ in outline within
-a circle. The boards are covered with brown leather, much worn and
-faded, probably deer skin, and the brass fastenings for a clasp still
-remain _in situ_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 88.--English binding of the twelfth century, with
-bronze figure of Christ.]
-
-The history of the book is as curious as the book itself; there are
-several manuscript notes in it, and also much has been written about it.
-
-It appears to be the original book on which our sovereigns took their
-coronation oath, and it seems to have been so used from the coronation
-of Henry I. to that of Henry VII.
-
-Powell in his _Repertory of Records_ mentions this as a fact, and it
-was repeated by Thos. Madox, historiographer, and also by Thos. Astle,
-Keeper of the Records in the Tower of London, to whom it belonged, and
-it is believed to have been written and bound for the coronation of
-Henry I.
-
-From the library of Thomas Astle the little book passed into the
-possession of the Marquis of Buckingham, and was kept at Stowe in a
-beautiful Gothic room built for a library. In June, 1849, the Stowe
-library changed hands and became the property of Lord Ashburnham, and
-in 1883 it was acquired by the Trustees of the British Museum.
-
-So the coronation book is now the property of the nation, and in
-company with the greater part of the Stowe library, but the Irish MSS.,
-some of them in beautiful bindings, went to Ireland, where they are now
-safely kept in the library of the Royal Irish Academy.
-
-Caxton’s styles of binding are not distinctively English in character.
-The reason for this is that in all probability he brought foreign
-stamps and styles with him when he returned from Bruges and set up in
-Westminster in 1477. So the few blind stamped bindings that appear
-to have issued from Caxton’s workshop bear the diamond-shaped spaces
-characteristic of foreign work, filled with impressions for cameo
-stamps, often triangular. Wynkyn de Worde used the same stamps.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 89.--English blind tooled bindings. Caxton. (1491.)]
-
-White deer skin bindings were used much in England in the fifteenth
-century; they were unornamented, and usually had small clasps. A fine
-copy of the Book of St. Albans, in a contemporary binding of this kind,
-was recently sold by Mr. Quaritch.
-
-A curious treatise in bookbinding, the earliest known, is in the
-Bibliothèque Nationale; but there are two treatises by John Bagford
-which may be of about the same date, early in the eighteenth century.
-These treatises have been published by the Bibliographical Society,
-and are full of interesting matter. Bagford mentions inscriptions on
-stone, “slate books,” or diptychs, paste-boards, sewing, headbands,
-covers, bosses, clasps, horn books, and gives curious rules for
-collating, folding, and binding.
-
-At Oxford fine blind tooled bindings were produced in considerable
-numbers. In the fifteenth century Theodoric Rood and Thomas Hunt did
-fine work, and in the seventeenth, Dominick Pinart and Edward Miles
-were especially prominent. The main characteristic of early Oxford
-bindings is the presence of small rectangular stamps closely arranged
-in rows.
-
-Cambridge has also been notable among English towns for the production
-of fine blind tooled bindings. The main characteristic of these
-bindings may, perhaps, be considered to be the existence of rolls on
-which are variations of the Royal Tudor badges, rose, fleur-de-lys,
-portcullis, the castle of De Beaufort, and the pomegranate. Larger
-rolls have devices of monsters, and frequently the initials of the
-binders may be found.
-
-In the sixteenth century the works of Garrett Godfrey, Nicholas
-Spierinck and John Siberch are, perhaps, most usually met with. They
-show the initials of their respective binders.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 90.--French blind stamped binding of the sixteenth
-century. With figure of S. Barbara.]
-
-Blind tooled bindings of French origin are numerous enough, especially
-those impressed with panel stamps. The main characteristic of early
-work is the existence of perpendicular lines of blind tooling, but
-although this peculiarity is oftener found on French work than on any
-other, it is by no means unknown in bindings made by English and German
-workmen, so must not be taken as an absolute proof of French origin if
-unsupported by other evidence.
-
-Late in the fifteenth century the panel stamp was invented in Holland,
-or the Netherlands, and it soon attained a great measure of popularity.
-It reached England in the early part of the sixteenth century, and
-although at first foreign dies were freely used here, in time our
-native binders made their own.
-
-In France and Germany panel stamps were also popular, used on calf
-bindings, but I think that in Italy it never made much headway.
-
-The Netherlands panel stamps often have the names of the binders upon
-them, Bollcaert, Bloc, and many more, and the same valuable information
-is also often found on French panel stamps of the sixteenth century.
-
-The best known names are André Boule, Jean Moulin, R. Macé, and Denis
-Roce. All these are plentiful, and are often found in excellent
-condition. The English panel stamps do not bear names upon them, but
-they often have initials, but whether it is safe to interpret these
-is difficult to say. We generally consider that J. R. stands for
-John Reynes, I. N. for Jean Norins, R. L. for Richard Lant, G. G.
-for Garrett Godfrey, R. P. for Richard Pynson, and so on; but it is
-probable, anyhow, that although panel stamps of English design bearing
-these initials were used here, they were largely of foreign, probably
-Netherlandish, origin.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 91.--English blind stamped binding, with the arms
-of Henry VIII.]
-
-In the early sixteenth century in England, heraldry was an important
-science, and began to show itself as a fertile source of ornamentation
-of bindings. Many of the panel stamps of the early Tudor period are
-heraldic. The most interesting of these stamps is one which is found
-in combination with several others; it seems to be a sort of backbone.
-The design consists of a large Tudor rose, partly enclosed by ribbon
-on which is the legend HEC ROSA VIRTUTIS DE CŒLO MISSA SERENO ETERNUM
-FLORENS REGIA SCEPTRA FERET.
-
-At the side are two angels and in the corners the arms of London and
-the Cross of St. George.
-
-Then there are numbers of other stamps bearing in the centre the
-coat-of-arms of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. up to 1526, namely, France
-and England quarterly, with supporters, the red dragon of Cadwallader
-and the white greyhound of De Beaufort.
-
-Belonging to the same school of design are fine panel stamps bearing
-the armorial devices of Anne Boleyn and Queen Katharine Parr.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 92.--English sixteenth century panel stamp, with
-the initials of Julian Notary.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 93.--English blind stamped binding, with the arms
-of Queen Katherine of Arragon.]
-
-The question as to whether these stamps are royal or not inevitably
-occurs to any student, but as with one or two exceptions they carry
-with them extraneous ornament, such as the sun and moon, and arms of
-London, I think that any such stamp cannot have been royal, but it is
-possible enough that when the royal arms alone are found the stamp
-may have been originally cut for royalty. Such stamps as these are
-very strong and are not likely to have ever been worn out--indeed, it
-is curious that instances of unauthorised use of royal stamps is not
-commoner than it is.
-
-One of the most curious of these panel stamps, not armorial, is one
-which bears upon it the device of John Reynes. It shows a fancy
-coat-of-arms on which are the emblems of the Passion, with two unicorns
-as supporters, a royal helmet, above which are scourges, &c., and a
-crowing cock, and below on a ribbon the words “Arma redemptoris mundi.”
-One cannot forget here that Dame Juliana Berners, in the Boke of Cote
-Armour, declares the Christ was a gentleman of coat armour by right of
-his mother Mary.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 94.--English blind stamped binding, with arms of
-Christ. Bound by John Reynes, c. 1530.]
-
-The English panel stamps, as well as rolls, of the early Tudor period
-often bear the Tudor badges of double or Tudor rose, the fleur-de-lys,
-and the portcullis of the De Beauforts. These badges are usually
-crowned.
-
-Panel stamps were cut on latten, a metal alloy resembling brass. The
-thin engraved plate was fixed on a wooden block by means of two pegs,
-and the impression was made on the leather either by the use of a
-hammer or by means of weights, very likely by a combination of both
-these, methods.
-
-After a time the pegs worked loose, and very frequently panel stamps
-are found in which the impression from these loosened pegs can be seen.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 95.--English blind stamped binding. Pynson, 1499.]
-
-Many German calf bindings of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth
-centuries are beautifully ornamented with cut work. The outlines of
-the designs are cut with a sharp small knife held slantingly, and
-afterwards worked into shape with blunted tools. The designs upon these
-bindings are often very fine, and the workmanship is most skilled and
-effective. The earliest example I know of is elaborately ornamented
-on the upper board with a groundwork of floral scrolls, and has in
-the centre the Austrian coat-of-arms supported on an eagle, which is
-stained black. On a scroll above the eagle are the words “Fridericus
-rex, etc., 1451” and below it in a long panel the letters “A E I O U,”
-standing for the proud motto “Austria est imperare orbi universo.”
-Along the lower edge is cut the name of the binder, “Petrus Ligator.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 96.--German cut leather binding, made for the
-Emperor Frederick of Austria. Dated 1451.]
-
-Hunting scenes and scenes of religious life are usually found on these
-early German cut leather bindings, now and then, as in the case of the
-splendid sixteenth century copy of Ranierus de Pisa’s _Pantheologia_,
-now in the British Museum, showing a monk at his desk; the borders
-are ornamented with small stamps. Cut leather bindings are done with
-consummate skill, and must always have been very costly, so we find
-that they were, and are, very cleverly imitated by skilfully cut
-stamps. An example of this is so well done that it has over and over
-again been described as hand work, but in fact it is only a stamp.
-German leather workers are still pre-eminent in this small cut manner.
-At the St. Louis Exhibition of 1904, in the German section there were
-several examples of cut leather work done in exactly the same way as
-the fifteenth century work--and quite as good. It is not only used for
-book bindings but also to cover boxes and small articles, but as we
-have noted in the case of earlier work, many modern apparently hand-cut
-German leathers are really only impressions from large panel stamps.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 97.--English blind stamped binding, with the arms
-of Henry VIII.]
-
-Notable among German bindings are those made by John Richenbach, of
-Gyslingen, who lettered and dated many of his fine volumes. The dates
-run from 1467 onwards. There is one fine example in the British Museum;
-it is like all the rest, in pig skin, and stamped in blind, a little
-transparent colour being put over many of the stamps. Round the outer
-borders of the boards runs the inscription in large black letters:
-
-  ILLIGATA PER ME IO. RICHENBACH CAPELLANU IN GYSLINGEN, 1475.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 98.--German binding, by J. Richenbach. Dated 1475.]
-
-All Richenbach’s bindings are still thoroughly strong and good, and
-the small touch of colour upon them redeems them from the monotony of
-colour which is so marked in the later German bindings in white pig
-skin.
-
-German blind tooled bindings are very numerous, as the art was always
-much liked by German binders, and whereas both in England and in France
-blind tooling and stamping quickly gave way before the more beautiful
-and popular art of gold tooling, in Germany the quieter blind work
-has retained its supremacy. German binders never took kindly to gold
-tooling, and when they had to do it they generally used bad metal.
-Most early German gold tooled work is now badly discoloured for this
-reason.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 99.--German stamped leather binding with portrait
-of Charles V. Dated 1570.]
-
-German bindings in calf are usually designed with a central panel
-crossed by diagonals at considerable intervals, and in the diamonds
-thus formed are impressions of various stamps. On white pig skin,
-however, are to be found the most characteristic of the German
-blind tooled works. We find large books elaborately ornamented with
-impressions of finely cut “cameo” rolls, and having a centre panel
-stamp showing the portrait of some notable person, or a coat-of-arms.
-The rolls are worthy of much attention, as they are very carefully
-designed and beautifully cut. They show an infinite variety of
-designs, and may be roughly divided into two classes, namely, those
-showing human figures, busts in profile, and those only bearing
-floral or arabesque designs. Among the former there is a long series
-of allegorical figures, all with their respective emblems, and often
-lettered and dated. There are Faith, Hope and Charity; Sweetness,
-Prudence, Justice; figures of the Evangelists, Christ, David, St.
-Paul, Lucretia, and heads of the reformers, Luther, Melancthon and Hus
-particularly.
-
-Some of the German panel stamps are very large, also numerous and
-finely cut. There are splendidly executed stamps of Charles V. and
-other distinguished personages, emperors and grand dukes, Rudolf and
-many others, and others of Luther and Melancthon. Some of these are
-set in an arabesque framing with a space left in the middle for an
-insertion. These are found impressed on calf and on pig skin, and the
-dies of many of them are most beautifully cut.
-
-Several of the later calf bindings, done in the eighteenth and
-nineteenth century, show an infinite variety of marblings, sprinklings
-and “tree” patternings, done with one or other of the most appropriate
-chemicals--potash, soda, oxalic acid--run on when the leather is wet.
-But one and all of these rot away the surface wherever they touch
-it, and many of these books can now be found from which the original
-dyed spots have all entirely disappeared, leaving, however, a little
-eaten-out depression in every case.
-
-James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a style of ornamenting calf by
-means of ordinary book stamps loaded with acid. The result is not
-unpleasing, and such books are known as “Etruscan,” because many of
-the designs are of classical feeling--little urns, the Greek fret and
-the like. But Edwards’ little acid burnt designs are only used as
-accessories; there is plenty of gold work and ordinary blind work upon
-them as well.
-
-John Whitaker, another eighteenth century binder, went a step further,
-and drew designs upon his calf bindings with pen or brush. Some of
-these are very effective, but as a rule they are now showing the
-effects of time, the original darkest places, where the acid has
-been most freely applied, suffering first, and showing the pale calf
-underneath. But a fine specimen of Whitaker’s work is much to be
-prized. He also used the “Etruscan” style. He had many imitators, but
-whereas Whitaker’s bindings are generally ornamented with figure
-drawings, the imitators as a rule preferred easier subjects--ruins or
-landscapes.
-
-Calf with the rough side outwards, like brown velvet, was used in
-England from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, sometimes
-tooled in blind and sometimes in gold.
-
-Vellum was used at Little Gidding. One such book is covered in vellum
-painted orange colour and overlaid with openwork designs cut in white
-vellum. It is a harmony of the Gospels. The centre design is circular,
-and the corners have quarter circles. They are all helped with a little
-gold tooling.
-
-In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries several small French and
-Dutch books were prettily ornamented with vellum cut in openwork
-patterns. Underneath the open places bits of coloured silk are laid.
-They are dainty but not very successful, as small edges and points of
-the vellum are apt to curl up and catch.
-
-James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a curious way of making vellum
-transparent, and patented it in 1785. The vellum had to be soaked in
-pearlash and subjected to various processes, pressure among them, and
-cut very thin indeed, so as to be more like goldbeater’s skin than
-anything else. Then the books were covered with fine white paper and
-painted, generally in monotone, but sometimes in colour, and over
-this painting the transparent vellum was skilfully fixed. The result
-is that, except when the thin vellum is cracked or seen through,
-the painting underneath is as fresh as ever it was; but it is to be
-presumed that there is not much wearing strength in Edwards’ vellum,
-chiefly because of its extreme thinness. But as a rule any fine
-examples of his work, especially as they look dainty and precious,
-have always been well kept and highly valued, and are in good and
-clean condition. Some modern binders have essayed Edwards’ plan with a
-certain measure of success.
-
-Impressions of designs in low relief were made on thin leather
-bindings by means of engraved cylinders in the earlier half of the
-nineteenth century. They were chiefly used in the small and beautifully
-illustrated periodicals which were so popular in England--_The Age_,
-_Friendship’s Offering_, and many more--issued during the earlier half
-of the nineteenth century and a little after it. Charming designs in
-cameo are often found in these cases, on paste-boards covered with thin
-leather, but they are nearly always rubbed badly in projecting places.
-Some of the best of these designs are by Remnant and Edmonds, Smith
-Elder & Co., and De La Rue & Co.
-
-
-BOOKS TO CONSULT.
-
-BAGFORD’S Notes on Bookbinding. (Bibliographical Soc. Proceedings, Nov.
-16, 1903.)
-
-BICKELL, L.--Buchereinbände des XV. bis, XVIII. Jahrhunderts aus
-hessischen Bibliotheken. _Leipzig_, 1892.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--Les reluires d’Art à la Bibliothèque Nationale. _Paris_,
-1888.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding. _London_,
-1898.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Early London Bookbindings. _London._ (_The Queen_,
-1891.)
-
-DUFF, E. G.--Early Stamped Bindings. (Prideaux, S. T.) _London_, 1893.
-
-GIBSON, S.--Early Oxford Bindings. _London_, 1903.
-
-GIBSON, S.--Some Notable Bodleian Bindings. _Oxford_, 1901-4.
-
-GRAY, G. J.--The Earlier Cambridge Bookbinders. _London_, 1904.
-
-GRAY, G. J.--A Note upon Early Cambridge Binders of the Sixteenth
-Century. _Cambridge_, 1900.
-
-GROLIER CLUB, New York.--Catalogue of Decorated Early English
-Bookbindings exhibited ... 1899. _New York_, 1899.
-
-LINDSAY, J. L. (_Earl of Crawford_).--Early Bindings Exhibited at the
-Society of Antiquaries. _London_, 1886.
-
-WEALE, W. H. J.--Catalogue of Bookbindings ... in the National Art
-Library, South Kensington. _London_, 1894.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD.
-
-
-  Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice--Early
-  Italian gold tooled work--The spread of gold tooling in
-  Europe--Modern work--Gold tooling in leather--Early Venetian gold
-  tooled bindings--The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John
-  Gibson, Mary Collet, Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and Chapman,
-  Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering, Kalthœber, Staggemeier,
-  Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Sir Edw. Sullivan,
-  Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, S. Prideaux, Adams, Etienne Roffet,
-  Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier,
-  Macé Ruette, L. A. Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. Le Monnier, Derome le
-  Jeune, Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic.
-
-The art of gold tooling on leather appears to have been known in
-Eastern countries before it was known in the West. There are signs of
-it in Saracenic work of the early fifteenth century, but it cannot be
-quite certain whether much of this work was not simply painted with
-gold. If a blind line is carefully painted with gold shell and then
-burnished with a fine agate, a gilded line can be made that looks
-nearly as well as a properly gold tooled line. No doubt a considerable
-proportion of early gold tooling was done in this way, and some of it
-was not even burnished.
-
-Some early Venetian bindings show gold spaces gilded with gold leaf in
-a very effective way, and in the Bodleian some English panel stamps of
-the early sixteenth century are gilded all over.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Italian gold tooled binding, 1514.]
-
-There is little doubt that gold tooling, done as it is now, was known
-to the Venetians towards the end of the fifteenth century. It is a
-curious art, and depends for its wonderful strength upon the fact
-that albumen hardens with heat. The method used is simple: a stamp is
-impressed in blind on the leather, and then the impression is painted
-over with glaire of egg--albumen. When the albumen is dry it is again
-painted over with palm oil or cocoa-nut oil, and on this a piece of
-gold leaf is laid. The stamp is now heated, and when it is of the
-proper temperature it is very carefully reimpressed in exactly the same
-place as at first.
-
-The heat of the stamp congeals the albumen under the gold, and the
-now gilded impression is likely enough to be the strongest part of
-the leather. I have often found old leather bindings badly worn away,
-but the gold tooled work and lettering still remaining in places.
-Thus, instead of being _impressed_, as it originally was, it is all in
-_relief_, because the albumen has soaked into the leather a little and
-then been hardened, so that instead of gilded hollows we find little
-mountains with golden tops.
-
-But to counterbalance this possible advantage, the albumen presents a
-weak point. On an old gold tooled binding it is not uncommon to find
-that a golden curve is partly gone; half of it perhaps shows no longer
-as a thin gold line, but only as a shallow trench, hollowed out of the
-leather. The meaning of this is that the albumen provides a nourishing
-meal for some small grub, which, once it gets the trail, will follow
-it, if not disturbed half over the book, and with wonderful accuracy
-will eat away gold, albumen, and a little leather, following curves,
-leaves, and letterings with close fidelity.
-
-This particular damage is most liable to occur in instances where books
-are laid down in show cases on cloth or velvet and not often moved.
-The soft groundwork allows the grub more freedom than if the book is
-standing up closely packed with others on a shelf.
-
-The small gilt roundels found on early Persian and Arabic bindings as
-well as on early Venetian work, were set with some sort of gesso under
-the gold.
-
-The trade of Venice with the East brought these matters of ornamented
-leather to the notice of Venetian bookbinders, and these, men of
-consummate taste, at once saw the possibilities of the new art. Indeed,
-the Italian gold tooled bindings of the late fourteenth century are the
-finest that have ever yet been made, even though many of them are quite
-Oriental in feeling and others very strongly so. But the Venetians soon
-crept away from the Eastern trammels and evolved beautiful styles of
-their own. One of the first of these styles was the careful mingling
-of blind tooled lines with gilded lines; another was the use of small
-gilded roundels--themselves an Oriental idea--in connection with blind
-tooling and blind tooling coloured by hand.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Cameo stamp of Apollo and Pegasus found on
-binding that belonged to D. Canevari. Italian, sixteenth century.]
-
-Then at an early date the Italians hit upon the effective use of
-so-called “cameo” stamps. These were sometimes cut on a flat piece of
-metal, as the “Canevari” stamps are, and sometimes on a bossed piece of
-metal, as the Alexander and Cæsar are. When on the binding these stamps
-show as a depression with the design in relief within it.
-
-Many of the smaller stamps of this period are worthy of notice. There
-is the “Arabic” knot, used on Aldine binding and derived from an
-Oriental original from basket work, as many of the early stamps are,
-the Florentine leaf and the Aldine dolphin.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Italian gold tooled binding made for Jean
-Grolier.]
-
-Then there is no doubt that many of the finest of the bindings made
-for Jean Grolier were Italian. Who designed them and who bound them
-we do not know, but among the earlier examples there is no doubt that
-splendid work can be found. They may have been done in the workshop
-of Aldus Manutius, but it rather seems that the designs were made by
-one man, and I think it is not unlikely that Grolier himself may have
-always given the general idea of the decoration he wanted.
-
-The later bindings made for Grolier are curiously inferior, and
-sometimes in calf. The earlier and finer bindings are in morocco, which
-is sometimes marbled. The words “GROLIERII ET AMICORUM” are always put
-upon such bindings as were made for him, and the legend “PORTIO MEA
-DOMINE SIT IN TERRA VIVENTIUM” also generally appears in the centre of
-one or other of the boards.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Italian gold tooled binding made for Jean
-Grolier, 1532.]
-
-Whenever Grolier acquired a book which was already very finely bound
-he added his autograph either on the flyleaf at the beginning or at
-the end. Grolier was the first collector to have his books bound in a
-particular way for himself.
-
-“Grolier” bindings have been very freely imitated, especially by a
-native of Bologna, who worked a good deal for Count Guglielmo Libri,
-a great collector, and unfortunately the style lends itself well to
-imitation. A fraudulent finisher looks out for an old Italian book of
-the right date, bound in plain leather. Then he copies parts from one
-or other of the many Groliers which can be seen and studied by any
-Londoner or Parisian for the asking, and if he is fairly clever at his
-trade it will take a very skilled expert to detect the fraud. Many such
-imitations are about, and every day they become more like genuine
-examples.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 104.--English gold tooled binding by Thos.
-Berthelet. Made for Henry VIII.]
-
-The styles of binding that have been most largely and successfully
-imitated are those made for Jean Grolier, Henri II. and of his period,
-and the so-called “Canevari” bindings.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 105.--English binding by Thos. Berthelet, 1552.
-Made for Edward VI.]
-
-From Italy the art of gold tooling rapidly spread through Europe, and
-took hold particularly in England and France. There is no doubt that
-an Italian gilder came to England and taught Thomas Berthelet, binder
-and printer to Henry VIII. Not only are numbers of Berthelet’s stamps
-of distinctly Italian character, but in many of his lists of books
-he describes particular examples as being bound “after the Italian
-fascion.” But Berthelet quickly enough evolved a style of his own. It
-appears to me that English binders have from the time of Berthelet
-until now succeeded better than those of any other nation in the
-ornamentation of large books. In small books the palm must be given to
-Italian and French binders, but large books have always puzzled the
-best of these, and even Le Gascon has not been successful with them.
-
-Many of the large books bound by Thomas Berthelet are as fine as any
-such books can be. His best work was, naturally enough, done for
-royalty, but he set the fashion for smaller binders, and although there
-is a want of minute finish and technical accuracy in everything he did,
-Berthelet’s fine work will always give him a place in the first rank of
-bookbinders of this or any other country.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 106.--English inlaid and gold tooled binding by
-John Day. Made for Queen Elizabeth.]
-
-After Berthelet’s time gold tooling became general in England, but the
-binders who used it are anonymous. There are some fine calf bindings
-with inlays of white leather which were made in the reign of Queen
-Elizabeth, on which appear the initials I. D. P., perhaps “John Day
-Pegit,” and which are credited to John Day, but it is by no means
-certain that they were done by that eminent printer. The style of
-leather bindings of Elizabeth’s reign departed finally from that of
-Berthelet, and more variety is found than at any other period. The
-Oriental fashion of double boards was re-introduced, the centre panels
-being filled with delicate paintings, portraits or coat-of-arms, and
-the remainder of the boards variously ornamented with inlays of white
-leather, toolings in gold and silver, and impressions from stamps cut
-in arabesques. Some of these bindings are coloured, that is to say,
-the arabesques, curves or flowers are painted by hand with some kind
-of enamel paint. The main source of such coloured bindings was Lyons,
-from which centre numbers of them were issued, but the fashion was
-one which appealed to the English liking for colour, and many fine
-examples, often heraldic, were made here. In royal bindings at all
-times heraldry has played an important part, but from the middle of
-the sixteenth century onwards it plays an equally important part on
-bindings made for ordinary armigerous people.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Italian inlaid and gold tooled binding in
-Oriental style. Made for Queen Elizabeth.]
-
-Letterings often appear on the sides of bindings of the Tudor period,
-mottoes, initials and names. Towards the end of the sixteenth century a
-few bindings are found on which are semis of triple dots. This is the
-beginning of the style which reached its ultimate form in the next
-century. Also small triangular corner stamps occur now and then. These
-also developed and eventually became one of the most characteristic
-marks of Jacobean bindings.
-
-When James VI. of Scotland came here as our James I. he may have
-brought with him John Gibson, who was his binder in Scotland. Lists
-of books bound by this binder still exist, but no book or binding
-mentioned by him has so far been identified. But there are some
-remarkable books among those which were certainly bound for James I.
-which are not like the general type of his bindings, and it is likely
-enough that these may be Gibson’s work. The style is a very fine one,
-and the workmanship strong and good, but not, in my opinion, correct
-enough to have been done by a foreign binder. The same binder did
-some of the re-binding for Henry Prince of Wales, and one of its
-characteristics is a dotted fillet of double lines.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 108.--The book stamp of Robert Dudley, Earl of
-Leicester.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 109.--The book stamp of Lord Burleigh.]
-
-It is probable that many of the richer bindings of the early
-seventeenth century were the work of John and Abraham Bateman, the
-king’s printers and binders, but, in spite of lists, this is again
-only speculation. There is no doubt that about this time many bindings
-were made which would now be called trade bindings as apart from
-art bindings. Trade bindings often enough follow art bindings at a
-respectable distance, and they are rarely made on original lines.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 110.--English binding by Thos. Berthelet, 1537,
-with the title on the sides.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 111.--English Jacobean corner stamp.]
-
-Following the lead given by some of the later Elizabethan bindings,
-we find from about 1603 to 1625 a considerable output of very showy
-bindings, with elaborate semis or powderings of small stamps all over
-the groundwork, very large and over-elaborated corner stamps and
-centres of arabesque or heraldic motives.
-
-Students of English royal bindings must note that with the coming
-of James I. to the English throne, a great change was made in the
-English coat-of-arms. The coat which had been used from the time of
-Edward III., namely, France and England quarterly, was now used as
-a quartering only, and shows in the first and fourth quarters. In
-the second quarter we find the ancient coat of Scotland, or, a lion
-rampant within a double tressure flory counterflory gu., and in the
-third quarter comes the coat of Ireland, az., the harp of Apollo Grian,
-stringed ar, _or_., given, it is supposed, by Henry VIII. as a mark of
-admiration for the musical excellence of the Irish.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 112.--English gold-tooled binding made for James I.]
-
-Also the late Tudor supporters of the lion and dragon give place to the
-familiar lion and unicorn. The unicorn is one of the ancient supporters
-of the Scottish coat. It is interesting to note in passing that the
-present official coat of Scotland is, first and fourth Scotland, second
-England, and third Ireland, with two unicorns as supporters. It appears
-on Scottish official bindings. The interpretation of this is of course
-that England and Ireland are appanages of Scotland.
-
-But even if it is now correct to dissociate the arms of England and
-Scotland, we must not forget the heraldic marriage between the two
-countries which took place in 1706, on which auspicious occasion the
-two coats were impaled as one. That is to say, they were treated in the
-same way as the coats of married people.
-
-The semis, with large corners, is a manner which has lasted a long
-time, but it is not a great style; it is, however, one which has
-been largely followed in the case of trade bindings. In this manner a
-very rich and brilliant effect can be produced with a minimum of real
-design and of technical skill. The centres of such bindings, if not
-simply coats-of-arms, are always of oval outline, but at Little Gidding
-the irregular Jacobean corners and oval centres turned into circular
-centres and quarter-circle corners. The gold tooled leather bindings
-made at Little Gidding followed closely in detail those made by Thomas
-and John Buck, the Cambridge University printers, but in the main the
-bindings made by Mary Collet and her assistants were original. In
-the matter of semis also the Little Gidding bindings show a pleasant
-departure from the quite regular arrangements aimed at by Jacobean
-binders.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 113.--English inlaid and gold tooled binding made
-by Mary Collet at Little Gidding.]
-
-After 1625 the series and corners tended gradually to fall into
-abeyance, and although they did not altogether disappear, they were
-each modified. Corner pieces became smaller in proportion, and the
-semis more artistically irregular.
-
-Towards the end of the reign of Charles I. some unknown binder,
-probably Samuel Mearne, had the hardihood for the first time to
-bind royal books without any ornamentation on the boards except a
-coat-of-arms. The red leather, goat skin, used on these bindings is
-of extremely fine colour and quality. Simplicity in ornamentation of
-bookbindings is usually accompanied by fine leather, and at no time has
-this been more noticeable than in the case of Mearne’s simpler work.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Book stamp of the English Commonwealth.]
-
-The political troubles of the later half of the seventeenth century
-may of themselves have tended to incline bookbinders to simplify their
-work, and so also may the Puritan spirit of the time. State bindings
-of the time are studiously simple, and bear upon them a device with
-shields, showing the English cross of St. George and the harp of
-Ireland side by side, impressed upon black leather.
-
-But there were other very decorative small bindings being produced in
-considerable numbers about this period. Whether these also owed their
-existence to Samuel Mearne is still uncertain, but he was, I expect, a
-moving spirit in the matter of fine bookbindings from the end of the
-reign of Charles I. to the end of the reign of Charles II. The little
-books I allude to were made during the latter half of the seventeenth
-century and are always bound in black morocco. They have inlays of
-red, yellow, and white leather upon them and some very well designed
-gold tooling. Many of the designs are in detail similar to those which
-were certainly used at a later time by Samuel Mearne. John Bagford,
-in a curious account of book binding written early in the eighteenth
-century, mentions a workman named Suckerman, who was “one of the best
-workmen that ever took tool in hand, and commonly worked for Mr. Merne
-the Binder to King Charles the 2.”
-
-It is quite possible that much of the finest English work of this
-period was done by this man, but I expect he was only a workman, and
-executed the designs made out for him by a skilled designer--possibly
-enough Mearne himself.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 115.--English gold tooled “Rectangular” style
-binding, by Samuel Mearne. Made for Charles II.]
-
-Samuel Mearne was appointed royal binder to Charles II., and he was the
-second great binder in England. Mearne bound the majority of his books
-in the same beautiful red leather that I have already mentioned as
-being used for some late bindings belonging to Charles I., and the same
-coat-of-arms occurs on some of those bound for Charles II. This red
-leather was probably dyed with cochineal. Before this no red leather
-was used to any extent in England. Brown, olive, blue, and black were
-all common, but not red. The ordinary bindings made by Mearne for
-Charles II. were simply and tastefully ornamented with rectangular
-lines having the royal initials at the corners, but others are more
-elaborate.
-
-We owe a national design to Mearne’s inventive genius, and it is known
-as the “Cottage” style. The gold-lined parallelogram is the starting
-point, and the upper and lower lines are broken outwards into a gable
-form. From this starting point Mearne developed his further decoration
-with supreme success, until indeed he succeeded in producing some of
-the finest bindings for large books that have ever been made. Not
-only that, Mearne’s style and even the details of his stamps continue
-until the present time, and the Bible on which King Edward VII. took
-the coronation oath was bound in the Cottage style. No style has ever
-lasted so long, not only in England, but in any other country.
-
-There was yet another beautiful style invented by Mearne. It is not
-so real a design as the Cottage, as it partakes to some extent of
-the principle of the semis, inasmuch as symmetrical repetition is an
-integral part of it. There is no doubt that Mearne saw and admired the
-work of the great French contemporary binder Le Gascon, and from him
-he borrowed several ideas, among them that of the pointille or dotted
-stamps, and also that of the interlacing fillets with interstitial
-spaces filled with small gold tooling.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 116.--English gold tooled binding by Samuel Mearne.
-Made for Charles II.]
-
-The radical change that Mearne made with regard to Le Gascon’s
-interlacing fillets was that he made them up by using successive
-impressions of a two-horned curve instead of a continuous fillet or
-ribbon. Although at first sight there would seem to be no connection
-between one of these “all over” bindings by Mearne and one of Le
-Gascon’s exquisite little interlacings, I think the connection is
-undoubted.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 117.--English gold-tooled binding in “all-over”
-style, by Samuel Mearne.]
-
-The all-over bindings, always small, are not uncommon; they are in
-black or red morocco, with colours interchanged, and are tooled in
-gold, with the very decorative addition of silver paint, water-colour,
-applied by hand here and there.
-
-Eliot and Chapman did much excellent work in the eighteenth century and
-invented large ornamental borders for their bindings. These borders are
-not rolls, but the component parts are separately stamped. There is an
-excellent design with arches, a bird and a fly, and another with a
-globe, but all of them are admirably and effectively designed.
-
-Except the work of Eliot and Chapman, the main English ornamentations
-on bookbindings during the eighteenth century were modifications of one
-or other of Mearne’s designs.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 118.--English gold tooled binding showing the
-influence of Samuel Mearne.]
-
-Eliot and Chapman bound largely for Robert Harley, first Earl of
-Oxford, and their broad bordered style is known as the “Harleian.” The
-centres, in the finest examples, are left unornamented, but there are
-numbers of examples, especially in later work, in which the centres are
-filled with a diamond-shaped mass of small gold toolings. Their style
-has been very largely copied.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 119.--The book stamp of Robert Harley.]
-
-Towards the end of the eighteenth century English binding received a
-remarkable stimulus by reason of the advent of Roger Payne, a native of
-Windsor, who set up in London as a bookbinder about 1770.
-
-Payne’s two predecessors, Berthelet and Mearne, had both enjoyed Court
-positions, but Payne never did; he worked when he chose, and only then,
-and even if the brilliancy and genius shown of his work had ever been
-known to George III., it is doubtful whether so unreliable a man as
-Payne was could ever have been allowed to hold any responsible position.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 120.--English gold tooled binding, by Roger Payne.]
-
-The main charm of Payne’s work consists in the spare ornamentation
-of beautiful leather with exquisitely designed and cut stamps. These
-stamps are said to have been cut by himself in iron, but most of them
-were certainly of brass. One of Payne’s stamps only is specially cut
-so as to be capable of being used in combination; it is a little sprig
-of vine, and he used it not only by itself, but sometimes so as to make
-an entire vine oval on the side of a book. Payne was also the first
-great English binder to pay much attention to the inside of the boards
-of his bindings. His “Doublures,” as they are called, often show more
-elaborate work than exists outside the books. The masses of small
-stamps which occur on the borders of the fine doublures and in the
-corners of Payne’s bindings are arranged in parallel lines, but have
-little constructive arrangement. The brilliancy of Payne’s gold tooling
-has never been exceeded.
-
-In his simpler bindings Payne used a deep soft purple end paper,
-usually lined with gold round the edge. The leather joint red or green
-is also often gilded, and shows a stitch or two of the silk thread
-which Payne always used. The headbands are small and rounded, of green
-silk, with sometimes a gold thread here and there.
-
-The colours of Payne’s moroccos are deep blue, deep red, orange, deep
-olive, or pale sea-green. If other colours are found on bindings
-apparently by him, I should begin by suspecting the work is that of
-Richard Wier. His Russia leathers are always dull brown in colour,
-and diced. Payne lined his backs too thickly, and his books often
-open stiffly. This is not of much importance when the binding is
-morocco, but when Russia leather is used it causes it to break at
-the joints. Some of the designs in the back panels of Payne’s more
-decorative bindings are quite admirable. His moroccos are smooth or
-straight-grained, a method of treating the leather that he invented.
-Payne often added a manuscript note to his bound work and pasted it in
-the beginning. Several of these notes are of great interest, as they
-show the immense care and trouble he took to do the best he could in
-every case. They are also of the greatest value in showing that certain
-pieces of work are unquestionably from his own hand.
-
-Richard Wier, a Scottish bookbinder, worked with Payne, and closely
-copied his style. Wier was fonder of blind tooling than Payne was, and
-they used the same stamps. Many of the bindings credited to Roger Payne
-are really by Wier, who, as well as Mrs. Wier, was a highly skilled
-mender of books.
-
-Charles Hering founded his styles upon those of Payne, but soon
-evolved a manner of his own. He finished some books that Payne had
-left unfinished in the same style. Originals and copies are now in the
-Rylands Library at Manchester. Hering’s work is, however, only high
-class trade binding, as is that of his contemporary, C. Kalthœber. Both
-Hering’s and Kalthœber’s work is often signed, either in small gilt or
-blind lettering along the lower edge of one of the boards, or by an
-affixed ticket.
-
-Kalthœber frankly copied Payne’s styles and stamps, but elaborated
-both so much that he quite lost sight of the characteristic simplicity
-of the great master. Kalthœber bound several books for George III.,
-and many of them are decorative enough, and if they had not been such
-parodies of Payne’s work they would no doubt have taken high rank.
-
-Staggemeier and Walther were both Germans, who worked much in the same
-manner as Kalthœber. They both signed their bindings.
-
-Charles Lewis was very nearly a great binder, but I do not think he
-quite reached that level. He used flat double bands with gold tooling
-upon them, but these are frequently only shams, and are in company with
-hollow backs. After that his best work was borrowed; but his bindings
-are always pleasant to handle and admirably forwarded and finished.
-Lewis’ headbands are flat and upright, and generally sewn with green
-silk or red and green silk. He was fond of brilliant doublures,
-sometimes all gold, sometimes vellum edged with richly gilt morocco,
-and he was also fond of gilded edges richly tooled.
-
-In the nineteenth century we have in England produced one binder who
-will probably in due time rank with the highest. The work of Mr. T.
-J. Cobden-Sanderson will bear comparison with the best work the past
-can show, either as to general design or beauty of detail. Most of the
-good art binding done now owes its inspiration to Mr. Cobden-Sanderson,
-and already many of his pupils and followers have achieved distinction
-for themselves; one of the best of these is Mr. Douglas Cockerell. The
-rare work done by Sir Edward Sullivan will also live. He is entirely
-original in his work and in his manner of decoration.
-
-Lady bookbinders in England have also done excellent and beautiful
-work, particularly Miss E. M. MacColl, Miss Sarah Prideaux, and Miss N.
-E. Woolrich.
-
-Professional work of high excellence has been done in recent years
-in England by Messrs. Bedford, Rivière, Zaehnsdorf, and Morell. The
-younger Zaehnsdorf, G. Sutcliffe, F. Sangorsky, Fazakerly of Liverpool,
-and A. De Santy are all reliable, and may be trusted to produce
-work not only technically perfect, but also charmingly finished and
-admirably designed.
-
-Compared, however, to modern French professional bookbinding of the
-first rank, by Capé, Duru, Lortic, Bauzonnet, and the rest, I find that
-there is a certain heaviness in English forwarding--English binders
-have always liked heavy boards; but I think that in the matter of gold
-tooling our best modern finishers can hold their own safely.
-
-Bookbinding has been more fostered and looked after in France than in
-any other country. As early as 1401 a guild of all persons concerned in
-book production was founded by charter from Charles VI., and continued,
-with some changes, until 1791.
-
-The chief change in this guild took place in 1686, when the binding and
-gilding were treated as separate arts, as, indeed, they properly are.
-From the time of Francis I. until about 1633 we find that nearly all
-the Kings of France had official binders, and, as might be expected,
-the best French work is to be among their work, with the exception of
-that of Le Gascon, who, like our Roger Payne, was never favoured with
-Court patronage.
-
-Heraldry plays a considerable part in English bookbinding, but not so
-remarkable a one as it does in French bookbinding. From royal books
-downwards, persons of distinction, ecclesiastics of all ranks, ladies
-and private persons, all liked to have their books ornamented with
-their coats-of-arms as a principal ornament.
-
-Etienne Roffet was Royal binder to Francis I., but I do not feel sure
-that any binding of his is known. It may be, however, considered likely
-that he bound most of the books bearing the King’s crowned initials and
-his device of a salamander.
-
-Several of Jean Grolier’s books were bound by French workmen. These are
-in the main designed on similar lines to those bound by Italians, but
-there is a difference in the details of the stamps used. One constant
-difference may be found in the fact that on the Italian books the
-small leaves and devices are _solid_, and on the French ones they are
-_azured_, or scored across with fine lines. Some of the French bound
-books have colour added on the fillets.
-
-Geoffrey Tory lived well into the sixteenth century, and among other
-artistic productions he designed a special stamp for gilding his
-bindings with. Tory lost his only little daughter, and afterwards
-adopted as his device a broken vase, symbolic of his broken life. This
-vase is sometimes pierced by a “toret,” probably a play upon his own
-name, as he describes it: “ung vase antique qui est cassé par lequel
-passe ung toret.” The book stamps do not show the toret, but the vase
-is there. In the other ornamentation and on these Tory bindings is a
-strong Italian feeling. It is sure enough that the art of gold tooling
-reached France by way of Venice, just as it did England.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 121.--French coloured and gold tooled binding, with
-portrait of Henri II.]
-
-The most gorgeous period of French bookbinding was that of Henri
-II. and his children. Henri himself loved fine bindings, and so did
-Catherine de Medici, but unfortunately we do not know who executed
-them. They are in calf or morocco, and nearly always have coloured
-fillets. Those which were bound for Diane de Poictiers, Duchesse de
-Valentinois, are equally remarkable, and all of them have, as a rule,
-heraldic ornamentation. A fine portrait cameo stamp, however, of Henri
-II. appears as a centrepiece on some of his bindings, and the name
-Dianne appears on one of Diane’s now in the Bibliothèque Nationale at
-Paris.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 122.--French sixteenth century binding, made for
-Diane de Poictiers.]
-
-The cyphers which appear on all these bindings are as a rule
-straightforward enough, being either those of Henri or his Queen
-Catherine, but among them is one which contains the initials H. and
-D. intertwined. This may mean “Henri Dauphin,” but it is usually
-interpreted as meaning “Henri” and “Diane.” I do not propose here
-to enter into the vexed question of this curious cypher, as it has
-already been fully discussed elsewhere,[1] but I may say that Henri’s
-own device before he succeeded to the throne was a crescent with the
-legend NEC IMPLEAT TOTEM ORBEM. An unstrung bow as well as the other
-emblems of Diana the huntress undoubtedly appears on bindings made for
-this king. I am rather inclined to think that these devices of bow,
-crescents, and quiver, which show on the bindings made for Henri as
-well as on those made for Diane de Poictiers, may really have been
-separately chosen, and have no necessary connection with each other. On
-the bindings made for Diane de Poictiers the bow is strung.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 123.--French binding by Nicholas Eve, 1578. Made
-for Henri III.]
-
-Henri III. was an eccentric king, and it has been said that among
-other arts he learnt that of bookbinding. He lost his ladylove, and
-ever afterwards grieved her loss. His bindings show the device of the
-confraternity of the White Monks, to which order he belonged, and a
-skull and “SPES MEA DEUS.” But besides these gloomy bindings we owe
-some of the finest bindings ever made in France to the art of Henri’s
-royal binder, Nicholas Eve.
-
-The French order of St. Michel was founded by Louis XI., in 1466, in
-place of an older order “De l’Etoile,” which had been instituted by
-Jean II. Henri III., in 1578, founded a new order, the Saint Esprit,
-and among the State papers of the time is a note to the effect that
-Nicholas Eve bound forty-two copies of the _Ordonnances de l’ordre du
-Sainct Esprit_ for the king. One of these books is now in the British
-Museum. It is bound, as described in the official note, in orange
-morocco, and agrees in all respects with that description.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 124.--French, gold tooled “Fanfare” binding. Made
-for J. A. De Thou.]
-
-A remarkable style, known as “à la Fanfare,” became common in France
-about the end of the sixteenth century. They are generally attributed
-to Clovis Eve, who was Relieur du Roy (1596), but there is really no
-authority for such attribution. The style is a beautiful one, and
-consists of interlaced fillets enclosing graceful sprays of laurel or
-palm, and arabesque curves. Some of the finest examples were bound for
-J. A. de Thou, the historian, and bear his arms, a chevron between
-three gadflies, as a centre ornament.
-
-Most of De Thou’s books are bound in morocco, and among those which
-were made during the life of his second wife Gasparde de la Chastre
-are some that are curiously ornamented. They are bound in pale yellow
-morocco which has been stamped all over with impressions in black
-outline, probably from a wood block, in floral or conventional designs.
-The designs have afterwards been filled in by hand with colour stains,
-green, red and blue. The leather has been cut for the binding without
-any notice being taken of the coloured designs, which consequently
-appear irregularly on the finished work. The books are finished with
-gold lines and the arms of De Thou and La Chastre side by side.
-
-It has been said that De Thou chose certain colours for certain
-subjects, for the bindings of his books, but although it may be so in
-some cases I do not think it is consistently carried out.
-
-Certain colours have no doubt been chosen in some cases as distinctive
-of ownership, as for instance in the libraries of the three daughters
-of Louis XV., all of whom bore the same coat-of-arms. The books
-belonging to Madame Victoire were bound in olive, those of Madame
-Adelaide in red, and those of Madame Sophie in citron.
-
-French bindings in morocco were sometimes stained with colour,
-especially about the time of Henri II., but colour on morocco is more
-generally added as a pigment.
-
-In recent times some very decorative Spanish moroccos have been
-curiously stained with a sort of marbling. Large consignments of these
-coloured moroccos have been imported into this country, and they have
-been used especially by Mr. Roger De Coverly, one of our foremost
-bookbinders. The morocco is not of a very good quality, and it is too
-early to say whether the stains are harmful to the leather, as they
-probably would be if they were on calf.
-
-Colour as indicating subject is usually given in the case of large
-libraries that do their own binding. Red commonly indicates history and
-art; blue, theology; green, agriculture and botany; and so on.
-
-In the early seventeenth century the mysterious “Le Gascon” invented
-the “pointillé” or dotted style of gold tooling, which has been more
-universally copied than any other small peculiarity in book finishing.
-
-[Illustration: French Seventeenth Century Binding. Inlaid and Gold
-Tooled. By Le Gascon. [_To face p._ 238.]
-
-Le Gascon was supreme in the binding of small books, whether ornamented
-with interlaced fillets, inlaid, or with the curious design of a
-swollen cross. Le Gascon’s small pointillé curves are most cleverly
-designed; two or three of them suffice to cover a considerable space
-with an apparently complicated design. The glittering effect of the
-small pointillé work massed together is heightened by the free addition
-of small golden dots wherever space can be found for them.
-
-Red morocco was Le Gascon’s favourite groundwork, and on this he
-frequently set inlays of coloured morocco, citron, olive and marbled
-brown. These were mostly used in the case of bindings bearing a design
-of interlacing fillets, with gold tooling between them. No signed
-binding by Le Gascon is as yet known, but there are some bearing the
-name of Florimond Badier, who was son-in-law to Jean Gillède, which
-nearly resemble Le Gascon’s work, but lack his exquisite finish. On
-some of these appears a small dotted profile head, which is supposed
-to be a mark of Le Gascon’s. This same head is copied on some of the
-bindings of our English Samuel Mearne, who must therefore have seen and
-admired some of Le Gascon’s or Badier’s work. “Le Gascon” was probably
-Jean Gillède.
-
-Macè Ruette followed many of Le Gascon’s manners, and his son Antoine
-did the same. These binders were royal binders to Louis XIII. and Louis
-XIV. respectively, and probably bound most of the fine bindings made
-for these kings, bearing their coats-of-arms.
-
-The bindings made for the Baron de Longepierre are not uncommon.
-They were probably bound by Luc Antoine Boyet, royal binder to Louis
-XV. These little books bear upon them the device of a golden fleece,
-because the Baron wrote plays, and the only successful one was called
-“Medea” and dealt with the subject of the Argonauts. The bindings are
-all exquisitely finished, and of beautiful red leather; they sometimes
-have finely decorated doublures and marbling under the gold on the
-edges, a charming detail which has been much liked by French binders
-ever since.
-
-Padeloup le Jeune was royal binder to Louis XV. after Boyet, and
-belonged to one of the many French families of binders. Padeloup’s
-work is luckily often signed by means of a small ticket on the title
-page or end paper. He perfected the patterns known as “Dentelles,”
-which had been first thought of by Boyet. These designs start from the
-edges of the boards inwards, and the inner edge is deeply dentated and
-is supposed to resemble lace. Padeloup used blue and red morocco, and
-executed several small bindings with inlays of coloured leather in
-geometrical designs.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 125.--French inlaid and gold tooled binding, 1718,
-by Padeloup le Jeune.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 126.--French gold tooled binding “Dentelle à
-l’oiseau,” by Derôme le Jeune.]
-
-Padeloup made several large bindings, and his stamps are often large
-and boldly cut, but his successors gradually fined his style down until
-the original bold indented work became quite small and lace-like in
-itself.
-
-The liking for inlaid work which was started by Padeloup rapidly grew,
-and it caused a certain deterioration in the taste of French binding
-because it gave such scope for minute technical skill that this
-soon became more sought after than the power of fine designing. The
-skill shown on inlaid bindings by Jean le Monnier, for instance, is
-astonishing, but the designs on all his bindings are weak. The same may
-be said of the work of J. A. Derôme. But the work of both these binders
-is much sought after and esteemed by many collectors.
-
-Derôme le Jeune was the most important French binder of the late
-eighteenth century. He took Padeloup’s large “dentelles” and altered
-them so much that he at last evolved a style of his own from them.
-Derôme drew the whole design out in a much smaller and more delicate
-way, and always put in some bird figures, and these designs are known
-as “Dentelles a l’oiseau.” He used citron, olive and red morocco.
-Derôme has not a good reputation as a forwarder; he is said to have
-cropped his books badly, and also to have “sawn in” his bands so as to
-get flat or open backs. Even so, he did not invent “sawn in” bands,
-as that vice was practised in England a hundred years before Derôme’s
-time, in the case of embroidered books; but the fact of these two
-mannerisms having been noticed in the work of this great binder only
-shows that the same faults were probably universally prevalent at the
-time.
-
-Modern French work is astonishing for its technical skill. The
-work of Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic, Niedrée,
-Marius-Michel, Chambolle, and many others is admirable from all
-workmanlike points of view.
-
-But there is no genius in any of it; a great French binder of this
-century is yet to come.
-
-Spanish bindings are often very handsomely gold tooled, and are usually
-ornamented with heraldic designs. Little is known at present about
-them, but it is certainly doubtful whether any great school of gold
-tooling in bindings has ever existed outside Italy, England or France.
-
-
-BOOKS TO CONSULT.
-
-ANGLO-SAXON REVIEW.--_London_, 1899. (Articles at the beginning of each
-vol., by Cyril Davenport.)
-
-BAUCHART.--_See_ Quentin-Bauchart.
-
-BERALDI, H.--La Reliure du XIX^e. Siècle. _London_, 1895-97.
-
-BERNARD, A. J.--G. Tory. _Paris_, 1857.
-
-BICKELL, L.--Bucheinbände des XV. bis XVIII. Jahrhunderts aus
-hessischen Bibliotheken. _Leipzig_, 1892.
-
-BOSQUET, E.--La Reliure. _Paris_, 1894.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--De la Reliure. _Paris_, 1891.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--Le Livre. _Paris_, 1886.
-
-BOUCHOT, H.--Les reliures d’Art à la Bibliothèque Nationale. _Paris_,
-1888.
-
-BRASSINGTON, W. S.--Historic bindings in the Bodleian Library.
-_London_, 1891.
-
-BRUNET, C. G.--Etudes sur la reliure des Livres. _Bordeaux_, 1891.
-
-BURLINGTON FINE ARTS CLUB.--Illustrated Catalogue of Bookbindings.
-_London_, 1891.
-
-CUNDALL, J.--Bookbindings Ancient and Modern. _London_, 1891.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbindings.
-_London_, 1898.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Bagford’s Notes on Bookbinding. _London_, 1894.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Life of Samuel Mearne. _Chicago_, 1907.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Life of Thos. Berthelet. _Chicago_, 1901.
-
-DAVENPORT, CYRIL.--Royal English Bookbindings. _London_, 1896.
-
-DERÔME, L.--La Reliure de Luxe. _Paris_, 1888.
-
-FLETCHER, W. Y.--Bookbindings in France. _London_, 1894.
-
-FLETCHER, W. Y.--English Bookbindings in the British Museum. _London_,
-1895.
-
-FLETCHER, W. Y.--Foreign Bookbindings in the British Museum. _London_,
-1896.
-
-FOURNIER, E.--L’Art de la Reliure en France. _Paris_, 1888.
-
-GRUEL, L.--Conférence sur la Reliure et la Dorure des Livres. _Paris_,
-1896.
-
-GRUEL, L.--Manuel de l’Amateur de Reliures. _Paris_, 1887.
-
-GUIGARD.--Armorial du Bibliophile. _Paris_, 1890.
-
-HOE, R.--One hundred and seventy-two historic bookbindings from the
-Library of Robert Hoe. _New York_, 1895.
-
-HOLMES, R. R.--Specimens of Bookbindings from the Royal Library,
-Windsor Castle. _London_, 1893.
-
-HORNE, H. P.--The Bindings of Books. _London_, 1894.
-
-MATTHEWS, J. B.--Bookbindings Old and New. _London_, 1896.
-
-MICHEL, M.--La Reliure Française. _Paris_, 1881.
-
-PRIDEAUX, S. T.--Bookbinders and their Craft. _London_, 1903.
-
-PRIDEAUX, S. T.--Historical Sketch of Bookbinding. _London_, 1893.
-
-QUENTIN-BAUCHART, E.--Les Femmes Bibliophiles de France, XVI^e, XVII^e.
-et XVIII^e. Siècles. _Paris_, 1886.
-
-THOINAN, E.--Les Relieurs Français. _Paris_, 1893.
-
-UZANNE, O.--L’Art dans la Decoration Extérieure des Livres en France.
-_Paris_, 1898.
-
-UZANNE, O.--La Reliure Moderne. _Paris_, 1887.
-
-WHEATLEY, H. B.--Remarkable Bindings in the British Museum. _London_,
-1889.
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[1] _Anglo-Saxon Review_ and _Burlington Magazine_, July, 1907.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX.
-
-
-  A.
-
-  Abacus, the, 12
-
-  Account book binding, 157
-
-  Ackermann, publisher, 129
-
-  Æsop’s _Fables_, 1665 ... 124
-
-  “A E I O U,” 197
-
-  African symbolic messages, 10
-
-  Alcuin of York, 19
-
-  Aliamet, line engraver, 122
-
-  Alken, H., artist, 124
-
-  “All-over” style of binding, 223
-
-  All Saints’ Church, Hereford, chained library at, 164
-
-  Allanson and Sears, wood engravers, 116
-
-  Allen, D., line engraver, 120
-
-  Almanacks cut on wood, bone, etc., 7
-
-  American loggers’ marks, 9
-
-      ”    wampums, 13
-
-  Amulets, 4
-
-  Aniline dyes for leather, 180
-
-  Anne Boleyn’s New Testament, 144
-
-  Anne de Felbrigge, embroidress, 151
-
-  Annis, W., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Aquatints, 128
-
-  Arabic knot, the, 208
-
-    ”    panel stamps, the, 59
-
-  Arabic style of binding, the, 55
-
-  Armagh, satchel of the book of, 50
-
-  Armytage, J. C., line engraver, 121
-
-  _Ars Moriendi_, 90
-
-  Art canvas bindings, 156
-
-  Ashburnham, Lord, 189
-
-  Assyrian bricks and cylinders, 85
-
-  Astle, T., keeper of the records in the Tower of London, 189
-
-  Avril, P., artist, 138
-
-  Ayres, J., calligraphist, 118
-
-  Ayrton’s _Voyage Round Great Britain_, 131
-
-  Aze, line engraver, 122.
-
-
-  B.
-
-  “B” capital in Mainz Psalter, 103
-
-  Babylonian cylinders and bricks, 85
-
-  Backing, the, of books, 43
-
-  Backs, flat and rounded, 42
-
-  Bacon, F., line engraver, 121
-
-  Badier, F., bookbinder, 239
-
-  Bagford, J., author, 190, 222
-
-  Baily, J., aquatint engraver, 131
-
-  Baker, R. J., line engraver, 121
-
-  Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem, 53
-
-  Bamler, J., publisher, 115
-
-  Bands of bindings, 36, 44
-
-  Bank note of Chinese paper, 1368 ... 64
-
-  Barber’s poles, 16
-
-  Bark books, 29
-
-  Bartholomaeus’ _De proprietatibus rerum_, 66
-
-  Bartolozzi, F., etcher, 125
-
-  Baskerville, J., printer, 99
-
-  Bateman, John and Abraham, binders, 217
-
-  Battas of Sumatra and symbolic messages, 10
-
-  Battledores, 166
-
-  Bauzonnet, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Bedford, F., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Beneworth, wood engraver, 116
-
-  Bennett, W. F., aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Bernes, Dame Juliana’s, _Book of St. Albans_, 110
-
-  Berthelet, T., printer and binder, 110, 213
-
-  Bertonnier, line engraver, 123
-
-  Best, A., wood engraver, 114
-
-  Bettini’s _Monte Santo di Deo_, 119
-
-  Bewick, T., wood engraver, 108, 110
-
-  _Biblia Pauperum_, 90
-
-  Blaew, W. J., mechanician, 94
-
-  Blake, W., artist, 109, 124
-
-  Blanchard, P., lithographer, 135
-
-  Blazes on trees, 9
-
-  Blind tooling on bindings, 182
-
-  Bloc, bookbinder, 192
-
-  Block books, 89
-
-  Boards of books, 41
-
-  Bollcaert, bookbinder, 192
-
-  Bone, markings on, 1, 9
-
-  Book edges, 143
-
-  Bosse, A., etcher, 125
-
-  Bosse, L., line engraver, 122
-
-  Bosses on mediæval books, 45
-
-  Boule, A., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Boydell, publisher, 129
-
-  Boydell’s _Picturesque Scenery in Norway_, 130
-
-  Boyet, L. A., bookbinder, 240
-
-  Brandard, R., line engraver, 121
-
-  Brant’s _Narrenschiff_, 115
-
-  Brevière, H. L., wood engraver, 114
-
-  Brim stocks, 7
-
-  “Britannia” watermark, 71
-
-  Buck, Thomas and John, printers and binders, 154, 220
-
-  Buckingham, Marquis of, 189
-
-  Buckram bindings, 156
-
-  “Bull’s Head” watermark, 69
-
-  Burgkmeier, H., artist, 116
-
-  Burne-Jones, Sir E., artist, 113
-
-  Bylaert, J., artist, 125
-
-  _Byrthe of Mankind_, 119
-
-  Byzantine bindings, 46
-
-      ”     diptychs, 22
-
-
-  C.
-
-  Calf leather, 171
-
-  Callot, etcher, 125
-
-  Cambridge bindings, 191
-
-  Cameo stamps, 208
-
-  “Canevari” stamps, 208
-
-  Canvas bindings, 151
-
-  Capé, bookbinder, 242
-
-  “Caractères de civilité,” 97
-
-  Cardinal’s hat, 12
-
-  Carolingian Minuscules, 20
-
-  Cartwright, T., aquatint engraver, 131
-
-  Caslon, W., printer, 99
-
-  Casting of type, the, 92
-
-  Cathach, of the O’Donnells, the, 50
-
-  Cattermole, artist, 132, 134
-
-  Caxton’s bindings, 189
-
-     ”     _Fifteen Oes_, 106
-
-     ”     _Myrrour of the Worlde_, 108, 109
-
-  Cecil, Lord Burleigh’s, book stamp, 216
-
-  Cecil, line engraver, 120
-
-  Cellarius’ _Album Amicorum_, 158
-
-  Cellulose used in paper, 79
-
-  “Chain” lines on paper, 73
-
-  Chained books, 163
-
-  Chambolle, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Chamois leather, 176
-
-  Charlemagne’s gospels, 54
-
-        ”       interest in writing, 19
-
-  Charles II., portrait on book edges, 147
-
-  Charlet, lithographer, 133
-
-  Chauveau, F., line engraver, 122
-
-  Cheap paper, 77
-
-  Chemical wood pulp, 79
-
-  Chéret, lithographer, 133
-
-  Chevalier, W., line engraver, 121
-
-  Chifflart, line engraver, 123
-
-  China clay in paper, 80
-
-  Chinese books of Jade, 5
-
-     ”    colour blocks, 104
-
-     ”    paper, 63
-
-     ”    types of porcelain, 86
-
-     ”    woodcuts, 103
-
-  Choffard, P., line engraver, 122, 125
-
-  Christ, arms of, 196
-
-  Clasps on mediæval books, 44
-
-  Clay-laden papers, 80
-
-  Clennell, L., wood engraver, 111
-
-  Clint, G., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Clog almanacks, 7
-
-  Cloth bindings, 155
-
-  Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Cochineal dye for leather, 222
-
-  Cockerell, D., bookbinder, 231
-
-  _Codex Alexandrinus_, 102
-
-  Cole, T., wood engraver, 111
-
-  Collet, M., bookbinder, 153
-
-  Collodion as a preservative for Persian bindings, 59
-
-  Colonna’s _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, 105
-
-  Colour on block books, 90
-
-  Coloured printing papers, 73
-
-  Combe’s _History of the River Thames_, 130
-
-    ”     _Tour of Dr. Syntax_, 130
-
-  Commonwealth book stamp, 221
-
-  Constable, J., artist, 128
-
-  Consular diptychs, 23
-
-  Cook, H., stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Cooper, J., wood engraver, 112
-
-  Coptic binding of the eighth century, 182
-
-  Corbould, G., line engraver, 121
-
-  Corean paper, 65
-
-  _Coronation of George IV._, 131
-
-  Coster, L. J., printer, 90
-
-  Costeriana, 90
-
-  “Cottage,” style of binding, 222
-
-  Cousins, J., line engraver, 121
-
-  Cow-hide for bindings, 172
-
-  “Crown” watermark, 70
-
-  Cruickshank, G., artist, 124
-
-  “Crushed” morocco, 177
-
-  Cuirbouilli, 50
-
-  Cumdachs, 48-50
-
-  Cuneiform inscriptions, 3
-
-  Cup markings on rocks, 2, 3
-
-  Curiously-shaped books, 76
-
-  Cut leather work, 197
-
-  Cylinders engraved for making designs in book covers, 203
-
-      ”     for printing presses, 95
-
-
-  D.
-
-  Dalziels, the, wood engravers, 112
-
-  Dambrun, J., line engraver, 122
-
-  Daniel, W., aquatint engraver, 131
-
-  Dated binding, 1475 ... 199
-
-  Daughters of Louis XV., bindings made for, 237
-
-  Daumier, H., lithographer, 133
-
-  Davenport, S., line engraver, 121
-
-  Dawe, H., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Day, J., printer, 213
-
-  Dean, stipple engraver, 125
-
-  De Coverly, R., bookbinder, 237
-
-  Deer-skin bindings, 189
-
-  Delacroix, E., artist, 133
-
-  De Launay, R., line engraver, 120, 123
-
-  “De l’Etoile,” French order, 236
-
-  Delignon, J. L., line engraver, 122
-
-  De Longueil, line engraver, 122
-
-  Delvaux, line engraver, 122
-
-  “Dentelle” bindings, 240
-
-  “Dentelles à l’oiseau,” 242
-
-  Derome le Jeune, bookbinder, 241
-
-  De Sauty, A., bookbinder, 231
-
-  De Thou, J. A., book collector, 236
-
-  Deveria, A., lithographer, 133
-
-  De Villiers, line engraver, 122
-
-  Diamond engraved, 5
-
-  Diane de Poictiers, bindings made for, 234
-
-          ”           edges of her books, 145
-
-          ”           faience, 86
-
-  Dimma’s book, 50
-
-  Diptychs, 20
-
-  Donatus’ grammars, 91
-
-  Double board bindings, 55, 214
-
-  Doublures by R. Payne, 228
-
-  Doyle, etcher, 124
-
-  Druet, line engraver, 119
-
-  Du Bosc, line engraver, 120
-
-  Duclos, H. J., line engraver, 122
-
-  Dudley, R., Earl of Leicester, book stamp, 216
-
-  Duff, G., author, 187
-
-  Du Maurier, G., artist, 113
-
-  Dunchad, Irish binder, 49
-
-  Dunkarton, R., mezzotint engraver, 127, 128
-
-  Duodecimos, 75
-
-  Dupont, H., line engraver, 123
-
-  Dupréel, line engraver, 122
-
-  Dürer, A., artist, 115
-
-  Durham bindings, 185
-
-  Duru, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Dutch printing, 92
-
-
-  E.
-
-  Easter Island inscriptions, 9
-
-  Eastling, J. C., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Ecclesiastical diptychs, 24
-
-  Edwards, J., bookbinder, 147, 171, 201, 202
-
-      ”    J. C., line engraver, 121
-
-  Edy, J. W., aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Egerton of Tatton, Earl, his silver horn book, 166
-
-  Egyptian mummy cloth paper, 63
-
-      ”    papyrus rolls, 26
-
-  Eisen, C., artist, 122
-
-  Eliot and Chapman, bookbinders, 225
-
-  Elizabeth, Queen, embroidered books, 152
-
-      ”             golden book, 160
-
-  Elizabeth, Queen, velvet books, 151
-
-  Ellis, aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Elstrack, R., line engraver, 119
-
-  Elyot’s _Image of Governance_, 170
-
-  Embroidered books, 150
-
-  Enamelled bindings, 47, 162
-
-  End papers, 157, 229
-
-  Engleheart, F. C. and T. S., line engravers, 120
-
-  English blind tooled bindings, 184
-
-     ”    coronation book, 188
-
-     ”    panel stamped bindings, 193
-
-     ”    paper, 66
-
-     ”    psalter of the twelfth century, 187
-
-  Engraved metal blocks, 107
-
-  Engraving on wood, 106
-
-  Etching, 123
-
-     ”     soft ground, 124
-
-  “Etruscan” bindings, 201
-
-  European early paper, 65
-
-  Evangelistic emblems on the cover of the Molaise gospels, 50
-
-  Eve, C., bookbinder, 236
-
-   ”   N.,     ”       236
-
-  Evelyn’s _Sculptura_, 127
-
-  Exchequer tallies, 8
-
-
-  F.
-
-  Faber, mezzotint engraver, 127
-
-  “Fanfare” bindings, 236
-
-  Fantin-Latour, lithographer, 133
-
-  Fashion plates in aquatint, 131
-
-  Fazakerly, bookbinder, 231
-
-  Ferrar, N., of Little Gidding, 153
-
-  Ficquet, line engraver, 122
-
-  Fielding, T. H., aquatint engraver, 131
-
-  Filigree bindings, 161
-
-  Finden, W., line and stipple engraver, 120, 125
-
-  Finiguerra, M., artist, 117
-
-  Fischer, C., lithographer, 135
-
-  Fish-skin bindings, 179
-
-  Fishing-rod sign, 16
-
-  Flagellation of Christ, engraving, 116
-
-  Fletcher, painter of book edges, 146
-
-  “Flong,” paper pulp, 96
-
-  Folios, 74
-
-  Folkard, wood engraver, 112
-
-  “Foolscap” watermark, 71
-
-  Forage decoration, 143, 146
-
-  Forels for books, 50
-
-  Foster, B., artist, 113
-
-  Foulquier, V., line engraver, 123
-
-  Fournier, P. E., type founder, 98
-
-  Fragonard, J. H., artist, 122
-
-  Fraudulent bindings, 211
-
-  Frederick of Austria, binding made for, 198
-
-  French blind tooled bindings, 191
-
-  Fry, W., line engraver, 121
-
-  Fust, J., printer, 91
-
-
-  G.
-
-  Galvanic battery used in stereotyping, 96
-
-  Gandara, lithographer, 133
-
-  Garuda stones, 4
-
-  Gaucher, C. S., line engraver, 122
-
-  Gauffring of book edges, 144
-
-  Gaultier, L., line engraver, 122
-
-  Gavarni, artist, 115, 133
-
-  _Gemälde Galerie des K. Museums in Berlin_, 135
-
-  Gericault, lithographer, 133
-
-  German blind tooled bindings, 198
-
-  German book edges, 145
-
-    ”    cut leather work, 197
-
-    ”    panel stamps, 200
-
-  Gibson, J., bookbinder, 216
-
-  Gigoux, J., lithographer, 133
-
-  Gillède, J., bookbinder, 239
-
-  Girardet, line engraver, 123
-
-  Girolamo della Robbia, artist, 88
-
-  Goat leather, 176
-
-  “Goddess of Mercy,” woodcut, 103
-
-  Godfrey, G., bookbinder, 191, 192
-
-  Gold beaters’ sign, 16
-
-  Gold tooling in leather, 206
-
-       ”       on velvet, 154
-
-  Golden bindings, 159
-
-  Goldsmith’s _Vicar of Wakefield_, 130
-
-  Goodall, E., line engraver, 120
-
-  Goodyear, F. and J., line engravers, 120
-
-  Gould, J., naturalist, 134
-
-  Goya, F., artist, 135
-
-  Grace, J., traveller, 49
-
-  Gray, wood engraver, 112
-
-  Greatbach, W., line engraver, 121
-
-  Greek engraved gems, 5
-
-  Green, wood engraver, 112
-
-  Gregory the Great, Pope, 51
-
-  Greville, Charles, patron of art, 129
-
-  Griggs, W., chromo-lithographer, 134
-
-  Grignion, line engraver, 120
-
-  Grolier, W., bindings made for, 209
-
-  Grover, line engraver, 120
-
-  Guerin, P., lithographer, 133
-
-  Guerrero, A., lithographer, 135
-
-  Guild of Bookbinders in France, 232
-
-  Gutenberg, J., printer, 91
-
-  Gypsies’ hieroglyphics, 17
-
-
-  H.
-
-  Haghe, L., lithographer, 134
-
-  Hahn, U., printer, 105
-
-  Halbon, L., line engraver, 122
-
-  Half bindings, 44
-
-  Half-tone blocks, 136
-
-      ”     process, 79
-
-  Ham sign, 16
-
-  “Hand” watermark, 70
-
-  Hard wood for engraving, 114
-
-  Harding, J. D., lithographer, 134
-
-  Harland, J., author, 8
-
-  “Harleian” bindings, 227
-
-  Harley, R., Earl of Oxford, 227
-
-  Harvey, W., wood engraver, 106, 111
-
-  Hassell, aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Hauber, J., lithographer, 134
-
-  Havell, D., aquatint engraver, 131
-
-  Haydon, B. R., artist, 111
-
-  Headbands, 40, 56
-
-  Heath, C. and J., line engravers, 121
-
-    ”    Ch., publisher, 120
-
-  Heliogravure, 136
-
-  Henri II., bindings made for, 86, 145, 233
-
-    ”        faience, 86
-
-  Henry III., bindings made for, 235
-
-  Henry VII., bindings made for, 148
-
-  Henry VIII., bindings made for, 150, 159, 194
-
-  Henry, Prince of Wales, bindings made for, 216
-
-  Heraldry on bindings, 215
-
-  Hereford Cathedral, chained library at, 164
-
-  Hering, C., bookbinder, 230
-
-  Heriot, G., goldsmith, 160
-
-  Herodius, ivory carver, 54
-
-  Hewitt, Samuel, etcher, 124
-
-  Hiberno-Saxon writing, 19
-
-  Hieratic writing, 18
-
-  Hiroshige, artist, 105
-
-  Hodges’ _Select Views in India_, 130
-
-  Hodgetts, T., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Hodgkin’s _Rariora_, 92
-
-  Hokusai, artist, 105
-
-  Holbein, artist, 110
-
-  Hole, line engraver, 120
-
-  Holl, W., stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Hollar, W., etcher, 124
-
-  Hollis, G., line engraver, 121
-
-  Hollow backs, 38
-
-  Hop tallies, 8
-
-  Horæ of the fifteenth century, 107
-
-  Horn books, 165
-
-  Houston, mezzotint engraver, 127
-
-  Hullmandel, lithographer, 132, 134
-
-  Human leather, 180
-
-  Humphreys, W., line engraver, 120
-
-  Hunt, T., bookbinder, 191
-
-  _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, 105
-
-
-  I.
-
-  Ideographs, 16, 17
-
-  Illustrations in books, 102, etc.
-
-  Imitations of bindings by S. Mearne, 226
-
-  Indentures, 9
-
-  Indian amulets, 4
-
-  Irish bindings, 48
-
-    ”   book satchels, 50
-
-  Iroquois League wampum, 14
-
-  Isabey, J. B., artist, 133
-
-  Italian book stamps used on faience, 87
-
-     ”    wood engravings, 105
-
-  Ivory bindings, 47, 53
-
-
-  J.
-
-  Jackson, J. B., wood engraver, 112
-
-  Jacquemart, J., etcher, 125
-
-  Jade books, 5
-
-  James I., heraldry of, 218
-
-    ”       Βασιλικον Δωρον, 160
-
-  Japanese colour blocks, 105
-
-      ”    paper, 65
-
-      ”    wood blocks, 104
-
-  Jenkinson, stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Jentzen, F., lithographer, 135
-
-  Jewish taleth, 12
-
-  Joch, wood engraver, 116
-
-  Johannot, line engraver, 122
-
-  Jollivet, J., lithographer, 135
-
-  Jones’ _Plans of the Alhambra_, 134
-
-  Jordan, B., artist, 116
-
-  Junius, A., author, 90
-
-
-  K.
-
-  Kalthœber, C., bookbinder, 230
-
-  Kangaroo leather, 179
-
-  Karabacek, J., Professor, 63
-
-  Katherine of Arragon, Queen, bindings made for, 195
-
-  _Keepsake, the_, 120
-
-  Kernot, J. H., line engraver, 121
-
-  Knife for engraving soft wood, 113
-
-  Knight, C., stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Koenig, printing press maker, 95
-
-  Korean wood cuts, 104
-
-  Korin, artist, 105
-
-  Kretschmar, E., wood engraver, 116
-
-  Kristeller, P., author, 106
-
-
-  L.
-
-  La Costes, wood engravers, 114
-
-  “Laid” lines on paper, 73
-
-  Landells, the, wood engravers, 112
-
-  Lant, R., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Lasteyrie, lithographer, 133
-
-  Latroo’s _English Rogue_, 124
-
-  Latten, panel stamps cut in, 196
-
-  Laurentian library, 164
-
-  Lawson, C., artist, 113
-
-  Leathers used for binding, 169
-
-  Le Blon’s _Coloritto_, 126
-
-  Leclerc, S., line engraver, 122
-
-  Lefebre, line engraver, 122
-
-  Le Gascon, bookbinder, 145, 239
-
-  Leighton, A., bookbinder, 155
-
-      ”     Lord, artist, 113
-
-  Lelio, Lucretio, of Treviso, 105
-
-  Le Mire, N., line engraver, 122
-
-  Le Monnier, J., bookbinder, 241
-
-  Le Prince, J. B., aquatint engraver, 128
-
-  Leroux, line engraver, 122
-
-  Levant morocco, 176
-
-  Lewis the Pious, Emperor, 52
-
-    ”   C., bookbinder, 230
-
-    ”   F. C., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-    ”   T. C., line engraver, 120
-
-  Libri, Count G., collector, 211
-
-  Lindau gospels, binding of the, 51
-
-  Line engraving, 116
-
-  Lingée, C. L., line engraver, 122
-
-  Linotype, the, machine, 93
-
-  Linton, W. J., wood engraver, 112
-
-  Lipton, T., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Lithography, 132
-
-  Lithotint, 132
-
-  Little Gidding, 153
-
-         ”        bindings made at, 202, 219
-
-  Loggers’ marks, 9
-
-  Lombards signs, 16
-
-  Longepierre, Baron de, bindings made for, 240
-
-  Lortic, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Lucas, D., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Lucretia, 110
-
-  Lupton, T. G., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Lyons bindings, 214
-
-
-  M.
-
-  MacColl, Miss E., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Macé, R., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Madan, F., author, 18
-
-  Madox, T., historiographer, 189
-
-  Madrazo’s _Collection Lithographica, etc._, 135
-
-  Mainz Psalter, 91, 103
-
-  Maioli, T., collector, 177
-
-  Marbled calf, 201
-
-     ”    morocco, 237
-
-     ”    papers, 158
-
-  Marillier, J. P., line engraver, 123
-
-  Marius-Michel, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Marr, C., stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Marshall, line engraver, 120
-
-  _Maximilian, Triumph of_, 116
-
-  Mazarine Bible, 91
-
-  Mazot, F., line engraver, 119
-
-  Mearne, S., bookbinder, 146, 221
-
-  Mechanical wood pulp papers, 78
-
-  Medici coat of arms, 16
-
-  Medland, T., aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Meissonnier, artist, 115
-
-  Melissenda, psalter of, 53
-
-  Menzel, A., artist, 135
-
-  Messe dag staves, 7
-
-  Metal bindings, 52, 159
-
-    ”   blocks engraved, 107
-
-    ”   inscriptions, 5
-
-  Mezzotints, 126
-
-  Miles, E., bookbinder, 191
-
-  Millais, Sir J., artist, 113
-
-  Miller, W., line engraver, 121
-
-  Mitan, J., line engraver, 121
-
-  Mittenleiter, J. M., lithographer, 134
-
-  Mitterer, H. J., professor of drawing, 133, 134
-
-  Modern ideographs, 16, 17
-
-  Molaise gospels, 50
-
-  Monnier, H., lithographer, 133
-
-  Monoline machine, the, 98
-
-  Monotype machine, the, 93
-
-  Monza, binding at, 51
-
-  Moreau, P., line engraver, 119
-
-  Morrell & Co., bookbinders, 231
-
-  Morocco leather, 176
-
-  Morris, W., printer, 99
-
-  Mottet, line engraver, 122
-
-  Moulin, J., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Mulready, artist, 112
-
-  Musgrave, Sir G., collector, 167
-
-  Musulman amulets, 4
-
-
-  N.
-
-  Nash’s _Mansions of England_, 134
-
-  Nayler’s, Sir G., _Coronation of George IV._, 131
-
-  Nesbit, wood engraver, 112
-
-  Nicene Creed cut in silver, 6
-
-  Nicholls and Bosse, wood engravers, 116
-
-  Nicholson, W., inventor, 95
-
-  Niedrée, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Niello work on bindings, 161
-
-  Nivet, wood engraver, 114
-
-  Norms, J., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Northcote’s _Fables_, 112
-
-  Notches cut in wood, 6, 7, 8
-
-  Nuremberg, arms of, 145
-
-      ”      Chronicle, 106, 115
-
-  Nuzelmann, wood engraver, 116
-
-
-  O.
-
-  Octavos, 75
-
-  O’Donnell’s cathach, 50
-
-  Ogham inscriptions, 6
-
-  Oiron ware, 86
-
-  Open backs, 38
-
-  Openworked vellum, 202
-
-  Opus Anglicanum, 151
-
-  Oriental bindings with flaps, 59
-
-     ”     palm leaf books, 15
-
-     ”     panel stamps, 59
-
-  Orihons, 29
-
-  Orme’s _Twelve Views of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore_, 130
-
-  Osterwald, G., artist, 116
-
-  Oxford bindings, 191
-
-
-  P.
-
-  Padeloup le Jeune, bookbinder, 240
-
-  Painted bindings, 58
-
-  Panel stamps, 192
-
-  Paper, 62, 66, 73
-
-    ”    pulp, 96
-
-  Papillon, J. M., wood engraver, 112
-
-  Papyrus, 62
-
-     ”     Prisse, 18
-
-  Parchment, 29, 30
-
-  Parker, J., stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Parr, Queen Katharine, embroidress, 152
-
-  Paste boards, 56
-
-  Patas, J. B., line engraver, 122
-
-  Pauquet, line engraver, 122
-
-  Payne, R., bookbinder, 177, 227
-
-  Pegs on panel stamps, 196
-
-  Penn, W., and the wampum belt, 14
-
-  Pennant’s _Account of London_, 124
-
-  Persian bindings, 58, 59
-
-  Peruvian records, 11
-
-  Petit, L., line engraver, 123
-
-  Peupin, wood engraver, 116
-
-  Pfeiffer, stipple engraver, 126
-
-  Pflanzmann, J., publisher, 115
-
-  Photographic facsimiles, 98
-
-  Photogravure, 136
-
-  Pierced vellum, 171
-
-  Pig-skin, 173
-
-  Pigouchet, printer, 107
-
-  “Pin-head” grained morocco, 178
-
-  Pinart, D., bookbinder, 191
-
-  Pine, J., line engraver, 118
-
-  Pisa’s, R. de, _Pantheologia_, 197
-
-  Pleydenwurff, W., wood engraver, 115
-
-  Pointillé engraving, 107
-
-  Polia, of Treviso, 105
-
-  Pompeian diptychs, 20
-
-  Porcelain types, 86
-
-  Porrett, wood engraver, 114
-
-  Portbury, E. and R. J., line engravers, 121
-
-  Portraits in watermarks, 72
-
-  “Post” watermark, 72
-
-  “Pot” watermark, 72
-
-  Prayer wheels, 27
-
-  Prehistoric caves, 2
-
-  Prevost, line engraver, 122
-
-  Prideaux, Miss S., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Prime staves, 7
-
-  Printing in Europe, 90
-
-     ”     on Babylonian cylinders and bricks, 85
-
-     ”     press, 93, 95
-
-  Printing paper in colour, 73
-
-  Proctor, R., author, 98
-
-  Prout, S., artist, 120
-
-  Pudsey, Bishop, library of, 185
-
-  Pugillaria, 20
-
-  Pye, J., line engraver, 120
-
-  Pyne’s _History of the Royal Residences_, 130
-
-  Pynson, R., bookbinder, 110, 193, 197
-
-
-  Q.
-
-  Quartos, 74
-
-  Quaternions, 32, 33
-
-  Quinternions, 31
-
-  Quipus of Peru, 11
-
-  Quires, 32
-
-
-  R.
-
-  Raffet, artist, 115, 133
-
-  Rag paper of Samarkand, 63
-
-  Rainer, Archduke, 64
-
-  Ratdolt, E., printer, 105
-
-  Ratisbon, Irish monastery at, 49
-
-  Raynald’s _Byrthe of Mankind_, 119
-
-  “Rectangular” style of binding, 223
-
-  Redon, O., lithographer, 133
-
-  Reeve, R., aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Repton’s _Sketches of Landscape Gardening_, 130
-
-  Retroussage, 124
-
-  “Rex in Æternum vive” on book edges, 143, 144
-
-  Reynes, J., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Reynolds, S. W., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Rhodes, R., line engraver, 121
-
-  Ribault, J. F., line engraver, 123
-
-  Richenbach, J., bookbinder, 199
-
-  Richter, A., artist, 116
-
-  Rinaldo and Armida, 112
-
-  Ring markings, 2, 3
-
-  Rivett-Carnac, Col. H. J., 3
-
-  Rivière & Son, bookbinders, 231
-
-  Roan leather, 175
-
-  Robins, H., line engraver, 121
-
-  Robinson, H., stipple engraver, 125
-
-      ”     J. H., line engraver, 120
-
-  Roberts’ _Holy Land_, 134
-
-  Roce, D., bookbinder, 192
-
-  Rock markings, 2
-
-  Roffet, E., bookbinder, 232
-
-  Rogers’, S., _Italy_ and _Poems_, 120
-
-     ”         _Pleasures of Memory_, 112
-
-  Rolls, C., line engraver, 120
-
-  Rolt’s _Lives of the Reformers_, 127
-
-  Roman diptychs, 20
-
-    ”   engraved gems, 5
-
-    ”   name brands, 5
-
-  Romney, Lord, 160
-
-  Rood, T., bookbinder, 191
-
-  Rosaries, 12
-
-  Rosetta stone, 3
-
-  Rossetti, D. G., artist, 113
-
-  Rouget, wood engraver, 114
-
-  Rough side of calf leather, 202
-
-  Rounded backs of books, 43
-
-  Roux, wood engraver, 114
-
-  Rowlandson, artist, 130
-
-  Royal Irish Academy, 49
-
-  Ruette, M., bookbinder, 240
-
-  Rune staves, 7
-
-  Runic inscriptions, 6
-
-  Rupert, Prince, mezzotint engraver, 127
-
-  Russia leather, 172
-
-
-  S.
-
-  _Saddharmapundarika Sutra_, 103
-
-  St. Christopher, woodcut, 89
-
-  St. Cuthbert’s gospels, 185
-
-  St. Esprit, French order of the, 236
-
-  St. John Latran, bookbinders’ guild, 232
-
-  St. Maurice D’Agaune, church of, 55
-
-  St. Michel, French order of, 236
-
-  St. Porchaire, Faience de, 87
-
-  St. Wallberg, church of, 164
-
-  Samarkand, paper made at, 63
-
-  Sandby, P., aquatint engraver, 129
-
-  Sandys, F., artist, 113
-
-  Sangorsky, F., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Sangster, S., line engraver, 121
-
-  Satchels for books, 50
-
-  Satin bindings, 152
-
-    ”   printing on, 73
-
-  Sauné, J., line engraver, 122
-
-  Savart, P., line engraver, 123
-
-  “Sawn in” backs, 39
-
-  Say, W., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-  Schöffer, P., printer, 91
-
-  Schrödter, A., artist, 116
-
-  Scotin, line engraver, 120
-
-  Scott, J. L., of the British Museum, 144
-
-  Scrive knife, 113
-
-  Sea lion leather, 179
-
-  Seal leather, 179
-
-  Sears, wood engraver, 114
-
-  Semis, 215, 218
-
-  Sen, tablet of, 4
-
-  Send hieroglyphic, 18
-
-  Senefelder, A., lithographer, 132
-
-  Sewing frames for binders, 34
-
-  Sewing of books, the, 35
-
-  Sharpe, J., line engraver, 121
-
-  Sheep leather, 174
-
-  Shot silk effect in half-tone prints, 137
-
-  Siberch, J., bookbinder, 191
-
-  Siegen, L. von, mezzotint engraver, 126
-
-  “Signatures” in printed books, 73
-
-  Silk bindings, 152, 156
-
-    ”  paper, 62
-
-    ”  printing on, 73
-
-  Silver bindings, 161
-
-  Simounet, J. B., line engraver, 122
-
-  Simpson, Sir J., antiquary, 3
-
-  Sion, in the Rhone valley, 55
-
-  “Six Nations” wampum, 13
-
-  Sizes of printed books, 76
-
-  “Skiver” leather, 175
-
-  Small metal bindings, 161
-
-  Smith, D. and W. R., line engravers, 120
-
-    ”    O., wood engraver, 114
-
-  Smooth morocco, 177
-
-  Société des Amis des Livres, 137
-
-  Society of Arts Committee on Paper, 1898 ... 77
-
-  Soft wood engravings, 113
-
-  Soyer, S., wood engraver, 114
-
-  _Speculum, Humanæ Salvationis_, 90
-
-  Spierinck, N., bookbinder, 191
-
-  Split sheep-skin, 175
-
-  Sprinkled calf, 201
-
-  Stabbed bindings, 31
-
-  Stadler, J. C., aquatint engraver, 130
-
-  Staffordshire clog almanacks, 7
-
-  Staggemeier, bookbinder, 234
-
-  Stanfield, artist, 134
-
-  Stanhope, C., Earl, 94
-
-  “Star” watermark, 65
-
-  Steam printing press, 1814 ... 95
-
-  Steel engraving, 122
-
-  Stencil plates for colouring prints, 108
-
-  Stephanoff, F. and J., artists, 131
-
-  Stereotyping, 96
-
-  Stipple engraving, 125
-
-  Stothard, artist, 120
-
-  Stowe House, library at, 189
-
-    ”   missal, 48
-
-  “Straight grained” morocco, 178
-
-  Sturt, J., line engraver, 118
-
-  Styles for writing on wax, 20, 21
-
-  Sullivan, Sir E., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Sulphuric acid in leather, 180
-
-  Sumatran bark books, 29
-
-     ”     calendars, 7
-
-     ”     symbolic messages, 10
-
-  Sutcliffe, G., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Sutherland, T., aquatint engraver, 130, 131
-
-  Swain, wood engraver, 112
-
-  Symbolic messages, 10
-
-     ”     signs on rocks, 3
-
-
-  T.
-
-  Taleth fringes, 11
-
-  Talismans, 5
-
-  Tallies, 5
-
-  Tasselled ecclesiastical hats, 13
-
-  Tasso’s _Gerusalemme Liberata_, 112
-
-  Tate, J., printer, 66
-
-  Taylor’s, I., _History of the Alphabet_, 18
-
-  Taylor, W. D., line engraver, 121
-
-  Test for clay paper, 82
-
-  Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, 51
-
-  Thibetan prayer wheels, 27
-
-  Thiebault, wood engraver, 114
-
-  Thompson, Sir E. M., _Manual of Greek and Roman Palæography_, 18
-
-     ”      J., wood engraver, 112
-
-  Thouvenin, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Three-colour process, 137
-
-  Tillard, J. B., line engraver, 122
-
-  _The Times_ of 20th November, 1814 ... 95
-
-  Title-page engraved on wood, 66
-
-  Torres Straits, tallies used in the, 9
-
-  Tortoiseshell bindings, 161, 163
-
-  Tory, G., artist, 97, 233
-
-  Tours, conference at, 19
-
-  Transparent vellum, 171, 202
-
-  Trautz, bookbinder, 242
-
-  Tree marbled calf, 201
-
-  Trench along the edges of book boards, 56
-
-  Trière, P., line engraver, 122
-
-  Tudor badges, 191, 195
-
-  Tuerlinckoe, lithographer, 135
-
-  Turner, C., mezzotint engraver, 128
-
-     ”    J. M. W., artist, 120, 127, 128
-
-  Turrecremata, _Meditations_, 105
-
-  Type casting, 92
-
-    ”  founding in England, 99
-
-    ”  metal, 92
-
-    ”  specimen sheets, 97
-
-
-  U.
-
-  Utamaro, K., artist, 105
-
-  Uzanne, O., author, 137
-
-
-  V.
-
-  Vander Meulen, lithographer, 135
-
-  Vangelisty, stipple engraver, 126
-
-  Van Loo, lithographer, 135
-
-  Vellum bindings, 36, 169, 202
-
-    ”    pierced, 171, 202
-
-    ”    preparation of, 30
-
-    ”    printing on, 73
-
-    ”    rolls, 27, 28
-
-    ”    transparent, 171, 202
-
-  Velvet bindings, 149
-
-  Venetian bindings, 206
-
-  Verard, A., printer, 108
-
-  Vernet, H., artist, 115, 133
-
-  Villa Dei, A. de, _Doctrinale_, 91
-
-  Villerey, line engraver, 123
-
-  Vogel, A., artist, 116
-
-
-  W.
-
-  Wagstaffe, C., stipple engraver, 125
-
-  Walker, F., artist, 113
-
-  Wallis, H., and R., line engravers, 120
-
-  Walther, bookbinder, 230
-
-  Wampum belts, 13
-
-  Warren, C., line engraver, 121
-
-  Watermarks, 64, 68
-
-  Weale, W. H. J., author, 183
-
-  Webber’s _Views in the South Seas_, 130
-
-  Whimper, wood engraver, 112
-
-  Whistler, J. M., artist, 132
-
-  Whitaker, J., bookbinder, 201
-
-  “White line” engraving, 110
-
-  Whymper, J. W., wood engraver, 112
-
-  Wick rotary type-casting machine, 92
-
-  Wier, R., bookbinder, 229
-
-  Wiesner, J., _Professor_, 63
-
-  Willett, lithographer, 133
-
-  Williams, M. A., S., and T., wood engravers, 114
-
-     ”      T. J., line engraver, 121
-
-  Willmore, T., line engraver, 121
-
-  Wilson, J. L., bookbinder, 155
-
-  Wimborne Minster, chained library at, 164
-
-  Winchester Domesday Book, 185
-
-  Wohlgemuth, M., wood engraver, 115
-
-  Wood-cut illustrations, 103
-
-  Wood pulp used for paper, 77
-
-  Wooden types, 86, 88
-
-  Woolrich, Miss N. E., bookbinder, 231
-
-  Wordsworth, Mrs., amateur bookbinder, 153
-
-  Woven book, 73
-
-  Wright, wood engraver, 112
-
-
-  X.
-
-  Xylographs, 89
-
-
-  Y.
-
-  Young, J., mezzotint engraver, 127
-
-
-  Z.
-
-  Zaehnsdorf, bookbinder, 231
-
-  Zainer, G., publisher, 115
-
-  Zinc blocks, 136
-
-BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-The single footnote has been moved to the end of its chapter.
-
-Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are
-mentioned.
-
-Punctuation has been made consistent.
-
-Variations in spelling, hyphenation, and accenting were retained
-as they appear in the original publication, except that obvious
-typographical errors have been corrected.
-
-p. 62: βυβλοἱ transliterates into English as bubloi.
-
-p. 144: Ναβουχοδονὀσωρ Εσαει ζῆθι transliterates into English as
-Nabouchodonosôr Esaei zêthi.
-
-p. 180: βασιλικον Δωρον transliterates into English as basilikon Dôron.
-
-p. 251: Βασιλικον Δωρον transliterates into English as: Basilikon Dôron.
-
-Several Index entries are spelled differently than their targets,
-including:
-
-  p. 252: Marillier versus Marillien on p. 123 (Marillier, J. P., line)
-
-  p. 252: Meissonnier versus Meissonier on p. 115 (Meissonnier, artist,
-          115)
-
-  p. 254: Porrett versus Porret on p. 114 (Porrett, wood engraver)
-
-  p. 256: Humanæ versus Humanae on p. 90 (_Speculum, Humanæ
-          Salvationis_)
-
-  p. 256: Simounet versus Simonnet on p. 122 (Simounet, J. B., line)
-
-The following changes were made:
-
-  p. 245: page number 122 added (line engraver, 122.)
-
-  p. 248: Dupréal was changed to Dupréel (Dupréel, line engraver)
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK ***
-
-***** This file should be named 52932-0.txt or 52932-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/9/3/52932/
-
-Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
diff --git a/old/52932-0.zip b/old/52932-0.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 0d1adbd..0000000
--- a/old/52932-0.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h.zip b/old/52932-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 67993ba..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/52932-h.htm b/old/52932-h/52932-h.htm
deleted file mode 100644
index 4d2837b..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/52932-h.htm
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,11447 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
-    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
-  <head>
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
-    <title>
-      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport.
-    </title>
-    <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
-    <style type="text/css">
-
-body {
-    margin-left: 10%;
-    margin-right: 10%;
-}
-
-    h1,h2,h3 {
-    text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
-    clear: both;
-}
-
-p {
-    margin-top: .51em;
-    text-align: justify;
-    margin-bottom: .49em;
-}
-
-/*Modified horizontal rules to fix ePub display issue*/
-hr {
-    width: 33%;
-    margin-top: 2em;
-    margin-bottom: 2em;
-    margin-left: 33.5%;
-    margin-right: 33.5%;
-    clear: both;
-}
-
-hr.tb   {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;}
-hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;}
-/*End modified horizontal rule CSS*/
-
-/*Index list items*/
-ul.index { list-style-type: none; }
-li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; }
-li.indx { margin-top: .5em; }
-
-table {
-    margin-left: auto;
-    margin-right: auto;
-}
-
-/*Table of Contents format*/
-table.toc { max-width: 30em;}
-
-td.tocchapter{
-  text-align: center;
-  vertical-align: top;
-  padding-top:1.5em;
-  padding-bottom:0.5em
-}
-
-td.toctitle {text-align: left; vertical-align: top; text-indent: -1.3em; padding-left: 1.3em;}
-td.tocpage {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom; width:3em}
-
-table.plates { max-width: 35em;}
-td.platestitle {
-  padding-top:1.5em;
-  text-align: left;
-  vertical-align: top;
-  text-indent: -2em;
-  padding-left: 2em;
-}
-td.platespage {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom; width:6em}
-
-.TNindent{text-indent:1.5em}
-
-.spacequote8{padding-left:0.8em; padding-right:0.8em}
-.spacequote9{padding-left:0.9em; padding-right:0.9em}
-.spacequote1{padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em}
-.spacequote11{padding-left:1.1em; padding-right:1.1em}
-.spacequote12{padding-left:1.2em; padding-right:1.2em}
-.spacequote13{padding-left:1.3em; padding-right:1.3em}
-.spacequote14{padding-left:1.4em; padding-right:1.4em}
-.spacequote15{padding-left:1.5em; padding-right:1.5em}
-.spacequote16{padding-left:1.6em; padding-right:1.6em}
-.spacequote17{padding-left:1.7em; padding-right:1.7em}
-.spacequote18{padding-left:1.8em; padding-right:1.8em}
-.spacequote19{padding-left:1.9em; padding-right:1.9em}
-.spacequote2{padding-left:2em; padding-right:2em}
-.spacequote22{padding-left:2.2em; padding-right:2.2em}
-.spacequote23{padding-left:2.3em; padding-right:2.3em}
-.spacequote24{padding-left:2.4em; padding-right:2.4em}
-.spacequote25{padding-left:2.5em; padding-right:2.5em}
-.spacequote29{padding-left:2.9em; padding-right:2.9em}
-.spacequote3{padding-left:3em; padding-right:3em}
-.spacequote35{padding-left:3.5em; padding-right:3.5em}
-.spacequote37{padding-left:3.7em; padding-right:3.7em}
-
-.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
-    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
-    position: absolute;
-    left: 92%;
-    font-size: smaller;
-    text-align: right;
-} /* page numbers */
-
-.chapblock{font-size:95%;margin-bottom:1em;margin-left:10%;margin-right:10%}
-
-.workstitle{
-  text-align:center;
-  margin-top:1.5em;
-  margin-bottom:0.75em;
-  font-size:large;
-}
-
-.workssubtitle{
-  text-align:center;
-  margin-top:1em;
-  margin-bottom:0.75em;
-  font-size:medium;
-}
-
-.center   {text-align: center;}
-
-.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
-
-.caption  {font-weight: bold;}
-
-/* Images */
-.figcenter   {
-    margin: auto;
-    text-align: center;
-}
-
-.figleft {
-    float: left;
-    clear: left;
-    margin-left: 0;
-    margin-bottom: 1em;
-    margin-top: 1em;
-    margin-right: 1em;
-    padding: 0;
-    text-align: center;
-}
-
-.figright {
-    float: right;
-    clear: right;
-    margin-left: 1em;
-    margin-bottom:
-    1em;
-    margin-top: 1em;
-    margin-right: 0;
-    padding: 0;
-    text-align: center;
-}
-
-.inlineillo{
-  display: inline-block;
-  vertical-align:bottom;
-  margin-right:1em;
-  margin-left:1em;
-}
-
-/* Footnotes */
-.footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
-
-.footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
-
-.footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
-
-.fnanchor {
-    vertical-align: super;
-    font-size: .8em;
-    text-decoration:
-    none;
-}
-
-/* Poetry */
-.poetry-container {text-align: center;}
-
-.poetry
-{
-  display: inline-block;
-  text-align: left;
-}
-
-.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;}
-
-.poetry .indentbase {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;}
-.poetry .indentquotebase {text-indent: -3.5em; padding-left: 3em;}
-/* End poetry*/
-
-/* Transcriber's notes */
-.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA;
-    color: black;
-     font-size:smaller;
-     padding:0.5em;
-     margin-bottom:5em;
-     font-family:sans-serif, serif; }
-
-/*CSS to set font sizes*/
-/*font sizes for non-header font changes*/
-.xxlargefont{font-size: xx-large}
-.xlargefont{font-size: x-large}
-.largefont{font-size: large}
-.smallfont{font-size: small}
-.titlefont{font-size:medium}
-
-/*CSS to force a page break in ePub*/
-div.chapter {page-break-before: always;}
-
-/*CSS markup for handhelds -- put at end of CSS*/
-@media handheld
-{
-  img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} /*Limit width to display*/
-
-  h2.no-break
-  {
-    page-break-before: avoid;
-    padding-top: 0;
-  }
-
-  .poetry
-  {
-    display: block;
-    margin-left: 1.5em;
-  }
-}
-/*End CSS for handhelds*/
-
-    </style>
-  </head>
-<body>
-
-
-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Book
-       Its History and Development
-
-Author: Cyril Davenport
-
-Release Date: August 29, 2016 [EBook #52932]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center xlargefont">The “Westminster” Series.</p>
-
-<p class="center xlargefont" style="margin-top:3em">THE BOOK</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<div id="Ref_Frontispiece" class="figcenter" style="width: 580px;">
-<img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" width="580" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Golden Binding of “The Gospels of Charlemagne,” with Jewels and
-Enamels, 11th or 12th Century. [<em>Frontispiece.</em></p></div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
-<img src="images/i_titlepage.jpg" width="451" height="650" alt="Title page." />
-</div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h1>THE BOOK</h1>
-
-
-<p class="center xlargefont">ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT</p>
-
-<p class="center" style="margin-top:2em;line-height:1.75em"><span class="smallfont">BY</span><br />
-<span class="largefont">CYRIL DAVENPORT, V.D. F.S.A.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center" style="margin-top:4em"><em>ILLUSTRATED</em></p>
-
-<p class="center" style="margin-top:4em;line-height:1.75em">LONDON<br />
-<span class="largefont">ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE &amp; CO. LTD.</span><br />
-10 ORANGE STREET LEICESTER SQUARE W.C.<br />
-1907
-</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center smallfont">BRADBURY, AGNEW, &amp; CO. LD., PRINTERS<br />
-LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.
-</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
-
-<div class="center">
-<table class="toc" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">EARLY RECORDS.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Rock inscriptions&mdash;Marks on wood&mdash;Quipus&mdash;Wampum&mdash;Modern
-ideographs&mdash;Indian palm-leaf books&mdash;Ideographs and alphabets&mdash;Diptychs</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Papyrus and vellum rolls&mdash;Quaternions&mdash;The sewing of books&mdash;Headbands&mdash;The
-rounding and backing of books&mdash;Mediæval books&mdash;Irish
-cumdachs&mdash;Byzantine bindings&mdash;Oriental books&mdash;Modern
-methods of sewing and binding</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">PAPER.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Paper&mdash;Watermarks and quiring</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">PRINTING.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Assyrian bricks with printed inscriptions&mdash;Oiron ware&mdash;Chinese types&mdash;Block
-books&mdash;Costeriana&mdash;Types and stereotypes&mdash;Printing
-presses</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Wood engraving&mdash;Line engraving&mdash;Etching&mdash;Stipple&mdash;Mezzotint&mdash;Aquatint&mdash;Lithography&mdash;Photography<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">MISCELLANEA.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Book edges and their decoration&mdash;Embroidered books&mdash;Cloth bindings&mdash;Account
-books&mdash;End papers&mdash;Small metal-bound books&mdash;Books
-bound in tortoiseshell&mdash;Chained books&mdash;Horn books</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">LEATHERS.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Vellum&mdash;Calf&mdash;Pig skin&mdash;Sheep skin&mdash;Goat skin&mdash;Seal skin, etc.</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Blind tooling and stamping&mdash;Panel stamps&mdash;Cut leather&mdash;Stained calf&mdash;Cut
-vellum&mdash;Transparent vellum</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="tocchapter" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.<br />
-<span class="smallfont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD.</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="toctitle">Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice&mdash;Early
-Italian gold tooled work&mdash;The spread of gold tooling in Europe&mdash;Modern
-work&mdash;Gold tooling in leather&mdash;Early Venetian gold
-tooled bindings&mdash;The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John
-Gibson, Mary Collet, Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and
-Chapman, Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering, Kalthœber,
-Staggemeier, Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden-Sanderson,
-Sir Edw. Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, S. Prideaux,
-Adams, Woolrich, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and
-Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Macé Ruette, L. A.
-Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. le Monnier, Derome le Jeune, Capé,
-Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td style="text-align:left; padding-top:1em">INDEX</td><td class="tocpage"><em>p.</em> <a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>LIST OF PLATES.</h2>
-
-
-<div class="center">
-<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Plates">
-<tr><td class="platestitle">1. GOLDEN BINDING OF “THE GOSPELS OF CHARLEMAGNE,”
-WITH JEWELS AND ENAMELS, 11TH OR 12TH CENTURY.
-(<em>See</em> <a href="#Ref_54">p. 54</a>)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_Frontispiece"><em>Frontispiece</em></a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="platestitle">2. PAGE FROM WILLIAM CASLON’S “SPECIMEN OF PRINTING
-TYPES.” (LONDON, 1766)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_98fp"><em>To face p.</em> 98</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="platestitle">3. PAGE FROM THE “HYPNEROTOMACHIA POLIPHILI.” (VENICE,
-1499)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_104fp"><em>To face p.</em> 104</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="platestitle">4. PAGE FROM CAXTON’S “MYRROUR OF THE WORLDE.” (LONDON,
-1481)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_108fp"><em>To face p.</em> 108</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="platestitle">5. “THE PEACOCK.” WOOD ENGRAVING BY THOS. BEWICK,
-FROM THE “HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS.” (NEWCASTLE,
-1797-1804)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_110fp"><em>To face p.</em> 110</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="platestitle">6. TITLE-PAGE OF GRIMM’S “GERMAN POPULAR STORIES.”
-(LONDON, 1824)</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_124fp"><em>To face p.</em> 124</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="platestitle">7. FRENCH SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BINDING BY LE GASCON. RED
-MOROCCO, INLAID WITH OLIVE AND CITRON MOROCCO AND
-GOLD TOOLED IN THE POINTILLÉ MANNER</td><td class="platespage"><a href="#Ref_238fp"><em>To face p.</em> 238</a></td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<p class="center" style="margin-bottom:2em"><span class="xxlargefont">THE BOOK:</span><br />
-<span class="xlargefont">ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.</span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break">CHAPTER I.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">EARLY RECORDS.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Rock inscriptions&mdash;Marks on wood&mdash;Quipus&mdash;Wampum&mdash;Modern
-ideographs&mdash;Indian palm leaf books&mdash;Ideographs and alphabets&mdash;Diptychs.</p>
-
-<p>The idea of making records by means of marks cut on
-stone or wood did not originate in any one place, for signs
-of it are found more or less all over the world wherever
-primitive man has existed. It was not until a comparatively
-late period that the various kinds of record keeping were
-unified after a fashion and true writing evolved itself out
-of the chaos.</p>
-
-<p>There are some forms of record keeping that have been
-largely used by the human race which, as far as we can at
-present tell, have not influenced our present form of book
-except negatively; but indirectly they may still have done
-so in some manner that we cannot distinguish.</p>
-
-<p>Mankind is naturally imitative, and among his early
-efforts in this direction are the scratchings on bones and
-antlers. They comprise outlines of deer, mammoths, reindeer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
-seals, bears, horses and other animals. Several instances
-of these early drawings have been found in the caves of the
-Dordogne in France. These, however, are not records, they
-are only pictures of what the artist saw, and a large proportion
-of rock and stone markings come into the same category.
-But there is no doubt that many of the latter are intended
-to commemorate certain events; they show groupings of
-marks, animals and men in positions and attitudes which are
-clearly intended to mean something, and now and then it has
-been possible to make a good guess at their interpretation.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest marks made by man that still exist are to be
-found among the rock markings or carvings, as these are
-often in protected places where the weather has not worn
-them away. Prehistoric caves and tombs are prolific in
-such treasures, and the marks, ideographs or hieroglyphics
-are always of the greatest interest. There seems to be
-some analogy between the great megalithic temples like
-that on Salisbury Plain and many of the rock inscriptions,
-but little is at present known on this point.</p>
-
-<p>Cup and ring markings on rocks or stones are among the
-most remarkable of rock inscriptions because they are not
-isolated as to their design. From Ireland to India these
-marks are found possessing the same radical forms, and it is
-impossible to avoid the conclusion that they have been
-made by tribes of men who had some thought or idea in
-common. What this idea was is still a disputed point
-among archæologists.</p>
-
-<p>Cup and ring markings are held by some authorities to be
-astronomical, sun signs, but these speculations, especially in
-Scandinavian examples, soon land us in pure symbolism,
-ring crosses, swastikas, triskeles and the rest.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Apart from these, marks are found in the British Isles and
-in India particularly through which a dominant idea is
-clearly present. It seems likely that some common religious
-symbolism is really the key to the mystery, and this belief,
-disavowed by Sir J. Simpson, is strongly held by Col.
-J. H. Rivett-Carnac, as well as by many others. By these
-archæologists the cup and ring markings are considered to
-be the ideographic expressions of one of the primitive
-religions of the world which was very widely spread, and the
-remains of which exist in India
-at the present day.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="300" height="206" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Stone cist with ring
-marks. Found at Coilsford in Ayrshire.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But even admitting the possibility
-of this interpretation,
-there are still many points left
-unexplained. For instance, in
-the drawing, it will be seen
-that the cups with their rings
-are cunningly attached to each
-other, and the whole design
-appears as if it “means something.” No doubt some
-day further light will be thrown upon this curious form
-of record.</p>
-
-<p>The Assyrian and Babylonian sculptures both in the round
-and in bas-reliefs are commonly covered with cuneiform
-inscriptions, and these are also plentifully found inscribed
-on stone stelæ and bronze figurines. The famous Rosetta
-stone is a familiar example of a tri-lingual inscription that
-will probably last as long as the world lasts. It is now in
-the British Museum, and bears an inscription in Hieroglyphic,
-Demotic and Greek. The Greek being understood,
-it gave at once the key to the interpretation of the Hieroglyphic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
-The date of the cutting of this stone is about the
-beginning of the second century before the birth of Christ.
-An earlier stone of a similar kind is known as the tablet of
-Sen; it contains a decree of the priests at Canopus in
-honour of Ptolemy Evergetes I. It was made in <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 238,
-but has not yet got to England.</p>
-
-<p>The ten commandments were engraved on stone, and
-instances of inscriptions on small stones are very
-numerous. From Egypt to North America amulets bearing
-mystical sentences have been
-commonly made. Familiar to
-most of us are the turquoises
-engraved with Arabic words
-run in with gold, and the
-curious “Garuda” and other
-stones, with magical inscriptions
-and credited with magical
-powers, have been common in
-the East from time immemorial.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Garuda amulet.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In India inscriptions, holy names, invocations and
-quotations are cut on small flat pieces of jasper, agate,
-onyx, carnelian, amethyst, hematite, jade, and materials of
-less value like coral or glass, some of the old and some new.
-Musulman amulets of similar kinds are also sometimes found
-on gold, silver, iron, and even on small bricks of baked clay.</p>
-
-<p>Many of these amulets have pierced ears for suspension,
-and they were worn as jewellery on the neck or ears or sewn
-on girdles. They were also fixed on weapons of war and
-horse furniture. Some of the stones are engraved in
-reverse so as to make impressions. These are seal stones,
-but the greater number are engraved simply so as to read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
-straightforwardly. They are in Arabic, Persian, and rarely
-Turkish.</p>
-
-<p>Greek and Roman cameos and intaglios are often found
-bearing short inscriptions as well as the names of their
-engravers. Even the diamond has not escaped, but
-inscriptions on this stone are very rare because of the
-difficulty of engraving it. Numbers of inscriptions, names
-and mottoes can be found on ring stones of all times as well
-as on real stones.</p>
-
-<p>Curious Chinese books are made of leaves of jade, and in
-these inscriptions are cut in the decorative Chinese
-character, run in with gold.</p>
-
-<p>It should be noted that the forms of letters have always
-been much influenced by the manner in which they could
-be most easily made. It is easier to cut a square form of
-letter on stone than a cursive form, so we find that the
-majority of rock or stone inscriptions favour the square
-form rather than the rounded form of letter. We derive
-our angular forms of letters from the distant past, but the
-rounded forms are adapted from the later times of papyrus
-or vellum, when reed or pen writing was understood.</p>
-
-<p>Writings on metal have been made from time to time, but
-never very largely. In India inscribed plaques of bronze,
-kept together by metal rings, have been often used.
-Tablets of lead are recorded as having been used by ancient
-peoples, and Oriental as well as European talismanic
-formulæ have been engraved on small plates of silver,
-bronze, brass or lead, the letters being now and then damascened
-with gold and silver. In ancient Rome name-brands
-were cut in bronze, and impressions could have been
-printed from them. They were beautifully cut.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Nicene creed was cut in silver by order of Pope
-Leo III., and in the East strips of metal have constantly
-been substituted for the long thin pieces of
-palm leaf which formed the normal books. The metal
-leaves are found of gold, silver, or gilded copper particularly.
-The plates are quite thin, and the characters
-upon them are generally engraved, but sometimes they are
-chased with tracer and hammer. Such records are not
-only very permanent but they are also very decorative.
-The modern engraving of inscriptions on metal has mainly
-found refuge in monumental brasses, and in this case the
-letterings are usually run
-in with some pigment.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_006.jpg" width="300" height="110" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Runic calendar on bone.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another primitive form
-of record is found in the
-case of notches cut in
-wood. A savage warrior
-of a literary turn of mind
-would naturally wish to keep some record of the
-number of his enemies that he had killed and perhaps
-eaten, and an obvious way of doing this would be to cut or
-scratch marks on his war club. Such records would, no
-doubt, become customary among war-like tribes. The
-handles of war axes or spears would offer excellent ground
-for such marks, and presently, especially in peace times,
-similar marks may well have kept tallies of the numbers of
-game killed.</p>
-
-<p>From such personal notes the transition to others of wider
-interest is not difficult, and so we find the notches used,
-on bits of wood or sticks, for almanacks and calendars.</p>
-
-<p>Ogham and Runic inscriptions follow the ancient idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
-notches cut along an angular edge, and these notches and
-rods are the very distant ancestors of
-our modern types of metal; the German
-word “Buchstab,” meaning type, is
-etymologically “a wooden rod.”</p>
-
-<p>In Denmark and Sweden in ancient
-times almanacks were cut on flat pieces
-of metal, bone, horn, box, fir or oak.
-The majority of them are of wood, but the
-other materials were sometimes used.
-They are variously known as Rune
-staves or stocks, Prime staves, Messe dag
-staves or Brim stocks, and they are
-generally hinged along one side by cords
-run through holes, several slabs being
-thus fastened together. Wooden calendars
-are also often found among the
-records kept by primitive peoples; they
-have been found in Sumatra and in
-many other places.</p>
-
-<p>Similar almanacks were used by our
-Saxon ancestors, who no doubt borrowed
-the idea from the Scandinavians. One
-side was kept for the summer and the
-other for the winter, and notches for the
-days were made across the edges.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="600" height="96" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Staffordshire clog almanack.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>During the reign of Queen Elizabeth
-a modification of the Scandinavian Rune
-staves was largely used in England,
-chiefly in Staffordshire, but not exclusively. These are
-known as “clog almanacks,” and Dr. Plott says that “Clogg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
-may mean Logg, or that they are like the cloggs with which
-we restrain our doggs.”</p>
-
-<p>English clog almanacks are squared pieces of wood,
-measuring from about two feet to nine or ten inches in
-length, and the larger ones are sometimes as much as three
-inches square. They are notched along the angles, small
-notches without ornamentation indicating week days, big
-notches stand for Sundays, and Saints days have all kinds
-of ornamental flourishes, which now and then show familiar
-forms such as Saint Catherine’s wheel and Saint Lawrence’s
-gridiron.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="400" height="62" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Modern hop-tally of wood.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Some of the clogs show a hole at the lower end, evidently
-so that they could
-stand upright upon a
-peg, others, and these
-are the most usual,
-have a flat pierced
-handle so that they can be suspended by a loop. They were
-commonly kept in churches. Details of several well known
-examples of clog almanacks will be found figured in <cite>The
-Reliquary</cite> for January, 1865, in illustration of an excellent
-article on the subject by Mr. John Harland. Exchequer and
-other wooden tallies were common in England in the 14th
-century, and in modern days a certain survival of them exists
-in the form of hop-tallies. These are two strips of wood
-which fit closely together with a tongue, and when in contact
-notches are made across the two edges in apposition, so
-that when the two pieces are apart, neither party can falsify
-the notches without it being at once apparent when the
-slips are finally brought together. The principle is exactly
-the same as that utilised in the old legal “indentures,”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
-by virtue of which a piece of vellum was cut in two
-by an indentured, or toothed line, and if these did not
-exactly fit whenever they were brought together it became
-evident that they had been tampered with. In parts of
-France tallies like these are still used by bakers.</p>
-
-<p>Wooden tallies are also found among the inhabitants of
-Torres Straits, where they use them made of short sticks
-tied together at their tops.</p>
-
-<p>Curious inscriptions, as yet undecipherable, have been
-found at Easter Island; they are cut in thick slabs of wood
-and are ideographic.</p>
-
-<p>Bones have been from very early times the recipients of
-men’s marks; the earliest of these, however, were only copies
-of things seen. But inscriptions and symbols were presently
-scratched on them, and the blade bones of buffaloes in
-North America as well as the shoulder blades of sheep used
-by the Arabs are equally convenient for writing upon. In
-Sumatra inscriptions are commonly cut in flat pieces of
-bone. Instances of inscriptions in ivory are very numerous,
-and the finest examples of these occur in the case of the Roman
-consular diptychs which are described a little further on.</p>
-
-<p>Information as to direction is still often given by means
-of marks or “blazes” on trees, a survival of a primitive
-method, and American lumbermen or “loggers” cut
-hieroglyphic marks of ownership on their logs when they
-send them down stream.</p>
-
-<p>In times of trouble it often happens that primitive
-methods of communication are resorted to, like that received
-by a Cavalier from his lady love who heard that the
-Roundheads were after him&mdash;she sent him a feather, and
-he flew away and escaped.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_010a.jpg" width="200" height="344" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Such symbolical messages are common enough among
-savage tribes, but without some key it is almost impossible
-to interpret them. They are so
-various in their composition that no
-useful analysis of them can be made.
-On one such message from West
-Africa, strung on a string of flat fibre
-knotted at each end, are a bit of shell, a
-bit of fur, a bean, a cylindrical stick,
-a piece of leather, a mass of frog’s eggs
-or something like it, a flat piece of
-bark, a feather, a tooth and a shell.
-In another are two pieces of flat glass
-kept together with red thread, and
-two teeth on each side of it, all
-strung on fibre, and so on.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_010b.jpg" width="300" height="275" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Battas of Sumatra use different and probably more
-elaborate messages, as they
-consist of carefully cut strips
-of wood, resembling the old
-spillikins with which our childhood’s
-days were made happy.
-These strips of thin wood,
-about three inches in length,
-are cut into various shapes
-which have no obvious collective
-meaning. In one of
-them is a capital model of a
-little broom, accompanied apparently by a series of little
-clubs and spikes. Such a message might have been
-sent by an absent brave to his squaw at home, and may have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
-meant that if she didn’t sweep up the wigwam before his
-arrival she would experience the effect of one or other of
-the clubs.</p>
-
-<p>The Incas of Peru had a regular system of keeping
-records by means of coloured pieces of string knotted in a
-peculiar way.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="600" height="323" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Peruvian Quipu.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>These knotted records, or Quipus, had special keepers
-who held office in the provinces, and the results of their
-energy were forwarded annually to the capital city for
-examination and preservation. The provincial keepers
-were called “Quipu Camayas,” and the records they
-kept were mainly statistics concerning the people of their
-districts. The knots were arranged either on a strong
-piece of cord or upon a stick, and formed a sort of fringe;
-the word “Quipu” means a knot. According to the position
-of the knot a certain number was probably indicated,
-and the class of person referred to is shown by the colour
-of the bit of string which represents it.</p>
-
-<p>But it is also likely that more elaborate interpretations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
-could be made by skilled interpreters of Quipus. Little
-is really known as to that, but it is suggested by competent
-observers that, for instance, red meant war, yellow meant
-gold, white meant peace, and silver. But this is probably
-guess work. The same idea has been utilised in the case of
-a rare Chinese book, the leaves of which were of differently
-coloured silks. Each colour was supposed to convey a
-certain emotion to the student, and when he had exhausted
-the emotion caused by one colour, he turned over the leaf
-so as to experience the
-effect of another.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="400" height="357" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Cardinal’s hat.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The use of knots as
-reminders is not quite
-obsolete, as it is common
-enough even now to make
-a knot in one’s handkerchief,
-if anything easy
-is to be remembered. It
-is curious if this custom
-is really a survival of
-the Peruvian Quipu!</p>
-
-<p>A form of knotted record is used among several of the
-tribes in the Pacific Islands, and the Jewish “Taleth,” or
-scarf, has fringes which imply certain facts.</p>
-
-<p>The ordinary rosary with its ten beads for Ave Maria’s
-and single ones for Pater Nosters has also something in
-common with knots, and possibly the abacus of the Greeks
-and the Chinese may have a similar origin. But probably
-these last are only used as aids in mathematical
-calculations.</p>
-
-<p>Something analogous to the Peruvian knots is to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
-found in the tasselled and knotted fringes which adorn the
-ceremonial hats of dignitaries in the Romish church.</p>
-
-<p>The hats themselves are always of the same shape,
-round shallow crowns with broad brims. The fringes,
-however, differ in size and colour according to the rank of
-the wearer. The master cord is drawn through the brim
-of the hat at its inner edge, at a point over each ear, and
-kept in place by a large ornamental knot on the outside.</p>
-
-<p>The tassels start from one, and from this two others
-depend, and from these three, and so on, one more in each
-row. An abbot wears a black hat with six green tassels on
-each side; a
-bishop wears a
-green hat with
-six green tassels
-on each side on
-a gold cord; an
-archbishop has a
-violet hat with
-ten violet tassels
-on each side on a gold cord, and a cardinal has a red hat
-with fifteen red tassels on a gold cord, depending on each
-side.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="400" height="166" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Portion of North American wampum
-belt.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The wampum belts of North America were primarily
-used as money, but they were also made sometimes in such
-a way that they formed historical records.</p>
-
-<p>The true “Six Nation” wampum belts were made of
-little white and purple cylinders of shell very laboriously
-cut, and the purple ones very difficult to get. “Wampum”
-means white, and there is generally a preponderance of this
-colour. The short beads are strung upon long threads or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
-strips of leather, and the design shows sometimes in
-purple on a white ground and sometimes in white on a
-purple ground.</p>
-
-<p>The designs are sometimes easy to decipher, like the belt
-which typifies the Iroquois League, showing the one heart
-of the ruling nation in the centre, and the allied nations,
-each shown by a square, united together in one bond.</p>
-
-<p>A very fine and interesting wampum belt was given as a
-record of friendship to William Penn at the Great Treaty in
-1682, by the Sachems of the Lenni Lenape. It is now preserved
-by the Historical Society at Philadelphia. It is made
-of eighteen rows of white and purple cylindrical shell beads,
-the ground white and the designs in purple. The beads are
-laced upon nineteen parallel “horizontal” strips of leather
-by means of thinner strips running vertically across them
-and brought twice through each bead, one running being
-above the horizontal strip and the other below it. It is a
-curious way of stringing beads, and was practised in
-England some sixty or seventy years ago in the making of
-small bead ribbons. In the centre of the belt is a
-conventional figure of Penn shaking hands with the chief
-Sachem.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the wampum belts seem to have only geometrical
-designs upon them, but doubtless, without exception,
-these fine white and purple shell belts, cut with infinite
-patience and skill, and put together with the greatest care,
-always have some meaning. The Iroquois could, until
-recently, interpret them at once, but now they are less able
-to understand the work of their ancestors.</p>
-
-<p>There are plenty of imitation wampum belts, usually
-made of small shells or ordinary beads. The genuine belts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
-are flat and strong, and the little shell cylinders nearly all
-of the same size. The imitations are much more irregularly
-and carelessly made, and they are often without any colour
-but white.</p>
-
-<p>A common form of book in Oriental countries consists of
-long narrow strips of palm leaf, kept together by two
-strings run through holes near each end. The writing
-upon the leaves is carried right along the length of each
-leaf in successive lines, and is scratched in, and usually
-strengthened by means of lamp black rubbed over it so as
-to stick in the scratches.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Oriental palm-leaf
-book.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>This form of book rests by itself. Apparently it has never
-altered materially, neither has
-it in any way affected the production
-of the book as we know
-it. The palm leaves are brittle,
-they are troublesome to turn
-over, and are likely to split and
-break where the cord touches them. But the leaves
-are frequently made of stronger materials than palm leaf,
-some of them being of gold, silver, or gilded copper,
-and in these cases the lettering is engraved or punched.
-Others are written on plates of ivory, the letters being
-gilded, others again on plates of lacquer with letters inlaid
-with mother-of-pearl; indeed, the variety is large.</p>
-
-<p>The leaves are always enclosed between two covers of
-stronger make but of the same shape, and these covers are
-often very elaborately ornamented. Some of them have
-exquisite carved work and inlaid work and others are
-painted. In the case of Indian examples they are often
-messed over with red stains. When this is found the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
-manuscript has belonged to some shrine, and worshippers
-have daubed it with rice and red paint as a sort of peace
-offering. The strings with which the leaves are bound
-together are also sometimes handsomely ornamented.</p>
-
-<p>Ancient rock inscriptions, tallies, quipus and wampums
-are all more or less ideographic, and among trade signs
-there are still many ideographs in common use, some of
-them of considerable antiquity. There are the three golden
-balls of the pawnbroker, which mean that money can be
-borrowed there. They are derived from the coat of arms of
-the Medici of Lombardy. The Lombards were mediæval
-bankers and money lenders, and for their badge they took
-three of the golden balls, or pills, out of the Medici coat.</p>
-
-<p>These balls varied in number and colour, they were sometimes
-red, and sometimes blue, and three blue balls upon a
-white ground was one of the mediæval signs used by money
-lenders, but the three golden balls have proved more
-lasting.</p>
-
-<p>Another old ideograph is the white barber’s pole, with its
-red spiral, the image of the red bandage used to tie up an
-arm which had just been bled. It was originally the mark
-of a barber surgeon, but the barber still uses it although he
-no longer bleeds his clients. An old sign for a barber is
-also a shaving dish. This is oftener seen on the continent
-than it is here.</p>
-
-<p>The embowed arm holding a hammer is an old sign of
-a gold beater, and is generally itself gilded. It is clearly
-an ideograph, as is also the fishing rod with a golden fish,
-which is a usual sign over a fishing tackle maker’s shop. A
-modern instance of the same kind is a gilded ham which is
-not uncommonly seen over provision shops, quite a modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
-sign. The rapidly disappearing Highlander taking snuff is
-another modern ideograph. There are plenty more of such
-signs, most of which tell their story directly and simply,
-while others, the older ones particularly, may at first seem
-arbitrary, but often a little examination will reveal a simple
-origin.</p>
-
-<p>The curious hieroglyphics still used by gypsies are no
-doubt derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and although
-most of them have changed considerably, a certain resemblance
-in some of the forms can still be traced.</p>
-
-<p>Ideograms are still used in North America in out of the
-way places. A common mark for a cheese is a circle, and
-this sign was found opposite a farmer’s name, but he had
-never had one. He did, however, owe for a grindstone,
-and the draughtsman clerk had forgotten to put in the
-centre dot which would have marked the difference
-between the stone and the edible.</p>
-
-<p>In common use more or less all over the civilised world
-is the pointing hand, meaning either “Look there” or
-“This way.”</p>
-
-<p>Some signs are also ideographic in character; among these
-are certain of the deaf and dumb signs, and also some of
-the arm signals used in the navy. In the army some of
-the bugle calls imitate as far as possible the sounds to
-which they refer. For instance, the “prepare for cavalry”
-has some resemblance to horses galloping.</p>
-
-<p>Ideographs used in written languages soon change in
-character. No longer do they mean simply what they portray,
-but the sound of its name, and then by degrees they represented
-the first syllable, and eventually only the first letter
-of its name. These changes of meaning are accompanied by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
-changes of form, and it is very curious to trace how an
-apparently arbitrary letter form is really only the survival of
-the main lines of an ancient ideogram. There are several
-most interesting instances of these changes given by Dr.
-Isaac Taylor in his classic “History of the Alphabet,” as well
-as by other writers on the subject, particularly Sir E. Maunde
-Thompson and Mr. Falconer Madan.</p>
-
-<p>Egyptian inscriptions show both ideographs, hieroglyphics
-and alphabetic signs, as there is usually a word spelt out
-in syllables or letters, and at the end of it the complete
-word shown as a little picture. The hieroglyphics altered
-into a style of writing which was not so pictorial about
-the nineteenth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and although alphabetical
-symbols were actually used as early as 4,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>,
-yet it was very many years later than this that they
-became of general use. The earliest piece of hieroglyphic
-known is cut upon stone on a tablet now preserved in the
-Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It is supposed to have
-been made about 4,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and on it the name of King
-Send is written alphabetically.</p>
-
-<p>Our present alphabetic writing is by no means final, as it is
-even now undergoing a remarkable change, in which neither
-ideograph, hieroglyphic, nor alphabet plays any part.
-Shorthand will in time supersede our comparatively
-cumbrous process, and it is purely phonetic.</p>
-
-<p>Chinese writing is still in the syllabic state, but the
-Japanese, which is formed from it, has advanced many
-steps towards the alphabetical stage.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest handwriting known is that on the Papyrus
-Prisse, now in Paris. It is in Egyptian hieratic writing,
-and is supposed to date perhaps from about 4,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></span>
-The hieratic is a cursive form of hieroglyphic, and was
-used particularly by priests.</p>
-
-<p>We derive our present letters “longo intervallo” from
-Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the history of their evolution
-is full of interest.</p>
-
-<p>It may be well here to review rapidly how it is that we
-have acquired an alphabet for printing purposes which is
-clear, though not beautiful. Our present type shows two
-alphabets; one, the capital letters, are of Roman origin, the
-other, the small letters, are a modification of what are
-called Carolingian minuscules, and both alphabets have
-reached us through the Latin, Greek, Phœnician and
-Semitic.</p>
-
-<p>Up to the seventh or eighth centuries in Europe the
-various styles of writing were in a mixed condition, but about
-that time the different forms of letters began to arrange
-themselves, and to follow distinctive lines of development
-in different countries.</p>
-
-<p>Charlemagne interested himself in the matter, and saw
-that the time had arrived when something could be done
-towards clearing away the many difficulties which cropped
-up by reason of the different forms of letters which then
-existed. He caused careful studies to be made of existing
-styles so that some sort of common ground could be found.
-At Tours the Emperor set up a sort of Royal Commission
-to enquire into the matter, and at the head of it he placed a
-learned Englishman, Alcuin of York, who was known as a
-great student and was himself a calligraphist. Alcuin was
-trained in the beautiful Hiberno-Saxon hand, of which so
-many magnificent examples still remain&mdash;the Book of
-Kells, the Gospels of Lindisfarne, and several more.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>At Tours the Carolingian minuscules, which are the
-direct ancestors of our small, or lower-case letters, were
-developed.</p>
-
-<p>Our capital letters have developed themselves on different
-lines. They are like the ancient Roman types, which in
-the twelfth century had modified themselves somewhat and
-become very clear, and these forms commended themselves
-to the scribes of the Renaissance period, and underwent
-still more improvement in details. The early type cutters
-who formed their letters directly after the shapes of letters
-written by hand, soon saw that these
-capitals were not only easy to cut but
-were in every way the best they
-could find to copy.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="200" height="204" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Roman
-diptych.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>During some excavations at
-Pompeii in 1875 a large collection
-of small wax writing tablets or Pugillaria
-was found. These tablets resemble
-small slates; they are of wood,
-and one side is slightly hollowed out
-so as to receive a filling of blackened wax. Generally two
-of the tablets were hinged together, hence their name of
-diptychs, but sometimes they were in threes or even more,
-like a tail or “Caudex,” from which it is said we derive our
-word Codex. Diptychs are the direct prototypes of our
-modern books.</p>
-
-<p>The writing was marked on the wax by means of a style
-in the same way that writing was formerly done in England
-on the curious sand tables. These styles are usually
-of iron, sometimes inlaid with brass, but they were also
-made of bronze, brass, wood or bone. They always have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
-one end pointed to write with and the other flat to erase
-with. A space was often left in the thickness of the
-wooden edge of a diptych to keep the style in. The
-erasing in the case of the diptych was effected by rubbing
-the flat end of the style over it, and in the case of the sand
-writing-tablet by a plasterer’s level or a good shake.
-Sand tablets have been used up to quite recent times in
-elementary schools. But the sand writing was always
-temporary, whereas the wax writing is very lasting, one of
-those found at Pompeii bearing the date <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 55. It records
-a payment to Umbricia Januaria, and is the earliest Latin
-manuscript known.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="600" height="81" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Roman diptych stylus.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Diptychs of similar form were widely used. They have
-been found in Egypt, and in England&mdash;remains of the
-Roman occupation&mdash;together with numbers of the styles
-used for writing with.</p>
-
-<p>Diptychs were kept together at the back by means of metal
-rings or thongs of leather, run through holes made in the
-wood, so that they are true prototypes of our modern books
-both as to form and manner of keeping together, the
-“stabbed” form of binding, that is to say, threads or bands
-or wires run through holes pierced along the back edge of
-the sections of a book, having been in continual use ever
-since rolls were first turned into books.</p>
-
-<p>When the diptychs were used as private letters they
-were further fastened with a tie or clasp in front, and this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
-tie was often sealed with the sender’s signet in wax or
-clay.</p>
-
-<p>The Pompeian and all the other small wooden diptychs
-are unornamented, but at a later
-period, particularly from the second
-to the seventh century, Roman
-diptychs became of much importance
-and were often decoratively
-treated, being made of ivory and
-elaborately carved.</p>
-
-<p>Labarte, Gori, Westwood and
-Maskell have all written valuable
-works concerning these ornamental
-diptychs, and specimens of more or
-less excellence can be found in most
-museums that have any collection
-of carvings in ivory. The earlier
-examples are the best; later specimens
-rapidly decline in art value,
-although they are always of great
-historical interest.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="200" height="542" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14</span>.&mdash;Byzantine diptych
-of ivory.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One leaf of one of the finest diptychs
-in existence is fortunately in
-the British Museum; it shows a full-length
-figure of an archangel with
-globe, cross and long-staff, and is
-supposed to have been made in the third or fourth
-century. A curious point about this leaf is its unusual
-size, about 16 by 6 inches, and it is said that such a piece
-could not be cut from any known elephant tusk. It is
-possibly mammoth ivory.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>For a long time the supreme power at Rome was vested
-in the consuls who held office for one year. Naturally
-anyone elected to this high position was anxious to inform
-everyone holding any high place or office of his accession
-to the dignity, and the usual
-way of doing this was to send
-round diptychs of ivory announcing
-the event, as well
-as subsequent ones concerning
-any other important matters
-which might occur during the
-consulate.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
-<img src="images/i_023.jpg" width="250" height="452" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Ivory diptych, of the
-consul Valentinian, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 380.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Not only was the communication
-inscribed upon the wax,
-all of which is now gone, but
-the outside ivory was carved
-with invaluable portraits,
-scenes and inscriptions. By
-examining these carvings we
-can frequently ascertain who
-was the consul that issued
-them, and often enough we
-can find his portrait carefully
-drawn. In one of the many
-excavations made in the
-Forum at Rome, tablets containing a list of Roman consuls
-were found, and these serve as an official check upon our
-interpretation of the records existing upon the consular
-diptychs.</p>
-
-<p>Consular diptychs were generally larger than the
-wooden pugillaria, which were always small. Ivory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
-diptychs are rarely less than six or seven inches in
-length.</p>
-
-<p>The privilege of giving away finely carved ivory diptychs
-was highly esteemed, and in the fourth century the
-Emperor Theodosius issued an edict forbidding any but one
-of the two consuls, one at Rome and the other at Constantinople,
-to issue them.</p>
-
-<p>In the matter of consular and official costume the Roman
-carved ivory diptychs are of great importance.</p>
-
-<p>Figures often appear on coins or gems, but they are
-always very small. On the diptychs, however, they are
-sufficiently large to show full details. The subjects
-depicted on them are various. There are games, combats
-in the circus, scenes from the Passion, boys emptying
-sacks of prizes, figures of Saints, Adam and Eve, busts
-and portraits of consuls both in medallions and full length.
-The best collections of consular diptychs are to be found
-at Rome, Milan, Monza, Paris, Munich, Berlin, Liverpool
-and London.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the consular there are also ecclesiastical
-diptychs, the majority of which were probably only diverted
-from their original intention and altered and adapted to a
-new use. The original wax was removed and new
-inscriptions engraved on the ivory, mostly lists of martyrs
-or benefactors to the particular church which had possession
-of the diptych.</p>
-
-<p>There is one at Liège on which the names of the
-bishops of Tongres are written, and there is another
-similar one at Novara. It is probable that the liking
-for ivory carvings on books arose from the lead given
-by the ivory diptychs. Indeed in several instances the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
-sides of ivory diptychs are actually inlaid in late bindings
-of MSS.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">WORKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Aglio, A.</span>&mdash;Antiquities of Mexico. <em>London</em>, 1830-48. (Vol. 4, at
-end.) (Quipus.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Berger.</span>&mdash;Histoire de l’ecriture dans l’antiquité. <em>Paris</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gori, A. F.</span>&mdash;Thesaurus reterum diptychorum consularium et
-ecclesiasticorum. <em>Florentiae</em>, 1759.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Harland, J.</span>&mdash;<cite>The Reliquary</cite>, Jan., 1865. (Clog almanacks.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Labarte, J.</span>&mdash;Histoire des Arts Industrielles au moyen age.
-(Diptychs.) <em>Paris</em>, 1864-66.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lacroix, P.</span>&mdash;Les arts au moyen age. (Diptychs.) <em>Paris</em>, 1809.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lubbock, Sir J.</span>&mdash;Prehistoric Times. <em>London</em>, 1865.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Madan, F.</span>&mdash;Books in Manuscript. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Maskell, W.</span>&mdash;Ivories Ancient and Mediæval. <em>London</em>, 1875.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Maskell, A.</span>&mdash;Ivories. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Plott, R.</span>&mdash;Natural History of Staffordshire. (Clog almanacks.)
-<em>Oxford</em>, 1686.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Prescott, W. H.</span>&mdash;History of the Conquest of Peru. (Quipus.)
-<em>London.</em></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Reinaud.</span>&mdash;(Description des monumens Musulmanes du cabinet
-de M. le Duc de Blacas.) (Indian amulets.) <em>Paris</em>, 1828.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rivett-Carnac, J. H.</span>&mdash;Prehistoric Remains in Central India.
-<em>Calcutta.</em></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rivett-Carnac, J. H.</span>&mdash;Ancient Rock Sculptures in Kamaon.
-<em>Calcutta</em>, 1877.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Simpson, Sir J. Y.</span>&mdash;Archaic Sculpturings. <em>Edinburgh</em>, 1867.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Report</span>, 1879, p. 389. (Wampum.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tavernier, J. B.</span>&mdash;Voyages. <em>Paris</em>, 1810.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Taylor, I.</span>&mdash;The Alphabet. <em>London</em>, 1883.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Thompson, Sir E. M.</span>&mdash;Handbook of Greek and Roman Palæography.
-<em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Westwood, J. O.</span>&mdash;Cat. of Fictile Ivories. <em>London</em>, 1876.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER II.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Rolls of papyrus and vellum&mdash;Quaternions&mdash;The sewing of books&mdash;Headbands&mdash;The
-rounding and backing of books&mdash;Mediæval
-books&mdash;Irish cumdachs&mdash;Byzantine bindings&mdash;Oriental books&mdash;Modern
-methods of sewing and binding.</p>
-
-<p>The length of ancient rolls of vellum has often puzzled
-bibliophiles. Rolls of narrow breadth are found 16 or 17
-feet or more in length. A learned scholar on being asked
-how he accounted for this extraordinary length was quite
-puzzled, never having realised that the roll was in one
-piece. The neck of
-the giraffe seemed the
-only possible solution.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="400" height="92" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Egyptian papyrus roll, with
-mud seals.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The writer however
-consulted a clever
-leather worker and
-gave him a skin measuring about 3 feet by 2, suggesting
-certain ways of cutting it. He produced eventually, by
-wetting, pulling and pinning, a beautiful roll of nearly 4
-inches in breadth and 16 feet 9 inches in length.</p>
-
-<p>Mediæval leather workers were no doubt more skilled
-and practised in this particular art than anyone now is,
-and the experiment showed that there is really nothing out
-of the way in the very long rolls which at first sight seem
-so surprising.</p>
-
-<p>Rolls were written upon in three ways. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
-oldest rolls the usual way was to write lines across the
-breadth of the roll, which was held upright before the
-reader, and unrolled from the top downwards.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;">
-<img src="images/i_027a.jpg" width="125" height="403" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Roll
-written
-upon across
-its shorter
-diameter.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A rare form of writing upon rolls is that
-found in the prayers written on the strips
-which are rolled up inside Buddhist prayer
-wheels. Such prayers, however, are never read,
-but are counted as being read through on each
-revolution of the wheel. Each line of manuscript
-runs along the entire length of the roll,
-which is unrolled sideways. The prayer wheels
-vary immensely in size, the best known being
-the little hand ones chiefly used in Thibet;
-they are variously ornamented.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_027b.jpg" width="400" height="125" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Roll written upon
-longitudinally.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The form of writing in rolls that is of most
-interest so far as books is concerned is a
-modification of the Thibetan form. Instead
-of each line running the whole
-length of the roll, a space limit is now fixed, and the
-lines of writing follow under each other, so that the
-page form is at once
-apparent. This form,
-a late one, can be
-seen in the case of the
-Jewish scrolls of the
-law. The roll is unrolled
-sideways, and the
-rollers at each end are often very handsomely decorated.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/i_028a.jpg" width="150" height="337" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Thibetan
-prayer wheel.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But writing of this last kind on rolls has suggested
-another arrangement in which the reading is more easy,
-and the re-rolling of the roll itself avoided.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that a blank space is left between each of
-the written “pages.” Now if the vellum, bark, or paper be
-folded across these vacant spaces, one after the other,
-backwards and forwards, like accordion
-pleating, we shall find that we get a form
-of book well known in the East and also
-among primitive nations.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
-<img src="images/i_028b.jpg" width="350" height="109" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Roll written upon in page
-form.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Curious examples of such converted rolls
-can be seen in most museums, and they are
-generally kept flat by means of two boards
-front and back, but not otherwise fastened.</p>
-
-<p>The Chinese and Japanese have taken
-this particular form of evolution from the
-roll to the book a step further, and by help
-of the ancient device of “stabbing” the
-flattened roll along one of its sides, they
-produce a form called an “Orihon,” easy
-to consult, strong, and the blank back of the roll so hidden
-up that its existence is frequently not realised. But if
-some of the leaves of an Orihon are cut, its real structure
-becomes at once evident,
-and a book will
-be produced with letterpress
-and blank paper
-alternately in pairs. A
-similar kind of alternation
-shows now and
-then in the case of MS. rolls that have been cut up, but
-they are oftener arranged letterpress and blank alternately.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_029a.jpg" width="400" height="179" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Sumatran bark book in the form
-of a folded roll.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_029b.jpg" width="200" height="302" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Orihon.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>Without realising it we still preserve this blank and
-letterpress sequence, found in the converted roll, in official<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
-and legal manuscripts as well as in those intended for the
-printer.</p>
-
-<p>When the printing press took the place of the scribe, the
-blank leaves had no further <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">raison d’être</i>, so they dropped
-out for good.</p>
-
-<p>Following the rule that the forms of binding have always
-followed tolerably closely the forms of the manuscript they
-have covered, we find that rolls were kept in cylindrical
-boxes, called “scrinia.” Each roll was usually provided
-with a little tag, so that if there were several of them in
-one box they could easily be distinguished. The same
-sort of tags are used to-day in the case of rolled maps kept
-on shelves.</p>
-
-<p>Until a late period the term parchment must be understood
-to mean vellum. Now we call sheep skin “parchment”
-and calf skin “vellum,” and they are prepared in the same
-way with lime, so that not being tanned they are not strictly
-“leather.” The finest vellum is prepared from the very
-youngest and smallest calves, and it is the most beautiful
-and suitable material for writing or printing upon that has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
-ever yet been found. The surface is singularly even and
-offers little or no resistance to a pen, so that every sort of
-handwriting, square or round, is put upon it with equal
-ease. Vellum has one fault alone, particularly when bound
-in book form as distinct from a roll, and this is that the
-edges are apt to cockle, and by so doing they not only make
-the pages look ugly, but they also admit the dust. Often
-and often magnificent vellum books, especially at the top,
-show large vandykes of dust-stained spaces due to this
-cockling, and all such books should be provided with a close
-fitting cardboard cap, to be kept upon them whenever they
-are not in use.</p>
-
-<p>Parchment and vellum were both well-known to the
-ancients, but their value as materials for writing upon does
-not seem to have been fully acknowledged until the second
-century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, until which period papyrus had held undisputed
-pre-eminence for that purpose. At that time for
-some reason the supply of papyrus from Egypt ran short,
-and Eumenes II., King of Pergamum, successfully introduced
-parchment in its stead. Parchment is so called
-because it was first produced at Pergamum.</p>
-
-<p>Until about the fifth century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, vellum MSS. were
-in the roll form, but then came a change to the book form
-as we now know it. This change was probably due to the
-fact that stabbed binding, the only sort then used, was not
-suited to vellum. The few papyri that exist in book
-form were stabbed, that is to say, the rectangular pages
-were kept in position by a binding cord laced through holes
-pierced sideways right through the entire thickness of the
-back of the book. The marks of these holes can often be
-seen along the inner margins of ancient papyri, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
-also show in many instances of rebound copies of our early
-English printed books. To-day plenty of examples of this
-form of sewing can be seen in the Chinese and Japanese
-books, “Orihons,” which are really links between the roll
-and the book form. It is also largely used for thin books
-of little value, and a modification of it can be seen in
-numbers of magazines, books of advertisements, and the
-like, which are kept together by abominable little clamps of
-wire attached on the same principle. When such books
-have to be properly bound the little clamps
-have to be carefully removed, and it is
-generally found that they have made an
-indelible stain of rust on the paper, even if
-they have not also torn it considerably.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 125px;">
-<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="125" height="191" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Stabbed binding.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In mediæval libraries or monasteries when
-a book was to be made, vellum leaves were
-cut into the required size and folded once
-across the middle. The folded leaves were
-then fitted inside each other in groups of four
-(quaternions) or five (quinternions), or whatever
-other number seemed good to the bookmaker. The
-leaves were then marked in some slight way so that their
-order might not be lost, and sent to the scribe to be
-written upon.</p>
-
-<p>The books count as folios because each original sheet
-only forms two pages; the fact of their being arranged in
-groups is accidental, and does not theoretically alter the
-size of the book. For this the original skin of vellum
-would have to be folded with certain further divisions, and
-in the case of early manuscripts this was never done.</p>
-
-<p>Vellum shows a different surface on the flesh side to that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
-on the hair side, and the scribe usually made his rule
-marks with a blunt style to guide his writing on the hair
-side, so that on this side the ruled lines are slightly
-indented, whereas on the flesh side they show as little
-ridges.</p>
-
-<p>This point is apparently trivial, but if, as seems likely,
-both Greek and Latin scribes were really very particular
-and consistent in the way they alternated the two sides of
-the vellum, then the matter becomes one of much critical
-importance. Indeed, it has already been of the utmost
-value in deciding questions
-as to whether new pages had
-been added or not to an old
-book.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="300" height="192" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Quaternion threaded
-together.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>When the scribe had made
-his rulings he then doubled
-up his sheets once, and
-arranged them as he desired
-with regard to the hair or
-flesh sides. When a section of four sheets were fitted into
-each other, so that when pressed together they made a
-solid gathering, such a gathering is called a “Quaternion,”
-from which term we derive our word “Quire.” This is a
-normal state of things, but it is obvious that abnormal
-arrangements might easily be made, from the insertion of a
-single leaf to that of an entirely additional section.</p>
-
-<p>Now the question arose of how best to fasten the quaternions
-together, not only as to themselves but also as to
-the other quaternions, which together formed the entire
-book.</p>
-
-<p>As to the quaternion itself, it must have been evident at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
-once that a stitch of thread or fibre run from the innermost
-fold right through to the outermost would hold the leaves
-firmly together. It is likely enough that this was done
-separately at first, and then the binder would have looked
-at a small heap of such gatherings wondering how best to
-keep them together, and it would soon occur to any constructive
-mind to knot the loose ends of the threads
-together, or else to supply a supplementary cord or cords
-laid at right angles to the back of the sections on which
-the projecting ends of the threads might be tied or sewn.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_033a.jpg" width="300" height="189" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Four threaded
-quaternions ready to be tied together.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_033b.jpg" width="300" height="194" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Four threaded
-quaternions tied on to transverse bands.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>This, in fact, was done, and very shortly the best way of
-fastening the sections on to such cords or threads was hit
-upon&mdash;a method indeed that we have never bettered, and
-which can still be found in the work of many of our best
-modern binders.</p>
-
-<p>At first this fastening together of the sections of a book
-was no doubt done uncomfortably and roughly by hand, but
-it soon became evident that some simple device in the form
-of a skeleton frame might be contrived which would render
-the operations of sewing and binding much easier. Not
-only easier to execute but also giving a more regular and
-workmanlike result.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest known sewing frames were the same as are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
-used now. There are two strong columns of wood fixed on
-a broad platform, with a slot between their bases. From
-capital to capital extends a bar, and the strips of leather,
-vellum, or hempen cords which are to form the bands of
-the book are looped upon it, and are kept taut by means
-of metal keys attached to the other end, which lock into the
-slot at the bottom. The bands can be quite easily adjusted
-to any space the worker
-desires.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="400" height="288" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Modern hand-sewing press.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The book, ready for
-sewing and in proper
-order of sections, is laid
-near the worker’s hand,
-and he, or she, takes it
-up by sections, one at a
-time. The section to be
-worked upon is laid
-downwards on the little
-platform, with its back close against the bands, and the
-worker’s left hand keeps the section open in the middle,
-while with the right hand a thread is drawn through the
-back fold, from the inside to the outside, round the band,
-and then back from the outside to the inside, and so on until
-all the bands have been caught round. Then to end up,
-the thread is passed through near the extreme end of the
-fold and knotted, forming what is called a “kettle stitch,”
-and from this point the whole operation is repeated, backwards,
-with the next section. It sounds complicated, but
-is not so really, and several sections could have been sewn
-together in the time that it has taken me to describe the
-sewing of one of them.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_035a.jpg" width="400" height="44" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Faulty sewing over a band.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Now comes an interesting point, and that is the exact
-way in which the threads are passed over the bands. We
-will first see that if the thread is drawn through the back
-fold of the section, round a hand and back again through
-another hole, that there is a weak construction, inasmuch
-as the thread will have a strong tendency to cut through
-the paper at <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>, because there is in each case a side
-strain. It therefore
-seemed necessary that
-the thread should
-make its return journey by the same hole through which it emerged, but if
-simply done, this did not mend matters much, as the strain
-still tended to pull this hole open wider. A line of exit and
-entrance without any side pull was needed, and this was
-found by means of a very clever device. A broad band of
-leather or vellum was cut through lengthways, leaving a
-solid piece at each end.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_035b.jpg" width="300" height="42" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Mediæval sewing
-round double band.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Now when the sewer came to this band he ran the thread
-straight through the slot, then
-brought it round the entire
-band, under it, between it and
-the back of the book, and down
-again, back through the slot,
-and in at the same point from which it emerged. The result
-of this is that there is no strain at all on the needle hole
-through which the thread passes, as the pull is quite straight
-both coming and going. This is undoubtedly the best
-form of sewing a book on bands, and a book so treated is
-said to be sewn on “double bands.” But our recent work
-is not always true, although from the outside it appears<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
-correct, because in numbers of cases such double bands
-are simply glued on the outside of the back, the real
-sewing, of a very inferior kind, possibly even done by
-machinery, being hidden underneath the leather. Few
-great binders except Charles Lewis have ever used sham
-bands.</p>
-
-<p>Flexible sewn books can be had now if wanted, but the
-sewing on the bands is not quite the same as the fine
-mediæval double bands I have described. It is, however,
-practically nearly as good, and the bands themselves can
-be made smaller.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
-<img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="250" height="41" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Modern sewing
-round single band.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The modern method is to bring the needle and thread
-through the back of the section as
-usual, then give it one turn onwards
-over the band and back again through
-the same hole. It will be seen that
-this is a thoroughly sound principle,
-and brings no strain upon the back of the section.</p>
-
-<p>The ends of the bands of limp vellum books have always
-been treated in the same way; they are drawn straight
-through the vellum at the joint and then back again and
-fastened inside by means of the end paper.</p>
-
-<p>The manner of drawing the bands of a “limp” vellum
-bound book through the limp vellum cover is of much
-interest, and it survives in many instances where boards
-are used.</p>
-
-<p>In principle it is the same process as is described further
-on with regard to boarded books, but in the case of the
-limp vellum bindings the ends of the bands are normally
-visible for a short length, but in the case of boarded books
-they are always covered up with the exception of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
-vellum-covered boarded books in which the limp vellum
-peculiarity is preserved.</p>
-
-<p>Another small point of interest about the old limp
-vellum bindings is that the head and tail bands are made
-of the same sort of thin vellum strip as the main bands
-and carefully drawn diagonally through the vellum at the
-corners and fastened inside. Dealt with in this way the
-head band becomes of real structural value, much of which
-is lost if it is cut off short as is done in the large majority
-of cases.</p>
-
-<p>William Morris liked limp vellum bindings and often
-used them, but without head bands. Instead of the short
-strips of vellum used for bands in old books Morris used
-specially prepared silk tapes, and brought them through
-the vellum at the joint in the old-fashioned way. Instead
-of being cut short and pasted down as the old limp vellum
-bands were, Morris continued his tapes and brought them
-out again near the front edge of the vellum, where they
-could be tied. This is an excellent arrangement and
-keeps such a book together in an admirable and effective
-way.</p>
-
-<p>Vellum bindings required flat backs because the material
-would not yield sufficiently to be tucked round the
-projecting bands of a normal flexible bound book, in which
-the leather back is firmly fixed over the bands. Nevertheless
-in several instances old vellum books, in boards, which have
-been sewn on raised bands show traces of these bands in low
-relief across the back. In such cases it is common to find
-that some padding has been put in the spaces between the
-bands so as to level the back up. Books treated in this way
-are usually stiff to open and uncomfortable to consult.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The flat back, which was necessary for the same reason
-in the case of books bound at a later date in velvet, cloth,
-silk or canvas, necessitated some modification of the thick
-projecting bands of the ordinary book, and the requisite
-flatness was attained by using strips of vellum or tape
-instead of cords of hemp. Then it was found that it
-was not necessary to fasten the back of the cover to the
-back of the sections, so the “hollow back” came into
-existence.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="300" height="98" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Book bound with
-“open” or “hollow” back,
-and modern headband, cut off
-at each end.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The majority of modern books are bound with hollow
-backs; it can be recognised by
-opening a book to the full
-and seeing if the back is separate,
-and it has one real virtue
-as well as several vices. If a
-book should happen to be
-printed too far back, a hollow
-back binding will enable it to “throw up,” and show the
-printing right down to the inner edge of the paper, whereas
-a flexible binding always tends to open less freely, especially
-in the middle.</p>
-
-<p>For books that are likely to be much used hollow backs
-are unadvisable as they are sooner worn out, but for small
-light books there is no doubt much to be said in their
-favour.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="300" height="190" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Back of book prepared
-with cut trenches to hold the bands.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among English binders of note I think Charles Lewis
-was the first to use hollow backs extensively. But for
-fine books there is no doubt that the old-fashioned
-flexible sewing on raised bands is the best in the long
-run. Books bound with hollow backs often have the
-bands “sawn in,” that is to say, a trench is cut for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
-each band across the back of the sections. In these
-trenches the bands are laid, and the sewing is of a simpler
-and quicker sort than it is when the thread is brought
-round each band as it is in the flexible style. Moreover,
-there is a weak point where the thread touches the edge of
-the saw cut, and at this place the paper is always apt to
-give. It is obvious that to cut away paper from the back
-of a section must always be not only a barbarism but also
-structurally wrong. Such a method of sewing a book can
-only be excused on the score
-of cheapness, and it may be
-urged that in this case it does
-not matter.</p>
-
-<p>Towards the end of the
-fifteenth century it was found
-that the extreme tops and
-bottoms of the backs of the
-sections of bound books
-not only looked untidy and
-unfinished, but also that they tended to gape, in fact they
-were weak points both structurally and artistically. When
-it was once realised it was soon rectified, and a small
-additional band was made of a strip of leather or vellum,
-to fit along the outer edge of the top and bottom at
-the back. This slip was then sewn on by means of
-thread and button-hole stitching, being caught in at
-intervals by a long stitch drawn through the centre of
-one or other of the sections of the book. The loose
-ends of the headband itself were drawn in to the
-boards, forming in fact an additional band. The headband
-is a point in the forwarding of a book which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
-has not received much notice as yet, but it is of some
-importance, as there is no doubt that much attention has
-been paid by binders to the ornamentation of headbands
-from mediæval times until now, and it is the first point in
-the binding of a book in which ornament is considered.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_040a.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;French sixteenth
-century headband.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_040b.jpg" width="300" height="210" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Italian fifteenth
-century headband.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_040c.jpg" width="300" height="191" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;German fifteenth
-century headband.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_040d.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;English seventeenth
-century headband.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_040e.jpg" width="300" height="224" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;English eighteenth
-century headband, by Roger Payne.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_040f.jpg" width="300" height="174" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;English nineteenth
-century headband, by Charles Lewis.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>Some of the early headbands are sewn over with strips
-of soft leather, and at a later time they are cut in distinctive
-ways, flat or round, and sewn over with silks of particular
-colours or combinations of colours.</p>
-
-<p>Of late years the vice of cutting off the ends of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
-headband has come into being; these ends ought to be
-drawn properly into the boards, as Mr. Douglas Cockerell
-has indeed done for me in several instances. But no words
-can adequately condemn the miserable ready-made coloured
-slips which are often found simply
-<em>stuck on</em> in the proper place.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/i_041a.jpg" width="150" height="82" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;What a
-book may do if the
-back is not properly
-rounded.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Vellum books were the first to be
-properly bound. The papyri which
-were stabbed are so rare that they may
-be passed by. As I have already said,
-vellum is apt to be curly; for this reason
-the boards used for binding in early
-days were made of thick wood, the heaviness of which,
-even when unaided by clasps, tended to keep the vellum
-flat.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_041b.jpg" width="200" height="108" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Book with flat
-back.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Beech wood was largely used for these old covers, and
-from the German word “Buch,” meaning beech, we derive
-our word “book.” Beechen boards
-were light, decorative, and very
-carefully dried and seasoned. It
-is remarkable how flat such old
-boards are, and they were no doubt
-very highly valued as they often
-have upon them the stamp of the
-monastery in which they were used.</p>
-
-<p>The edges of the boards are sometimes bevelled, from
-the upper side in English or French books, and from the
-under side in German books&mdash;but such a distinction must
-not be taken as invariable. Boards often show signs of
-having been used more than once, and it is rarely that any
-decoration shows on the wood. In a few cases of German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
-books may be found outline drawings of an heraldic
-nature.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_042a.jpg" width="200" height="110" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Book with flat
-back falling in.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first bound books were made with flat backs, and the
-boards fitted close upon the outer sheets of vellum, papyrus
-or paper. In this formation, however,
-it was found that there was
-a strong liability for the back to
-fall in and the foredge to project
-outwards.</p>
-
-<p>As early as the fifteenth century,
-in the case of printed books on
-paper, this fault of the back falling
-in led some few binders to neutralise it by giving the back
-of the book a rounded form by means of hammering, and
-this quite prevented the falling in of the back. The exact
-extent of the rounding can easily be seen by looking at the
-front edge of a book, because the curves of the back and front
-correspond. The boards, however,
-remained in their first position,
-flat on the outer sheets.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_042b.jpg" width="200" height="114" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Book with
-rounded back.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But another trouble was apparent
-in both these cases, namely,
-that when such books were opened,
-the joint between the boards and
-the back showed a tendency to pull
-up the few pages next adjacent. In time these pages
-became torn and injured, and constructively there was something
-wrong with the principle of attachment.</p>
-
-<p>Paper is soft, and when a “rounded” book was fitted
-with hard boards and strongly pressed there would be a
-certain tendency for the boards to sink into the mass of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
-paper and to throw up a small ridge along the edge of the
-back. Such a small accidental ridge is often found on old
-paper books.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_043a.jpg" width="200" height="111" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Book with back
-rounded and backed.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_043b.jpg" width="200" height="338" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44</span>.&mdash;Book rounded
-and backed, before the
-boards are put on.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But there is no doubt that the actual process of making
-an intentional groove for the boards
-to fit in was practised by a few
-fifteenth century binders in England.
-This groove is made by an
-extension of the process of rounding
-the back, and it is produced by
-hammering the back over two hard
-boards carefully placed in the
-proper position. The shape of a back thus treated is
-theoretically as shown in Fig. 44, and it will be seen that the
-actual joint now falls away from the body of the book and is
-removed to the artificial line along
-the outer edge of the groove, and
-from this line the projecting bands
-are drawn in to the boards. If this
-operation of “backing” is properly
-done it is almost impossible for the
-back of a book to fall in. It will
-always open easily and return to its
-original form, and if the bands are
-properly attached to the boards,
-the latter will never fall off.</p>
-
-<p>Although the principle of backing was known at the
-early time mentioned, it was not universally understood
-and practised until quite recent times. Now, however, it is
-fully recognised as one of the most important processes in
-the binding of books, especially large ones.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We have seen that the book sewn in leather bands has
-the ends of these bands left loose, projecting in the case of
-a large book some two or three inches. Holes were now
-carefully cut along the back edge of the board to fit the
-ends of the bands, sloping upwards, and some little way in
-other slots were cut from the upper surface of the board to
-meet them. Into these holes the ends of the bands were
-drawn, and when in proper position they were pegged
-down with one or more small wooden pegs. Sometimes the
-bands were drawn right through the boards and fastened
-inside. Numbers and numbers of instances
-of this work exist and are quite
-sound to-day. But such books do not
-open satisfactorily, as there is a disagreeable
-pull upon the outer sections when
-the book is opened. In fact, the junction
-between the bands and the boards
-is not scientifically correct, because the
-backs are not rounded.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="150" height="175" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Half-bound
-book.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The vulnerable part of the binding
-will now be seen to be the soft threads which cover the
-bands where they adjoin the back of the sections of the
-book, and to protect these delicate threads a strip of leather
-was cut, damped and pressed over the bands so as to fit
-quite closely, and fastened on with glue, projecting a short
-way over on to the board itself so as to cover up the holes
-used for the bands. This is called a “half-binding.” On
-the leather of such half-bindings there is usually some
-blind tooling, lines or rolls or even small cameo stamps.</p>
-
-<p>Mediæval bindings are commonly provided with clasps.
-The original reason of this was to help to keep the vellum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
-leaves flat, but of course artistic binders saw that clasps
-might be made very ornamental, and so many of them are.
-They have survived as ornamental adjuncts to a binding
-until the present day, although there is no necessity for
-them.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="200" height="231" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Mediæval book
-with bosses, corner
-pieces and clasps.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Bosses in the centre and at the corners of mediæval
-bindings were of structural use, as they protected the
-actual boards of the book from wear. In early days books
-were kept upon their sides and probably
-had flat boards between each
-volume. So the bosses took the
-wear and preserved the books.
-Many of the mediæval bosses and
-corners have ornamental settings;
-they are generally of brass, but
-sometimes of silver or wood. The
-titles of such books were sometimes
-written on the front edges and sometimes
-on a slip of paper fastened
-under horn on the upper board, and
-in the late fifteenth century they were sometimes lettered
-in gold or blind, also on the boards.</p>
-
-<p>It happened that the art of Byzantium was in its
-prime just about the same time that vellum began to be
-arranged in sections&mdash;in book form&mdash;in contradistinction
-to the roll form. So we find some of the finest examples
-of Byzantine art on bookbindings. Of course it must be
-understood that these richly worked covers are only
-ornamentally added to the true binding underneath, and the
-actual work of the binding is more or less as I have already
-described it. But the decorative art in these cases is so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
-predominant that they are generically known as “Byzantine”
-bindings.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="200" height="270" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;German binding
-of about the eleventh
-century, with cabochon
-crystals.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The large majority of the known specimens of this kind
-are no longer in company with their original manuscripts.
-Many of them are preserved simply as loose covers, and
-alien manuscripts have been inserted in others. I expect
-that there are still considerable numbers of these bindings
-preserved in remote churches and monasteries in Central
-Europe, and some day perhaps some
-traveller with sufficient knowledge
-and time at his command will make
-search for them. But for the present
-fine and genuine examples of
-Byzantine bindings are of great
-rarity. It is said that there are
-not more than about three hundred
-of them known. The life history
-of many of these is well known, and
-so are many of the additions and
-alterations to which they have been
-subjected during their long life.
-Luckily some of the finest are now
-safely housed in our London museums, and others are,
-or are likely to be, safe in a great local museum.</p>
-
-<p>To be able to judge whether these bindings are genuine,
-a librarian must be an antiquary, a goldsmith and silversmith,
-skilled both in repoussé work, engraving and cast
-work, a gem cutter, an enameller, a skilled bookbinder, and
-an artist, and if he fails in one of these knowledges his
-judgment cannot be relied on. An ordinary art critic who
-possesses “Flaire” can pick up a certain amount of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
-knowledge by reason of having made many mistakes and
-profited by them, and if he has been fortunately able to
-associate himself only with true and known fine examples
-for a long time, he may eventually be a good guesser. But
-no true judgment can be given without actual technical
-knowledge.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="200" height="314" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;French binding
-of the thirteenth century
-with enamels.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The result of all this is, that collectors of such bindings
-have been freely victimised. It is
-not really difficult to copy or to
-imitate a Byzantine binding&mdash;it is
-not nearly so difficult as to counterfeit
-a fine Le Gascon or a fine
-Roger Payne. It does not so much
-concern the binder as the metal
-worker, and in metal a little skill
-goes a long way, and so it does in
-the cloisonne enamel work which
-alone is found in these bindings.
-The present market price of a very
-fine Byzantine binding&mdash;a known
-one&mdash;will run into five figures, so
-it is little to be wondered at that
-it pays the clever <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">faussaires</i> of the Continent to direct their
-attention to covers of this kind. They need not even take
-the trouble to provide manuscripts for the inside; loose
-covers will sell with equal readiness.</p>
-
-<p>Ivory carving played an important part on early bindings.
-Apart from diptychs, the earliest known decorative binding
-consists of plaques of ivory carved with Biblical scenes,
-and having in the centre a lamb within a wreath of
-cloisonne work, with inlays of coloured glass. It is now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
-kept in the cathedral treasury at Milan, and is without its
-original inside; it is attributed to the fifth century.</p>
-
-<p>Early Irish manuscripts were usually bound in quite
-simple limp leather covers, but these were kept in book
-boxes or “Cumdachs,” all of which still existing are of the
-greatest interest.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 563px;">
-<img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="563" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;The upper cover of the Cumdach of the Stowe
-Missal.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the finest is that of the Stowe Missal, dating from
-about the eleventh century. It belonged originally to the
-monastery of Lorrha in Tipperary, whence it was taken to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
-the Irish monastery of Ratisbon. In 1784 it was found by
-Mr. John Grace in Austria, and afterwards belonged to the
-Stowe Library, and Lord Ashburnham, from whom it was
-purchased by the nation in 1883 with the rest of his library,
-and then deposited in the museum of the Royal Irish
-Academy.</p>
-
-<p>The lid is ornamented with a large cross set with pearls
-and metal bosses, having in the centre a large oval crystal
-over a pink ground, and enclosed with recent enamels, no
-doubt replacing old ones. At each end of the cross is a
-large jewel. The spaces between the arms of the cross
-contain silver gilt plates engraved with figures of Saints,
-and on the silver edge plates is an inscription in Irish
-inviting the reader to “Pray for Dunchad descendant of
-Taccan of the family of Cluan who made this.” This may
-therefore be called the earliest signed binding in the world,
-if a cumdach can be considered a binding. No doubt
-much of the work now on this lid, as well as some of the
-jewels and their settings, have been added since the original
-work was made.</p>
-
-<p>The base of the box has a similar ornamentation upon it,
-but the jewels and enamels are all gone, the spaces between
-the arms of the cross being filled with silver plates cut into
-an open pattern set over bronze gilt.</p>
-
-<p>The sides of the box are much destroyed, but they have
-fortunately not been restored. The ornamentation consists
-of enamelled bosses or curious castings in the centre of
-each side, flanked by panels of open designs cut out of thin
-silver over gilt, and corner ornaments of cast work. There
-are small bosses of blue enamel.</p>
-
-<p>The remarkable open work over gilt bronze occurs again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
-in the base of the cumdach containing Molaise gospels, it
-also belongs to the eleventh century, and this sort of ornamentation
-seems to be characteristic of Irish work of that
-time. The lid of the box is ornamented in a modification
-of the same idea, but in this case the bronze showing
-through the silver is beautifully worked. The main idea
-is a cross, and between the arms are the evangelistic
-emblems, and with their names, Leo, Aquila, Homo,
-Taurus. An inscription asks us to “Pray for Cenn, for
-the successor of Molaise for whom this case was made by
-Gillabaithain the artisan.” It is possible that this may be
-a little earlier than the Stowe cumdach.</p>
-
-<p>A few more cumdachs are known, about ten of them
-altogether, and others are recorded only.</p>
-
-<p>There is that of Dimma’s book, of the Cathach of the
-O’Donnells, and several others, some of which are quite
-plain.</p>
-
-<p>Other book cases were made of beautifully worked leather.
-The satchel of the Book of Armagh is one of these, and
-leather cases or “Forels” were made of cuirbouilli in the
-fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, particularly in Italy.
-These forels were in the shape now known as “slip off”
-cases, and they generally had attachments for a strap.
-They are always charmingly chased, and often bear
-heraldic ornamentation.</p>
-
-<p>Cuirbouilli was calf or hide, worked with knife, style, or
-hammer, and then probably boiled in oil, but the exact
-process that was used is now unknown. It is very strong,
-and its value was known in England, where it was used to
-make wrist guards for archery, but as far as I know it was
-never used here for bindings or covers for bindings. I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
-have heard the calf or sheep bindings of the early sixteenth
-century, bearing panel stamps, described as cuirbouilli, but
-they are not so.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest cover still containing its original manuscript
-is probably that given with other treasure to Theodelinda,
-Queen of the Lombards, by Pope Gregory the Great, in
-the seventh century. It is now kept in the cathedral
-treasury at Monza.</p>
-
-<p>The manuscript is described in a contemporary document
-as being “theca persica inclusam,” and, so far, its cover
-resembles the Irish cumdachs. The case is of gold, ornamented
-with a large cross, outlined with lines of small flat
-garnets, with sapphires and emeralds, set in cloisons. The
-body of the cross is richly jewelled with cabochon cut stones
-and pearls, and at the extremity of each arm is a curious
-glass bead of millefiori glass, green with a little red flower
-in the centre.</p>
-
-<p>Between the arms of the cross are four gamma shaped
-ornaments, each set with small flat jewels. Across the
-sides are bands of gold on which are engraved the words
-<span class="smcap">De Donis Dei offerit Theodelenda reg. gloriosissima
-sancto Joanni Baptiste in Basilica quem ipsa fundavit in
-Modicia prope palatium suum</span>. A handsome border with
-flat garnets enclosed the whole, and the four cameos set
-near the gammas are a recent addition. Byzantine art is
-generally considered as a decadent form of Roman art, but
-in this particular instance there is much Greek feeling, and
-it is in all respects, excepting perhaps the inscription, a
-magnificent piece of work.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="275" height="367" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>&mdash;The binding of
-the Gospels of Lindau, the
-older side.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The binding of the Gospels of Lindau has now two
-sides of different dates, each of which has been repaired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
-and added to in recent times. The earlier of the two, far the
-finer, is probably contemporary with the manuscript, having
-been made about the later half of the ninth century, as the
-Abbey of the Noble Canonesses at Lindau was founded by
-the Emperor Lewis the Pious in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 834. A large golden
-cross pattée is the chief motive of this beautiful piece of
-work, and it is ornamented with rare enamels showing
-bust figures wearing stoles, and
-jewels in great variety, the
-borderings being inlaid with
-small flat pieces of garnet. The
-spaces between the arms of the
-cross are filled with bronze
-plaques elaborately ornamented
-with Celtic interlacings in
-chiselled work. The workmanship
-is probably Irish, and was
-most likely done abroad, possibly
-enough at Lindau itself, by some
-Irish artists who had emigrated.
-Irish jewellers and enamellers of
-this early time were justly celebrated,
-and their services were secured whenever possible.</p>
-
-<p>The later side of the binding is one of the finest existing
-specimens of Carlovingian art. It is radically different from
-the earlier side and was probably added about the eleventh
-or twelfth century.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="275" height="361" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>&mdash;The binding of the
-Gospels of Lindau, the
-more recent side.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the centre is a large cross on which is a gilt figure of
-our Lord in the attitude of the crucifixion. The cross is
-outlined by a structure of open work of gold ornamented
-with filagree work and thickly set with jewels. Between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
-the arms of the cross are angels worked in repoussé, and
-rich bosses of gold and jewels, raised on arcades of open
-work. The border is of great richness, and is thickly
-sown with large jewels cut “en cabochon,” many of them
-pierced longitudinally, betraying in all probability an
-Oriental provenance. No doubt this was originally made
-for some valuable manuscript now lost, and it was used to
-replace the original simple lower
-cover of the Gospels of Lindau
-at some unknown time.</p>
-
-<p>The book was formerly in the
-possession of the Earl of Ashburnham,
-but now it is gone to
-America.</p>
-
-<p>Beautiful Byzantine work of the
-twelfth century is to be seen upon
-the carved and jewelled binding
-of the Psalter of Melissenda,
-daughter of Baldwin II., King
-of Jerusalem, and wife of Fulk,
-his successor. The ivory covers
-measure eight by six inches, and
-are elaborately carved in bas relief with Biblical scenes. On
-each side are six circles, and in each circle a little figure
-group, on one side representing episodes in the life of David
-and on the other works of mercy. There is lettering run in
-with red, giving the names of each of the personages
-shown, and their eyes are set with tiny rubies or emeralds
-cut “en cabochon” like coloured grains of sand. The
-spaces between the circles are filled with other Biblical
-or symbolical figures, scrolls and animals, and a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
-interlacing border encloses the whole, set with turquoises
-and rubies.</p>
-
-<p>The carver’s name, “<span class="smcap">Herodius</span>,” is cut in the lower
-cover. The workmanship on these ivories is extremely
-fine, and there is no doubt they were made to be used as a
-binding. The majority of ivory carvings found on mediæval
-bookbindings appear to have been simply added, having
-been originally made for some other purpose. But there
-are notable exceptions, particularly in the Bibliothèque
-Nationale at Paris. The shape in which the plaque of ivory
-is cut will often give a valuable indication in this matter.</p>
-
-<p>The finest Byzantine binding now in England is probably
-that known as the <a id="Ref_54"></a>Gospels of Charlemagne, now in the
-Victoria and Albert Museum. It is nearly square, and the
-upper side is overlaid with gilt metal, enamels and gems.
-In the centre is a seated figure of Our Lord in the attitude
-of Benediction, in repoussé work. Round this is a band of
-white and green enamelled lettering, restored, on which
-are two hexameter lines: “<span class="smcap">Mathevs et Marcvs Lvcas
-scsq Johane vox horv qvatvor reboat te xpe Redemptor.</span>”
-The outer border is made up of rectangular plaques of
-enamels, gold work and jewels.</p>
-
-<p>The work here is also largely restored, but it is, as a
-rule, admirably done, and where the old work remains,
-especially in the gold, it is of a high excellence. The
-jewels have, for the most part, been restored. As the
-book is now it is a splendid and dignified example of its
-kind; the under side is simply covered with strong red
-leather, with a cross marked by small studs. Like many
-of these splendid altar books, this one is said to have
-served as a Pax.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The manuscript itself is of the tenth century, and belonged
-to the Abbey Church of St. Maurice d’Agaune, and
-from here it was stolen in the fourteenth century. It
-afterwards found a home at Sion, and was purchased for
-the Victoria and Albert Museum at the Spitzer sale in
-1893.</p>
-
-<p>No doubt examples of rich monastic bindings did exist
-in England, but none of them are now known. It is
-likely enough that their value condemned them, and that
-they were entirely destroyed in the earlier half of the sixteenth
-century to swell the revenues of the king. The
-manuscripts belonging to these destroyed covers have,
-luckily, been kept, and numbers of them came to the
-British Museum by gift of George II.</p>
-
-<p>Two ornamental bindings only of English origin now
-remain; these are both simple, they are the St. Cuthbert’s
-Gospels and the English coronation book of Henry I.
-These are described in <a href="#Page_181">Chapter VIII.</a></p>
-
-<p>There were plenty of leather bindings ornamented with
-blind tooling or cut leather work in mediæval times, and
-these also are described later on.</p>
-
-<p>The idea of ornamenting bindings with sunk panels is of
-Arab origin. The fashion came to Europe by way of Venice,
-and the Venetians themselves quickly saw that the possibilities
-of decorating bindings were largely increased by
-this device. It is done by means of two boards, the upper
-of which is pierced, then the whole is covered with leather
-and ornamented with painted work or stamped work as the
-case may be. In inferior bindings of this sort, the sunk
-panels are sometimes produced simply by hard pressure,
-but the state of the edges of the panels will soon show how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
-they are made. If they are steep there are the double
-boards, if very sloping there may only be one.</p>
-
-<p>Queen Elizabeth had some of these Venetian sunk
-bindings presented to her and she liked them. Consequently
-there were a few examples of it made in England
-in the sixteenth century. At a later time Charles Lewis
-bound several large books with double boards in this way,
-and I think he was the only important English binder who
-has ever done so to any great extent.</p>
-
-<p>The double boards have left a trace of their existence in
-the form of a trench which is frequently found along the
-edges of the boards of sixteenth century bindings of English,
-Italian, and French workmanship. The trench, however,
-is merely a survival and does not necessarily imply the
-actual existence of double boards. It is a distant tribute
-to our indebtedness to the East.</p>
-
-<p>In some of the double-board books bound for Queen
-Elizabeth, with sunk panels, the headband is curiously
-produced away from its normal finishing point and is carried
-right round the entire edge of the boards in the trench
-between the boards. It is a decorative and curious
-peculiarity, and I have never met with it in any foreign
-books.</p>
-
-<p>Wooden boards were used for bindings until about the
-end of the fifteenth century, when the idea of using several
-layers of paper pasted together&mdash;paste boards&mdash;was thought
-of. In fact, paste boards may be considered to have been
-introduced about the same time as printing, and waste
-printed matter was often used for making them with.</p>
-
-<p>There are many instances in which valuable printed
-matter has been found hidden up in binder’s boards, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a><br /><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
-as these can generally be soaked apart and cleaned, we
-already owe the preservation of several unique fragments
-to the fact of their having been used for bindings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;">
-<img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="513" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;Painted Persian binding (Nadir Shah at the battle of
-Karnul).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Persian manuscripts of the seventeenth to the nineteenth
-centuries are often ornamented in a manner which is of
-considerable interest. They are bound in paste boards like
-all other Oriental bindings known to me, and are covered
-with some sort of gesso applied in a thin layer. On this
-gesso are paintings of varied merit; some of them, especially
-the historical and hunting scenes, are extremely well done,
-and others, mostly floral, are of a commonplace character.
-The boards are sometimes painted inside and out.</p>
-
-<p>The painting is done in water-colours, and is of the
-same sort as is found with the manuscript inside, but
-generally by an inferior artist. When finished the painting
-was thickly varnished, and this varnish has darkened by
-time into a mellow golden colour which improves the
-appearance of the colour work underneath.</p>
-
-<p>The darkening of this varnish has, however, had a
-remarkable result: the photographic ray cannot pierce it
-except here and there&mdash;in fact, the painting is covered by
-a non-actinic curtain. A photograph will only show the
-surface of the varnish with here and there a patch where
-the blue colour underneath succeeds in making itself felt.</p>
-
-<p>Ornamental though these painted and varnished bindings
-are, there is unfortunately a great and inherent delicacy
-about them, and it is that the varnished surface is badly
-given to chipping off. It is difficult to say what the best
-remedy for this chipping or flaking off is; it is probably
-due to the discrepancy in hardness between the hard
-varnish and the soft boards; it seems to be radical.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Experiments are needed in this matter, but owners of
-fine specimens, even if chipped, are naturally chary of
-allowing experiments which may do harm as well as good.
-I should say that probably much good might be done by
-dropping a little collodion so as to make it run down
-between the loosened surfaces; it will act as a cement and
-strengthen as well as fasten them together. It is also likely
-that thin glue applied several times might also do good used
-in the same way, but I believe collodion is better and
-penetrates weak places more readily.</p>
-
-<p>The same styles of ornamentation are used on mirror
-cases and other small objects, so that although many
-bindings are so treated, yet the method is not one
-exclusively used for such purpose. But no doubt the
-finest work was put on bindings, some of which are large.</p>
-
-<p>Another Persian manner is that of using large metal
-stamps impressed with elaborate arabesques. The impressions
-from these stamps of course give a design in relief.
-The whole impression is generally gilded in various tints,
-and the small design itself is often picked out with a little
-colour. Many of these arabesque panel stamps are of
-wonderful beauty.</p>
-
-<p>Arabic and other Oriental bindings have a curious flap
-projecting from one of the boards, which covers and
-protects the front edges. The flaps are ornamented in the
-same way as the rest of the binding.</p>
-
-<p>The sewing and the paper of all these books is weak and
-light, but there is always work of much interest on the
-bindings. The backs are flat and the paste boards are thin
-and covered with very thin leather. They are usually
-ornamented inside and outside with blind and gilt work,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
-stamped and cut work, and hand painting, in much
-variety.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="400" height="256" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;Oriental binding with flap.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The open work cut with a knife from thin leather is
-remarkable for its extraordinary precision and delicacy; it
-is usually in arabesques with small flowers, and often
-coloured by hand. It is always set on a background of
-colour, either painted or a bit of coloured paper. But the
-work is very frail, and
-panels of it are rarely
-found perfect.</p>
-
-<p>Oriental bindings
-are altogether weak,
-and they will not
-stand hard wear.</p>
-
-<p>Now we have, chiefly
-from America, machines
-that will do
-almost every one of the hand-operations for binding a book.
-There are sewing machines that only want to be fed with
-thread and the books to be sewn; there are casing machines
-of wonderful speed and accuracy, backing machines and
-binding machines. The only one thing that cannot yet be
-done by a machine is the pasting down the ends of the
-bands or tapes inside the boards. I rather think that
-many of these machines strain the paper badly, and also
-they require setting elaborately to a certain size. They
-are very useful for large, cheap editions, but little use for
-good miscellaneous work. Nothing is really so good as the
-old-fashioned sewing on raised bands by hand.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cockerell, D.</span> Bookbinding. <em>London</em>, 1901.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span> Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding.
-<em>London</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span> (Encyc. Brit. Article Bookbinding). <em>London</em>, 1902.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Du Sommerard, A.</span> Les arts au Moyen Age. <em>Paris</em>, 1838-46.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gori, A. F.</span> Thesaurus vet. Diptychorum. <em>Florentiæ</em>, 1759.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Labarte, J.</span> Hist. des Arts au Moyen Age. <em>Paris</em>, 1864.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Libri, Count G.</span> Catalogue. <em>Paris</em>, 1857.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Madan, F.</span> Books in Manuscript. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER III.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">PAPER.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock center">Paper&mdash;Watermarks&mdash;Quiring.</p>
-
-<p>Although we get our word “paper” from “papyrus,”
-this latter was not a paper at all. The essential characteristic
-of a true paper is the matting or felting together of
-small fibres, whether these be of wood, linen, or other substance.
-Papyrus was the inner bark of a beautiful reed,
-which grows along the banks of the Nile, and from a very
-remote period strips of this bark were laid over each other
-at right angles, fixed together with gum, or perhaps a little
-Nile mud, and used for writing upon with a soft pen. The
-right-angular lines of the two layers of papyrus bark can
-easily be seen on any papyrus MS.</p>
-
-<p>Papyrus is not a good substance for writing upon; it is
-at first too soft, and then it gets brittle and is apt to
-crumble away. By sticking successive strips of papyrus to
-each other ancient scribes produced long rolls of manuscript,
-and from these rolls we derive many of the book
-terms which are still in use. The most obvious is “volume,”
-which is from “volvere,” “to roll up”; and “Bible” comes
-from the Greek <a id="Ref_62"></a>“βυβλοἱ,” meaning the inner bark of
-papyrus.</p>
-
-<p>In China the possibility of making thin feltings with
-silk fibre was probably known at a very remote period, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
-it is likely enough that from some such unsatisfactory production
-the better and usable kinds made of vegetable
-fibres evolved itself. We cannot now say when the possibility
-of felting together fibres of wood or grass first became
-known to the Chinese, but it was certainly well understood
-in the fifth or sixth centuries, because specimens of it still
-exist.</p>
-
-<p>In the middle of the eighth century, in 751 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, there
-were certain tribal disturbances on the Chinese frontier of
-Persia, and one of the combatants called in the help of the
-Chinese. These, however, suffered defeat at the hands of
-the Arab governor of Samarkand, who brought back some
-Chinese prisoners to his town. These men were acquainted
-with the Chinese methods of making paper.</p>
-
-<p>From these Chinese prisoners the Arabs and their friends
-the Persians learnt the art of paper-making with vegetable
-fibres, but the supply in this particular very soon gave out,
-and because enough suitable fibres were difficult to get they
-mixed them with pulped rags. Eventually the Samarkand
-paper-makers used rags only, and these they easily got in
-sufficient quantities from old linen clothes, and also the
-mummy wrappings from Egypt were made use of in the
-same way.</p>
-
-<p>From the Arabs the knowledge of paper-making passed
-rapidly to Europe, and by the middle of the tenth century
-it had entirely superseded the use of papyrus.</p>
-
-<p>The researches of Dr. J. Wiesner and Dr. J. Karabacek,
-both professors of the University of Vienna, have been of
-incalculable value as regards the composition and history of
-ancient paper, and they were fortunate enough to have the
-opportunity of examining the papers in the collection of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
-Archduke Rainer, among which are specimens of very early
-work. The professors have examined these and other
-old papers microscopically and chemically, and found that
-from the beginning it was considered necessary to load
-papers with some binding or filling substance; they found
-starch, starch flour, probably from rice, and among the
-Chinese papers a dressing of powdered gypsum. Without
-some such dressing the papers would have resembled our
-blotting paper, and it would have been almost impossible to
-write upon them.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Wiesner found that Chinese papers of the eighth
-century were really mixed papers; they contained fibres of
-mulberry bark, hemp and rags. Rags of fishing nets themselves
-would contain fibres of flax, hemp, and China grass.
-But the main constituent of ancient Chinese paper is fibre
-of mulberry-bark, and I believe it is so still, although China
-grass fibre is also much used.</p>
-
-<p>Specimens of Chinese papers from the eighth century
-onwards can be seen at the British Museum. They are soft,
-but have lasted fairly well, and do not appear to show any
-wire marks. The colour of these papers is much the same
-as Chinese papers made now, but in some instances they
-have certainly darkened as modern wood pulp papers
-also do.</p>
-
-<p>One of the later specimens, a bank note issued during the
-reign of the Emperor Hung-wu, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1368-1399, is made of a
-darkened pulp, probably due to admixture with a little lamp
-black, and on it are lighter impressions from large stamps
-bearing the square seal letters. It is just possible that
-these marks may be of the nature of watermarks, and were
-impressed while the pulp was soft and wet, but it is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
-possible now to take the bank note up from the cardboard
-on which it has been pasted, as to do so would probably
-cause it to fall to pieces, so it cannot, for the moment, be
-properly examined.</p>
-
-<p>Corean and Japanese papers were the same as Chinese,
-and they all look as if there are no wire marks or watermarks
-upon them, with the one exception I have mentioned,
-but Dr. Wiesner says that by the ninth century marks
-show in many instances which prove that papers were
-made in moulds or sieves with network bottoms, the impression
-of which remains like our “chains”
-or laid marks. In the King’s Library
-at the British Museum is shown a piece
-of Oriental paper, an official letter in
-Coptic, dated <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1048. It does not look
-so strong or good as the Chinese paper,
-but resembles thin blotting paper, and
-shows no wire mark.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="150" height="154" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;Watermark
-used by
-John Tate in
-1495.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>An early example of European paper
-is preserved in the Record Office in
-London. It is a letter from the Count of Toulouse to
-Henry III., and is dated <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1216. In France, however,
-by this time, the making of paper had been understood for
-some time, as it was made there in 1189. In Belgium
-it was not made until 1551, in which year a paper mill was
-set up at Tourneppe by Henri de Nevere.</p>
-
-<p>By the end of the fifteenth century paper-making in
-Europe was perfectly understood, and the papers of that
-date, and for some time after it, are frequently excellent in
-every way, and as sound, strong, and good now as they were
-when first made.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The first English book printed on English paper is Bartholomaeus,
-<cite>De Proprietatibus Rerum</cite>, published 1495-6.
-The paper is of high quality, it shows a fine wire mark, and
-a watermark of a double circle enclosing an eight-pointed star.
-The paper was made at Hertford by John Tate, who was
-afterwards Lord Mayor of London; the title page is cut in
-wood, and the book is illustrated with outline wood-cuts.</p>
-
-<p>At the end are some verses, and among these occur the
-lines:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container">
-<div class="poetry">
-<div class="stanza">
-<div class="indentquotebase">“And John Tate the younger Joye mote he broke,</div>
-<div class="indentbase">Which late hath in England doo make this paper thynne,</div>
-<div class="indentbase">That now in our Englysch this boke is prynted Inne.”</div>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p>It is paper to be proud of, and John Tate the younger
-would unquestionably look upon the large majority of our
-modern papers with the utmost scorn, and he would be
-perfectly justified in doing so.</p>
-
-<p>The early method of making paper was to allow the pulp
-to settle at the bottom of a trough like a sieve, with a wire
-bottom, in which the wires were arranged in a certain way,
-thick and thin, the trade mark of the maker also being outlined
-in wire. The faint marks these wires cause in the paper are
-called watermarks, and although at first they were makers’
-marks, they eventually denoted the size of the sheet of
-paper on which they were shown.</p>
-
-<p>The present method of making paper from rags is to pulp
-them thoroughly in water, and let the white particles
-become so thoroughly diffused that the liquid in which
-they float looks like thin milk.</p>
-
-<p>This thin mixture, however, if left quiet, very quickly
-resolves itself into a sediment of white fibres with clear water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
-above them. If now the superambient water can be drawn
-off, and the sediment pressed flat, paper is the result. But it
-is not so easily done as said. In order to catch the sediment
-in the most satisfactory way, the milky fluid containing the
-rag fibres is allowed to flow in a thin stream over a long,
-shallow trough, which is kept moving onwards and is also
-so arranged that it has a sideways tremble, backwards and
-forwards as well. The effect of this is that when the further
-end of the trough is reached, on its floor there is a thin
-continuous film of slightly matted fibres, the water from
-which has flowed away along the sides of the trough. Now
-another device comes into play; a thin light roller of wire
-presses lightly on the wet film, and by this pressure the
-little fibres are pressed upon each other so that they mat,
-interlace, and cohere together. The paper in this state is
-of course very delicate, but by reason of a quick drying and
-carrying off on light rollers it soon acquires the strength
-necessary to enable it to hold together until it is quite dry.
-Then it goes through several other stages, the most important
-of which is pressing. The various processes can
-obviously be modified easily enough so as to make a thin
-paper or a thick one. Paper made in this way with a
-vibratory trough is called “machine made,” and by reason
-of its fibres laying more or less in a uniform direction the
-resulting paper is more easily torn in one direction than in
-the other. If a circular piece be cut out of such pulp and
-laid on water it will tend to fold up two of its opposite sides.</p>
-
-<p>But ancient paper was made in a trough held by hands
-and given a lateral movement, then pressed and dried in
-some simple way. By such a procedure the fibres are
-thoroughly mixed, and do not lie in one direction more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
-in another, so that if a circular bit of such paper be laid in
-water it will turn upwards at the edge evenly all round, and
-look like a little saucer.</p>
-
-<p>I have mentioned a light wire roller which presses the
-wet film more or less into shape just before it leaves the
-long trough to be dried. As long ago as the thirteenth
-century in Europe the fact that devices could be impressed
-upon the undried film by thinning it and making it more
-transparent where touched appears to have been known, and
-from about that time onwards “watermarks” have fortunately
-been applied in the same manner, namely, so as to
-come in the middle of the first leaf of the pair forming a
-folio. It is also fortunate that the “chains” or wires
-forming the rollers have always been laid in the same way;
-it is certainly the obvious one, but obvious ways are not
-always adopted. The result is that by observing the direction
-of the strong chain marks and the fine “laid” marks
-between them much information concerning the folding of
-the original sheets can be obtained.</p>
-
-<p>In very early papers these rules cannot be safely followed,
-because early chain marks as well as early watermarks
-were not produced in the same reliable way. The paper
-being made in moulds with wire netting at the bottom, the
-impression came below the paper instead of above it as in
-the case of the roller, and also the sizes of the sheets were
-more likely to differ.</p>
-
-<p>Watermarks are the semi-transparent devices which show
-on certain pages of a printed book. They are to be seen on
-most papers of the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries,
-and there has been a good deal written about them, especially
-abroad. The devices were outlined in wire and set in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
-the bottom of the trough or on the wire roller I have just
-described, so that the lines are impressed upon the pulp just
-when it is in its most sensitive condition. The pressure
-from the wire device thins the pulp wherever it is touched,
-and so when dry the device shows lighter than the rest of
-the paper.</p>
-
-<p>These marks should be called wire marks rather than
-watermarks, and the French word for them, “Filigranes,”
-is more correct than ours. The difference in tint between
-a watermark and the rest of the paper is so distinct that a
-photographic negative placed under one will render a capital
-photograph of it, far better than any drawing, but it needs
-a long exposure.</p>
-
-<p>Watermarks are already of considerable value to Bibliographers,
-and it is likely that in the near future they will
-be much more noticed, especially in English books. Many
-frauds have already been detected by reason of the watermarks,
-as it is a point that <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">faussaires</i> have so far paid little
-attention to. The marks are, however, not to be relied on
-after about 1750, as they do not run reliably in machine
-made or wove papers.</p>
-
-<p>Armorial devices have been largely used as watermarks.
-Many of the earlier marks show the arms of towns, especially
-continental ones, and among others there are the arms
-of France, Portugal, William and Mary and Queen Anne,
-shown in full heraldic outlines.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/i_070a.jpg" width="150" height="404" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>&mdash;English
-“hand” watermark,
-1512.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Holbein family of Ravensburg bore a bull’s head as
-their armorial badge, and they were paper makers, so the
-bull’s head shows on their paper as a watermark. It was
-afterwards much copied, and during the fifteenth and sixteenth
-centuries it became a favourite mark on German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
-papers. There does not seem to have been any strict copyright
-in any of the devices used as watermarks. They were
-freely used by any one who cared to do
-so, but the copies were never very carefully
-made, they were always variants of
-the original. They were moreover generally
-accompanied by another mark, that
-of the maker, on another part of the
-paper. The same privilege of using a
-“maker’s” mark was also allowed to the
-silversmiths in addition to the official
-hall mark.</p>
-
-<p>To some slight extent watermarks on
-paper made for particular books have
-followed the subjects of those books, and
-in accordance with a loyal feeling there
-are instances of a crown watermark being used on paper
-prepared for special copies of books intended for presentation
-to reigning sovereigns.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_070b.jpg" width="200" height="133" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;English “crown”
-watermark, 1745.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>On papers used for early English printed books we find
-the favourite German bull’s head,
-bunches of grapes, unicorns, dogs,
-hands with stars, and shears. These
-appear in several sizes, and show
-many varieties and modifications
-of their original designs.</p>
-
-<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries a greater variety
-occur; on English paper there is found the post horn
-and the fool’s cap, sometimes showing as a cap only
-and sometimes as a fool’s head with cap and bells. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
-similar design was largely used abroad. In the time of
-Charles I. a crown was a usual watermark on official folio
-paper, but the Rump Parliament ordered that the foolscap
-should be in future substituted for it, which was done.
-“Double foolscap” is still used as a designation for a certain
-size of printing paper, so also is “double-crown.”</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_071a.jpg" width="300" height="586" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;English “foolscap”
-watermark, 1661.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_071b.jpg" width="300" height="505" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;English “Britannia”
-watermark, 1907.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>The foolscap itself shortly gave way to a figure of
-Britannia or a lion rampant. The post horn was another
-common watermark here; it gave its name to its paper
-about 1670, when the mail carrier was accustomed to
-announce his approach by a blast from his horn. The
-name “Post” still designates a certain size of printing
-paper. The smallest folio paper of the seventeenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
-was marked with a watermark of a “pot,” and hence the
-name.</p>
-
-<p>For specially printed books it is a pretty fancy to have a
-coat-of-arms set as a watermark, and it is now and then
-done, but I fear few readers notice it. Many papers are
-now made without watermarks, and it is likely enough that,
-except for trade terminology, they will gradually die out
-altogether as being unnecessary.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 250px;">
-<img src="images/i_072a.jpg" width="250" height="328" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;English “post”
-watermark, 1679.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 250px;">
-<img src="images/i_072b.jpg" width="250" height="457" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;English “pot”
-watermark, 1640.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>The possibilities of artistic watermarking have not yet
-been fully realised. At the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904
-there was a German exhibit which showed the remarkable
-effect which could be made by impressing paper pulp by
-means of a photographic plate in relief.</p>
-
-<p>The papers which had been so treated were set up in a
-frame with a light behind them, and they looked like most
-delicate paintings in monotone. Those exhibited were
-portraits of celebrities, and they were not only excellent
-but possessed the quality of permanence in a remarkable
-degree.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Printing papers are generally white, but sometimes they
-have been used in colour, green, pink, blue or yellow.
-Such papers are now and then found in Italian, German,
-and English books, more rarely in French. Silk and satin
-have both been used for printing on in England from the
-seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Vellum has also
-been largely used for special copies of fine printed books.</p>
-
-<p>A recent French book of prayers is entirely woven in
-white and black silk. It looks like a beautifully printed
-book with monotone borders.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="275" height="195" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;“Chain lines”
-thick, and “laid lines”
-thin, on paper.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>An original sheet of paper can
-of course be made and cut to any
-size, and the terms folio, quarto,
-octavo, and duodecimo do not
-indicate any actual size except
-in bookbinders’ specifications.
-The terms only indicate the
-number of times the original
-sheet has been folded, and this
-obviously is a matter which is subject to as much variation
-as the printers choose. But fortunately such foldings
-do not vary much, and so we may safely mention those
-that are most commonly used. There are several ways
-of finding this out, the most obvious being to count the
-leaves which follow any one letter in the white line at the
-bottom of the leaf. This letter is called the “signature.”
-If there is an A or A 1 at the bottom of the first leaf, and
-when eight leaves have been turned over a B or B 1 appears,
-then the book is an octavo, and so on. Another way of
-determining the same thing is by means of the direction
-taken by the chain or wire marks all over the paper, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
-yet another is to be found by studying the position of the
-watermark. But neither of these tests are conclusive, and
-often enough there are neither chain
-marks nor watermarks to be found at
-all, and the sheets are not always
-rightly or carefully cut, which brings
-the watermark all wrong, so the
-following notes are only what may be
-expected in normal books.</p>
-
-<p>If a piece of paper or page of a book
-printed before 1750, and possibly in
-later work, be held up to the light,
-certain lines may be seen all over it
-in a lighter tint than the rest of the
-page. These appear as long thick lines crossed at right
-angles by short thin ones. The long thicker lines are
-known as “chain” lines, and the shorter ones “laid”
-lines, and they are of some value when they exist for
-helping to determine the “size” of the
-book.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_074a.jpg" width="200" height="335" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;Fol.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>&mdash;Fol. If the original sheet is folded
-once it is called a folio, and in this case
-the chain marks are perpendicular and
-the watermark is in the middle of the
-first leaf. In a folio there is one fold,
-two leaves or four pages, and nothing to
-cut. Most of Caxton’s books are folios
-although they are quite small.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
-<img src="images/i_074b.jpg" width="150" height="227" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>&mdash;4<sup>o</sup>.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>&mdash;4<sup>o</sup> in size. If the once folded sheet be folded again
-across the other way we get a gathering with four leaves,
-or eight pages, called a quarto. The chain lines are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
-horizontal, and the watermark in the middle of the back of
-pp. 4 and 5; there are two foldings and two tops of leaves
-to be cut.</p>
-
-<p>&mdash;8<sup>o</sup>. If the quarto be again folded we get a gathering
-of eight leaves, or 16 pp., called an octavo, which is the
-commonest size for English books. In an octavo there are
-three foldings, the chain lines are perpendicular, the
-watermark is quartered at the tops of pp. 3, 4, 11 and
-12, and there are two tops and two fronts to be cut.</p>
-
-<p>The further foldings of 16<sup>o</sup>, 32<sup>o</sup>, and 64<sup>o</sup> are the same
-operations carried further, but although such sizes do
-exist they are so uncommon that a further description of
-them is not necessary.</p>
-
-<p>&mdash;12<sup>o</sup>. In the case of a duodecimo a different initial
-folding is followed. The original sheet instead of being
-folded once across the middle, as in the case of a folio, is
-now folded into three equal divisions. The parallelogram
-thus formed is folded across its shorter diameter, and this
-again along its longer diameter. There is now a gathering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
-of twelve leaves, or 24 pp., with four foldings, the chain
-marks perpendicular, the watermark halved at the tops of
-pp. 3 and 9, and there are two tops and four fronts to
-be cut. It is the commonest size of the smaller French
-books.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_075a.jpg" width="200" height="301" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;8<sup>o</sup>.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_075b.jpg" width="200" height="372" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;12<sup>o</sup>.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>As to sizes, folios run from the great Atlas of Charles II.,
-measuring five feet nine inches and a half by three feet two
-inches and a half, and requiring eight skins of morocco for its
-binding, to the tiny <cite>Galileo a Madame Cristina de Lorena</cite>, 1615,
-“imprimé en 1897,” measuring one half by one quarter of
-an inch. A folio cannot be recognised by its shape.</p>
-
-<p>The sizes of quartos and octavos are also very varied,
-but, roughly speaking, they can be recognised by their
-shapes, especially in the case of modern books. A quarto
-is generally squarish in outline, nearly as broad as it is
-long; an octavo is an elongated rectangle, its breadth considerably
-less than its length. A duodecimo is always
-much longer than its breadth.</p>
-
-<p>As curiosities, books have been made in many forms,
-circular, heart-shaped, octagonal, flower or animal forms,
-but they are of small importance, and have been chiefly
-made as Christmas cards, valentines, and such ephemeral
-publications.</p>
-
-<p>The rules as to quiring of books printed on paper do not
-apply to books printed on vellum. Such books are always
-folios, and they are generally quired in gatherings of ten
-leaves, following the fashion used in the ancient manuscripts,
-but, of course, they can equally well be gathered
-together in any even number that may be preferred. There
-is no rule.</p>
-
-<p>In Europe, until the nineteenth century, paper was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
-always made from triturated rags, but the demand for
-cheap literature which has become so urgent in recent
-years has compelled paper manufacturers to find some
-commoner material from which to make their paper.</p>
-
-<p>It is possible that the way out of the difficulty was
-suggested by an analysis of Japanese paper. This has
-been known here for some time. It is strong, soft, and
-valuable for many reasons, and is cheaply made of fibres
-from plants of the mulberry tree species. Japanese paper
-is hand made and has a certain amount of dressing, its
-surface is dull, but takes impressions from engraved plates
-or type easily. It appears to last fairly well, but would
-probably not stand much wear at the joints.</p>
-
-<p>The idea of using pulped vegetable matter for paper was,
-however, not new, even to the Japanese, as there was such
-a thing as paper made from papyrus, but it does not seem
-to have been much employed, because it was not necessary
-in view of the fact that the papyrus did quite well by itself
-without any further manipulation.</p>
-
-<p>For reliable papers, the Committee on the Deterioration
-of Paper appointed by the Society of Arts in 1898 give in
-their report a statement that 70 per cent. should consist of
-fibres of cotton, flax, or hemp, but about the middle of the
-nineteenth century it was found that passable paper could
-be very cheaply made from straw and from esparto grass,
-and this paved the way for the disastrous use of mechanical
-wood pulp for cheap newspapers and books.</p>
-
-<p>Many sorts of wood pulps are now made for this purpose,
-and there is no doubt that the industry of breaking up
-wood for the purpose of paper making is a large and
-increasing one. In Norway there are several large establishments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
-already working at this output. The fibres of
-spruce, pine, birch, poplar, jute, and manilla are all
-extensively used. The wood is cut up into small pieces and
-triturated until it is in a state of fine dissemination, a mass
-of small fibres, in which condition it is mixed in certain
-proportions with the other materials of which the paper is
-to be composed. In spite of the warnings of the Society of
-Arts Committee, there is no doubt that the use of
-“mechanical” wood pulp for paper is increasing, and this
-regardless of the fact that there is no lasting quality in
-such material, for the fibres of the wood are invariably
-brittle, and they also darken rapidly under the influence of
-light.</p>
-
-<p>The dressing of such papers with resin or gelatine effects
-a certain improvement; gelatine particularly adds to the
-life of a paper and increases the elasticity of the wood
-fibres, but this good effect tends to die out in time. Resin
-is of less use.</p>
-
-<p>One particularly troublesome result of having to deal
-with wood pulp papers is that it will not hold the threads
-used in ordinary binding; the thread cuts right through the
-paper because of the shortness or brittleness of the fibres,
-and if a book printed on such paper has to be bound, the
-only safe way to do it is to frame each page in a border of
-sound rag paper, and then have it sewn as usual. Wood
-paper will not stand bending, but breaks off short if there
-is anything like a joint or fold in it, and the framing or
-mounting prevents this. The process of mounting every
-leaf of a book is, however, a very expensive one; a couple
-of pounds may well be spent on a comparatively small
-book for this operation alone, so that the prospect before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
-owners of libraries who wish to keep their books in good
-order is not brilliant. No amount of dressing can make
-such paper really strong, as it is the fibres themselves that
-are in fault.</p>
-
-<p>But there is another form in which the use of wood is
-not so harmful, and in this case the fibres are no longer
-there to be found fault with. “Chemical” wood pulp is a
-form of cellulose, and it is likely that it is destined to play
-an important part in the paper of the future, in conjunction
-with fibres of various sorts.</p>
-
-<p>Chemical wood pulp is prepared from the wood fibres by
-“digesting” with caustic soda or bisulphide of lime, as
-reducing agents. The process is one of much interest, and
-moreover a good deal of wood has to be used to make a
-comparatively small amount of wood cellulose. Esparto
-and straw celluloses are not so good as wood cellulose.</p>
-
-<p>The invention of the “half-tone” process, by which a
-dotted block can be produced from a toned drawing, print,
-or photograph, can be made, is responsible for much
-dangerous procedure with regard to the paper upon which
-the prints from the dotted blocks are to be made.</p>
-
-<p>In itself the invention of the half-tone process is a
-wonderful and beautiful one, but it has done more to ruin
-the already decadent modern paper than anything else, because
-it has made the dressing of the paper of greater
-importance than the paper itself.</p>
-
-<p>Incidentally, the half-tone block has given the death-blow
-to the old and beautiful art of wood engraving, which
-is now only found in quite exceptional instances. But the
-half-tone block has, nevertheless, provided some small
-solace for the dispossessed wood engravers, because the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
-soft metal blocks go wrong in light places and themselves
-need careful revision with a graver. This touching-up is
-so general, and so much technical skill is required for its
-proper execution, that it has already become a recognised
-profession, and the engraver’s name is often enough recognised
-in the lettering of the prints made from such blocks,
-especially in American publications.</p>
-
-<p>The dots of half-tone blocks were at first of an easily
-visible size, but as the method of production became better
-understood it was found that they could be made so small
-that they were no longer visible as separate dots to the
-unaided vision, but that the effect produced was really that
-of a tone-wash.</p>
-
-<p>But the very finely grained blocks were difficult to print
-from, the ink stuck too readily between the dots, where it
-was not wanted, and the surface of the paper was not even
-enough to give a clear impression, even if it was calendered
-and super-calendered. So something had to be done to
-give the paper a more level surface, and the needed
-material was found in china clay mixed more or less with
-barytes. It is laid down in the <cite>Society of Arts Report</cite> that
-the amount of this dressing should in no case exceed 10
-per cent. in any paper, but modern “art” papers have
-for a long time much exceeded this fair proportion.</p>
-
-<p>From the beginning some kind of dressing has always
-been found necessary in the manufacture of paper, but
-nothing so dangerous as china clay has ever been used.
-The net result is that almost all modern editions-de-luxe,
-and fine illustrated books generally, either having half-tone
-plates or colour plates done by the three colour process,
-consist of little else but thin sheets of china clay supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
-by the smallest possible skeleton of wood or other cheap
-fibres.</p>
-
-<p>It must be at once granted that the impressions from
-delicate half-tone blocks made on clay paper are admirable,
-and it is also true that the printing ink makes the clay
-insoluble in water wherever it touches it. But the clay has
-a certain affinity for damp, and books printed on clay
-paper very readily show damp stains, and if left for any
-time in a really damp place they are liable to become solid
-bricks of white mud, quite impossible to repair.</p>
-
-<p>If very dry the non-cohesive clay will turn to a white
-powder. Moreover, this clay-laden paper will not hold
-binding threads, so again it has to be preserved. A book
-printed on such material has to be treated in the same
-way as I have described in the case of wood pulp paper.</p>
-
-<p>There is, however, a plan of preserving prints on clay,
-and this is to fasten down the printed portion on a piece of
-sound paper from the beginning. This is already done to
-some extent, and it should be universal in the case of
-isolated plates, but when a book is all printed on clay paper,
-as many fine and valuable books unfortunately are, it is
-difficult to say what is best to be done. The only real
-remedy seems to be a refusal on the part of purchasers to
-buy such books. But purchasers do not always know when
-they are buying clay instead of paper. It is, however, not
-difficult to tell, as the clay-laden paper feels very smooth
-and soft to the touch of a dry finger. This peculiarity can
-be easily detected in one or other of the American magazines,
-Harper’s or Scribner’s, and the difference between
-the feel of a page holding an impression from a fine half-tone
-block, and that having only text, will at once be evident.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>If a mark may be made on a suspected sheet, a drop
-of water should be put upon one corner, left a second or
-two, and then dried off with blotting-paper. Now a light
-scrape with a knife over the damped place will remove a
-layer of white clay if it is there.</p>
-
-<p>There is no doubt that the large majority of our modern
-books will not be in readable condition in about a hundred
-years’ time from the date of their publishing.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workssubtitle"><span class="smcap">Paper.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Arts, Society of.</span>&mdash;Report on the Deterioration of Paper. <em>London</em>,
-1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Blades, W.</span>&mdash;(<cite>Athenæum</cite>, March 30th, 1889, p. 409. Paper on
-Watermarks).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Blanchet, A.</span>&mdash;Essai sur l’histoire des Papier. <em>Paris</em>, 1890.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Breitkopf.</span>&mdash;Versuch die Einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres. <em>Leipzig</em>,
-1784-1801.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>&mdash;La Legende Paléographique du Papier de Coton.
-<em>Genève</em>, 1884.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>&mdash;Recherches sur les Papiers du x<sup>e</sup> au XIV<sup>e</sup> siècles.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Campredon, E.</span>&mdash;Le Papier. <em>Paris</em>, 1901.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Charpentier, P.</span>&mdash;Le Papier. 1890. (Frémy, E.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dunbar, J.</span>&mdash;Notes on the Manufacture of Wood Pulp Papers.
-<em>Leith</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Erfurt, J.</span>&mdash;The Dyeing of Paper Pulp. <em>London</em>, 1901.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Evans, L.</span>&mdash;Ancient Paper Making. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Girard, A.</span>&mdash;Le Papier. <em>Lille</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Goodchild, G. F.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Tweney, C. F.</span>&mdash;A Technological and
-Scientific Dictionary. <em>London.</em></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Griffin, R. B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Little, A. D.</span>&mdash;The Chemistry of Paper
-Making. <em>New York</em>, 1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Herring, R.</span>&mdash;Paper and Paper Making. <em>London</em>, 1855.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hoernle, A. F. R.</span>&mdash;Who was the inventor of Rag Paper? (<cite>Royal
-Asiatic Society Journal</cite>, October, 1903).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hoyer, E.</span>&mdash;Die fabrikation des Papiers, 1886. (Bolley, P. A.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Karabacek, J.</span>&mdash;Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus
-Erz. Rainer. Bd. II., III., 1887.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Kay, J.</span>&mdash;Paper. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Klemm, P.</span>&mdash;Handbuch der Papierkunde. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lloyd, E.</span>&mdash;Account of a sort of Paper made of Linum Asbestinum
-found in Wales. (Phil. Trans., Abr. III., p. 105, 1684).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mierzinski, S.</span>&mdash;Handbuch der Praktischen Papier Fabrikation.
-<em>Wien</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Payen, A.</span>&mdash;La fabrication du Papier. <em>Paris</em>, 1873.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Piot, G. J. C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Pinchart, A.</span>&mdash;Specimens des Papiers recueillis
-dans les diverses coll. de documents qui composent les archives
-générales du Royaume de Belgique. <em>Bruxelles</em>, 1872.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sartori, L.</span>&mdash;L’Industria della Carta. <em>Milano</em>, 1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Schaefer, J. C.</span>&mdash;Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and
-Wood. (German.) <em>Regensburg</em>, 1765.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Stonhill, W. J.</span>&mdash;Paper Pulp from Wood and other fibres. 1885.
-(Rattray, J.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Valenta, E.</span>&mdash;Das Papier. <em>Halle</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Watt, A.</span>&mdash;The Art of Paper Making. <em>London</em>, 1890.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wiesner, J.</span>&mdash;Mikroskopische untersuchung alter ostturkestanischer
-und anderer asiatischer Papiere. <em>Wien</em>, 1902.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workssubtitle"><span class="smcap">Watermarks.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>&mdash;De la valeur des Filigranes du Papier comme
-Moyen de determiner l’age de documents. <em>Genève</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>&mdash;Papiers et Filigranes des archives de Gêves 1154
-à 1700. <em>Genève</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Briquet, C. M.</span>&mdash;Les Filigranes. Dict. Hist. des Marques du
-Papier. 4 vols. <em>Paris</em>, 1907.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Castan, A.</span>&mdash;Catalogue des Incunables. <em>Besançon</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Del Marmol, F.</span>&mdash;Dictionnaire des Filigranes. <em>Paris</em>, 1900.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Denne, S.</span>&mdash;Observations on Paper Marks, 1796. (<cite>Archæologia</cite>,
-XII., p. 114).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Heitz, P.</span>&mdash;Les Filigranes avec la crosse de Bâle. <em>Strasbourg</em>,
-1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Heitz, P.</span>&mdash;Les Filigranes des Papiers contenus dans les archives
-de la ville de Strasbourg. <em>Strasbourg</em>, 1902-04.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Heitz, P.</span>&mdash;Les Filigranes des Papiers de la Bibliothèque de
-Strasbourg. <em>Strasbourg</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lemon, R.</span>&mdash;Collection of Water Marks. 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Midoux, E.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Matton, A.</span>&mdash;Etudes sur les Filigranes des
-Papiers employés en France au XIV<sup>e</sup> et XV<sup>e</sup> siécles. <em>Paris</em>, 1868.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Piot, G. J. C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Pinchart, A.</span>&mdash;Specimens des Papiers recueillis
-dans les diverses coll. des documents qui composent les archives
-générales du Royaume de Belgique. <em>Bruxelles</em>, 1872.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Serma Santander, C. A.</span> de.&mdash;Supplément au Catalogue des
-livres de la Bibliothèque de M. C. de Serma Santander. <em>Bruxelles</em>,
-1803.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sotheby, S. L.</span>&mdash;Principia Typographica (with examples of foreign
-watermarks). <em>London</em>, 1858.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sotheby, S. L.</span>&mdash;Typography of the fifteenth century (with examples
-of watermarks). <em>London</em>, 1845.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER IV.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">PRINTING.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Assyrian bricks, with printed inscriptions&mdash;Oiron ware&mdash;Chinese
-types&mdash;Block books&mdash;Costeriana&mdash;Types and stereotypes&mdash;Printing
-presses.</p>
-
-<p>There are numbers of instances of impressions from
-small devices, cyphers and letterings cut on blocks of wood
-or soft metal and made on pieces of pottery. These stamps
-are the forerunners of the types with which our modern
-books are printed. Among these impressions those which are
-made on the tablets or
-cylinders of baked clay,
-many of which have
-been found among the
-ruins of Babylon and
-Nineveh, are by far the
-earliest. They are covered
-with inscriptions printed
-in cuneiform characters,
-and contain records of sales of slaves, loans of money, sales
-of land and the like, and on the larger bricks and cylinders
-are longer inscriptions of greater interest, among them
-stories of the Flood. Many of these records are contained
-within an outer shell of the same shape, in which is either
-a short title with seal or even a duplicate inscription. These
-outer cases are the earliest examples of anything in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
-shape of a cover or binding over written or printed matter.
-Some of the cuneiform bricks are said to date from the
-third thousand years <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and many of the later examples
-belonged to the libraries of Sennacherib and Ashurhani-Pal,
-Kings of Assyria.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_085.jpg" width="300" height="133" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;Assyrian tablet of clay,
-impressed with cuneiform inscription.
-With outer case.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Similar bricks, impressed with inscriptions, have been
-found in North America. The letters on these bricks,
-tablets, or cylinders were printed letter by letter by hand
-upon the clay when it was wet and soft, without ink, then
-the brick was dried either in an oven or in the sun, so
-that this earliest method of printing is diametrically opposite
-to the modern process, in which case the letters are
-inked and kept rigid, while the paper or other substance on
-which the impression is to come is lightly pressed upon
-them.</p>
-
-<p>In the eleventh century the Chinese made types of clay
-or porcelain, and set them up in a frame and printed from
-them, and afterwards they cut the original types in wood
-and made impressions, or stereotypes from them in porcelain,
-and when this had been baked they cast leaden
-types from it. Chinese and Japanese letters are always
-most decorative, whether in the cursive or square seal
-characters.</p>
-
-<p>Babylonian and Assyrian tablets, cylinders, and cones of
-baked clay impressed with cuneiform inscriptions have
-proved themselves to be the most permanent and reliable
-form of record that has yet been invented by mankind.
-The hammer alone seems to be able to destroy them.</p>
-
-<p>The most precious faience in the world is that variously
-known as “Oiron,” “Henri Deux,” “Diane de Poictiers,”
-or “Faience de Saint Porchaire.” There are fewer than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
-seventy pieces of this ware known, and each example is a
-masterpiece, no two being alike.</p>
-
-<p>It is said to consist mainly of clay found at Saint Porchaire,
-a village in Poiton, and not far from Oiron, and at
-one of these places it was probably made.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="600" height="205" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>&mdash;Italian book stamps impressed upon the faience de
-St. Porchaire.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The pieces are often ornamented with armorials and
-devices of Francis I., Henri II., and Diane de Poictiers,
-as well as those of members of the French nobility of about
-the middle of the sixteenth century.</p>
-
-<p>There are jugs, covered cups, biberons, dishes, salts,
-flower vases, and candlesticks, all curiously put together in
-sections, and ornamented with impressions from binders’
-stamps run in with differently coloured clays.</p>
-
-<p>This use of binders’ stamps is unique, and has been made
-with the utmost skill and taste. Sometimes casts have
-been made from the stamps so that the impression shows
-in reversed colours. The ornamentation is like a book-finisher’s
-work, and several of the same stamps and rolls
-show on contemporary Italian bookbindings. At that time
-there was a strong Italian influence both in French as well
-as in English decorative bookbindings.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It has already been supposed that the ware may have
-been sent as a present to Henri II. from the family of
-Catherine de Medici, and M. H. Delange even goes so far as
-to credit Girolamo della Robbia with the work. He, as well
-as many other Florentine craftsmen, worked in France for
-Francis I.</p>
-
-<p>It is not now likely that any definite knowledge as to the
-maker of the Saint Porchaire Faience will ever be obtained,
-but it will always be a notable example of the high decorative
-importance of binders’ stamps, which are designed
-upon certain principles, especially with regard to their
-combination in groups or lines of groups.</p>
-
-<p>Attempts to imitate this ware have often been made, but
-so far they have failed; the original seems to possess
-qualities and peculiarities that are impossible to imitate
-closely. Art forgeries are now so common and so excellent
-that there are really very few things that cannot be copied
-so exactly that it is difficult to distinguish between the
-original and the copy, but the Saint Porchaire ware is so
-far one of the very few things that completely baffle the
-cleverest artist, and this is largely due to the curious use of
-the binders’ stamps.</p>
-
-<p>Engraved wooden blocks were used in China, Corea, and
-Japan as early as the sixth century, and quite likely long
-before. These blocks were cut in the same manner as the
-European block books, except that type and illustrations
-were not shown on the same block. In Thibet similar
-blocks were cut and charms were printed from them.</p>
-
-<p>The use of separately engraved types which could be
-arranged as desired seems to have been known in these
-countries at about the same time, but it was not so suitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
-to their then requirements, and so it made no headway.
-They soon reverted to the simple block engraving as better.
-No doubt the reason of this was that the number of
-separate letters that might be required was so great that it
-was practically prohibitive. The letters both in China and
-Japan are still mainly in the syllabic stage, and so there
-are a great number of them. The alphabetical stage is,
-however, gradually being reached, especially in Japan.</p>
-
-<p>It is very likely that the European idea of cutting block
-books was borrowed from China, and here from the later
-half of the fifteenth century until the earlier half of the
-sixteenth century such books were produced plentifully in
-Germany, Holland, and England, and more rarely in
-France.</p>
-
-<p>Single-sheet pictures were made at first, the earliest dated
-example known being the “St. Christopher” of 1423, now
-in the Rylands Library in Manchester. From being cut on
-wood these curious prints are generally known as xylographs.
-Criticism and comparison of them is a very
-difficult matter, as they were designed and cut on such
-broad and easy lines that they were easily copied almost
-exactly, but now all the important and very early specimens
-are so well known and have been so carefully listed and
-described by competent bibliographers like Mr. Gordon
-Duff, Sir Martin Conway, Hain, Ottley, Bradshaw, Hessels,
-Proctor, and others, that there is little risk of fraudulent
-imitation remaining long unrecognised.</p>
-
-<p>The block book proper however, shows text as well as
-illustrations, the text gradually becoming more and
-more important. Block books are printed in pale coloured
-ink, so that they may take colour as well as possible, and are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
-usually coloured more or less, sometimes by hand and sometimes
-by means of stencil plates, or perhaps a combination
-of both methods. Many of them are astronomical, but as a
-rule the subjects are more or less religious, such as the “Ars
-Moriendi” or “Biblia Pauperum”; the illustrations and
-the text being variously arranged. Each page is cut on
-one block, sometimes printed page by page, sometimes two
-pages at a time, and always on one side of the paper only.</p>
-
-<p>Now and then, as in the case of the “Speculum <a id="Ref_90"></a>Humanae
-Salvationis,” the text is separately cut; this remarkable
-book is supposed to have been printed at Utrecht about
-1470-72. Block books are always printed on paper of
-excellent quality.</p>
-
-<p>Printing from moveable types in Europe is considered by
-many authorities to have been invented by Laurens Janszoon
-Coster, of Haarlem, during the earlier half of the fifteenth
-century. Actual proofs are wanting, but there exist several
-books and fragments of books, many of which have been
-recovered from the boards of old bindings, which certainly
-are not the work of Gutenberg. These fragments were
-printed in Holland, and are known as “Costeriana”;
-several of the letters used correspond to the Dutch manuscript
-letters of the time, and many of them are copies of the school
-books known as “Donatus’.” Some of the letters look much
-as if they had been cut in wood. At Avignon it is recorded
-that in 1444 experiments with printing types were made.</p>
-
-<p>The Coster legend appears to have been started by
-Adrianus Junius, who in his <cite>Batavia</cite>, published at Antwerp
-in 1588, speaking of Haarlem, says: “Redeo ad
-urbem nostram cui primam inventae ist hic artis typographical
-gloriam deberi.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There is no doubt that the Costeriana have a family
-likeness between them, and the types used in them have
-been carefully compared by Mr. Hessels with those found
-in the edition of Ælius Donatus’ grammars, and in the
-<cite>Doctrinale</cite> of Alex. de Villa Dei, and in his opinion they
-have the same origin.</p>
-
-<p>Whether the rival claims of Avignon, Haarlem, or Mainz,
-for the honour of having been the first town in which
-printing from moveable types was done in Europe will ever
-be finally settled, is questionable. But there is no doubt
-that Johann Gutenberg was the first printer in Europe who
-made printing with moveable type of real usefulness. In
-1472, Fichet wrote that Gutenberg, who worked in Mayence,
-was the first inventor of the art of printing by means of
-moveable types. Curiously enough the work credited to him
-shows no amateur feeling whatever. Both the Indulgences
-of 1454, which may be his, and the Mazarin Bible of about
-1455, which certainly is, are as finely and perfectly printed
-as any books ever have been since.</p>
-
-<p>It must be noted here that certain authorities still maintain
-that this Bible was printed by Fust and Schöffer, but the
-weight of expert opinion is nevertheless strongly in favour
-of Gutenberg.</p>
-
-<p>But however this may be, in the case of the beautiful Mainz
-Psalter, we are on absolutely safe ground. In this book
-appears the date 1457, and also the names of the printers
-Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer. It is in every way a
-magnificent specimen of typography, and the letters are
-very large. It is also a fine example of colour printing, as
-the initial letters are cut in wood and printed in red and
-blue. Peter Schöffer was originally an illuminator of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
-manuscripts, and no doubt we owe the splendid initials of
-the Mainz Psalter to his liking for colour.</p>
-
-<p>The first printed date in a Dutch book is 1473, when
-books were printed both at Utrecht and Alost.</p>
-
-<p>The moment separate letters were cut in wood for the
-purpose of printing, it must have been obvious to any workman
-interested in the matter that it would be far better to
-use them as models only, and that for actual use casts in
-soft metal would be more economical. In J. E. Hodgkin’s
-“<cite>Rariora</cite>” there is an excellent detailed account of the
-manner in which types are cast.</p>
-
-<p>At first the method of casting type was probably much
-the same as it is now, except that it was done slowly by
-hand instead of quickly by machines. The matrix was set
-at the bottom of a short funnel in a little hand press. This
-press was held in the left hand, funnel upwards, then a
-little melted metal was run in from a ladle held in the right
-hand. The metal set almost immediately, and the little
-letter was jerked out, to be trimmed by hand. What the
-earliest metal used for types was cannot now be known for
-certain, but it was probably much the same as is now used,
-lead with tin and antimony, and perhaps a little copper&mdash;a
-composition which expands in cooling. By this hand process
-a good workman could produce two or three thousand
-letters in a day.</p>
-
-<p>Now things are managed differently, and there are several
-automatic machines which not only save the handwork of a
-type caster, but do the work equally well and at a much
-greater speed.</p>
-
-<p>For the casting of separate letters the Wick Rotary type
-casting machine is perhaps one of the most ingenious. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
-consists of a horizontal wheel with radiating channels in
-which the matrices of the various letters are set. The
-wheel revolves, and as the opening of each little channel
-reaches a certain point a jet of type metal is driven into it
-and forms a letter. A little more revolution and the letter
-is automatically ejected and caught on an endless chain.
-This machine is capable of producing 50,000 letters in an
-hour.</p>
-
-<p>The monotype is, however, even a cleverer invention
-because it only casts the particular letter that is wanted.
-An operator translates the manuscript, by means of a key-board,
-into a series of holes on a strip of paper. This strip
-then moves on to the monotype machine, which not only
-casts the letter indicated by each hole, but puts it in its
-proper place, and jerks it forward until one line is complete.
-On the completion of a line the machine has a
-spasm, and the line is driven bodily upwards, leaving a
-space for the next line. This is probably the printing
-machine of the future, as it only requires the one operator,
-who translates the manuscript into dots.</p>
-
-<p>The methods used in the Linotype and the Monoline are
-somewhat similar, and effected by the use of a key-board,
-but instead of casting each letter, like the monotype, they
-cast complete lines, which are more troublesome to correct
-if any mistake creeps in.</p>
-
-<p>When the printing press was first used is not known,
-but the printing of the block books would no doubt have
-suggested some sort of board press long before types were
-used in Europe. A block book might be printed by hand only,
-but it would be a troublesome and laborious process, and
-the use of a flat padded board to put over the whole block<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
-and press upon it seems obvious enough, and the screw
-press evolved itself out of some such expedient. The
-familiar napkin press with a large wooden screw and cross
-handle is the type of the earliest printing presses of which
-we possess any record, the screw presently giving way
-before the more effective lever
-handles, and it should not be
-forgotten that excellent results
-can be obtained from these old
-presses acting with a direct
-downward pressure. They are,
-however, very slow in action,
-and that is not consistent with
-modern requirements.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="300" height="514" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Printing press
-of about 1600. From
-Stradanus.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Dutch were the pioneers
-in improvements in these
-presses, and W. J. Blaew, of
-Amsterdam, a clever engraver,
-printer, and mechanician of
-the seventeenth century, made
-several improvements in many
-of the details, especially as
-regards the box, table, or forme,
-in which the type was set. But
-until Charles, third Earl Stanhope, invented the iron
-printing press with levers, in 1800, they were always made
-of wood, with screw handles.</p>
-
-<p>Lord Stanhope was a most remarkable man. He was not
-only an ardent politician but also a notable man of science
-and an inventor. Among other things we owe to him the
-Stanhope lens; a system of logotypes, which was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
-received by the printing trade with much sympathy,
-because it lessened the need for hand labour, improvements
-in stereotyping, and above all the Stanhope press, which
-would have made a fortune for its inventor if he had wanted
-it. Lord Stanhope, however, gave his press to the Clarendon
-Press at Oxford, in exchange for a pension to his assistant.
-This press with its levers was for a long time the model for
-all printing presses used in this country.</p>
-
-<p>But before the Stanhope press was invented, W. Nicholson,
-of London, had patented, in 1790, a device which was
-destined to supersede Lord Stanhope’s lever press and all
-others like it. This was the use of a revolving iron cylinder
-driven by steam to carry the paper over the inked surface of
-the type. Nicholson’s invention fell flat so long as it
-remained in his hands, but in about 1807 it was taken up
-by Koenig, of London, improved, and put upon the market,
-and it attracted the attention of Mr. Walter, of <cite>The Times</cite>.</p>
-
-<p>In the issue of this paper on the 20th of November, 1814,
-readers were informed that it was printed by steam
-machinery driving the cylinders holding the paper. By
-cylinder presses upwards of 9,600 impressions can be made
-in an hour. Minor improvements since that time have been
-legion, and it may safely be said that no more wonderful
-sight is to be seen in the whole of London than the printing
-of one of our great daily papers.</p>
-
-<p>Newspapers are usually printed from stereotypes fixed on
-cylinders; but books are always printed from <em>flat</em> formes,
-the paper being applied by cylinders. Paper can now be
-printed on both sides simultaneously. In Rotary machines
-both the printing as well as the receiving surfaces are
-arranged on cylinders.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The locking up of type in the case of long books was
-soon found to be a great inconvenience, and the idea of
-making a cast of such type in the form of a block, so as to
-set the original type free, was an obvious one. It was not,
-however, put into practical form until the early part of the
-nineteenth century, when someone unknown made casts from
-book types in plaster of Paris. Lord Stanhope made several
-improvements in this, and it is possible that the use of
-softened paper pulp&mdash;flong&mdash;for this purpose was his invention.
-Whether this is true or not, paper was certainly
-used for stereotyping in France about 1850, and it has
-been universally used in this important connection ever
-since.</p>
-
-<p>The paper pulp is hammered on to the type by means of
-a hard brush, in exactly the same way that antiquaries
-make impressions from incised rock sculptures. The
-antiquaries, however, make their casts from the paper
-moulds in plaster of Paris, but the printer makes his in
-soft metal.</p>
-
-<p>When the paper mould is properly dry and hard the
-melted metal is poured over it, and makes a perfect cast.
-Such casts can either be used flat for book printing, or
-curved to fix on cylinders for newspaper printing. The
-metal used is practically the same as type metal. It sets
-very quickly, and the heat necessary to melt it is so low,
-that several casts can be made from one paper mould.</p>
-
-<p>Another way of making a harder printing plate is by
-means of a galvanic battery. In this case the mould from
-the type is made in wax, either impregnated or carefully
-dusted with black lead, and these moulds, when correct, are
-put into a galvanic bath, where a strong metallic deposit is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
-laid all over them, the deposit being afterwards backed up
-with alloy.</p>
-
-<p>Good types have always been difficult to design. The
-types used in block books, and in early printed books generally,
-were simply copies of the handwriting of the periods
-to which they belonged. Even in later and in modern
-times certain founts have been designed on the lines of
-cheirographic writing, for example, the “caractères de
-civilité,” much liked by French printers, imitated the
-graceful calligraphy of the eighteenth century.</p>
-
-<p>But a certain differentiation in the direction of squareness
-soon became apparent, as we have already noticed
-in the case of rock inscriptions; it was found easier to
-cut squarely-shaped letters than rounded or cursive
-forms.</p>
-
-<p>So letters cut for the purpose of being printed tended
-gradually to differentiate themselves from their written
-analogues, and a new kind of designing came into existence.
-It was, however, always necessary to preserve as
-much of the original form of the letters as possible, otherwise
-they might fail to be recognised.</p>
-
-<p>Printers have always liked to show their types, and from
-the catalogue printed by Schöffer about 1469 to Caslon’s
-eighteenth century specimens, there have been numbers of
-them made and issued. A short study of these specimens
-will show, firstly, how very much they are copied one from
-another, and secondly, that no designer of genius seems
-ever to have appeared. All that can be said is that some
-are uglier than others. It has not been for want of trying,
-as Geoffrey Tory shows in his <cite>Champfleury</cite>, but, except
-as to Greek types, in which Robert Procter has, by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
-counsel, met with much success, there is no doubt that
-good types for printing are rare.</p>
-
-<p>In the eighteenth century P. E. Fournier caused much
-improvement in French types, both by his example and his
-writings. He was the son of a typefounder, and began as
-a wood engraver, but eventually followed in his father’s
-footsteps and became a typefounder himself. Fournier
-published a table of types in 1737, with suggestions for
-designing them, but his most important work is the <cite>Manuel
-typographique</cite>, which is an important work on the subject,
-and had widespread influence.</p>
-
-<p>In the matter of facsimiles of early printed books, it may
-be well here to say a word or two of warning. Photography
-has revolutionised many things, it has destroyed some of
-the minor arts, but in book production it has had far-reaching
-effect, much of which is good.</p>
-
-<p>It has also opened up several new industries, and now
-photo-lithographs, collotypes, half-tone blocks, and prints
-from line blocks made by the swelled gelatine or other
-processes, can be so wonderfully like the original, that a
-page of old printing made by one or other of these methods
-will often deceive an ordinary purchaser. There are many
-such facsimiles in the market, and the best advice I can give
-as to them is that very great attention should be given to
-the <em>paper</em> on which they are done, as this will often give
-the secret away. The texture and appearance of old paper
-is worthy of careful study, because nearly all the photo-mechanical
-processes need a paper which is radically
-different to the thick good rag-made papers which were
-used before cheap modern papers were thought of.</p>
-
-<p>Type founding in England was first carried on in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
-sixteenth century, when John Day made some Anglo-Saxon
-types for Archbishop Parker.</p>
-
-<p>Moxon, who wrote the “Mechanics of Printing” in 1693,
-issued the first English specimen sheet of types in 1669,
-and in 1776 William Caslon, “Letter-founder of London,”
-issued a specimen of his printing types.</p>
-
-<div id="Ref_98fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
-<img src="images/i_098fp.jpg" width="370" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Page from William Caslon’s “Specimen of Printing
-Types.” (<em>London</em>, 1766.) [<em>To face p.</em> 98.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>John Baskerville, who lived and worked about the same
-period, was also a very eminent typefounder, but Baskerville’s
-types were too thin in the up-strokes to be considered
-equal to Caslon’s. Since that time such sheets of types
-have become common.</p>
-
-<p>Late in the nineteenth century William Morris revived
-several of the old English block-letter types, and called
-them by the old names, “Chaucer,” “Golden,” “Troy.”</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">WORKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">American Art Review</span>, I.&mdash;1880, pp. 75-80. <em>Boston.</em></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Berlan, F.</span>&mdash;La invenzione della stampa a tipo mobile fuso
-rivendicata all’Italia. <em>Firenze</em>, 1882.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Blades, W.</span>&mdash;Who was the inventor of Printing? <em>London</em>,
-1887.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;Le Livre. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;L’Œuvre de Gutenberg. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Breitkopf, J. G. L.</span>&mdash;Versuch die einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres,
-&amp;c. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1784-1801.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bucher, B.</span>&mdash;Die Faiencen von Oiron. <em>Wien</em>, 1879.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Degeorge, L.</span>&mdash;L’Imprimerie en Europe aux XV<sup>e</sup> et XVI<sup>e</sup> siécles.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Delange, H. &amp; C.</span>&mdash;Recueil de ... la Faience dite de Henri II.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1861.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Delon, C.</span>&mdash;Gutenberg et l’invention de l’Imprimerie. <em>Paris</em>,
-1881.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dupont, P.</span>&mdash;Histoire de l’Imprimerie. <em>Paris</em>, 1883.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Encyclopædia Britannica.</span>&mdash;Typography and Printing. By
-<span class="smcap">John Southward</span>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Entschede, C.</span>&mdash;L. J. Coster de uitvinder van de boekdrukkunst.
-<em>Haarlem</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Faulmann, C.</span>&mdash;Illustrirte geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst.
-<em>Wien</em>, 1881.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fillon, B.</span>&mdash;Les Faïences d’Oiron. <em>Paris</em>, 1862.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fournier, P. S.</span>&mdash;Manuel typographique. <em>Paris</em>, 1764-66.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Goebel, T.</span>&mdash;Fr. Koenig und die Erfindung der Schnellpresse.
-<em>Stutt.</em>, 1883.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hessels, J. H.</span>&mdash;Gutenberg. <em>London</em>, 1882.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hessels, J. H.</span>&mdash;Haarlem the birthplace of Printing. <em>London</em>, 1887.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hodgkin, J. E.</span>&mdash;Rariora. <em>London</em>, 1902.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Julien.</span>&mdash;L’Imprimerie en chine au sixième siécle de notre eré.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1850.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Junius, A.</span>&mdash;Batavia. <em>Antwerp</em>, 1588.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Linde, A. v. d.</span>&mdash;Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst.
-<em>Berlin</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Maittaire, M.</span>&mdash;Annales Typographical. <em>Hagae</em>, 1719.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Malinkrot, B. A.</span>&mdash;De ortu artis Typographical. <em>Col. Agripp</em>,
-1639.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Martens, W. J.</span>&mdash;Gutenberg und die Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst.
-<em>Karlsruhe</em>, 1900.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Middleton-Wake, C. H.</span>&mdash;The Invention of Printing. <em>London</em>,
-1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mouet.</span>&mdash;Les machines et appareils Typographiques. <em>Paris</em>, 1879.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Monnoyer, C.</span>&mdash;Recherches sur les origines de l’Imprimerie
-avant Gutenberg. <em>Le Mans</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Noble.</span>&mdash;Machine Printing. <em>London</em>, 1883.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollard, A. W.</span>&mdash;Titlepages and Colophons.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Renault, R.</span>&mdash;Debuts de l’Imprimerie. <em>Quebec</em>, 1905.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Schaafer, J. C.</span>&mdash;Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and
-Wood. (German.) <em>Regensburg</em>, 1765.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Singer.</span>&mdash;Researches into the History of Playing Cards.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Smith, G.</span>&mdash;Assyrian Discoveries. <em>London</em>, 1875.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Solon, H. L.</span>&mdash;History of old French Faïence. (Saint Porchaire.)
-<em>London</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tainturier, A.</span>&mdash;Les Faïences dites de Henri II. <em>Paris</em>, 1860.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vitu, A. C.</span>&mdash;Histoire de la Typographie. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wolfius, J. C.</span>&mdash;Monumenta Typographica. <em>Hamburg</em>, 1740.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wilson, F. J. F.</span>&mdash;Typographic Printing Machines. <em>London</em>,
-1883.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wilson, F. J. F.</span>&mdash;Stereotyping and Electrotyping. <em>London</em>, 1880.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>N.B.&mdash;There are a large number of works on this subject, both
-general and concerning Printing in particular countries.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER V.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Wood engraving&mdash;Line engraving&mdash;Etching&mdash;Stipple&mdash;Mezzotint&mdash;Aquatint&mdash;Lithography&mdash;Photography.</p>
-
-<p>Writing in early manuscripts was continuous, no stops,
-no spaces, no initials. The inconvenience of such an
-arrangement soon became apparent; the effect of it can be
-well seen in the case of the <cite>Codex Alexandrinus</cite>, written in
-the fifth century, although this has large initials, and the
-difficulty of knowing when a word ends is bad enough, to
-say nothing of sentences. The manuscript is at the
-British Museum.</p>
-
-<p>Presently the first letters of sentences, or perhaps of
-important words, were enlarged or rubricated&mdash;marked in
-red&mdash;and from that starting point came the gradual development
-of beautiful ornamental letters with sprays starting
-from them. These sprays ultimately became rich borderings
-and spread all over the page, and at last we get to the
-illuminated manuscripts of mediæval times filled with
-exquisite miniatures, borders, and arabesques of all imaginable
-kinds.</p>
-
-<p>The subject of illuminated manuscripts has been fully
-dealt with by several competent authorities, and it is not
-necessary here to enter into it, but so far as printed books
-are concerned it will be of interest to survey shortly the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
-chief styles of illustrations with which they have been
-provided.</p>
-
-<p>When printed books first began there were no illustrations
-in them, but initial letters were often added in red, by
-hand, and other important printed letters were marked by
-a dab of red or yellow across them. The outline wood
-cuts which shortly made their appearance were frequently
-intended to serve as guides for hand colouring, and many
-of them are so treated.</p>
-
-<p>Wood cutting in the case of block books was well understood
-in the fifteenth century, but when similar illustrations
-appear, in company with the text, in early printed
-books, the art level both of the designer and wood cutter is
-singularly low. This criticism only applies to the pictorial
-illustrations, as in the matter of scroll work or ornamental
-initials the work is excellent.</p>
-
-<p>The great letter “B” in Fust and Schöffer’s <cite>Mainz
-Psalter</cite>, issued in 1457, is as fine as anything of its kind
-that has ever been done. It is printed from two wood
-blocks which fit into each other, and which were inked
-alternately either red or blue, and then printed together
-with the text. A slow process but thoroughly effective.
-The initial letters throughout this book seem to have
-been touched up in places by hand, especially in the long
-scrolls which meander up and down the margins of the
-pages.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest known book illustration cut on wood is a
-beautiful outline sketch of the Goddess of Mercy. It is
-full page and illustrates a chapter from a Chinese version
-of the Saddharmapundarika Sutra, and was printed in
-1331, nearly a hundred years before the earliest European<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
-print from a wood block, the St. Christopher, of 1423,
-which moreover was not a book illustration.</p>
-
-<p>Chinese, Japanese, and Korean wood cuts are always in
-outline, thickened here and there, but quite different in
-character and far better in drawing and execution than
-early European work of the same sort. Most of the blocks
-from which these prints are made are of soft wood, not
-box, and are cut with a short knife of peculiar form set in
-a handle.</p>
-
-<p>The drawings are made on thin paper and stuck downwards
-on the blocks; then the knife is carefully run along
-the edges of the various lines, cutting outwards, the interlinear
-spaces being cut away with a gouge and hammer.
-The wood cutting was often done by women. The method
-of work is probably the same as was used in Europe in the
-case of early blocks.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the design block, always printed in dark neutral
-tint or black, during the eighteenth and succeeding
-centuries, the Chinese and Japanese cut accessory blocks
-which were inked in various colours. The registering of
-the various colour blocks was managed either by pegs or
-notches, and the colours were mixed with water or rice
-paste. Most of the European colour processes of printing
-require oil colours, but water colours on the Japanese
-principle have been used with admirable effect in some of the
-illustrations to Henry Shaw’s books on Mediæval Dresses
-and Decorative Arts, and notably by Edmund Evans
-and his successors in more recent times.</p>
-
-<p>From the earliest illustration, mentioned above, until
-the present day, the style of Chinese and Japanese wood
-illustrations has not altered. There have been several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
-engravers of great skill in both countries, but I think the
-Japanese colour prints are best known to us.</p>
-
-<p>The blocks are frequently signed with the names of the
-designers, particularly in later times, and many names are
-already well known to collectors.</p>
-
-<p>In the seventeenth century Korin was one of the best of
-the Japanese illustrators; in the eighteenth century there
-is admirable work signed by Hokusai and Hiroshige, and
-among the many skilled designers of the nineteenth
-century the work of Kitigawa Utamaro is perhaps the best
-known.</p>
-
-<div id="Ref_104fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
-<img src="images/i_104fp.jpg" width="378" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Page from the “Hypnerotomachia Poliphili.”
-(<em>Venice</em>, 1499.) [<em>To face p.</em> 104.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The first Italian book in which wood engravings were
-used is, as far as is now known, the “Meditations” of
-Turrecremata, printed at Rome in 1467, by Ulrich Hahn.
-The illustrations are of a simple character in outline.
-Then came instances in books printed at Naples, Rome,
-Verona, and especially at Venice, where Erhard Ratdolt
-produced several with beautiful initials, borders, and
-pictures. Numbers of the books published at Venice in the
-later part of the fifteenth century are illustrated with
-exquisite wood cuts; among them the most celebrated
-and the most beautiful is the <cite>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</cite>,
-printed in 1499.</p>
-
-<p>This celebrated book was written by Francesco Colonna,
-whose name is curiously shown by the initials of the
-chapters, which read “Poliam Frater Franciscus Columna
-peramavit,” “Brother Franciscus Columna loved Polia
-very much.” Polia has been presumably identified with
-Lucretia Lelio, who was a native of Treviso, the place of
-Polifilo’s dream. The many engravings are in outline,
-and several of them are full page.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Italians have always excelled in wood cutting, but
-although there have been numbers of illustrated books
-issued in the sixteenth and later centuries, those of the
-fifteenth century still remain pre-eminent. Dr. Paul
-Kristeller has, moreover, shown that the Italian printers
-devices are well worthy of attention, and many of them
-are very fine both in design and execution.</p>
-
-<p>Block books, Japanese wood blocks, and all very early wood
-cuts, were cut by a knife, and such outline work, not too
-small, is easier to execute with a properly shaped knife
-than with anything else. But as soon as wood cutters
-began to be more skilled, and compared their work with
-line engraving, they found that a knife was not so
-useful as an engraver’s burin, and so wood <em>engraving</em>,
-as distinct from <em>cutting</em>, came into being. The cuts in
-the <cite>Nuremberg Chronicle</cite> of 1493 show some sort of a
-transitional stage; there are hatchings and shadowings
-which would have been much more easily done with a
-graver than with a knife, but I believe, nevertheless, they
-are all knife work.</p>
-
-<p>Roughly speaking, it is easier to cut a broad outline
-drawing with a knife than with a graver, and it is easier to
-cut a small detail drawing with a graver than with a knife.
-At the same time we must remember that a skilled engraver
-could execute either sort of engraving in the wrong way,
-just as William Harvey cut his well known wood blocks of
-the Death of Dentatus in such a way as to show every
-technical peculiarity, except one, of an engraving on metal.</p>
-
-<p>Both wood blocks and metal blocks intended to illustrate
-printed books were always made of the same depth as the
-type, so that they could all be printed together, and that is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
-done to-day in the case of process or half-tone blocks, which
-are actually wooden blocks faced with the soft metal bearing
-the design. There is always some interest in the question
-as to whether a certain print has been cut on a wood block
-or on a metal block, and if the print is in perfect condition it
-is a very difficult matter to decide. But it is rarely that
-some small defect or peculiarity does not appear by help
-of which a tolerably certain judgment can be arrived at.
-Early engraved blocks were often used again and again
-until they became quite old, and at last they were got at by
-insects who ate small holes in them. If therefore a print
-shows little white circular marks upon it there is no doubt
-that it was made from a wood block. Instances are by no
-means unknown in which experts have decided that a
-certain block had been cut on metal, and a later impression
-has turned up <em>with worm holes in it</em>! The grain of wood
-will sometimes show on an old print, or a broken edge will
-show a sharp fracture indicating wood, in contradistinction
-to a rounded one, indicating metal.</p>
-
-<p>The blacks on prints from an engraved metal plate always
-show very even spaces, and there are usually plenty of them,
-often broken, however, by small white dots, the presence of
-which denotes the style known as Pointille, the finest
-examples of which can be found among the French Horæ
-printed for Pigouchet in the fifteenth century. The metal
-used was probably a sort of pewter, lead and tin, very easy to
-engrave upon, and strong enough to bear many printings.
-But in many instances these little blocks seem to have been
-roughly treated and have fallen about, and the result is
-that outer lines which show perfectly straight in early
-copies, show as slightly rounded lines on late ones. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
-is taken as a decided proof that the original block was made
-of soft metal, although I am by no means certain that it is
-impossible for a straight edge on wood to warp into a
-curved line.</p>
-
-<p>Prints from old wood cuts in outlines were frequently
-added to early printed books and painted over thickly with
-opaque colour so as to produce a different design. The
-original outline has only been used as a slight guide.
-Instances of these curious changes can be found in numbers
-of the fine vellum books illustrated in colour which were
-printed for Antoine Vérard at Paris in the fifteenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p>In other cases, particularly in Italy and France, ornamental
-printed borders and illustrations have been very
-carefully painted by hand just as if they belonged to
-ordinary illuminated manuscripts. But the art work in all
-these cases is not good. The true <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">illuminatores</i> were
-obsolescent. A few instances of attempts at colour printing
-either by means of blocks or stencil plates were made by
-Erhard Ratdolt at Venice, and a few others.</p>
-
-<p>There are two distinct schools of wood engraving, and
-they are easily recognised from each other whenever either
-of them is exclusively new, but the large majority of the
-more recent book illustrations cut on wood show traces of
-both styles.</p>
-
-<p>These styles are firstly that of the black line, the type of
-which may be found in Caxton’s <cite>Myrrour of the Worlde</cite>
-printed in 1481, and secondly that of the white line, the best
-type of which may be found in the <cite>History of British Birds</cite>,
-illustrated with engravings by Thomas Bewick in 1797.</p>
-
-<div id="Ref_108fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;">
-<img src="images/i_108fp.jpg" width="405" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Page from Caxton’s “Myrrour of the Worlde.” (<em>London</em>, 1481.)
-[<em>To face p.</em> 108.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In judging whether an illustration in a book is printed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
-from a block cut and printed in the manner of a wood block,
-the first thing to observe is whether the black lines are
-pressed into the paper or not. The amount of the depression
-of the black lines may be very slight, but it must
-always be looked for because although the necessary
-pressure for printing from type and block is slight, still
-there is always some of it, and before the introduction of
-the modern clay-laden papers, the paper used for printing
-upon was always softened by damp, and consequently very
-susceptible to pressure. If the depression of the black lines
-can be recognised, the print is made from a block of some
-sort, and printed with a slight pressure.</p>
-
-<p>William Blake’s curious illustrated poems are exceptions
-to any rule. He was very poor and unable to afford to
-have his writings properly published, so he wrote and drew
-them out himself on copper, and then etched away the
-ground very strongly so as to leave his lines in relief. The
-plates were then printed as relief blocks. As curiosities
-they are of great interest, and they preserve the individual
-touch of the artist to just about the same extent as an
-etching does. The process is exactly analogous to the
-manner in which names or designs are etched on sword
-blades, key rings, knife blades and the like, only Blake
-allowed the acid to work a little more strongly so as to get
-a slightly higher relief.</p>
-
-<p>The first English printed book that is illustrated is
-Caxton’s <cite>Myrrour of the Worlde</cite>, printed in 1481; the cuts
-are quite elementary in character, like all the wood cuts in
-English books for a long time. Ornamental borders are
-found in Caxton’s <cite>Fifteen Oes.</cite>, printed about 1490.</p>
-
-<p>Early English books were not freely illustrated, and it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
-must be supposed that wood cutters were scarce. Many of
-the cuts used are of foreign origin. One early book is
-charmingly illustrated in colour; Dame Juliana Bernes’
-so-called <cite>Book of St. Albans</cite>, printed in 1486, has a long series
-of coats-of-arms printed from wood blocks. The colour has
-been added either from other blocks separately inked or
-else by means of stencil plates.</p>
-
-<p>In the sixteenth century wood illustrations became more
-numerous, but many of them were still of foreign
-workmanship.</p>
-
-<p>Borders and designs by Holbein were used by Pynson,
-and these had a renaissance feeling which was quite
-foreign to the existing style. The mixed style which
-consequently made its appearance is very curious. It
-shows well in the semi-classical device of Lucretia used by
-Thomas Berthelet, royal printer to Henry VIII. Towards
-the end of the century there were several large volumes
-of chronicles published in England, Halle, Grafton and
-Holinshed, and these and similar volumes are all well
-illustrated with wood cuts. Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs,” published
-in 1563 by John Day, is also an example of a well
-illustrated and popular book, the cuts in which were all
-probably made here.</p>
-
-<div id="Ref_110fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 539px;">
-<img src="images/i_110fp.jpg" width="539" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>“The Peacock.” Wood engraving by Thos. Bewick, from the
-“History of British Birds.” (<em>Newcastle</em>, 1797-1804.)
-[<em>To face p.</em> 110.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Wood engravings in England gave way gradually in the
-seventeenth and the earlier half of the eighteenth centuries
-before the advancing tide of line engraving, but in the latter
-half of the eighteenth century Thomas Bewick came to give
-it a new impetus. Bewick’s style was quite original, and
-although his particular “white line” style, good as it was,
-does not ever seem to have retained any hold upon the
-mass of engravers, yet somehow or other we find that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
-revival of wood cutting, both here and abroad, is generally
-put down to his influence.</p>
-
-<p>Bewick worked on an entirely different principle to that
-of any of his predecessors. He gave up imitating the black
-line of the metal engraver and used the white line to gain
-his effects. No doubt this is the true theory of wood
-engraving. Bewick took several apprentices, many of
-whom afterwards became famous, but, curiously enough,
-none of them kept long to their master’s style. In modern
-days Timothy Cole has revived the use of the white line;
-his work is most excellent and learned in every way. I
-have never found a wrong line in it, and if Bewick had not
-shown the way, and therefore put Mr. Cole in the position
-of a follower, the latter would have ranked as the greatest
-master who has ever worked on wood on the white line
-principle.</p>
-
-<p>William Harvey was one of Bewick’s apprentices; he did
-an immense quantity of work, which is always excellent.
-He soon gave up Bewick’s “white line,” and most of his
-wood engravings are like line engravings on copper. The
-engraving of the Death of Dentatus, after B. R. Haydon, is
-Harvey’s most celebrated piece of work. It shows every
-appearance and characteristic of a line engraving, but the
-black marks are in intaglio. It is a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tour de force</i>, and
-cannot but be considered as a waste of energy. It was
-engraved upon several blocks clamped together by an
-iron band, and prints of it can now and then be picked up
-at printsellers for two or three shillings, as it is seldom
-recognised as a wood engraving.</p>
-
-<p>Luke Clennell also worked with and helped Bewick, and
-much of his early work is like that of his master. But,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
-like Harvey, Clennell soon evolved a style of his own. He
-cut some of the beautiful little cuts, after Stothard, in
-Rogers’ “Pleasures of Memory.” No doubt the Bewick
-training had much influence for good over Clennell’s
-manner.</p>
-
-<p>Charlton Nesbit followed Bewick closely for a time, and
-then, like his fellow apprentices, he worked out his own style.
-His work is very good and true, and he was particularly
-successful in his illustrations to Northcote’s <cite>Fables</cite> and
-<cite>Rinaldo and Armida</cite>.</p>
-
-<p>John Thompson was quite one of our greatest wood
-engravers. He worked well into the nineteenth century,
-and did an immense quantity of work. He engraved a
-celebrated set of illustrations to the <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite>,
-after Mulready, and was also very successful with those to
-Tasso’s <cite>La Gerusalemme Liberata</cite> in 1826. His work is quite
-different from that of Bewick.</p>
-
-<p>The nineteenth century in England was rich in numbers
-of excellent wood engravers, and a list of their names alone
-would be a long one. A proof of the high estimation in
-which the work of many of these artists was held is to be
-found in the fact that their services as engravers were
-freely sought by continental publishers of finely illustrated
-books.</p>
-
-<p>J. B. Jackson, who introduced tone colour-printing,
-actually worked with J. M. Papillon in France in the
-eighteenth century. Then there were the Landells, Gray,
-Whimper, Wright, Folkard, and Green, and, quite late in
-the century, J. W. Whymper, Horace Harral, James Cooper,
-W. J. Linton, the Dalziels, and Swain. These two last
-have signed an immense quantity of excellent work, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
-they were large firms, and the greater part of their work
-was done by their workmen. Many of the artists of this
-time did most excellent work as designers for wood
-engravings, especially Sir John Millais, D. G. Rossetti,
-Fred. Walker, Fred. Sandys, Lord Leighton, Birket Foster,
-Sir E. Burne-Jones, G. du Maurier, and Cecil Lawson.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
-<img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="250" height="56" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;Knife for engraving
-on soft wood.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>J. M. Papillon, who worked during the earlier half of the
-eighteenth century, belonged to a French family of wood
-engravers, and wrote a treatise about wood-cutting with the
-knife, which is of great interest. His work is small and
-excellent. Papillon makes mention of a foreigner who
-worked with him and used the <em>end</em> of the wood to work
-upon, and that he used a graver.
-This foreigner is supposed to
-have been the English artist
-J. B. Jackson, who was eminent
-here not only as an engraver,
-but also as the pioneer in the matter of colour-printing from
-wood blocks.</p>
-
-<p>No doubt up to about the beginning of the eighteenth
-century wood cuts had been made on planed pieces of pear
-or other soft wood cut lengthways. The grain upon such a
-piece of wood necessitating the use of a knife to cut it, the
-knife may be a single blade or a double blade of the kind
-known as a “scrive,” but it cannot be cut with a solid
-graver.</p>
-
-<p>It is possible enough that to Jackson we owe the idea of
-making engravings on the cross-cut of a piece of wood, and
-if so he is entitled to great honour, as all wood work since
-his time has been done in that way. The graver had long
-been used on metal, but until the device of cutting blocks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
-across the grain of a hard wood was thought of it could not
-be used on wood. Hard wood was now wanted with as
-little grain as possible, and box is the ideal.</p>
-
-<p>In the nineteenth century much excellent wood engraving
-was done in France. Indeed, after a period of practical
-non-existence the art once more became one of great
-importance, and a school of wood engraving grew up that
-was not only very large, but the work done was of very high
-quality.</p>
-
-<p>Bewick’s style is not there, although it seems likely that
-the revival was really due to his influence; the old black
-line, resembling the engraved metal line, holds undisputed
-sway. Moreover, the French nineteenth century revival
-owes much directly to the work and influence of another
-great English wood engraver, J. Thompson, and with him
-worked an equally great French engraver, H. L. Brevière.
-These two men were highly gifted, and their work is always
-of a high order, and they met with much powerful support
-from contemporary engravers, followers of their own, the
-excellence of whose work in many instances ran their own
-very close.</p>
-
-<p>Among the many engravers of this time whose work is
-always pleasant to meet with and admire we may particularly
-note Thiébault, S. Soyer, Sears, <a id="Ref_114"></a>Porret, Roux, La
-Coste and both his sons, Rouget, and Nivet.</p>
-
-<p>The work of many of our contemporary English engravers
-was also much liked in France, and they often helped to
-illustrate fine French books. Among the more notable of
-these engravers we find the names of Orrin Smith, Thomas,
-Samuel, and Mary Ann Williams, and A. Best.</p>
-
-<p>It must be noted that the work of the artists whose work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
-was interpreted by this school of highly-skilled engravers
-was admirably fitted for small book vignettes, especially the
-military designs so profusely issued by <a id="Ref_115"></a>Meissonier, Horace
-Vernet, and Raffet, and, for larger work, the charming
-figures of Gavarni.</p>
-
-<p>Augsburg in the fifteenth century was a great centre of
-wood engraving. A Bible with small woodcuts was issued
-there about 1470 by Jodoc Pflanzmann. These cuts were
-meant to be coloured by hand. Several other books
-illustrated with woodcuts were issued by Gunther Zainer
-and Johan Bamler.</p>
-
-<p>Then notable illustrated books were published at Ulm
-and Lubeck, and from Nuremberg we have the great
-“Nuremberg Chronicle,” full of woodcuts, the best of which
-are cut by Wilhelm Pleydenwurff and Michael Wohlgemuth.
-The work in this book gets away from the mere
-outline, and we find much clever hatching and shading, but
-there is much coarseness. From Basle came Seb. Brant’s
-celebrated “Narrenschiff,” one of the most popular books
-ever written, and illustrated with most amusing cuts of
-the various follies of the various sorts of fools described.
-Albrecht Dürer did a few illustrations for books towards
-the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth
-centuries.</p>
-
-<p>Several more illustrated wood books were issued from
-Nuremberg, Basle and Zurich, and some of the printers’
-devices were designed by Holbein.</p>
-
-<p>During the seventeenth century a lull occurred in the
-production of German books illustrated with woodcuts;
-but the art has always been popular in Germany, and it
-never quite died out.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The very decorative “Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian,”
-with large woodcuts, designed by Hans
-Burgkmeier of Augsburg in the early sixteenth century,
-was published in 1796. German wood engraving for
-books revived in the nineteenth century, and became
-of high excellence. German wood engravings have
-had a certain strength and vigour all their own from
-the time of the “Nuremberg Chronicle” until modern
-times.</p>
-
-<p>Artists, moreover, have not been wanting; the quite
-delightful vignettes of A. Schrödter, L. Richter, G.
-Osterwald, R. Jordan and others, have received adequate
-and sympathetic treatment at the hands of engravers
-who are second to none. Nuzelmann, E. Kretschmar,
-A. Vogel, Beneworth, Joch, and the Leipzig firms of
-Allanson and Sears, Nicholls and Bosse, and Peupin, some
-of whom were foreigners.</p>
-
-<p>Line engraving on a small scale plays an important
-part in book illustration. It is the simplest, and yet
-requires the most technical skill of all the methods of
-marking metal surfaces for the purpose of making prints.
-The engraver cuts out a thread of metal, producing a little
-track on the surface, and to do this properly requires the
-utmost skill.</p>
-
-<p>It has been held for a long time that prints from
-engraved metal plates owe their existence to the proofs in
-sulphur which were taken from time to time from
-engravings intended to be filled with niello.</p>
-
-<p>In the museum at Berlin there is a print on paper from
-an engraved metal plate, representing the Flagellation of
-Christ. It is German work and dated 1446. The lettering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
-shows rightly on the print, so the engraving was made
-with the intent that prints should be made from it.</p>
-
-<p>There is in the Bargello Museum at Florence a beautiful
-Pax with a nielloed plate attributed to Maso Finiguerra,
-the date of which is put at 1452. From this plate, before
-it was nielloed, prints on paper were taken, and one of
-them is at Paris. But the letterings on this engraving
-read rightly on the metal, so it was not engraved with the
-intent that prints should be made from it; indeed, they, as
-well as the impressions in sulphur, were only made to
-help in the working.</p>
-
-<p>So that it is only safe to say that the possibility of
-making prints on paper from engraved metal plates was
-known about the middle of the fifteenth century both in
-Germany and in Italy.</p>
-
-<p>To make a print from an engraved plate requires great
-pressure, as the paper has to be forced down into every
-mark, and the resulting mark on the paper is consequently
-always in relief.</p>
-
-<p>The principle of a print made from an engraved wood
-block is that the projecting parts are covered with a thin
-film of ink, and when the paper is lightly pressed down
-upon these lines it picks up the ink from the surface
-wherever it touches it. In the case of an engraved metal
-plate, the lines on which are cut in the same way and with
-a similar graver to that used for white line engraving on
-wood, the inking and printing is quite different. Now it is
-the incised lines which print black, and in order to ensure
-this the whole plate is well rubbed over with ink so as to
-fill up all the incised lines, and then the unengraved
-polished surface is carefully wiped clean so as to leave the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
-ink sticking in all the dots, lines and curves. Now damped
-paper is very strongly pressed upon the inked plate, so as
-to be squeezed right down into every dot, line and curve.
-The paper consequently is in relief wherever it has been
-pressed into a depression, and as there was ink there
-waiting for it, it will be found to have picked up and
-absorbed all the ink, so that the print shows black lines in
-low relief.</p>
-
-<p>It will be easily realised that a print from an engraved
-metal plate cannot be printed with ordinary type at the
-same operation a wood-block can, so that whenever a book
-occurs in which such engravings show on the same page
-with type, there must have been two printings, one strong
-for the engraving and one light for the type.</p>
-
-<p>We find, therefore, that in several instances where
-engraved illustrations have been used for a book which is
-for the most part printed from type, that the small piece
-of text which comes on the same page as the engraving,
-is also engraved. Not only this, but from time to time
-entire books have been engraved, illustrations as well
-as text. The finest English example of such work is
-to be found in the beautiful edition of the works of
-Horace, plentifully illustrated and engraved throughout
-on copper by John Pine. It was published in
-1733-7.</p>
-
-<p>John Sturt, who engraved numbers of book frontispieces,
-also produced a Book of Common Prayer, engraved
-throughout on silver, in 1717. He also engraved many of
-John Ayres’ calligraphic works. Abroad, especially in
-France and Germany, small books have been engraved, in
-the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by P. Moreau,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
-F. Mazot, Druet, and others, but none of them are as
-important as the English. Music books are engraved, and
-so are numbers of calligraphic books of small interest.</p>
-
-<p>The first line engravings illustrating any book appear in
-Bettini’s “Monte Santo di Deo,” printed in 1477. They
-are said to be after designs by Botticelli. Some of
-the prints are full page and others are printed on the
-same paper as the text. They are not very good. The
-same kind of illustration appears in Dante’s “Divina
-Commedia,” printed in 1481. Some of these prints are,
-however, pasted in, but a few are on the same paper as
-the text.</p>
-
-<p>The great excellence of Italian book illustrators on wood
-seems to have eclipsed all other kinds. Italian line
-engravers have excelled in large plates, but in books
-there is little of this kind of work that is at all good.
-Examples of small work of the kind were done in the
-eighteenth century by Grandi, Schedl, Pomarade, I. Frey,
-and C. Gregori.</p>
-
-<p>In English books line engravings do not appear until
-1521, when an edition of Galen published at Cambridge
-possesses an engraved border.</p>
-
-<p>Raynald’s “Byrthe of Mankind,” published in 1540, has
-engraved plates. From this time engravings appear at
-intervals until towards the end of the sixteenth century,
-when frontispieces and portraits, always printed on separate
-paper and inserted as extra leaves, became common.</p>
-
-<p>In the seventeenth century the same style prevailed, engraved
-portraits and frontispieces, but gradually small pictures
-came into use. The plates are often signed, and we find
-the name of Renold Elstrack, who worked also in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
-preceding century, Marshall, Hole, Cecil, Grover, and others
-of less merit.</p>
-
-<p>In the eighteenth century native engravers seem to have
-given way to foreigners, and the same thing happened
-during the early nineteenth century. We find many
-beautiful engravings in English books signed by Du Bosc,
-Grignion, Scotin, De Launay, and others. Later, in the
-nineteenth century, our English line engravers rallied,
-and we owe much beautiful work to them. Many of their
-names are widely known, and their work will be more
-highly appreciated as time goes on, especially as this small
-line engraving is practically a lost art.</p>
-
-<p><cite>The Keepsake</cite>, published by Charles Heath, 1827-57,
-started the fashion in England of small books illustrated
-with delicate engravings on steel, but it must be noted
-that although there is engraved work in them, the
-greater part of the work is really etched. Exquisite
-work in this style was done by W. Finden, D. Allen,
-C. Rolls, T. C. Lewis, J. H. Robinson, E. Goodall,
-H. and R. Wallis, W. R. and D. Smith, W. Humphreys,
-John Pye, T. S. and F. C. Engleheart, F. and J. Goodyear,
-and these engravers were supplied with beautiful
-subjects by several of the eminent contemporary artists,
-J. M. W. Turner, Stothard, Samuel Prout, and numbers
-more.</p>
-
-<p>Among the best examples of finely illustrated books
-of this period the two volumes of Rogers’ <cite>Italy</cite> and
-<cite>Poems</cite> may safely be noted. They were published in
-London in 1830, and the very best results were aimed at in
-their production. They are uniform, and usually bound in
-red watered silk.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Large numbers of small books illustrated profusely with
-line engravings were published about the middle of the
-nineteenth century. They often have engraved title-pages,
-with little pictures in them, the full page illustration being
-inserted throughout. The names of both artist and engraver
-are usually added at the lower edge of the print.</p>
-
-<p>There are <cite>Oriental Annuals</cite>, <cite>Landscape Annuals</cite>, <cite>New
-Year’s Gifts</cite>, <cite>Friendship’s Offerings</cite>, <cite>Comic Offerings</cite>, <cite>Juvenile
-Forget-me-nots</cite>, and a host of similar periodicals, and good
-work is to be found in all of them. They were either
-bound in thin panel stamped leather or else in watered silk,
-and in either case the binding is of interest, and wherever
-it exists it should be carefully preserved. A quaint little
-woodcut often appears in these books, printed with the
-text.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the engravers whose names I have already mentioned,
-there are many others whose work appears more
-particularly in small periodical publications; among these
-may be noted J. C. Armytage, Geo. Corbould, Charles
-and J. Heath, James Mitan, John Sharpe, R. J. Baker,
-W. Greatbach, J. C. Edwards, W. Fry, W. Chevalier,
-S. Davenport, H. Robins, C. Warren, T. J. Williams, J.
-Cousins, W. Miller, S. Sangster, R. Rhodes, F. Bacon, R. J.
-and E. Portbury, T. Willmore, R. Brandard, J. H. Kernot,
-W. D. Taylor, and G. Hollis.</p>
-
-<p>After about 1850 small line engravings in books began to
-disappear, and now they are rarely if ever done. In fact,
-line engraving has been killed by mezzotint and photography,
-and now takes refuge in its original goldsmiths’ use,
-or in book plates.</p>
-
-<p>Line engraving in France did not appeal to popular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
-taste until a comparatively late period. The block engravings
-in the “Horae” of the fifteenth century, although they were
-line engravings, were cut in the manner of wood blocks, and
-the method of printing from them was different to that used
-in the case of ordinary metal engravings. In the seventeenth
-century there were several beautiful books illustrated
-by line engravings by Sebastian Leclerc, L. Gaultier,
-J. Sauné, F. Chauveau, Le Mire and H. J. Duclos.</p>
-
-<p>In the eighteenth century in France the graceful designs
-of Ch. Eisen and J. H. Fragonard found many worthy interpreters.
-La Fontaine’s fables and stories provided a suitable
-literature for these illustrations, and among them may
-perhaps be found the high water mark of small line
-engraving. Indeed, the work is all so good that any choice
-becomes almost invidious; but quite beautiful work was
-done by J. B. Patas, Choffard, N. Le Mire, De Longueil,
-L. Bosse, Delvaux, Johannot, Leroux, Lefebre, Ficquet,
-Mottet, Prevost, J. B. Tillard, J. L. Delignon, C. L. Lingée,
-Dupréel; and then come L. Halbon, J. Aliamet, J. Dambrun,
-J. B. <a id="Ref_122"></a>Simonnet, P. Trière, C. S. Gaucher, and many more,
-some of whom worked also in the next century.</p>
-
-<p>In the nineteenth century the French level of small engraved
-illustrations remained exceptionally high, especially
-in the earlier half, but many of the plates have much etching
-mixed up with line work; this may very likely mean that the
-work was done on steel, which will admit of the production
-of large editions; but steel is very difficult to engrave,
-although it is quite easy to etch. Among the line engravers
-who used accessory etching I have noted Pauquet, Aze,
-P. Choffard, and De Villiers.</p>
-
-<p>The engravers whose work may be safely considered of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
-high quality are R. De Launay, Bertonnier, Villerey,
-P. Savart, H. Dupont, Girardet, J. P. <a id="Ref_123"></a>Marillien, L. Petit,
-J. F. Ribault, Chifflart, and V. Foulquier. Towards the
-end of the century photography came and gradually crowded
-out the small line engravers.</p>
-
-<p>An etching is a drawing done with a needle point upon
-a sheet of metal protected by a thin impervious coat of
-soft varnish. The lines made by the etching needle pierce
-the varnish or “ground,” and reach down to the metal,
-usually copper, exposing it in those places. When the
-drawing is complete the plate is put into a bath of strong
-water, usually dilute nitric acid, and wherever the surface
-is not protected by the ground the acid will eat away the
-metal.</p>
-
-<p>When now the ground is cleaned off with the help of
-turpentine, the original design will be seen transferred to
-the surface of the copper in the form of dull lines, shallow
-if the acid has only been allowed to act for a short time,
-but broad, deep and irregular if the “biting” has been
-long. So that an etching always has a little more “effect”
-than was put into the original work.</p>
-
-<p>It is not necessary here to enter into the mysteries of
-“stopping out,” and several other variations of procedure,
-but it is sufficient to say that variations of tone and texture
-<em>can</em> be obtained; but, in fact, so far as book illustrations go,
-the etchings I know of are always simple, and the best of
-them are those by George Cruickshank.</p>
-
-<p>The printing of etchings is analogous to that of line
-engravings, and a similar ink is used. A strong press is
-required, the paper is damped, and the impression is in
-slight relief. Line engravings are always printed in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
-same way as a visiting card, the untouched parts are clean,
-and print white, but in the case of etchings more ink is
-usually left, so that the untouched surfaces often show grey,
-none of the ink having been allowed to remain upon the
-plate. The French call this “retroussage,” and printers
-can produce strange effects by its use. A bad etching can
-be made to look like a good one; a good etching can be
-made to look weak and wretched. In fact, a clever artist
-printer can produce a capital picture from a plate which
-has nothing at all on it but the ink.</p>
-
-<p>Etchings first appeared in English books about the end
-of the seventeenth century, but they are seldom signed,
-neither are they good. There is an etched frontispiece to
-Latroo’s “English Roque,” 1665, and another to “Æsop’s
-Fables,” published in the same year.</p>
-
-<p>Wenceslaus Hollar, a Bohemian who worked in London,
-illustrated a few English books with etchings in the seventeenth
-century. Soft ground etchings printed in red and
-black appear in Pennant’s “Account of London,” printed
-in 1795. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
-William Blake made a few etchings for book illustrations.
-In the nineteenth century came Alken’s etchings of animals,
-usually coloured, Samuel Hewitt, Doyle, and especially the
-excellent work of George Cruickshank, which was very
-much admired by John Ruskin.</p>
-
-<div id="Ref_124fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
-<img src="images/i_124fp.jpg" width="428" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>Title-page of Grimm’s “German Popular Stories.” (<em>London</em>, 1824.)
-Illustrated with etchings by George Cruickshank.
-[<em>To face p.</em> 124.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Combined with line engraving a number of small illustrations
-were published in the nineteenth century. They were
-etched on steel, and carefully finished with small line work,
-with ruled skies. They are generally classed as engravings,
-but should, I think, rather be called etchings.</p>
-
-<p>Etching has not played a very important part in French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
-books any more than it has in English. There are the
-amusing sketches of Callot, good work by Abraham Bosse
-and Sebastian Leclerc, and in quite recent times the
-beautiful etchings by Jules Jacquemart of works of art, in
-their way unsurpassed, and marvels of technical skill. I
-have already mentioned a few French etchers who combined
-that work with small line engraving, probably on
-steel; of these probably Choffard is best known and most
-highly appreciated.</p>
-
-<p>Engraving by dots has been for a long time practised, as
-by its means a graduated tone can be more easily obtained
-than it can by the use of line alone, and stipple is the same
-idea carried out by the etching needle instead of the graver.</p>
-
-<p>Stipple is done by means of small bunches of needles,
-with which irregular dots are made in the etching ground
-and then bitten by acid, as usual. In most cases a few
-small finishing dots are put on the copper by hand afterwards.
-Stipple is excellent for faces, and is best known in
-the work of Bartolozzi, who excelled in it. It is said to
-have been invented by Jacob Bylaert, a Dutchman, in
-1760.</p>
-
-<p>In England stipple engraving was largely used in the
-early nineteenth century for book illustrations. It is found
-chiefly in faces, and is generally supported by line engraving
-or etching. The best stipple engravers did not illustrate
-books, but the work of W. Finden, C. Knight,
-J. Parker, C. Marr, and W. Holl is always good, though, of
-course, very small. Besides these there were numbers of
-lesser stipple engravers, whose work is fair&mdash;Jenkinson,
-Dean, H. Cook, C. Wagstaffe, H. Robinson, and many more.</p>
-
-<p>The same sort of usefulness was found for stipple abroad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
-for faces particularly, and it was successfully practised by
-Pfeiffer, Vangelisty, and others, but it never took the same
-hold upon the Continent that it did here, either in the case
-of small book illustrations or in the more important matter
-of large stipple engravings.</p>
-
-<p>Mezzotints are not satisfactory if they are on a small
-scale. Delicate and minute work cannot be done well by
-the mezzotint process alone, but require supplementary
-line or etched work. So we find that mezzotints have not
-been much used for book illustration.</p>
-
-<p>The process of mezzotinting was invented by Ludwig von
-Siegen, an officer in the Hessian Army, about 1642, and at
-first it was practised chiefly by foreigners, but it soon
-became the favourite method of engraving upon metal in
-England; indeed, the competition of the mezzotint
-eventually ruined the slower and more costly process of
-line engraving.</p>
-
-<p>Some books concerning mezzotints have explanatory
-plates in them, beginning with Le Blon’s “Coloritto,”
-written about 1721, but these can hardly be considered
-as fair instances of ordinary book illustrations.</p>
-
-<p>A copper plate is prepared for mezzotint engraving by
-being uniformly roughened all over, so that if it were
-inked and a print made from it, the print would show a
-uniform velvety black. The art of the “scraper” consists
-in so skilfully cutting away or burnishing down the
-roughened surface of the copper that when a print is made
-a picture appears. The scraper works from black to white
-whenever the surface is scraped or burnished away, so in
-exact correspondence the print will show grey or white. It
-is quick work, and easy work up to a point, but to make a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
-first-rate mezzotint is a great art, and only a few engravers
-have succeeded in doing it.</p>
-
-<p>Among the first students of the art was Prince Rupert,
-who was an excellent artist and an accomplished workman
-all round. He engraved a large plate after Spagnoletto,
-called “The Great Executioner,” and when John Evelyn
-wrote a little book called “Sculptura,” which was published
-in 1662, and included in it a short description of the new
-art, the Prince mezzotinted a plate for him, showing only
-the head of the great executioner. This head, the first
-mezzotint done for a book, is a finer piece of work than the
-head in the larger plate.</p>
-
-<p>There were several anatomical plates, mostly printed in
-coloured inks, which were mezzotinted about the same time,
-but they are not important; then Faber’s portraits of
-founders of the Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge were
-used as illustrations to Rolt’s “Lives of the Reformers,”
-published in 1759. These plates bear Houston’s name as
-mezzotinter, but this is only one of a number of such
-re-letterings which occur in the history of mezzotints.</p>
-
-<p>Robert Dunkarton engraved several book illustrations,
-mostly portraits, and he also helped in the mezzotinting of
-some of the plates in Turner’s “Liber Studiorum.” He
-was a portrait painter, and his mezzotints are better than
-Faber’s. John Young was an eminent mezzotinter, and in
-1815 he issued a large book of portraits of the Emperors of
-Turkey printed in colours. They are not particularly good,
-but are interesting as being the first set of mezzotints to be
-issued in colour as book illustrations. The book is rare
-and, if the colour is strong, of considerable value.</p>
-
-<p>Turner’s “Liber Studiorum” was issued between 1807<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
-and 1819, and many mezzotinters helped in the work&mdash;F.
-C. Lewis, Charles Turner, W. Say, R. Dunkarton, G.
-Clint, J. C. Eastling, T. Hodgetts, W. Annis, H. Dawe,
-T. Lipton, and S. W. Reynolds. The plates were not pure
-mezzotint, but were strongly etched as well with some
-aquatinting; the first etching was done by J. M. W.
-Turner, and some of the mezzotinting. I think he probably
-worked finally upon all the plates in various ways
-with burin, scraper and roulette.</p>
-
-<p>Several books of landscapes are illustrated with mezzotints,
-done on copper or steel, by T. G. Lupton, many of
-them after Turner, and John Constable’s landscapes have
-been admirably mezzotinted by David Lucas; perhaps the
-best known is “English Landscape Scenery,” published
-in 1855.</p>
-
-<p>In all mezzotints, large or small, it should be noted that
-the <em>condition</em> of the print is important. The blacks should
-be deep and velvety; if they show greyish or spotted, the
-print is from an old plate. Mezzotints on steel last better
-than if they are on copper. I know of no foreign books
-illustrated with mezzotints.</p>
-
-<p>There are several ways of making aquatints, but the
-best is the oldest. It was invented by a Frenchman,
-J. B. Le Prince, towards the end of the eighteenth century,
-and although of foreign origin, the art has been most
-extensively and successfully practised in England.</p>
-
-<p>Le Prince allowed powdered resin to settle evenly on a
-copper plate, fixed the minute grains by heat, and then treated
-the plate with acid as if it were an etching. When the
-plate was cleaned the acid is found to have bitten a little
-line round each grain of resin, so that an aquatint made by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
-this method consists of a series of small rings more or less
-thick. The different thicknesses are produced by stopping
-out some portions and re-biting others. The general effect
-of aquatint is delicate and pleasing, and it can be
-strengthened where necessary with a little etching.
-Aquatint helps its followers considerably, and a good
-aquatint made from a drawing or painting will often have
-luminous effects that are wanting in the original.</p>
-
-<p>There is one other method of aquatinting that must be
-mentioned, but there are more which are too numerous and
-too unimportant to require explanation here. It is a modern
-invention, and consists of coating the plate with resin dissolved
-in alcohol; when this dries it breaks up into little
-pieces, and the acid can penetrate between these pieces as in
-Le Prince’s method. But the resulting prints do not show
-Le Prince’s little circles, but small irregular polygons.</p>
-
-<p>Le Prince sold his secret to Charles Greville, and he
-passed it on to Paul Sandby, who not only became an
-eminent aquatinter but published a book in 1775 called
-<cite>Twelve Views in Aquatinta</cite>. This drew much attention
-to the beautiful new art, and it rapidly became very
-popular in England. English aquatinters, like English
-wood and stipple engravers, always liked colour, whether
-added by hand or printed in ink, and so we find that the
-large majority of English aquatinters enjoy the added
-beauty of colour.</p>
-
-<p>The publishers Ackermann and Boydell both deserve
-much honour for their consistent patronage of aquatints,
-and no doubt our splendid record in that art is largely due
-to their enterprise.</p>
-
-<p>Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
-already find several fine books with hand-coloured aquatint
-illustrations published in England, among these are
-W. Hodge’s <cite>Select Views in India</cite>, 1786; T. Hassell’s
-<cite>Picturesque Guide to Bath</cite>, 1793; Combes’ <cite>History of
-the River Thames</cite>, with aquatints by J. C. Stadler; E.
-Orme’s <cite>Twelve Views of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore</cite>,
-with aquatints by J. W. Edy; and H. Repton’s amusing
-<cite>Sketches of Landscape Gardening</cite>, with moveable plates to
-show how good his suggested improvements were, all published
-in 1794, and from this time for the next thirty years
-were numbers of books issued with coloured aquatints concerning
-domestic architecture.</p>
-
-<p>Early in the nineteenth century there are still numbers
-of books with aquatint views in them: J. Webber’s <cite>Views
-in the South Seas</cite>, published in 1808, and Boydell’s
-<cite>Picturesque Scenery of Norway</cite>, with aquatints by J. W.
-Edy, in 1820, and several more.</p>
-
-<p>Then Rowlandson, the caricaturist, aquatinted the illustrations
-for Goldsmith’s <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite> in 1817, and the
-inimitable <cite>Tour of Dr. Syntax</cite>, by Combe, in 1820, thereby
-setting the fashion for caricature in aquatint, which had a
-considerable vogue.</p>
-
-<p>In Pyne’s <cite>History of the Royal Residences</cite>, the out-door
-views are printed in coloured inks, blue for the skies and
-brown for the foregrounds. They have additional hand-colouring.
-It is an important book, and was published in
-1819; the aquatints are engraved by T. Sutherland, W. F.
-Bennett, R. Reeve, and others.</p>
-
-<p>Then came a series of fine books on Indian scenery,
-mostly engraved by T. Medland, Hassell and Ellis,
-and many books of English views, mostly engraved by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
-D. Havell, T. Sutherland, T. H. Fielding, J. Baily, or
-T. Cartwright.</p>
-
-<p>Of less importance, but now becoming more esteemed,
-are the numbers of graceful costume and fashion plates
-which were done in aquatint and coloured by hand from
-about 1790 to 1840. These books are already much sought
-after, and will probably be more and more so in time; the
-plates are generally anonymous.</p>
-
-<p>William Daniell illustrated Ayrton’s <cite>Voyage Round Great
-Britain</cite> with beautiful coloured aquatints; it was published
-in 1825.</p>
-
-<p>There are many cases in which several kinds of work
-appear on the same plate; there may be aquatint and
-etching, mezzotint with etching, engraving or aquatint, so
-it is very important to be able to judge from the aspect of
-a line or dot or a point by which method it has been
-produced.</p>
-
-<p>The magnificent account of the <cite>Coronation of George IV.</cite>,
-published in 1825, under the care of Sir George Nayler,
-Garter King of Arms, is illustrated with mixed engravings,
-stipple, etching, line, aquatint and mezzotint, by S. W.
-Reynolds and other engravers, chiefly after designs by
-F. and J. Stephanoff. The plates are coloured by hand,
-and several of the special copies have much extra artistic
-work added. It is said to be the most expensive book ever
-published, and it never repaid its cost, but received a grant
-in aid from the Government of the day. The majority
-of the figures are careful portraits, and it is the highest
-authority for the State costume of the time.</p>
-
-<p>Lithography is the art of drawing upon stone in such a
-way that prints can be made from the drawing. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
-drawing has to be done upon a particular sort of stone
-either directly or by means of transfer from lithographic
-paper, and it can be done either with a point of solid lithographic
-ink resembling black chalk, or by a liquid ink, in
-which case the drawing is called a lithotint. J. M.
-Whistler was remarkably successful in this latter manner,
-but it had been used long before by Hullmandel and
-Cattermole.</p>
-
-<p>The discovery of lithography was due to the experiments of
-Aloys Senefelder, a native of Prague, who was born late in
-the eighteenth century. He accidentally found that some
-writing he had put on one of the stones he used for sharpening
-his tools upon came off easily on to paper or linen.
-Then he tried what effect acid would have, and found that
-it would eat away the stone wherever the ink did not prevent
-it, so he got a block in low relief. The protective ink
-is made essentially of wax, tallow, soap, shellac, and lamp
-black, and the acid renders this insoluble, so that when
-acid is applied to the stone the parts drawn upon remain
-unaffected. The drawing ink is now removed, and when
-printing ink is applied by means of a roller, it sticks only
-where the drawn lines are, and from this inked stone a
-print can be obtained.</p>
-
-<p>The surface of a lithograph is quite smooth, and the
-process will not help an artist in the least&mdash;as the drawing
-is so will the lithograph from it be; the only difference is in
-the power of reproduction.</p>
-
-<p>Senefelder was unfortunate; he introduced an art to the
-world which has been very largely followed, but his own
-efforts were failures from a business point of view. He
-came to London early in the nineteenth century, and his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
-methods soon found votaries, but he shortly returned to
-Munich, where his brother had assisted him in setting up a
-lithographic establishment, and this practically failing, it
-was taken over by the Bavarian Government and put
-under the management of H. J. Mitterer, a professor of
-drawing.</p>
-
-<p>But it was in France that lithography made most rapid
-progress. The clever French draughtsmen that happened to
-exist about that time very quickly mastered the process,
-and between them they established a school of lithography
-that is unequalled. Many of the greatest French artists
-worked in it, and some of them specialised in it.</p>
-
-<p>Lasteyrie introduced it, and it was quickly taken up by
-Horace Vernet, Pierre Guerin, Charlet, and many others
-for small book illustrations, and about 1830 there are large
-numbers of caricatures done in this quick and easy way.
-Then Gericault, Henri Monnier, Eugène Delacroix, and
-J. B. Isabey swelled the list of French lithographers, most of
-the book illustrations being of small size; and a little later
-there is notable work done by Honoré Daumier, Achille
-Deveria, Raffet, Jean Gigoux and Gavarni, several of them
-specialising in military subjects. Towards the end of the
-century we find a new set of artists, many of whom use
-colour as well as monotint, Fantin-Latour, Chéret, O.
-Redon, Gandara and Willett.</p>
-
-<p>The social side of French life is perhaps the most
-illustrated in lithography.</p>
-
-<p>In England lithography received its first impetus from
-Senefelder himself, who came and worked in London,
-where in 1819 his <cite>Complete Course of Lithography</cite> was
-published.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>C. J. Hullmandel and J. D. Harding were friends and
-co-workers in the new art, and they were both adepts at it;
-Hullmandel drew several of the beautiful plates of birds for
-John Gould, and they were afterwards coloured by hand.
-From the beginning colour has been much liked by English
-lithographers, either added by hand or produced by means
-of “chromo-lithography,” that is, several plates inked in
-different colours and then printed over each other on one
-piece of paper.</p>
-
-<p>Roberts’ <cite>Holy Land</cite> is magnificently illustrated with
-lithographic plates by Louis Haghe, a left-handed Belgian,
-who worked here, and these plates were afterwards coloured
-by hand. Clarkson Stanfield and Cattermole both worked
-in lithography, and Nash’s <cite>Mansions of England in the Olden
-Time</cite>, 1839-49, are familiar to most of us. Nash coloured
-several copies by hand.</p>
-
-<p>Owen Jones’ <cite>Plans of the Alhambra</cite>, published 1842-5,
-are excellent chromo-lithographs. In quite modern times
-the old tradition is worthily upheld by William Griggs,
-whose colour plates of <cite>Illuminated MSS. in the British
-Museum</cite> are in every way excellent&mdash;indeed, for truth and
-fidelity to their originals they have never been equalled.</p>
-
-<p>Munich was a sort of headquarters of lithography in the
-early part of the nineteenth century, when H. J. Mitterer
-succeeded to Senefelder’s establishment there. Among
-the first lithographers in Germany were J. M. Mittenleiter,
-who also invented the art of engraving on stone, and
-Joseph Hauber.</p>
-
-<p>Most of the German lithographers contented themselves
-with making copies of existing pictures, and one of the
-finest examples of this kind of lithography is to be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
-in the <cite>Gemälde Galerie des K. Museums in Berlin</cite>, published
-in 1842, and containing excellent work by Fr. Jentzen,
-C. Fischer, and others.</p>
-
-<p>Adolf Menzel did some notable lithographic work about
-the middle of the century, and Mouilleron, Eybl, and Ritter
-were all excellent workmen.</p>
-
-<p>Belgian lithographers have nearly always been very good;
-besides Haghe, who worked in England, there were, with
-others, Tuerlinckoe, Van der Meulen, and Van Loo.</p>
-
-<p>Although there have been lithographic workshops set up
-at Rome, Florence, Turin, Milan, and other towns, the art
-has never flourished much in Italy: it never appealed to
-the sensitive artistic Italian nature. Such examples as do
-exist are mostly portraits.</p>
-
-<p>Lithography has been popular in Spain, and Spanish
-artists have done excellent work in this manner.</p>
-
-<p>In 1824 J. de Madrazo published the most important
-Spanish work illustrated with photographs; it is called <cite>Collection
-lithographica de cuadros del Rey ... Fernando VII.,
-lithographiada por habiles artistas</cite>, among whom are named
-J. Jollivet, P. Blanchard and A. Guerrero. The work of all
-of these is excellent. Lithographic work in Spain, so far as
-books are concerned, has been mostly of an archæological
-character&mdash;views of old buildings or old pictures particularly.
-F. Goya, however, worked largely in this manner.</p>
-
-<p>All these methods of illustrating books worked by hand
-have now been superseded by one or other of the wonderful
-processes made possible by the invention of photography.
-Some of these are expensive, but generally they are cheap.</p>
-
-<p>The most elaborate, and when well done the most wonderful,
-of these processes is that known as heliogravure. By<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
-means of this method reproductions of line engravings can
-be made so perfectly that detection is almost impossible. A
-metal plate is so treated by help of a photographic negative
-that the lines of the engraving are deposited in an insoluble
-form upon the plate, which is otherwise clean, then a thin
-film of metal is deposited on all the clean places by means
-of electrotyping, so that when the lines are dissolved out,
-they are in intaglio, just as they were in the original
-engraved plate. From this artificial plate prints can be
-made as if from an engraved plate.</p>
-
-<p>For the mezzotint another method is adopted, known as
-photogravure, and this is also a wonderful invention. A
-metal plate is slightly roughed&mdash;if it could be more roughed
-it would be better&mdash;and then a photographic relief in gelatine
-is put upon it and etched. The result is a plate resembling
-a fine grain mezzotint, but the prints made from it are
-always deficient in the blacks. To remedy this and other
-defects which at present seem to be inherent, an engraver
-generally goes over the plate with roulette and burnisher.
-The Photogravure has ruined the Mezzotint. The coating
-of the copper-plates with steel largely adds to their life.</p>
-
-<p>Then we come to the wood engravings, which are all
-perfectly imitated by the zinc block, made directly from the
-original drawing, and set on a wood block so as to range
-exactly with type in height. Wash drawings are closely
-copied by the half-tone process, which is also used with
-blocks that can be printed with type. The drawing to be
-copied is photographed through a glass screen very finely
-etched with minute lines crossing each other, so that the picture
-is ultimately represented by a series of little squares,
-black or white according to the tones of the original. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
-whites are never quite satisfactory, the dots of the screen
-always show a little, so the dispossessed wood engraver has
-to be called in after all to touch them up with a graver. In
-America, where the half-tone process has reached a very
-high degree of excellence, the names of these helpful
-engravers are frequently added. A curious “shot-silk”
-effect is often seen in half-tone illustrations where the lines
-of the screen fall at a particular angle with the lines on the
-original. The same peculiarity sometimes shows in the
-ruled sky lines in the small nineteenth century line
-engravings.</p>
-
-<p>The three-colour process consists of half-tone blocks
-printed in colours one over the other, but although they
-look well they are not particularly true to their originals.
-The reason of this is that each block is a little wrongly inked,
-as the tint of the pigment put upon it depends entirely upon
-the printer. He has of course a carefully coloured key given
-him to match for each block, but he never quite succeeds in
-doing more than get near it. There are line keys and colour
-blocks, and half-tone and colour blocks, and many other
-varieties of combinations of processes.</p>
-
-<p>The half-tone process is certainly responsible for much
-charming and valuable work, but it has done one very
-great harm not only to itself but even to literature, it has
-been the chief cause of the introduction of clay-laden paper
-(see <a href="#Page_62">Chap. III.</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The beauty of photographic illustrations can be best
-seen in some of the recent French illustrated books in
-colour published by the Société des Amis des Livres.
-Other exquisite illustrations are to be found in Octave
-Uzanne’s books, many of them from the drawings of Paul<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
-Avril. The way in which many of these illustrations are
-made to show over the printed page is often quite
-charming.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Baer, L.</span>&mdash;Die Illustrirten Historienbücher des 15 Jahrhunderts.
-<em>Strassburg</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bayard, E.</span>&mdash;Illustrations et les Illustrateurs. <em>Paris</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Blackburn, H.</span>&mdash;The Art of Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1896-1901.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bonnet, G.</span>&mdash;Manuel de Phototypie. <em>Paris</em>, 1889.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bonnet, G.</span>&mdash;Manuel d’Héliogravure et de Photogravure en relief.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1890.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;Le Livre, L’Illustration. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;Les Livres a vignettes. <em>Paris.</em></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Brivois, J.</span>&mdash;Bibliographie des livres a gravures sur bois du XIX<sup>e</sup>
-siècle. <em>Paris</em>, 1883.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Brough, W. S.</span>&mdash;Book Illustration. <em>Leek</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bullock, J. M.</span>&mdash;Art of Extra Illustration. 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Crane, W.</span>&mdash;Of the Decorative Illustration of Books. <em>London</em>,
-1901.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Mezzotints. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dobson, A.</span>&mdash;(Chapter on Illustrated Books in Lang’s “The
-Library.”) <em>London</em>, 1881.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dobson, H. A.</span>&mdash;Bewick and his Pupils. <em>London</em>, 1884.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Duchochois, P. C.</span>&mdash;Photographic Reproduction Processes. <em>London</em>,
-1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Farquhar, H. D.</span>&mdash;Grammar of Photo-engraving. <em>London</em>, 1895.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gerring, C.</span>&mdash;Notes on Book Illustration. <em>Nottingham</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>&mdash;Traité de Gravure en demi-teint par l’invention du
-cliché photographique. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>&mdash;Traité de Gravure et impression sur zinc. <em>Paris</em>, 1887.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>&mdash;Traité de Photogravure. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Geymet, T.</span>&mdash;Traité de Photo-lithographie. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Grolier Club</span>, New York.&mdash;Catalogue of Engraved Titles and
-Frontispieces published in England during the sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries. <em>New York</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hardie, M.</span>&mdash;English Coloured Books. <em>London</em>, 1906.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Henrich, M.</span>&mdash;Iconographie de las ediciones del Quijote de M. de
-Cervantes Saavedra. <em>Barcelona</em>, 1905.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hinton, A. H.</span>&mdash;Handbook of Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1895-1905.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hodson, J. S.</span>&mdash;Guide to Art Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1884.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Huson, T.</span>&mdash;Photo-Aquatint. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Jackson, J. B.</span>&mdash;An essay on engraving in Chiaro Oscuro. <em>London</em>,
-1754.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Kirkbridge, J.</span>&mdash;Engraving for Illustrations. <em>London</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Kristeller, P.</span>&mdash;Early Florentine Woodcuts. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Kristeller, P.</span>&mdash;Die Strassburgher Bucher-illustration im XV. und
-XVI. Jahrhunderts. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lietze, E.</span>&mdash;Modern Heliographic Processes. <em>New York</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Linton, W. J.</span>&mdash;The Masters of Wood Engraving. <em>New Haven,
-Conn.</em>, 1889.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Linton, W. J.</span>&mdash;Wood Engraving in America. <em>London</em>, 1881.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Madrazo, J. de.</span>&mdash;Collection lithografica cuadros del Rey ...
-Fernando VII. 1824.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Martineau, R.</span>&mdash;The Mainz Psalter of 1457 (Bibliographica, Vol. I.).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Massena, A. P. V.</span>&mdash;Etudes sur l’art de la gravure sur bois a
-Venise. <em>Paris</em>, 1895-6.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Morin, L.</span>&mdash;French Illustrators. <em>New York</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Muther, R.</span>&mdash;Die deutsche Bücherillustration. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1884.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Papillon, J. B. M.</span>&mdash;Traité de la gravure en bois. <em>Paris</em>, 1766.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pennell, J.</span>&mdash;The Illustration of Books. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pennell, J.</span>&mdash;Modern Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1895.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pennell, J.</span>, and E. R.&mdash;Lithography and Lithographers. <em>London</em>,
-1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pingrenon, R.</span>&mdash;Les livres ornés et illustrés en couleur depuis le
-XV<sup>e</sup> Siècle en France et en Angleterre.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollard, A. W.</span>&mdash;Early Illustrated Books. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollard, A. W.</span>&mdash;Italian Book Illustrations. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Roux, V.</span>&mdash;Traité de gravure héliographique en taille douce.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Schnauss, J.</span>&mdash;Collotype and Photo-lithography. <em>London</em>, 1889.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Senefelder.</span>&mdash;Complete Course of Lithography. <em>London</em>, 1879.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Singer, H. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Strang, W.</span>&mdash;Etching, Engraving, etc.
-<em>London</em>, 1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sketchley, R. E. D.</span>&mdash;English Book Illustration of To-day.
-<em>London</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Smith, F. H.</span>&mdash;American Illustrators. <em>New York</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Strange, E. F.</span>&mdash;Japanese Illustration. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Verfasser, J.</span>&mdash;The Half-tone Process. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vidal, L.</span>&mdash;Traité Pratique de Photo-lithographie. <em>Paris</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Villon, A. M.</span>&mdash;Traité Pratique de Photogravure. <em>Paris</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">White, J. W. G.</span>&mdash;English Illustration, “The Sixties.” <em>Westminster</em>,
-1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wiesbach, W.</span>&mdash;Die Baseler Buchillustration des XV. Jahrhunderts.
-<em>Leipzig</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wilkinson, W. T.</span>&mdash;Photo-mechanical Processes. <em>London</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wood, H. T.</span>&mdash;Modern Methods of Illustrating Books. <em>London</em>,
-1887.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER VI.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">MISCELLANEA.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Book edges and their decoration&mdash;Embroidered books&mdash;Cloth bindings&mdash;Account
-books&mdash;End papers&mdash;Small metal-bound books&mdash;Books
-bound in tortoiseshell&mdash;Chained books&mdash;Horn books.</p>
-
-<p>The projecting bosses and corners which occur in
-mediæval bindings were to protect them against the friction
-of other books which lay upon them, a thin piece of wood
-dividing them. The books were piled upon each other,
-so that if one of the lower ones was wanted it was necessary
-to remove the upper ones. This caused much trouble, so
-that in due time it was found better to stand the books up
-on end on shelves.</p>
-
-<p>The prone position is, however, the better one for the
-book, and the respective levels of the edges of the book and
-the edges of the boards are designed for this position.
-When the books were set up on end, the discrepancy
-between the levels of the book edges and the board edges
-was never rectified, and the result is that a large amount of
-damage has been done. When a large book is set up on
-end, the weight of it rests entirely upon the lower edges of
-the boards, and the lower edges of the book itself are up in
-the air above the shelf by so much as the projection of the
-edges of the boards beyond them. The result is that the
-whole of the weight of the vellum or paper of the book
-pulls upon the bands of the back in their weakest direction,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
-from within and more particularly from the top, thereby
-pulling the back inwards. The mass of the book falls
-forward slantingly, until the lower edge of the front of it
-rests upon the shelf.</p>
-
-<p>It is difficult to describe, but my sketch will show what I
-mean, and the truth of it can be easily seen in almost any
-library of old books that are kept “on end”; the edges will
-be found grubby from resting on the shelf, and the top
-of the back will be found pulled
-forward.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 175px;">
-<img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="175" height="224" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;Inside of
-heavy book fallen
-forward, by
-reason of being
-kept upright.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Valuable books that are kept upright
-should have the edges of the boards level
-with the edges of the leaves, and then
-this disastrous pull would not occur.</p>
-
-<p>A remedy, however, may be found by
-means of a piece of wood cut the same
-size as the lower edge of the book so as
-to fit closely into the hollow between the
-outer edges of the boards and the lower
-edges of the leaves. Such a slip will
-neutralise the drop of the leaves, and preserve the proper
-form of the backs of heavy books.</p>
-
-<p>But before the upright position was finally adopted for
-books, and their titles were put on their backs, the front
-edge or “forage” of the leaves was always kept outwards,
-in view, and on this space or long panel all sorts of devices
-and letterings were put.</p>
-
-<p>Leaves of a book, pressed tightly together, provided too
-tempting a space to be ignored, to say nothing of the
-usefulness of giving the name or title of the book, or the
-device of its owner, or even a decorative design. So on fine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
-mediæval books and also on later books, following the earlier
-manner in their own way, we find all sorts of designs on
-book edges. It is not a subject which has attracted much
-attention as yet, but it probably will in time, and there is
-already enough known about it to show that much valuable
-knowledge is lying hidden up in it. For instance, if a
-book, otherwise likely, has the words “Rex in Æternum
-Vive” painted in gold on the edges, it is a positive sign
-that it issued from the workshop of Thomas Berthelet,
-printer and binder to Henry VIII.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="600" height="269" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;Forage decoration in colour. Tenth century.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Edge decoration of some sort seems to have been done
-from the tenth century onwards; at first elementary or
-symbolical designs were simply painted upon the edges, and
-not counting the mere book titles or press marks, it may be
-said that since the fourteenth century heraldry has played
-a very important part in edge decoration. In England this
-form of adornment for a bound book has been largely
-followed from that time, and there are fine examples of it
-in books bound for Henry VII. and the other of our Tudor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
-sovereigns, as well as for private persons of the same period.
-The edges are treated as panels and the painting done
-upon them when pressed firmly and solidly together. The
-edges are generally coloured some neutral colour as a
-groundwork and sometimes lettering in gold is done upon
-them.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_144.jpg" width="600" height="176" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;Italian forage decoration in gold and colour (1560).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Henry VIII. often had the legend “<span class="smcap">Rex in Æternum
-Vive Nez</span>” written in gold on the cream coloured edges
-of his books, and all that are so lettered are attributed to
-Thomas Berthelet as binder. The “Nez” is rather a
-puzzle, and it was suggested by Mr. J. L. Scott, of the
-British Museum, that it stands for the three initial letters
-of the phrase in the Book of Daniel, <a id="Ref_144"></a>Ναβουχοδονὀσωρ Εσαει
-ζῆθι&mdash;a quite possible solution.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 184px;">
-<img src="images/i_145.jpg" width="184" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;German forage decoration
-in gold and colour.
-The arms of Nuremberg
-(1566).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Queen Anne Boleyn’s copy of the New Testament has her
-name, “<span class="smcap">Anna Regina Angliæ</span>,” written in red upon its
-gilt edges.</p>
-
-<p>For Queen Elizabeth, book edges were usually gilded, and
-on this gilding designs were impressed with ordinary
-binding tools. This is the commonest form of edge
-decoration, and is called “gauffring.” Gauffred edges
-are found in abundance in French, German and Italian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
-work. There are fine examples
-of it on books bound for Henri
-II. of France and all his children,
-and on those made for
-Diane de Poictiers, Duchesse
-de Valentinois. In all these
-cases colour is often added to
-the designs on the gold. Le
-Gascon put some elaborately
-painted edges on some of his
-hooks; on Italian books and
-English books colour is sparingly
-used; on the other hand,
-in Germany and the Low
-Countries colour was often
-overdone and the result is
-garish.</p>
-
-<p>Until the time of Samuel
-Mearne, towards the end of the
-seventeenth century, all edge
-paintings were done on the
-edges of the leaves simply
-pressed solidly together, but
-Mearne invented a new fashion
-of arranging the leaves. In
-the case of the older manner
-we usually find the upper and
-lower edges painted as well as
-the fore-edge, or “forage,” but
-it is only the forage that can
-be painted in Mearne’s style,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
-and so in all instances of this kind the upper and lower
-edges are left plain.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_146.jpg" width="600" height="238" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;Book fanned out to show forage painting in Mearne’s style.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Mearne had his book forwarded, finished, and the edges
-gilded before beginning his painting. Then he opened the
-book by the upper board only, and laid it down flat on its
-back and kept it in that position by weights. In this
-position it will be found that the forage fans out into a
-larger panel than exists when the book is shut up. On
-this fanned-out panel the painting was done in water-colours
-with as dry a brush as possible. When the
-painting was finished and the book allowed to resume its
-normal shut position, the edge painting entirely disappeared,
-and the gilding on the forage looked as if nothing was
-behind it. So thoroughly does such a painting disappear
-that I have found several that were quite unknown to their
-owners, and I have no doubt that there are plenty of
-unrecognised examples in English private libraries in
-perfect condition and safe obscurity.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;">
-<img src="images/i_147.jpg" width="182" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;Portrait of
-Charles II. in colour,
-on the forage of a
-book bound for the
-king by Samuel
-Mearne.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The only name I have found on any of Mearne’s forage
-paintings is that of “Fletcher.”</p>
-
-<p>After Mearne, for about one hundred years, I know of no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
-particular development of forage
-decoration, but towards the end of the
-eighteenth century, the same principle
-was revived by James Edwards of
-Halifax. Edwards had an artist
-brother, and it is likely enough that
-he painted the edges on his brother’s
-curious vellum-bound books. The
-designs are not so markedly heraldic
-as the earlier examples were, but are
-often biblical.</p>
-
-<p>Edwards’ delicate paintings, always
-on small books, were copied for some
-considerable period, and many little
-books were made with such work upon
-them for many years. Windsor and
-Eton are both favourite subjects, and
-country houses of all sorts. Landscapes
-are particularly suitable for
-this form of painting, and many specimens
-are very pleasing.</p>
-
-<p>All the foregoing paintings are done
-so as to be complete on each book, but
-some time ago a remarkable set of
-Italian books, I believe of the sixteenth
-century, were brought to England.
-The forages of these volumes
-were painted in such a manner that
-the complete design only showed when they were all
-arranged in proper order on a shelf with their forages outwards.
-In the case of sets of books bound uniformly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
-this manner of ornamenting them is worthy of the attention
-of some of our enterprising modern binders.</p>
-
-<p>Although the greater number of books, both in manuscript
-and printed, have been bound in leather or vellum, there
-are still very many that have been covered in other
-materials.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_148.jpg" width="600" height="646" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;English velvet binding, with seals, made for
-Henry VII.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The commonest of these materials are velvet, canvas,
-satin, silk, cloth, linen, and buckram. I believe that all of
-these, except perhaps the last three in recent times, have
-been more used in England than they have been in any
-other country.</p>
-
-<p>Velvet is the most interesting, as its use is the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
-ancient, of any of these textile materials. It is strong
-and beautiful, the fur or pile being produced in a very
-curious manner. Two warps are used in the manufacture
-of the fabric, and small hollow brass wires, slightly flattened
-at the sides, and having a groove along the top, are inserted
-transversely under the raised “pile” warp at intervals as
-the weaving proceeds. These wires keep the thread in the
-form of upright loops, resembling those which can be seen
-on a Brussels carpet on a larger scale. The wires are then
-cut out by drawing a sharp specially-designed knife called
-a truvat along the groove at the top. The consequent
-separation of the warp threads which formed the rows of
-loops now forms the pile, each thread standing upright.
-It is wonderful how well velvet lasts, and what hard wear
-it will stand before all the pile is worn away.</p>
-
-<p>Books bound in velvet are not uncommon in Dutch work;
-they are sometimes inlaid in differently coloured velvets,
-and sometimes embroidered. In France books have rarely
-been bound in velvet, in Italy and in Germany still more
-rarely.</p>
-
-<p>In England, however, there has been a considerable output
-of velvet bindings. Examples still exist that were made
-in the fifteenth century for Henry VII., whose library was
-in all probability entirely bound in this material. Nothing
-earlier than Henry VII.’s books are now known of English
-bindings in velvet, but these are so fine that it is likely
-enough that earlier work of the kind was done in the case
-of very choice manuscripts.</p>
-
-<p>Not only are Henry VII.’s books, which are still in their
-original covers, in marvellously good condition, but they
-are also among the most decorative bindings that have ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
-been made, here or in any other country. Fine examples
-may be seen in the library at Westminster Abbey, at the
-Record Office, and in the British Museum, and in every case
-their beauty and interest well repay the trouble of obtaining
-access to them.</p>
-
-<p>These volumes
-all are in the same
-style, but they vary
-in detail. All I have
-seen are in red
-velvet, and have
-metal bosses in the
-centre and smaller
-ones in the corner.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_150.jpg" width="400" height="541" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>&mdash;English embroidered book, velvet.
-Made for Henry VIII.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the handsomest,
-which may
-be taken as a type,
-is a copy of the
-indentures made
-between Abbot Islip
-and Henry VII. for
-the foundation of
-the chantry at Westminster.
-It is a
-large manuscript on vellum, and is covered in rich red
-velvet projecting liberally over the edges, and bound
-with gold fringe. In the centre is a circular silver cup-like
-boss, containing the royal coat of arms, France and England
-quarterly, with supporters of red dragon of Cadwallader
-and white greyhound of De Beaufort, cut out of silver and
-enamelled in proper colours. At each corner is a circular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
-silver boss containing the De Beaufort device of a portcullis
-gilt and cut in low relief, and set on an enamelled background
-of the Tudor livery colours, green and white, per
-pale. There are clasps of cloth of gold braid, fastening with
-a chased silver-gilt button bearing an enamelled rose, and
-dependent from the lower edge of the board are five silver
-boxes bearing Tudor emblems in relief, each containing an
-impression of the great seal.</p>
-
-<p>It is also recorded by Paul Hentzner that in 1598 he saw
-Queen Elizabeth’s library, and that many of them were
-bound in velvet and embroidered, a note that is fully corroborated
-by such of her books as now remain.</p>
-
-<p>But there were also books embroidered upon canvas in the
-fifteenth century, one of which is now in the British Museum.
-It is a psalter of the fourteenth century, and is covered in
-fine canvas on which are delicate embroideries in the manner
-known as “Opus Anglicanum,” which looks like a chain
-stitch, but is really a cleverly managed split stitch.</p>
-
-<p>This remarkable book, the earliest known example of an
-embroidered binding, has upon one side a beautiful representation
-of the Annunciation, and on the other a Crucifixion.
-It is supposed to have been worked by Anne de
-Felbrigge, a nun in the convent of Minoresses, at Brusyard,
-in Suffolk, and daughter of Sir Simon de Felbrigge, K.G.,
-standard bearer to Richard II. It is considerably worn and
-faded, but the designs can all be made out.</p>
-
-<p>The velvet books which were made in the next reign
-were ornamented with embroidered designs appliqués, and
-many of them are very handsome. The designs on such
-books were nearly always heraldic, judging from those
-that remain, but arabesques and floral ornamentation are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
-often met with on satin. Queen Katharine Parr is said to
-have embroidered some of these books, and there is one in
-canvas in the British Museum, and one in canvas and one
-in velvet at the Bodleian, which are supposed to have been
-worked by the Princess Elizabeth, always with braid.</p>
-
-<p>When Elizabeth came to the throne she continued her
-evident liking for velvet bound
-books, and she had them of
-several colours&mdash;red, green, or
-black. Several of these are
-richly embroidered, sometimes
-with armorial designs, sometimes
-floral, and sometimes
-arabesque. Others are decorated
-with brilliant enamels or
-gold, centrepieces, cornerpieces,
-and clasps, and others again
-have appliqué pieces of coloured
-satin, on which is gold tooling,
-some of which is actually put
-on the velvet itself.</p>
-
-<p>Canvas is rarely found
-during Elizabeth’s reign, but
-it does exist, and is usually embroidered in a coarse manner
-with tent-stitch.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_152.jpg" width="275" height="406" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>&mdash;English embroidered
-book, canvas (1648).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the seventeenth century the taste for velvet bindings
-still remained, but not so exclusively, as there were many
-more bound in silk or satin, usually white. The majority
-of these books are small, Prayers, Bibles, Psalms, and the
-designs upon them are of great variety, but generally have
-a symbolic tendency&mdash;figures of Faith, Hope, Charity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
-Peace, Plenty, and numbers of biblical subjects, David and
-Bathsheba, Solomon and Queen of Sheba, Jacob’s Dream,
-Jacob wrestling with the Angel, Abraham and Isaac, and
-many more; and besides these there are numbers of quaint
-little bindings with floral designs.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_153.jpg" width="400" height="437" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>&mdash;English embroidered “double”
-book, satin, seventeenth century.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The period of Nicholas Ferrar’s curious establishment
-at Little Gidding
-in Huntingdonshire
-was coincident
-with the reign of
-Charles I. Here
-were contrived most
-interesting Harmonies
-of the Scriptures,
-done under
-Ferrar’s superintendence
-by his nieces
-Mary Collet and her
-sisters. These ladies,
-moreover, bound the
-Harmonies themselves,
-and were not
-only the first English
-lady binders but also the first amateur binders, and they
-bound exceedingly well. Mrs. Wordsworth was another
-pioneer among lady binders. She covered her books in
-pieces of her own old dresses.</p>
-
-<p>Not only did the ladies of Little Gidding bind their
-Harmonies, sometimes very large, in sheep skin, morocco
-and calf, but also in velvet, curiously ornamented. I have
-already mentioned that in the sixteenth century the art of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
-gilding upon velvet was known, but it was reserved for the
-ladies of Little Gidding to bring it to perfection.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_154.jpg" width="400" height="487" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>&mdash;English, embroidered binding
-canvas, seventeenth century.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There will always be some little doubt as to whether
-these magnificent gold and silver tooled velvet books were
-done entirely by the binders at Little Gidding, or with the
-assistance of their
-masters, Bucks of Cambridge.
-There is a
-marked similarity of
-general style as well as
-of detail, but the larger
-Little Gidding books
-appear particularly to
-bear the impress of
-more irresponsible
-genius than that of the
-orthodox university
-printers.</p>
-
-<p>Gilding upon velvet
-is still practised a little
-in England; the service
-books used at the
-wedding of the present
-Prince of Wales were in
-red velvet with the royal monogram impressed in gold upon it.</p>
-
-<p>With the eighteenth century an end came to any great
-output of bindings in velvet, canvas or satin; now and then
-an isolated specimen is found, and the era of cloth bindings
-began in the nineteenth century.</p>
-
-<p>The main difference is that the earlier books in velvet,
-canvas or satin were always specially broad, but the cloth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
-bindings were trade bindings from the beginning, with
-very few exceptions.</p>
-
-<p>At first backs of paper bound books were strengthened
-by pieces of ordinary linen or calico pasted over them, the
-title being added on a label; but a special cloth for binding
-purposes was made early in the century by James Leonard
-Wilson, and in 1822 Pickering’s Aldine Classics bound in
-that material were issued. This use of a special cloth was
-largely helped and fostered by Mr. Archibald Leighton, who
-made a speciality of it. The cloth was sometimes watered
-and sometimes plain. Cloth soon became a favourite
-binding for cheap books, and in time Wilson found a way
-of gilding upon it, probably by the use of dried and
-powdered albumen.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the early cloth bindings were ornamented by
-impressions from engraved cylinders, the pattern showing
-in low relief. The great pressure which was used to make
-this impression had so hardened the cloth as well as the
-boards upon which it is fixed, that many of the existing
-examples of the work are still in perfect condition.</p>
-
-<p>Then gradually came ornamentation stamped in gold on
-the sides and gold lettering on the back, and of recent years
-designs and pictures stamped in colours upon cloth, canvas
-and buckram have become common. Many of these
-designs are excellent, and the work required for them gives
-employment to a large number of designers as well as
-colour printers and block makers. Books bound in these
-materials look well and last well for a time, but they are
-essentially short-lived if handled much.</p>
-
-<p>About the middle of the nineteenth century numbers of
-small illustrated periodicals, landscape annuals, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
-like were covered in watered silk, generally red, blue or
-green. These also do not last well; but if any copies that
-are still in a good state are found, they should be carefully
-preserved as they are, and not be rebound; they represent a
-type of binding that is by no means without charm.
-Perhaps the most important books which were originally
-issued in this form of cover were the two beautiful volumes
-of Rogers’ <cite>Poems</cite> and <cite>Italy</cite>. They have gilt edges and are
-bound with flat open backs and sawn in bands.</p>
-
-<p>Buckram is generally used for large books, as it is stiff
-and troublesome to fold over in a small way. If a large
-book is properly sewn and has proper boards it may well
-be covered in buckram, provided it is not to be much
-used. The joints soon look unsightly, as the hinge
-movement causes the dressing, of which there is a large
-proportion, to powder out. Buckram is rarely ornamented;
-indeed, it may almost be said that a book bound in it is only
-intended to keep together until such time as it can be
-properly bound in some better material.</p>
-
-<p>Art canvas is sometimes used for bindings, and it is fairly
-satisfactory, but has the same delicacy at the joints as
-buckram, and soon looks shabby.</p>
-
-<p>There is now such a quantity of cheap literature that is
-not likely to last, or to be wanted to last, that there is a
-large and increasing demand for cheap binding materials
-other than leather. So there is an important future for
-specially prepared binding cloths and buckrams. The only
-libraries that are likely to suffer by the more general introduction
-of such materials are the few large ones that are
-obliged to keep all their books, old or new, in working order
-inside and outside.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Account book bindings are peculiar and very strong.
-They have been used for a long time in banks and business
-houses, and are purely utilitarian and comparatively quite
-modern.</p>
-
-<p>Strong sound paper is an essential for account books.
-The sewing is done in the flexible style, but on broad flat
-bands of vellum or leather instead of raised bands of hemp.
-The ends of the bands are fixed between two boards, pairs
-of which form the boards of the book. The space between
-the edge of the back of the book where the bands leave it
-and their inset to the boards is not drawn close, but a
-narrow margin is left so that a perfectly flexible and strong
-leather joint is left. In small books this peculiarity is
-known as a French joint, and it obviates the common
-failing of sides falling away from otherwise sound bindings
-along the joint-line at the back.</p>
-
-<p>The back of account book bindings looks very strong, but
-it is really nothing of the sort. It is only a show back, to
-take the lettering and cover up the real joints, which are
-securely laid along the edges of the boards.</p>
-
-<p>When an account book is opened it “sets up” so that
-it can be easily read right down to the sewing at the back.
-This is of great value in many cases other than the keeping
-of accounts, and it is the only advantage of the common,
-but weak, bindings with “hollow” backs. But there is no
-doubt that a modified form of account book binding, with a
-French joint, is a style which might with advantage be
-studied by our modern art binders.</p>
-
-<p>The study of end papers is to some extent necessary for
-the true judgment of the work of certain binders. For
-instance, Thomas Berthelet normally used white end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
-papers, Samuel Mearne used red marbled end papers, and
-Roger Payne used purple or pink end papers. The Italian
-binder who worked for Grolier used vellum for end
-paper, and so on. The knowledge of such details is useful
-in detecting frauds, as they are apt to be under-estimated
-in importance by a forger.</p>
-
-<p>Of all end papers the most common is marbled paper,
-and one of the most curious usages of it is when a beautiful
-and delicate French binding has a charmingly gold tooled
-doublure of splendid leather faced by a wretched leaf of
-marbled paper.</p>
-
-<p>The usual marbled paper is made by means of a bed of
-size on which colour is sprinkled by a brush, the colour
-lies on the top of the size and is moved about by means of
-a wide-toothed comb or a pin or anything that is handy,
-until the resulting pattern is to the satisfaction of the
-operator. Then the paper is laid down in the size, and
-when raised up it brings all the colour with it. It is
-generally easy to see how the pattern has been made by
-looking at the paper, and it will be found that the most
-usual forms have been made by the use of a broad-toothed
-comb. I should think that the process might well have
-produced something better than it ever has; undoubtedly
-if J. M. Whistler had ever known of it we should have had
-some remarkable results.</p>
-
-<p>Marbling is probably of Oriental origin, and was most
-likely first practised in Germany, so far as Europe is concerned.
-It was certainly understood in Nuremberg in
-1599, as specimens made there are to be seen in the
-<cite>Album Amicorum</cite>, of J. Cellarius, of that date. It is,
-of course, obviously capable of endless modifications, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
-of late years some very delicately and prettily coloured end
-papers have been made.</p>
-
-<p>More or less in continuation of the mediæval fashion
-of covering book-bindings with richly-worked metal
-overlays, we find, in the seventeenth and eighteenth
-centuries particularly, numbers of small books bound in
-metal or with metal enrichments in the form of centrepieces
-and cornerpieces. Clasps occur all along, and although I
-hardly think that they have followed out any very marked
-line of development, I expect
-that some day a careful study
-will be made of them, when
-some such development may
-possibly be discovered. No
-student, as far as I am aware,
-has made any attempt to
-classify book clasps.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="275" height="259" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>&mdash;English golden book,
-made for Henry VIII.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>But the English, German,
-French, Italian, and Dutch
-bindings with metal enrichments
-are pretty well known
-and generally admired. The English are the finest by
-far, and, as far as I can ascertain, the earliest. In the
-reign of Henry VIII. it was the fashion for ladies to
-carry small books of devotion at their girdle. These
-little books were always ornamental, and they had a ring
-fixed on the lower edge of the binding so that when the
-book was lifted up it came right for reading. One of
-these belonged to one of the queens of Henry VIII.; it
-is a copy of the Psalms, and is bound in gold with a
-delicate leafy spray in high relief. On it are remains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
-of enamel, and in the beginning is a tiny miniature of
-the king.</p>
-
-<p>Another beautiful little golden book with a design, probably
-by Holbein, in black enamel, is now the property of
-Lord Romney.</p>
-
-<p>Several small golden bindings with scriptural subjects in
-high relief and enamelled were made late in the sixteenth
-century. Most of these are now divorced from their
-original texts, and are only kept as specimens of enamel
-work, but in one instance the whole book is perfect. This
-is a little book of prayers that belonged to Queen Elizabeth.
-On one side of it is the Serpent in the Wilderness and on
-the other the Judgment of Solomon.</p>
-
-<p>For the same queen a little copy of <cite>Christian Meditations</cite>
-was bound in red velvet with golden centrepieces,
-corners, and clasps. The enamels in this case are champlevé,
-and still perfect in colour. They are said to have
-been the work of George Heriot, Elizabeth’s goldsmith, who
-founded a hospital in Edinburgh.</p>
-
-<p>James VI. of Scotland wrote the <a id="Ref_180"></a>βασιλικον Δωρον
-for his son Henry, and the precious MS. was bound in
-purple velvet with golden centrepiece and clasps. The
-gold is cut out thin and then finished by engraving. When
-king of England James had some of his books bound in
-velvet with silver enrichments. On one of these, a little
-book of <cite>Christian Meditations</cite>, which is bound in purple
-velvet, the royal coat-of-arms is engraved on the centre
-oval, and on the corners are the national crests of England
-and Scotland, the crowned harp of Ireland, and the
-fleur-de-lis of France.</p>
-
-<p>A beautiful little New Testament of 1643 with silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
-portraits of Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, and
-cornerpieces and clasps engraved with allegorical figures,
-shows that metal on velvet was still a popular style, but
-on later bindings in England metal centrepieces fell quite
-out of use. Metal corners, however, were still used for some
-time, and clasps occasionally.</p>
-
-<p>Bindings entirely of silver are rare in English workmanship,
-but they were not unknown, as a fine specimen with
-a repoussé figure of Charity covers a
-Common Prayer of 1632.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="200" height="252" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>&mdash;German
-binding in silver
-filigree and niello.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of German and Dutch workmanship
-many metal bindings exist, and
-they are of varied styles. All these
-bindings have solid metal backs with
-hinges along the sides, and usually a
-sort of cap projecting over the headband.
-Many of the later examples are
-not good, but are made of bad metal
-and coarsely worked in repoussé. The
-worst of them are probably Dutch work.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the earlier German silver bindings are prettily
-ornamented with niello work, and others have filigree work
-over gilt metal, and the use of tortoiseshell with silver or
-gilt mounts is also found of Spanish, German, or Dutch
-workmanship. I should say that the best guide to determine
-to which of these countries the work belongs is to
-take the place of imprint as authoritative. The imprint
-on a printed book does not by any means always imply
-that a binding was made there, but in many doubtful cases
-it is undoubtedly of much value as to mere nationality;
-the style of the binding itself should always be the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
-consideration. Some Dutch bindings are made in base
-metal, gilt, often with open work and engraving. They
-are neither good to look upon nor pleasant to handle.</p>
-
-<p>Italian bindings in metal are rare, and it is only in the
-case of very small books that it was ever used. The
-manner of this is usually fine filigree work over a gilt
-groundwork. There is one example in the Victoria and
-Albert Museum, which is, however, more likely to be quite
-an exceptional production than one in
-any way representing a national type.
-It is an exquisitely enamelled golden
-book cover, having on one side the
-Garden of Eden and on the other the
-Fountain of Youth; it contains a
-missal, and is said to have been made
-for Queen Henrietta Maria.</p>
-
-<p>In France a few silver bindings of
-the sixteenth century with enamels
-have been made, but they are very
-rare, and the enamels of the basse
-taille style, usually badly chipped.</p>
-
-<p>I believe some small metal bindings
-with rough enamels upon them have been made in comparatively
-modern times in Russia. These all have a strong
-Byzantine feeling and are clear survivals of the same style
-that was in vogue in Russia in mediæval times, and was
-used not only for bindings but also for ikons and triptychs.
-The work is coarse and unsatisfactory.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="200" height="273" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>&mdash;Dutch binding
-in tortoiseshell and
-silver.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Tortoiseshell mounted in metal has been largely used for
-bindings in Holland, Germany, and Spain. The backs are
-hinged to the sides with long snuff-box hinges, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
-shell itself is sometimes beautifully inlaid with silver and
-mother-of-pearl. Some of these covers are very small,
-particularly the Dutch ones, and designs are sometimes
-impressed upon them.</p>
-
-<p>Mother-of-pearl has now and then been utilised for
-binding very small books. The backs and hinges are
-usually of silver.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_163.jpg" width="200" height="259" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>&mdash;German chained
-book, fifteenth century.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The curious custom of fastening books to their shelves
-by means of chains was common enough in Europe in
-mediæval times and became almost
-universal in the sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries in churches. It
-was of course done as a safeguard
-against thieves, and as far as I
-know only in the case of printed
-books. Although printed books
-soon became plentiful, yet no doubt
-in the case of Bibles and Prayer
-Books it is likely enough that a
-considerable leakage took place.
-Such small books were commonly
-chained to the backs of the pews
-in private chapels throughout England, and undoubtedly
-the custom, though inconvenient in use, was effective
-enough for its purpose.</p>
-
-<p>Larger books would naturally belong to important
-libraries, those of cathedrals and churches particularly,
-and of these there are still left plenty of examples still in
-chains.</p>
-
-<p>The chains are of iron, average 3 feet long, and are
-clamped to the front edge of the upper board by means of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
-a rivet; the other end of the chain is provided with a ring
-which runs freely to and fro along a locked metal rod.
-Enough play is given by the chain to allow of the book
-being taken off its shelf and rested on the desk close at
-hand which is always provided for it.</p>
-
-<p>There is a certain fashion in the way of attaching these
-chains. In foreign books the fastening is usually found at
-the top of the upper board, while in the case of English books
-it is usually fixed on the front edge of the upper board.
-The books were normally kept with their forages outwards,
-and on these edges the titles were written or emblazoned.</p>
-
-<p>The Laurentian Library at Florence has a large number
-of chained books kept in beautifully carved shelves.</p>
-
-<p>The Church of St. Wallberg in Zutphen has several
-chained books. There is a legend that the devil carried off
-so many of the holy books that something had to be done,
-so the chains were blessed in due form with holy water,
-since when the books have been safely preserved.</p>
-
-<p>Plenty of examples of chained libraries are still left in
-England, particularly at Hereford Cathedral, the old
-treasure house at Wimborne Minster and All Saints’ Church
-at Hereford; a complete list of them is given in Blades’
-“Books in Chains,” published in London in 1892.</p>
-
-<p>The inconvenience of chains must have been considerable,
-and no doubt careless readers often got into trouble about
-them. On a notice concerning the library at King’s College,
-Cambridge, in 1683, readers are requested to replace the
-volumes “decently without entangling the chains.”</p>
-
-<p>About the middle of the eighteenth century the inconvenience
-of chains on books was fully realised, and from
-that time there has been a general tendency to their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
-removal, except in cases where their retention is advisable
-for antiquarian reasons.</p>
-
-<p>True horn books were used in England and America,
-but similar constructions also existed in other countries&mdash;chiefly
-France, Germany, Italy,
-and Holland&mdash;but without horn
-covering.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="275" height="508" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>&mdash;English seventeenth
-century horn book.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>They were for children’s use,
-and the alphabet and the Lord’s
-Prayer are the commonest letterings
-upon them, always beginning
-with a cross, giving the first
-line the name of the “Christ
-cross” or “criss cross” row.
-The paper for true horn books is
-printed only on one side, and
-then laid down upon a flat piece
-of wood. Some unused eighteenth
-century horn book sheets
-are preserved in the Bagford
-fragments at the British Museum.
-Over the printed slip a piece of
-horn is put, kept in place by strips of brass fastened with
-nails having facetted tops, but it must be noted that after
-about 1820 the facetted tops were often replaced by
-flat heads.</p>
-
-<p>Like all books or objects which were originally cheap and
-common, horn books are now very rare, but they are so
-valuable that it is unluckily worth while to imitate them,
-and many fraudulent modern specimens are about. A horn
-book is, unfortunately, easy to copy, and it is sometimes a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
-very difficult thing to say positively whether a given
-specimen is genuinely old or not. Modern frauds are often
-wrong in either the printing, the paper, the horn, or the
-nails, but they are often right as to the wood, which is
-easily made to have every proper appearance of age by
-means of soaking in water, rubbing with sand, staining by
-ammonia, and so on. Collectors should, if possible, get a
-properly authenticated history with every specimen offered
-to them.</p>
-
-<p>Small plaques for teaching the alphabet seem to have
-existed before the invention of printing, but in printed form
-they were most used towards the end of the sixteenth
-century until the nineteenth, when their character altered,
-the wooden frame and its horn covering disappeared, and
-a degenerate production in varnished cardboard, preserving
-the old form in some respects, took their place. These
-cards are often called battledores, but this name was an
-old one, and originally used for true horn books. The
-name battledore is probably derived from the batlet, which
-was used for beating clothes, the horn books somewhat
-resembling this in shape.</p>
-
-<p>Although the general run of horn books are simple, there
-are many instances in which they have been decorated; a
-certain analogy thus exists between the diptychs and the
-horn books. Lord Egerton of Tatton has a beautiful sixteenth
-century example, the back of which is ornamented
-with silver filigree work, and horn books backed with Dutch
-silver, engraved, are sometimes found. These generally
-have a bird or a tulip engraved upon them.</p>
-
-<p>Other ornamental examples are to be found in the
-Birmingham Museum and in private ownership. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
-are very decorative, and some of them have talc instead of
-horn in front.</p>
-
-<p>In 1851 some curious stone moulds were found at Hartley
-Castle by Sir George Musgrave, and one of them was
-undoubtedly used for casting lead “horn” books, and
-similar moulds have been found in Germany; the English
-ones may have been made about the earlier half of the
-sixteenth century.</p>
-
-<p>But more curious devices were found on the other side of
-the same piece of stone: these are undoubtedly the emblems
-of saints’ days as shown on clog almanacks of the same
-period, so that the horn books may possibly have originated
-from the makers of cast leaden almanacks.</p>
-
-<p>Horn books were also cut in ivory or bone, often with
-designs engraved on the back or on the handle. The lettering
-and devices were originally run in with heelball or some
-such material. They were also made of boxwood with letters
-burnt in, or engraved pewter, or gingerbread, and sometimes
-covered in paper with panel stamp impressions in
-blind or black ink.</p>
-
-<p>Several of the later seventeenth and early eighteenth
-century horn books were covered with leather and stamped
-in blind, gold, silver, or, in Dutch examples, Dutch metal,
-which nearly always turns black, from panel stamps; sometimes
-the designs were arabesques or flowers, and at other
-times we find figures of saints or kings&mdash;St. George and the
-Dragon, mermaids, and the like&mdash;and several of Charles II.
-on horseback, the Duke of Cumberland, and other great
-people.</p>
-
-<p>These same stamps are also often impressed on paper
-backs as well as on leather.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The late cardboard horn books either leave out the cross
-at the beginning or replace it by a meaningless X; they also
-often show additional alphabets with little wood-cut illustrations.
-At last the horn book form is quite lost, and at
-last we find folded pieces of cardboard with stamped or
-marbled backs, retaining only the alphabet to show that
-they are survivals.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">WORKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Blades, W.</span>&mdash;Books in Chains. <em>London</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>&mdash;English Embroidered Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1899.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>&mdash;Book Edges. (Bibliographica.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>&mdash;Little Gidding. (Bibliographica.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, C.</span>&mdash;Royal English Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1897.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Labarte, J.</span>&mdash;Hist. des Arts Industriels au Moyen Age. <em>Paris</em>,
-1864-66.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lacroix, P.</span>&mdash;Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance. <em>Paris</em>, 1848-51.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Libri, Count G.</span>&mdash;Monuments Inedits. <em>Londres</em>, 1862.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux, S. T.</span>&mdash;Historical Sketch of Bookbinding. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tuer, A.</span>&mdash;History of the Horn Book. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Woolnough, C. W.</span>&mdash;The Art of Marbling.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER VII.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">LEATHERS.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock center">Vellum&mdash;Calf&mdash;Pig skin&mdash;Sheep skin&mdash;Goat skin&mdash;Seal skin, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Prepared skins of animals have been the most generally
-used of all materials for covering bindings of manuscripts
-or printed books. Leather is tanned skin, and the hair is
-generally removed. Bindings that have the hair still left on
-the leather are usually of an elementary kind and are
-intended to be carried about in pockets. They are not
-common. Vellum (calf skin), and parchment (sheep skin),
-are not tanned, but are prepared with lime and are white.
-Not uncommonly, especially in Germany, other skins were
-so prepared. Pig skin, deer skin, goat skin, horse skin,
-and donkey skin were all “vellumised,” and are all very
-strong and take excellent impressions in blind.</p>
-
-<p>It is likely enough that vellum was used for the first
-covering of books, simply enclosing the sections, the ends
-of the bands drawn in, without boards. Such bindings are
-excellent for thin books, and they were successfully re-introduced
-in recent times by William Morris, always used with
-ties, as otherwise the vellum crinkles up.</p>
-
-<p>“Vellum” bindings made now, unless specially ordered,
-are only ordinary bindings in boards covered with vellum.
-Vellum is strong, but has some disadvantages. Although
-gold looks beautiful upon vellum it is difficult to work,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
-and title labels do not stick to it well. If kept near the
-light it turns to something very like egg-shell and chips off.
-This defect was known to librarians in past times, and
-they met it by keeping their vellum books backs inwards,
-the forages outwards. Many instances of this manner of
-keeping vellum books occur in the Bodleian Library at
-Oxford, and they generally have their old pressmarks, and
-sometimes titles, written across the top of the forage. Old
-vellum was cut thick, and seldom ornamented, and if kept
-dry in the dark it is an excellent material. The same
-peculiarities exist in the case of parchment, which is, however,
-a very inferior skin, thinner, weaker, and not so good
-looking. Parchment is frequently described, and used, as
-vellum, and few purchasers know the difference; but the
-market value of parchment is less than half that of vellum.
-Vellum is particularly well suited for bindings kept in large
-towns, as dust does not stick to it, and it is easily cleaned.
-In time it assumes a creamy colour that is delightful.
-From the late sixteenth century until now, vellum stained
-green has been commonly used in England.</p>
-
-<p>White vellumised leather, probably deer skin, has always
-been much liked in England from the time of Henry VIII.,
-many of whose books were bound in this material: among
-them a copy of Elyot’s “Image of Governance,” printed in
-London in 1541, which is one of the first books with gold
-tooling upon it done in this country. Several books were
-bound in the same thick white leather for the other Tudor
-sovereigns, as well as for some of their richer subjects, but
-in the seventeenth century limp vellum once more asserted
-its sway and became very popular in England for highly
-valued books. The brilliancy of the gilding upon some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
-these bindings is quite wonderful; it is certainly doubtful if
-any modern finishers could equal the technical beauty of
-the work. Then in the eighteenth century, vellum, though
-still much esteemed, only took its place as a covering for
-boards, and once more, in the nineteenth century, Morris
-restored it to its proper use as a limp binding.</p>
-
-<p>In 1785, James Edwards of Halifax patented a way of
-rendering vellum transparent, so that paintings underneath
-it showed through, and he used it with much success. The
-process has been revived of late years in England.</p>
-
-<p>The Dutch binders have always liked vellum, but it is
-used with boards and never limp. Dutch vellum bindings
-are usually coloured, not well done, but at a distance they
-look decorative, and were certainly very popular. They
-often have clasps and painted edges.</p>
-
-<p>A few bindings have been made in England, France, and
-Holland, covered with pierced vellum, showing coloured silk
-underneath. They are not very satisfactory and soon get
-out of order.</p>
-
-<p>After vellum comes calf, the outer skin of the same
-animal, tanned. Calf is a good second, and I think altogether,
-up to about the end of the eighteenth century, that
-it has been more used than any other leather. The main
-difference between old calf and modern calf is that the old
-leather was properly tanned with oak bark or sumach, and
-cut thick, whereas modern calf used for binding is abominably
-tanned, quickly and disastrously, and cut thin. There
-is no better leather than old calf, and it was used universally;
-England, France, Germany, and Italy all liked it; it was
-delightful to decorate, either in blind or gilt, and it mellowed
-with age to a rich mahogany brown. Italian and sixteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
-century English binders stained their fillets black, and
-several of these calf bindings, richly gilded, and with black
-fillets, are quite splendid, in perfect taste.</p>
-
-<p>The surface of calf is smooth, and it is very sensitive to
-all sorts of stains.</p>
-
-<p>Calf is seen at its best when it is used to take impressions
-from panel stamps, but its beautiful surface and sensitiveness
-to stains of all kinds has made it a favourite ground
-for all sorts of fancy markings, most of which, however
-charming they may be at first, end by destroying the
-leather.</p>
-
-<p>Russia leather is calf prepared with willow bark and
-scented with birch oil. It is a modern leather, and lasts
-badly, and is generally diced,&mdash;that is to say, covered all
-over with diagonal rulings. It was a favourite leather of
-Roger Payne’s. It is said that a book bound in Russia
-leather will last better if much used, and no doubt this
-is true, not only of Russia but of any other leather.
-As a rule leather bindings in libraries are starved; they get
-dry, and readily absorb animal oil from the human hand.
-The truth of this may be found in the fact that numbers of
-dictionaries and books of reference were preferentially
-bound in Russia leather some thirty or forty years ago, and
-whereas unused books bound at the same time in the
-same way now show rotting leather, the reference books
-which have been continually used are quite sound and
-supple.</p>
-
-<p>Cow hide is like a magnified calf leather, and shows a
-slightly pitted surface. It is not often used, but is of much
-value for very large books that are worth full binding, as
-one piece of hide could be cut large enough, for instance, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
-full-bind the <cite>Skibbereen Eagle</cite>, one of the largest Irish
-newspapers. It would take three or four of the largest
-goat skins to do this, and it is always advisable to avoid
-joins, wherever possible, in a binding. But there is one
-drawback to the use of hide for binding: it is practically
-impossible to cut it smooth; however skilfully it may be
-pared, when it gets on the book it is always ridgy. This is,
-of course, not very important, but it militates against the use
-of hide except when absolutely necessary. For the rest,
-hide takes colour well, and it is a very handsome leather,
-and when it is finished simply with very broad gold fillets
-it is very ornamental.</p>
-
-<p>Pig skin is perhaps the most familiar of all bookbinding
-leathers to the outside world, because saddles are made of
-it. It is a thick, rich leather, and, so to speak, full of life.
-It is not suitable for small books, but very good for large
-ones, and has been used in England off and on for a long
-time, but never very much. Charles Lewis executed some
-fine examples of his larger bindings in pig skin, but I think
-he never cared much for it.</p>
-
-<p>Pig skin responds admirably to treatment with lime, the
-same method of preparation as used for vellum; and this
-white “vellumised” pig skin has always been the most
-favoured material for the covering of fine German books of
-the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. Many
-of these bindings are perfect in their way, covered all over
-with delicate roll stamps showing marvellous definition and
-clearness on the hard white surface.</p>
-
-<p>Fine though all their impressions are, it cannot be denied
-that they are difficult to see; the impressions are shallow,
-and indeed the designs can often be more easily made out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
-by help of a rubbing with heelball on soft white paper than
-by examining the binding itself.</p>
-
-<p>Pig skin can be recognised by its smooth hard surface,
-strongly pitted with bristle holes. It is closely imitated in
-inferior leather, bristle holes and all, and when such imitation
-is actually on a book it is very difficult to detect, but if
-in skin form it can easily be recognised. In real pig skin the
-bristle holes penetrate right through the leather, and show
-quite as much at the back as they do in the front, whereas
-in the imitation they show little, if at all, at the back.
-Also the back of real pig skin is of very firm, close texture,
-but the imitation shows a more or less woolly or loose
-grained back, as it is generally made of sheep skin. French
-binders have never favoured pig skin much&mdash;it is not dainty
-enough for them.</p>
-
-<p>Sheep skin has always been a favourite leather for bookbinding,
-but it is not a fine leather and has never been used
-for first-rate binding. It has, however, been more worked
-up than anything else into imitations of fine leathers.</p>
-
-<p>The imitation of fine leather in inferior sheep skin has
-been for a long time a very important industry, and it
-is one which is still with us. All fine leathers show a
-particular and well known grain on their surface, but
-the most largely imitated is that of goat skin or morocco.</p>
-
-<p>In a well grained skin of morocco, the beautiful grain is
-strongly marked, whether it be “pinhole” or “straight”&mdash;so
-strongly marked indeed that a cast of it can well be made
-in plaster of paris. From such a cast a metal die can be
-made, and when this die is strongly pressed upon a prepared
-piece of sheep skin, which will take an impression extremely
-well, the result is that a surface is produced which is so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
-exactly like a piece of morocco that even a leather expert
-may be, and often is, taken in by it. In course of time,
-however, the impression flattens out, and the fraud betrays
-itself.</p>
-
-<p>When such a stamped sheep skin is new on a book, and
-finished with gold, no one would for a moment suspect its
-genuineness, but if in skin form, the back of the leather
-will at once betray it. Real morocco has a hard close
-grain, but the back of the imitation will show a loose soft
-texture. Other leathers are imitated in the same way: pig
-skin, lizard skin, and others; and although there has been,
-and still is, much of such imitation used in the matter of
-bookbindings, there is still more of it used in the furniture
-trade.</p>
-
-<p>But putting aside these base uses of sheep skin, it has a
-very fair record to show on its own unaided merits. Many
-early Italian bindings, good ones, were made in sheep skin;
-certainly it has not lasted well, but no doubt when new it
-was pleasing enough. In England, many of the early
-fifteenth century panel stamp bindings were made in sheep
-skin, not quite satisfactory now, but also probably well
-enough when new.</p>
-
-<p>It is impossible to say much in favour of modern roan,
-the trade name for sheep skin, which has suffered badly at
-the hands of the tanner and the dyer; also probably the
-binders have not been without fault, as in order to get the
-leather flexible for joints and bands they have acquired a
-pernicious habit of paring it too thin, and another, equally
-hurtful, of unduly pulling and stretching it so that the
-fibres, or what is left of them, get strained and broken.</p>
-
-<p>Skiver is part of a split sheep skin, the surface of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
-which is altogether artificial. It is much used for cheap
-pamphlet bindings and looks well for the moment, but is
-not so strong as good paper. It is wonderful how cleverly
-the “paste grain” or artificial surface of skiver is made; it
-deceives most people easily. The remaining part of a
-split sheep skin is prepared quite differently and is made
-into “chamois” leather. Although this is not used for
-actual bindings, it is often enough made into linings for
-loose covers of fine books. It does well for this purpose,
-but must be kept in a very dry place as it has a certain
-affinity for damp.</p>
-
-<p>The finest of all leathers for binding is goat skin, morocco
-as we now call it, from the reputed land of its origin.
-“Levant morocco” is still the name of the finest skins.
-Goats, however, have of course been common enough all
-over the world for ages, and so we find very ancient bindings
-in goat skin, quite possibly the most ancient, although I
-rather incline to vellum in this connection.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the English twelfth to fourteenth century
-blind tooled bindings are in goat skin, tanned brown, most
-likely with oak bark, and from that period until now it
-has always been used here, at some periods more than
-others.</p>
-
-<p>Goat skin always shows small hair dots in groups all over
-its surface; it is not quite smooth like calf, and also it
-shows certain structural striations. In early goat bindings
-both these marks show clearly, and until the time of Roger
-Payne in the eighteenth century, the leather was left in its
-natural state so far as surface marks went.</p>
-
-<p>Italian bookbinders at an early date saw the beauty of
-natural sunk lines on goat skin, and accentuated them by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
-rubbing in gold leaf. On such bindings the markings on
-the leather show as fine gold lines; it is a pretty idea, and
-can often be found on sixteenth century bindings, especially
-on those that were made for Tommaso Maioli.</p>
-
-<p>French morocco bindings are frequently stained with
-colour, particularly those which were made about the time
-of Henri II. in the sixteenth century. The stain is usually
-put on the fillets or arabesques surrounding a central
-oval, in which is often a painted coat-of-arms. But as a
-rule such coloured bindings are in calf, which takes stain
-more easily than morocco.</p>
-
-<p>Goat leather has never been so much liked by German
-binders as calf or pig skin. This is partly due to the fact
-that German bindings are as a rule ornamented with blind
-tooling, and goat skin is never satisfactory when treated in
-this way: its grain is against it; but for gold tooling, which
-has been brought to its greatest perfection by Italian,
-French and English binders, there is nothing that gives so
-fine a result as goat leather.</p>
-
-<p>Roger Payne saw and liked the natural grain of goat
-skin, or, as we may now call it, morocco. But he found
-that in many cases he could get a better impression from
-his very delicately cut stamps in Russia leather. Here,
-however, he was restricted to one colour, and his favourite
-colour, a neutral green, could only be procured in morocco.
-So he ironed the morocco to flatten its natural hills and
-dales, and produced something like what is now called
-“crushed” morocco. Payne’s smooth morocco is, however,
-not quite our modern “crushed”; it is smoother, because
-now we “grain” our leather strongly before crushing it,
-whereas Payne ironed his without first increasing its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
-natural grain by artificial means. Morocco is often badly
-injured by the ironing being done with irons that are too hot.</p>
-
-<p>But Payne went a step farther. No doubt he experimented
-much with morocco, and it is likely enough that
-before endeavouring to smoothen out his skins he wetted
-them thoroughly. If he wetted a fine skin of morocco
-overnight and left it alone, perhaps doubling it or rolling it
-up, he would have noticed next morning that the natural
-grain had become much intensified, due to a slight shrinkage
-of the leather, and showed as a particularly effective
-breaking up of the surface. Some such chance led him to
-make definite experiments with a view to exaggerating the
-natural grain of morocco, and he very soon found out
-that if a damped skin was well rolled in one direction it
-assumed permanently what is now known as a “straight”
-grain. That is to say, the surface of the leather is lined in
-the same sort of way as a ploughed field is, but not quite
-so regularly. The ridges and furrows all run in one
-direction. Several of Payne’s bindings are bound in
-straight grain morocco, but judging from his own work, he
-never got any farther with his graining.</p>
-
-<p>At a later time, I think towards the middle of the nineteenth
-century, it was found out that if the process of straight
-graining was carried out a second time at right angles to the
-first operation, the little straight furrows and ridges were
-broken up, and a surface was produced that consisted of a
-series of minute hillocks, like a field that has been harrowed,
-and this is known as a “pin-head” grain. Both these grainings
-improve the strength of the leather, as it contracts
-after the wetting and also the wear falls on the tops of the
-ridges or hillocks before it reaches the body of the leather.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>French binders have always preferred smooth or crushed
-morocco for their bindings, as it is easier to gild upon.
-Morocco is sensitive to damp, and if affected it quickly
-betrays it by giving out the strong scent of goat which is
-normally quite absent.</p>
-
-<p>Two new leathers have been recently put upon the
-market as rivals of morocco: one of these is seal skin and
-the other the skin of the sea-lion.</p>
-
-<p>Seal skin is finished in the same way as morocco and
-looks very like it, but it is, I think, not so good. It is
-softer, more full of oil and has a peculiar, almost fishy,
-smell. The softness of seal leather makes it unfit for
-binding books that are likely to have much hard wear, but
-the oiliness is probably its worst fault, as books standing
-next to it are apt to be stained. But it is undoubtedly a
-good-looking and useful leather, and if it can be put upon
-the market at a less cost than morocco it is sure to have a
-considerable vogue. Sea-lion skin is only fit for use on big
-books; it is very strong and is curiously ridged in large
-ridges. It has the same oiliness that seal has, but not in
-so marked a degree.</p>
-
-<p>There are, of course, several other leathers in which
-books have been bound as curiosities, and these are
-generally noted in some way; a book in the British Museum
-is lettered outside “Kangaroo,” and manuscript notes are
-in others telling us in what strange materials they are
-covered. Fish skin, known as shagreen, has sometimes
-been used for bindings; it is very strong but inelastic, and
-soon goes at the joints. In the seventeenth century it was
-largely imitated in calf, stamped with a grain.</p>
-
-<p>Perhaps the most curious leather in which any book can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
-be bound is human skin. Such treasures are by no means
-unknown. It is said that a friend of Camille Flammarion
-the French writer, possessed beautiful shoulders, and that
-when she died she bequeathed her skin to him as he had
-always admired it. He had the skin tanned and used
-some of it for a binding of one of his own books, “Ciel et
-Terre.” There are other examples in private ownership,
-but so far as public libraries are concerned the only
-instance I know of is now in the Carnavalet Library at
-Paris. It is a copy of the Constitution of 1793, and is
-bound in the skin of one of the revolutionaries who was
-killed at the time. The skin was tanned at Meudon.
-Human skin, undyed, looks like thick calf, and it is most
-difficult to get entirely rid of the hair.</p>
-
-<p>It is to be regretted that of late years the desire for
-beautifully coloured leathers has induced the need for
-much treatment before the dyes, mostly aniline, could be
-properly applied. In the course of this treatment there
-has been an undue use of sulphuric acid, and the presence
-of this acid is fatal to the lasting qualities of any leather.
-Attention has, however, been drawn to the evil from
-authoritative sources, and now sound leathers can be
-obtained, and it is to be hoped that the public will second
-the endeavours of the committee appointed by the Society
-of Arts by always insisting on the use of sound and certified
-leather to bind their valuable books in.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Society of Arts.</span>&mdash;Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding.
-<em>London</em>, 1905.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Library Association.</span>&mdash;Leather for Libraries. <em>London</em>, 1905.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Blind tooling and stamping&mdash;Panel stamps&mdash;Cut leather&mdash;Stained
-calf&mdash;Cut vellum&mdash;Transparent vellum.</p>
-
-<p>The true binding of a book consists of the sewing of the
-sections on bands, and the covering of leather is really
-wanted to protect the threads on the outer surfaces of the
-raised bands.</p>
-
-<p>But this is generally taken for granted, and now when
-we speak of the binding of a book we normally mean only
-the outside ornamentation. In short, the term has changed
-its meaning; so in the remainder of this chapter, when I
-speak of the “binding” of a book, it is to be understood as
-the generally accepted meaning: namely, those parts of the
-leather covering that are visible.</p>
-
-<p>From an artistic and æsthetic point of view we are justified
-in considering only the final ornamentation of a book
-binding. We rightly presume that in all great bindings, and
-even in the case of most good bindings, the technical procedures
-have all been truly and properly carried out. It is
-safe to presume this in the case of all bindings made before
-the latter half of the nineteenth century, but I regret to say
-that it is not safe to say it of bindings made then and later.
-There has been much improper use made of false bands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
-false headbands, “sawn in” backs, bad leather, and
-scamped sewing of sections even in books costing upwards
-of a hundred pounds for their bindings.</p>
-
-<p>The consideration of the ornamentation of leather bindings
-without the use of gold is of itself a large study, and
-one that has received much attention of late years. In the
-trade, ornamental outside work is called “finishing,” as
-distinct from the previous work, which is known as the
-“forwarding.” As a rule, now, these operations are not
-done by the same hands, but a finisher does the finishing
-only and makes it his speciality.</p>
-
-<p>Patterns stamped on leather by means of punches or
-small dies are found in numbers of early instances on horse
-trappings, shoes and boots, and accoutrements of various
-sorts; and almost as soon as it was found out that skins of
-animals could be rendered soft so as to be wearable, it was
-also found out that they could be ornamented by patterns
-cut or impressed upon them.</p>
-
-<p>Such patterns are made when the leather is damp and
-soft, and on drying they become hard and permanent.
-Many of the earlier impressions made on leather bindings
-are done by means of hard styles held in the hand and
-drawn along the leather. Beautiful Celtic interlacings done
-in this way are found in the ancient Irish “polaires” or
-book covers. Others are small ornamental stamps which
-have been impressed on the leather in the same way as we
-now make an ordinary seal.</p>
-
-<p>One of the earliest instances of a leather binding with
-ornamental covers is on a Coptic MS. on papyrus, dating
-from about the eighth century, which has been originally
-stabbed, and the pattern is an interlacing one with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
-ornamented fillets, between which are impressions from
-small cameo stamps. In time special tools were carefully cut
-in hard wood or metal for the avowed purpose of ornamenting
-leather bindings. The exact date at which this
-occurred it is impossible to say.</p>
-
-<p>So far as Europe is concerned, the earliest known blind
-tooled bindings range from about the twelfth century
-onwards. Earlier books were either covered with the rich
-metal and jewelled mediæval work that I have already
-noticed, or else bound in vellum with ties and without
-ornamentation.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
-<img src="images/i_184.jpg" width="440" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>&mdash;English blind tooled binding,
-12th century. London.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In England the art of blind tooling reached its highest
-level from the twelfth to the fourteenth century, and, thanks
-to the researches of Mr. W. H. J. Weale, there is little doubt
-that the English excelled in this art. The Germans succeeded
-best after the English, but German work never
-approaches the English, either for excellence of general
-design or for delicacy and beauty of the small engraved
-stamps. The English work was on goat skin or calf, the
-German generally on pig skin.</p>
-
-<p>The stamps used in blind tooling&mdash;that is to say, without
-gold&mdash;are cut in the same manner as a seal stone is, only
-that the cutting is much deeper, and in deep places needs
-no finishing. When this is pressed upon the soft, damp
-leather, the leather rises up of itself into the deep hollows
-cut in the stamp, and so a charming, natural, and apparently
-much studied relief is automatically given. Such stamps
-are called “cameo” stamps because of this relief.</p>
-
-<p>The general typical arrangements used by England,
-Germany, and France in planning out the disposition of
-the stamps is a subject that is deserving of careful attention<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
-by any student of blind stamped work. Some valuable
-plans of these dispositions can be found in Mr. W. H. J.
-Weale’s <cite>Catalogue of Bookbindings and Rubbings of Bindings
-in the National Art Library, South Kensington</cite>, and they
-are well worthy of study.</p>
-
-<p>Roughly, it will be found that the most elaborate of these
-bindings have come from Durham, London, Winchester, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
-Oxford, that series of close perpendicular lines of small
-stamps are characteristic of French early stamped work,
-and that the marking out of the boards with large lozenges
-is a German plan. But these types must not be studied
-alone, as they travelled about freely; the character of the
-stamps themselves, as well as the leather used, must all
-receive careful consideration.</p>
-
-<p>London bindings often show perpendicular lines of stamps,
-sometimes touching, sometimes separate; several of the
-stamps are round, and others drop-shaped.</p>
-
-<p>The Winchester Domesday Book, now in the library of
-the Society of Antiquaries, is a beautiful and typical specimen
-of English twelfth century blind tooling. It is bound
-in deep brown goat skin, and each side is differently
-ornamented.</p>
-
-<p>The upper board shows an arrangement of two large
-circles, largely made up by impressions of the common
-English drop-shaped stamps. These circles are flanked
-by two rows of rectangular stamps bearing monsters, and the
-corners are filled in with circular and drop-shaped stamps.</p>
-
-<p>Durham bindings must be studied at Durham Cathedral,
-where Bishop Pudsey’s books are kept. They are twelfth
-century work, and splendid examples. On some of these
-bindings occur interlacings of basket work designs, borrowed
-from the East.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most curious English bindings in existence is
-known as St. Cuthbert’s Gospels. Its history is of great
-interest. It is a copy of the Gospel of St. John, and is said
-to have been buried with St. Cuthbert at Lindisfarne in the
-seventh century. The saint’s coffin was shortly afterwards
-moved to Durham. The tomb was opened in the reign of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
-Henry I. in 1105, when the little copy of the Gospel was
-found in it, and removed and kept in the treasury at
-Durham.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="400" height="573" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>&mdash;English binding of St. Cuthbert’s
-Gospels, in embossed leather.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It then passed through many hands, and at last found
-a home at Liège,
-whence one of the
-Jesuit Fathers
-brought it to Stonyhurst
-College, where
-it now is.</p>
-
-<p>The binding is of
-thin lime wood
-covered with red
-leather, the upper
-board is ornamented
-with a nearly square
-central panel bearing
-a Celtic scroll in
-raised work. Above
-and below this are
-two rectangular
-panels ornamented
-with scroll-work impressed
-with a style
-and coloured by hand
-with blue and yellow paint. A narrow border is ornamented
-with a twisted line painted yellow. On the lower cover
-is a geometrical design drawn in lines and also coloured
-yellow.</p>
-
-<p>It is not known what the date of this binding is, and it is
-likely enough that the extraordinary state of preservation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
-in which it still is may be due either to very careful keeping,
-or else that the seventh century work has been carefully
-copied on one or other of the many occasions during which
-such copy could easily have been made.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Gordon Duff inclines to about the tenth century, but
-I should imagine that the most likely time for such a copy
-to be made was when the tomb of St. Cuthbert was opened
-in 1105, and the book, then some four hundred years old,
-was removed. It is likely enough that the authorities of
-the Cathedral library treasury at Durham would have
-admired the binding, which was probably much out of
-condition, and had it carefully copied in new leather.</p>
-
-<p>Even if it were made then, it would still be the earliest
-decorative English binding left, apart from blind tooled
-work, and it is undoubtedly a most decorative and effective
-example. But it is permissible to think and hope that
-at all events it preserves the colour and designs of the
-seventh century binding, which was the first cover of the
-old manuscript.</p>
-
-<p>Another very early English binding, covering a Latin
-Psalter of the early twelfth century with interlinear Saxon
-version, is now kept in the British Museum among the
-Stowe collection.</p>
-
-<p>It is bound in oaken boards nearly an inch thick, the
-central portion of which is hollowed into a rectangular
-depression. On the lower board is a bronze figure of our
-Lord in the attitude of the Crucifixion. The figure has
-been gilded, but most of the gold has now worn off. The
-corners have small bosses set in triangular pieces of thin
-metal, which are impressed with a design of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i>
-in outline within a circle. The boards are covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
-brown leather, much worn and faded, probably deer
-skin, and the brass fastenings for a clasp still remain <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in
-situ</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;">
-<img src="images/i_188.jpg" width="445" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>&mdash;English binding of the twelfth century,
-with bronze figure of Christ.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The history of the book is as curious as the book itself;
-there are several manuscript notes in it, and also much
-has been written about it.</p>
-
-<p>It appears to be the original book on which our sovereigns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
-took their coronation oath, and it seems to have been
-so used from the coronation of Henry I. to that of
-Henry VII.</p>
-
-<p>Powell in his <cite>Repertory of Records</cite> mentions this as a
-fact, and it was repeated by Thos. Madox, historiographer,
-and also by Thos. Astle, Keeper of the Records in the Tower
-of London, to whom it belonged, and it is believed to have
-been written and bound for the coronation of Henry I.</p>
-
-<p>From the library of Thomas Astle the little book passed
-into the possession of the Marquis of Buckingham, and was
-kept at Stowe in a beautiful Gothic room built for a
-library. In June, 1849, the Stowe library changed hands
-and became the property of Lord Ashburnham, and
-in 1883 it was acquired by the Trustees of the British
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p>So the coronation book is now the property of the nation,
-and in company with the greater part of the Stowe library,
-but the Irish MSS., some of them in beautiful bindings,
-went to Ireland, where they are now safely kept in the
-library of the Royal Irish Academy.</p>
-
-<p>Caxton’s styles of binding are not distinctively English
-in character. The reason for this is that in all probability
-he brought foreign stamps and styles with him when he
-returned from Bruges and set up in Westminster in 1477.
-So the few blind stamped bindings that appear to have
-issued from Caxton’s workshop bear the diamond-shaped
-spaces characteristic of foreign work, filled with impressions
-for cameo stamps, often triangular. Wynkyn de Worde
-used the same stamps.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;">
-<img src="images/i_190.jpg" width="482" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>&mdash;English blind tooled bindings.
-Caxton. (1491.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>White deer skin bindings were used much in England in
-the fifteenth century; they were unornamented, and usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
-had small clasps. A fine copy of the Book of St. Albans, in
-a contemporary binding of this kind, was recently sold by
-Mr. Quaritch.</p>
-
-<p>A curious treatise in bookbinding, the earliest known, is
-in the Bibliothèque Nationale; but there are two treatises by
-John Bagford which may be of about the same date, early
-in the eighteenth century. These treatises have been
-published by the Bibliographical Society, and are full of
-interesting matter. Bagford mentions inscriptions on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
-stone, “slate books,” or diptychs, paste-boards, sewing,
-headbands, covers, bosses, clasps, horn books, and gives
-curious rules for collating, folding, and binding.</p>
-
-<p>At Oxford fine blind tooled bindings were produced in
-considerable numbers. In the fifteenth century Theodoric
-Rood and Thomas Hunt did fine work, and in the seventeenth,
-Dominick Pinart and Edward Miles were especially
-prominent. The main characteristic of early Oxford
-bindings is the presence of small rectangular stamps closely
-arranged in rows.</p>
-
-<p>Cambridge has also been notable among English towns
-for the production of fine blind tooled bindings. The main
-characteristic of these bindings may, perhaps, be considered
-to be the existence of rolls on which are variations of the
-Royal Tudor badges, rose, fleur-de-lys, portcullis, the castle
-of De Beaufort, and the pomegranate. Larger rolls have
-devices of monsters, and frequently the initials of the
-binders may be found.</p>
-
-<p>In the sixteenth century the works of Garrett Godfrey,
-Nicholas Spierinck and John Siberch are, perhaps, most
-usually met with. They show the initials of their respective
-binders.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>&mdash;French blind stamped
-binding of the sixteenth
-century. With figure of S.
-Barbara.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Blind tooled bindings of French origin are numerous
-enough, especially those impressed with panel stamps.
-The main characteristic of early work is the existence of
-perpendicular lines of blind tooling, but although this
-peculiarity is oftener found on French work than on any
-other, it is by no means unknown in bindings made by
-English and German workmen, so must not be taken as an
-absolute proof of French origin if unsupported by other
-evidence.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Late in the fifteenth century the panel stamp was
-invented in Holland, or the Netherlands, and it soon
-attained a great measure of popularity. It reached
-England in the early part of the sixteenth century, and
-although at first foreign dies were freely used here, in time
-our native binders made
-their own.</p>
-
-<p>In France and Germany
-panel stamps were also
-popular, used on calf bindings,
-but I think that in
-Italy it never made much
-headway.</p>
-
-<p>The Netherlands panel
-stamps often have the names
-of the binders upon them,
-Bollcaert, Bloc, and many
-more, and the same valuable
-information is also
-often found on French panel
-stamps of the sixteenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p>The best known names are
-André Boule, Jean Moulin,
-R. Macé, and Denis Roce. All these are plentiful, and
-are often found in excellent condition. The English
-panel stamps do not bear names upon them, but
-they often have initials, but whether it is safe to interpret
-these is difficult to say. We generally consider that J. R.
-stands for John Reynes, I. N. for Jean Norins, R. L. for
-Richard Lant, G. G. for Garrett Godfrey, R. P. for Richard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
-Pynson, and so on; but it is probable, anyhow, that
-although panel stamps of English design bearing these
-initials were used here, they were largely of foreign,
-probably Netherlandish,
-origin.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_193.jpg" width="400" height="596" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>&mdash;English blind stamped binding,
-with the arms of Henry VIII.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the early sixteenth
-century in
-England, heraldry
-was an important
-science, and began
-to show itself as
-a fertile source of
-ornamentation of
-bindings. Many of
-the panel stamps
-of the early Tudor
-period are heraldic.
-The most interesting
-of these stamps
-is one which is
-found in combination
-with several
-others; it seems
-to be a sort of
-backbone. The
-design consists of a large Tudor rose, partly enclosed by
-ribbon on which is the legend <span class="smcap">HEC ROSA VIRTUTIS DE
-CŒLO MISSA SERENO ETERNUM FLORENS REGIA SCEPTRA
-FERET</span>.</p>
-
-<p>At the side are two angels and in the corners the arms of
-London and the Cross of St. George.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Then there are numbers of other stamps bearing in the
-centre the coat-of-arms of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. up
-to 1526, namely, France and England quarterly, with
-supporters, the red dragon of Cadwallader and the white
-greyhound of De Beaufort.</p>
-
-<p>Belonging to the same school of design are fine panel
-stamps bearing the armorial devices of Anne Boleyn and
-Queen Katharine Parr.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_194.jpg" width="600" height="419" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>&mdash;English sixteenth century panel stamp, with
-the initials of Julian Notary.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_195.jpg" width="400" height="586" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>&mdash;English blind stamped binding,
-with the arms of Queen Katherine of
-Arragon.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The question as to whether these stamps are royal or
-not inevitably occurs to any student, but as with one or two
-exceptions they carry with them extraneous ornament, such
-as the sun and moon, and arms of London, I think that
-any such stamp cannot have been royal, but it is possible
-enough that when the royal arms alone are found the
-stamp may have been originally cut for royalty. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
-stamps as these are very strong and are not likely to have
-ever been worn out&mdash;indeed, it is curious that instances of
-unauthorised use
-of royal stamps is
-not commoner than
-it is.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most
-curious of these
-panel stamps, not
-armorial, is one
-which bears upon
-it the device of
-John Reynes. It
-shows a fancy coat-of-arms
-on which
-are the emblems
-of the Passion,
-with two unicorns
-as supporters, a
-royal helmet,
-above which are
-scourges, &amp;c., and
-a crowing cock,
-and below on a
-ribbon the words
-“Arma redemptoris mundi.” One cannot forget here that
-Dame Juliana Berners, in the Boke of Cote Armour, declares
-the Christ was a gentleman of coat armour by right of his
-mother Mary.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;">
-<img src="images/i_196.jpg" width="472" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>&mdash;English blind stamped binding, with arms
-of Christ. Bound by John Reynes, c. 1530.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The English panel stamps, as well as rolls, of the early
-Tudor period often bear the Tudor badges of double or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
-Tudor rose, the fleur-de-lys, and the portcullis of the
-De Beauforts. These badges are usually crowned.</p>
-
-<p>Panel stamps were cut on latten, a metal alloy resembling
-brass. The thin engraved plate was fixed on a wooden
-block by means of two pegs, and the impression was made
-on the leather either by the use of a hammer or by means
-of weights, very likely by a combination of both these,
-methods.</p>
-
-<p>After a time the pegs worked loose, and very frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
-panel stamps are found in which the impression from these
-loosened pegs can be seen.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_197.jpg" width="300" height="468" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>&mdash;English blind stamped
-binding. Pynson, 1499.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many German calf bindings of the fourteenth, fifteenth,
-and sixteenth centuries are beautifully ornamented with
-cut work. The outlines of the designs are cut with a sharp
-small knife held slantingly,
-and afterwards worked into
-shape with blunted tools.
-The designs upon these
-bindings are often very
-fine, and the workmanship
-is most skilled and effective.
-The earliest example
-I know of is elaborately
-ornamented on the upper
-board with a groundwork
-of floral scrolls, and has
-in the centre the Austrian
-coat-of-arms supported on
-an eagle, which is stained
-black. On a scroll above
-the eagle are the words
-“Fridericus rex, etc., 1451”
-and below it in a long panel
-the letters “A E I O U,” standing for the proud motto
-“Austria est imperare orbi universo.” Along the lower
-edge is cut the name of the binder, “Petrus Ligator.”</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;">
-<img src="images/i_198a.jpg" width="225" height="295" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>&mdash;German cut
-leather binding, made
-for the Emperor
-Frederick of Austria.
-Dated 1451.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Hunting scenes and scenes of religious life are usually
-found on these early German cut leather bindings, now and
-then, as in the case of the splendid sixteenth century copy
-of Ranierus de Pisa’s <cite>Pantheologia</cite>, now in the British<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
-Museum, showing a monk at his
-desk; the borders are ornamented with
-small stamps. Cut leather bindings
-are done with consummate skill, and
-must always have been very costly,
-so we find that they were, and are,
-very cleverly imitated by skilfully
-cut stamps. An example of this is
-so well done that it has over and
-over again been described as hand
-work, but in fact it is only a stamp.
-German leather workers are still pre-eminent
-in this small cut manner.
-At the St. Louis Exhibition of 1904, in the German section
-there were several examples of cut leather work done in
-exactly the same way as the fifteenth century work&mdash;and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
-quite as good. It is not only used for book bindings but
-also to cover boxes and small articles, but as we have noted
-in the case of earlier work, many modern apparently hand-cut
-German leathers are really only impressions from large
-panel stamps.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-<img src="images/i_198b.jpg" width="600" height="428" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>&mdash;English blind stamped binding, with the arms
-of Henry VIII.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Notable among German bindings are those made by
-John Richenbach, of Gyslingen, who lettered and dated
-many of his fine volumes. The dates run from 1467
-onwards. There is one fine example
-in the British Museum; it is like all
-the rest, in pig skin, and stamped
-in blind, a little transparent colour
-being put over many of the stamps.
-Round the outer borders of the
-boards runs the inscription in large
-black letters:</p>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">ILLIGATA PER ME IO. RICHENBACH
-CAPELLANU IN GYSLINGEN, 1475.</span></p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_199.jpg" width="200" height="270" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>&mdash;German binding,
-by J. Richenbach.
-Dated 1475.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>All Richenbach’s bindings are still
-thoroughly strong and good, and
-the small touch of colour upon
-them redeems them from the monotony of colour which is
-so marked in the later German bindings in white pig skin.</p>
-
-<p>German blind tooled bindings are very numerous, as the
-art was always much liked by German binders, and whereas
-both in England and in France blind tooling and stamping
-quickly gave way before the more beautiful and popular
-art of gold tooling, in Germany the quieter blind work has
-retained its supremacy. German binders never took kindly
-to gold tooling, and when they had to do it they generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
-used bad metal. Most early German gold tooled work is
-now badly discoloured for this reason.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_200.jpg" width="200" height="311" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>&mdash;German
-stamped leather binding
-with portrait of
-Charles V. Dated 1570.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>German bindings in calf are usually designed with a
-central panel crossed by diagonals at considerable intervals,
-and in the diamonds thus formed are impressions of various
-stamps. On white pig skin, however, are to be found the
-most characteristic of the German blind tooled works. We
-find large books elaborately ornamented with impressions
-of finely cut “cameo” rolls, and
-having a centre panel stamp showing
-the portrait of some notable person,
-or a coat-of-arms. The rolls are
-worthy of much attention, as they
-are very carefully designed and
-beautifully cut. They show an infinite
-variety of designs, and may
-be roughly divided into two classes,
-namely, those showing human figures,
-busts in profile, and those only bearing
-floral or arabesque designs.
-Among the former there is a long
-series of allegorical figures, all with
-their respective emblems, and often lettered and dated.
-There are Faith, Hope and Charity; Sweetness, Prudence,
-Justice; figures of the Evangelists, Christ, David, St. Paul,
-Lucretia, and heads of the reformers, Luther, Melancthon
-and Hus particularly.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the German panel stamps are very large, also
-numerous and finely cut. There are splendidly executed
-stamps of Charles V. and other distinguished personages,
-emperors and grand dukes, Rudolf and many others, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
-others of Luther and Melancthon. Some of these are set
-in an arabesque framing with a space left in the middle
-for an insertion. These are found impressed on calf and
-on pig skin, and the dies of many of them are most
-beautifully cut.</p>
-
-<p>Several of the later calf bindings, done in the eighteenth
-and nineteenth century, show an infinite variety of
-marblings, sprinklings and “tree” patternings, done with
-one or other of the most appropriate chemicals&mdash;potash,
-soda, oxalic acid&mdash;run on when the leather is wet. But
-one and all of these rot away the surface wherever they
-touch it, and many of these books can now be found from
-which the original dyed spots have all entirely disappeared,
-leaving, however, a little eaten-out depression in every case.</p>
-
-<p>James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a style of ornamenting
-calf by means of ordinary book stamps loaded with
-acid. The result is not unpleasing, and such books are
-known as “Etruscan,” because many of the designs are of
-classical feeling&mdash;little urns, the Greek fret and the like.
-But Edwards’ little acid burnt designs are only used as
-accessories; there is plenty of gold work and ordinary blind
-work upon them as well.</p>
-
-<p>John Whitaker, another eighteenth century binder, went
-a step further, and drew designs upon his calf bindings
-with pen or brush. Some of these are very effective, but
-as a rule they are now showing the effects of time, the
-original darkest places, where the acid has been most freely
-applied, suffering first, and showing the pale calf underneath.
-But a fine specimen of Whitaker’s work is much to be
-prized. He also used the “Etruscan” style. He had
-many imitators, but whereas Whitaker’s bindings are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
-generally ornamented with figure drawings, the imitators
-as a rule preferred easier subjects&mdash;ruins or landscapes.</p>
-
-<p>Calf with the rough side outwards, like brown velvet, was
-used in England from the seventeenth to the nineteenth
-century, sometimes tooled in blind and sometimes in gold.</p>
-
-<p>Vellum was used at Little Gidding. One such book is
-covered in vellum painted orange colour and overlaid with
-openwork designs cut in white vellum. It is a harmony of
-the Gospels. The centre design is circular, and the corners
-have quarter circles. They are all helped with a little gold
-tooling.</p>
-
-<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries several small
-French and Dutch books were prettily ornamented with
-vellum cut in openwork patterns. Underneath the open
-places bits of coloured silk are laid. They are dainty but
-not very successful, as small edges and points of the vellum
-are apt to curl up and catch.</p>
-
-<p>James Edwards, of Halifax, invented a curious way of
-making vellum transparent, and patented it in 1785. The
-vellum had to be soaked in pearlash and subjected to
-various processes, pressure among them, and cut very thin
-indeed, so as to be more like goldbeater’s skin than anything
-else. Then the books were covered with fine white
-paper and painted, generally in monotone, but sometimes
-in colour, and over this painting the transparent vellum
-was skilfully fixed. The result is that, except when the
-thin vellum is cracked or seen through, the painting
-underneath is as fresh as ever it was; but it is to be
-presumed that there is not much wearing strength in
-Edwards’ vellum, chiefly because of its extreme thinness.
-But as a rule any fine examples of his work, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
-as they look dainty and precious, have always been well
-kept and highly valued, and are in good and clean condition.
-Some modern binders have essayed Edwards’ plan
-with a certain measure of success.</p>
-
-<p>Impressions of designs in low relief were made on thin
-leather bindings by means of engraved cylinders in the
-earlier half of the nineteenth century. They were chiefly
-used in the small and beautifully illustrated periodicals
-which were so popular in England&mdash;<cite>The Age</cite>, <cite>Friendship’s
-Offering</cite>, and many more&mdash;issued during the earlier half of
-the nineteenth century and a little after it. Charming
-designs in cameo are often found in these cases, on paste-boards
-covered with thin leather, but they are nearly always
-rubbed badly in projecting places. Some of the best of
-these designs are by Remnant and Edmonds, Smith Elder
-&amp; Co., and De La Rue &amp; Co.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bagford’s</span> Notes on Bookbinding. (Bibliographical Soc. Proceedings,
-Nov. 16, 1903.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bickell, L.</span>&mdash;Buchereinbände des XV. bis, XVIII. Jahrhunderts
-aus hessischen Bibliotheken. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;Les reluires d’Art à la Bibliothèque Nationale.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding.
-<em>London</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Early London Bookbindings. <em>London.</em> (<em>The
-Queen</em>, 1891.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Duff, E. G.</span>&mdash;Early Stamped Bindings. (Prideaux, S. T.) <em>London</em>,
-1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gibson, S.</span>&mdash;Early Oxford Bindings. <em>London</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gibson, S.</span>&mdash;Some Notable Bodleian Bindings. <em>Oxford</em>, 1901-4.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gray, G. J.</span>&mdash;The Earlier Cambridge Bookbinders. <em>London</em>, 1904.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gray, G. J.</span>&mdash;A Note upon Early Cambridge Binders of the
-Sixteenth Century. <em>Cambridge</em>, 1900.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Grolier Club</span>, New York.&mdash;Catalogue of Decorated Early
-English Bookbindings exhibited ... 1899. <em>New York</em>, 1899.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lindsay, J. L.</span> (<em>Earl of Crawford</em>).&mdash;Early Bindings Exhibited at
-the Society of Antiquaries. <em>London</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Weale, W. H. J.</span>&mdash;Catalogue of Bookbindings ... in the National
-Art Library, South Kensington. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2>CHAPTER IX.<br />
-<span class="titlefont">THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD.</span></h2>
-
-
-<p class="chapblock">Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice&mdash;Early
-Italian gold tooled work&mdash;The spread of gold tooling in Europe&mdash;Modern
-work&mdash;Gold tooling in leather&mdash;Early Venetian gold
-tooled bindings&mdash;The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John
-Gibson, Mary Collet, Samuel Mearne, Suckerman, Eliot and
-Chapman, Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering,
-Kalthœber, Staggemeier, Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden
-Sanderson, Sir Edw. Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl,
-S. Prideaux, Adams, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and
-Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Macé Ruette,
-L. A. Boyet, Padeloup le Jeune, J. Le Monnier, Derome le Jeune,
-Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic.</p>
-
-<p>The art of gold tooling on leather appears to have been
-known in Eastern countries before it was known in the West.
-There are signs of it in Saracenic work of the early fifteenth
-century, but it cannot be quite certain whether much of
-this work was not simply painted with gold. If a blind
-line is carefully painted with gold shell and then burnished
-with a fine agate, a gilded line can be made that looks
-nearly as well as a properly gold tooled line. No doubt a
-considerable proportion of early gold tooling was done in
-this way, and some of it was not even burnished.</p>
-
-<p>Some early Venetian bindings show gold spaces gilded
-with gold leaf in a very effective way, and in the Bodleian
-some English panel stamps of the early sixteenth century
-are gilded all over.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_206.jpg" width="300" height="471" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>&mdash;Italian gold tooled binding,
-1514.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is little doubt that gold tooling, done as it is now,
-was known to the Venetians towards the end of the fifteenth
-century. It is a curious art, and depends for its wonderful
-strength upon the fact that albumen hardens with heat.
-The method used is simple: a stamp is impressed in blind
-on the leather, and then
-the impression is painted
-over with glaire of egg&mdash;albumen.
-When the albumen
-is dry it is again
-painted over with palm oil
-or cocoa-nut oil, and on
-this a piece of gold leaf is
-laid. The stamp is now
-heated, and when it is of
-the proper temperature it
-is very carefully reimpressed
-in exactly the
-same place as at first.</p>
-
-<p>The heat of the stamp
-congeals the albumen
-under the gold, and the now
-gilded impression is likely
-enough to be the strongest
-part of the leather. I have
-often found old leather bindings badly worn away, but the
-gold tooled work and lettering still remaining in places.
-Thus, instead of being <em>impressed</em>, as it originally was, it is
-all in <em>relief</em>, because the albumen has soaked into the leather
-a little and then been hardened, so that instead of gilded
-hollows we find little mountains with golden tops.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>But to counterbalance this possible advantage, the
-albumen presents a weak point. On an old gold tooled
-binding it is not uncommon to find that a golden curve is
-partly gone; half of it perhaps shows no longer as a
-thin gold line, but only as a shallow trench, hollowed
-out of the leather. The meaning of this is that the
-albumen provides a nourishing meal for some small grub,
-which, once it gets the trail, will follow it, if not disturbed
-half over the book, and with wonderful accuracy will eat
-away gold, albumen, and a little leather, following curves,
-leaves, and letterings with close fidelity.</p>
-
-<p>This particular damage is most liable to occur in instances
-where books are laid down in show cases on cloth or velvet
-and not often moved. The soft groundwork allows the
-grub more freedom than if the book is standing up closely
-packed with others on a shelf.</p>
-
-<p>The small gilt roundels found on early Persian and Arabic
-bindings as well as on early Venetian work, were set with
-some sort of gesso under the gold.</p>
-
-<p>The trade of Venice with the East brought these matters
-of ornamented leather to the notice of Venetian bookbinders,
-and these, men of consummate taste, at once saw the
-possibilities of the new art. Indeed, the Italian gold tooled
-bindings of the late fourteenth century are the finest that
-have ever yet been made, even though many of them are
-quite Oriental in feeling and others very strongly so. But
-the Venetians soon crept away from the Eastern trammels
-and evolved beautiful styles of their own. One of the
-first of these styles was the careful mingling of blind
-tooled lines with gilded lines; another was the use of
-small gilded roundels&mdash;themselves an Oriental idea&mdash;in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
-connection with blind tooling and blind tooling coloured
-by hand.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 545px;">
-<img src="images/i_208.jpg" width="545" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>&mdash;Cameo stamp of Apollo and Pegasus found on binding that
-belonged to D. Canevari. Italian, sixteenth century.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Then at an early date the Italians hit upon the effective
-use of so-called “cameo” stamps. These were sometimes
-cut on a flat piece of metal, as the “Canevari” stamps are,
-and sometimes on a bossed piece of metal, as the Alexander
-and Cæsar are. When on the binding these stamps show
-as a depression with the design in relief within it.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the smaller stamps of this period are worthy of
-notice. There is the “Arabic” knot, used on Aldine
-binding and derived from an Oriental original from basket<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
-work, as many of the early stamps are, the Florentine leaf
-and the Aldine dolphin.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
-<img src="images/i_209.jpg" width="350" height="598" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>&mdash;Italian gold tooled binding
-made for Jean Grolier.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Then there is no doubt that many of the finest of the
-bindings made for Jean Grolier were Italian. Who designed
-them and who bound
-them we do not know,
-but among the earlier
-examples there is no
-doubt that splendid work
-can be found. They may
-have been done in the
-workshop of Aldus
-Manutius, but it rather
-seems that the designs
-were made by one man,
-and I think it is not
-unlikely that Grolier
-himself may have always
-given the general idea
-of the decoration he
-wanted.</p>
-
-<p>The later bindings
-made for Grolier are
-curiously inferior, and
-sometimes in calf. The
-earlier and finer bindings
-are in morocco, which is sometimes marbled. The
-words “<span class="smcap">Grolierii et Amicorum</span>” are always put upon such
-bindings as were made for him, and the legend “<span class="smcap">Portio
-mea domine sit in terra viventium</span>” also generally
-appears in the centre of one or other of the boards.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;">
-<img src="images/i_210.jpg" width="425" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>&mdash;Italian gold tooled binding made for
-Jean Grolier, 1532.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Whenever Grolier acquired a book which was already
-very finely bound he added his autograph either on the
-flyleaf at the beginning or at the end. Grolier was the first
-collector to have his books bound in a particular way for
-himself.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“Grolier” bindings have been very freely imitated,
-especially by a native of Bologna, who worked a good deal
-for Count Guglielmo Libri, a great collector, and unfortunately
-the style lends itself well to imitation. A
-fraudulent finisher looks out for an old Italian book of the
-right date, bound in plain leather. Then he copies parts
-from one or other of the many Groliers which can be seen
-and studied by any Londoner or Parisian for the asking,
-and if he is fairly clever at his trade it will take a very
-skilled expert to detect the fraud. Many such imitations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
-are about, and every day they become more like genuine
-examples.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-<img src="images/i_211.jpg" width="500" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>&mdash;English gold tooled binding by Thos.
-Berthelet. Made for Henry VIII.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The styles of binding that have been most largely and
-successfully imitated are those made for Jean Grolier,
-Henri II. and of his period, and the so-called “Canevari”
-bindings.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;">
-<img src="images/i_212.jpg" width="479" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>&mdash;English binding by Thos. Berthelet, 1552.
-Made for Edward VI.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>From Italy the art of gold tooling rapidly spread through
-Europe, and took hold particularly in England and France.
-There is no doubt that an Italian gilder came to England
-and taught Thomas Berthelet, binder and printer to
-Henry VIII. Not only are numbers of Berthelet’s stamps
-of distinctly Italian character, but in many of his lists of
-books he describes particular examples as being bound
-“after the Italian fascion.” But Berthelet quickly enough
-evolved a style of his own. It appears to me that English
-binders have from the time of Berthelet until now
-succeeded better than those of any other nation in the
-ornamentation of large books. In small books the palm
-must be given to Italian and French binders, but large
-books have always puzzled the best of these, and even
-Le Gascon has not been successful with them.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the large books bound by Thomas Berthelet are
-as fine as any such books can be. His best work was,
-naturally enough, done for royalty, but he set the fashion
-for smaller binders, and although there is a want of minute
-finish and technical accuracy in everything he did,
-Berthelet’s fine work will always give him a place in the
-first rank of bookbinders of this or any other country.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;">
-<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="479" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>&mdash;English inlaid and gold tooled binding
-by John Day. Made for Queen Elizabeth.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>After Berthelet’s time gold tooling became general in
-England, but the binders who used it are anonymous.
-There are some fine calf bindings with inlays of white
-leather which were made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
-on which appear the initials I. D. P., perhaps “John Day
-Pegit,” and which are credited to John Day, but it is by no
-means certain that they were done by that eminent printer.
-The style of leather bindings of Elizabeth’s reign departed
-finally from that of Berthelet, and more variety is found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
-than at any other period. The Oriental fashion of double
-boards was re-introduced, the centre panels being filled
-with delicate paintings, portraits or coat-of-arms, and the
-remainder of the boards variously ornamented with inlays
-of white leather, toolings in gold and silver, and impressions
-from stamps cut in arabesques. Some of these bindings are
-coloured, that is to say, the arabesques, curves or flowers
-are painted by hand with some kind of enamel paint. The
-main source of such coloured bindings was Lyons, from
-which centre numbers of them were issued, but the fashion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
-was one which appealed to the English liking for colour,
-and many fine examples, often heraldic, were made here.
-In royal bindings at all times heraldry has played an
-important part, but from the middle of the sixteenth
-century onwards it plays an equally important part on
-bindings made for ordinary armigerous people.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;">
-<img src="images/i_215.jpg" width="516" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>&mdash;Italian inlaid and gold tooled binding
-in Oriental style. Made for Queen Elizabeth.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Letterings often appear on the sides of bindings of the
-Tudor period, mottoes, initials and names. Towards the
-end of the sixteenth century a few bindings are found on
-which are semis of triple dots. This is the beginning of
-the style which reached its ultimate form in the next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
-century. Also small triangular corner stamps occur now
-and then. These also developed and eventually became
-one of the most characteristic marks of Jacobean bindings.</p>
-
-<p>When James VI. of Scotland came here as our James I.
-he may have brought with him John Gibson, who was his
-binder in Scotland. Lists of books bound by this binder
-still exist, but no book or binding mentioned by him has so
-far been identified. But there are some remarkable books
-among those which were certainly bound for James I.
-which are not like the general type of his bindings, and it
-is likely enough that these may be Gibson’s work. The
-style is a very fine one, and the workmanship strong and
-good, but not, in my opinion, correct enough to have been
-done by a foreign binder. The same binder did some of
-the re-binding for Henry Prince of Wales, and one of its
-characteristics is a dotted fillet of double lines.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_216a.jpg" width="275" height="346" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>&mdash;The book stamp
-of Robert Dudley, Earl of
-Leicester.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 275px;">
-<img src="images/i_216b.jpg" width="275" height="356" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>&mdash;The book stamp of
-Lord Burleigh.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is probable that many of the richer bindings of the early
-seventeenth century were the work of John and Abraham
-Bateman, the king’s printers and binders, but, in spite of
-lists, this is again only speculation. There is no doubt
-that about this time many bindings were made which
-would now be called trade bindings as apart from art
-bindings. Trade bindings often enough follow art bindings
-at a respectable distance, and they are rarely made on
-original lines.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_217a.jpg" width="300" height="494" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>&mdash;English binding by
-Thos. Berthelet, 1537, with
-the title on the sides.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_217b.jpg" width="300" height="384" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>&mdash;English Jacobean corner
-stamp.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>Following the lead given by some of the later Elizabethan
-bindings, we find from about 1603 to 1625 a considerable
-output of very showy bindings, with elaborate semis or
-powderings of small stamps all over the groundwork, very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
-large and over-elaborated corner stamps and centres of
-arabesque or heraldic motives.</p>
-
-<p>Students of English royal bindings must note that with
-the coming of James I. to the English throne, a great
-change was made in the English coat-of-arms. The coat
-which had been used from the time of Edward III., namely,
-France and England quarterly, was now used as a quartering
-only, and shows in the first and fourth quarters. In
-the second quarter we find the ancient coat of Scotland, or,
-a lion rampant within a double tressure flory counterflory
-gu., and in the third quarter comes the coat of Ireland, az.,
-the harp of Apollo Grian, stringed ar, <em>or</em>., given, it is supposed,
-by Henry VIII. as a mark of admiration for the
-musical excellence of the Irish.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;">
-<img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="448" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>&mdash;English gold-tooled binding made
-for James I.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Also the late Tudor supporters of the lion and dragon
-give place to the familiar lion and unicorn. The unicorn
-is one of the ancient supporters of the Scottish coat. It is
-interesting to note in passing that the present official coat
-of Scotland is, first and fourth Scotland, second England,
-and third Ireland, with two unicorns as supporters. It
-appears on Scottish official bindings. The interpretation
-of this is of course that England and Ireland are appanages
-of Scotland.</p>
-
-<p>But even if it is now correct to dissociate the arms of
-England and Scotland, we must not forget the heraldic
-marriage between the two countries which took place in
-1706, on which auspicious occasion the two coats were
-impaled as one. That is to say, they were treated in the
-same way as the coats of married people.</p>
-
-<p>The semis, with large corners, is a manner which has lasted
-a long time, but it is not a great style; it is, however, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
-which has been largely followed in the case of trade bindings.
-In this manner a very rich and brilliant effect can be produced
-with a minimum of real design and of technical skill.
-The centres of such bindings, if not simply coats-of-arms,
-are always of oval outline, but at Little Gidding the irregular
-Jacobean corners and oval centres turned into circular
-centres and quarter-circle corners. The gold tooled leather
-bindings made at Little Gidding followed closely in detail<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
-those made by Thomas and John Buck, the Cambridge
-University printers, but in the main the bindings made
-by Mary Collet and her assistants were original. In the
-matter of semis also the Little Gidding bindings show a
-pleasant departure from the quite regular arrangements
-aimed at by Jacobean binders.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;">
-<img src="images/i_220.jpg" width="488" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>&mdash;English inlaid and gold tooled binding
-made by Mary Collet at Little Gidding.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>After 1625 the series and corners tended gradually to fall
-into abeyance, and although they did not altogether disappear,
-they were each modified. Corner pieces became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
-smaller in proportion, and the semis more artistically
-irregular.</p>
-
-<p>Towards the end of the reign of Charles I. some unknown
-binder, probably Samuel Mearne, had the hardihood for
-the first time to bind royal books without any ornamentation
-on the boards except a coat-of-arms. The red leather,
-goat skin, used on these bindings is of extremely fine colour
-and quality. Simplicity in ornamentation
-of bookbindings is
-usually accompanied by fine leather,
-and at no time has this been
-more noticeable than in the case of
-Mearne’s simpler work.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="200" height="266" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>&mdash;Book stamp of
-the English Commonwealth.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The political troubles of the later
-half of the seventeenth century may
-of themselves have tended to incline
-bookbinders to simplify their work,
-and so also may the Puritan spirit
-of the time. State bindings of the
-time are studiously simple, and bear
-upon them a device with shields,
-showing the English cross of St. George and the harp of
-Ireland side by side, impressed upon black leather.</p>
-
-<p>But there were other very decorative small bindings
-being produced in considerable numbers about this period.
-Whether these also owed their existence to Samuel Mearne
-is still uncertain, but he was, I expect, a moving spirit in
-the matter of fine bookbindings from the end of the reign
-of Charles I. to the end of the reign of Charles II. The
-little books I allude to were made during the latter half of
-the seventeenth century and are always bound in black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
-morocco. They have inlays of red, yellow, and white
-leather upon them and some very well designed gold tooling.
-Many of the designs are in detail similar to those which
-were certainly used at a later time by Samuel Mearne. John
-Bagford, in a curious account of book binding written early
-in the eighteenth century, mentions a workman named
-Suckerman, who was “one of the best workmen that ever
-took tool in hand, and commonly worked for Mr. Merne
-the Binder to King Charles the 2.”</p>
-
-<p>It is quite possible that much of the finest English work
-of this period was done by this man, but I expect he was
-only a workman, and executed the designs made out for
-him by a skilled designer&mdash;possibly enough Mearne
-himself.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_223.jpg" width="400" height="513" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>&mdash;English gold tooled “Rectangular”
-style binding, by Samuel Mearne.
-Made for Charles II.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Samuel Mearne was appointed royal binder to Charles II.,
-and he was the second great binder in England. Mearne
-bound the majority of his books in the same beautiful red
-leather that I have already mentioned as being used for
-some late bindings belonging to Charles I., and the same
-coat-of-arms occurs on some of those bound for Charles II.
-This red leather was probably dyed with cochineal. Before
-this no red leather was used to any extent in England.
-Brown, olive, blue, and black were all common, but not
-red. The ordinary bindings made by Mearne for Charles II.
-were simply and tastefully ornamented with rectangular
-lines having the royal initials at the corners, but others are
-more elaborate.</p>
-
-<p>We owe a national design to Mearne’s inventive genius,
-and it is known as the “Cottage” style. The gold-lined
-parallelogram is the starting point, and the upper and lower
-lines are broken outwards into a gable form. From this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
-starting point Mearne developed his further decoration with
-supreme success, until indeed he succeeded in producing
-some of the finest bindings for large books that have ever
-been made. Not only that, Mearne’s style and even the
-details of his stamps continue until the present time, and
-the Bible on which
-King Edward VII.
-took the coronation
-oath was bound in
-the Cottage style.
-No style has ever
-lasted so long, not
-only in England,
-but in any other
-country.</p>
-
-<p>There was yet
-another beautiful
-style invented by
-Mearne. It is not
-so real a design as
-the Cottage, as it
-partakes to some
-extent of the principle
-of the semis,
-inasmuch as symmetrical
-repetition is an integral part of it. There is
-no doubt that Mearne saw and admired the work of the
-great French contemporary binder Le Gascon, and from
-him he borrowed several ideas, among them that of the
-pointille or dotted stamps, and also that of the interlacing
-fillets with interstitial spaces filled with small gold tooling.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 431px;">
-<img src="images/i_224.jpg" width="431" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>&mdash;English gold tooled binding by Samuel Mearne. Made
-for Charles II.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The radical change that Mearne made with regard to Le
-Gascon’s interlacing fillets was that he made them up by
-using successive impressions
-of a two-horned
-curve instead
-of a continuous fillet
-or ribbon. Although
-at first sight there
-would seem to be no
-connection between
-one of these “all
-over” bindings by
-Mearne and one of
-Le Gascon’s exquisite
-little interlacings, I
-think the connection
-is undoubted.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_225.jpg" width="400" height="622" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>&mdash;English gold-tooled binding in
-“all-over” style, by Samuel Mearne.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The all-over bindings,
-always small,
-are not uncommon;
-they are in black or
-red morocco, with
-colours interchanged,
-and are tooled in gold,
-with the very decorative
-addition of silver paint, water-colour, applied by hand
-here and there.</p>
-
-<p>Eliot and Chapman did much excellent work in the
-eighteenth century and invented large ornamental borders
-for their bindings. These borders are not rolls, but the component
-parts are separately stamped. There is an excellent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
-design with arches, a bird and a fly, and another with a
-globe, but all of them are admirably and effectively designed.</p>
-
-<p>Except the work of Eliot and Chapman, the main English
-ornamentations on bookbindings during the eighteenth
-century were modifications of one or other of Mearne’s
-designs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;">
-<img src="images/i_226.jpg" width="404" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>&mdash;English gold tooled binding showing
-the influence of Samuel Mearne.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Eliot and Chapman bound largely for Robert Harley,
-first Earl of Oxford, and their broad bordered style is known
-as the “Harleian.” The centres, in the finest examples,
-are left unornamented, but there are numbers of examples,
-especially in later work, in which the centres are filled with
-a diamond-shaped mass of small gold toolings. Their style
-has been very largely copied.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_227.jpg" width="400" height="195" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>&mdash;The book stamp of Robert Harley.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Towards the end of the eighteenth century English
-binding received a remarkable stimulus by reason of the
-advent of Roger Payne, a native of Windsor, who set up
-in London as a bookbinder about 1770.</p>
-
-<p>Payne’s two predecessors, Berthelet and Mearne, had both
-enjoyed Court positions, but Payne never did; he worked
-when he chose, and only then, and even if the brilliancy
-and genius shown of his work had ever been known to
-George III., it is doubtful whether so unreliable a man as
-Payne was could ever have been allowed to hold any
-responsible position.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;">
-<img src="images/i_228.jpg" width="426" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>&mdash;English gold tooled binding, by
-Roger Payne.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The main charm of Payne’s work consists in the spare
-ornamentation of beautiful leather with exquisitely designed
-and cut stamps. These stamps are said to have been cut by
-himself in iron, but most of them were certainly of brass.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
-One of Payne’s stamps only is specially cut so as to be
-capable of being used in combination; it is a little sprig of
-vine, and he used it not only by itself, but sometimes so as
-to make an entire vine oval on the side of a book. Payne
-was also the first great English binder to pay much attention
-to the inside of the boards of his bindings. His “Doublures,”
-as they are called, often show more elaborate work than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
-exists outside the books. The masses of small stamps which
-occur on the borders of the fine doublures and in the
-corners of Payne’s bindings are arranged in parallel lines,
-but have little constructive arrangement. The brilliancy
-of Payne’s gold tooling has never been exceeded.</p>
-
-<p>In his simpler bindings Payne used a deep soft purple
-end paper, usually lined with gold round the edge. The
-leather joint red or green is also often gilded, and shows a
-stitch or two of the silk thread which Payne always used.
-The headbands are small and rounded, of green silk, with
-sometimes a gold thread here and there.</p>
-
-<p>The colours of Payne’s moroccos are deep blue, deep red,
-orange, deep olive, or pale sea-green. If other colours are
-found on bindings apparently by him, I should begin by
-suspecting the work is that of Richard Wier. His Russia
-leathers are always dull brown in colour, and diced.
-Payne lined his backs too thickly, and his books often
-open stiffly. This is not of much importance when the
-binding is morocco, but when Russia leather is used it
-causes it to break at the joints. Some of the designs in
-the back panels of Payne’s more decorative bindings are
-quite admirable. His moroccos are smooth or straight-grained,
-a method of treating the leather that he invented.
-Payne often added a manuscript note to his bound work
-and pasted it in the beginning. Several of these notes are
-of great interest, as they show the immense care and trouble
-he took to do the best he could in every case. They are
-also of the greatest value in showing that certain pieces of
-work are unquestionably from his own hand.</p>
-
-<p>Richard Wier, a Scottish bookbinder, worked with Payne,
-and closely copied his style. Wier was fonder of blind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
-tooling than Payne was, and they used the same stamps.
-Many of the bindings credited to Roger Payne are really by
-Wier, who, as well as Mrs. Wier, was a highly skilled mender
-of books.</p>
-
-<p>Charles Hering founded his styles upon those of Payne,
-but soon evolved a manner of his own. He finished some
-books that Payne had left unfinished in the same style.
-Originals and copies are now in the Rylands Library at
-Manchester. Hering’s work is, however, only high class
-trade binding, as is that of his contemporary, C. Kalthœber.
-Both Hering’s and Kalthœber’s work is often signed, either
-in small gilt or blind lettering along the lower edge of one
-of the boards, or by an affixed ticket.</p>
-
-<p>Kalthœber frankly copied Payne’s styles and stamps, but
-elaborated both so much that he quite lost sight of the
-characteristic simplicity of the great master. Kalthœber
-bound several books for George III., and many of them are
-decorative enough, and if they had not been such parodies
-of Payne’s work they would no doubt have taken high
-rank.</p>
-
-<p>Staggemeier and Walther were both Germans, who worked
-much in the same manner as Kalthœber. They both signed
-their bindings.</p>
-
-<p>Charles Lewis was very nearly a great binder, but I do
-not think he quite reached that level. He used flat double
-bands with gold tooling upon them, but these are frequently
-only shams, and are in company with hollow backs. After
-that his best work was borrowed; but his bindings are
-always pleasant to handle and admirably forwarded and
-finished. Lewis’ headbands are flat and upright, and
-generally sewn with green silk or red and green silk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
-He was fond of brilliant doublures, sometimes all gold,
-sometimes vellum edged with richly gilt morocco, and he
-was also fond of gilded edges richly tooled.</p>
-
-<p>In the nineteenth century we have in England produced
-one binder who will probably in due time rank with the
-highest. The work of Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson will bear
-comparison with the best work the past can show, either as
-to general design or beauty of detail. Most of the good art
-binding done now owes its inspiration to Mr. Cobden-Sanderson,
-and already many of his pupils and followers
-have achieved distinction for themselves; one of the best
-of these is Mr. Douglas Cockerell. The rare work done by
-Sir Edward Sullivan will also live. He is entirely original
-in his work and in his manner of decoration.</p>
-
-<p>Lady bookbinders in England have also done excellent
-and beautiful work, particularly Miss E. M. MacColl, Miss
-Sarah Prideaux, and Miss N. E. Woolrich.</p>
-
-<p>Professional work of high excellence has been done in
-recent years in England by Messrs. Bedford, Rivière, Zaehnsdorf,
-and Morell. The younger Zaehnsdorf, G. Sutcliffe,
-F. Sangorsky, Fazakerly of Liverpool, and A. De Santy
-are all reliable, and may be trusted to produce work not
-only technically perfect, but also charmingly finished and
-admirably designed.</p>
-
-<p>Compared, however, to modern French professional bookbinding
-of the first rank, by Capé, Duru, Lortic, Bauzonnet,
-and the rest, I find that there is a certain heaviness in
-English forwarding&mdash;English binders have always liked
-heavy boards; but I think that in the matter of gold tooling
-our best modern finishers can hold their own safely.</p>
-
-<p>Bookbinding has been more fostered and looked after in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
-France than in any other country. As early as 1401 a
-guild of all persons concerned in book production was
-founded by charter from Charles VI., and continued, with
-some changes, until 1791.</p>
-
-<p>The chief change in this guild took place in 1686, when
-the binding and gilding were treated as separate arts, as,
-indeed, they properly are. From the time of Francis I.
-until about 1633 we find that nearly all the Kings of France
-had official binders, and, as might be expected, the best
-French work is to be among their work, with the exception
-of that of Le Gascon, who, like our Roger Payne, was never
-favoured with Court patronage.</p>
-
-<p>Heraldry plays a considerable part in English bookbinding,
-but not so remarkable a one as it does in French bookbinding.
-From royal books downwards, persons of distinction,
-ecclesiastics of all ranks, ladies and private
-persons, all liked to have their books ornamented with
-their coats-of-arms as a principal ornament.</p>
-
-<p>Etienne Roffet was Royal binder to Francis I., but I do
-not feel sure that any binding of his is known. It may be,
-however, considered likely that he bound most of the books
-bearing the King’s crowned initials and his device of a
-salamander.</p>
-
-<p>Several of Jean Grolier’s books were bound by French
-workmen. These are in the main designed on similar lines
-to those bound by Italians, but there is a difference in the
-details of the stamps used. One constant difference may
-be found in the fact that on the Italian books the small
-leaves and devices are <em>solid</em>, and on the French ones they
-are <em>azured</em>, or scored across with fine lines. Some of the
-French bound books have colour added on the fillets.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Geoffrey Tory lived well into the sixteenth century, and
-among other artistic productions he designed a special
-stamp for gilding his bindings with. Tory lost his only
-little daughter, and
-afterwards adopted as
-his device a broken
-vase, symbolic of his
-broken life. This vase
-is sometimes pierced
-by a “toret,” probably
-a play upon his own
-name, as he describes
-it: “ung vase antique
-qui est cassé par lequel
-passe ung toret.” The
-book stamps do not
-show the toret, but
-the vase is there. In
-the other ornamentation
-and on these Tory
-bindings is a strong
-Italian feeling. It is
-sure enough that the
-art of gold tooling reached France by way of Venice, just
-as it did England.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
-<img src="images/i_233.jpg" width="400" height="593" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>&mdash;French coloured and gold
-tooled binding, with portrait of Henri II.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The most gorgeous period of French bookbinding was
-that of Henri II. and his children. Henri himself loved fine
-bindings, and so did Catherine de Medici, but unfortunately
-we do not know who executed them. They are in calf or
-morocco, and nearly always have coloured fillets. Those which
-were bound for Diane de Poictiers, Duchesse de Valentinois,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
-are equally remarkable, and all of them have, as a rule,
-heraldic ornamentation. A fine portrait cameo stamp, however,
-of Henri II. appears as a centrepiece on some of his
-bindings, and the name Dianne appears on one of Diane’s
-now in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;">
-<img src="images/i_234.jpg" width="492" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>&mdash;French sixteenth century binding,
-made for Diane de Poictiers.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The cyphers which appear on all these bindings are as a
-rule straightforward enough, being either those of Henri or
-his Queen Catherine, but among them is one which contains
-the initials H. and D. intertwined. This may mean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
-“Henri Dauphin,” but it is usually interpreted as meaning
-“Henri” and “Diane.” I do not propose here to enter
-into the vexed question of this curious cypher, as it has
-already been fully discussed elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but I may say that
-Henri’s own device before he succeeded to the throne was a
-crescent with the legend <span class="smcap">Nec impleat totem orbem</span>. An
-unstrung bow as well as the
-other emblems of Diana
-the huntress undoubtedly
-appears on bindings made
-for this king. I am rather
-inclined to think that these
-devices of bow, crescents,
-and quiver, which show on
-the bindings made for
-Henri as well as on those
-made for Diane de Poictiers,
-may really have been
-separately chosen, and
-have no necessary connection
-with each other. On
-the bindings made for
-Diane de Poictiers the bow
-is strung.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
-<img src="images/i_235.jpg" width="350" height="508" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>&mdash;French binding by Nicholas
-Eve, 1578. Made for Henri III.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Henri III. was an eccentric
-king, and it has been said that among other arts he learnt
-that of bookbinding. He lost his ladylove, and ever afterwards
-grieved her loss. His bindings show the device of the
-confraternity of the White Monks, to which order he belonged,
-and a skull and “<span class="smcap">Spes mea deus</span>.” But besides these gloomy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
-bindings we owe some of the finest bindings ever made in
-France to the art of Henri’s royal binder, Nicholas Eve.</p>
-
-<p>The French order of St. Michel was founded by Louis
-XI., in 1466, in place of an older order “De l’Etoile,”
-which had been instituted by Jean II. Henri III., in 1578,
-founded a new order, the Saint Esprit, and among the
-State papers of the time is a note to the effect that Nicholas
-Eve bound forty-two copies of the
-<cite>Ordonnances de l’ordre du Sainct
-Esprit</cite> for the king. One of these
-books is now in the British Museum.
-It is bound, as described in the official
-note, in orange morocco, and agrees
-in all respects with that description.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
-<img src="images/i_236.jpg" width="200" height="307" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>&mdash;French, gold
-tooled “Fanfare”
-binding. Made for
-J. A. De Thou.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>A remarkable style, known as “à
-la Fanfare,” became common in
-France about the end of the sixteenth
-century. They are generally attributed
-to Clovis Eve, who was Relieur
-du Roy (1596), but there is really no
-authority for such attribution. The
-style is a beautiful one, and consists
-of interlaced fillets enclosing graceful
-sprays of laurel or palm, and arabesque curves. Some
-of the finest examples were bound for J. A. de Thou, the
-historian, and bear his arms, a chevron between three
-gadflies, as a centre ornament.</p>
-
-<p>Most of De Thou’s books are bound in morocco, and
-among those which were made during the life of his second
-wife Gasparde de la Chastre are some that are curiously
-ornamented. They are bound in pale yellow morocco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
-which has been stamped all over with impressions in black
-outline, probably from a wood block, in floral or conventional
-designs. The designs have afterwards been filled in by
-hand with colour stains, green, red and blue. The leather
-has been cut for the binding without any notice being taken
-of the coloured designs, which consequently appear
-irregularly on the finished work. The books are finished
-with gold lines and the arms of De Thou and La Chastre
-side by side.</p>
-
-<p>It has been said that De Thou chose certain colours for
-certain subjects, for the bindings of his books, but although
-it may be so in some cases I do not think it is consistently
-carried out.</p>
-
-<p>Certain colours have no doubt been chosen in some cases
-as distinctive of ownership, as for instance in the libraries
-of the three daughters of Louis XV., all of whom bore the
-same coat-of-arms. The books belonging to Madame
-Victoire were bound in olive, those of Madame Adelaide in
-red, and those of Madame Sophie in citron.</p>
-
-<p>French bindings in morocco were sometimes stained
-with colour, especially about the time of Henri II., but
-colour on morocco is more generally added as a pigment.</p>
-
-<p>In recent times some very decorative Spanish moroccos
-have been curiously stained with a sort of marbling. Large
-consignments of these coloured moroccos have been
-imported into this country, and they have been used
-especially by Mr. Roger De Coverly, one of our foremost
-bookbinders. The morocco is not of a very good quality,
-and it is too early to say whether the stains are harmful
-to the leather, as they probably would be if they were
-on calf.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Colour as indicating subject is usually given in the case
-of large libraries that do their own binding. Red commonly
-indicates history and art; blue, theology; green, agriculture
-and botany; and so on.</p>
-
-<p>In the early seventeenth century the mysterious “Le
-Gascon” invented the “pointillé” or dotted style of gold
-tooling, which has been more universally copied than any
-other small peculiarity in book finishing.</p>
-
-<div id="Ref_238fp" class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;">
-<img src="images/i_238fp.jpg" width="504" height="650" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p>French Seventeenth Century Binding. Inlaid and Gold Tooled.
-By Le Gascon. [<em>To face p.</em> 238.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Le Gascon was supreme in the binding of small books,
-whether ornamented with interlaced fillets, inlaid, or with
-the curious design of a swollen cross. Le Gascon’s small
-pointillé curves are most cleverly designed; two or three of
-them suffice to cover a considerable space with an apparently
-complicated design. The glittering effect of the small
-pointillé work massed together is heightened by the free
-addition of small golden dots wherever space can be found
-for them.</p>
-
-<p>Red morocco was Le Gascon’s favourite groundwork,
-and on this he frequently set inlays of coloured morocco,
-citron, olive and marbled brown. These were mostly used
-in the case of bindings bearing a design of interlacing
-fillets, with gold tooling between them. No signed binding
-by Le Gascon is as yet known, but there are some bearing
-the name of Florimond Badier, who was son-in-law to Jean
-Gillède, which nearly resemble Le Gascon’s work, but lack
-his exquisite finish. On some of these appears a small
-dotted profile head, which is supposed to be a mark of
-Le Gascon’s. This same head is copied on some of the
-bindings of our English Samuel Mearne, who must therefore
-have seen and admired some of Le Gascon’s or Badier’s
-work. “Le Gascon” was probably Jean Gillède.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Macè Ruette followed many of Le Gascon’s manners, and
-his son Antoine did the same. These binders were royal
-binders to Louis XIII. and Louis XIV. respectively, and
-probably bound most of the fine bindings made for these
-kings, bearing their coats-of-arms.</p>
-
-<p>The bindings made for the Baron de Longepierre are
-not uncommon. They were probably bound by Luc
-Antoine Boyet, royal binder to Louis XV. These little books
-bear upon them the device of a golden fleece, because the
-Baron wrote plays, and the only successful one was called
-“Medea” and dealt with the subject of the Argonauts.
-The bindings are all exquisitely finished, and of beautiful
-red leather; they sometimes have finely decorated doublures
-and marbling under the gold on the edges, a charming
-detail which has been much liked by French binders ever
-since.</p>
-
-<p>Padeloup le Jeune was royal binder to Louis XV. after
-Boyet, and belonged to one of the many French families of
-binders. Padeloup’s work is luckily often signed by means
-of a small ticket on the title page or end paper. He
-perfected the patterns known as “Dentelles,” which had
-been first thought of by Boyet. These designs start from
-the edges of the boards inwards, and the inner edge is
-deeply dentated and is supposed to resemble lace. Padeloup
-used blue and red morocco, and executed several small
-bindings with inlays of coloured leather in geometrical
-designs.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_240a.jpg" width="300" height="452" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>&mdash;French inlaid
-and gold tooled binding,
-1718, by Padeloup le
-Jeune.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter inlineillo" style="width: 300px;">
-<img src="images/i_240b.jpg" width="300" height="424" alt="" />
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>&mdash;French gold
-tooled binding “Dentelle
-à l’oiseau,” by Derôme le
-Jeune.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>Padeloup made several large bindings, and his stamps
-are often large and boldly cut, but his successors gradually
-fined his style down until the original bold indented work
-became quite small and lace-like in itself.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The liking for inlaid work which was started by Padeloup
-rapidly grew, and it caused a certain deterioration in the
-taste of French binding because it gave such scope for
-minute technical skill that this soon became more sought
-after than the power of fine designing. The skill shown
-on inlaid bindings by Jean le Monnier, for instance, is
-astonishing, but the designs on all his bindings are weak.
-The same may be said of the work of J. A. Derôme. But
-the work of both these binders is much sought after and
-esteemed by many collectors.</p>
-
-<p>Derôme le Jeune was the most important French binder
-of the late eighteenth century. He took Padeloup’s large
-“dentelles” and altered them so much that he at last
-evolved a style of his own from them. Derôme drew the
-whole design out in a much smaller and more delicate way,
-and always put in some bird figures, and these designs are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
-known as “Dentelles a l’oiseau.” He used citron, olive
-and red morocco. Derôme has not a good reputation as a
-forwarder; he is said to have cropped his books badly, and
-also to have “sawn in” his bands so as to get flat or open
-backs. Even so, he did not invent “sawn in” bands, as
-that vice was practised in England a hundred years before
-Derôme’s time, in the case of embroidered books; but the
-fact of these two mannerisms having been noticed in the
-work of this great binder only shows that the same faults
-were probably universally prevalent at the time.</p>
-
-<p>Modern French work is astonishing for its technical skill.
-The work of Capé, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz,
-Lortic, Niedrée, Marius-Michel, Chambolle, and many
-others is admirable from all workmanlike points of view.</p>
-
-<p>But there is no genius in any of it; a great French
-binder of this century is yet to come.</p>
-
-<p>Spanish bindings are often very handsomely gold tooled,
-and are usually ornamented with heraldic designs. Little
-is known at present about them, but it is certainly doubtful
-whether any great school of gold tooling in bindings has
-ever existed outside Italy, England or France.</p>
-
-
-<p class="workstitle">BOOKS TO CONSULT.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Review.</span>&mdash;<em>London</em>, 1899. (Articles at the beginning
-of each vol., by Cyril Davenport.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bauchart.</span>&mdash;<em>See</em> Quentin-Bauchart.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Beraldi, H.</span>&mdash;La Reliure du XIX<sup>e</sup>. Siècle. <em>London</em>, 1895-97.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bernard, A. J.</span>&mdash;G. Tory. <em>Paris</em>, 1857.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bickell, L.</span>&mdash;Bucheinbände des XV. bis XVIII. Jahrhunderts aus
-hessischen Bibliotheken. <em>Leipzig</em>, 1892.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bosquet, E.</span>&mdash;La Reliure. <em>Paris</em>, 1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;De la Reliure. <em>Paris</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;Le Livre. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bouchot, H.</span>&mdash;Les reliures d’Art à la Bibliothèque Nationale.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Brassington, W. S.</span>&mdash;Historic bindings in the Bodleian Library.
-<em>London</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Brunet, C. G.</span>&mdash;Etudes sur la reliure des Livres. <em>Bordeaux</em>,
-1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Burlington Fine Arts Club.</span>&mdash;Illustrated Catalogue of
-Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cundall, J.</span>&mdash;Bookbindings Ancient and Modern. <em>London</em>, 1891.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbindings.
-<em>London</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Bagford’s Notes on Bookbinding. <em>London</em>,
-1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Life of Samuel Mearne. <em>Chicago</em>, 1907.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Life of Thos. Berthelet. <em>Chicago</em>, 1901.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Davenport, Cyril.</span>&mdash;Royal English Bookbindings. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Derôme, L.</span>&mdash;La Reliure de Luxe. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, W. Y.</span>&mdash;Bookbindings in France. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, W. Y.</span>&mdash;English Bookbindings in the British Museum.
-<em>London</em>, 1895.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fletcher, W. Y.</span>&mdash;Foreign Bookbindings in the British Museum.
-<em>London</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fournier, E.</span>&mdash;L’Art de la Reliure en France. <em>Paris</em>, 1888.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gruel, L.</span>&mdash;Conférence sur la Reliure et la Dorure des Livres.
-<em>Paris</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gruel, L.</span>&mdash;Manuel de l’Amateur de Reliures. <em>Paris</em>, 1887.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Guigard.</span>&mdash;Armorial du Bibliophile. <em>Paris</em>, 1890.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hoe, R.</span>&mdash;One hundred and seventy-two historic bookbindings from
-the Library of Robert Hoe. <em>New York</em>, 1895.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Holmes, R. R.</span>&mdash;Specimens of Bookbindings from the Royal Library,
-Windsor Castle. <em>London</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Horne, H. P.</span>&mdash;The Bindings of Books. <em>London</em>, 1894.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Matthews, J. B.</span>&mdash;Bookbindings Old and New. <em>London</em>, 1896.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Michel, M.</span>&mdash;La Reliure Française. <em>Paris</em>, 1881.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux, S. T.</span>&mdash;Bookbinders and their Craft. <em>London</em>, 1903.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Prideaux, S. T.</span>&mdash;Historical Sketch of Bookbinding. <em>London</em>,
-1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Quentin-Bauchart, E.</span>&mdash;Les Femmes Bibliophiles de France,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>XVI<sup>e</sup>, XVII<sup>e</sup>. et XVIII<sup>e</sup>. Siècles. <em>Paris</em>, 1886.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Thoinan, E.</span>&mdash;Les Relieurs Français. <em>Paris</em>, 1893.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uzanne, O.</span>&mdash;L’Art dans la Decoration Extérieure des Livres en
-France. <em>Paris</em>, 1898.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uzanne, O.</span>&mdash;La Reliure Moderne. <em>Paris</em>, 1887.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wheatley, H. B.</span>&mdash;Remarkable Bindings in the British Museum. <em>London</em>,
-1889.</p>
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <cite>Anglo-Saxon Review</cite> and <cite>Burlington Magazine</cite>, July, 1907.</p></div></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<div>
-
-<h2>INDEX.</h2>
-
-<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">A.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Abacus, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Account book binding, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ackermann, publisher, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Æsop’s <cite>Fables</cite>, 1665 ... <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“A E I O U,” <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">African symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alcuin of York, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aliamet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alken, H., artist, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“All-over” style of binding, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">All Saints’ Church, Hereford, chained library at, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Allanson and Sears, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Allen, D., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Almanacks cut on wood, bone, etc., <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">American loggers’ marks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote2">”</span>wampums, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amulets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aniline dyes for leather, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anne Boleyn’s New Testament, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anne de Felbrigge, embroidress, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Annis, W., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aquatints, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arabic knot, the, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>panel stamps, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arabic style of binding, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Armagh, satchel of the book of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Armytage, J. C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Ars Moriendi</cite>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Art canvas bindings, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ashburnham, Lord, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Assyrian bricks and cylinders, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Astle, T., keeper of the records in the Tower of London, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Avril, P., artist, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ayres, J., calligraphist, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ayrton’s <cite>Voyage Round Great Britain</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aze, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">B.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“B” capital in Mainz Psalter, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Babylonian cylinders and bricks, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Backing, the, of books, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Backs, flat and rounded, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bacon, F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Badier, F., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bagford, J., author, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baily, J., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baker, R. J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bamler, J., publisher, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bands of bindings, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bank note of Chinese paper, 1368 ... <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barber’s poles, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bark books, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bartholomaeus’ <cite>De proprietatibus rerum</cite>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bartolozzi, F., etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baskerville, J., printer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bateman, John and Abraham, binders, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Battas of Sumatra and symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Battledores, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bauzonnet, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bedford, F., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beneworth, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bennett, W. F., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bernes, Dame Juliana’s, <cite>Book of St. Albans</cite>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Berthelet, T., printer and binder, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bertonnier, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Best, A., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bettini’s <cite>Monte Santo di Deo</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bewick, T., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Biblia Pauperum</cite>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blaew, W. J., mechanician, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blake, W., artist, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blanchard, P., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blazes on trees, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blind tooling on bindings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bloc, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Block books, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boards of books, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bollcaert, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bone, markings on, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Book edges, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bosse, A., etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bosse, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bosses on mediæval books, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boule, A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boydell, publisher, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boydell’s <cite>Picturesque Scenery in Norway</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boyet, L. A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brandard, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brant’s <cite>Narrenschiff</cite>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brevière, H. L., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brim stocks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Britannia” watermark, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buck, Thomas and John, printers and binders, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buckingham, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buckram bindings, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Bull’s Head” watermark, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burgkmeier, H., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Burne-Jones, Sir E., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bylaert, J., artist, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Byrthe of Mankind</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Byzantine bindings, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote2">”</span>diptychs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">C.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Calf leather, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Callot, etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cambridge bindings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cameo stamps, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Canevari” stamps, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Canvas bindings, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Capé, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Caractères de civilité,” <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cardinal’s hat, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carolingian Minuscules, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cartwright, T., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caslon, W., printer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Casting of type, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cathach, of the O’Donnells, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cattermole, artist, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caxton’s bindings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><cite>Fifteen Oes</cite>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><cite>Myrrour of the Worlde</cite>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cecil, Lord Burleigh’s, book stamp, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cecil, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cellarius’ <cite>Album Amicorum</cite>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cellulose used in paper, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Chain” lines on paper, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chained books, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chambolle, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chamois leather, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Charlemagne’s gospels, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote3">”</span>interest in writing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Charles II., portrait on book edges, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Charlet, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chauveau, F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cheap paper, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chemical wood pulp, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chéret, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chevalier, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chifflart, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">China clay in paper, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese books of Jade, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>colour blocks, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>types of porcelain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>woodcuts, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Choffard, P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christ, arms of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clasps on mediæval books, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clay-laden papers, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clennell, L., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clint, G., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clog almanacks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cloth bindings, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cochineal dye for leather, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cockerell, D., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Codex Alexandrinus</cite>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cole, T., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Collet, M., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Collodion as a preservative for Persian bindings, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Colonna’s <cite>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</cite>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Colour on block books, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coloured printing papers, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Combe’s <cite>History of the River Thames</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><cite>Tour of Dr. Syntax</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Commonwealth book stamp, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Constable, J., artist, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Consular diptychs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cook, H., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cooper, J., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coptic binding of the eighth century, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Corbould, G., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Corean paper, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Coronation of George IV.</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coster, L. J., printer, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Costeriana, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Cottage,” style of binding, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cousins, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cow-hide for bindings, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Crown” watermark, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cruickshank, G., artist, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Crushed” morocco, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuirbouilli, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cumdachs, <a href="#Page_48">48-50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cup markings on rocks, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Curiously-shaped books, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cut leather work, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cylinders engraved for making designs in book covers, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>for printing presses, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">D.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dalziels, the, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dambrun, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Daniel, W., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dated binding, 1475 ... <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Daughters of Louis XV., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Daumier, H., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Davenport, S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dawe, H., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Day, J., printer, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dean, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Coverly, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deer-skin bindings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Delacroix, E., artist, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Launay, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“De l’Etoile,” French order, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Delignon, J. L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Longueil, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Delvaux, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Dentelle” bindings, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Dentelles à l’oiseau,” <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Derome le Jeune, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Sauty, A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Thou, J. A., book collector, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Deveria, A., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Villiers, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diamond engraved, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diane de Poictiers, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote37">”</span>edges of her books, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote37">”</span>faience, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dimma’s book, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diptychs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Donatus’ grammars, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Double board bindings, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Doublures by R. Payne, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Doyle, etcher, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Druet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Du Bosc, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duclos, H. J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dudley, R., Earl of Leicester, book stamp, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duff, G., author, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Du Maurier, G., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dunchad, Irish binder, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dunkarton, R., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duodecimos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dupont, H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_248"></a>Dupréel, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dürer, A., artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Durham bindings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Duru, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dutch printing, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">E.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Easter Island inscriptions, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eastling, J. C., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ecclesiastical diptychs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Edwards, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>J. C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Edy, J. W., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egerton of Tatton, Earl, his silver horn book, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egyptian mummy cloth paper, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>papyrus rolls, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eisen, C., artist, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eliot and Chapman, bookbinders, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elizabeth, Queen, embroidered books, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote35">”</span>golden book, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elizabeth, Queen, velvet books, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ellis, aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elstrack, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elyot’s <cite>Image of Governance</cite>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Embroidered books, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Enamelled bindings, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">End papers, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Engleheart, F. C. and T. S., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">English blind tooled bindings, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>coronation book, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>panel stamped bindings, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>psalter of the twelfth century, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Engraved metal blocks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Engraving on wood, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Etching, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>soft ground, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Etruscan” bindings, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">European early paper, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Evangelistic emblems on the cover of the Molaise gospels, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eve, C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote9">”</span>N.,<span class="spacequote24">”</span><a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Evelyn’s <cite>Sculptura</cite>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Exchequer tallies, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">F.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Faber, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Fanfare” bindings, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fantin-Latour, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fashion plates in aquatint, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fazakerly, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ferrar, N., of Little Gidding, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ficquet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fielding, T. H., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Filigree bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finden, W., line and stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Finiguerra, M., artist, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fischer, C., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fish-skin bindings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fishing-rod sign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flagellation of Christ, engraving, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fletcher, painter of book edges, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Flong,” paper pulp, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Folios, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Folkard, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Foolscap” watermark, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Forage decoration, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Forels for books, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Foster, B., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Foulquier, V., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fournier, P. E., type founder, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fragonard, J. H., artist, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fraudulent bindings, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Frederick of Austria, binding made for, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">French blind tooled bindings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fry, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fust, J., printer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">G.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Galvanic battery used in stereotyping, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gandara, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Garuda stones, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gaucher, C. S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gauffring of book edges, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gaultier, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gavarni, artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Gemälde Galerie des K. Museums in Berlin</cite>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gericault, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">German blind tooled bindings, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">German book edges, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>cut leather work, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>panel stamps, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gibson, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gigoux, J., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gillède, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Girardet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Girolamo della Robbia, artist, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goat leather, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Goddess of Mercy,” woodcut, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Godfrey, G., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gold beaters’ sign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gold tooling in leather, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote25">”</span>on velvet, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Golden bindings, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goldsmith’s <cite>Vicar of Wakefield</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goodall, E., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goodyear, F. and J., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gould, J., naturalist, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goya, F., artist, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grace, J., traveller, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gray, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greatbach, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greek engraved gems, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Green, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gregory the Great, Pope, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greville, Charles, patron of art, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Griggs, W., chromo-lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grignion, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grolier, W., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grover, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guerin, P., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guerrero, A., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guild of Bookbinders in France, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gutenberg, J., printer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gypsies’ hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">H.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Haghe, L., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hahn, U., printer, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Halbon, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Half bindings, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Half-tone blocks, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>process, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ham sign, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Hand” watermark, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hard wood for engraving, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harding, J. D., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harland, J., author, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Harleian” bindings, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harley, R., Earl of Oxford, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harvey, W., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hassell, aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hauber, J., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Havell, D., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Haydon, B. R., artist, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Headbands, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heath, C. and J., line engravers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote13">”</span>Ch., publisher, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heliogravure, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Henri II., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>faience, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Henry III., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Henry VII., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Henry VIII., bindings made for, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Henry, Prince of Wales, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heraldry on bindings, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hereford Cathedral, chained library at, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hering, C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heriot, G., goldsmith, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Herodius, ivory carver, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hewitt, Samuel, etcher, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hiberno-Saxon writing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hieratic writing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hiroshige, artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hodges’ <cite>Select Views in India</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hodgetts, T., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hodgkin’s <cite>Rariora</cite>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hokusai, artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holbein, artist, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hole, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Holl, W., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hollar, W., etcher, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hollis, G., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hollow backs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hop tallies, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horæ of the fifteenth century, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horn books, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Houston, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hullmandel, lithographer, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Human leather, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Humphreys, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hunt, T., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</cite>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">I.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ideographs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Illustrations in books, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, etc.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Imitations of bindings by S. Mearne, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Indentures, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Indian amulets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Irish bindings, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote9">”</span>book satchels, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iroquois League wampum, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Isabey, J. B., artist, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Italian book stamps used on faience, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote13">”</span>wood engravings, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ivory bindings, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">J.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jackson, J. B., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jacquemart, J., etcher, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jade books, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">James I., heraldry of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span><a id="Ref_251"></a>Βασιλικον Δωρον, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Japanese colour blocks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>wood blocks, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jenkinson, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jentzen, F., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jewish taleth, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Joch, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Johannot, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jollivet, J., lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jones’ <cite>Plans of the Alhambra</cite>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jordan, B., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Junius, A., author, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">K.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kalthœber, C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kangaroo leather, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Karabacek, J., Professor, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Katherine of Arragon, Queen, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Keepsake, the</cite>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kernot, J. H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knife for engraving soft wood, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Knight, C., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Koenig, printing press maker, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Korean wood cuts, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Korin, artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kretschmar, E., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kristeller, P., author, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">L.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">La Costes, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Laid” lines on paper, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Landells, the, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lant, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lasteyrie, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Latroo’s <cite>English Rogue</cite>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Latten, panel stamps cut in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Laurentian library, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lawson, C., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leathers used for binding, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Le Blon’s <cite>Coloritto</cite>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leclerc, S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lefebre, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Le Gascon, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leighton, A., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>Lord, artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lelio, Lucretio, of Treviso, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Le Mire, N., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Le Monnier, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Le Prince, J. B., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leroux, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Levant morocco, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lewis the Pious, Emperor, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>C., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>F. C., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>T. C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Libri, Count G., collector, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lindau gospels, binding of the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Line engraving, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lingée, C. L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Linotype, the, machine, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Linton, W. J., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lipton, T., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lithography, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lithotint, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Little Gidding, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote29">”</span>bindings made at, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Loggers’ marks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lombards signs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Longepierre, Baron de, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lortic, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lucas, D., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lucretia, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lupton, T. G., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyons bindings, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">M.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">MacColl, Miss E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Macé, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madan, F., author, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madox, T., historiographer, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madrazo’s <cite>Collection Lithographica, etc.</cite>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mainz Psalter, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maioli, T., collector, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marbled calf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span>morocco, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span>papers, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_252a"></a>Marillier, J. P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marius-Michel, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marr, C., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marshall, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Maximilian, Triumph of</cite>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mazarine Bible, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mazot, F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mearne, S., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mechanical wood pulp papers, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Medici coat of arms, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Medland, T., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_252b"></a>Meissonnier, artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Melissenda, psalter of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Menzel, A., artist, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Messe dag staves, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Metal bindings, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote11">”</span>blocks engraved, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote11">”</span>inscriptions, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mezzotints, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miles, E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Millais, Sir J., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Miller, W., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mitan, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mittenleiter, J. M., lithographer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mitterer, H. J., professor of drawing, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Modern ideographs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Molaise gospels, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monnier, H., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monoline machine, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monotype machine, the, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monza, binding at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moreau, P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Morrell &amp; Co., bookbinders, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Morocco leather, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Morris, W., printer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mottet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moulin, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mulready, artist, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Musgrave, Sir G., collector, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Musulman amulets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">N.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nash’s <cite>Mansions of England</cite>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nayler’s, Sir G., <cite>Coronation of George IV.</cite>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nesbit, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nicene Creed cut in silver, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nicholls and Bosse, wood engravers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nicholson, W., inventor, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Niedrée, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Niello work on bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nivet, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Norms, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Northcote’s <cite>Fables</cite>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Notches cut in wood, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nuremberg, arms of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote24">”</span>Chronicle, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nuzelmann, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">O.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Octavos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">O’Donnell’s cathach, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ogham inscriptions, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oiron ware, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Open backs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Openworked vellum, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Opus Anglicanum, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oriental bindings with flaps, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>palm leaf books, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote16">”</span>panel stamps, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orihons, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orme’s <cite>Twelve Views of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Osterwald, G., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oxford bindings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">P.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Padeloup le Jeune, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Painted bindings, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Panel stamps, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Paper, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>pulp, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Papillon, J. M., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Papyrus, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote17">”</span>Prisse, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Parchment, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Parker, J., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Parr, Queen Katharine, embroidress, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Paste boards, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Patas, J. B., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pauquet, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Payne, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pegs on panel stamps, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Penn, W., and the wampum belt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pennant’s <cite>Account of London</cite>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Persian bindings, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peruvian records, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Petit, L., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peupin, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pfeiffer, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pflanzmann, J., publisher, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Photographic facsimiles, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Photogravure, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pierced vellum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pig-skin, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pigouchet, printer, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Pin-head” grained morocco, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pinart, D., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pine, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pisa’s, R. de, <cite>Pantheologia</cite>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pleydenwurff, W., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pointillé engraving, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Polia, of Treviso, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pompeian diptychs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Porcelain types, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_254"></a>Porrett, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Portbury, E. and R. J., line engravers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Portraits in watermarks, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Post” watermark, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Pot” watermark, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prayer wheels, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prehistoric caves, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prevost, line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prideaux, Miss S., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prime staves, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Printing in Europe, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>on Babylonian cylinders and bricks, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote15">”</span>press, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Printing paper in colour, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Proctor, R., author, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prout, S., artist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pudsey, Bishop, library of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pugillaria, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pye, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pyne’s <cite>History of the Royal Residences</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pynson, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Q.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Quartos, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Quaternions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Quinternions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Quipus of Peru, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Quires, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">R.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Raffet, artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rag paper of Samarkand, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rainer, Archduke, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ratdolt, E., printer, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ratisbon, Irish monastery at, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Raynald’s <cite>Byrthe of Mankind</cite>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Rectangular” style of binding, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Redon, O., lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Reeve, R., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Repton’s <cite>Sketches of Landscape Gardening</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Retroussage, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Rex in Æternum vive” on book edges, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Reynes, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Reynolds, S. W., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rhodes, R., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ribault, J. F., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Richenbach, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Richter, A., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rinaldo and Armida, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ring markings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rivett-Carnac, Col. H. J., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rivière &amp; Son, bookbinders, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roan leather, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Robins, H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Robinson, H., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote2">”</span>J. H., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roberts’ <cite>Holy Land</cite>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roce, D., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rock markings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roffet, E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rogers’, S., <cite>Italy</cite> and <cite>Poems</cite>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote23">”</span><cite>Pleasures of Memory</cite>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rolls, C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rolt’s <cite>Lives of the Reformers</cite>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman diptychs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>engraved gems, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>name brands, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Romney, Lord, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rood, T., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rosaries, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rosetta stone, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rossetti, D. G., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rouget, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rough side of calf leather, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rounded backs of books, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roux, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rowlandson, artist, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Royal Irish Academy, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ruette, M., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rune staves, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Runic inscriptions, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rupert, Prince, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Russia leather, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">S.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>Saddharmapundarika Sutra</cite>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Christopher, woodcut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Cuthbert’s gospels, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Esprit, French order of the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. John Latran, bookbinders’ guild, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Maurice D’Agaune, church of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Michel, French order of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Porchaire, Faience de, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">St. Wallberg, church of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Samarkand, paper made at, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sandby, P., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sandys, F., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sangorsky, F., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sangster, S., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Satchels for books, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Satin bindings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>printing on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sauné, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Savart, P., line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Sawn in” backs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Say, W., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Schöffer, P., printer, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Schrödter, A., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scotin, line engraver, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scott, J. L., of the British Museum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Scrive knife, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sea lion leather, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Seal leather, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sears, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Semis, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sen, tablet of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Send hieroglyphic, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Senefelder, A., lithographer, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sewing frames for binders, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sewing of books, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sharpe, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sheep leather, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shot silk effect in half-tone prints, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Siberch, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Siegen, L. von, mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Signatures” in printed books, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silk bindings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote8">”</span>paper, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote8">”</span>printing on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Silver bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_256b"></a>Simounet, J. B., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Simpson, Sir J., antiquary, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sion, in the Rhone valley, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Six Nations” wampum, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sizes of printed books, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Skiver” leather, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Small metal bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smith, D. and W. R., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote13">”</span>O., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smooth morocco, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Société des Amis des Livres, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Society of Arts Committee on Paper, 1898 ... <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Soft wood engravings, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Soyer, S., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Ref_256a"></a><cite>Speculum, Humanæ Salvationis</cite>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spierinck, N., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Split sheep-skin, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sprinkled calf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stabbed bindings, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stadler, J. C., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Staffordshire clog almanacks, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Staggemeier, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stanfield, artist, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stanhope, C., Earl, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Star” watermark, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Steam printing press, 1814 ... <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Steel engraving, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stencil plates for colouring prints, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stephanoff, F. and J., artists, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stereotyping, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stipple engraving, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stothard, artist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stowe House, library at, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote12">”</span>missal, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Straight grained” morocco, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sturt, J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Styles for writing on wax, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sullivan, Sir E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sulphuric acid in leather, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sumatran bark books, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>calendars, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sutcliffe, G., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sutherland, T., aquatint engraver, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Swain, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Symbolic messages, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote18">”</span>signs on rocks, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<div>
-<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">T.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Taleth fringes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Talismans, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tallies, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tasselled ecclesiastical hats, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tasso’s <cite>Gerusalemme Liberata</cite>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tate, J., printer, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Taylor’s, I., <cite>History of the Alphabet</cite>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Taylor, W. D., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Test for clay paper, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thibetan prayer wheels, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thiebault, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thompson, Sir E. M., <cite>Manual of Greek and Roman Palæography</cite>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote22">”</span>J., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thouvenin, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Three-colour process, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tillard, J. B., line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><cite>The Times</cite> of 20th November, 1814 ... <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Title-page engraved on wood, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Torres Straits, tallies used in the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tortoiseshell bindings, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tory, G., artist, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tours, conference at, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Transparent vellum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trautz, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tree marbled calf, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trench along the edges of book boards, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trière, P., <a id="Ref_245"></a>line engraver, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tudor badges, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tuerlinckoe, lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Turner, C., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>J. M. W., artist, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Turrecremata, <cite>Meditations</cite>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Type casting, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>founding in England, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>metal, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote1">”</span>specimen sheets, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">U.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Utamaro, K., artist, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Uzanne, O., author, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">V.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vander Meulen, lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vangelisty, stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Van Loo, lithographer, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vellum bindings, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>pierced, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>preparation of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>printing on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>rolls, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote14">”</span>transparent, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Velvet bindings, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Venetian bindings, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Verard, A., printer, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vernet, H., artist, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Villa Dei, A. de, <cite>Doctrinale</cite>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Villerey, line engraver, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vogel, A., artist, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">W.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wagstaffe, C., stipple engraver, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Walker, F., artist, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wallis, H., and R., line engravers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Walther, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wampum belts, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Warren, C., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Watermarks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Weale, W. H. J., author, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Webber’s <cite>Views in the South Seas</cite>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whimper, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whistler, J. M., artist, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whitaker, J., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“White line” engraving, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whymper, J. W., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wick rotary type-casting machine, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wier, R., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wiesner, J., <cite>Professor</cite>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Willett, lithographer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Williams, M. A., S., and T., wood engravers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx"><span class="spacequote19">”</span>T. J., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Willmore, T., line engraver, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilson, J. L., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wimborne Minster, chained library at, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Winchester Domesday Book, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wohlgemuth, M., wood engraver, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wood-cut illustrations, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wood pulp used for paper, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wooden types, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Woolrich, Miss N. E., bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wordsworth, Mrs., amateur bookbinder, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Woven book, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wright, wood engraver, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">X.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Xylographs, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Y.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Young, J., mezzotint engraver, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Z.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Zaehnsdorf, bookbinder, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Zainer, G., publisher, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Zinc blocks, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<p class="center smallfont">BRADBURY, AGNEW, &amp; CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub-->
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<h2 style="margin-top: 0em">Transcriber’s Notes:</h2>
-
-<p>The single footnote has been moved to the end of its chapter.</p>
-
-<p>Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are
-mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>Punctuation has been made consistent.</p>
-
-<p>Variations in spelling, hyphenation, and accenting were retained as
-they appear in the original publication, except that obvious
-typographical errors have been corrected.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Ref_62">p. 62</a>: βυβλοἱ transliterates into English as bubloi.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Ref_144">p. 144</a>: Ναβουχοδονὀσωρ Εσαει ζῆθι transliterates into English as
-Nabouchodonosôr Esaei zêthi.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Ref_180">p. 180</a>: βασιλικον Δωρον transliterates into English as basilikon Dôron.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#Ref_251">p. 251</a>: Βασιλικον Δωρον transliterates into English as: Basilikon Dôron.</p>
-
-<p>Several Index entries are spelled differently than their targets, including:</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_252a">p. 252</a>: Marillier versus Marillien on <a href="#Ref_123">p. 123</a> (Marillier, J. P., line)</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_252b">p. 252</a>: Meissonnier versus Meissonier on <a href="#Ref_115">p. 115</a> (Meissonnier, artist, 115)</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_254">p. 254</a>: Porrett versus Porret on <a href="#Ref_114">p. 114</a> (Porrett, wood engraver)</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_256a">p. 256</a>: Humanæ versus Humanae on <a href="#Ref_90">p. 90</a> (<cite>Speculum, Humanæ Salvationis</cite>)</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_256b">p. 256</a>: Simounet versus Simonnet on <a href="#Ref_122">p. 122</a> (Simounet, J. B., line)</p>
-
-<p>The following changes were made:</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_245">p. 245</a>: page number 122 added (line engraver, 122.)</p>
-
-<p class="TNindent"><a href="#Ref_248">p. 248</a>: Dupréal was changed to Dupréel (Dupréel, line engraver)</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book, by Cyril Davenport
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK ***
-
-***** This file should be named 52932-h.htm or 52932-h.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/9/3/52932/
-
-Produced by MWS, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.)
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-</body>
-</html>
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/cover.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ad40eb7..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/cover.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_003.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_003.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6f8dc5d..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_003.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_004.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_004.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ec414da..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_004.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_006.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_006.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5fa608c..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_006.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_007.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_007.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4e8c21a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_007.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_008.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_008.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 42d7692..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_008.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_010a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_010a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e3ad229..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_010a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_010b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_010b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c234805..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_010b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_011.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_011.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 56cd85f..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_011.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_012.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_012.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 700a997..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_012.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_013.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_013.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a13cbda..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_013.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_015.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_015.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8e47593..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_015.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_020.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_020.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 70b5f1e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_020.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_021.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_021.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b1ef06b..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_021.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_022.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_022.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 49e02c8..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_022.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_023.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_023.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8e91d73..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_023.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_026.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_026.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8fc6c5e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_026.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_027a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_027a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 32f7bb1..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_027a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_027b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_027b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dcf81ac..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_027b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_028a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_028a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1c21200..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_028a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_028b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_028b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c3888c1..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_028b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_029a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_029a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 664b365..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_029a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_029b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_029b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 54e52bb..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_029b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_031.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_031.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5ec9a42..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_031.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_032.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_032.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b14f491..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_032.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_033a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_033a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 20c6466..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_033a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_033b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_033b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c607a31..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_033b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_034.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_034.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 121bc38..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_034.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_035a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_035a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9313d4a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_035a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_035b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_035b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bcfbfd7..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_035b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_036.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_036.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 71bfbcc..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_036.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_038.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_038.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6a1eedc..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_038.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_039.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_039.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1f77048..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_039.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_040a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_040a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 83cb1f2..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_040a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_040b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_040b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 36477a1..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_040b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_040c.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_040c.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e860dd4..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_040c.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_040d.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_040d.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1e2ee8d..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_040d.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_040e.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_040e.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c27f00c..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_040e.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_040f.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_040f.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 44c5cc6..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_040f.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_041a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_041a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1e7b99e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_041a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_041b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_041b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b548d06..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_041b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_042a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_042a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a76a693..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_042a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_042b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_042b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a0d8313..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_042b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_043a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_043a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7e8c3ca..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_043a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_043b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_043b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c214028..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_043b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_044.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_044.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 422dfd4..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_044.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_045.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_045.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6117d8a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_045.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_046.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_046.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f729bef..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_046.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_047.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_047.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bd2cee8..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_047.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_048.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_048.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 498318e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_048.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_052.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_052.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a2d2396..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_052.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_053.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_053.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9ba68fc..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_053.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_057.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_057.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 14502f0..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_057.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_060.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_060.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2d43e36..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_060.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_065.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_065.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d1727c2..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_065.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_070a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_070a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 178747c..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_070a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_070b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_070b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 010c785..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_070b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_071a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_071a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 58ee096..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_071a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_071b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_071b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bad41e2..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_071b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_072a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_072a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d491a9b..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_072a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_072b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_072b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9f03848..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_072b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_073.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_073.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b92157a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_073.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_074a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_074a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e79650c..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_074a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_074b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_074b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 937f732..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_074b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_075a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_075a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e231278..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_075a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_075b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_075b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 674a67d..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_075b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_085.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_085.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 945c84b..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_085.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_087.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_087.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8d83d50..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_087.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_094.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_094.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5226480..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_094.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_098fp.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_098fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b9ef1dd..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_098fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_104fp.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_104fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8bdb3d0..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_104fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_108fp.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_108fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 136a359..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_108fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_110fp.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_110fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8a9db63..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_110fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_113.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_113.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 65c723e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_113.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_124fp.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_124fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6c2d175..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_124fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_142.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_142.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4a4bbaf..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_142.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_143.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_143.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 707f300..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_143.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_144.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_144.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ad1dc46..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_144.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_145.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_145.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0024815..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_145.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_146.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_146.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e5da9e5..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_146.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_147.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_147.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d47cdf5..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_147.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_148.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_148.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3156bd0..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_148.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_150.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_150.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dc85963..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_150.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_152.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_152.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 04d9bc3..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_152.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_153.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_153.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1b0f0d5..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_153.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_154.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_154.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4ce59c2..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_154.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_159.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_159.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dfeb696..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_159.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_161.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_161.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9948705..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_161.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_162.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_162.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 45dafa8..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_162.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_163.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_163.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3bdc81d..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_163.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_165.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_165.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b475bde..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_165.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_184.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_184.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 33e512b..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_184.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_186.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_186.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 84ae054..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_186.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_188.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_188.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a015a76..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_188.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_190.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_190.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a635d0a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_190.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_192.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_192.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 75e927a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_192.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_193.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_193.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 95612a1..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_193.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_194.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_194.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9c227c6..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_194.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_195.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_195.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b81d9d6..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_195.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_196.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_196.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d019a1f..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_196.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_197.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_197.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 06a5b95..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_197.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_198a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_198a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5cead74..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_198a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_198b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_198b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9be3563..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_198b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_199.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_199.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fc874a3..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_199.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_200.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_200.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dab38c8..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_200.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_206.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_206.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ca7b44e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_206.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_208.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_208.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 45931a9..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_208.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_209.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_209.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0884cc7..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_209.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_210.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_210.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7b9934e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_210.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_211.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_211.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ceaf504..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_211.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_212.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_212.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fbe192c..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_212.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_214.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_214.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6b584a5..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_214.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_215.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_215.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 45933b6..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_215.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_216a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_216a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 69b43ed..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_216a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_216b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_216b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5bf79ac..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_216b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_217a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_217a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 52a9170..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_217a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_217b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_217b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 821069e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_217b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_219.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_219.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 18b657f..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_219.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_220.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_220.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9bca205..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_220.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_221.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_221.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0ba35d2..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_221.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_223.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_223.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e701f97..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_223.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_224.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_224.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 68f2c80..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_224.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_225.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_225.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5263185..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_225.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_226.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_226.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ccafa09..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_226.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_227.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_227.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 531b8a9..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_227.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_228.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_228.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e7bdcb9..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_228.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_233.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_233.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 452a56c..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_233.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_234.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_234.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 67a6d8e..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_234.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_235.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_235.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d59fd24..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_235.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_236.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_236.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4435f41..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_236.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_238fp.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_238fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e505d96..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_238fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_240a.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_240a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0560cde..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_240a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_240b.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_240b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3f55570..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_240b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_frontis.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_frontis.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7749e2a..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_frontis.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/52932-h/images/i_titlepage.jpg b/old/52932-h/images/i_titlepage.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ae2eb36..0000000
--- a/old/52932-h/images/i_titlepage.jpg
+++ /dev/null