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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2eb8b3b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52937 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52937) diff --git a/old/52937-0.txt b/old/52937-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3784ddc..0000000 --- a/old/52937-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6979 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime; Russian -Prisons, by Arthur Griffiths - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The History and Romance of Crime; Russian Prisons - -Author: Arthur Griffiths - -Release Date: August 30, 2016 [EBook #52937] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY AND ROMANCE OF CRIME *** - - - - -Produced by KD Weeks, KD Weeks, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Note: - -This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects. -Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. - -The position of illustrations have been adjusted slightly to avoid -falling in mid-paragraph. - -Please see the transcriber’s note at the end of this text regarding the -few textual issues encountered during its preparation. - - The History and - Romance of - Crime - - FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES - TO THE PRESENT DAY - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - THE GROLIER SOCIETY - LONDON - -[Illustration: - - _Young Girl Revolutionist Condemned to the Scaffold_ -] - -So severe was the Russian government in the measures adopted to repress -the revolutionists that mere school-girls were exiled, imprisoned or -executed. Many well-born girls made it their chief aim to help the -peasants, enduring the privations and hardships of the labouring -classes. Madame Vera Phillipova, a young woman of great beauty, was long -the most popular person in the revolutionary movement. She became -identified with the conspiracy of “the Fourteen,” and was thrown into -the Schlüsselburg for the term of her natural life. - - - - - ~Russian Prisons~ - - ST. PETER AND ST. PAUL - THE SCHLÜSSELBURG - THE OSTROG AT OMSK - THE STORY OF SIBERIAN EXILE - TIUMEN, TOMSK, SAGHALIEN - - _by_ - - MAJOR ARTHUR GRIFFITHS - - _Late Inspector of Prisons in Great Britain_ - - _Author of - “The Mysteries of Police and Crime,” - “Fifty Years of Public Service,” etc._ - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - THE GROLIER SOCIETY - - ------------------ - - EDITION NATIONALE - Limited to one thousand registered and numbered sets. - - NUMBER 307. - - ------------------ - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -The huge empire founded by the Czars of Russia in the latter half of the -sixteenth century was based upon absolute autocracy. The Czar by virtue -of his divine origin exercised absolute authority over the many diverse -elements consolidated under his sovereign will. From the earliest times -no idea of personal liberty was tolerated; the slightest expression of -independence in thought and action was peremptorily forbidden. The -attitude of the government has ever been uncompromisingly severe toward -all malcontents, and Russian history for the last two centuries is one -long record of conspiracy constantly afoot, and constantly repressed by -savagely cruel coercion. Imprisonment, the absolute loss of physical -freedom, has taken a wider meaning in Russia than in other countries, -for it is the lot in one form or another of two classes of offenders: -the ordinary criminal under a civil code, from which capital punishment -is now excluded, and the political dissidents deemed criminal by the -arbitrary government of the land and deserving of exemplary and -vindictive punishment. Russian prisons are in some respects the worst -and most horrible the world has seen, and they are more especially -reprehensible in these latter days when humane considerations are -allowed weight in the administration of penal institutions. - -In giving a description of Russian prisons as they have been and to some -extent still remain, it is fair to state that the facts are -authenticated by unimpeachable evidence. We have the statements of -eye-witnesses speaking from their own knowledge, and these unsparing -critics have not always been foreigners and outsiders; Russians -themselves have also raised their indignant voices in energetic protest, -and official reports can be quoted to substantiate many of the charges. -On the other hand, Russian methods have found champions and apologists -among travellers, who were, perhaps, superficial observers, easily -misled, and their accounts cannot in the least upset the conclusions -arrived at by more thoroughgoing and disinterested investigators. Such -men as George Kennan, indefatigable, honest, courageous and of the -highest veracity, have framed an indictment from which there is no -appeal. The facts have been vouched for, moreover, by the trustworthy -narratives of those who have themselves been personal victims of the -worst horrors inflicted, and buttressed by confidential reports from -great Russian functionaries sent direct to the Czar. Secret despatches -which have fallen into hands for which they were not intended, and have -been made public by the searchers for truth, frankly admit the justice -of the sentence passed upon at least one frightful portion of Russian -penal institutions,—the system of exile to Eastern Siberia. -Governor-General Anuchin twice addressed the Czar Alexander III, in 1880 -and 1882, after long tours of personal inspection, in such condemnatory -terms that the mighty ruler upon whom the terrible burden of -responsibility rested, was moved to endorse the report in his own -handwriting with the words, “It is inexcusable, even criminal, to allow -such a state of affairs in Siberia to continue.” The frightful system -which allowed an irresponsible bureaucracy to sentence untried persons -to exile by so-called “administrative process” is fully explained and -described in the present volume. - - - - - CONTENTS - - CHAPTER PAGE - INTRODUCTION 5 - I. GENERAL SURVEY 13 - II. TWO FAMOUS FORTRESSES 36 - III. THE EXILE SYSTEM 68 - IV. THE OSTROG AT OMSK 99 - V. LIFE IN THE OSTROG 128 - VI. TIUMEN AND TOMSK 160 - VII. VAGABONDAGE AND UNIONS 185 - VIII. TREATMENT OF POLITICALS 211 - IX. CHANGES IN SYSTEM 247 - X. SAGHALIEN 269 - - - - - List of Illustrations - - YOUNG GIRL REVOLUTIONIST _Frontispiece_ - FORTRESS OF PETER AND PAUL _Page_ 38 - RUSSIAN PRISONERS ” 229 - - - - - RUSSIAN PRISONS - - - - - CHAPTER I - GENERAL SURVEY - -Commencement of judicial reform in Russia—Abandonment of knout and - branding iron—The plet—Two classes of prisons, the “lock-up” and the - “central” or convict prisons—Experiences of a woman exiled from - Russia—Testimony of Carl Joubert—The state of the central prisons—The - “model” prison in St. Petersburg—Punishments inflicted—The food in - different prisons—Attempted escapes—Myshkin—His early history and - daring exploits—Failure of his plan to rescue Chernyshevski from - Siberia—His escape, recapture, and sentence of death—The prisoner - Medvediev. - - -A definite movement toward judicial reform began in Russia in the early -sixties. The old law courts with their archaic procedure and evil repute -as sinks of bribery and corruption were abolished. Trial by jury was -revived, and justices of the peace were established to dispose of the -smaller criminal offences. Shortly afterward, two of the most -disgraceful features in the Russian penal code, the knout and the -branding iron, disappeared. The punishment of splitting the nostrils to -mark ineffaceably the prisoners exiled to the salt mines of Okhotsk also -ceased, and the simple Chinese no longer were surprised with the sight -of a hitherto unknown race of men with peculiar features of their own. -The knout, however, had long served its devilish purpose. It was -inflicted even upon women in the time of Peter the Great, and was still -remembered as an instrument which would surely kill at the thirtieth -stroke, although in the hands of a skilful performer a single blow might -prove fatal. - -Flogging did not go entirely out of practice and might still be ordered -by peasant courts, in the army and in the convict prisons. But another -brutal whip survived; the plet is still used in the far-off penal -settlements, although rarely, and only upon the most hardened offenders. -It is composed of a thong of twisted hide about two feet in length, -ending in a number of thin lashes, each a foot long, with small leaden -balls attached, and forms a most severe and murderous weapon. The number -of strokes inflicted may vary from twenty-three to fifty and at -Saghalien in some cases reaches ninety-nine. If the victim has money or -friends, the flogger is bribed to lay on heavily; for when the blow is -so light as to fail to draw blood, the pain is greater. By beginning -gently the flagellator can gradually increase the force of each blow -until the whole back is covered with long swollen transverse welts which -not uncommonly mortify, causing death. - -At one time trial by court-martial could sentence a soldier to the -frightful ordeal of the “rods,” flogging administered by comrades -standing in two ranks between which he moved at a deliberate pace while -they “laid on” the strokes with sticks upon his bare back. This is -exactly the same penalty as that of “running the gauntlet,” or -“gantlope,” well known in old-time military practice, and sometimes -called “Green Street” in Russia, for the rods used were not always -stripped of their leaves. The infliction might be greatly prolonged and -the number of strokes given sometimes amounted to several thousand. -Devilish ingenuity has now replaced the physical torture of knout and -plet by a modern device for inflicting bodily discomfort, nothing less -than riveting a wheelbarrow to a man’s legs, which he must take with him -everywhere, even to bed,—the apology for a bed on which he passed the -night. - -Russian prisons are of several classes. There are first the “lock-ups,” -or places of detention for the accused awaiting trial, scattered -throughout the country, and quite unequal in the aggregate to the -accommodation of the number of prisoners on hand. It has been estimated -that to lodge all adequately, half as many more than the existing -prisons would be required. Those of another class, the houses of -correction, the hard labour or “central” prisons where compulsory labour -is exacted, are very much like the “public works” convict prisons in the -English system. Many of these are established in European Russia; more -are to be found in Western Siberia, and, on somewhat different lines, in -the penal settlements of Eastern Siberia. - -In the provincial “lock-ups” or _ostrogs_ the conditions have always -been deplorable. They are horribly overcrowded with wretched, hopeless -beings for whom trial is often greatly delayed, and who lie there in -inconceivable discomfort at the mercy of brutal and extortionate -gaolers, “packed like herrings in a cask, in rooms of inconceivable -foulness, in an atmosphere that sickens even to insensibility any one -entering from the open air,” says one writer. - -The same author gives the experiences of a lady who was expelled from -Russia for opening a school for peasants’ children, and who was -transferred to the Prussian frontier from prison to prison. “At Wilna,” -she says, “we were taken to the town prison, and detained for two hours -late at night in an open yard under a drenching rain. At last we were -pushed into a dark corridor and counted. Two soldiers laid hold of me -and insulted me shamefully. After many oaths and much foul language, the -fire was lighted and I found myself in a spacious room, in which it was -impossible to take a step in any direction without treading on the women -sleeping on the floor. Two women who occupied a bed took pity on me and -invited me to share it with them.... The next night we were turned out -from the prison and paraded in the yard for the start under a heavy -rain. I do not know how I happened to escape the fists of the gaolers, -as the prisoners did not understand the evolutions and performed them -under a storm of blows and curses; those who protested were put in irons -and sent so to the train, although the law prescribes that in the -cellular wagons no prisoner shall be chained. - -“Arrived at Kovno, we spent the whole day in going from one police -station to another. In the evening we were taken to the prison for women -where the superintendent was railing against the head gaoler and -swearing that she would give him ‘bloody teeth.’ The prisoners told me -that she often kept promises of this sort. Here I spent a week among -murderesses and thieves and women arrested by mistake. Misfortune unites -the unfortunate, and everybody tried to make life more tolerable for the -rest; all were very kind to me and did their best to console me. On the -previous day I had eaten nothing, for prisoners receive no food on the -day they are brought to prison. I fainted from hunger, and the prisoners -brought me round by giving me some of their black bread; there was a -female inspector, but she did nothing but shout out shameless oaths such -as no drunken man would use. - -“After a week’s halt at Kovno, I was sent on to the next town. After -three days’ march we came to Mariampol. My feet were wounded and my -stockings full of blood. The soldiers advised me to ask for a vehicle, -but I preferred physical suffering to the continued cursing and foul -language of the chiefs. I was taken before the commander, who remarked -that as I had walked for three days I could very well manage a fourth. -On arrival at Volkovisk, the last halt, we were lodged provisionally in -the prison, but the female side was in ruins and we were taken to the -men’s quarters, and had nowhere to sit but on the filthily dirty and -foul-smelling floor. Here I spent two days and nights, passing the whole -time at the window. In the night, the door was constantly thrown open -for new arrivals; they also brought in a male lunatic who was perfectly -naked. The miserable prisoners delighted in this, and tormented the -maniac into a paroxysm of passion, until at last he fell on the floor in -a fit and lay there foaming at the mouth. On the third day a soldier of -the depot, a Jew, took me into his room, a tiny cell, where I stayed -with his wife. - -“The prisoners told me that many of them were detained by mistake for -seven or eight months, awaiting their papers before being sent across -the frontier. It is easy to imagine their condition after a seven -months’ stay in this sewer without a change of linen.... I had been six -weeks on the road and was still delayed, but I got leave to send a -registered letter to St. Petersburg, where I had influential friends, -and a telegram came to send me on to Prussia immediately. My papers were -soon found, and I was sent to Eydtkuhnen, where I was set at liberty.” - -It is asserted by our author that this horrible picture was not one whit -overcharged. “To Russians every word rings true and every scene looks -normal. Oaths, filth, brutality, bribery, blows, hunger, are the -essentials of every _ostrog_ and of every depot from Kovno to -Kamtchatka, from Archangel to Erzerum.” It is summed up by Kropotkin as -follows: “The incredible duration of preliminary detention, the -disgusting circumstances of daily life; the congregation of hundreds of -prisoners into small dirty chambers; the flagrant immorality of a corps -of jailers who are practically omnipotent, whose whole function is to -terrorise and oppress; the want of labour and the total absence of all -that contributes to the moral welfare of man; the cynical contempt for -human dignity and the physical degradation of prisoners—these are the -elements of prison life in Russia.” - -Another writer of more recent date, Carl Joubert, whose works on Russia -have been widely read, says, “I am aware that in no part of the world is -the lot of a prisoner a happy one. It is not intended that it should be; -but in civilised countries they are, at least, given the opportunity of -keeping themselves clean and decent. They are treated as human beings -and their health is considered; but in Russia it is different. The -prisoners in Russia, whether before or after the trial—and a great many -of the political prisoners have no trial—the Russian prisoners are -considered beasts, and treated accordingly. The warders know what is -expected of them; and if a warder shows any glimmering of humanity in -his treatment of the prisoners committed to his charge, his services are -dispensed with and a stronger-hearted warder takes his place. - -“I said that Russian prisoners have no sex; but I must qualify that -statement. In so far as the normal treatment of the women is concerned, -they are separated from the men, but no other distinction is made. If -they are young and attractive, however, their sex can procure for them, -and worse still, for those who are dear to them, a certain amount of -consideration from those in authority over them on the road to Siberia.” - -The penalties inflicted by the Russian code may be classed under four -heads. The first is hard labour with the loss of civil rights, so that -the convict’s property passes to his heirs; he is dead in law, and his -wife may marry another; he endures his term either after deportation to -Siberia, or in one of the “central prisons” which have been built on -purpose in European Russia, and where he spends a third or fourth of his -entire sentence, until he goes finally to Siberia or Saghalien as a -penal colonist. These central prisons were created to substitute a more -regular and more severe treatment than was possible at a distance from -home, and the aim was achieved. According to the best authorities, the -central prisons are practically “hells upon earth.” “The horrors of hard -labour in Siberia,” says Peter Kropotkin, “have paled before them, and -all those who have had experience of them are unanimous in declaring -that the day a prisoner starts for Siberia is the happiest in his life.” - -A few specific details may be quoted about one or two of these prisons. -In that of Kharkov, in Little Russia, at one time two hundred of the -five hundred inmates died of scurvy in the course of four months. In the -Byelogorod prison, nearly half of a total of three hundred and thirty -prisoners died within a year, and forty-five more in the following six -months. At Kiev the scourge of typhus was endemic. In one month in the -year 1881 the deaths were counted by hundreds and the places of those -who died were promptly filled by others similarly doomed. All the rooms -occupied were very damp, the walls sweating with moisture, the floor -rotten in many places, the cesspools overflowing and the neighbouring -ground saturated. The epidemics were officially explained and the causes -acknowledged by the chief board of prisons. It was urged that although -the prison was dreadfully overcrowded, there was plenty of room -elsewhere. - -The chief prison in St. Petersburg at one time was the Litovski Zamok, -and it was credited with being kept clean, but the buildings, -old-fashioned, dark and damp, were only fit to be levelled to the -ground. A newer prison is the House of Preliminary Detention which is -ambitiously designated as the “model,” and which was built on the plan -of modern prisons in Belgium and at an immense cost. Kropotkin -characterises it as the only clean gaol for ordinary prisoners in -Russia. Cleanliness in it amounts to a craze; the scrubbing brush is -never idle; broom and pail are used with demoniacal activity. Particles -of asphalt dust from the floor continually load the atmosphere and make -breathing difficult. The three upper stories are infected by the -exhalations from the lower, and the ventilation is so abominably bad -that at night when the doors are shut the interior of the cells is -suffocating. Endeavours to remedy this have ended in a recommendation to -rebuild the prison entirely as nothing less will serve. The cells are -large enough, ten feet in length by five feet wide, and it is yet -essential to keep the traps in the door constantly open to prevent -asphyxiation. - -Strict individual separation was the rule established in this St. -Petersburg House of Detention, and it extended to both cells and -exercising yards. The space allotted to the latter was circular in shape -and was divided into segments by walls radiating from a common centre to -the circumference. Each inmate walked to and fro singly in his own -compartment, under the surveillance of an official standing on a raised -platform in the centre. Nothing was visible from within the partition -but the backs of the lofty prison buildings topped with a narrow strip -of sky. - -The rule of cellular isolation was defeated, however, by the ancient -prison device of rapping on the walls according to a conventional -alphabet based upon a fixed number of blows for each letter. The letters -are arranged in certain groups as follows:— - - a b c d e f - g h i k l m - n o p r s t - u v w x y z - -Words are composed by knocking so many times on the wall for each -letter. First, the horizontal line on which the letter stands is counted -and its place numbered on the vertical line. Thus to frame the word -“you,” the first signal for “y” would be four knocks, indicating the -vertical line; then a pause and five taps to give the place on the -horizontal line. Three taps followed after a short pause by two taps -would form the letter “o,” and four short taps with one final tap after -a pause would fix the letter “u.” These sounds are not only -distinguishable in cells alongside each other but in those far distant -if the wall is the same. Communications by this means passed -continually, although the system was abhorrent to the authorities and -severe punishments were imposed upon all caught in the act. - -Punishments were the only break in the monotony of this dull solitary -life, and they were varied and ingenious. A prisoner guilty of minor -offences, such as smoking or the secreting of a match or a morsel of -bread saved from a meal, might be condemned to kneel for a couple of -hours on the bare flags of a freezingly cold thoroughfare, or be cast -into a dark cell, originally intended for cases of ophthalmia, and kept -there for months, frequently until he became blind or mad or both. -Cruelty was of common occurrence in this House of Detention. It was here -that General Trepov ordered a prisoner Bogolubov to be flogged for not -removing his hat when he came into the great man’s presence, and -punished others who protested by confining them in cells near the -lavatory amidst all kinds of filth, and heated to a temperature of 110 -degrees Fahrenheit. - -The personal experiences of an officer who spent a long time in a prison -near St. Petersburg were afterward published in a liberal journal. “In -the evening,” he reports, “the governor went his rounds and usually -began his favourite occupation—flogging. A very narrow bench was brought -out and soon the place resounded with shrieks, while the governor smoked -a cigar and looked on, counting the lashes. The birch rods were of -exceptional size, and when not in use were kept immersed in water to -make them more pliant. After the tenth lash the shrieking ceased, and -nothing was heard but groans. Flogging was usually applied on groups of -five or ten men or more at one time, and when the execution was over a -great pool of blood remained to mark the spot. People in the street -without would cross themselves and pass to the other side. After every -such scene we had two or three days of comparative peace; for the -flogging had a soothing effect on the governor’s nerves.” - -“On one occasion,” says the same writer, “we were visited by an -inspector of prisons. After casting a look down at us, he asked if our -food was good or if there was anything else of which we could complain. -Not only did the inmates declare that they were completely satisfied; -they even enumerated articles of diet which we had never so much as -smelled.” The food here and elsewhere was neither plentiful nor -palatable. “It consisted of a quarter of a pound of black bread for -breakfast; and a soup made of bull’s heart or liver, or of seven pounds -of meat, twenty pounds of waste oats, twenty pounds of sour cabbage and -plenty of water.” The daily sum allowed to cover cost was one penny, -three farthings, not a great deal when officials expected to embezzle a -substantial part. - -Leo Deutsch, an important political prisoner, says that his daily ration -of black bread was two pounds, with a dinner at midday of two dishes, -not bad, but insufficient and always half cold, as the kitchen was far -away. This was in the fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul. At the -“Butirki”—this was the popular name for the central prison of Moscow—the -food, he says, “was beneath criticism; even the most robust at their -hungriest could scarcely swallow a spoonful of the repulsive malodorous -broth in wooden bowls brought to our cells at midday. This is explained -by the fact that the sum originally provided by government for our -maintenance was extremely small; and on its way through to us a great -part of it found its way into the bottomless pockets of officials great -and small, among whom there is an organised system of general -peculation. The big cauldrons used for cooking the food of several -thousand prisoners were filled up with the worst materials that were -procurable.” - -George Kennan in his “Siberia” tells us he tasted the soup in the -kitchen of the Tiumen, or forwarding prison, and “found it nutritious -and good.” The bread was rather sour and heavy, but not worse than that -prepared and eaten by Russian peasants generally. The daily ration of -the prisoners consisted of two and a half pounds of this black bread, -about six ounces of boiled meat, and two or three ounces of coarsely -ground barley or oats with a bowl of _kvas_ morning and evening for -drink. - -Carl Joubert says, “I inspected the rations in the prison at Tomsk. The -soup stank with the odour of a soap factory. I asked for a piece of -bread from a warder, and when I had examined it I called for a bowl of -warm water. I put the bread to soak in the water, and in a couple of -minutes I handed the wooden bowl to Dr. Anatovich, and asked him to look -at it. ‘Why should I examine it?’ he asked. But a moment later I heard -him exclaim: ‘My God! My God!’ The surface of the water was covered with -worms.” The soup at the infamous prison fortress of the Schlüsselburg -often contained cockroaches floating on the surface, and the director -thus explained their presence to a complainant: Whenever the copper lid -is lifted, the steam rises to the ceiling and dislodges the cockroaches -which fall into the soup. - -Various attempts have been made to bring the Russian prisons into line -with the more modern development of penal principles, but they have -never been carried out consistently nor resulted in marked reforms. A -good deal of money has been spent in constructing new buildings on the -most approved plans, and the favourite theory in vogue, that of cellular -confinement, has been adopted to a limited extent. Such enormous numbers -have to be dealt with, and over such a wide area, that no comprehensive -uniform system could possibly be introduced to meet even a fraction of -the demand. But a certain number of cellular prisons were provided, -seemingly with the idea of intensifying the pains and penalties of -imprisonment. - -The prison at Kharkov was one of the worst of its class; the cells were -dark and damp, and the régime of solitary confinement was unduly -prolonged. The most terrible sufferings were endured by the political -prisoners who were chiefly lodged in them, until special prisons were -appropriated for them, such as those of St. Peter and St. Paul and the -Schlüsselburg. At Kharkov a “hunger strike” was organised, the fixed -resolve to abstain altogether from food—a form of protest common enough -in Russian prisons until a remedy was applied to their grievances. -Concessions were then made to the extent of permitting exercise in the -open air, removing fetters from the limbs of the sick in hospital and -giving daily employment, but not before disastrous results had shown -themselves. Six of the political prisoners went out of their minds and -several died. - -During the time that the Kharkov prison was used for this class of -offenders, it was the scene of some startling events. Several escapes -and attempts at rescue occurred. The case of Hypolyte Myshkin, a -determined and most courageous man, was remarkable and deserving of more -success. Myshkin was lodged at Kharkov in a small cell on the lower -story, which had once been occupied by Prince Tsitianov, a distinguished -revolutionist. He concentrated all his energies upon contriving escape, -and within the first year had manufactured a dummy figure to lie on the -guard-bed in his place, and proceeded to excavate a tunnel beneath the -prison wall. He had no implements except his hands and a small piece of -board, but he dug deep and far, disposing of the earth by packing it -into a space between the floor of his cell and the ground. He had also -made a suit of clothes to substitute for the prison uniform when at -large. The material used for this purpose was obtained from a number of -old maps, given to the former occupant of the cell and which had been -left lying on the stove. Myshkin soaked the paper off the muslin on -which it was mounted, and made a shirt and a pair of trousers. He was -actually on the point of departure, when, unfortunately, a gaoler -visited his cell at an unusual hour. He was down in his tunnel, and the -dummy betrayed him. The alarm was raised, the other end of the tunnel -was entered, and the fugitive was caught in a trap. He was transferred -to another cell from which there was no prospect of escape. - -Myshkin, hopeless and reckless, now sought freedom in death. Resolving -to commit an offence which would entail capital punishment, he obtained -leave to attend divine service at the prison church, and managed to get -close to the governor, whom he struck in the face when in the act of -kissing the cross in the hands of the officiating priest. Under ordinary -conditions, trial and condemnation to death would follow, but just at -this time the distressing state of affairs at Kharkov had caused so much -uneasiness that the Minister of the Interior had sent a sanitary expert -to report upon the conditions which had produced so much lunacy and so -many deaths. Professor Dobroslavin pronounced the place unfit for human -habitation, and urged the immediate removal of all political convicts. -It was no doubt supposed that Myshkin was of unsound mind when he struck -the governor, and he was not even tried for the offence, but shortly -afterward was despatched to the far-off silver mines of Kara. - -Myshkin’s antecedents and his ultimate fate are of interest. He was a -young student at the Technological Institute of St. Petersburg in 1870, -when, fired by the ardent spirit of the new revolutionists, he conceived -a bold project to effect the escape of the well-known author and -political writer, Chernyshevski, at that time in Siberian exile. After -spending some time in the old Alexandrovski central prison near Irkutsk, -the prisoner was presently interned under police surveillance in -Villuisk, a small village in the subarctic province of Yakutsk. Myshkin -planned to travel across Asia disguised as a captain of gendarmerie, -present a forged order to the head of the police at Villuisk, desiring -him to hand over Chernyshevski to the sham captain, who was to escort -him to another place on the Amur river. Myshkin got safely to Irkutsk, -where he was employed in the office of the gendarmerie and became -greatly trusted. He had the freedom of the office and cleverly -abstracted the necessary blank forms, forged the signatures, affixed the -seals, got his uniform, and, thus provided with all proper credentials, -appeared before the _ispravnik_, or local chief of police, at Villuisk, -who received him with all deference and respect. Myshkin was a man of -fine presence, eloquent and well spoken, and when he produced his order -he was within an ace of success. - -But there was a weak point in the plot. It was quite unusual for -officers of rank to travel without escort, and Myshkin had not had -sufficient funds to take with him confederates disguised as soldiers or -gensdarmes. The _ispravnik_ grew suspicious, the more so as the exile -Chernyshevski was an important political offender, and he hesitated to -surrender him without seeing his way more clearly. He told Myshkin that -he must have the authority of the governor to set his exile free. -Myshkin, unabashed, offered to go in person to seek the governor’s -consent, and he set off for Yakutsk, attended by a complimentary escort -of Cossacks. The _ispravnik_ astutely sent another Cossack to pass them -on the road with a letter of advice for the governor. The messenger -caught up with the first party and made no secret of his mission. - -The game was up, and Myshkin, in despair, made a bolt for the woods. The -Cossacks promptly gave chase, but Myshkin drew his revolver, beat off -his pursuers and succeeded in getting away. He wandered through the -forests for a week, and was at last captured, half dead from cold and -privation. He was lodged first in the prison of Irkutsk and then brought -to St. Petersburg, where he was thrown into the fortress of St. Peter -and St. Paul, and he lay there for three years in a solitary cell -awaiting trial. He was kept in the Trubetzkoi Bastion, near a prisoner -whom Mr. Kennan afterward met in Siberia and who described his -neighbour’s sufferings feelingly. “Myshkin,” he said, “was often -delirious from fever, excitement or the maddening effect of long -solitary confinement, and I frequently heard his cries when he was put -into a strait-jacket or strapped to his bed by the fortress guard.” - -Myshkin’s trial caused a great sensation. The government had refused to -allow the proceedings to be taken down in shorthand, and the prisoner -declined to make any defence; he made a fiery speech, however, -denouncing the secrecy of the trial and declaring that the public ought -to hear the whole case through the press. He was ordered out of court, -and being removed by force, his last words, half stifled, were: “This -court is worse than a house of ill-fame; there they sell only bodies, -but here you prostitute honour, justice and law.” This insult aggravated -the original offence, and the court increased his sentence to ten years’ -penal servitude with forfeiture of all civil rights. - -Myshkin was a born orator, but by his own admission he lived to regret -his eloquence. When on his long journey to Eastern Siberia, one of his -comrades died at Irkutsk, and he was moved to make a brief oration at -the funeral. He spoke out in church, eulogising the high moral character -of the deceased, and declaring that “out of the ashes of this heroic man -and others like him will grow the tree of liberty for Russia.” Here the -police interfered; Myshkin was dragged out of church and sentenced later -to an additional fifteen years’ penal servitude. So it was said of him -that he never made but two speeches in his life, one of which cost him -ten and the other fifteen years of imprisonment. Myshkin regretted the -second speech, which, he said, would do no good, as the world could not -hear; it was the mere gratification of a personal impulse, and it added -so many years to his detention, that, even if he lived to emerge from -exile, he would be too aged to work effectively in the cause of Russian -freedom. - -Myshkin afterward escaped from Kara, when a more rigorous régime had -been introduced by Count Loris Melikov, and permission to work in the -open air had been withdrawn. One prisoner, Semyonovski, driven to -desperation, committed suicide, and several condemned to long terms made -up their minds to break prison. Myshkin and a comrade were the first to -go; a second and a third pair followed; a fourth couple were caught in -the act, and the authorities, spurred on to extreme activity by the -presence at Kara of the head of the prison department, recaptured six of -the fugitives. Myshkin succeeded in reaching Vladivostok, and was on the -point of embarking on board a foreign ship when he was recognised and -retaken. - -Myshkin and thirteen others who were deemed dangerous were sent back to -St. Petersburg in 1883, where they were lodged at first in the fortress -of St. Peter and St. Paul and then in the “stone bags” of the fortress -of Schlüsselburg. The dread of insanity from a new term of solitary -confinement drove Myshkin to repeat the same tactics as at Kharkov. He -struck one of the officers, and found more prompt retaliation this time, -for he was tried by court-martial and shot. - -Another striking incident occurred at the Kharkov prison. Two prisoners -on their way there were nearly rescued by an attack on the prison van. -One of the guards was shot, and the release would have been effected had -not the horses taken fright and stampeded, which led to their recapture. -The attack was made by a number of mounted men, armed, and one of these, -Alexei Medvediev, also called Fomin, was afterward caught in Kharkov -station. He was committed to the gaol, but managed to escape with a -party of ordinary criminals by burrowing under a wall. They did not get -farther than a wood near-by when they were recaptured. Medvediev’s -friends arranged a plan to set him free again. Two of them, disguised as -gensdarmes, brought a forged order to the prison gate calling for the -prisoner, who was to be escorted, they said, to the gendarmerie office -for examination. The false gensdarmes were detected and taken into -custody, sent for trial and condemned to death. The sentence was -afterward commuted to penal servitude for life, and they were sent to -Kara. Medvediev was treated after the same fashion, but he was detained -in various prisons of Western Siberia, closely guarded, and was at last -returned to the Alexis Ravelin in the fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul -for five or six years. He is described by a comrade—Leo Deutsch—as “a -man of consummate bravery who literally despised danger, and was always -ready to embark on the most terrible adventure. He had been a postilion -and had received only a scanty education at an elementary school, but by -his own exertions he had gained a respectable amount of knowledge.... At -Kara he became an adept in various handicrafts; he was an excellent -tailor, shoemaker, engraver and sculptor, and afterward, when he was -living as a free exile, he became a watchmaker and goldsmith. -Unfortunately, soon after he left the prison he fell a victim to -alcoholism, to which he had an inherited predisposition; all attempts at -reclaiming him were vain, and in a few years he was beyond hope.” - - - - - CHAPTER II - TWO FAMOUS FORTRESSES - -The fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul—Political prisoners confined - within its walls from an early date—Used by Peter the Great—The - imprisonment of the author, Chernyshevski—Dmitri Pisarev—The - Trubetzkoi Bastion—Kropotkin’s account of the prison—Leo Deutsch’s - experiences there—The sad case of Netchaiev—Probability that he was - flogged to death—Severity of the régime of the Alexis Ravelin—The fate - of prisoners confined in Schlüsselburg unknown—The prison of Kiev—Leo - Deutsch confined there—Succeeds in making his escape—Other - escapes—Prison of Moscow—General depot for exiles about to embark for - Siberia—Account of the journey to Siberia by train—Kindliness shown by - the peasants—Food and gifts of clothing brought to the train for the - exiles—The Red Cross League—The exiles’ begging song—Treatment of the - “politicals”—Dastievich and the governor—Women revolutionists. - - -The government of the Czar was not slow to avail itself of the coercive -means afforded by cellular confinement, and to use them especially -against political offenders. At first these prisoners were distributed -among the common criminal prisons such as that of Kharkov, and located, -where the accommodation existed, in “secret” or solitary confinement -cells. According to George Kennan, the secret cells in Siberian prisons -were intended for persons accused of murder and other capital crimes. -They had neither beds nor sleeping platforms and contained no furniture. -Their occupants slept without pillows or bed clothing on the cold cement -or stone floor, and during the day they had either to sit or lie on this -floor, or to stand. - -The politicals at Kara in Eastern Siberia lived under “dungeon -conditions,” absolutely apart, breathing foul air continually, starving -on bad and insufficient food and completely deprived of exercise. The -need for separate prisons nearer home led presently to the adaptation of -existing fortresses in or close to St. Petersburg, such as the St. Peter -and St. Paul on the banks of the Neva, and the Schlüsselburg or “Castle -of Stone-bags” on an island in Lake Ladoga, whose waters lap the base of -its walls. The records of these formidable places of durance are made up -of human suffering. - -The first named, the “Petropaolovskaya,” is never mentioned by Russians -without a shudder. It is stained indelibly with the imprint of appalling -cruelty and savage ill-treatment. Its grim, gray bastions crouch low, -flush with the water’s edge, opposite the imperial palace, and in full -view of the great city. Within its extensive perimeter are included -several fine buildings; the mint, the cathedral, the burial place of the -reigning dynasty, military barracks and well filled arsenals, while the -ordinary street traffic passes through it in the day time. - -From its earliest days this fortress was the scene of murderous and -cruel atrocities. Peter the Great used it recklessly when imposing his -will upon the enslaved people; torture, the lash, horrible mutilations -and death were continually inflicted within its gloomy walls. Peter is -said to have executed his only son Alexis in this fortress. Defeated -conspirators against autocracy constantly languished in its deep sunken -dungeons or were thrown into the Neva from its battlements. Generations -of unsuccessful revolutionists, during reign after reign, have eaten out -their hearts here in lifelong imprisonment. Many of the “Dekabrists,” -mostly nobles who rose against the Czar Nicholas in 1826, lingered in -one of its cells for twelve years. Since then, numbers of hapless -people, defeated in their vain efforts to compass freedom and liberal -institutions for their country, have been imprisoned, neglected and -forgotten in the fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul. - -The fortifications of St. Peter and St. Paul cover an extent of three -hundred acres. It is a five-sided or pentagonal work, constructed on the -old-fashioned plan of Vauban, having six conventional bastions and two -salient ravelins, one on the eastern and the other on the western front. -To the northward, on the far side of the Neva, leading away from the -city and partly overlooking the zoological gardens, is a crown work or -hornwork of red brick built by Nicholas I. Various parts of the fortress -have been appropriated for prison purposes. One of the most famous was -the so-called “Courtine” of Catherine, connecting the south and west -bastions, facing the Neva; the bastion on the west being known as the -Trubetzkoi. This also became a famous prison, for when completed and -opened, being newer, more spacious and safer, it largely replaced the -Courtine, now no more than a place of detention for officers under -arrest for breaches of discipline. - -[Illustration: _The Fortress of Peter and Paul_,] - -The famous fortress of “Peter and Paul” is stained indelibly with the -imprint of appalling cruelty and savage ill-treatment. Its grim, gray -walls rise opposite the Imperial Palace in St. Petersburg. Within the -enclosure are several fine buildings, including the burial place of the -Czars. In the daytime ordinary street traffic passes through it. Peter -the Great is said to have executed his only son, Alexis, in this -fortress, after torture. Many noted conspirators against the government -of the Czar have languished in its deep sunken dungeons or have been -thrown into the river Neva from its battlements. - -Some notable prisoners have been lodged in the Courtine of Catherine. -Chernyshevski wrote his novel “What is to be done?” in one of its -cells,—a book which had potent, widespread influence over the youth of -Russia, and which greatly developed the usefulness of women in the -revolutionary propaganda by raising their status. He is the gifted -writer who inspired the chivalrous attempt of the student Myshkin to -effect his release, as already described. Another inmate of prominent -literary attainments was Dmitri Pisarev, who devoted himself while -imprisoned to writing his remarkable analysis of Darwin’s “Origin of -Species.” He was confined without even the form of trial, and was held a -close prisoner until his mental powers waned. Soliviov was the last -“political” immured in the Courtine, but individuals have been sent -there from the Trubetzkoi Bastion when special isolation was deemed -necessary. One, Saburev, was removed to one of its cells, where he was -stupefied with drugs so that he might be photographed while insensible. - -The best account of the Trubetzkoi Bastion and its prison is to be found -in Count Kropotkin’s book, “In Russian and French Prisons.” He spent -more than two years there after 1873. The prison was in the _reduit_, an -inner building of vaulted casements conforming to the five sides of the -main bastion and constructed within to serve as a second line of -defence. One side was taken up by the quarters of the governor of the -fortress, and two sides were occupied by cells on two stories. These -cells were spacious enough for a gun of large calibre; they were not -light, for the windows opened upon the interior enclosure, and the high -wall of the outer bastion faced the windows at a distance of fifteen or -twenty feet. In St. Petersburg the sky is often overcast, but Kropotkin -was able to write his book on the Glacial period in his cell, and to -prepare his maps and plans on especially bright days. A lining of felt -covered the cell walls, at a distance of five inches, intended to -prevent communication by knocking, which nevertheless frequently took -place. - -The cells in this prison were heated from the corridor outside by large -stoves, and the temperature was kept high to prevent the exudation of -moisture on the walls. It was necessary to close the stove doors very -soon and while the coal was blazing, with the result that asphyxiating -gases were generated and the inmates ran the risk of being suffocated. -An idea prevailed that the authorities purposely caused these mephitic -gases to enter the cells so that the prisoners might be poisoned, but -this was an exaggeration with no foundation in fact. The food at one -time was good, but Kropotkin says that it deteriorated, and no -provisions were permitted to be brought in from outside except the -Christmas and Eastertide doles of white bread, charitably given by -compassionate merchants. Books, if approved, might be received from -relatives, and there was a small prison library. Out-of-door exercise -was allowed daily from half an hour to forty minutes, but in the short -daylight of the northern winter it was limited to twenty minutes twice a -week. - -On the whole, detention in the Trubetzkoi Bastion was not, according to -Kropotkin, “exceedingly bad, although always hard.” One of its worst -features was the unduly prolonged solitary confinement, which was -extended to two or three years, far beyond the limit ordinarily -prescribed in modern civilised countries. Another terrible infliction -was the dead silence compelled. “Not a word is heard,” wrote Leo -Deutsch, “the silence is intense. No one could imagine that men live -here year after year. Only the chimes of the clock upon the ear, sound -out every quarter of an hour the national hymn, ‘How glorious is our -Lord in Zion.’” As to this, Kropotkin says, “The cacophony of the -discordant bells is horrible during rapid changes of temperature, and I -do not wonder that nervous people consider these bells as one of the -plagues of the fortress.” The same writer bears witness to the -taciturnity of the officials. “If you address a word to the warder who -brings you your clothes for walking in the yard, if you ask him what the -weather is, he never answers. The only human being with whom I exchanged -a few words every morning was the colonel (governor) who came to write -down what I wanted to buy: tobacco or paper. But he never dared to enter -into conversation, as he himself was always watched by some of the -warders.” - -The fortress contained other prisons far worse than that of the bastion. -There was the Trubetzkoi Ravelin to the west of it, the cells in which -are so dark that candles are burned in them for twenty-two hours out of -the twenty-four. Their walls were literally dripping with moisture and -there were pools of water on the floor. An account of the sufferings of -some who were concerned in the “Trial of the Sixteen,” whose death -sentences had been commuted to imprisonment in the ravelin, was -published in the _Narodnaya Volya_. “Not only books were prohibited, but -everything that might help to occupy the attention. Zubkovski made -geometrical figures with his bread to practise geometry, and they were -immediately removed by the gaoler, who said that hard-labour prisoners -were not permitted to amuse themselves.” Of those whose sentences were -commuted one became consumptive and another was attacked with scurvy and -brought to death’s door. Two of the five condemned to hard labour in the -same fortress went mad, and one attempted to commit suicide. - -One of a party transferred to the Moscow prison was so helpless from -scorbutic wounds that he was carried out of the cellular wagon in a -hand-barrow. Two fainted as soon as they were taken into the open air. -Tatiana Lebedieva had been sentenced to twenty years’ hard labour. -“But,” says the medical report, “she cannot live so long. Scurvy has -destroyed all her gums; the jaws are visible beneath; she is moreover in -an advanced stage of consumption.” Another, a mother, was nursing her -eighteen months’ old baby, and every minute it seemed the child must die -in her arms. As for herself, she did not suffer much, either physically -or morally. - -Regarding the Alexis Ravelin on the eastern front, no very authentic -details are forthcoming, but it is said to contain underground cells as -bad as any _oubliettes_ in the dark ages. The only proof of their -existence is to be found in the fact that a number of soldiers of the -garrison were tried by court-martial for having conducted a clandestine -correspondence for some of the prisoners, carrying out letters for them -and smuggling in newspapers, money and other prohibited articles. The -prisoners concerned were nameless. The inevitable fate of those -committed to the Alexis Ravelin was to lose their identity; they were -forgotten and became mere numbers, only distinguished by the numerals of -the _oubliettes_ they occupied. This happened to one, Netchaiev, who -killed a spy at Moscow and fled to Switzerland, from where he was -extradited by the authorities of a free country, but on condition that -he should be tried as a common-law prisoner. Netchaiev absolutely -disappeared after he was tried at Moscow and sentenced to hard labour. -There is no record of his incarceration in any central prison or of his -departure for Siberia. It is nearly certain that he was lost to all -knowledge in some hidden depth of the Schlüsselburg fortress. - -Netchaiev was treated with great inhumanity. Overtures had been made to -him by General Potapov to turn informer, and so insultingly that the -prisoner struck the general in the face. For this he was flogged -terribly, chained hand and foot and riveted to the cell wall. He managed -to appeal direct to the Czar, Alexander II, in a letter written with his -own finger nail and in his own blood; a modest letter stating the facts -of his imprisonment, and asking if they were really known to the emperor -and met with his sanction. This letter was entrusted to some one working -under his window, but it was intercepted and the ultimate fate of the -prisoner was never positively known. It was said that he had died of a -second flogging, and posthumous letters attributed to him were published -in the year 1883. - -The régime of the Alexis Ravelin was brutally severe. Exercise was -forbidden, the windows of the cells were boarded up, and the hot-air -openings of the stove were closed, so that consumption rapidly developed -in the feeble frames of the prisoners. It was fatal to one young man, -Shirayev, whose crime was too free comment upon the state of affairs. He -had dared to prophesy a time when the Czar would no more govern, and -power would be held by popular representatives. Another, Shevich, an -officer of the military academy, went mad in the Alexis Ravelin, to -which he was committed for having left the ranks and improperly -addressing Alexander III on the occasion of an imperial parade. - -Despite the elaborate precautions taken, and the strict rules -prescribed, the secrecy of the Alexis Ravelin could not be kept -inviolate. The government hoped that the silence of the grave might -close over its captives. But too many travelled the sad road, and news -came back from some. Letters penetrated the thick walls; the inmates -found sympathy with their gaolers, who would not remain invariably mute. -Some more effectual tomb for the living must be devised, and a large sum -(150,000 rubles) was forthwith expended upon the enlargement and -improvement, from a disciplinary point of view, of the ancient castle of -Schlüsselburg, once the favourite prison of Paul I. - -This new prison became available in 1884, and was to be the receptacle -for the most dangerous and influential politicals. It was freely -admitted by the authorities that the very harshest régime would prevail -there: close confinement, scanty diet and entire absence of all that -makes life endurable,—books, correspondence, the visits of relatives and -friends. Above all, when the gates closed on a new arrival in the -Schlüsselburg, hope died within him. Lifelong imprisonment was before -him; there was no release this side of the grave. Few who enter the -prison are ever set free again. The inmates are buried alive, suffering -perpetual martyrdom. - -It was here that the “humane” Peter the Great imprisoned his first wife, -the unhappy Evdokia. He had forced her to enter a convent as he had -become tired of her. Young and beautiful, she rebelled against the life -of a working nun, and when, a few years later, a young army officer was -detailed to inspect the convent, they fell in love with each other. When -Peter heard of this, he had the officer impaled on a stake, and at the -instigation of his new wife, the empress Catherine, Evdokia was thrust -into the Schlüsselburg. The stone tower which she occupied and where she -died is still known as the “Czarina’s Bower.” - -In a cell underneath this stone tower, the great Polish patriot Valerian -Lukasinski spent the greater part of the thirty-seven years of his -imprisonment in the fortress. He had previously been immured in a Polish -prison for nine years, so that he endured a continuous imprisonment of -forty-six years, and died in the Schlüsselburg at the age of eighty-two. - -The castle of Schlüsselburg figured in the war with Charles XII when -Peter the Great took it from the Swedes in 1702. It stands just where -the Neva issues from Lake Ladoga, a bare fortress on a lonely island. A -small, desolate town surrounds it, whose sparse inhabitants are easily -kept under surveillance, and access to the castle is impossible for any -but those authorised or permitted by the police. - -The political prison was emptied in 1905; the prisoners were freed, and -the building was thrown open to the public for inspection. It was -supposed this would end the gruesome history of the fortress as a -prison, but just one year later, after the triumph of the reactionists, -it was again put to use as a place of durance, and instead of the few -veteran politicals who were liberated in 1905, three hundred -revolutionists were crowded into the prison under fearful conditions. - -A French publicist, M. Eugene Petit, a member of the bar, seems to have -visited the prison, and his report appeared in the _Revue Penitentiare_ -of July, 1906. - -The government has always chosen to send whom it pleases to this state -prison and to subject them to such treatment as it pleases, usually of -the most arbitrary and rigorous kind. The leading idea is absolute -isolation in cells of limited dimensions, nine feet by seven feet. The -furniture is of the conventional kind; an iron flap, fastened to the -wall when not in use, supplies the bed, but cannot be let down except -between eight o’clock in the evening and six in the morning, and at -other times rest can only be obtained by lying on the floor. A petroleum -lamp lights the cells while darkness lasts, which in winter is for -eighteen hours out of the twenty-four, and this has a very injurious -effect on the eyesight besides vitiating the air; the windows are high -and glazed with opaque glass. The prisoner is kept constantly under -observation through the “judas” or inspection plate in the door, and a -warder in slippered feet comes to look through every five minutes. The -dietary is characterised as detestable and quite insufficient. The early -morning meal consists of cabbage soup, _shchi_, and _kasha_, a kind of -porridge, with black bread often full of worms. - -To complete isolation is added deadly silence and unbroken idleness. Not -a word is uttered anywhere in the neighbourhood of a prisoner; the -warders never speak to them, but issue orders by signs and gestures. -Books are withheld until after a long period of confinement and when the -mind is failing, and then only devotional works are allowed. Brief -exercise in the open air is conceded after about the same lapse of time, -first for a quarter of an hour, then half an hour, and when over, a -warder carefully brushes away the footsteps lest it might be imagined -they had been made by a friend. Employment is also given as a great -favour,—permission to remove a little sand from a heap, which the next -prisoner shovels back to the old place. - -All communication from without or within is peremptorily forbidden. No -news of the day comes in; no report of the condition of prisoners -filters out. Konachevich’s father died after years of fruitless inquiry, -without hearing where his son was or whether he was still alive. A -prisoner, Polivanov, left the prison in 1902 to hear that his father had -died thirteen years before. It was not until 1896, that a prisoner, when -he died in hospital, was allowed to have a single friend or comrade at -his bedside. He was quite alone. Every sort of humiliation was inflicted -upon him. He was never permitted to use the familiar address “thou” to -his warders, although they spoke to him in that way in the second person -and he must not resent it. - -A retired military officer named Lagovskoi was shut up in Schlüsselburg -in 1885 by “administrative process,” without trial, and sentenced for -five years, which was prolonged for another five years, still without -trial. For having dared to address the governor with the familiar -“thou,” he was confined in a strait-jacket and his legs were tied -together; then they gagged him, and holding him just a yard above the -ground dropped him repeatedly till his head was cut open. The same -treatment was administered to another prisoner, Popov, who was also -gagged and his head banged upon the floor. - -The effect of the imprisonment was seen in its results. In the six years -after 1891, just forty-eight persons were removed into Schlüsselburg -from the Alexis Ravelin, all of them young and in sound health at the -time. At the end of these six years, five had committed suicide or had -been shot, three were still retained but were out of their minds, three -had died insane, nine others had died, the majority of them carried off -by consumption. Twenty out of forty-eight was a large proportion, and -the fact is authenticated by M. Petit, who can give the names and exact -dates. - -After the year 1896, the rigours of the régime were in some measure -slackened. Books were allowed, such as scientific manuals, grammars and -dictionaries for the study of languages, and historical books of a date -previous to the eighteenth century, but no works of a purely literary -character and no periodicals, reviews or newspapers. Writing materials -were issued, a few sheets during the daytime, which, with whatever was -written thereon, were withdrawn in the evening. By degrees the dietary -was slightly improved, the period of exercise was prolonged and the -prisoners were occasionally allowed to work in the garden or in the -carpenter’s shop. Still better, association with a fellow prisoner for a -brief space was conceded twice a week when at exercise. Later, extracts -from the letters of relatives were read out to the prisoner once yearly, -communicating a brief message such as, “We are alive and well and living -at such and such a place.” By and by the prisoners were permitted to -reply no less briefly, but never to state where they were confined. - -Two provincial prisons were much concerned with political prisoners, -those of Kiev and Moscow. The former was the scene of many tragic -episodes, and fierce conflicts between the revolutionists and the -authorities. Some remarkable escapes were made from them. The university -of Kiev was a hot-bed of political unrest, and its students were active -and determined conspirators. An independent spirit was always present in -the prison, the product of past resistance. It was from Kiev that the -well-known Leo Deutsch escaped with two others in 1878, through the -courageous assistance of a comrade Frolenko, who managed as a free man -to get a false passport and obtain employment as a warder in the prison. -He took the name of Michael and was in due course appointed to take -charge of the corridor in which his friends Deutsch, Stefanovich and -Bohanovsky were located. They had pretended to protest against his -coming to their ward so as to disarm suspicion. - -Frolenko set to work without loss of time. He provided disguises, two -suits of private clothes and a warder’s uniform, which the prisoners put -on, and he then released them from their cells. As they were stumbling -along the passage, one of them tripped against a rope which he caught at -and pulled frantically. It proved to be the alarm bell of the prison and -caused a deafening noise. The false “Michael” at once explained to the -authorities what he had done unwittingly, and the disturbance passed off -without further discovery. Again the fugitives, who had hidden -themselves in the first corners they found, started on their journey and -got out of the prison, where a confederate met the party and led them to -the river and to a boat stored with provisions which awaited them. They -voyaged along the Dnieper for a whole week, concealing themselves when -necessary in the long rushes, and at last reached Krementchug, where -they were furnished with passports and money and successfully passed the -frontier. “Michael” went with them, and it was long supposed by the -officials that he had been made away with by the prison breakers. - -Beverley, a young man of English extraction, met death when escaping -from the Kiev prison. He had been arrested for living under a false -passport and being active in the revolutionary propaganda with a comrade -Isbitski. He had driven a tunnel from their cell to a point beyond the -prison walls. The authorities had discovered the tunnel and had posted a -party of soldiers at the exit, where the fugitives must emerge into the -upper air. As soon as they appeared they were shot down. Beverley was -mortally wounded, and as he lay on the ground he was despatched by -repeated bayonet stabs. Isbitski was also struck down, but was carried -back alive after a severe beating. - -Leo Deutsch gives other cases of escape that proved more successful. A -student Ivanov was helped to freedom by the officer commanding the -guard, Tihonov, who was a member of the _Narodnaya Volya_ society, or -the “Will of the People.” Another prisoner disappeared under the most -mysterious circumstances which were never explained. But the most -important escape was in August, 1902, when eleven noted prisoners, -arrested a short time before, broke prison in a body. They exercised -every evening in the prison yard which was bounded on one side by an -outer wall overlooking fields and which was unguarded on the outside. -The prisoners got into the field, taking with them an iron anchor -weighing twenty pounds, and a rope ladder. At a given moment some of -them had fallen upon their warder, overpowered him, gagged and bound -him. Two others, climbing on each other’s shoulders, reached the top of -the wall, where they pulled up the anchor, made it fast, and then -secured the rope ladder, which served for the ascent of the prisoners on -one side and their descent on the other. So much sympathy was felt for -them in the town that they were effectually concealed when at large and -provided with the necessary funds for leaving the country. Throughout -the whole affair no blood was shed and no one was hurt. Many more -escaped from Kiev in a different fashion, passing out of its walls to -the scaffold. - -The great central prison of Moscow, locally known as the “Butirki,” -served as a general depot for ordinary criminals on the point of -departure as exiles about to be transported to Siberia. It is a vast -establishment with accommodation for thousands; a mighty stone building -which looks like a gigantic well. A great wall with a tower at each of -the four corners encloses it, and the various classes of politicals were -confined in these towers. In the north tower were the “administrative” -exiles; in the “chapel” tower were those still under examination, and in -another the female prisoners were kept. All the male political prisoners -in Moscow wore chains and the convict dress. It was a degrading costume, -made the more humiliating by the method of shaving the right side of the -head and leaving the left side with the hair cut close. - -To Leo Deutsch, who was subjected to the prison barber before leaving -Kiev, the ordeal was extremely painful. He says: “When I saw my own face -in the glass a cold shudder ran down my spine and I experienced a -sensation of personal degradation to something less than human. I -thought of the days—in Russia, not so long ago—when criminals were -branded with hot irons. - -“A convict was waiting ready to fasten on my fetters. I was placed on a -stool and had to put my foot on an anvil. The blacksmith fitted an iron -ring round each ankle, and welded it together. Every stroke of the -hammer made my heart sink, as I realised that a new existence was -beginning for me. - -“The mental depression into which I now fell was soon accompanied by -physical discomfort. The fetters at first caused me intolerable pain in -walking, and even disturbed my sleep. It also requires considerable -practice before one can easily manage to dress and undress. The heavy -chains—about thirteen pounds in weight—are not only an encumbrance, but -are very painful, as they chafe the skin round the ankles; and the -leather lining is but little protection to those unaccustomed to these -adornments. Another great torment is the continual clinking of the -chains. It is indescribably irritating to the nervous, and reminds the -prisoner at every turn that he is a pariah among his kind, ‘deprived of -all rights.’ - -“The transformation is completed by the peculiar convict dress, -consisting of a grey gown, made of special material, and a pair of -trousers. Prisoners condemned to hard labour wear a square piece of -yellow cloth sewn on their gowns. The feet are clad in leather slippers -nicknamed ‘cats.’ All these articles of clothing are inconvenient, heavy -and ill-fitting. - -“I hardly knew myself when I looked in the glass and beheld a fully -attired convict. The thought possessed me, ‘For long years you will have -to go about in that hideous disguise.’ Even the gendarme regarded me -with compassion. ‘What won’t they do to a man?’ he said. And I could -only try to comfort myself by thinking how many unpleasant things one -gets used to, and that time might perhaps accustom me even to this.” - -A later episode in the experience of Deutsch is rather amusing. Many of -the ordinary prisoners were in the habit of ridding themselves of their -chains, at first at night and afterward during the day. The trick was -winked at by the warders. Deutsch called for a nail and a hammer and -openly broke the rivets in the presence of his warders. “Go and tell the -governor what I have done,” he said, and the offender was haled into the -presence of the great man who indignantly protested, saying that it was -a serious business. “Not at all,” replied Deutsch, “it should prove to -you that I have no intention of attempting to escape. And you see I -still keep them on tied up with string.” Nothing more was said for the -moment; nor was the barbarous practice insisted upon when the politicals -stoutly refused to submit to it. - -The immunity continued until the time of departure arrived, when the -officer who was to command the convoy insisted upon the strict -observance of the regulations. Deutsch and his comrades still refused to -comply. They were determined to resist till the last, and kept together -lest they might be overcome singly. Just as they were to be marched off, -they were told that if they chose to be examined by the prison doctor, -he would excuse them from travelling on foot. When taken into his -presence, a strong posse of warders fell upon them and overpowered them -by sheer force. One by one they were dragged into a corner and held -forcibly down on a bench while the barber shaved half their heads and -the blacksmith firmly riveted the chains. - -Dostoyevski, whose “Reminiscences of the Dead House,” recording his -personal experiences of convict life, are quoted, says that long -afterward he shuddered at the mere thought of the head shaving: “The -prison barbers lathered our skulls with cold water and scraped us -afterward with their sawlike razors.” Fortunately it was possible to -evade the torture by payment. A fellow convict for one kopeck would -shave anyone with a private razor. This man was never to be seen without -a strop in his hand on which, night and day, he sharpened his razor, -which was always in admirable condition. “He was really quite happy when -his services were in request, and he had a very light hand, a hand of -velvet.” He was always known as “the Major,” no doubt a survival of the -old institution of the barber-surgeon, as military doctors often bear -the rank of major. - -There were some compensations for the politicals. One was the unvarying -sympathy they evoked from the population on the rare occasions when they -came in contact with them. Kindly folk, when they could, forced -charitable gifts upon them. When Deutsch and his party took the train at -Moscow for Nizhni-Novgorod, the platform was crowded with well-wishers, -and they started for Siberia amid the tears and sobs of friends and -relatives, shouting affectionate farewells and joining in the plaintive -melody struck up by the prisoners, many of whom sang beautifully. At the -first station peasants and workmen came to the carriage windows -unhindered, with humble offerings. One old woman pressed a kopeck, the -smallest copper coin, upon Deutsch, crying, “Here! Take it in the -Virgin’s name. Take it, take it, my dear.” She insisted when he -protested he did not need it as much as many others. But he accepted it, -and kept it as a remembrance of the warm-hearted old creature. - -It was the same all along the road. Everywhere, as they passed, groups -of people waved their hands with expressive gestures. It was the custom -of the country to show compassion thus for “the children of misfortune,” -the kindly designation of the poorer classes for all prisoners. Deutsch, -with his shaven head, convict garb and clanking chains, won especial -interest. Many sought to serve him and begged him to write down any -special article he was in need of and it should be sent after him. - -There were societies formed to assist prisoners with presents of small -useful articles when starting for their dreary exile. Long before the -party left Moscow, Deutsch and his companions were begged to make out a -list of their requirements, and as they were fifty in number, and were -to be half a year on the road, the demands on the kindness of their -benefactors were not few. But at any cost and with much personal -inconvenience, all that was asked for was given. These same friendly -societies came under the officious attentions of the police, for a list -of the members was once seized at a search of houses, and as they were -supposed to belong to some secret associations with evil aims, they were -immediately classed as a branch of the Red Cross League of the “People’s -Will” organisation. The most criminal action of the society was that of -seeking to provide political prisoners with old clothes. Yet a number of -arrests of members followed, and many of these perfectly harmless, -well-meaning people were detained for some time in gaol. - -The kindly custom prevails throughout Russia of sending gifts of food to -the prisoners at festival seasons. The “Easter table” is generally the -rule in Russian cities, when the master keeps open house and any visitor -may enter to be hospitably entertained with food and drink. The -principle is even carried further and helps to soften the hardships of -the prisoners. At Moscow all manner of good things were sent in, Deutsch -tells us: “Easter cakes, eggs, hams, poultry, and all that is customary, -including several bottles of light wine and beer, so that our Easter -table was a magnificent sight. Under the superintendence of the old -governor and his staff,” he continues, “we spent the evening and half -the night in a merry fashion not often witnessed in a prison. Songs were -sung, there were jokes and laughter; finally a harmonica appeared, and -the young people began to dance. Yet, despite so much hearty and -unfeigned cheerfulness, not one of us could forget our real condition; -indeed, the very sight of gaiety brought to the minds of many of us -remembrance of home, where our dear ones were at this moment celebrating -the feast-day, though with many sad thoughts of the absent.” - -It was the same in far-off Siberia. At Omsk, where Dostoyevski was -confined for four years, gifts were sent to the prison at Christmastide -in enormous quantities,—loaves of white bread, scones, rusks, pancakes -and pastry of various kinds. There was not a shopkeeper in the whole -town who did not send something to the “unfortunates.” Among these gifts -were some magnificent ones, including many cakes of the finest flour, -and also some very poor ones, rolls worth no more than a couple of -kopecks, the offerings of the poor to the poor, on which a last kopeck -had been spent. These delicacies were divided in equal portions among -the occupants of the various prison barracks, and caused neither protest -or annoyance, as every one was satisfied. - -There were good Samaritans in Siberia who spent their lives in giving -charitable assistance to the “unfortunates.” Dostoyevski very rightly -calls their compassion, which is quite disinterested, “something -sacred.” There was a lady in the town of Omsk who laboured unceasingly -to assist all exiles and especially the convicts in the prison. It was -conjectured that some dear one in her family had gone through a like -punishment, and, in any case, she spared no effort to offer help and -sympathy. The most she could do was but little, for she was very poor; -“but,” says the author, “we convicts felt when we were shut up in the -prison that outside we had a devoted friend.” He made her acquaintance -when leaving the town, and with some of his comrades spent an entire -evening at her house. “She was neither old nor young, neither pretty nor -ugly. It was not easy to guess whether she was intelligent or high-bred. -But in her actions could be seen infinite compassion, and an -irresistible desire to please, to solace, to be in some way agreeable. -All this could be read in the sweetness of her smile.” - -When her visitors left she gave each of them a cardboard cigar box of -her own making. It was all but valueless, but the gift was inestimable -as a proof of her desire to be remembered. Dostoyevski here analyses the -theory that a great love for one’s neighbour is only a form of -selfishness, and asks very pertinently what selfishness could animate -such a nature as this. - -But for the charity of the Siberian peasantry, the terrible journey of -many thousands into exile could never be accomplished. The government -issues a beggarly allowance in cash, a sum varying between five and -twelve kopecks per head, according to the locality, out of which the -exiles provide their own food. The prices also vary with the season and -the harvests. This money hardly suffices for the commonest ration; it -will buy at most bread, a few vegetables and a little tea. Gambling is, -however, such an ingrained vice that many waste all of their substance -daily, and the spendthrifts would starve but for begging by the road. -When a party passes a village, permission is sought from the convoy -officer to raise the _miloserdnaya_ or “exiles’ begging song,” and -selected convicts go from door to door, cap in hand, soliciting alms. - -This song is inconceivably pathetic. George Kennan, who often heard it, -declares that it resembles nothing with which he was acquainted. It is -not singing nor chanting, nor like wailing for the dead, but a strange -blending of all three. “It suggests vaguely the confused and commingled -sobs, moans and entreaties of human beings who were being subjected to -torture, but whose sufferings were not acute enough to seek expression -in shrieks or high pitched cries.... No attempt was made by the singers -to pitch their voices in harmony or pronounce the words in unison. There -were no pauses or rests at the ends of the lines, no distinctly marked -rhythm. The singers seemed to be constantly breaking in upon one another -with slightly modulated variation of the same slow, melancholy air, and -the effect produced was that of a rude fugue of a funeral chant.” The -following is an extract from the words sung:— - - “Have pity on us, O our fathers! - Do not forget the unwilling travellers, - Do not forget the long imprisoned. - Feed us, O our fathers—help us! - Feed and help the poor and needy! - Have compassion, O our fathers, - Have compassion, O our mothers, - For the sake of Christ, have mercy - On the prisoners.” - -“If you can imagine these words, half sung, half chanted slowly, in -broken time and in a low key, by hundreds of voices, to an accompaniment -made by the jingling and clashing of chains, you will have a faint idea -of the song. Rude, artless and inharmonious as the appeal for pity was, -I never in my life heard anything so mournful and depressing. It seemed -to be the half articulate expression of all the griefs, the misery and -the despair that had been felt by generations of human beings in the -_étapes_, the forwarding prisons and the mines.” - -The collections made both in cash and kind were taken on to the next -halting place, when they were divided with scrupulous exactitude under -the watchful control of the _artel_, or prisoners’ association, which -rules in every prison with an iron hand. - -An advantage enjoyed by the political prisoners in Russian prisons is -the affable demeanour of the official staff towards them. Every prison -official as a rule treats them with a certain amount of courtesy and -respect. This is due to an unwritten law arising from the long -established belief that these “politicals” belonged to the educated and -cultured classes, and that their offences, so-called, have been -committed with high motives, in obedience to the dictates of reason and -conscience, in the hope of improving the condition of the people and -winning a greater measure of liberty and independence for their -down-trodden nation. Superior officers were, as a rule, polite in their -address, and subordinates spoke civilly and treated them with marked -consideration. The prisoners watched jealously the attitude of their -masters toward them, and fiercely resented any failure of respect, or -anything that tended to lower their personal dignity. - -Leo Deutsch tells a story of the sharp lesson in manners taught to a -great functionary, the chief personage and head of the prison -department, M. Galkin Vrasski. The incident occurred at Moscow when he -was making a tour of inspection through the provincial prisons. The -politicals had heard that, conscious of his power and self-importance, -he was in the habit of entering cells, when visiting them, with his hat -on. The first he reached was occupied by one Dashkievich, who had been a -theological student,—“a man of very calm but unyielding temperament, and -permeated to an uncommon degree with the instinct of justice and -fairness.” The great chief entered with much ceremony, escorted by the -governor and a brilliant staff, and asked Dashkievich pompously whether -he had any complaint to make. “Pardon me,” interrupted the prisoner -quietly, “it is very impolite of you, sir, to enter my apartment without -removing your hat.” Vrasski reddened to the roots of his hair, turned on -his heel and walked out, followed by his entire entourage. - -He was at pains to ask the name of the man who had dared to reprove him -thus openly. He had learned his lesson, for he appeared at all the other -cells hat in hand. But the offence rankled, and as Deutsch avers, he -took his revenge later. Dashkievich had been sentenced to “banishment to -the less distant provinces of Siberia;” this was altered by Vrasski’s -order, and he was sent eventually to Tunka in the furthest wilds, on the -border of Mongolia. - -In this matter of removing the head-dress, the politicals were very -punctilious. Once, on arrival at the Krasnoyarsk prison, which was -chiefly cellular, a party of politicals had a serious conflict of -opinion with the governor, who ordered that they should be placed in -separate cells singly, instead of in association. They resented and -positively refused to abide by this order, and demanded to be lodged as -heretofore along the road, in company with one another. Pending a change -of decision, they remained in the corridor with their baggage, and would -not budge a step. The governor of the prison insisted upon compliance -with the regulations, and he was backed up by the chief of police, a -very blustering and overbearing person. The prisoners would not yield -and the matter was referred to higher authority, first to the colonel of -gendarmerie, then to the public prosecutor, and lastly to the governor -of the district. Nothing could be decided that night, and the prisoners, -still obdurate, camped out in the passage, being permitted to have their -own way until the district governor had been heard from. - -As they sat at dinner the next day, the chief of police brought the -answer. He was in full parade uniform and wore his helmet. “Gentlemen,” -he began ceremoniously, “I am to inform you”—He was abruptly interrupted -by the request to first remove his helmet. The officer protested that -when in parade uniform he was forbidden to do so. “Then we shall not -listen to you,” said the prisoner Lazarev. “We have nothing to do with -your uniform. It is a mere question of manners.” “But I really cannot, I -will not,” replied the officer. “Then you may take your message back to -the governor, we shall not listen to it,” was the answer of the -politicals, and their firmness won the day. The result was a concession -to their demands. “I wonder how many officials,” remarks Deutsch, “have -had to learn this elementary lesson in politeness from us.” - -The women revolutionists also showed the highest spirit and were always -ready to fight for their own rights. A police _ispravnik_ had insulted a -political, mistaking him for another with whom he had a difference. It -came to the knowledge of the wife of the political, who was a clever -resolute woman, and she went straight to the police office and boxed the -officer’s ears. The harshness with which one police officer, the chief -at Irkutsk, had treated a number of women politicals brought down on him -a severe rebuke. The officer accompanied a high official during a visit -to the prison of that city. The moment he appeared he was addressed by -the leading political prisoner in these words: “We are astonished at -your impudence in daring to appear before us, after having by your -treatment forced our women comrades into a terrible hunger strike.” The -room was hurriedly emptied of all officials, the chief and his suite, -and the odious policeman was followed by a chorus of uncomplimentary -epithets. - - - - - CHAPTER III - THE EXILE SYSTEM - -The exile system—A principal secondary punishment—Reform of 19th - century—Classification of exiles—The hideous march into Siberia—Infant - mortality—Less than half the exiles sentenced by regular - tribunals—Many banished by “administrative process” on arbitrary - order—The “untrustworthy”—Power to banish exercised by many even minor - authorities—Some cases of rank injustice—Monstrous ill-usage of a - medical man—Dr. Bieli and his wife’s insanity—Students and young - schoolgirls exiled—Simple banishment—The exile’s life in - Siberia—Danger of protesting against ill-usage—Penalties of infringing - rules—Surgeon forbidden to practise in a case of life and - death—Terrors of banishment to the far north in the arctic province of - Yakutsk—A living death—Denounced by Russian press. - - -An account has been given of the most prominent Russian penal -institutions in the mother country and of the prisons established for -all offenders upon whom confinement has been generally imposed as a -preparatory step to deportation. It remains to describe the system of -Siberian exile, long the principal element of penal coercion known to -the Russian code. For all alike, the undoubtedly guilty and the resolute -patriots with high aims, but often violent methods, this penalty exists -and has existed for centuries, ever imposed recklessly with marked -indifference to the human suffering it has entailed. - -Banishment to the far-off wilds began soon after the vast region of -Siberia became part of the Empire, that is to say, in the middle of the -seventeenth century. It originated in the idea of “removal;” and was -adopted as a convenient outlet for the wrecks of humanity who had -survived the cruel, personal inflictions prescribed by savage laws. All -who escaped the capital sentence and were neither impaled nor beheaded, -endured secondary punishment of atrocious severity; they were flogged by -the knout or bastinadoed; they were cruelly mutilated, their limbs were -amputated or their tongues torn out; they were branded with hot irons or -suspended in the air by hooks run into the ribs, and left to die a death -of lingering torment. Those that were left were transported to Siberia. - -What the system was and to a great extent still is, despite skin-deep -reforms, with its most glaring evils, claims description in any account -purporting to be complete. It is necessary to refer to the sufferings -endured and the infamies practised in some detail, so that we may -realise the true measure of the infinite misery they have caused. It is -almost impossible to conceive of the horrors of that march of thousands -of both sexes across a continent; ragged, debilitated men, weak women -and helpless children, tramping on and on for a whole year or more, -shoeless, insufficiently clad and subsisting on the chance alms of the -charitable; fed by a meagre pittance, lodged nightly in half-ruinous log -prisons, or festering for weeks in detestable forwarding prisons. The -Russian exile system has rivalled in its inflictions the cruelties and -barbarities of the darkest ages. - -By degrees changes in the penal code, multiplying offences punishable by -exile, increased the numbers sent to Siberia. The colonisation and -development of the new country claimed the attention of the government. -Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries increasing numbers -were deported, but with no attempt at organised system and with the most -callous neglect of the human beings driven forth like cattle along the -dreary road. They were at all times abominably misused everywhere, -harassed, whipped, starved, and treated worse than the four-footed -beasts, which from their intrinsic value would have been worth a certain -amount of care. Exile was substituted for the death penalty, and the -families of the offender often accompanied him. The punishment was -sometimes accorded for breaking laws and regulations that were most -trivial and ridiculous. Among offences were included fortune-telling, -prize-fighting, snuff-taking, and driving with reins—a culpable western -innovation—for the Russian rode his draught horse then or ran beside it. - -The demand for enforced labour steadily increased as Siberia’s natural -resources became more and more evident. The discovery of mineral wealth, -the rich silver mines of Nertchinsk in the Trans-Baikal, and the -establishment of large manufactories at Irkutsk called for more exiles, -and laws were passed extending the punishment. Any kind of misconduct -led to deportation. Jews were exiled for failing to pay their taxes, -serfs for cutting down trees without permission, and minor military -offences were visited with this penalty. Large numbers took the road, -but without the slightest organisation. There was no system; the exiles -were driven in troops like cattle from town to town. No one knew exactly -the cause of exile or could differentiate between individuals. Some were -murderers and the most hardened offenders; some were simple peasants -guilty of losing their passports or the victims of an oppressive -proprietor. “The exile system,” says Kennan, “was nothing but a chaos of -disorder in which accident and caprice played almost equally important -parts.” - -Two cases may be quoted here of the haphazard arbitrary treatment that -commonly prevailed. A peasant who had innocently bought a stolen horse -was sent to Siberia as an enforced colonist, but was not set at liberty -on arrival. Through some error and confusion as to his identity, he was -transported to the Berozev mines and worked there underground for three -and twenty years. Again, the governor of Siberia, Traskin, of -notoriously evil repute, having a spite against one of the councillors -of the State Chamber, banished him from the province of Irkutsk, with an -order that he should never be permitted to remain more than ten days in -the same place. The wretched man accordingly spent the rest of his life -in aimless wanderings through Siberia. - -With the nineteenth century some reforms were introduced. The exiles -were organised in parties, marched under escorts, and _étapes_, or -halting stations for a stay of a night or more, were built at regular -intervals along the road. The identification and separate personality of -individuals were established by means of proper papers showing whom they -were, their history and destination. A great administrative measure was -the creation in 1823 of a central bureau at Tobolsk (removed later to -Tiumen) for the record and registration of all exiles arriving and -passing into Siberia. Sub-offices at the principal Siberian towns -assisted with the necessary details showing the distribution and -disposal of all persons banished. Full statistics are consequently -available for estimating accurately the extent of penal deportation in -recent years. Approximately, since the beginning of the nineteenth -century, more than a million souls have passed the boundary line between -Europe and Asia. Speaking more exactly, the total number banished -between 1823 and 1887 amounted to 772,979, or an annual average of about -seventeen thousand. - -Siberian exiles have been grouped by Kennan into four great classes. -These are as follows: the hard-labour convicts, in Russian called the -_katorzhniki_; the penal colonists, or _poselentzy_; the persons merely -banished, the _ssylny_; women and children who go to Siberia voluntarily -as the companions of fathers and parents, and conversely, in rare cases, -men who accompany their wives. Members of this class are called -_dobrovolny_. According to law, they are not under the disciplinary -control of the escort, but, as a matter of fact, they are subjected to -the same treatment as the convicts. An eye-witness reported in a Moscow -paper in 1881 that when he met a party of exiles on the march, “the -exhausted women and children literally stuck in the mud, and the -soldiers dealt them blows to make them advance and keep pace with the -rest.” - -Members of the two first classes wore chains, leg fetters, and walked in -slippers for distances of six and seven thousand miles. The rest went -free of such physical encumbrances, but were otherwise exposed to the -terrible hardships and privations of the long protracted, wearisome -march. The mere atmospheric conditions and extremes of temperature in -the varying seasons suffice to break down the health of all but the most -hardy, for winter succeeded summer before the march ended and vice -versa, so that arctic cold alternated with tropical heat, and deep snow -with burning sun and torrential rains. When to such exposure are -superadded unsuitable clothing, bad and insufficient food, the -insanitary condition of the over-crowded _étapes_ and the absence of -medical care, “one is,” Kennan says, “surprised, not that so many die, -but that so many get through alive.” - -A Russian painter, M. Jacoby, has painted an awful picture depicting the -frightful scene. It has been graphically described by Kropotkin and may -be quoted here in full to give a clear idea of this hideous march. - -“You see a marshy plain where the icy wind blows freely, driving before -it the snow that begins to cover the frozen soil. Morasses with small -shrubs or crumpled trees, bent down by wind or snow, spread as far as -the eye can reach; the next village is twenty miles distant. Low -mountains, covered with thick pine forests, mingling with the gray snow -clouds, rise in the dust on the horizon. A track marked all along by -poles to distinguish it from the surrounding plain, ploughed by the -passage of thousands of carts, covered with ruts that keep down the -hardest wheels, runs through the naked plains. The party slowly moves -along this road. In front a row of soldiers opens the march. Behind them -heavily advance the hard-labour convicts, with half-shaved heads, -wearing gray clothes with a yellow diamond on the back, and open shoes -worn out by the long journey, and exhibiting the tatters in which the -wounded feet are wrapped. Each convict wears a chain riveted to his -ankles, its rings being twisted with rags. The chain goes up each leg -and is suspended to a girdle. Another chain closely ties both hands and -a third chain binds together six or eight convicts. Every false movement -of any of the gang is felt by all his chain companions; the feebler is -dragged forward by the stronger and he must not stop the way; the -_étape_ stage is long and the autumn day is short. - -“Behind the hard-labour convicts march the _poselentzy_, condemned to be -settled in Siberia, wearing the same gray clothes and the same kind of -shoes.... In the rear you discover a few carts drawn by the small, -attenuated, cat-like peasants’ horses. They are loaded with the bags of -the convicts, and with the sick or dying who are fastened by ropes on -the top of the load. Behind the carts struggle the wives and children of -the convicts; a few have found a free corner on a loaded cart, and -crouch there when unable to move further, whilst the great number march -behind the carts, leading their children by the hand or bearing them in -their arms. In the rear comes a second detachment of soldiers, -stimulating these weak, feeble creatures to fresh exertions by blows -with the butt end of their muskets.” - -The infant mortality under these conditions almost exceeds belief, and -deportation to Siberia has been aptly and truthfully described as a -“massacre of the innocents.” In the year 1881, when 2,561 children -followed the exile march, very few survived. The majority succumbed to -the hardships of the road and died before or immediately after their -arrival at their destination. The yearly quota has constantly increased, -numbering from five to eight thousand. To the danger to health incurred -must be added the moral degradation, especially in the case of the young -girls. - -Before reviewing the conditions and setting forth the actual facts, with -the processes that produced them, it will be well to dissect the grand -totals and arrive at the relative proportions of the three principal -classes composing the whole body of exiles constantly moving across the -frontier to fill the prisons and to people Siberia to its uttermost -ends. Less than one-half were criminal in the sense that they had -committed offences and had been adjudged guilty in open court by duly -constituted tribunals. The larger moiety had had no legal trial; they -had been punished with banishment by the irresponsible action and simple -fiat of minor officials and bodies of ill-educated peasants, wielding -the extraordinary powers conferred by “administrative process.” At no -time and in no civilised land have people been so ruthlessly sacrificed -and subjected to the forfeiture of personal liberty by this utter -abnegation of justice and fair play, and the result is a standing -disgrace to the government that permitted and encouraged it. The extent -to which this most reprehensible system has obtained may be judged by a -simple statement of figures. For many years past the average number -sentenced to exile by legal verdict in regular courts was 45.6 per cent. -of the whole yearly contingent, and those banished by “administrative -process” was 54.4 per cent. It must always be borne in mind that, in -describing the methods pursued and the painful results attendant on -them, more than half the sufferers were either entirely innocent or -guilty of offences that could only be deemed criminal by a strained -interpretation of the exercise of authority, and in no case had they -been properly tried and convicted by law. - -The system has been defined by Mr. Kennan as “the banishment of an -obnoxious person from one part of the empire to another without the -observance of any of the legal formalities which in most civilised -countries precede the deprivation of rights and the restriction of -personal liberty.” A person might be entirely guiltless of any offence, -he need not have made himself amenable to the law; it was enough that -the local authorities should suspect him of being “untrustworthy”[1] or -believe that his presence in any place was “prejudicial to public -order,” or threatened public tranquillity. He might be arrested -forthwith and detained in prison for a period varying from two weeks to -two years, and then by a stroke of the pen be deported, forcibly, to any -part of the empire and kept there under police surveillance for from one -to ten years. He could not protest or seek to defend himself. The same -impenetrable secrecy was maintained as in the dungeons of the Spanish -Inquisition. Not a whisper reached him of the causes of his arrest; he -might not examine the witnesses who accused him or supported the charge -against him. He must not call upon friends to speak of his loyalty and -good character; he was perfectly helpless and altogether at the mercy of -the authorities, and even his nearest relatives were in ignorance of his -whereabouts or what happened to him. They could not help him or must not -if they would. - -Footnote 1: - - The Russian word is “neblagonadiozhny” and means literally, “of whom - nothing good can be expected,” and the expression has been given a - very wide interpretation. Young people who read certain forbidden - books or join forbidden societies for the ventilation of certain - principles are deemed untrustworthy. - -The power to send people into exile thus arbitrarily was vested in petty -authorities, officers of gendarmerie, subordinate police officials, or -mere executive orders countersigned by the minister of the interior and -approved by the Czar. There is nothing new in this system. The people of -Russia, from noble to serf, have never enjoyed the semblance of liberty; -the Russian bureaucracy has wielded the unlimited power delegated to it -by the autocratic Czar, and from the beginning of the eighteenth century -twenty different classes of officials could employ “administrative -methods” as a substitute for judicial process. The right was vested in -governors, vice-governors, chiefs of police, and provincial bureaus, -ecclesiastical authorities and landed proprietors. In addition to the -power to send into exile, these various authorities could at their -discretion confiscate property, brand, inflict torture and flog with the -knout. Village communes had also the power to order the removal by exile -of members who were worthless and ill-conducted, of whom their fellows -were anxious to get rid. - -Innumerable cases of oppression and injustice are on record of which a -few may be cited. One of the most flagrant was that of Constantine -Staniukovich, who was the son of a Russian admiral. He had been in the -navy but had a fondness for literature and became a writer of plays and -novels condemned by the censor as of “pernicious tendency.” But he -continued to write and finally became the proprietor of a magazine. He -was seized without warning and locked up in the fortress of St. Peter -and St. Paul. His wife, who was at Baden Baden, heard nothing of his -arrest, and found when she returned to St. Petersburg that he had -mysteriously disappeared. She learned, after diligent inquiry, that he -was in prison, and that his letters had been secretly tampered with, his -offence being a correspondence through the post with a well-known -Russian revolutionist residing in Switzerland. At length, after a long -imprisonment, he was exiled by administrative process to Tomsk for three -years. His magazine was discontinued by his absence and he was -financially ruined. Neither wealth nor a high social position could save -him from arbitrary treatment. - -Another literary man, M. Berodin, was banished to Yakutsk, close to the -Arctic Circle, because the manuscript of an article deemed “dangerous” -was found in his house in St. Petersburg by the police. This was a spare -copy of an article he had written for the _Annals of the Fatherland_, -which had been accepted but had not appeared. When he was on his way to -Eastern Siberia to expiate this horrible offence, the incriminated -article was passed by the censor and actually published without -objection in the same magazine, and without the alteration or omission -of a single line. The exile read his own article, for which he had -suffered, in the far-off place of his confinement. - -The most monstrous instances of high handed proceedings are recorded. -One unfortunate gentleman was exiled because he was suspected of an -intention to put himself in an illegal situation, no more than a -projected change of name. Another man was exiled and sent to Siberia -because he was the friend of an accused person who was waiting trial on -a political charge, and of which he was in due course acquitted. But the -friend of this innocent man was deemed an offender, and was sent across -the frontier. Such was the chaos of injustice, accident and caprice, -that errors were constantly made as to identification. When the roll of -a travelling party was called, no one answered to the name of Vladimir -Sidoski. A Victor Sidoski was in the ranks and was challenged to answer. -“It is not my name. I am another man, I ought not to have been arrested; -I am Victor, not Vladimir,” was the answer. “You will do quite as well,” -retorted the officer. “I shall correct the name in the list.” And Victor -the innocent became Vladimir the prisoner. It sometimes happened that an -arrest was made by mistake; the wrong man was taken and it was clearly -shown, but no release followed. It was unsafe to take up the case of any -victims of misusage. One lady who resented acts of manifest injustice -was arrested and banished because “it was no business of hers.” - -A young and skilful surgeon, Dr. Bieli, was shamefully ill-treated. Two -women students at a medical college in St. Petersburg had been expelled -on suspicion of “untrustworthiness,” and being anxious to continue their -studies, had remained in the capital and had secretly become the -doctor’s pupils. They were without passports in an “illegal” position -and should have been handed over to the police. But Dr. Bieli shielded -them until their visits to his house, generally at night, attracted the -attention of the police, and it was thought that some political -conspiracy was in progress. Arrests followed, the fatal truth came out, -and Dr. Bieli was exiled to the arctic village of Vorkhoyansk. His wife -was expecting her confinement and could not go with him, but travelled -after him, starting on a journey of six thousand miles to be made in the -rough jolting _telyegas_ and enduring endless hardships. Her health -broke down and gradually her mind gave way. But she bore up until the -end of her trials seemed near, when she learned that a mistake had -occurred in the place of her destination and that she must traverse -another three thousand miles before she reached her husband. The sudden -shock was fatal; she became violently insane and died a few months later -in the prison hospital at Irkutsk. - -The measure of administrative process has been defended by intelligent -Russians who visit the blame upon the Nihilists and terrorists,—“a band -so horribly vile that their crimes are beyond parallel.” A writer in a -German periodical justifies this language by denouncing the bloodthirsty -recklessness of the revolutionists who have not hesitated to use the -assassin’s knife and dynamite bombs. To give local authorities power to -banish the suspected was essential as a means of precaution, “the only -possible means to counteract the nefarious doings of these dark -conspirators.” Admitting, however, that the decision was unfortunate and -has caused unspeakable misery, he says: “From the day this power was -delegated no man knows at what moment he may not be seized and cast into -prison or doomed to exile.” - -He casts all the responsibility on the revolutionists, but in doing so, -as Kennan says, puts the cart before the horse. Terrorist measures were -the reply to grievous oppression. “It was administrative exile, -administrative caprice, and the absence of orderly and legal methods in -political cases that caused terrorism, not terrorism that necessitated -official lawlessness.” Already the true facts are patent and thoroughly -understood by the world at large. The so-called excesses of the -revolutionists have not been committed, as the champions of the Russian -government would have us believe, “by bloodthirsty tigers in human form -at the prompting of presumptuous fancies,” but “by ordinary men and -women exasperated to the pitch of desperation by administrative -suppression of free speech and free thought, administrative imprisonment -for years upon suspicion, administrative banishment to the arctic -regions without trial, and, to crown all, administrative denial of every -legal remedy and every peaceful means of redress.” - -Already “the whirligig of time has brought its revenges.” Russia is -wading through blood to the still far-off horizon which is at last -dawning on a vexed and tortured people. The overthrow of despotism is -approaching inevitably if slowly. The will of the people cannot be -ignored or their aspirations checked and crushed by the old arbitrary -methods of repression and coercion. - -A whole volume might be filled with the detailed iniquities of the -administrative process, which was so largely operative and so long -before the oppressed people were goaded into retaliation. As far back as -the early decades of the nineteenth century, statistics were gathered by -a careful and industrious writer covering the period between 1827 and -1846 and showing the average number banished annually to be between -three and six thousand, and the aggregate for the twenty years to be -nearly eighty thousand. Beyond doubt in more recent years the numbers -have steadily grown, although the exact figures are not available. - -Kropotkin ably summarises the objects of exile: “Students and girls -suspected of subversive ideas; writers whom it was impossible to -prosecute for their writings, but who were known to be imbued with a -‘dangerous spirit;’ workmen who were known to have spoken against the -authorities; persons who have been irreverent to some governor of a -province or _ispravnik_ were transported by hundreds every year.” The -barest denunciation and the most casual suggestion were sufficient to -afford a motive. - -Several young girls were condemned, not merely to exile, but to hard -labour for from six to eight years for having given a socialistic -pamphlet to one workman. A child of fourteen became a penal colonist for -shouting aloud that it was a shame to condemn people to death for -nothing. - -A flagrant case was that of M. Annenkov, a landed proprietor, who -proposed the health of the governor at a banquet given him by the -nobility of Kursk. At the end he was bold enough to remark that he -greatly hoped his excellency would devote more time to the affairs of -the province. The following week a _tarantas_ containing two gensdarmes -stopped at his door; he was arrested, was forbidden to bid his wife -farewell, and was conveyed as a prisoner to a distant part. Only after -six months and the most urgent representations of influential friends -was he again set free. - -In the last decade of the reign of Alexander II, between 1870 and 1880, -administrative exile was employed with unprecedented recklessness and -the most consummate indifference to personal rights. Unlimited -discretionary powers were vested in governors of provinces. General -Todleben, in Odessa, banished all of the “untrustworthy” class without -inquiry or discrimination, and sent into exile every one whose loyalty -to the existing government was even doubtful. It was enough to be -registered as a “suspect” on the books of the secret police, or to have -been accused, even anonymously, of political disaffection. Parents who -had the most honourable record of unblemished loyalty were exiled -because their children had become revolutionists; schoolboys were exiled -because they were acquainted with some of the disaffected and had failed -to report the fact to the police; teachers were exiled for circulating -copies of a harmless magazine; members of provincial assemblies, who -claimed the right to petition the Czar for redress of grievances, were -sent across the frontier; and university students, who had been tried -and acquitted of a political offence, were re-arrested and exiled by -administrative process,—all in violation of the most elementary -principles of justice. - -The majority of the administrative exiles were political prisoners, but -all politicals were not let off with simple banishment. A considerable -number of political offenders were sentenced to hard labour and also to -penal exile. They did not live apart but were incorporated with the -common-law criminals and subjected to precisely the same irksome -treatment; they were equally deprived of civil rights, and could never -count upon freedom absolute and unconditional. A few might in the long -run be allowed to return to European Russia, at the intercession and -with the guarantee of influential friends, but endless exile was -generally their portion and a hard hand-to-mouth existence, with -unceasing struggles to gain bread, for when nominally free they are -still under police surveillance and do not easily find the means of a -livelihood. They are worse off than when prisoners, for they are granted -no government allowance and must fight for every kopeck under many -disadvantages. - -We come thus to the large class of the _ssylny_, those simply banished, -whose liberty is forfeited, although they are not actually subjected to -imprisonment; and with them must be comprised the emancipists, those who -have completed their penalty but are not permitted to leave Siberia. -Both classes are practically prisoners, although not within four walls -perhaps. Their movements are restricted, and they are still held under -observation within a certain area and must observe certain stringent -rules of conduct. Their condition is only a modified form of -imprisonment applicable to at least half of the entire number -transported to Siberia. - -A code of rules has been drawn up for all whom the law condemns to exile -and enforced domicile, whether at home or in far-off Siberia. The -pregnant word “banishment” is carefully excluded from these rules, and -police surveillance takes effect on those “assigned to definite places -of residence,” an expression euphemistically applied to the wildest and -most remote regions of the empire. It is an obviously colourable -suppression of true facts. The names of such places as the frontiers of -Mongolia, the arctic province of Yakutsk, or the sub-tropical mountain -districts of Central Asia are never mentioned, but there can be no -mistakes as to the irksome character of the rules. It is a life of -sufferance, of sometimes open arrest, and often of rigorously curtailed -freedom of movement. The exile must remain where he is planted; to move -his quarters he must give notice and obtain the consent of the police, -to whom he must constantly report himself. His chosen place of residence -is liable to visitation and search at any time of the day or night, and -anything it contains may be removed; his correspondence, all letters and -telegrams, inward and outward, may be read or withheld at all times. - -The manner of the exile’s daily life is laid down with great minuteness, -and the nature of his employments specified, chiefly in the negative -sense. He cannot hold any position in the service of the state; he must -do no clerical work for any society or institution; he must not promote, -or serve with any company; he cannot act as curator of any museum; he -must not give lectures or impart instruction as a schoolmaster; he must -not take any part in any theatricals, and is forbidden generally to -exercise any public activity. He may not embark in any photographic or -literary occupation; may not deal in books, must not keep a tea house or -grog shop, or trade in intoxicating liquors. He shall not appear or -plead in court except on behalf of himself and his near relations, nor -without special permission may he act as physician, accoucheur, -apothecary or chemist. The penalty of contravening any of these -regulations is imprisonment for terms varying from three days to one -month. Exiles without means are granted a meagre allowance from the -treasury, but it is withdrawn if they fail to obtain employment through -bad conduct or laziness. The difficulty of getting a living under so -many restrictions is not considered. - -The exile’s life is full of irksome conditions. When, after a nearly -interminable journey, he reaches his “definite domicile,” he must find -his own residence with some reluctant householder who does not care to -shelter a presumably dangerous political, subject at all times of the -day or night to police visitation; and, moreover, the householder is -expected to spy upon his tenant and report any suspicious circumstance. -When at length he overcomes these irritating and causeless objections -and rents a bare room, he has to settle the question of daily -subsistence. His wife and family he has left behind in Russia, probably -destitute, while he is here in Siberia without means, and with little -hope of being able to secure them. He falls back on the government -grant, no more than twelve shillings a month, and finds that it is -utterly insufficient to provide him with the commonest necessaries of -life. Rent, coarse food, meat, rye flour, a few eggs, “brick” tea and a -little cheap tobacco exhaust his allowance and leave a substantial -deficit, and this without spending a kopeck on washing, kerosene or -medicine. - -Naturally the exile seeks to supplement his inadequate income. His -position is nearly hopeless. Possibly he has had the best education, is -a graduate of the university, knows several languages, and is a skilful -surgeon or practised physician. He does not, of course, expect to find -in the wilds of Siberia as many openings for his trained intelligence as -in St. Petersburg or Moscow, but surely there is room for an expert -penman, a good accountant, a competent teacher, a fair musician? Yet he -seems to have no chance to earn a few rubles, a few kopecks even, day by -day. The regulations, quoted above, close every avenue, debar him from -every employment but ordinary manual labour. He has never learned any -handicraft; he cannot work as carpenter, shoemaker, wheelwright or -blacksmith; he has no capital and cannot go into trade; he must not -engage himself as driver or teamster, for he cannot leave the village to -which he has been assigned. There is nothing left for him except to dig, -but there is not an inch of land for him to cultivate. All the ground in -the neighbourhood belongs to the village commune and has been already -allotted to its members, so that any available land is so far distant -that he would risk arrest by going there. - -In this dilemma he petitions the government to relieve him of his -restrictions, and permit him to engage in such a harmless vocation as -teaching music, but he is referred to the rule forbidding it. To this -refusal was once added the cruel suggestion that the starving and -impecunious convict might hire himself out as a labourer to the king, -his peasant, for half a dozen kopecks a day. The same answer was given -to a petition from some political prisoners who begged to be allowed to -occupy and cultivate a tract of government ground near their village. - -It was dangerous to protest against ill-usage. A number of exiles, -goaded to desperation by brutal severity of the acting governor of the -province of Tobolsk, respectfully declared that there was a limit to -human endurance and that their position had become intolerable. This -petition was adjudged “audaciously impudent” and its authors, nineteen -in number, were removed to a barren village within the Arctic Circle. -Memorials from free and independent bodies were equally unpalatable to -the authorities. The medical society of Tver in European Russia, a short -distance from Moscow, dared to back up a request made by a number of -qualified physicians exiled to Siberia to be allowed to practise in the -places of their banishment. A year or two before, the governor-general -of Eastern Siberia had reported to the Czar that the number of doctors -in the country was utterly insufficient, saying, “In the cities only is -it possible to take measures for the preservation of health. In every -other part of Eastern Siberia physicians are almost wholly lacking, and -the local population is left helpless in its struggle with diphtheria -and other contagious diseases which desolate the country.” Two years -later the medical school of Tver was swiftly punished for venturing to -endorse this statement, and for daring to ask that the prohibition to -practise might be rescinded in the case of the doctors so urgently -needed. The school was forthwith broken up and two of its members who -were in state services were summarily dismissed from their posts. - -Exiled physicians who dared to infringe the rules were mercilessly dealt -with. A student named Dolgopolov had been banished for a most trifling -offence. During a riot at the Kharkov university, when the streets were -being cleared by the mounted Cossacks with their heavy dog-whips, -Dolgopolov indignantly took the brutal horsemen to task. For this he was -promptly arrested and banished by administrative process to Western -Siberia. Here, at the earnest entreaty of two suffering fellow -creatures, one ill with typhus fever, and the other afflicted with -cataract, he ventured to prescribe for them. He was immediately summoned -before the chief of police, who had a personal grudge against him, and -roughly reminded him he had transgressed the regulations. A little later -he was called in to attend the major’s wife who had been accidentally -shot in the leg by her son. The immediate extraction of the bullet was -essential, and no one but Dolgopolov was competent to perform the -operation. He explained that he was forbidden to practise under pain of -imprisonment, but it was put to him as a matter of life and death, and -he at last consented. The next day he was arrested by order of the -_ispravnik_ and thrown into prison at Tiukalinsk, where he contracted -typhus fever. His case excited profound sympathy in the town, which was -magnified by the authorities into a charge of exercising a pernicious -and dangerous influence, and was so reported to the governor, who -immediately ordered his removal to the arctic town of Surgut. No mention -had been made of his illness, but the convoy officer refused to receive -him. As the _ispravnik_ would not be baulked, however, he obtained a -peasant’s cart, dragged the patient from his bed in hospital and sent -him away in his night-shirt under the escort of two policemen. - -He arrived at Ishim after 126 miles en route. Other political exiles who -resided here rallied around him, had him examined by the local surgeon, -and got the local chief of police to draw up a statement and telegraph -it to the governor, who heard for the first time of the sufferer’s -dangerous illness, and who replied by ordering him to be taken into the -local hospital. It was currently reported that the governor took a -substantial bribe from the _ispravnik_ at Tiukalinsk for sparing him the -prosecution he richly merited. Dr. Dolgopolov gradually recovered and -was later sent to Surgut. The Siberian _ispravniks_, or chiefs of -police, were notorious offenders, and Kennan says that at the time of -his journey there were ten under accusation of criminal charges but -still evading trial by timely propitiation, in cash, of their superiors. - -Police surveillance was the more difficult to bear because a large -number of the officials who carried out this duty were degraded -characters with criminal antecedents. Many had been originally -common-law exiles taken into the government service at the expiration of -their terms. Kennan states that he came across police officers whom he -would not dare to meet at night, when alone and unarmed. He records that -in the city of Tomsk the police had been constantly guilty of “acts of -violence, outrage and crime, including the arrest and imprisonment of -innocent citizens by the hundreds, the taking of bribes from notorious -criminals, the subornation of perjury, the use of torture and the -beating nearly to death of pregnant women.” A newly appointed governor, -on visiting a prison, heard three hundred complaints of unjust -imprisonment, and on investigation of them two hundred prisoners were -set at liberty. The methods of surveillance were unceremonious and -rudely intrusive. An exile wrote to the press as follows, complaining -that the police entered his quarters repeatedly to verify his presence -and to see if any one else was there. “They walk past our houses -constantly, looking in at the windows and listening at the doors. They -post sentries at night on the corners of the streets where we reside, -and they compel our neighbours to watch our movements and report upon -them to the local authorities.” - -Many ladies were to be found among the political exiles, often -defenceless girls from sixteen to twenty years of age and young married -women temporarily separated from their husbands who were interned -elsewhere or were at hard labour in the mines. They were constantly -exposed to indignity or worse, suffered insult or outrage, and were -compelled to associate with others for common protection. One young -woman, on returning from a short walk, found that a police officer had -invaded her private apartment and was lying asleep in helmet and boots -upon her bed. The chief of police also shamelessly misused his control -of the exiles’ correspondence, which was absolute; he might at his -discretion suppress and destroy any letters after perusal of their -contents, or detain them and postpone delivery on the ground that they -were in secret cipher which he was anxious to penetrate. Sometimes he -carried them to his club and read them aloud between drinks to his boon -companions, who laughed brutally at the tender messages contained in -them. - -It must be admitted that the fate of those merely banished is stern -enough and their condition is in some respects worse than that of the -actually imprisoned. Loss of liberty is a terrible punishment, of -course, but at least food and lodging are provided and, as has been -shown, the simple exile is not certainly assured of either. There are -phases of exile, too, which far transcend the worst form of -incarceration. Banishment to a _ulus_ or _yurt_ of the arctic province -of Yakutsk is the most barbarous penalty that could well be devised for -the prolonged torture of a civilised being. The province of Yakutsk is -very sparsely inhabited, the climate is arctic, the post arrives rarely -and at long intervals; common necessaries, not to say luxuries, such as -tea, sugar, petroleum, are unprocurable. Even stale black bread can -seldom be obtained and at an exorbitant price. The native’s hut, or -_yurt_, is tent-shaped and built of rough logs, the interstices filled -up with earth and turf. The life of an exile there has been stigmatised -as a “living death,” and a description by a writer in the _Russian -Gazette_ is quoted. - -“The Cossacks who brought me from the town of Yakutsk to my destination -soon returned, and I was left alone among the Yakuts who do not -understand a word of Russian. They watch me constantly, for fear that if -I escape they will have to answer for it to the Russian authorities. If -I go out of the close atmosphere of the solitary _yurt_ to walk I am -followed by a suspicious Yakut. If I take an axe to cut myself a cane, -the Yakut directs me by gestures and pantomime to let it alone and go -back into the _yurt_. I return thither, and before the fireplace I see a -Yakut who has stripped himself naked, and is hunting for lice in his -clothing—a pleasant picture! The Yakuts live in winter in the same -buildings with their cattle, and frequently are not separated from the -latter even by the thinnest partition. The excrement of the cattle and -of the children; the inconceivable disorder and filth; the rotting straw -and rags; the myriads of vermin in the bedding; the foul, oppressive -air, and the impossibility of speaking a word of Russian—all these -things taken together are positively enough to drive one insane. The -food of the Yakuts can hardly be eaten. It is carelessly prepared, -without salt, often of tainted materials, and the unaccustomed stomach -rejects it with nausea. I have no separate dishes or clothing of my own; -there are no facilities for bathing, and during the whole winter—eight -months—I am as dirty as a Yakut. I cannot go anywhere—least of all to -the town, which is two hundred versts away. I live with the Yakuts by -turns—staying with one family for six weeks, and then going for the same -length of time to another. I have nothing to read, neither books nor -newspapers, and I know nothing of what is going on in the world.” - -The editor of the _Russian Gazette_, M. S. A. Priklonsky, an eminent -publicist and man of letters, in commenting upon this state of things -writes, “Beyond this severity cannot go. Beyond this there remains -nothing but to tie a man to the tail of a wild horse, and drive him into -the steppe, or chain him to a corpse and leave him to his fate. One does -not wish to believe that a human being can be subjected, without trial -and by a mere executive order, to such grievous torment.... And yet we -are assured ... that up to this time none of the exiles in the province -of Yakutsk have been granted any alleviating privileges.” - -Mr. Kennan bears witness in 1891 that exiles were still sent to Yakutsk, -and Leo Deutsch speaks of the practice as still prevailing much later, -although he and his colleagues did not shrink from removal there, hoping -it might lead to some more advantageous change later. But humanity -shudders at the detestable treatment of the poor people whose worst -crime was a passionate desire to alleviate the sufferings of their -fellow countrymen. Life at Yakutsk was infinitely more terrible than the -worst tortures inflicted by prolonged confinement in a separate cell, -which is commonly described as “the greatest crime of the nineteenth -century.” - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE OSTROG AT OMSK - -Centre of exile system at Omsk—Dostoyevski—His famous book - “Recollections of the Dead House” based on his experiences in this - Ostrog—Description of the prison and its heterogeneous - inmates—Detestable character of an ex-noble—His attempted escape with - another convict—Another well-born criminal of very different - character—His industry and skill with his hands—The prison - routine—Food—Extra delicacies could be obtained—Passion for - gambling—Various devices for indulging it—Method of smuggling strong - drink into the Ostrog—Drunken carousals—Gazin, the vodka seller—His - history and atrocious crimes—Dostoyevski narrowly escapes being - murdered by him. - - -In the early decades of the nineteenth century the exile system centred -chiefly at Omsk, an ancient military post situated on the junction of -the rivers Om and Irtysh. A place of arms had been erected here in 1719 -to strengthen the Russian dominion among the nomads of the Asiatic -Steppes. This was replaced by a formidable fortress and became a chief -post on the Siberian boundary line. A large town sprang up around it, -which grew into the headquarters of local administration, and was long -the residence of the governor-general of Western Siberia. - -Just outside the ramparts of the fortress stood a wooden prison, -enclosed by a high stockade, which has an interesting penal history, -having served for long years as a base and starting point for the -convict exiles on their eastward march. The prison population constantly -numbered about eight hundred and it was the place of durance for several -remarkable prisoners. One of the greatest of Russian novelists, -Dostoyevski, based his famous book, “Reminiscences of the Dead House” on -his personal experiences in this old _ostrog_.[2] He was one of the -early “politicals” who were subjected to the same régime as the -common-law prisoner or ordinary gaol-bird, and he suffered four years as -a hard-labour convict at Omsk. His offence was being involved in the -Petrachevski affair in 1849, and with him in Omsk was the poet Dirov, -who suffered a like term of four years for the same reason. - -Footnote 2: - - The _ostrog_ was the name given to the stockaded entrenchment or rude - fort built by the Cossack invaders of Siberia in the old days. As - prisoners were confined more and more in these forts, the word - _ostrog_ came to define a place of durance, and is now applied to all - local prisons in Siberia, and provincial lock-ups. The prison had - disappeared when Kennan looked for it on his visit to Omsk. New - buildings have been erected on the site. - -Dostoyevski’s treatment, having regard to his offence, was a disgrace to -civilisation, and it is satisfactory to know that intelligent Russian -officials to-day are heartily ashamed of the episode. A full account of -its enormities has been since written by a fellow prisoner named -Rozhnovski, and was published in the Tiflis newspaper, _Kavkaz_. He was -at the mercy of harsh taskmasters, endured the severest discipline, wore -irons always and the prisoners’ dress, and was twice flogged. The first -corporal punishment he received was for complaining in the name of the -other prisoners of filthy foreign matter floating in the daily soup, and -the second was for saving the life of a comrade from drowning, in direct -defiance of his officer’s order to do nothing of the kind. The second -“execution” was so terrible that the victim was taken up for dead; he -lay insensible for so long that he was afterward nicknamed the -“deceased.” - -Never have the inner life and history of a Russian prison of that -epoch—the middle of the nineteenth century—been so thoroughly explored -and exposed as by the gifted writer, Dostoyevski. He draws on his own -experience, speaking at first hand from his personal knowledge. He knew -exactly what imprisonment meant, for he had been through it, constantly -subjected to its irksome restraints and almost intolerable conditions. -He had learned to habituate himself to its laws and penalties; to endure -the most acute discomforts; to face with patient resignation the endless -vista of the slow moving years, continually tortured and tormented by -suffering and the complete absence of all that tends to brighten life -and make it bearable. He had ample opportunities for studying and -observing the convicts with whom he was so long obliged to consort. He -draws them with photographic exactitude. He observed, and has -effectively reproduced their traits, thoughts, feelings and inner -nature. He saw them at their best and at their worst; he noted the -generous emotions that sometimes swayed them, the evil passions that -more often possessed them. He can do justice to the sympathy and -compassion lavished on suffering comrades and reprobates; to the envy, -hatred and uncharitableness constantly exhibited when moved by jealousy -or consumed with temper and overmastering desire for revenge. The daily -life of a Siberian place of durance at that time is brought before us -with striking force: its generally wearisome monotony, to which severe -toil is a welcome break; the petty, pitiful recreations enjoyed often at -the risk of punishment; the vices of drunkenness and gambling, strictly -forbidden although constantly indulged in; the gormandising at Christmas -and other festivals. He describes the ambitious theatrical entertainment -given in the convict barrack room, when the convicts, despite the -difficulties raised by discipline and the dearth of means, produced a -striking performance. - -The old prison at Omsk was situated at the end of the citadel just under -the ramparts. It was surrounded by a high palisade of stakes buried deep -in the ground, enclosing a court-yard two hundred feet long by one -hundred and fifty feet broad. A great gate in the stockade guarded by -sentries gave admission to the prison. Looking through the interstices -of the palisades from within, a narrow glimpse was obtained of the -glacis of the fort sloping downward, and of a little corner of the sky -above. The prison buildings consisted of a number of log huts of one -story, each providing a separate barrack to accommodate roughly about -two hundred convicts herded together in very close association. This was -long before the extension of the cellular system to Russia, and the -terrors of isolated confinement did not exist in those days. But life in -common had its peculiar horrors, which our author enlarges upon. “I -could not,” he says, “possibly have conjured up the poignant and -terrible suffering of never being alone, even for one minute, during ten -years. Working always under surveillance in the barracks, ever in the -unvarying companionship of two hundred others; never alone, never! This -enforced cohabitation was the sharpest and most painful sensation -endured. Nowhere is it so horrible as in a prison, where the society -must contain many with whom no one would willingly live. - -“Among them were murderers by imprudence and murderers by profession, -simple thieves and chiefs of thieves, masters in the art of finding -money in the pockets of a passer-by or of lifting anything, no matter -what, from the table.... The majority were depraved and perverted, so -that calumnies and scandal rained among them like hail. Our life was a -constant hell, a perpetual damnation.... Those who were not already -corrupt on reception soon became so. Intrigues, calumnies, scandalous -backbiting of all kinds, envy and hatred reigned above everything else. -No ordinary tongue could hold its own against these adepts at abuse with -insults constantly in their mouths.” - -A curious trait in this heterogeneous assembly, in which the elements of -evil predominated, was the reticence of the convicts. Some were -malefactors of the worst kind, veterans in habitual crime, guilty of the -most atrocious misdeeds, but they would not talk of them. On one -occasion in the barrack room a miscreant who had killed and cut up a -child of five began to relate the horrible details; how he had tempted -the little one with a toy, inveigled it into a private place, and there -used his murderous knife. He was one of the licensed buffoons of the -establishment, who as a rule found a ready audience, but he was now -received with one unanimous cry of indignant disgust; and he was shamed -into silence. It was contrary to the unwritten law of the prison to -speak of such things. - -Another case was that of a parricide, a young man of noble birth who had -filled the post of a public functionary. A wastrel, a spendthrift and a -reckless gambler, he had been a cause of constant annoyance to his -father, who remonstrated with him in vain. The son had reason to believe -that he would inherit a substantial sum from his father, so he killed -him in order to come into the estate more quickly and thus continue his -debaucheries. Presently the corpse was unearthed from a drain; the head -had been severed and placed on a cushion beside the body. The -parricide’s crime was brought home to him, he was tried and convicted, -degraded and deprived of his privileges, and sentenced to twenty years’ -hard labour. At the _ostrog_ he was despised by his fellow convicts -because he was shameless and permitted himself to talk lightly of his -crime. He sometimes spoke of his father with extraordinary callousness, -and once, in boasting of the hereditary good health of his family, -quietly remarked, “My father, for example, never was ill until the day -of his death”—by the hand of his unnatural son.[3] - -Footnote 3: - - In the latter part of his book Dostoyevski corrects this early account - of the supposed parricide, and tells us that it was all a mistake. It - was a grave case of judicial error. The convict, when he had served - ten years’ imprisonment, was proved to be entirely innocent. When the - real murderers had been discovered and had confessed their crime, the - wronged man was set at liberty. - -This animal insensibility carried so far was no doubt phenomenal. It -showed an organic defect in the man’s nature, but conscience still -lurked in its lowest depths, and there were times when he was vexed and -tormented by great agitation in his sleep, when he cried aloud, “Hold -him! Cut off his head!” Outwardly, in his waking hours, he never showed -the slightest signs of remorse or repentance, and this is characteristic -of the great bulk of criminals. Dostoyevski avers that in all the years -he mixed with them he never noticed even the most fugitive indication of -regret or moral compunction for crimes committed. “The criminal,” he -adds, “who has revolted against society, hates it, and considers himself -in the right; society was wrong, not he. Is he not, moreover, undergoing -his punishment? Accordingly, he is absolved, acquitted in his own eyes.” - -Most convicts exhibited similar personal traits. A few showed a gay, -frivolous demeanour, which drew down on them the unmixed contempt of -their fellows; the larger number were morose, envious, inordinately -vain, presumptuous, susceptible and excessively ceremonious. Their first -endeavour was to bear themselves with dignity; to submit to discipline -and obey the rules, but with self-respect, so long as they were enforced -fairly and reasonably. Established usage had great weight, almost as -much as official regulations. Every new arrival was soon brought into -line and found his level with the rest. A man at first reception might -seek to show off and astonish his fellows by bold talk and loud threats, -but it was all wasted breath; he soon yielded submission, willingly or -unwillingly, unconsciously perhaps, to the predominant tone of the -place. - -Class distinctions were not ignored in this Russian _ostrog_, but -convicts of noble birth, of title even, and educated as gentlemen, had -an especially hard time. In English prisons such persons receive a -certain consideration from their fellows, are addressed civilly and -treated with some respect. At Omsk they were cordially disliked and -subjected to many annoyances. There were some half-dozen, like -Dostoyevski, of noble rank, who had been degraded from their position -and were looked down upon and despised by the other convicts, who would -not admit them as members of their class. A gibe commonly heard was, -“Ah, Monsieur’s carriage once drove people in the street; now Monsieur -picks hemp.” Their comrades were aware of their peculiar sufferings and -made sport of them. “It was above all when we were working together,” -declares Dostoyevski, “that we had most to endure, for our strength was -not equal to theirs and we were seldom of much use at labour. Nothing is -more difficult than to gain the confidence of the common people; above -all such people as these!” - -The unequal effect of the punishment was very marked in the _ostrog_. “A -common man,” says our author, “sent to hard labour, finds himself in -kindred society, perhaps even in a more interesting society than he has -known. He loses his native place and his family, but his ordinary -surroundings are much the same as before. A man of education, condemned -by law to the same punishment as the common man, suffers incomparably -more. He must stifle all his needs, all his habits; he must descend into -a lower sphere, must breathe another air. He is like a fish thrown upon -the sand. The punishment he undergoes, nominally equal for all criminals -according to law, is ten times more painful and more severe for him than -for the common man. This is an incontestable truth, even if one thinks -only of the material habits that must be sacrificed.” - -The principle holds good in penal codes everywhere. As a general rule, -there is no differentiating treatment, no regard for antecedent -conditions of rank, position, or education, and it is argued, no doubt -rightly, that the offender of the better class knows better and has no -excuse for lapsing into crime. When he falls, it is under the impulse of -irresistible evil nature, and his misdeeds will rival the worst. There -were five ex-nobles at Omsk, and the majority, three at least, were -incorrigible blackguards, criminal to the backbone. Dostoyevski sketches -their portraits in a few incisive strokes and in the blackest colours. -One was a man who offered the most repulsive example of degradation and -baseness to which he may fall whose feeling of honour has perished -within him. This youth acted as spy and informer for the governor, to -whom, by the intermediary of a servant, he repeated all that was said -and done in the prison. It was a base trade which he had adopted when at -large in St. Petersburg and before he had completed his studies. Being -short of funds, he sold himself to the police authorities after a -quarrel with his parents, and betrayed a number of associates to obtain -the means for satisfying the grossest and most licentious desires. At -last, moved by insatiable greed, he joined in a mad plot which he should -have seen was hopeless, for he was not without intelligence, and was -arrested, tried and condemned to ten years as a hard-labour convict in -Siberia. He accepted his fate without repining; he could fall no lower, -and as a convict he might perpetrate any villainies without shame or -compunction. - -“I think of this disgusting creature,” says Dostoyevski, “as of some -monstrous phenomenon. During the many years I lived in the midst of -murderers, debauchees and proved rascals, never in my life did I meet a -case of such complete moral debasement, determined corruption and -shameless turpitude.... To me he was never more than a piece of flesh -furnished with teeth and a stomach, greedy for the most offensive and -ferocious animal enjoyments, and ready to assassinate anyone to compass -them. He was a perfect monster, a mere animal restrained by no feelings, -no rules of conduct.... Fire, plague, famine, no matter what scourge, is -preferable to the presence of such a man in human society.... The -common-law convicts maintained friendly relations with him and were more -affable with him than with us. They thought nothing of his base actions; -espionage and denunciation were in the air as natural products of the -place, and the kindly attitude of the authorities, whose creature he -was, gave him importance and a certain value in the eyes of his -fellows.... He poisoned the first days of my imprisonment and drove me -nearly to despair. I was terrified by the mass of baseness and cowardice -into which I had been thrown. I imagined that every one else was as foul -and contemptible as he.” - -Some years later this man was the hero in an escape from the prison -which caused considerable commotion at the time. A change had come over -his circumstances, for his patron and protector, the major for whom he -acted as spy, had left the prison, and his palmy days were a thing of -the past. He then spent his time in forging passports, but pined for -more remunerative employment, and at last resolved to make a bold stroke -for freedom. He allied himself with another convict named Kulikov, a man -of active, enterprising character, full of strength and self-reliance, -who calculated the chances coolly and was prepared to take any risks to -get away from the prison and lead his own life outside. They were well -suited to each other, equally bold and determined, equally intelligent -and cunning. - -Their first step was to seduce a soldier to assist them in their flight. -According to the rules, convicts were never suffered to go about without -an escort of one or more soldiers, but thus attended they might leave -the prison precincts and enter the town. The man selected for an escort -was a Pole who had been in trouble, and had served in one of the -disciplinary companies, but had at length rejoined his battalion, in -which he rose to the rank of corporal. He was a prey to home-sickness in -an acute form, and was prepared to risk much to return to his native -country. He was quite willing to further the plans of the intending -fugitives, and managed to form with them part of a force detailed to -execute some repairs at a distant military barrack at that time empty of -troops. In the middle of the job, the corporal took off his two -prisoners, ostensibly to fetch some tools from another shop. Kulikov, -with a wink, added that he would bring back some vodka, but the liquor -never arrived nor the prisoners. They had gone into the town to a secure -hiding place, where they changed their clothes and got rid of their -irons and lay by waiting for a quiet moment to escape after the first -excitement had blown over. - -Their disappearance was not realised for some hours. The hue and cry was -then raised and a thorough search instituted. The authorities were most -unhappy, for stringent regulations had been neglected; the convicts -should have been guarded by at least two men apiece and not allowed to -come and go as they pleased. Inside the prison everything was turned -upside down, and the prisoners were repeatedly searched and -cross-questioned. The guards were doubled in the prison and beyond it, -expresses were despatched to all police stations around, and mounted -Cossacks beat up all the surrounding country. It was comparatively open -ground; the forests were at some distance and no cover was at hand. At -the end of a week the prison-breakers were recaptured in a village only -seventy versts distant, and were brought back to the _ostrog_, chained -hand and foot. Severe flogging was the certain retribution for attempted -escape; Kulikov was adjudged by a court-martial to suffer fifteen -hundred lashes, and the originator of the plot five hundred, but as he -was consumptive, he was excused from a portion of the punishment by the -doctor of the prison. - -Another well-born convict was of a character so different that he merits -a detailed description. His name was Akim Akimych, and he had been an -officer who, when serving as a sub-lieutenant in the Caucasus, had put a -small tributary prince to death. He was in command of a petty fort in -the mountains, and his neighbour, the prince, made a night attack upon -it, meaning to burn it about his ears, but the enterprise failed. -Akimych pretended not to be aware of his real assailant, and invited the -prince to come and pay him a friendly visit. A great show was made; the -garrison was paraded and the guest royally entertained. After dinner -Akimych took the prince severely to task, reproached him with his -treachery, and shot him. He at once reported this summary action to his -superior officer, who placed him under arrest and brought him to trial -by court-martial, which sentenced him to death; but the penalty was -commuted to twelve years’ imprisonment in Siberia. He bowed submissively -to his hard fate, but defended his conduct. “The prince had tried to -burn my fort. What was I to do? Was I to thank him for it?” he asked -pertinently. - -Akimych was a strange medley of opposite qualities. In aspect tall and -much emaciated, in temper obstinate, and not very well educated, he was -excessively argumentative and particular about the accuracy of details. -He was very excitable, very quarrelsome, easily offended and most -sensitive. The other convicts, who generally despised the nobles, -laughed at him when not afraid of him, and he claimed at once a footing -of perfect equality with them, which he maintained by insulting them, -calling them thieves and vagabonds and, if necessary, beating them. He -had a keen appreciation of justice and fair play and would interfere in -anything he thought unjustifiable, whether it concerned him or not. He -was esteemed for his straightforward ways and not a little for his -cleverness and skill with his fingers. - -Akimych could do almost anything; he was an adept at all trades, was a -good cobbler and boot-maker, an excellent locksmith, a painter, and a -carver and gilder. These trades he had acquired in the prison by merely -watching and imitating his fellow workmen. One handicraft at which he -laboured assiduously was the making of variegated paper lanterns, which -he sold at a good price in the town, from where orders came in -abundance. He also manufactured baskets and toys, so that he was never -without money, which he spent in the purchase of shirts, pillows, tea -and extra food. Akimych laboured methodically and regularly until a late -hour in the night, and then put away his tools, unfolded his mattress, -repeated his prayers and turned in to sleep the sleep of the just. - -After the night closing, the interior of the barrack became a hive of -industry. It looked like a large workshop. Strictly speaking, private -labour was not permitted, but this was winked at as the only means of -keeping the convicts quiet during the long hours of a winter’s evening. -They were then quite safe from interruption. During the day, some of the -under officers might come in prying and poking about, and the convicts -had to be on their guard. As soon as the gates were padlocked, however, -everyone sat down in his place and began his work. The interior of the -barrack was suddenly lighted up; every man had his own candle and his -wooden candlestick, and they all set to work without fear of -interruption. Work was not exactly forbidden, but the possession of -tools was, and the order was secretly evaded. Each man hungered for the -earnings of this private labour, a few coppers, and that it apparently -was allowed in this Russian _ostrog_, unlike prisons elsewhere, was a -tangible boon, a certain small compensation for the loss of liberty. -Money might be spent, surreptitiously, in buying tobacco and drink, both -strictly prohibited, but all the more sweet because indulgence in them -was forbidden. Besides, if not quickly expended, the money might be -confiscated in the constant and minute searches made. The prisoners were -being continually “turned over,” and ruthlessly deprived of any money -that might be found. The only safe plan was to entrust the cash to one -old man, who was strictly honest and extremely cunning at concealment. -One of his hiding places was in the stockade at some height, where the -stump end of a branch protruded; it was removable, and within was a -cavity running down to some depth. The secret was jealously guarded, for -the convicts were expert thieves and without a scrap of conscience. - -Dostoyevski, for the safe keeping of his small possessions, bought a -small box with a lock and key. This was forced open the first night and -everything was abstracted. At another time, a comrade who pretended a -warm friendship, stole his pocket Bible from him, the only book he was -permitted to possess, and sold it forthwith for drink. The friend had -been asked to carry it into the barrack only a few yards away. On the -way he met a purchaser and at once disposed of the Bible for a few -kopecks. He confessed the theft the same evening, explaining that he had -a sudden craving for vodka and could not resist it. When the thirst was -on him he would have committed murder to gratify it. He talked of the -theft as quite an ordinary incident, and when reproved was not in the -least ashamed. He listened calmly, agreed that it was a very useful book -and was sorry he had taken it, but in his inner heart thought the -grievance was mere nonsense. - -Ameliorations of this life might be secured (for money); recreations -were possible, though they were mostly vicious, and amusements even -might be surreptitiously enjoyed or winked at by the authorities. Human -nature is so constituted that it becomes habituated to anything, and the -inmates of the _ostrog_ learned to endure its worst evils, and, except -for the pain of personal chastisement or the acute sufferings engendered -by disease, they spent their weary, unlovely days with dogged, callous -indifference. - -At daybreak every morning a drum beaten near the principal entrance -roused all from the last refreshing sleep obtained in the small hours -when mosquitoes and more loathsome insects had desisted from their -attacks. The convicts rose from their plank beds to the music of -clanking leg irons, their inseparable companions, and, trembling with -cold as the icy air rushed in through the unbarred open gates, gathered -around the water pails, took water into their mouths and washed their -faces with their hands. These pails had been filled the night before by -appointed orderlies. Personal cleanliness is not entirely neglected by -the peasant class in Russia, nor even by convicts, and the periodical -vapour bath was greatly appreciated. The orderlies, like the cooks, were -chosen by the convicts themselves from among their numbers; they did not -work with the rest, but, as elsewhere, attended to the washing of the -floors, the condition of camp bedsteads, and the provision of water for -ablutions and for drinking. - -After roll-call, the entire number proceeded to the kitchen, where the -first meal of the day was eaten in common. The convicts, in their -sheepskin overcoats, received their ration of black bread in their -parti-coloured, round, peakless caps, from the cooks who had cut up the -loaves for them with the “rascal,” the prison knife, which was the only -weapon permitted in the place. As many as could find room, sat grouped -around the tables and laughed noisily; some soaked pieces of bread in -the cups of sour tea, _kvas_, in front of them; others drank the tea -they were permitted to provide for themselves. This privilege was -extended to food generally, and the convicts who could pay for it bought -their own, which was cooked in the public kitchen and substituted for -the ordinary prison fare. Osip, one of the prison cooks, or “cook maids” -as they were commonly called, prepared the food, which was purchased in -the town market by the old soldiers who were attached to the prison to -watch over the general discipline and good order of the place. They were -good-natured veterans, always ready to run messages and purvey to the -needs of the prisoners. - -Dostoyevski at first could not stomach the regulation cabbage soup, but -eventually overcame his repugnance. Meanwhile, he had his own private -table, which cost him no more than a couple of rubles monthly, and he -had a morsel of roast meat every day, cooked by Osip in some mysterious -fashion that was never divulged. Osip was practically his servant, and -was paid regular wages. Suchilov was another who acted as personal -attendant, boiled the tea-urn, performed commissions, mended clothes and -greased the great-boots four times monthly. Suchilov was an “exchange,” -a convict who had changed places with another of longer sentence, -assuming the punishment for a sum in cash. He was a poor devil, always -impecunious, ready for any menial occupation and regularly employed as a -lookout man by the gamblers when at play. For five kopecks a night he -kept watch in the passage in absolute darkness and in temperatures -varying between winter cold and extreme summer heat, to give alarm if -any superior officer paid a night visit, for when caught at cards the -convicts would pay the penalty with their backs,—all would be soundly -flogged. But the terrors of corporal punishment did not conquer the -passion for play. There were always men who had the wherewithal,—a small -piece of carpet as board, or “deck,” a candle and a greasy pack of -well-thumbed cards. The fortunate possessor of these necessaries -received fifteen kopecks for their use. The game played was chiefly -_gorka_, or “three leaves,” a pure game of chance, and it was continued -until far into the night, often until the break of dawn, or within a few -minutes of the morning drum. The stakes were for copper coins, but -relatively large sums were won and lost. - -The passion for gambling was deeply rooted and still consumes the -Russian prisoner. Among the exiles travelling in pain and anguish across -the Siberian continent, it had such a hold that men would risk their -last farthing of the meagre allowance issued for daily rations, and if -unlucky, would be obliged to go hungry or depend entirely upon charity. -Cards were generally forthcoming, but when none were on hand, various -ingenious devices were put in practice on the road. One was to spread an -overcoat, or soiled linen foot-robe, on the floor of the prison room, -and the game was to guess the exact number of fleas that would jump upon -it in a given length of time, and back the opinion with a wager. Another -plan was to chalk two small circles, one within the other, on one of the -sleeping platforms, _nary_, and place a number of vermin in the inner -circle. Then the player would bet on the animal he believed would first -cross the line into the outer circle. These unsavoury methods were also -pursued in the old English war prison at Dartmoor. - -A craving for strong drink was constantly exhibited, and strange to say, -could generally be gratified. A large business was done in smuggling -spirits into the _ostrog_. The trade was hazardous but proportionately -lucrative. It was undertaken by the convict who was ignorant of any -handicraft or too idle to acquire one. His capital was his back, which -he was ready to lay bare to the lash if detected in the nefarious -traffic, and he must possess a small amount of cash to expend in the -vodka. This money he entrusted to some resident in the town, soldier, -shopkeeper or free labourer, who brought it up to the prison and -concealed it in some hiding place agreed upon outside the gates, on the -works to which the convict had access. The stuff paid contribution in -transit, and was well watered, but the convict buyer had no redress and -took what he could get. With the fluid a length of bullock’s intestines -was left, which, when washed, was filled with the vodka and wound around -the waist of the convict about to introduce it into the prison. The -carrier ran the risk of detection when searched, but he had a bribe -convenient to slip into the hand of the corporal at the gate, and he -might have the good luck to escape observation. If he failed, he paid -the penalty of a severe flogging. On the other hand, the forbidden -liquor might win through, and the convict dealer would then have a -supply of stuff for the convict customers among his comrades. - -As soon as enough money had been earned or stolen, the time was ripe for -a carouse, a drunken holiday, when the whole sum, painfully put -together, kopeck by kopeck, was lavished in one glorious burst of -self-indulgence. The man was resolved to enjoy himself. “These days of -rejoicing had been looked forward to long beforehand,” says Dostoyevski. -“He had dreamed of them during the endless winter nights, during his -hardest labour, and the prospect had supported him under his severest -trials. The dawn of this day so impatiently awaited has just appeared -... accordingly he takes his savings to the drink seller who at first -gives him vodka, almost pure, but gradually as the bottle gets more and -more empty, he fills it up with water. It may be imagined that many -glasses and much money are required before the convict is drunk. But, as -he is out of the habit, the little alcohol remaining in the liquid -easily intoxicates, he drinks all he can get, pledges or sells all his -own clothes and then those belonging to the government. When he has made -away with his last shirt, he lies down in a drunken sleep and wakes up -next day with a bad headache.” Then he began again to work for many -weary months and amass the means for another debauch. - -As for the drink seller, he made his profit to be spent in adding to his -stock in trade. But this time he drank it himself. Enough of trade, he -would have a little amusement. Accordingly he ate, drank and paid for a -little music, and kept it up for several days until his money was gone, -unless, indeed, misfortune overtook him. It might be that some of the -officers had noticed his condition, and he was dragged before the major -in the orderly room, where he was arraigned, convicted and punished with -the rods. Then he shook himself like a beaten dog, and after a few days -resumed his trade as drink seller. Detection was not frequent, for the -convicts would do all they could to shield a man under the influence of -drink. Russians have generally a sympathy for drunkenness. Among -convicts it amounted to worship. The condition implied aristocratic -distinction, and the man in his cups swaggered and showed himself off -with a great assumption of superiority. - -The phrase “pay for a little music” needs explanation. A convict in -funds and half drunk was in the habit of hiring a musician to make a -greater show. There was one who had been a bandsman in the army and who -possessed a fiddle which he was ready to play for anyone who paid him, -and he would follow his employer about from barrack to barrack, grinding -out dance tunes with his utmost strength and skill. His face showed his -disgust and boredom, but if he slackened his arm he was roughly reminded -to go on more briskly and earn his wage properly. - -This love of ostentatious extravagance found other outlets. Drinking to -excess was not the only form of self-indulgence. Gormandising was -another. The convict when in funds would treat himself to a fine feast, -the materials for which were brought in from the town by the old soldier -go-between above mentioned. The occasion chosen was always on some -religious festival and began by the convict placing a wax candle before -the holy image or _ikon_ in its honoured corner. Then he would dress -himself with extreme care and sit down to dinner in state. He would -devour course after course,—fish, meat, patties,—gorging himself quite -alone. It was seldom that the selfish creature invited any comrade to -share his repast. - -A fondness for new clothes was very noticeable in the prosperous -convict, and he was not forbidden to substitute the garments of his -choice for the prison uniform, which consisted of a coarse shirt, long -gray dressing gown, loose drawers and peakless cap. Their taste in -clothes ran to gay waistcoats and fancy trousers, coloured shirts, and -belts with metal clasps. On Sundays the dandies in the prison put on -their best clothes to strut about the barrack yard. But the glory of -display soon yielded to the temptation to buy drink and make a little -cash. The evening of the very day on which they were first worn the -smart clothes would disappear, sold or pledged to the convict -pawnbrokers, ever ready for business. - -Usury was followed in the _ostrog_ quite as a profession. Money was -borrowed on all kinds of pledges, often upon articles of equipment, the -property of the government. There was no good faith about the -transaction. When the money had been advanced, the borrower would go at -once and inform the authorities that goods belonging to the state were -in the unlawful possession of the usurer, who was forthwith obliged to -give them up and accept his loss with the usual penalty of the lash. - -A notable specimen of the dealers in vodka was a convict named Gazin, a -terrible creature of gigantic proportions and enormous bodily strength. -“A more ferocious and more monstrous creature could not exist. He was a -Tartar with an enormous and deformed head, like a gigantic spider of the -size of a man.” The strangest reports were current about him. He was -said to have been at one time a soldier; to have been repeatedly exiled, -and to have as often escaped only to be recaptured. He had been guilty -of the most frightful crimes. He took a delight in killing small -children, whom he attracted to some deserted spot, terrified into -convulsions, tortured horribly and then murdered. In the prison, -however, he seldom exhibited his worst traits. He was generally quiet in -demeanour, rarely quarrelsome, and careful to avoid disputes, having too -great a contempt for his companions and too good an opinion of himself. -His face was not without intelligence, but cruel and derisive in -expression like his smile. - -Gazin was the richest of all the vodka sellers, and at regular intervals -used his stock in trade for self indulgence. Twice yearly he got -completely drunk and when in his cups displayed all his brutal ferocity. -As he grew more and more excited, he assailed his comrades with gibes, -invectives and venomous satire long since prepared. When quite -intoxicated, he waxed furious and, flourishing his knife, truculently -rushed at some one to kill him. Then a combined attack was made upon -him, and he was disarmed after he had been made unconscious by blows -upon the pit of the stomach. When well beaten, he was wrapped up in his -pelisse and thrown on to his camp bed to sleep off the effects of drink. -On every occasion exactly the same thing occurred; the prisoners knew -what would happen as did Gazin himself. This went on for years until his -physical energy began to fail; he weakened, complained of illness, and -frequently became a patient in hospital, where he was well treated and -in due course died. - -Gazin, in one of his drunken bouts, fell foul of Dostoyevski and nearly -murdered him. He came into the kitchen one day, followed by his fiddler, -and staggered up to a table where our author sat with a friend or two -drinking. He smiled maliciously and asked with an insolent jeer how they -could afford to buy tea. No answer was given, as any contradiction would -have maddened him. Their continued silence had just the same effect. -“You must have money,” he went on, “a great deal of money; but tell me, -are you sent to hard labour to drink tea? Please tell me; I should like -to know.” Still there was no reply. He trembled and grew livid with rage -and looking round for some weapon of offence, seized the heavy bread box -and rushed at Dostoyevski, raising it over his head. Death seemed -imminent for one and all when a diversion was fortunately created by a -voice crying, “Gazin! they have stolen your vodka.” The miscreant -instantly dropped the box and ran off to recover his treasure. It was -never known whether there had been any theft, or whether the words were -invented as a stratagem to save the lives threatened. - -The vodka seller was in his glory at Christmas time, when there were -great festivities and a drunken orgy was in progress with the tacit -permission of the authorities. Gazin kept sober until toward the end of -the celebration. He stood by the side of his camp bedstead, beneath -which he had concealed his store of drink, after bringing it from his -customary hiding place deep buried under the snow in the barrack yard. -“He smiled knowingly when he saw his customers arrive in crowds. He -drank nothing himself; he waited for that till the last day when he had -emptied the pockets of his comrades,” who degenerated into the wildest -excesses, singing, laughing and crying by turns, patrolling the barrack -room in bands, and striking the strings of their _balalaiki_ or native -guitars. - -To drink to excess was the chief way to find an outlet for rejoicing; it -was also the means of deadening the hideous anticipation of acute and -inevitable pain. A convict sentenced to be flogged invariably contrived -to swallow the largest possible dose of spirits beforehand, often a long -time ahead and at a fabulous price. A certain conviction prevailed that -a drunken man suffered less from the plet or “the stick” than a sober -one in the full possession of his faculties. In one case, an ex-soldier -awaiting punishment infused a quantity of snuff into a bottle of vodka -and drank it off at once. He was seized with violent convulsions, -vomited blood, and was taken to hospital unconscious. His lungs had been -hopelessly affected, phthisis declared itself and he soon died of -consumption. - - - - - CHAPTER V - LIFE IN THE OSTROG - -The hospital life at Omsk—Humanity of the prison doctors—Tender - treatment for victims of the lash—Sympathy shown to one another by - convicts—The prison bath—Different classes of criminals—The murderer - Petrov—Sirotkin; his history—Luka Kuzmich, the murderer of six men—The - “old believer” from Little Russia—Ali, the young Tartar—Two - brigands—The Jew, Isaiah Fomich; the prison usurer—The festival of - Christmas—Gifts of food and drink sent in from the town—Prison - theatricals—Convicts’ pets—Tanning and skin dressing carried on by the - convicts—Dostoyevski’s release. - - -The one bright spot in the _ostrog_ was the hospital. It was no part, -however, of the prison proper. The convicts when sick were lodged in a -couple of wards in the military hospital, which stood outside the -fortress at a distance of five or six hundred yards. It was a large -building of one story, painted yellow, spacious and well managed. -Dostoyevski bears witness to the humanity and good feeling of the prison -doctors, who made no distinction between the convicts and those who had -never come under the ban of the law. In Russia the common people alone -vie with the doctors in showing compassion for prisoners, whom they -never reproach with their misdeeds, satisfied that they are suffering -sufficiently in working out the sentences imposed upon them. The -convicts were grateful for the kindness shown them, and were in the -habit of saying that the doctors were like fathers to them and that they -could not praise them too highly. This was also the common attitude of -the peasantry toward the doctors, who in Russia generally enjoy the -affection and respect of the people, although the latter would often -prefer to take the empirical remedies of some old witch than go into a -hospital and be treated with regular medicine, being influenced by the -fantastic stories currently reported of the horrors perpetrated in -hospitals. These fears vanish when they have once made acquaintance with -the doctors and their humane and compassionate methods of practice. -Personal prejudices disappear with personal knowledge. - -The prison doctors were careful and attentive to their patients, -questioning them minutely about their ailments, diagnosing anxiously and -prescribing the necessary remedies with judgment and much medical skill. -They were quick to detect imposture and malingering, but were not too -hard upon the pretended invalids, whom they could forgive for seeking -the ease and comfort of the hospital with its warm lodging, its bed with -a mattress and the more palatable food. They had a scientific name for -feigned disease, which they styled _febris catharalis_, a formula quite -understood, and an imaginary malady required a week’s treatment. But -they drew the line at last, and refused to be further imposed upon. If -any one seemed disposed to linger on in hospital, the doctor would say -plainly, “Come, come, you have had your rest, you must go out now and -take no more liberties.” - -One case of persistent malingering must be quoted. It was of a class not -unknown in western prisons. A convict long suffered from a seemingly -incurable disease of the eyes for which no treatment availed, although -plasters, blisters, and leeches were tried. This particular prisoner was -under sentence to receive a thousand lashes, and he was eager to -postpone the punishment as long as possible. The most desperate devices -have been tried for this purpose, sometimes even a murderous attack upon -an officer or comrade, which would entail a fresh trial and an -additional penalty, but which would also delay the flogging. The man -with the sore eyes had some secret method of aggravating the disease -which was never discovered, but its use was eventually checked by -another operation applied to the back of the patient’s neck. The skin -was taken up into the form of a blister, into which a double incision -was made, one on each side and a thick thread of cotton was passed -through the wound. Every day at a certain hour the thread was pulled -backward and forward so that the wound would suppurate and never heal. -The torture of this was intolerable, and to escape the continual -suffering the convict volunteered to leave the hospital. Almost -immediately after he went out, his eyes became well and as soon as the -neck was healed he underwent his corporal punishment. - -It was a painful moment for the hospital when the victim of a severe -flogging was brought in fresh from the lash. He was received with grave -composure and a respect proportioned to the enormity of his offence and -the amount of punishment it had entailed. Those who had suffered most -cruelly were thought more of than the mere deserter guilty of a minor -military crime. If the patient were too much injured to attend to -himself, he received even more sympathy. The surgeons knew they were -leaving him in kindly and experienced hands. The treatment of the poor -back, all scored and mangled, was extremely simple: the constant -application of a piece of linen steeped in cold water. A very delicate -operation inflicting acute torture was the picking out from the -lacerated wounds the scraps and fragments of the twigs when the flogging -had been performed by rods. Yet the sufferers usually exhibited -extraordinary stoicism. Dostoyevski says: “I have seen many convicts who -had been whipped cruelly. I do not remember one who uttered a groan. -Only after such an experience the countenance becomes pale and -discomposed, the eyes glitter, the look wanders and the lips tremble so -that the patient sometimes bites them till they bleed.” - -Quoting further and speaking of one man just flogged, the same writer -says: “He was only twenty years old. He had been a soldier and was -rather a fine man, tall and well-made, with a bronzed skin. His back, -uncovered down to the waist, had been seriously beaten and his body -trembled with fever beneath the damp sheet applied to his bleeding -sores. For the first half hour he walked up and down the room in agony. -I looked in his face; he seemed to be thinking of nothing, his eyes had -a strange expression at once wild and timid; they fixed themselves with -difficulty upon surrounding objects. He stared at the hot tea I had -before me steaming in its cup. I offered it to the poor creature who -stood there shivering, with chattering teeth, and he drank it down at -one gulp, without looking at me or making a sign, then put the cup down -silently and resumed his walk. His pain was too intense for words or -thanks. No one questioned him or spoke; the other prisoners attended to -the changing of the cold compresses, thinking rightly that he would -prefer that to outspoken compassion, and the sufferer seemed satisfied -and grateful to be left severely alone.” - -That the convicts, even the most criminal and degraded, were not quite -heartless or insensible to the finer feelings, was to be seen in their -demeanour when a sick comrade died in hospital. The passing away of one -poor victim of consumption is told with infinite pathos and much painful -realism. Toward the end he became almost unconscious, his sight was -confused, he recognised no one and was evidently suffering acutely. His -respiration was painful, deep and irregular; his breast rose and fell -convulsively as he struggled for breath, and he cast off his bedding as -an intolerable burden. When exposed, it was terrible to see his -immensely long body—with fleshless arms and legs, and ribs as clearly -marked as a skeleton’s—which was absolutely naked but for the cross -pendent from his neck and his leg irons. As his last moment approached, -a death-like stillness prevailed, no one spoke or only in whispers. The -convicts stepped on tiptoe across the floor, gazing furtively at the -dying man, who caught with trembling hand at the cross, which seemed to -be suffocating him, and tried to tear it off; the rattling in his throat -grew more and more pronounced, and at last he died. - -The spectators behaved with impressive reverence. One convict closed the -dead man’s eyes, crossing himself, and the rest imitated the action. The -corporal on duty came in, removed his helmet and also crossed himself, -as he looked intently at the naked, shrivelled corpse still loaded with -irons, which fell to the ground with a sharp sound and rattled along it -as the body was lifted from the bed and carried out. The spell was -broken; every one spoke as usual, and the voice of the corporal was -heard calling for the blacksmith to remove chains no longer needed as a -restraint. The spirit had taken flight; no physical precaution could -serve to prevent its escape. - -It is hardly necessary to dilate upon the cruel and indefensible -practice, still observed by some so-called civilised countries, of -imposing fetters upon those whom the law has condemned to the loss of -personal liberty. The poor excuse of their need for safe custody is -always pleaded, and the best answer is that of the old English judge who -suggested that gaolers build their prison walls higher when he forbade -the use of irons. No such argument can be used with the Russian -authorities, who would still maintain the necessity of irons as a means -of preventing escape, although they have never availed, entirely, and -they would urge as a secondary reason that their use implies a moral -degradation no less than a physical burden. It is a well known fact that -the determined convict can and does constantly rid himself of his chains -in Russian prisons, by hammering out the rivets with a stone, or -elongating the basils sufficiently to allow the ankles to be drawn -through. But the retention of irons upon convicts when sick and -suffering cannot be justified, viewed from any standpoint. When men are -really ill and must still carry their chains unvaryingly in bed and in -hospital, the cruelty is manifest. In health it is found that the limbs -shrivel and waste away, but for those in the fangs of disease, such as -scurvy, phthisis or fever, it is an added intolerable torment, -altogether prejudicial, postponing or often preventing recovery. Yet the -doctors themselves, kindly men, convinced of their evil effects, -hesitate to recommend the removal of irons from their patients in the -very worst stages of illness and, as we have just seen, death itself is -the only relief that can come. - -The horrible inconvenience caused by those inseparable companions is -well illustrated by the difficulty in putting on or taking off clothing, -a rare business, no doubt, for the convicts made few changes and slept -fully clothed, but it must be done at the periodical visit to the public -bath. The chains were fastened to a leather waistbelt by two straps, one -for each leg, and they must be held up in this way, or walking would be -impossible. Each end of the chain was attached to a ring loosely fitting -the leg so that a finger must be inserted between the iron and the -flesh; the straps were necessary to keep the ring in its place, or the -skin would be chafed and broken the very first day. To remove the -trousers or the shirt is quite an art and only slowly acquired. - -We get a graphic description of the prison bath as taken in collective -fashion by a hundred convicts at one time, all of them crowded into one -small apartment some twelve feet square. Not a single scrap of space was -unoccupied, they were huddled together on benches tier above tier, so -that the feet of those above trampled on those below and the leg chains -became inextricably entangled and numbers were trampled on or dragged -about the floor. The bath itself was like a drunken orgy; a dense volume -of steam filled the room and deluges of dirty hot water were dashed to -and fro from the pailful carried by every bather. Everyone was naked -save for the rattling chains to which the convicts howled a mad -accompaniment. They were maddened by the excitement, the tropical heat, -the smart of the blows self-administered or struck by the hired rubbers, -for convicts were always to be found who for a kopeck or two were -willing to lay strokes on the heated flesh of the employers with birch -rods of twisted twigs. It must have been a hideous scene, a great mass -of commingled humanity in a state of half intoxication, shouting and -shrieking at the top of their voices. The steam grew thicker and thicker -until all were soaked and saturated with it, and their bodies became -scarlet in the intolerably burning and overheated atmosphere. - -The _ostrog_ at Omsk contained a number of widely differing types, -embracing many classes of crime, the most heinous as well as venial -offences. All classes and many nationalities of the widespread Russian -Empire were represented; well-bred nobles, degraded from their rank and -sent to herd with serfs and peasants, and “old believers” from little -Russia, insurgent Poles, mutinous soldiers sentenced by court-martial -for desertion and grave acts of insubordination, mountaineers from the -Caucasus exiled for brigandage, and Mahometans from Daghestan who lay in -wait for passing caravans and pillaged them and assassinated the -merchant travellers. There were murderers in many varieties; Cain who -killed slowly and deliberately with deep malice and forethought, and the -slayer moved to murder by swiftly risen, passionate impulse in a sudden -irresistible access of fury. Thieves of all sorts abounded; petty -pilferers and robbers on a grand scale; the wandering tramps or -_brodyagi_ who had escaped from durance to range the woods and steal -from all they met. There were also many smugglers, long trained and -practised in the traffic, who clung with great attachment to the -business and who were constantly engaged in the clandestine introduction -of spirits into the prison. - -The story of one murderer, Petrov, exhibits a curious and somewhat -uncommon character. He had been a soldier and had suddenly revolted at -the ill-usage of his colonel who struck him one day on parade. It was -not the first time he had been beaten, for the personal chastisement of -their men was by no means uncommon with Russian officers, but on this -occasion Petrov would not tamely submit, and retaliated by stabbing the -colonel to the heart. It was said of him in prison that when the spirit -moved him, nothing would stop him; he was capable of anything, and he -would kill a man without the smallest hesitation or without showing the -slightest remorse. The evil temper in him was easily aroused and was -then ungovernable. Once he was sentenced to be whipped for some minor -offence, no small punishment certainly, and he resolved not to submit to -it. He had been previously flogged more than once and had borne his -punishment calmly and philosophically. But this time he considered that -he was innocent and wrongfully sentenced. He meant to resist, even to go -so far as to kill the governor, if necessary, sooner than yield. This -major-governor was a much dreaded being, a tyrannical disciplinarian, -with lynx-like eyes for the detection of any irregularity; he was -commonly called by the convicts “the man with eight eyes.” His severe -method had generally the effect of irritating his charges, naturally -ill-tempered and irascible men. - -Petrov made no secret of his fell purpose, and it was known throughout -the prison that when called up for punishment he would make an end of -the major. He had successfully concealed a sharp-pointed shoemaker’s -awl, which he held ready in his hand as he was marched under escort to -the place of execution. The prisoners, in breathless anticipation of -what they might see, clung close to the stockade, peering through the -interstices, for they believed the major’s last hour had come. But the -major, quite ignorant of his impending doom, had suddenly decided not to -witness the flogging, and drove home in his carriage leaving his -lieutenant to superintend the punishment parade. “God has saved him,” -ejaculated the convicts piously, and Petrov submitted to his ordeal -without a murmur. His anger was against the major and it had disappeared -when the object was removed. - -On another occasion, he had quarrelled with a comrade over the -possession of a worthless piece of rag. They disputed with great -violence and a collision seemed inevitable. Suddenly Petrov turned pale, -his lips trembled, growing blue and bloodless, his respiration became -difficult, and slowly he approached his antagonist step by step—he -always walked with naked feet—while a deathlike stillness around -succeeded the noisy chatter of the other convicts in the yard. The man -he threatened awaited him tremblingly and suddenly blanched and gave in -by throwing the cloth of contention at his adversary, using the most -horrible and insulting language toward him. - -This Petrov was a man of contradictory traits. In person he was of short -stature, agile and strongly built, with a pleasant face, a bold -expression, white regular teeth and an agreeable voice. He seemed quite -young, no more than thirty, although he was fully forty years of age. He -always appeared absent-minded and had a habit of looking into the -distance over and beyond near objects. An attentive listener, joining -with animation in the talk, he would suddenly become silent, oppressed, -as it were, with disturbing thoughts. He was deemed a most resolute -character and inspired the utmost awe in every one, as capable of -anything if the caprice seized him; ready to murder any one out of hand -without hesitation, and never deterred by the dread of subsequent -remorse. He generally showed tact and forbearance in his relations with -others, spoke to them civilly and was not easily roused or annoyed. - -Sirotkin was another type of ex-soldier who had found military -discipline insufferable and was resolved to escape from it at any cost. -All went wrong with him; every one was harsh and cruel and he was -forever being punished, and sobbing as if broken-hearted in some remote -corner. One dark night when on sentry duty he was so unutterably sad -that he placed the muzzle of his piece to his breast and pressed the -trigger with his big toe. The gun missed fire twice; then he paced his -beat carrying his musket reversed. He was checked for this by the -captain of the guard, whereupon he bayonetted his officer then and -there. He received a long sentence and could never realise that he -richly deserved it. He was an enigma to all; mild-mannered, with -tranquil blue eyes, a clear complexion and a soft air, and seemingly -quite incapable of a murderous crime. When addressed, he answered -quickly and with deference, but otherwise spoke little and rarely -laughed. There was an expression in his eyes as of a child of ten; he -cared for nothing but ginger-bread cakes, on which he lavished the small -sums he sometimes earned, although he was lazy and apathetic and had no -trade. - -Luka Kuzmich was a convict who had killed as many as six men in cold -blood and was much given to glory in his misdeeds. Yet for all his -bragging words he was despised by his comrades, who summed him up as a -conceited swaggerer inspiring no real fear. He often told the story of a -crime of which he was especially proud, the murder of a major in another -prison, but it made no impression because of his vanity and -self-sufficiency. The major was a bully, one of those who used the -blasphemous formula, customary at times with common men promoted -undeservedly to high office, and who cried to his charges, “I will teach -you to behave yourselves—I am your Czar, your God!” Luka, after -upbraiding his comrades for not resenting these pretensions, borrowed -the “rascal,” the one sharp knife permitted to be kept in the kitchen, -went up to the major, and stabbed him in the intestines. He gained great -notoriety for this horrible deed, and a crowd assembled to witness the -infliction of the five hundred lashes given him for the crime, but no -one in the prison thought the more of him when he told the story, or -believed him when he posed as a very terrible person. - -In sharp but pleasing contrast to these miscreants were convicts who had -undoubtedly broken the law, but from mistaken motives,—under pressure of -religious dissent, or in obedience to and by the example of elders. One -man belonged to the sect of “old believers,” dissenters in Little Russia -from the orthodox state religion, and when a number of them had been -converted at Starodub, this old man, Notey, bitterly resented the -building of a new Greek church and joined with others to burn it down. -This act of incendiarism was visited with a sentence of imprisonment -which this well-to-do shopkeeper accepted courageously, convinced that -he was “a sufferer for the true faith.” He bore his penalty as a -martyrdom and was proud of it, firmly believing he had done well in -destroying an opposition church. A peaceable, kindly old man of sixty -years, he had a mild, good-natured face and clear limpid eyes which were -surrounded with many little wrinkles. He was of a gay, light-hearted -temperament, ready to crack jokes with his fellows, not with the coarse -cynical laughter of other convicts, but with something of simple -childish glee. He had quickly acquired the respect and good will of all -the prisoners, who had such implicit confidence in him that he was the -universal banker trusted to hold and conceal their little hoards of cash -and to honestly account for all moneys deposited with him. - -In spite of the firmness with which he endured his hard fate, he was -tormented by profound and incurable grief. At night, or in the small -hours, he was in the habit of leaving his bed and climbing up to the top -of the great porcelain stove where he regularly performed his devotions, -praying aloud with broken, agonised sobs. He might be heard repeating as -he wept, “Lord, do not forsake me. Master, strengthen me! My poor little -children, my dear little children, we shall never see each other again.” -He would remain there in earnest supplication until dawn came and the -prison was opened. - -Another estimable creature was a young Tartar, Ali by name, one of a -band of brigands from Daghestan. He had been drawn into evil practices -by his elder brothers and sentenced for what was really their crime, but -“extenuating circumstances” were admitted, and he received the minimum -punishment. One day he had been ordered to take his yataghan, mount his -horse and ride abroad with his brothers as they were bent upon -plundering the caravan of a rich Armenian merchant, whom they slew, -taking possession of his goods. They were captured, tried, flogged and -sent to Siberia. Every one liked this lad—he was only twenty-two years -old—on account of his gaiety and good temper. His frank, intelligent -face was always calm and placid; there was a childish simplicity in his -confident smile; his large and expressive black eyes were so full of -friendliness and tender sympathy that it was a relief to look at him. -His three brothers, the real cause of his misfortune, loved him with -paternal affection. He was their chief consolation. Dull and sad as a -rule, they always smiled when they spoke to him, as to a child, and -their forbidding countenances lighted up. He did not dare address them -first; he recognised their superiority as elders and treated them with -great deference and respect. It was a strange fact that he could -preserve his native honesty and remain firm and uncorrupted among such -surroundings. Chaste as a young girl, everything that was foul, shameful -or unjust filled him with indignation. He carefully avoided quarrels and -yet he was no coward and could not be insulted with impunity. - -At this time there were two Lesghians from the Caucasus, mountain -brigands, one of whom was tall and thin, with a bad face. The other, by -name Nourra, was universally popular. Of middle height and built like a -Hercules, with fair hair, and violet eyes, he had exceedingly mild -manners, although he had been constantly engaged as a rebel and his body -bore many scars from old bayonet wounds. His conduct in prison was -exemplary, and he punctiliously observed the rules. Thieving, cheating -and drunkenness filled him with disgust; he evinced his indignation and -turned away, but without quarrelling. Fervently pious, he said his -prayers religiously and strictly observed all Mahometan fasts. He clung -firmly to the hope that when his sentence ended he would be sent back to -the Caucasus. Indeed, without this consolation he would certainly have -died in prison. - -There is a humourous side to every situation, and the dark, gloomy life -in the _ostrog_ was brightened at times by the comicalities of one -prisoner, a Jew, Isaiah Fomich by name, who was a butt and -laughing-stock for all. He was a murderer who had been publicly whipped, -exposed on the pillory and branded for a crime of greed. The branding -had left frightful scars, to remove which he had received a famous -specific, but he was waiting until his release to use it, years ahead. -“Otherwise, I shall not be able to marry,” he would say, “and I must -absolutely get married.” His first appearance in the prison evoked -general laughter. He looked like a poor, plucked fowl, gaunt and thin -and with hardly an ounce of flesh on his bones. Already of uncertain -age, small, feeble, cunning and at the same time stupid, but boastful, -and a horrible coward, it was difficult to believe he could have borne a -flogging. The life of the prison seemed to agree with him and it was -believed he was quite pleased to be condemned, as it gave him a chance -of making a good deal of money. He was a jeweller by trade and a good -workman. There was no “free” jeweller in the town of Omsk, and he -secured more orders than he could execute, for which he was always well -paid. Being rich, he soon was able to purchase all he wanted. He fared -sumptuously; he bought a samovar, a tea cup, and a mattress. With his -spare cash he also soon became the prison usurer, and almost every -convict in the prison was in his debt and paid him heavy interest on -small loans. - -His arrival was greeted with great interest. He was the only Jew in the -prison, and everyone crowded round to stare at him when he was first -brought in with his hair shaved on the right side of his head. He sat on -his plank bed, clinging to his bag, not daring to raise his eyes or -resent the ridicule heaped upon him. A young convict came up to him, -bringing a ragged pair of old linen trousers, and asked what Fomich -would advance on them. “A silver ruble? No, only seven kopecks (seven -farthings),” said the Jew, “and three kopecks interest.” “By the year?” -he was asked. “No, by the month,” he replied. And the bargain was struck -after much contemptuous laughter, whereupon Fomich put the pledged rags -carefully away in his bag. - -They all laughed at him, but no one insulted him, and he was rather -proud of being noticed, as he thought it added to his importance. He -gave himself great airs; he would sing in a squeaking, falsetto voice -some idiotic refrain to a ridiculous tune, and perform the most comical -antics. On Saturday evening, the convicts would collect to see him -celebrate his Sabbath and he was greatly flattered by the curiosity -displayed. He prepared his table in one corner with a very dignified -air, lighted two candles, clothed himself in his robes, put on the -phylacteries and tied a little box on his forehead where it protruded -like a horn. Then he read aloud, wept and tore his hair, and suddenly -changed into a hymn of triumph delivered with a nasal tone. All this, as -he readily explained, was to typify the lamentations at the loss of -Jerusalem, changing into rejoicing at the return. - -One day, when at his worship, the major came in and stood behind the Jew -while he was wildly gesticulating without noticing the governor, who, -after watching him for some time, burst out laughing and went off with -the one exclamation, “idiot.” Afterward Fomich declared that he had not -seen the major; that he was always in a state of ecstatic abstraction -when saying his prayers. He was, or pretended to be, a very strict Jew, -and liked people to admire his punctilious observance of the rule of -idleness on his Saturday Sabbath; and was very proud of his visit to the -synagogue under escort as a single worshipper, a privilege to which he -was entitled by law. Fomich was at the height of his glory in the bath, -where he treated himself to the services of several rubbers and sang -loudly when the hubbub was highest and the steam most plentiful. - -The festival of Christmas, so highly esteemed throughout Russia, was -strictly observed also in the prison. The convicts were eager to show -that they were doing the same as the rest of the world outside, and to -feel that they were not altogether reprobates cast out by society. It -was essentially a high day and holiday, when no work was enforced or -undertaken, and when rejoicing, enjoyment and sensual gratification -became, with permission, the order of the day. A complete change came -over the prison on the eve of the great day. Almost all were busy -preparing to keep Christmas in suitable fashion according to their own -ideas. The chief of these was to revel in unaccustomed good living. The -old soldiers, the guards who might come and go, brought in openly the -supplies ordered from the town, suckling pigs, poultry and joints of -meat; and the drink sellers, no less active, smuggled in their vodka -secretly. - -Every one was moving early, the drum beat was heard long before dawn and -the convicts were well up and dressed when the officer of the day came -in to muster the men and wish them a happy Christmas. This interchange -of compliments was general even between convicts who had not spoken to -each other before; those who had once quarrelled forgot their enmity in -the desire for peace and good-will. A sort of universal friendship -prevailed in harmony with the sentiment of the day. It was encouraged by -the good feeling expressed from outside, for relays of gifts of food, -great and small, began to arrive from the town to be distributed among -the prisoners. - -The kitchens were the chief centre of interest. Great fires were -blazing, and the cooks were preparing the festive entertainment, under -the eyes, or with the assistance of the convicts themselves. Every one -supplemented the daily ration with choice morsels privately purchased -out of hard-earned savings. But no one tasted food until the priest -arrived with cross and holy water; a small table had been prepared for -him with a holy image on it, and before it a lamp was burning. After he -had conducted the service, the pre-Christmas fast ended, and the feast -began by the permission of the commandant, who had visited the barrack -formally and tasted the cabbage soup, but had made no remark about the -additional delicacies provided and which were now brought in to be -greedily devoured. - -The scene presently degenerated into an orgy. Faces became flushed with -drink and good cheer; the _balalaiki_, or banjos, were produced; the -fiddler, paid by a convivial convict, played lively dance music. The -conversation became more and more animated and more and more noisy, but -the dinner ended without great disorder. Later, drunkenness was general; -it was no offence that day, and even the officers, who made the -regulation visits, paid no attention. The antics of the intoxicated were -an amusing spectacle to most. But a few of the more orderly and -right-thinking showed their disapproval. The “old believer” from -Starodub climbed up to his favourite perch on top of the stove and -fervently prayed for the rest of the day. The sight of these excesses -was exceedingly painful to him. The Mahometan prisoners took no part in -the revels; they looked on with much curiosity and manifest disgust. The -youth Nourra, already mentioned, shook his head crying, “Aman, Aman. -Alas! Alas! It is an offence to Allah!” The Jew, Isaiah Fomich, declined -to join in a celebration commemorating an offence committed by his -co-religionists, and to show his contempt for Christ, lighted a candle -and went to work in a favourite corner. - -As the day passed, reckless self-indulgence gradually increased, but the -general drunkenness and debauchery began to lapse into wearisome -depression. Men who had been convulsed with uproarious laughter became -maudlin and dropped into some out of the way spot, weeping bitter tears; -others, pale and sickly, tottered about, seeking quarrels with all whom -they met. Old differences were revived; disputes soon developed into -personal conflicts; frequently two of the men would come to blows as to -which should stand treat to the other. The whole spectacle was -insupportable, nauseating and repulsive. The great festival, which -should have passed with so much delight, ended in dejection and -disappointment. The convicts, drunken or sober, alike dropped down on -their camp beds and slept heavily. - -In some countries prisoners have been permitted to find relief in -theatrical performances. It was so in the Spanish presidios, and here in -the old Russian _ostrog_ a dramatic entertainment, on a most ambitious -scale, was a feature of the Christmas holidays. A convict company was -organised very secretly; it was always uncertain whether the major would -consent, and all was kept from his knowledge until the last moment. The -rehearsals were quite private; the names of the plays were unknown, or -how the costumes and scenery were to be obtained. The stage was created -in a space cleared in the centre of the barrack, and could be put up and -taken down in a quarter of an hour. The moving spirit was one Bakluchin, -who had been a soldier in Riga, and had murdered his rival, a German, -whom he had caught paying addresses to his fiancée and who was preferred -by her. This Bakluchin, who was thirty years old, was of lofty stature, -with a frank, determined countenance, but good-natured and generally -popular. He had the comedian’s knack of changing his face in comic -imitation of any passer-by, and convulsed all who saw him. As the -projected performance took place, Bakluchin swelled with ill-concealed -importance and boasted of the success he would achieve. He went about -declaiming portions of his part and amusing everybody by anticipation. - -Two popular pieces were chosen for performance, plays from an old book, -preserved by memory in the traditions of the prison. Many of the -“properties,” too, had been handed down, carefully concealed in secret -places for years. One of them, the curtain, which was a work of art, was -composed of numerous scraps of cloth sewed together, such as the linen -of old shirts, bandages, and underwear; even pieces of strong paper were -added to fill in empty spaces; and on the surface was painted in oil a -landscape with trees and ponds of flowers. This curtain delighted the -convicts and shared the first applause with the orchestra of eight -instruments,—two violins, three banjos, two guitars and a tambourine. -The musicians played well, and the tunes were all original and -distinctive. - -The audience, before the curtain rose, crowded and crushed into the -narrow theatre, wild with suppressed excitement. Two benches were placed -immediately in front of the stage, which was lighted with candle ends. -These seats, with one or two chairs, were for the officers who might -deign to be present,—the overseers, clerks, directors of works and -engineers. Behind stood the convicts respectfully, row after row. Some -were posted on the camp beds or had climbed up on the porcelain stove, -and every face glowed with delight, a strange look of infinite -contentment and unmixed pleasure shining on these scarred and branded -countenances so generally dark and forbidding. Everyone was dressed in -his best, his short sheepskin pelisse, in spite of the suffocating heat, -and each face was damp with perspiration. Everyone was there: The -Tartars and Circassians, who showed a passionate delight for the -theatre; Young Ali, whose childish face beamed and whose laughter was -contagious; the Jew, Isaiah Fomich, who was in an ecstasy from the -rising of the curtain to its fall, and rejoiced at the chance of showing -off, for when the plate was passed he ostentatiously contributed the -imposing sum of ten kopecks, or twopence, halfpenny. - -As the play proceeded, it was received with warm applause. Cries of -approbation were heard in all parts of the house. The convicts nudged -each other with loud whispers, calling attention to the jokes, laughing -uproariously, smacking their lips and clacking their tongues, and toward -the end the gaiety reached its climax. “Imagine the convict prison,” -says Dostoyevski, “the chains of long years of captivity in close -confinement, the bodily toil monotonous and unending, the accumulated, -long protracted misery and despair, and the grim place of durance -transformed on this occasion into one of light-hearted amusement where -prisoners might forget their condition, dismiss the nightmare of crime -and breathe freely and laugh aloud.” - -A comedy in prison! The convicts were in costumes altogether different -from the daily garb of shame, but with the inseparable chains always -obstructing. One was in female attire, wearing an old worn-out muslin -dress, with neck and arms bare and a pert calico cap on his half shaven -head. Another represented a gentleman of fashion in a frock coat, round -hat and cloak, but his chains rattled as he strutted across the stage; -one was in the full-dress but faded uniform of an aide-de-camp. There -were convicts in many characters, strange and varied: a nobleman, an -innkeeper, demons, a Brahmin in flowing robes. Every one was delighted -when the performance ended, and the convicts separated, quite pleased to -have been taken away from themselves for a brief space, full of praise -for the actors and of gratitude to their superiors, who had permitted -the play to be given. It was a wise concession, for the convicts made a -point of conducting themselves in the most exemplary fashion. - -The prisoners in the _ostrog_ were fond of live animals, and if -permitted, would have filled the prison with domesticated pets. They had -dogs, geese, a horse and even an eagle whom they vainly sought to tame. -“Bull” was a good-sized black dog with white spots, intelligent eyes and -a bushy tail. He lived in the prison enclosure, slept in the courtyard, -ate the waste scraps from the kitchen and had little hold on the -sympathy of the men, all of whom he regarded as masters and owners. He -came to greet the working parties on their return from labour, wagging -his tail and looking for the caresses which he seldom got. Dostoyevski, -as he tells us, was one of the first to make friends with Bull by giving -him a piece of bread and patting him on the back, which pleased him -greatly. “That evening, not having seen me for the whole day,” says the -author, “he ran up to me leaping and barking. Then he put his paws on my -shoulders and looked me in the face. ‘Here is a friend sent to me by -destiny,’ I said to myself, and during the first weeks, so full of pain, -every time I returned to the barrack I hastened to fondle and make much -of Bull.” - -Another dog was called Snow. He was a luckless creature who had been -driven over and injured in the spine by the wheels of a _telyega_, -“country cart.” He looked like two dogs because of the curvature of his -spine, and he was mangy, with bleared eyes and a hairless tail always -drooping between his hind legs. Snow was abjectly submissive to all, -both men and fellow-dogs. He never barked nor made overtures, but -continually turned on his back to curry favour, and received the kick of -every passer without a sign of resentment, except that if hurt he would -often utter one low deprecatory yelp. When surprised with a caress -wholly unexpected and unusual, he quivered and whined plaintively with -delight. His fate was sad and brutal; he was torn to pieces by other -dogs in the ditch of the fortress. - -A third dog was Kultiapka, brought in as a puppy soon after he had been -born in one of the prison workshops. Bull took him under his especial -protection and “fathered” and played with him. He was always of -abbreviated height but grew steadily in length and breadth, and was -quaint in appearance. One ear hung constantly down while the other was -always cocked up. He had a fine, fluffy, mouse-coloured coat which cost -him his life. One of the convicts who made ladies’ shoes cast greedy -eyes upon Kultiapka, and having felt his skin lured him into a corner, -killed and flayed him. A little later the young wife of one of the -officers appeared in a smart pair of velvet boots trimmed with mouse -coloured fur. - -Tanning and skin dressing was a trade much followed in the prison. Dogs -which had been stolen by servants were brought in and sold. On one -occasion a fine black dog of good breed was disposed of by a scamp of a -footman for thirty kopecks. The poor beast must have anticipated what -was in store for him, for he looked up at the convicts in a distressed, -beseeching way, but could find no pity, and he was speedily hanged. The -same fate overtook the prison goat, a beautiful white kid of whom every -one was fond. The pretty creature was full of grace and was very -playful, jumping on and off the kitchen table, wrestling with the -convicts and always full of fun and spirits. He grew up into a fine, fat -beast with magnificent horns, which it was proposed to gild and which -were often decorated with flowers. It was the custom for the goat to -march at the head of the convicts when returning from labour, and when -the eyes of the choleric major fell upon it in the procession, he -forthwith ordered it to be executed. The goat was killed and flayed; -both carcass and skin were sold in the prison; the latter went to the -leather dresser, the former, which fetched a ruble and fifty kopecks, -was roasted and the flesh retailed among the convicts. - -Other strange pets were a flock of geese, which somehow had been hatched -within the enclosure, and as they grew up they attached themselves to -the prisoners and would march out with them regularly to labour. When -the drum beat and the parties assembled at the great gate, the geese -came cackling, flapping their wings and hopping along. While the -convicts worked, the geese pecked about close at hand until the time -came for return, when they again joined the procession and marched with -their friends solemnly back to the barracks, to the great amusement of -the bystanders. The close attachment between the birds and their friends -did not save the geese from having their necks twisted and being added -to the dinner on a feast day. - -The captive eagle did not take kindly to detention. It had been brought -in wounded, with a broken wing and half dead. Nothing could domesticate -or tame it. It gazed fiercely and fearlessly on the curious crowd and -opened its beak as if determined to sell its life dearly. As soon as a -chance came it hopped away on one leg, flapping its one uninjured wing, -and hid in a far-off, inaccessible corner, from which it never emerged. -The convicts often gathered to stare at it and would bait it with the -dog Bull, who hesitated, in wholesome dread of the savage bird’s beak -and claws. The eagle long refused food, and although he finally took -meat and drank water left with him, he would consume nothing that was -given him by hand or when any one’s eye was upon him. When no one was -near, he would creep out of his corner and take a walk of a dozen steps, -hopping and limping backward and forward with great regularity under the -lee of the stockade. He resisted pugnaciously all overtures to -friendship, and would suffer no one to pet him or pat him but pined -away, lonely and irreconcilable, waiting only for death. - -At last the convicts were moved to compassion for the caged bird, -deprived of liberty like themselves. It was seriously discussed whether -he ought not to be set free. So he was securely tied, taken out to the -ramparts when the parties went to labour, and thrown out on the bare, -barren steppe. The bird immediately hurried away, flapping his wounded -wing and striving desperately to get out of sight of his captors. They -looked after him enviously; they had given him the freedom they did not -possess, a boon they hungered for unceasingly night and day, winter and -summer, but especially when the sun shone bright and they could see the -boundless plain stretching away in the blue distance beyond the river -Irtysh and across the free Kirghiz Steppe. - -Dostoyevski feelingly records his sensations when the day for his -release at length arrived. The night before, as darkness fell, he went -round the enclosure for the last time, revisiting every spot where he -had suffered the bitter pangs of imprisonment, solitary and -despairing,—the place where he had counted over and over again the -thousands and thousands of days he had still to remain inside. The next -morning, before the exodus for labour, he made the rounds to bid his -comrades farewell; and many a coarse, horny hand was held out to him -with hearty good-will. The generous souls gave him Godspeed, but others -who were more envious turned their backs on him and would not reply to -his kindly greetings. His last visit was to the blacksmith’s shop. He -went without escort, and placed his feet on the anvil, each in turn; the -rivets were struck out of the basils and he was freed from his chains. - -“Liberty! New life, resurrection from the dead! Unspeakable moment!” - - - - - CHAPTER VI - TIUMEN AND TOMSK - -New route taken by exiles since opening of the Trans-Siberian - railway—Increased numbers produced overcrowding in all prisons both in - Europe and Asia—The “forwarding prisons” the cause of much - distress—The Tiumen prison; cells, kitchen, hospital—Infectious - diseases—Death-rate—Tomsk forwarding prison—Conditions worse than at - Tiumen—The balagan or family “kamera”—Futile attempts to dispute - incontrovertible evidence—“Étapes” or road prisons and “polu étapes” - or half-way houses—Distance covered daily by the marching parties—The - “telyegas” or country carts which carried the sick—Method of buying - provisions from villagers en route—The “étape” of Achinsk—Infectious - diseases in these prisons—The reports of Governor-General - Anuchin—Sympathy of the Czar Alexander III. - - -The old order changeth slowly, and the hideous memories of the black and -baleful past will long survive. The pages which record the disgraceful -facts may be torn out of Russian prison history but they can never be -eradicated or forgotten. Let it be granted that reforms and improvements -have been introduced, and that some of the most glaring evils have been -removed, we may doubt whether in the present condition of the empire, -still shaken to its very base by disaster and disaffection, the -betterment goes below the surface or will be lasting. The governing -authorities in these troublous times have but little leisure to discuss -penology, and although long since aroused to a lively sense of the -shortcomings of their prison system, they are slow to mend their ways. -Changes and ameliorations promised still tarry by the way, and there is -but little hope that the frightful conditions so long prevailing have -even in part disappeared. - -The chief blot upon the method of transportation no longer exists, it is -true. The wearisome, almost interminable march has been replaced by the -long railway journey over the Trans-Siberian line, completed in 1897 and -opened the following year for the conveyance of exiles. The convicts no -longer spend a couple of years or more on a journey now performed in -eight or ten days. Their sufferings are no longer protracted -indefinitely, but for a brief space they are still locked up like cattle -in dirty, ill-ventilated vans, and are still collected in the foul -“forwarding prisons,” whence they pass on for distribution to Eastern -Siberia, the convict colony of Saghalien, or the outer darkness near the -North Pole. A few well-planned and commodious new prisons have been -erected in recent years, for which credit must be given to the prison -administration, but they have applied only a partial remedy to existing -conditions. - -The exile route to-day naturally follows the new line of railway. From -Moscow the road strikes south to Samara on the Volga, to which point a -large passenger traffic is brought by the great water-way to board the -trains. From Samara to Ufa on the west slope the Ural Mountains, and -after scaling them the line descends to Chelyabinsk on the Siberian -frontier. Here the convict travellers are divided into parties according -to their destination. Some go north toward Tiumen and Tobolsk, others -travel due east in the direction of Lake Baikal, and others start south -for Semipalatinsk and the Altai. - -The route before the railway was built was from Moscow, the centre of -the home prison system, thence by train to Nizhni-Novgorod, and on by -boat down the Volga through Kazan to Perm, and thence by train across -the Ural Mountains to Ekaterinburg and Tiumen. All exiles of whatever -class, without distinction or separation, travelled this way, and all -halted at Tiumen, where they were made up into parties and forwarded to -their several destinations. - -Overcrowding was the curse of all Russian prisons; the cause of -discomforts innumerable, inflicting untold suffering, producing deadly -endemic and epidemic diseases. That it was the same everywhere, we are -told on incontestable authority, and the futile attempts made by -superficial inquirers to vindicate the government which is responsible -are contemptible. To begin with St. Petersburg, the official report of -the society for prisons stated that in 1880 the show prison, the -Litovski Zamok, although built for seven hundred inmates, uniformly -contained from nine hundred to a thousand; and the depot prison, -supposed to hold two hundred, was always filled with double the number. -The first named had 103 rooms nominally for eight hundred persons. These -rooms, as described by an eye-witness, were exceedingly dirty, and he -further says: “The ‘black holes’ are dreadful; they are absolutely -deprived of light; a dark labyrinth leads to them and within all is wet, -with rotten floors and dripping walls. A man coming from the outer air -staggers away half asphyxiated. Specialists say that the healthiest man -will surely die if he is kept there for three or four weeks. After a -short stay prisoners went out exhausted; several could hardly stand on -their feet.” - -As to the specific charge of overcrowding, a few details must carry -conviction. The prison at Nizhni-Novgorod was built for three hundred, -and generally held seven or eight hundred persons. In Poland there were -four prisons occupying the space required for one. The prison at Perm -was built in 1872 for 120 inmates, but in the same year it held just -double that number and the cubical air space allotted to each individual -was from 202 to 260 cubic feet, or, as Kropotkin puts it, it was just as -if a man was living in a coffin eight feet by six feet. Another -authority, the _Journal of Legal Medicine_, issued by the medical -department of the Ministry of the Interior, gives the cubical contents -as no more than 124 cubic feet per head. At Tomsk the prison was -disgracefully overcrowded. It was built for nine hundred but contained -over two thousand souls. At Samara the average prison population was -1,147, but the aggregate cubic capacity of all the prisons in the town -was for 552 inmates. At Verkhni Udinsk an _ostrog_ built for 140 -prisoners was often packed with five hundred and even eight hundred -inmates. On the whole, summing up the dreadful facts, an apologist of -the Russian government admits that the prisons contain half as many more -than the number originally intended. - -Let us pass to the direct evidence of a perfectly veracious witness, -speaking out of his own experience. George Kennan approached his -self-imposed task with a judicial, well-balanced mind, quite -unprejudiced against the Russian system, predisposed, if anything, to -view it with favour. He paid a lengthy visit to the Tiumen forwarding -prison, with the full permission of the authorities, who withheld -nothing from his observation, premising only that it was greatly -overcrowded and in a bad sanitary condition. - -As to the first point, the figures were conclusive. It was a well-known -fact that the prison was built originally for 550 inmates but was -subsequently enlarged by the addition of detached barracks so as to hold -nominally 850 prisoners. On the day Kennan visited it, the number was -1,741, as witnessed by a blackboard hanging up at the office door. In -the first room entered, a _kamera_ or cell, 35 feet long, 25 feet wide -and 12 feet high, the accommodation and air space at the outside was for -forty persons. On the night before, 160 had slept or, more exactly, -passed the night in the room. The same dreadful superfluity of human -beings existed throughout the entire prison. - -“I looked around the cell,” says Kennan. “There was practically no -ventilation whatever, and the air was so poisoned and foul that I could -hardly force myself to breathe it. We visited successively in the yard -six _kameras_ or cells, essentially like the first, and found in every -one of them three or four times the number of prisoners for which it was -intended, and five or six times the number for which it had adequate air -space. In most of the cells there was not room enough on the sleeping -platforms for all of the convicts, and scores of men slept every night -on the foul, muddy floors, under the _nary_, ‘sleeping platforms,’ and -in the gangways between them and the walls.” - -The main building, containing the kitchen, the workshops, the hospital -and a large number of _kameras_, was in a worse sanitary condition than -the barracks. The air in the corridors and cells, particularly on the -second story, was indescribably foul. The oxygen had been breathed again -and again; it was laden with fever germs from the unventilated hospital -wards, fetid odours from diseased human lungs and unclean human bodies, -and the stench of unmentionable receptacles. “It was like trying to -breathe in an underground hospital drain,” says Kennan. The kitchen was -a dark, dirty room in the basement where three or four half naked cooks -were baking large loaves and preparing soup. The bread was sour and -heavy, but as good as that usually eaten by Russian peasants; the soup -was found to be good and nutritious. - -The hospital was on the third floor and the wards were larger and -lighter than the _kameras_, but wholly unventilated; no disinfectants -were in use, and the air was polluted to the last degree. The prospect -of regaining health in such unwholesome dens was small. A man in robust -condition must certainly become infected in a few weeks, and there was -little hope for the recovery of the sick. All the worst disorders were -to be found among the patients; scurvy, typhus fever, typhoid fever, -acute bronchitis, rheumatism and syphilis. Only the patients affected by -malignant typhus were isolated in a single ward. The women were -separated from the men, but that was all. “The patients, both men and -women, seemed to be not only desperately sick, but hopeless and heart -broken.” The mortality was excessive. Typhus was epidemic every year. -The prison was uniformly overcrowded; it had been built for eight -hundred and generally contained eighteen hundred. Some scanty -ventilation was possible when the windows could be opened, but in the -stormy autumn or bitter winter no fresh air could be admitted. - -According to the official reports of the inspectors of exile -transportation, in the eleven years between 1876 and 1886 the greatest -number of deaths in the Tiumen prison hospital was 354, the lowest 175, -the average 270. This is an unparalleled death-rate. In various European -prisons the rate is on the average as follows:—England, 1.4 per cent.; -France, 3.8 per cent.; Austria, 3.5 per cent.; Belgium, 1.8 per cent.; -United States, 1.7 per cent. “In the Tiumen forwarding prison it was -29.5 per cent., or almost 300 per thousand.... This would entirely -annihilate a fixed population in from two and a half to four years,”—a -death-rate such as this, in the words of Mr. Cable, “exceeds that of any -pestilence that ever fell on Europe in the Middle Ages.” - -The female prison was in a separate yard within a high stockade of -sharpened logs. The _kameras_ were clean and well-lighted; floors and -sleeping platforms had been scrubbed; the rooms were not so densely -overcrowded, and the air was purer than on the men’s side. But the -condition of the third detached prison, that for exiled families, in -which men, women and children were herded together to the number of -three hundred, was horrible. It was overcrowded; the air was heavy and -foul; “dozens of children were crying from hunger and wretchedness; and -the men and women looked tired, sleepless and dejected.” All the women -were voluntarily accompanying their husbands or fathers into banishment. - -The disgraceful state of the Tiumen forwarding prison was perfectly well -known to the authorities, and has been strongly commented upon in -official reports. How far amendment has proceeded I have no definite -information, although we may hope that the diversion of the outward -stream of exiles since the opening of the Trans-Siberian railway has -greatly reduced the excessive demands upon the imperfect accommodation. -But there is another forwarding prison further eastward and at one time -on the direct line of exile traffic. This is at the city of Tomsk, which -is actually fifty miles distant from the railway, because the local -authorities refused to pay the blackmail demanded by the projectors of -the line to bring it through, or within easy reach of the city. Before -railway days, the convicts travelled in barges on the river Tobol from -Tiumen to Tomsk. These barges were planned to accommodate six hundred on -each voyage; they were towed by steamers and made the journey in from -seven to ten days, completing eighteen trips during the season of open -navigation, and thus they transported annually between ten thousand and -eleven thousand souls. - -If the Tiumen prison was in horrible condition, that of Tomsk was -infinitely worse. Its deplorable state was frankly admitted to George -Kennan by the authorities when they granted him permission to visit it. -“I think you will find it the worst prison in Siberia,” said the acting -governor of the province of Tomsk. What else was to be expected when the -buildings were filled with more than twice the number of inmates which -they could properly accommodate? The Tomsk forwarding prison was -designed to hold fourteen hundred, but three thousand or even four -thousand were habitually crammed into it. The numbers arriving exceeded -the power of distribution, and week by week a residuum remained to -increase the permanent population. The _étapes_, or halting stations -along the road, could accommodate only a limited number and there were -not enough troops to provide for more than one marching party each week. - -The Tomsk forwarding prison is described by Mr. Kennan, who saw it in -1885, as, “a stockaded camp or enclosure three acres in extent, lying on -open ground outside the city.” Within were some fifteen to twenty log -buildings grouped about a pyramidal church tower. Each wooden building -in the enclosure was a one-storied barrack prison of square logs with -board roofs, heavily grated windows and massive iron doors secured with -padlocks. There were eight of these, each constituting a prison ward and -each divided into two _kameras_, one on each side of a central corridor -running through the building. Each ward or building was calculated to -hold 190 inmates, but was crowded with at least three hundred. Each cell -was about forty feet square and the air space was seven-eighths of a -cubic fathom per head. The cells were fairly well lighted, but the -atmosphere was pestilential and the temperature from the natural heat of -the prisoners’ bodies was fifteen or twenty degrees higher than the -external air. The usual sleeping platforms ran across the cells, but -there was not room on them for half of the number confined there, and -the other half was forced to sleep beneath the platforms, or on the -floor in the adjoining gangways. These lay there on the mud-stained and -filthy floor, without pillows, blankets or bedclothing. They were in -such a grievous state that they complained feelingly of the heat, -foulness and oppressiveness of the air and declared that it was -impossible to move about in the day time or to get rest at night. - -The same evils were present in every cell. But the horrors culminated in -the “family” room or _balagan_, the long, low shed of rough pine -boards,—a frame work hastily put together and with sides of thin white -cotton sheeting. There were three of these crammed full of family -parties, men, women and children. The shed was surrounded by a foul -ditch half full of filth which soaked through and from under the -cotton-sheeting wall. The only light that penetrated within the -windowless _balagan_ was through this wall of cotton. The place was -packed with hundreds of occupants,—“weary-eyed men, haggard women and -ailing children,” sitting and lounging about the sleeping platforms and -on the broken boards of the floor through which exuded all kinds of -abominations. The air was insufferably fetid from the great numbers of -infants unwashed and wholly uncared for. Wet underclothing, washed in -the camp kettles, was hanging from the beams to dry; an -indistinguishable chaos of bags, bundles and domestic utensils -encumbered the floor, and the crowd was so closely packed that people -could not move without touching each other. No remedy, no alleviation -was possible. The cold at night in these cotton enclosed walls, or the -damp heat and imperfect ventilation in the bath-house—which many would -have preferred—were equally fatal to infant life. Detention in these -wretched apologies for shelters was greatly prolonged. No change of -clothing was provided; a man wore the same shirt for months, until it -almost dropped off, in dirty ragged scraps, full of vermin. Not -strangely was it thought a welcome relief when the orders came to take -the road. The toilsome march with its incessant hardships and exhausting -fatigue was preferable to the fixed residence in a forwarding prison. - -The hospital at Tomsk was in some respects better than that at Tiumen; -it occupied a separate building, and was kept in better order. There -were always more patients than beds to receive them, and the surplus in -various stages of acute disease lay about on benches or on the floor. -Despite the overcrowding, the place was kept fairly clean, the bed -clothing was fresh and plentiful and the air was less polluted than at -Tiumen. The percentage of the sick varied according to the season. It -rose in November, when the population was at its highest, to twenty-five -per cent., and among the diseases malignant typhus, the true type of the -ancient, but now happily rare, “gaol fever,” was always largely present. -There were twenty-four hundred cases of illness in the year and at the -most crowded time there have been 450 cases in the hospital with beds -for only 150 patients. - -The prison surgeon, one of the most humane and devoted of his class, Dr. -Orzheshko, has described his experience covering fifteen years. In -November, he says, “three hundred men and women dangerously sick lay on -the floor in rows, most of them without pillows or bed clothing; and in -order to find even floor space for them we had to put them so close -together that I could not walk between them, and a patient could not -cough or vomit without coughing or vomiting into his own face or into -the face of the man lying beside him. The atmosphere in the wards became -so terribly polluted that I fainted repeatedly upon coming into the -hospital in the morning, and my assistants had to revive me by dashing -water into my face. In order to change or purify the air, we were forced -to keep the windows open; and as winter set in, this so chilled the -rooms, that we could not maintain ... a temperature higher than five or -six degrees Réamur above the freezing point.” - -This hospital was so saturated with contagious disease that it stood -condemned, and deserved to be burned down. Official procrastination -delayed its destruction, but in 1887 a sum of 30,000 rubles was granted -for the erection of a new hospital, which is, presumably, now occupied. -It was high time to make a change. The city of Tomsk, the capital of -Siberia, the great centre of Siberian trade, flourishing, prosperous and -increasing, naturally became alarmed. The free inhabitants were -threatened with the spread of dire epidemic diseases. The local press, -defying the censorship, eloquently denounced the horrible condition due -to the vast accumulation of excessive numbers in the forwarding prison, -and the resultant evils in sickness and mortality. The newspapers stated -incontrovertible facts. The death-rate in the city of Tomsk was fifty -per thousand per annum, sufficiently large, but in the prison it was -three hundred per thousand. Typhus was the predominating disease, -accompanied by smallpox, diphtheria, measles and scarlatina. This typhus -constituted 56.4 per cent. of all the sickness in the forwarding prison -in 1886, 62.6 per cent. in 1887 and 23 per cent. in 1888. The -corresponding death-rate in these years was 23.2, 21 and 13.1 per cent. - -A violent controversy was aroused between the enterprising and outspoken -American investigator, Mr. George Kennan, and a well-known English -explorer, Mr. H. de Windt, who undertook to contest the statements, and, -indeed, to deny the facts set forth by Mr. Kennan, plainly condemning -them as the phantasy of a disordered imagination and boldly affirming -that such a place as the Tomsk forwarding prison “does not exist.” Mr. -de Windt’s arguments are based upon the negative evidence of his own -experience. He declares that he saw nothing of the horrors described, -but then he never saw or closely inspected the prisons incriminated. He -was, no doubt, admitted to certain prisons, which he visited under the -auspices of the authorities, and he reported upon them hastily and on -imperfect knowledge. Mr. Kennan’s painful story is so completely -sustained by Russian official reports and the open condemnation of the -Siberian press, that it is entitled to full credence and may be relied -upon as absolutely trustworthy and conclusive. His account of Tiumen and -Tomsk must take a prominent place in the history of penal institutions. - -The exile system called the _étapes_ or “road prisons” into being. They -were very numerous and were planted at intervals of every twenty-five or -forty miles, and as this distance was beyond the limit of a single day’s -march, half-way houses, or _polu étapes_, were to be met with regularly -along the road. Each _étape_ was the headquarters of a detachment of -soldiers who formed the convoy or escort of the convicts moving -eastward. At the _polu étapes_ there were no troops. The head of each -convoy was a commissioned officer styled the _nachalnik_. - -The marching parties covered 330 miles every month, doing from fifteen -to twenty miles on two succeeding days and resting on the third. Thus a -party leaving Tomsk on Monday morning reached a _polu étape_ that night, -slept there and passed on to another regular _étape_ on Wednesday, where -they halted for twenty-four hours. On Thursday the journey was resumed -with a fresh escort, a _polu étape_ was reached that night, and a -regular _étape_ the next, and so on, day after day and week after week -for many months. Until 1883, there was no separation of the sexes on the -march, but after that date single men were excluded from the family -parties in which women and children were included. Terrible -demoralisation was previously the rule in the constantly overcrowded -_étapes_, and the grossest offences were commonly committed. - -The departure of a marching party from the forwarding prison was -generally fixed at eight o’clock in the morning, when the _telyegas_, or -country carts, for the conveyance of the sick and infirm, began to -collect in front of the prison gate. Next appeared the prison blacksmith -with his anvil and portable forge, to test the fetters as the convicts -came forth, and after he had satisfied himself that the rivets were fast -and the basils had not been bent, an under officer doled out ten kopecks -to each individual, and the convicts were formed in line, by classes, -for convenience of inspection and calling the roll. The hard-labour -convicts removed their gray visorless caps to show that their crowns -were half shaved according to regulation. From the other sides of their -heads hung a mat of long, coarse and dishevelled hair. At length the -whole party, numbering from three to four hundred, assembled in the -street; each convict carried a gray linen two-bushel bag for the storage -of his personal effects. Many possessed tea-kettles, dangling from the -waist belts that supported the leg irons, and one or two might be seen -with a favourite dog in their arms. All the men were dressed alike in -long gray overcoats over coarse linen shirts and loose gray trousers. -The women wore no distinctive uniform, but were dressed mostly in -peasant costume with gaily coloured handkerchiefs on their heads. Square -foot-wrappers of gray linen were used in lieu of stockings and all wore -the _koty_, or low shoes, while they lasted, but they were of such -rotten, worthless material that they fell to pieces in a couple of days -and the wretched wayfarers went barefooted. - -The _telyegas_ were carts of the rudest description, one-horsed and -without springs or seats, and the occupants, sick and suffering, old, -infirm and emaciated, lay at the bottom on a scanty layer of grass. A -doctor’s certificate was essential to secure a place in the carts, and a -sharp lookout was kept to weed out the malingerers. In one year more -than twenty-five hundred broken-down persons were conveyed to their -destination in as many as 658 carts. - -When the column started, the marching party led the van at a brisk pace, -followed by the military escort, the carts bearing the sick, and those -conveying the gray linen bags. The commanding officer brought up the -rear. “This strange procession,” says Deutsch, who knew from personal -experience, “extends itself along the road for about three-quarters of a -mile, and raises clouds of dust.” A terrible scourge was the Siberian -midge, a pest attacking not only the exposed hands and face but getting -into the mouth, nose, ears and eyes, and under the clothing, and -inflicting unendurable irritation. The pace maintained was at the rate -of two miles an hour. After traversing ten miles, a halt was called for -rest and the noon-day meal. The effort was little for the able-bodied, -but for the weaker, laden with chains and bundles, the long march was -most exhausting, and all gladly flung themselves on the ground, wet or -dry. A spot was chosen at the entrance of some village, and its -residents came forth to haggle and huckster over the sale of coarse -food, such as black rye bread, fish pies, hard boiled eggs, milk and -_kvas_, or sour country beer. Prices varied, and no attempt was made to -control them officially; they were liable to be extortionate at seasons -of scarcity, after bad harvests, and the government allowance was at -times ludicrously inadequate, barely enough to satisfy hunger. Besides, -the average convict is an inveterate gambler, and many became penniless -risking and losing the whole of their allowance. Then they would beg by -the roadside, as already described. After a short hour’s pause, the -march was resumed, a second ten miles was painfully covered, and it was -almost dark when the halt for the night was reached, whether at an -_étape_ or _polu étape_. - -There was little to choose between the _étapes_ and the _polu étapes_, -but the latter were smaller and the accommodation was consequently -worse. Both were stockaded enclosures, containing three or more long, -low, one-story buildings. One of these was the commanding officer’s -quarters, a second was for the soldiers of the escort, and the remaining -hut or huts formed the prison. Each was divided into two or three cells; -each was furnished with the usual plank sleeping platforms in a double -row, and a brick stove. The available space was much too small for the -prisoners passing through as these halting prisons were built for about -half the number. “All of these,” says an official report, “are not only -too small, but old and decayed and demand capital repairs.” The -governor-general of Eastern Siberia, Anuchin, reported confidentially in -1880, to the Czar, Alexander III, that all prisons he had visited, -including the _étapes_, were tumbled-down buildings in a lamentable -sanitary condition; that they were cold in winter and saturated with -miasma; that the prisons of the empire generally, with the exception of -the principal ones recently erected, were not remarkable for their good -qualities, but the Siberian prisons were particularly bad because they -were built quickly, with insufficient means, and almost wholly without -supervision of any kind. Only one architect had been employed and his -sphere of action was so wide that he paid only a rare visit to new works -in progress. The contractors departed from the original plans and evaded -conditions, so that the work was continually neglected. In the first -place the money was insufficient, after a portion of the government -appropriation had been stolen by fraudulent contractors and corrupt -officials, and the new _étapes_ were run up without stone foundations, -so that the walls soon “settled” and the buildings rapidly deteriorated -under climatic agencies and the injurious wear and tear of the constant -overcrowding. In temperate weather half the prisoners slept on the -ground in the outer courtyard, but when it was too inclement they filled -the _kameras_, lay about the corridors and packed themselves into the -garrets. Not the smallest care was taken to make places habitable. Dirt -accumulated everywhere; no provision had been made for ventilation, and -the windows would not even open. Occupation of quarters was a matter of -force, when the weakest went to the wall. - -On arrival at an _étape_, generally in the afternoon, a halt was called -outside the palisade for roll-call, and then the great gates were thrown -open for the indiscriminate admission of the crowd. “With a wild, mad -rush and a furious clashing of chains, more than three hundred men made -a sudden break for the narrow gateway, struggled, fought and crowded -through it, and then burst into the _kameras_, in order to secure, by -preoccupation, places on the sleeping platforms,” says Kennan. Leo -Deutsch graphically describes this “battle for the best sleeping places, -the weaker being thrust aside or trampled down by the stronger. At our -first sight of this mad fighting and struggling among some hundred men -in a narrow space, we thought they would kill each other, but generally -the wild tumult of blows and kicks and curses did not result in anything -serious.” The losers in the game took the worst places, or bartered for -a better bed with the more fortunate at the price of a few kopecks. - -When the scramble for a night’s lodging ended, the tired wayfarers fell -to preparing their own suppers. Hot water for making tea was retailed by -the soldiers of the escort, and cooked food with coarse bread was bought -from the market women who came in to sell their wares. Sometimes they -did not appear and the convicts would almost starve, or the times were -hard and impossible prices were charged. The daily allowance issued by -the authorities was sometimes insufficient, and again the convicts went -short. Often enough the buyers cheated the sellers, or stole their -goods, and the poor women could get no redress. After supper, roll was -again called, the watch was set, sentries were posted, and the prisoners -were locked up and left for the night. - -The _étape_ at Achinsk, for instance, between Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk, is -described by a newspaper of Irkutsk as “a _cloaca_ where human beings -perish like flies. Typhus fever, diphtheria and other epidemic diseases -prevail there constantly, and infect all who have the misfortune to get -into that awful place,” and a St. Petersburg newspaper says, “There one -doctor has on his hands more than three hundred sick.” A correspondent -wrote to a Tomsk journal, “As soon as you enter the court-yard of the -prison you notice the contaminated, miasmatic air.... Dante himself -would have thrown down his pen if he had been required to describe the -damp, cold, dilapidated cells of this prison. At night myriads of -bed-bugs torture every prisoner into a condition not far removed from -frenzy. The prison sometimes has six hundred inmates and to its filth -and disorder are attributable the typhus fever, diphtheria and other -diseases that spread from it, as from a pit of contagion, to the -population of the city.” In the Isham _étape_, the cold was intense and -the exiles arriving had no warm clothing. One man was frozen to death on -the road. At Cheremkhovsky the air space which was barely enough for two -persons had to serve for thirty. It was described by a prisoner as “a -grave and not a prison.” At Kirinsk, the building of decayed logs would -have fallen down had it not been shored up by other logs equally rotten. -A prisoner, to show the state of the wood, thrust his fingers out of -sight into the wall. - -We have seen how the marching parties were accompanied by a large -contingent of sick who were unfit to travel and yet could not be left -behind, sometimes even at the point of death. They were compelled to sit -all day in a cramped position in the rude carts, intensifying the -already acute pains of their often mortal ailments, and were exposed to -all conditions of the weather. When dry and warm, they were enveloped in -clouds of dust, causing intolerable discomfort, especially in the case -of disease of the respiratory organs; when cold and inclement, still -worse dangers attended the exposure to snow and wintry winds. No change -into dry clothing on arrival was feasible, for with inconceivable -carelessness the baggage was allowed to become soaked through on the -road. The baggage carts were unprovided with cover even by tarpaulins. -Thus the sickly, in the worst stages of illness, were forced to lie down -upon the same platforms, side by side with the more robust, to whom they -quickly passed the contagion of their diseases. In the rare cases when -the _étape_ was provided with a lazaret, newcomers who were ill might -fare better, but the average _étape_ hospital was infamously bad. - -The indictment against the Czar and his government for their brutal -defiance of the commonest rules of humanity has been more than -substantiated by the deplorable facts set forth in the previous pages. -It is agreeable to note some disposition to mend matters on the part of -the supreme authorities. Certain reforms in prison administration have -been introduced in recent years, showing that the autocrat of all the -Russias has not continued utterly indifferent to the sufferings of -Siberian exiles and convicts. Widespread radical changes have been -impossible; the evils were too deep seated and too extensive for general -removal; but one or two new prisons have been erected, more in accord -with the dictates of penitentiary science and aiming at partial -improvement. A brief account of one or two of these may serve to relieve -somewhat the gloomy picture which has been by no means over-coloured. - -The Czars Alexander II and III could not plead ignorance of the horrible -conditions prevailing in Eastern Siberia which were brought unmistakably -to their notice by the reports of Anuchin in 1880 and 1882. Some of his -condemnatory remarks have already been quoted and may be repeated here -as summing up his final verdict. After minute inquiry and much -investigation, he characterises the Siberian prisons as follows: “The -exile system and penal servitude in Eastern Siberia are in the most -unsatisfactory state ... while the exile bureaus in the provinces are -not organised in a manner commensurate with the importance of the work -that they have to do and are prejudicial rather than useful to the -service.” The Czar Alexander III was so deeply impressed with the -necessity for reform that he endorsed on this report in his own -handwriting, “I should greatly like to do this and it seems to me -indispensable.” Events proved too strong however even for the autocrat -ruler of all the Russias. He says: “I have read this report with great -interest, and I am more than troubled by this melancholy but just -description of the government’s forgetfulness of a country so rich and -so necessary to Russia.” On the part dealing with prisons the Czar -endorsed the words, “A melancholy but not a new picture.” On a later -page I shall go further into the ameliorations and improvements -attempted since 1886. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - VAGABONDAGE AND UNIONS - -Peculiar phases of criminality to be found in Siberian prisons—Country - overrun with convict fugitives—Terrible privations suffered by these - vagrants—The “call of the cuckoo”—The vagrants known as - “brodyagi”—Number of runaway convicts in the summer months said to - exceed thirty thousand—The formation of the “artel” or union in all - companies of convicts—The power and methods of the “Ivans” or - recidivists in the “artel”—Leo Deutsch’s story—Life of the politicals - in the Middle Kara state prison—The “Sirius” or student who worked - during the night—The humane governor, Colonel Kanonovich—He resigns - rather than obey the government’s orders that the prisoners should be - perpetually chained to wheelbarrows. - - -Certain types of criminals and some peculiar phases of criminality have -grown up in Russian, and especially in Siberian prisons. They are mainly -due to the negation of proper penitentiary principles and the absence of -any fixed methods of treatment. Callous indifference has generally -alternated with brutal repression and savage, disciplinary punishments. -The chief result has been the growth of classes of criminals seldom seen -elsewhere. The so-called “habitual offender” is to be met with strongly -developed and in a peculiarly vicious form in Siberia. The whole country -is overrun with fugitive convicts who have made good their escape in -various fashions. Some have run from the marching parties, carrying -their lives in their hands as they braved the bullets of the generally -straight-shooting soldiers of the escort; others have successfully -evaded the police at remote points of settlement as established exiles; -not a few have benefited by the exchange of identity with some one who -remained behind. All have become wild men of the woods, the terror of -all peaceable members of society whom they may come across in the -scattered settlements or single houses of the sparsely inhabited -districts. Many thousands of these vagrants are at large in the summer -months, when they may live in the open air and subsist as best they can -on what they find or steal. Large numbers are recaptured; many perish -from cold and starvation when winter approaches; many more give -themselves up voluntarily to save their lives, accepting the severest -flogging or a new sentence as the penalty of their escape. - -Yet they are incorrigible wanderers and pass their lives in short -periods of freedom and longer doses of confinement. When Kennan saw a -marching party start, he was shown convicts who were treading the -dolorous road for the sixth time. The captain of the escort assured him -that he had known cases in which the journey had been repeated sixteen -times. In other words, the vagrant had crossed Siberia just thirty-two -times on foot, and had, therefore, walked as much as if he had twice -made the circuit of the globe at the Equator. - -The passionate craving for freedom has been well described by -Dostoyevski. “At the first song of the lark throughout all Siberia and -Russia, men set out on the tramp; God’s creatures, if they can break -their prison and escape into the woods.... They go vagabondising where -they please, wherever life seems to them most agreeable and easy; they -drink and eat what they can find; at night they sleep undisturbed and -without a care in the woods or in a field;... saying good night only to -the stars; and the eye that watches them is the eye of God. It is not -altogether a rosy lot: sometimes they suffer hunger and fatigue ‘in the -service of General Cuckoo.’ Often enough the wanderers have not a morsel -of bread to keep their teeth going for days at a time.... They are -almost all brigands and thieves by necessity rather than inclination.... -This life in the woods, wretched and fearful as it is, but still free -and adventurous, has a mysterious seduction for those who have -experienced it.” - -A curious illustration of this consuming passion is to be found in the -case of an aged convict who had become the servant of a high official at -the Kara gold mines. This man ran away periodically at the return of -spring, and although suffering always the same terrible privations, was -brought back in irons. At last, at the fateful moment, he came to his -master and begged that he might be locked up. “I am a _brodyaga_, heart -and soul, quite irreclaimable, and I cannot resist the cuckoo’s call. -Please do me the favour to put me under lock and key so that I cannot go -off.” He was closely confined until the summer passed, and when the -fever of unrest left him, he was released and became quiet, contented -and docile as ever. A convict who has earned conditional freedom and -received a grant of land, may have married, had children and lived -quietly for some years, when suddenly some day he will have disappeared, -abandoning wife and family, to the stupefaction of everybody. Vagrancy -is in his blood. He probably was a deserter before his conviction; the -passion for wandering has always possessed him. He has hungered after a -change of lot, and nothing would hold him, not even his family, much -less police surveillance or prison bars. - -The largest number of these vagabonds, or “passportless” men, as they -are called, have begun at the earliest opportunity to make a break for -liberty while on the road between the _étapes_. As the party was being -marshalled after the midday rest, or when it reached some defile or -stretch of broken ground, a simultaneous dash was made by several -through the marching cordon of guards. Fire was then opened -instantaneously, and one or more of the fugitives fell while the rest -got away. If the rush was made near some wood and cover could be gained, -the escape was successful. The first step on reaching a safe shelter was -to remove the leg irons by pounding the basils into an oblong shape with -a stone. Then the fugitive’s face was turned westward toward the Ural -Mountains, and one or two might by chance reach European Russia. - -As a rule, they travel along byways and tracks known only to themselves -through the _taiga_, or primeval forest, but they sometimes boldly -appear upon the great highways to Moscow. They are often to be met with -in couples or small bands, still in their prison rags, skirting the -forest and keeping near the edge so as to hide quickly at the first -alarm. Before the days of the railway, they would engage in conversation -with friends in any passing party of convicts on the march, and even -dared to salute the officers, who might know them perfectly but who -would not interfere with them. Life is often very hard with them, but -the Siberian peasants are usually charitable, partly from religious -feeling, but not a little from fear, for the _brodyaga_ is vindictive -and capable of showing his ill-will murderously. The doors of dwelling -houses are kept fast shut, but food is often placed outside on the -window-sill,—a piece of bread and cheese or a bowl of thickened milk. -Sometimes the bath-house, at a little distance, in a detached building, -is left open to give a night’s shelter, but it is dangerous to admit a -tramp into the main residence. Leo Deutsch tells the following story of -the unfortunate results of incaution. It is from the lips of one of the -principal actors. - -“We’d been a few days on the road when one stormy night we came to a -village. It was pouring in torrents, and we could find nobody who would -let us in, till at last an old man opened the door of his hut. We begged -him in God’s name to give us shelter. ‘Well,’ he said, ‘will you promise -to leave us old folks in peace?‘ ‘What do you take us for, grandfather?‘ -said we. ‘Have pity on us!’ So he let us in, and the old woman gave us -something to eat, and they allowed us to lie on the stove by turns. -Well, they went to sleep and we just _did for them_, and went off with -everything that could be of any use to us. We didn’t get far: the -peasants came after us and caught us; and then there was the usual game: -trial and sentence to penal servitude.” - -Frequently the recaptured _brodyaga_ is sentenced to only a few years’ -penal servitude, when he was originally sentenced for a much longer -period, and thus escape not only gives him freedom for a time, but -considerably lessens his punishment even after a second or third trial. -This is the result of the impossibility of establishing the identity of -persons arrested without passports, but the difficulty has largely -disappeared in recent years with the more systematic methods of -photographing the convicts. - -The _brodyagi_ were Ishmaelites against whom every hand was turned. The -people of Siberia showed them little mercy and constantly hunted them -down simply to rob them of anything they possessed. It was better than -chasing an antelope, they said; the beast had only one skin, the convict -had two; his coat, his shirt, boots and clothes, and something in his -pockets. Again—quoting from Deutsch—there was the case of a tramp who -had engaged himself as a labourer during the winter months. When paid -his wages, a mere pittance, he wandered forth; his late master pursued -him, shot him from behind a bush and repossessed himself of the money. -The Siberian woods held many unrecognised corpses, about whom no -questions were asked. Life is cheap in the great convict land. - -With the advent of spring, when approaching summer renders life in the -woods bearable, the “free commands,” comprising persons sentenced to -simple banishment or conditionally released, begin to overflow into the -forests, and a constant stream of fugitives bent upon changing their lot -sets westward. The signal for the start is the first note of the cuckoo; -hence the prison synonym for an escape is “to go to General ‘Kukushka’ -for orders.” They pass around Lake Baikal, climbing the high, barren -mountains that surround it, or they cross it on a raft or empty fish -cask. Their fires are to be seen in the distance guiding the hunters who -are out to avenge some new outrage of the runaways. - -It is estimated that the numbers of vagabonds at large in the summer -months exceed thirty thousand. By far the larger part of these reappear -at the convicts’ settlements when winter arrives. They are not -recognised and have steadfastly refused to recollect their proper names, -so one and all are provided with the same appellation of “Ivan -Dontremember,”—a large family, and the name carries with it the penalty -of five years’ hard labour. When deportation to Saghalien was later -adopted on a large scale, the hope was entertained that the fever for -escape would in a measure be cured by the difficulties and dangers of -the savage conditions of that wild and distant land. The prison -administration strongly recommended that the most incorrigible runaways -should be interned on that convict settlement, where, hemmed in by sea -and ice, they were cut off from the mainland of Asia and circumscribed -in their bids for freedom. The Saghalien _brodyagi_, however, have been -as active for evil and as irrepressible as in Siberia; they have worked -in gangs, and rendered more desperate by the poverty of the country and -the greater difficulties of subsistence, they have become more -recklessly criminal. Fugitives who had broken prison joined forces and -terrorised whole districts, attacking posts and settlements, committing -the worst outrages, and long defying pursuit and recapture. More -detailed accounts of the prevailing lawlessness in Saghalien belong to a -later date. - -The multiplication of escapes by the most desperate characters in -Siberia, and their almost inevitable recapture and reconviction, -developed some detestable features in prison life. If anything were -needed to emphasise the misusage of the comparatively innocent victims -of Russian oppression, it will be found in the permitted predominance of -the worst elements. The best were forever at the mercy of the worst; the -hardened miscreants ruled the prisons; they might not be in the -majority, but they depended upon the strength that came with combination -of the truculent and masterful banded together. Where convicts gathered -together in any number the first step was the organisation of the -_artel_, or “union,” which governed the rest with irresistible -despotism. In the days of marching by road the union was generally -formed at the first halting place, when a _starosta_, or “chief,” was -forthwith elected by the prisoners from among their own body, and -nominally by the vote of the majority. But the decision lay really with -the “Ivans,” the recidivists who had been in exile before; the old, -experienced rogues and vagabonds, who imposed their will upon their -comrades through their nominee. It was the ruthless rule of a secret -oligarchy, wielding despotic and irresponsible power entirely in its own -interests. The individual prisoner sacrificed his personal rights to -gain the protection of the association which pretended to stand between -him and the authorities. The union had funds acquired by means of a tax -assessed on the whole body, and from other sources of revenue, such as -the sale by auction to the highest bidder of the privilege of keeping a -sutler’s shop where tea, sugar and white bread were sold openly, and -where tobacco, playing cards and intoxicating liquor might be secretly -purchased. - -The will of the _artel_ was law; its functions were far-reaching and its -authority absolute over all the members. It worked secretly and out of -sight, securing its ends by astute devices and a free use of bribes to -officers and soldiers, and by utilising the knowledge that it was backed -up by the whole number of prisoners. Among its duties were concerting -plans of escape with the requisite assistance; the suborning of the -executioner to flog lightly; the hiring of _telyegas_ and sleighs for -conveyance by the road of those who could pay for the privilege, -frequently to the exclusion of the really weak and suffering; the -bribery of all officials; and the enforcement of all contracts and -agreements among the prisoners. It had its own unwritten code, its own -standard of honour and obligation, its own penalties. A member might -commit almost any crime, provided he was loyal and obedient to the -organisation; if he betrayed it or revealed its secrets, no matter under -what compulsion, he was already a dead man. The whole continent of Asia -could not hide or save the unfaithful exile. If condemned by the -pitiless tribunal, his fate would certainly overtake him somehow, -somewhere, even at a long distance from the scene of his offence. The -traitors might secure the protection of the authorities and live -altogether in the strictest solitude, but immunity was only secured for -a time. The blow would fall eventually. Kennan quotes two cases, in one -of which the victim was choked to death on board a convict steamer on -the voyage to Saghalien, and in the other, he was found dead, with his -throat cut, in a Caucasian _étape_. - -The chief of the union was a person of great importance; he had the -whole strength of the society at his back and was the recognised -intermediary with the authorities. An astute convoy officer would enter -into relations with him, and in return for a promise that no escapes -would be attempted, winked at the removal of leg irons on the road, -which, as has been said, the wearer could always accomplish by altering -the shape of the anklets. Even a high official, no less a personage than -the inspector-general of exiles, would make a cash contribution to the -funds of the _artel_ to secure this same promise. If any daring convict -should then escape, the union was eager to effect the recapture, either -of the actual fugitive or of some runaway found at large. The ultimate -fate of the fugitive has already been indicated. - -The _artel_, acting through its leaders, the “Ivans,” who helped the -_starosta_ to his place and practically controlled him, claimed the -right to enforce the strict observance of the agreements made between -convicts, and especially in regard to “swops,” or the exchange of -identities, with all the attributes and responsibilities attaching to -each. In recent years, great pains have been taken to prevent this by -such means as the obligation to carry photographs and personal -description which are constantly compared with the individual. But the -exchanges were long made with impunity, facilitated by the loose system -prevailing. Every marching party consisted of two principal classes; the -convicts sentenced to imprisonment with hard labour, and the _ssylny_, -sentenced to exile only as forced colonists. The penalties are quite -unequal, and many of those doomed to suffer the most severe would be -glad to exchange positions with the colonists when any could be induced -to accept the heavier burden. There were many such; it was only a -question of price, and that was not generally high; often a ridiculously -small compensation sufficed and the bargain was soon made. - -There are in every exile party a number of abject creatures, degraded -gamblers, who have lost their clothing (government property) and -mortgaged their food allowance for weeks ahead, and who will sell their -souls for a few rubles and a bottle of vodka. Such a creature will -listen greedily to the overtures of the more prosperous convict, who has -won or saved money on the road, and who tempts with splendid offers: a -warm overcoat, five rubles and a few glasses of drink as the price of -his personality. The bribe is backed up by specious arguments. The new -convict might console himself with the thought that he need not remain -long at hard labour. When duly arrived at his destination in the mining -settlements, or at some great prison, he had only to declare that he was -not the man he pretended to be. He would confess, in fact, that he had -fraudulently exchanged with another, whom he named but who could not be -found. The first act of the sham exile would be to escape from the -village in which he was interned and to get lost in the _taiga_. The -false convict might be held for a time and subjected to a severe -flogging and a term of imprisonment, after which he could count upon -release as an ordinary exile. - -This is no fanciful story. Cases were of constant occurrence. Leo -Deutsch, when on his way to the Kara mines, was seriously approached by -a comrade on the march, who suggested an exchange and showed -unblushingly how it might be carried out. This man was a veteran “Ivan,” -a criminal aristocrat and dandy among his fellows; he wore a white shirt -with a gay tie under his gray overcoat, and a brightly coloured scarf -round his waist, to which his chains were cleverly attached so that they -did not rattle or incommode him when walking. The suggestion was nothing -less than a cold-blooded murder. The substitute to be provided was to -have some personal resemblance to Deutsch, and would take his place with -the other politicals one day, and disappear the next. When his body -should be picked up presently in a neighbouring stream, it would be -supposed that Deutsch had committed suicide, while in reality, still -alive and hearty, he was to be disguised as the substitute who had been -permanently “removed” to make a place for him. The price of this -atrocity was a few rubles, twenty or thirty at most, and the blood money -was to be divided among the murderers, with a large contribution to the -revenues of the union. - -It was to the interest of the _artel_ to encourage these exchanges and -insist upon their punctual performance. The substitute was never -permitted to back out of his bargain. He generally belonged to the class -contemptuously styled “biscuits,” and the name suited these pale, -emaciated creatures, the pariahs of the party, upon whom fell all the -dirty, disagreeable jobs. These poor wretches had lost all power of -will, and cared for nothing but the cards that had been their ruin. They -stole all they could lay their hands on, except from the “Ivans,” who -would have retaliated with a murderous thrashing, justified on the -ground that the thief had stolen from his own people. The condition of -these “biscuits” was heart-rending, especially in bad weather, when, -clothed in rags that barely covered their nakedness, they ran rather -than walked on the line of march so as to keep themselves warm. Their -only pleasure was in gambling, when anything and everything was staked, -even the government clothing for which they were responsible and for -losing which they were punished cruelly. - -Next in importance to the chief, the storekeeper was a prominent -official in the union. He had bought his place, bidding the highest -price for it when put up at auction, and he had acquired the exclusive -right to sell provisions to the prisoners, and to supply them secretly -with tobacco, spirits and playing cards. The last mentioned were in -constant use and the games were eagerly watched. When a winner was -lucky, it was customary for him to stand treat to his starving comrades. -The storekeeper also, on the expiration of his office, would entertain -everyone with a feast when the prisoners would hungrily eat their fill, -crying, “It is the storekeeper who pays.” - -There is now, however, little chance of any such extended organisation -among the convicts on the journey or in the forwarding prisons. The -officials have learned how to prevent and break up such combinations and -more recent regulations have rendered them inoperative. So the old -_brodyagi_ must lament for the good old days and the power that they -once exercised. - -Some curious details of the organisation of the _artel_ in the Middle -Kara, or state prison for politicals, are given by Leo Deutsch. It was -formed for domestic administration and was worked fairly and equitably -for the general good. Coöperation was the leading principle. All issues -of food, the daily rations for the whole number, were collected and -afterward divided with such additions as were provided out of a common -fund obtained by general contribution of moneys received by prisoners -from their friends at home. This fund was expended in three ways: one -part went to the “stock pot” as explained above, to supplement the food; -a second was applied to help prisoners about to be released; and the -third was divided as pocket money among the whole number, to be spent -according to individual taste, in buying small luxuries or books -approved by the authorities. The _starosta_ kept strict account; no -actual money passed hands; paper orders circulated and were debited to -each member on a monthly balance sheet, with the result brought out as -“plus” or “minus.” It was the same as in ordinary life; some thriftless -people were always in debt; the impecunious hoped to get clear at -Christmas time when gifts came in, but if still on the wrong side, the -“minus” was “whitewashed” by the consent of the _artel_ but not always -with the concurrence of the debtor, who was sometimes too proud to -accept the favour. - -Under this union, life in common was admirably organised, with a -division of labour and a regular roster of employment. Work was of two -classes; for private purposes, and for the general good. The former -included washing of clothes and mending, the latter cooking, cleaning, -attending to the steam bath and the various domestic services. No pains -were spared to insure cleanliness. All rooms occupied by the prisoners -were scrupulously washed and kept tidy; the bed-boards and floors were -regularly scrubbed with hot water; the beds were aired; tables and -benches were washed in the yard; all sanitary appliances were thoroughly -disinfected. Proper ventilation was insisted upon, and close attention -was paid to hygienic conditions. All worked cheerfully, and illness only -was allowed as an exemption. The cooking was done by groups of five each -which served for a week at a time. A head cook, an assistant cook for -invalids, and two helpers made up the group. This was hard work, -fatiguing while it lasted, but a relief to the monotonous life. The -kitchen became a sort of club-house, where men came to laugh and jest -and play practical jokes, a pleasant change in their gruesome existence. -The dietary was meagre and little varied on account of dearth of -materials. Thin soup and black bread was the staple food, but the -soup-meat was often served as a separate dish with great ingenuity, a -favourite method being to mince it with groats. This dish was nicknamed -“Every-one-likes-it,” and it was joyfully welcomed on the days it -appeared on the bill of fare. Another favourite dish was the _pirog_, a -sort of “resurrection pie,” containing scraps saved up during the week. -Except on rare holidays, when roast meat and white bread were supplied -out of the fund, the food was neither nutritious nor appetising. But -many of the cooks were skilful,—worthy, as the prisoners declared, of -“better houses.” The cook’s perquisite was the issue of a rather -increased portion of food. - -Certain officials were appointed by the _artel_. A “bread issuer” cut up -the loaves and served them out to the different rooms; it was his duty -also to collect the scraps, even to the crumbs, and send them to the -“free command,” where ex-prisoners in semi-liberation resided; and the -pieces helped to feed the horses and two cows, the property of the -union. There was a poultry man, too, who took charge of the fowls, which -were raised and tended most carefully. Two bath-keepers were in charge -of the steam bath, the one luxury in the prison, indulgence in which -once a week afforded a short period of delightful ease and comfort. What -the bath meant to the convicts in the Omsk _ostrog_ has already been -described. - -One of the most important offices was that of librarian of the prison. -He was elected by ballot. By degrees the library at Kara had reached a -large number of volumes, partly brought in by prisoners, partly sent -from Russia, always with permission. It contained many standard works in -several languages; history, mathematics and natural science were largely -represented; the books were well cared for and cleverly rebound by -self-taught workmen. The librarian at Kara was long a political named -Vladimir Tchuikov, a youth who had been condemned to twenty years’ hard -labour for being in correspondence with a remarkable woman -revolutionist, who was long buried alive in the Schlüsselburg fortress. -It was also charged against him that he was found in possession of -implements for printing and manufacturing false passports, and of a list -of subscriptions to the journal, _Will of the People_. As a librarian he -was invaluable; he had a prodigious memory and could indicate any -article on any given subject which had appeared in a certain work or -pile of newspapers. - -Leo Deutsch describes the effect made upon him by Tchuikov at their -first meeting. “I noted their youthful but worn faces (Tchuikov and -Spandoni); both of them wore spectacles and on their heads were round -caps with no brims. With their yellow sheepskins and rattling chains, my -comrades gave one the impression that they could not be real convicts, -but were just dressed up for the part—so great was the contrast between -their refined faces and behaviour and this uncouth disguise.” - -Other officials under this coöperative association were the general -“dividers,” one for each room, whose duty was to parcel out with great -care every atom of food, and especially the tid-bits arriving from -friends, which he divided honourably and exactly. He was also the carver -for the room. As has been said, the utmost generosity prevailed; no -prisoner claimed to retain any gifts he received from outside; all -linen, clothing, and boots were handed over to the chief, and their -final possession was decided by lot, their nature being first declared, -so that any one in need might put in a claim to draw for them. - -Some further details of the common life at this time in the Middle Kara -state prison will be found interesting. All the inmates were more or -less acquainted with one another; all were comrades devoted to a common -cause. Youth was a general characteristic, and its buoyancy and sanguine -spirit animated every one. Light-hearted conversation, with jokes and -laughter, were not unknown; free association was not forbidden; the -prisoners were not locked up singly or confined to a particular room, -but were at liberty to run to and fro exchanging ideas and sometimes -news when it came in, which was but rarely. - -Each room had its nickname, the survival of a dim and distant past. One -was called the “Sanhedrin,” another the “Yakutsk,” a third the “Volost,” -and a fourth the “Nobles’ room.” There was always a large contingent of -clever and well educated young men among the politicals, but the popular -idea of the lesser officials that they were all nobles, princes and -counts was ridiculously far-fetched. Still, they profited by the -civility and consideration accorded to them. Many were deeply read; many -were members of the universities who were eager to improve themselves. -Some of them were known as “Siriuses,” a prison name given to the ardent -students, who worked in the middle of the night, taking advantage of the -hours of perfect stillness broken only by the snores of the sleepers. -The “Sirius” turned in early in the evening when the noisy chatter of -many voices was disturbing to study, but he could sleep through it and, -waking at midnight, would light the shaded lamp at his table and work -till dawn. Then when Sirius, star of the morning, arose, he again took a -short rest for a couple of hours. - -The attainments of these students sometimes reached a high standard; -they were proficient in metaphysics, abstruse mathematics, or languages, -and professors in each of these branches were glad to take pupils. -Marvellous skill in handicrafts was also acquired, mainly from books of -technical instruction, and lessons in theory were admirably applied in -practice. One clever workman constructed a pocket lathe out of a few old -rusty nails, and by its help fashioned all the parts of a clock which -kept good time, although he was no watchmaker. The possession of the -tools required for these productions was forbidden by the rules, and -they were kept out of sight when the regular searches and inspections -were made. When the rules in this respect were relaxed, there was a -great development in arts and crafts, a vise was set up in one of the -rooms, and an amateur photographer opened a regular studio. - -A mechanical genius, an original and inventive character, was prominent -among the politicals at this period. He was Leo Zlatopolski, a student -of the Technological Institute of St. Petersburg, who had joined the -revolutionary party and through his mechanical skill had been of great -assistance in the manufacture of bombs. Prison seclusion had stimulated -his inventive powers. He designed a flying machine and planned a -circular town, in which everything was to be run by electricity, but he -did not despise working for the improvement of domestic appliances, such -as new schemes for the boiling of potatoes and the making of shoes. He -had advanced theories for the heating of dwellings; he invented new -games of cards and aspired to regenerate and reorganise daily life. But -none of his schemes were practical, and his comrades made him their -butt, although he was really a very capable and learned man. The -activity and productiveness of the political prisoners reminds us of the -same qualities exhibited in the Omsk _ostrog_ as described by -Dostoyevski. - -Other amusements were much indulged in during the more troublous times. -Chess was played in the long, dismal, and monotonous hours, and by first -class performers who had studied the game scientifically. There were -well-contested tournaments, the result of which excited lively interest. -Music was greatly cultivated, and the prison choir had a large repertory -of the now widely popular Russian composers. One of the gifted -handicraftsmen constructed a very passable violin which was constantly -in use, and less ambitious performers were proficient with the simple -hair-comb. Physical exercise was obtained within the prison enclosure -during the winter on snow slides, after the fashion of the modern -toboggan at fashionable winter resorts in Europe. - -The relegation of political offenders to the Kara mines began in 1873, -but did not become a regular practice till 1879, when the terrorists’ -propaganda seriously alarmed the Russian government. It was then -resolved to subject the worst cases to penal servitude under the same -painful conditions as common criminals, with whom they worked side by -side at the gold placers. This was no child’s play, but it was not -unendurable. On the contrary, the daily egress from prison for six or -eight hours into sunshine and open air was much appreciated. For some -time the supreme power at Kara was wielded by the humane and rightly -esteemed Colonel Kanonovich, during whose mild régime the prisoners -enjoyed the privileges detailed above. But with the changed temper of -the government and the increased severity decreed, Colonel Kanonovich -proved restive and declined to give effect to the new orders. He had -already protested against some of the penalties enforced, especially -that of chaining to wheelbarrows, and although he was unable to abolish -it or relieve those subjected to it without permission from St. -Petersburg, he gave orders that whenever he visited the prisons all -suffering that inhumane punishment should be released from the -wheelbarrows for the time so that his eyes might not be offended by the -sight. - -This savage and abominable practice, although discontinued on the -Siberian continent, is still authorised by law, and is constantly -inflicted at Saghalien on convicts condemned to a life sentence. The -penalty consists in making a prisoner fast to a small miner’s -wheelbarrow by means of a chain attached to the middle link of the leg -irons. While the chain is long enough to allow of freedom of movement, -the victim cannot take any exercise, nor cross his cell without -trundling his wheelbarrow in front of him. One political offender, -Shchedrin, indignant at the gross misconduct of Colonel Soliviof, -adjutant to the governor-general of Trans-Baikal, struck him in the -face. This man was sentenced to the wheelbarrow and was sent back to -Russia to be imprisoned in the Schlüsselburg. He travelled across Asia -fastened to his wheelbarrow, even when in a vehicle. When jolted on the -rough roads, he was so much bruised by his barrow that it was found -necessary to unchain him and lash the implement behind the cart, and -this strange spectacle was witnessed by many. Shchedrin became insane in -the “stonebags” of Schlüsselburg, and he died eventually in an insane -asylum. At night it was necessary to hoist the wheelbarrow into such a -position as to allow the sleeper to lie alongside. - -A high-souled, chivalrous man of the stamp of Colonel Kanonovich could -not bear to witness the miseries of his charges unmoved. He was not a -revolutionist, nor in sympathy with the reforming spirit, but he was -willing to admit that many of the political offenders were disinterested -patriots and that there were among them numbers of refined and -cultivated men and women. He treated them, as I have tried to show, with -kindness and consideration, and sought to lighten and brighten their -grievous lot. When at last he saw that he was to be employed as an -intermediary for the infliction of fresh tortures, he resolved to resign -rather than be responsible for them. He wrote boldly to his superiors -saying he was not a hangman, and that he would not do violence to his -feelings by enforcing the cruel orders recently issued. When his -resignation was accepted, and he was recalled to St. Petersburg, he was -sharply taken to task by Governor-General Anuchin as he passed through -Irkutsk. - -“No one holding your views,” said this great official, “could expect to -retain his appointment as chief of the Kara prisons and mines. I -question whether any one like you can hold a post in the government -service.” “Very well,” was the sturdy reply, “then I will get out of it -forthwith. The government has imposed an impossible duty on me, and I -cannot perform it and keep an approving conscience.” - -Colonel Kanonovich fortunately had many influential friends, and the -accusations brought against him could not injure him permanently. He was -an officer of the Cossacks and was appointed to another command in the -Trans-Baikal, and later promoted to be a general officer, in charge of -the enlarged penal colony of Saghalien. He also supervised the erection -of the new Verkhni Udinsk prison, in which a praiseworthy and -conspicuous effort at reform was subsequently made. The building of the -political prison at Middle Kara was under his direction, but he left -just before it was occupied and was in no wise responsible for the -atrocities committed there. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - TREATMENT OF POLITICALS - -Withdrawal of privileges accorded to politicals—Lunatics confined in - association with other prisoners—Suicides—Many escapes attempted—Fresh - deprivations—The politicals separated and confined in common prisons - of the Kara district—Subjected to “dungeon conditions”—Much - disease—Finally transferred to the state prison—Hunger strike which - lasted thirteen days—Some remarkable female revolutionists—A hunger - strike instituted by the women—Attempts to pacify them—The resignation - of the governor Masyukov demanded—Madame Sigida strikes Masyukov in - the face—Subjected to flogging and dies—Three of her companions commit - suicide—Thirteen of the men determine to put an end to their - lives—Governors, good and bad—Deutsch’s account of Nikolin’s - régime—The atrocities committed by the governor Patrin at Saghalien. - - -The changed attitude of the government toward the state prisoners at -Kara dated, as we have said, from the end of the year 1880, under the -initiative of Loris Melikov, and this action, so inconsistent with his -supposed views as a liberal minister, has never been explained. Kennan -suggests that it was caused by bad advice, carelessly adopted. But, as -Leo Deutsch tells us, the harsh régime was introduced at a time when the -revolutionary agitation had revived in great strength, and the dominant -bureaucracy was more than ever on the defensive, ready to wreak its -revengeful feelings upon the captives it held in durance. In any case, -the orders issued evidenced a retrograde policy and a revival of the old -methods of repression with new punishments superadded. All existing -privileges, even the most trivial, were withdrawn. A peremptory stop was -put to all correspondence with relatives and friends; work in the open -air for ordinary criminal convicts was forbidden; and all the politicals -who had finished their sentences of imprisonment and were living in the -“free command” were again immured, with the old inflictions of leg irons -and half shaved heads. At three days’ notice they were sent back to -prison, many of them leaving their wives and children alone and -unprotected in a vicious and disorderly penal settlement. - -When they reëntered they were herded with the rest in the new political -prison at or near the Kara Lower Diggings, a building somewhat better -than those for common criminals, being larger, more spacious and better -lighted, with four _kameras_, each warmed with a brick oven and provided -with the conventional _nary_ or sleeping platforms. At first the windows -looked out upon the valley, an open if not very picturesque prospect. -This was the case in other prisons for all criminal convicts, but it did -not please Governor-General Anuchin, who ordered the whole place to be -shut in by a high stockade. “A prison is not a palace,” he cynically -declared, as he condemned his fellow creatures to be deprived of all -view and restricted in the matter of light. Anuchin, in his report to -the Czar, dated two years later, admits that the life of state criminals -was “unbearable,” but quite forgot how far he himself contributed to -their sufferings. - -Under the brutal system in force, insane companions, often raging -lunatics, were confined with the rest. There were no asylums in Siberia, -and the insane lived in association with the sane, adding much to the -miseries of both. “In more than one place in the Trans-Baikal we were -startled,” says Kennan, “as we entered a crowded prison _kamera_, by -some uncared-for lunatic, who sprang suddenly toward us with a wild cry -or with a burst of hysterical laughter.... It is easier and cheaper to -make the prison comrades of a lunatic take care of him than to keep him -in seclusion and provide him with an attendant. For educated political -prisoners, who dread insanity more than anything else, it is, of course, -terribly depressing to have constantly before them, in the form of a -wrecked intelligence, an illustration of the possible end of their own -existence.” - -Several painful episodes soon followed the recommittal of the “free -command” to prison. One was the suicide of Eugene Semyanovski, a young -journalist connected with the underground journal _Onward_, who had -gained his conditional freedom and lost it. He left a letter to his -father bemoaning his hard fate, written the night before his reëntry to -prison, and shot himself in his bed. Another political hanged himself in -the prison bath-house, and a third poisoned himself by drinking water in -which he had soaked lucifer matches. Another most affecting incident was -the mental failure of Madame Kovalevskaya, a brilliant woman, who had -been actively concerned in the revolutionary propaganda as the only -means of securing free institutions in the empire. She was sentenced to -penal servitude at Kara, where she presently joined the “free command.” -Her husband was also exiled, but was sent to Minusinsk in Eastern -Siberia, so that no less than a thousand miles intervened between the -pair. Their only child had been left behind at Kiev in Russia. Madame -Kovalevskaya’s insanity declared itself after she went back to Kara -prison and while Colonel Kanonovich was still in command, and she was -then allowed to join her husband, but after partial recovery she was -returned to Kara. Eventually, after the cowardly oppression of her -comrades, she committed suicide. - -Another consequence of the increased severity in the treatment of -politicals was their widespread determination to break prison. Many -escapes were attempted, and although they were for the most part -frustrated, the feeling of unrest was so general that the authorities -resolved to use more severe methods of coercion. A high official stated -that they meant “to reduce the prison to order and give the politicals a -lesson.” Daily life was made more and more irksome; privileges, great -and small, were withdrawn; all books were removed; money, underclothing, -beds and bedding were taken from them; they might possess nothing more -than the bare necessaries allowed to ordinary convicts. But worse than -all, the whole number, kept hitherto in one prison, was broken up into -small parties and distributed among the various common prisons of the -Kara district, where they were to be treated under “dungeon conditions.” -This treatment meant more than the deprivation of small luxuries as -above mentioned; it also entailed the loss of all exercise in the open -air or communication with the outside, and a diet of only black rye -bread and water, with sometimes a little broth thickened with barley. - -The removal was made forcibly. Cossacks were concentrated at the Lower -Diggings in anticipation of resistance, or perhaps to provoke it, and -suddenly a descent was made upon the prison in the dead of night. A -strong, armed force marched into the prison with bayonets fixed, and -seized the poor politicals as they were roused from sleep. They were -stripped, searched, driven forth with blows and otherwise cruelly -maltreated. The next morning, having been robbed and despoiled of all -their private possessions, they were marched off under escorts to the -other Kara prisons. They marched continuously for ten miles without food -or drink, or a halt for rest, and one man who was chained to a -wheelbarrow rolled it all the way. Goaded to desperation, those -prisoners who were not ironed attacked the Cossacks with stones, but -they were speedily overpowered. They arrived in a state of utter -exhaustion at the common prisons, and were lodged two and two in -“secret” cells, hitherto employed only for the safe custody of the worst -criminals, which were bare rooms with no more furniture than the open -_parasha_, or bucket, and with only the stone floor to sleep on. - -These essentially “dungeon conditions” spent in the secret cells of the -ordinary criminals were continued for two months, and at length the -health of the politicals became grievously impaired. Foul air, -insufficient food, close confinement and the lack of all exercise -brought on an epidemic of scurvy, which resulted in serious illnesses in -many cases. They were still without underclothing, bedding or nourishing -food, although the authorities held prisoners’ moneys out of which the -cost might have been defrayed. All the politicals were then transferred -to the Lower Diggings, and lodged in the new cells of the state prison. -Seven or eight prisoners were crowded into a narrow space obtained by -dividing each _kamera_ into three parts by the creation of partitions. -The sleeping platform nearly filled each interior and left little -standing room, and the pollution of the air was “simply maddening.” -Protest and remonstrance were continuous, and only ceased when threats -of flogging were made, a form of punishment never yet inflicted on -politicals. - -At length the unhappy victims of such savage repression had recourse to -a “hunger strike,” the last terrible weapon of the otherwise helpless -prisoners. It is a strange and almost incomprehensible fact that the -Russian prison authorities have always yielded to the pressure exercised -by a number of prisoners resolutely determined to starve themselves to -death. Our deepest sympathy must be accorded to the great courage that -inspires this last appeal against intolerable cruelties. We admire and -understand it, but are amazed that it should be so effectual with the -brutal and otherwise insensible oppressors. When the much wronged -politicals delivered their ultimatum, the authorities at first received -it with indifference, but soon became anxious and at length despairing, -as the refusal to take food was steadfastly persisted in. Not a morsel -of sustenance was taken. “As day after day passed, the stillness of -death gradually settled down upon the prison. The starving convicts, too -weak and apathetic even to talk to one another, lay in rows, like dead -men, upon the plank sleeping platforms, and the only sounds heard in the -building were the footsteps of the sentries, and now and then the -incoherent mutterings of the insane.” - -Overtures were made and amelioration in their condition was promised; -fears of flogging were ridiculous, the officials said, and nothing of -the kind had been contemplated. But the strike continued, for the -strikers had no confidence in the plausible assurances of the governor. -On the tenth day of starvation, the state of affairs was desperate. The -indomitable sufferers had reached the last stage of physical exhaustion, -and release by death seemed close at hand. The struggle was anxiously -watched from St. Petersburg. Telegrams passed daily between the local -authorities and the minister of the interior, who could only suggest -medical intervention, which does not seem to have been tried beyond -feeling pulses and taking the bodily temperatures. The wives of the -strikers were finally granted the unusual privilege of an interview, on -condition that they would implore their husbands to take food. These -loving entreaties, backed by fresh promises from the commandant, finally -overcame the resolution of the politicals, and on the thirteenth day of -abstention the great hunger strike ended. - -The physical endurance called forth by a hunger strike has been well -described by Leo Deutsch, who was driven to refuse food by his ill-usage -in the Odessa prison in the early stages of his sentence. His well-known -character for sturdy defiance had so disturbed the prison authorities -that they had taken extraordinary precautions to secure him, by lodging -him in a dark underground cell, with no bedding except straw infested -with rats, and no ventilation. He decided to starve himself in protest. -They threatened to feed him artificially; he retorted that he knew how -to bring on sickness. Then they listened to his very justifiable -protest, and on the fourth day he ended his strike. He says, “It was -only when I began to eat that I realised how fearfully hungry I was. I -could have devoured an ox.... During the two following days I felt very -seedy, as though I had had a bad illness.” - -Hunger strikes were more especially the weapon of the weaker sex, -although there was no weakness among the women revolutionists, and the -movement owed much of its vigour and vitality to their indomitable -courage and unconquerable strength of character. In the days to come, -when the great, patient people of a cruelly oppressed and misgoverned -land have achieved its emancipation, ample justice must be done to the -feminine champions, who entered boldly into the fray and fought -strenuously for the vindication of the rights of their fellow countrymen -to freedom and independence. Many of their names will then be honoured -and revered with the greatest of those known to history. Russian women -of all stations, and some of them of the highest rank, have won the -admiration of the whole world, for their disregard of self, the -sacrifice of all ease and comfort, and the braving of the worst dangers -and the most poignant sufferings in their constant efforts to oppose -political slavery. We may be inclined to quarrel with their methods, -overlooking the greatness of their provocation, and believing that -nothing could justify the violent means adopted, but we cannot withhold -our sympathy for the ardent souls who have dared employ them. - -Some of the most remarkable female revolutionists were concerned with -the hunger strikes in Eastern Siberia and were victims of the methods -inflicted in retaliation of outraged discipline. There were those who -emulated the crime of Vera Zassulich, who in 1878 tried, but failed, to -shoot General Trepov, the chief of the St. Petersburg police, for -ordering the corporal punishment of a political prisoner. Madame -Kutitonskaya fired at General Ilyashevich, the governor of the -Trans-Baikal, to avenge the intolerable ill-usage of the political -prisoners on the 11th of May, 1882. Madame Hope Sigida struck Colonel -Masyukov in the face, to shame him into withdrawing from Kara, where he -was commandant of the political prisons, and where his indignant female -charges had boycotted him, insisting upon his removal. Madame Elizabeth -Kovalskaya deliberately showed her contempt for the governor-general of -the Amur, Baron Korv, by refusing to rise in his presence, and was in -consequence removed to the central prison in Verkhni-Udinsk. - -The lives and antecedents of some of these female exiles who suffered so -bitterly for their opinions, merit special notice. Maria Kutitonskaya -was a pupil in a girls’ school at Odessa and joined the revolutionists -while still a young girl. She was arrested with Lisogub, a wealthy man -who lived in extreme poverty in order to devote his fortune to the -revolutionary funds, and she was condemned to four years’ hard labour. -Madame Kutitonskaya was the uncompromising foe of the prison officials -and constantly resisted the irksome rules imposed. With three other -women, Mesdames Kovalevskaya, Bogomoletz and Elena Rossikova, she was -removed to Irkutsk and there got into contest with the chief of the -police, against whom they organised a hunger strike in which they -persisted for ten or eleven days, until the prison doctor grew alarmed -and representation was made to the governor of the district who brought -the police officer to reason. - -Madame Kutitonskaya was a lady of great personal attractions, with fair -face and winning manner, and was greatly admired. After her attempt to -assassinate General Ilyashevich, she was closely confined on bread and -water in a damp, gloomy dungeon. The ordinary convicts brought her food, -fell at her feet and christened her “Cupidon Skaya,” as a pet name in -recognition of her beauty. The story of her murderous attack is told in -full by Kennan. - -“Stirred to the very depths of her soul by a feeling of intense -indignation” at the shameful ill-treatment of the politicals at Kara, -she did not hesitate to sacrifice her life and that of her unborn child -by committing a deed that must give publicity to the wrongs she and her -companions had suffered. When interned in the town of Aksha in the -Trans-Baikal district, she purchased a small revolver from a released -criminal colonist, ran away from her place of banishment and made for -Chita, where the governor resided. She was too pretty to travel alone -without attracting attention and when she reached Chita she was -arrested. At the police station she did not deny her identity but -pleaded that she was eager to have an interview with the governor. -Accordingly, she was detained in the reception room while a message was -sent to Ilyashevich which brought the general to her. They had neglected -to search her, and she held her revolver ready cocked under a -handkerchief as the governor entered, shooting him forthwith through the -lungs. The wound was not mortal, and the assailant was promptly seized -and carried off to the Chita prison. - -Her subsequent treatment was abominable. She was lodged in a “secret” -cell, cold, dark, dirty, too short to allow her to lie down at full -length, and too low to permit her to stand upright. Her own dress and -underclothing were taken from her, contrary to the usual treatment of -women politicals, and a ragged petticoat infested with vermin was given -her in exchange. Despite her condition, she was obliged to lie for three -months without bed-clothing on the bare floor. Serious illness seized -her, and she begged at least for a little straw to sleep on; it was -contemptuously denied her. But for the succour brought by her criminal -comrades, she could not have survived until her trial. This at last took -place before a court-martial, and she was sentenced to be hanged. Had -she made known her pregnancy, it might have gained her a reprieve, but -she forbore to speak, although she suffered bitterly at the prospect of -becoming the murderess of her unborn child. The feeling was intensified -by the dreadful thought that it might remain alive after she had died. -The question was solved by the unexpected leniency of the government, by -whom the death penalty was commuted to penal servitude for life at the -creditable intercession of her intended victim. She was then removed in -mid-winter to Irkutsk, and would have been entirely unprovided with warm -clothing but for the charity of her criminal comrades, who gave her felt -boots and a sheepskin overcoat. The immediate result of her treatment -was the birth of a still-born child, and she herself succumbed -eventually to lung trouble. - -Madame Kovalevskaya is described by Deutsch, who knew her well, as one -of the most notable women in the revolutionary movement. She was the -daughter of a landed proprietor named Vorontsov, her brother was Basil -Vorontsov, a well known political economist, and she married -Kovalevskaya, a tutor in a gymnasium of Kiev. She had thrown in her lot -with the advanced party in the early sixties, and she devoted herself -constantly to the work. In appearance she was short in stature, -gipsy-like in appearance, alert and energetic in manner, keen witted, -ready and logical in speech. She took the lead in theoretical -discussions, imparting life and spirit into debate without becoming -personal or hurting people’s feelings. Her gifts were exceptional; she -was a brilliant creature born to play a distinguished part in society. -At an early age she had opened a peasant school and sought to improve -the mental condition of the poorer classes. Her efforts soon drew upon -her the attention of the police, and she was harried and thwarted by -them until they drove her into the ranks of the revolutionary party. The -circle in Kiev to which she belonged was broken up, its members were -arrested and she and her husband were exiled to Siberia. Her fiery and -uncompromising temper kept her in constant antagonism with the -authorities, and her active protest against the ill-treatment of her -comrade politicals brought her prominently to the front, with the fatal -consequences already described. - -Of her three friends, one, Madame Kutitonskaya, has been mentioned; a -second was Sophia Bogomoletz, whose maiden name was Prisyetskaya, and -who was the daughter of a rich landowner of Poltava. She had graduated -at a medical school in St. Petersburg and, having married a doctor, -threw herself ardently into revolutionary work. She was arrested as a -member of the South Russian Workmen’s Union and was sent to ten years’ -hard labour in Siberia with a companion, Madame Kovalskaya. They escaped -from the Irkutsk prison but were recaptured in a few weeks, before they -could leave the city. When brought back, the customary search was -personally supervised by Colonel Soliviov, an adjutant of the -governor-general and a man of vicious character, and by his order the -two women were stripped naked before him. After this disgrace to -humanity and the uniform he wore, he went immediately to one of the -men’s wards and boasted of the shameful deed, adding contemptuously, -“Your political women are not much to look at.” Whereupon one of those -present, Shchedrin, who had been a school-teacher before sentence, -struck the brute upon the mouth, calling him coward and liar. For this -violent protest Shchedrin was condemned to be chained perpetually to a -wheelbarrow as already described. - -Madame Bogomoletz was punished with an additional five years’ penal -sentence, to be passed as a “probationer” prisoner, serving the full -term without the remission granted to others, and with no prospect of -the “time of alleviation” or that of conditional release. She was quite -indomitable, and looked upon all prison officials as her natural enemies -to whom she would make no compromise and yield no obedience. Nothing -deterred her, no fear of punishment, threats, or infliction of the most -irksome conditions, and the whole staff trembled before her. - -Elena Rossikova had been sentenced to a life term for a daring robbery -from the finance department at Kherson. She was the wife of a country -gentleman who had been a school-teacher at Elizabetgrad, and with a -confederate she had succeeded in seizing a large sum of public money, -meaning to devote it to revolutionary purposes. Her accomplice was Anna -Alexieova, afterward Madame Dubrova, a convict and a professional -burglar who had escaped from Siberia. They had entered the government -treasury through a tunnel driven under the stone floor in the vault of a -house adjoining, a wild and desperate scheme for two young and -inexperienced girls. That they planned and dared effect it bears witness -to the determined character of the Russian women revolutionists. Kennan -says the thieves were caught before they could remove all the stolen -money, but, according to Leo Deutsch, they succeeded in their attempt. -The next day, however, a woman was intercepted as she drove a cart laden -with sacks through the town, and the sacks were found to be stuffed full -of ruble notes, to the number of a million. Arrest followed, including -that of the convict, who at once confessed her share in the transaction -and gave such information as led to the recovery of the greater part of -the stolen money. - -Madame Rossikova, as the elder woman and originator of the plan, was -condemned by court-martial, before which she was arraigned, to hard -labour for a long term at the mines; Anna Alexieova was sentenced merely -to exile as a forced colonist and she married Dubrova, a missionary at -Krasnoyarsk. The two girls began as philanthropists, eager to benefit -and improve the peasant class, but developed under the persecution of -the authorities and their unjust, overbearing treatment into pronounced -revolutionists. Both were large-minded women, capable of the greatest -self-sacrifice and acting in accordance with a high moral standard. -Madame Rossikova had given proof of her sincerity by accepting the -ordeal known as “going to the people”; in other words, she lived for -seven or eight months like a common peasant woman, in a peasant village, -that she might see how best to reach and help the people. She had long -disapproved of terrorism, but became a pronounced terrorist herself, -moved to the fiercest indignation by the reports that reached her of the -sufferings of her exiled friends. - -Perhaps one of the most celebrated of the female revolutionists was -Madame Vera Phillipova, born Figner, who never found her way to the -mines of Kara, where she would undoubtedly have become prominent among -the most active champions of her party. She was long the most popular -personage in the revolutionary movement; her name was in everybody’s -mouth, her fine traits, her unfailing and unlimited constancy, her -undefeated, self-sacrificing devotion to the cause, her talents for -organisation, her boundless inventive powers, her tireless energy,—all -won for her profound respect from her comrades; and even her enemies, -the members of the court-martial which condemned her, were forced to -admire her dignified demeanour when arraigned and tried for her life. A -mere girl, of striking beauty, and possessing extraordinary personal -influence, she freely spent herself in the service of her fellows. Like -many other well-born girls, her chief aim was to help the peasants, and -she devoted herself to the rough life in small villages on the Volga, -enduring all the hardships and privations of the labouring classes, and -her self sacrifice was greatly stimulated by what she saw of misery, -poverty and hopeless ignorance. - -It was borne in on her that reform could only be effected by the most -reckless measures, and she became a terrorist heart and soul, vowed to -violence, and prepared to go to any extreme. In this temper, she readily -joined in the plot for the assassination of the Czar, Alexander II, on -his return from Livadia to St. Petersburg, and the dynamite for use in -the bombs was stored in her house. This did not absorb all her energies, -and she was still active in the organisation of secret societies and in -preaching revolutionary principles among people of good society, to -which she belonged by birth and education; for she was the daughter of a -distinguished general and was well received by the best people. - -At Odessa she mixed much with the military set and thus became -identified with the conspiracy of “the Fourteen.” Nearly all of those -concerned were military or naval officers, five of whom, with Vera -Figner and Ludmilla Volkenstein, were condemned to death. She knew that -she and her companions had been betrayed, and she might have escaped by -timely flight into another country, but she scorned to yield, although -arrest was certain, and she held her ground, only to be convicted and -thrown into the Schlüsselburg, condemned to imprisonment for the term of -her natural life. - -[Illustration: - - _Russian Prisoners_ - _After the painting by Marckl_ -] - -The Fortress of Schlüsselburg is situated on an island in Lake Ladoga, -about forty miles from St. Petersburg. The worst of all fates meted out -to political prisoners in Russia is imprisonment in the subterranean -dungeons of this fortress. No news penetrates the walls of the isolated -prison and no information from within leaks out. Few ever leave the -prison alive except to be transferred to an insane asylum. - -While in the Schlüsselburg, Vera Figner studied Italian and English, and -translated many of Kipling’s works into Russian. After she had spent -altogether twenty years in prison, she committed the offence of striking -an officer. Her mother, who had promised not to intercede for her, could -no longer keep silent; and appealed to the Czar, with the result that -the life sentence passed upon the famous revolutionist was reduced to -one of twenty years. Instead of releasing her immediately, however, -Plehve kept her two more years in the Schlüsselburg, saying, “There is -still too much life left in her.” To her unspeakable grief, her mother -died a few weeks before she was released in 1904. - -She was exiled to a tiny village close to the arctic regions, and a year -and a half afterward she was allowed to return to her estate in the -Kazan province. She has since made a trip to Italy for her health, and -although her nervous system received such a shock that she has never -fully recovered, she has renewed activity for the cause to which she has -devoted her life by lecturing in foreign cities. - -Another woman revolutionist who afterward suffered greatly at Kara was -Madame Anna Pavlovna Korba, the daughter of a German nobleman -naturalised in Russia, named Meinhardt. She had married a Swiss -gentleman living in Russia. She was the friend of Madame Löschern von -Herzfeld, who had been one of those banished, but afterward pardoned, in -“the case of the 193.” She was again arrested at Kiev with arms in her -hand, and suffered a second exile with a long imprisonment at Kara. On -her return from the campaign of 1878–9 in Turkey, where she had worked -as a nurse, she adopted the revolutionary programme. The “white terror” -was at its height; the government was active in pursuing the politicals -who were pledged to destroy the Czar; and in 1882, Soudyehkin, the chief -of the secret police, laid a heavy hand on them, arresting them in -batches, executing many and burying the rest alive in St. Petersburg -dungeons. Anna Korba, undaunted, threw herself into the fight, and -strove earnestly to replace those who had fallen in the ranks. She was -arrested for being concerned in the manufacture of dynamite bombs at a -secret laboratory, and her trial ended in exile at Kara with twenty -years at hard labour, which nearly killed her. - -Madame Elizabeth Kovalskaya, whose fruitless effort to escape from -Irkutsk has been described, deliberately planned to offend a great -official in order to secure her removal. One day, when Baron Korv, the -governor-general, visited the prison, she failed purposely to rise from -her seat in his presence. Baron Korv objected harshly to this mark of -disrespect to a man in his position, and Madame Kovalskaya quietly -replied that she had not elected him to it. The enraged official left -the prison saying he would send instructions how to deal with this -refractory female, and shortly afterward an order came to remove her to -the central prison at Verkhni Udinsk, as her unruly behaviour had a -demoralising effect at Kara. - -The new removal would have been in accordance with Madame Kovalskaya’s -wishes, but it was most savagely carried out. The blame lay with the -commandant of the Kara political prison. Colonel Masyukov, an officer of -the gendarmerie, had held this post for about ten years. He was a man of -weak character, of low mental calibre, without judgment and quite -unfitted for the functions he discharged. Once an officer of the guards, -he had wasted his substance in riotous living and had accepted this well -paid post to discharge his liabilities and his gambling debts. - -Colonel Masyukov stupidly supposed that the female prisoners stirred up -by Madame Kovalskaya would have risen to resist her transfer. He -resolved, therefore, that she should be conveyed away secretly without a -word of notice. A subordinate officer, named Bobrovski, accompanied by a -party of gensdarmes and ordinary convicts, burst into her cell at four -o’clock in the morning and dragged her out of bed, half naked, with no -more covering than her nightdress. She was hurried to the office and -here ordered to put on the coarse garments of a common criminal. After -this she fainted, and, wrapped up unconscious in a blanket, was carried -out to the bank of the river Shilka, where an open boat was in readiness -to carry her to Stretensk, the steamboat navigation not being yet -practicable. In this small boat she travelled seventy miles for three -days and nights with the soldiers of her escort who had already treated -her with shameful indignity. - -This forcible seizure had aroused the whole prison, and the other women, -maddened by the victim’s shrieks and believing that her honour was being -outraged, became perfectly infuriated. They declared a hunger strike -forthwith and refused food unless Masyukov was dismissed from his post. -The commandant now deeply regretted his foolish action, and took counsel -a little too late from his more sensible subordinates, especially one -wise old sergeant, Golubtsov, a tactful man of long experience and much -common sense. On his advice the male prisoners were called in to pacify -their incensed women comrades and persuade them to abandon their strike. -They suggested that the commandant should be requested to apologise to -his offended charges, a satisfaction altogether scouted as insufficient -by the strikers. The famishing women still insisted upon the withdrawal -of Masyukov. The condition seemed impossible of concession by the -authorities, but it was hoped that the commandant might himself solve -the difficulty by applying for a transfer elsewhere. This settled the -question for the moment, and the women consented to take food on the -clear understanding that if Masyukov had not disappeared within a -certain period, the hunger strike would be recommenced. - -This in effect came to pass. The commandant held his ground. The -malcontents again refused food, and now the men, although they thought -the suggested apology would have been sufficient atonement by Masyukov, -joined in the protest and also went out “on strike.” The commandant -thereupon came to terms; he produced a telegram accepting his -resignation; and once more food was eaten, after a week’s starvation. -But the women would not forgive Masyukov and declined to hold any -communication with him. He was “boycotted” completely to the extent even -of a refusal on their part to receive their letters from home after -passing through his hands. This high spirited resolve reacted very -painfully upon themselves. Mental torture worse than the physical was -superadded to their sufferings, and they were all but driven to despair. -No letters were sent and all which were received were returned unopened -through the post to their senders. - -This absolute severance of home ties bore especially hard upon one of -the latest arrivals in the prison,—Madame Hope Sigida, “a sensitive -young creature, gentle, affectionate and attracted by all that was good -and beautiful. She was deeply attached to her family, who lived in -Taganrock, a small town in South Russia.” She had been a school teacher, -and was condemned to eight years’ hard labour because a printing press -and some bombs had been discovered in the house where she resided with -her husband who was an officer in Taganrock circuit court. The latter -was condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to deportation to -Saghalien, and he died on his way to that island. Madame Sigida, in her -bereavement, felt acutely the cessation of all relations with her -distant home, and when her comrades, goaded to desperation, were upon -the point of resuming the hunger strike, she determined to sacrifice -herself for the common good. Hoping that relief might in that way come -to the rest, she planned to attack Masyukov alone. She sought an -interview with the commandant, and it was granted in due course. A most -dramatic incident followed, as told by eye-witnesses. She was driven to -the office in a carriage under escort, and was taken in to speak to -Colonel Masyukov, who the next moment was seen to jump out of the -window, evidently much excited and terrified, and take to his heels. -Then Madame Sigida came to the door, and after caressing some warder’s -children who stood there, in a quiet, unperturbed voice begged that a -telegraphic message might be despatched to the proper authorities -informing them that she had assaulted the commandant by striking him in -the face. She justified her violence as the only means of shaming him -into taking his departure. At least she succeeded in forcing him to show -himself in his character of a mean, despicable coward. - -Madame Sigida was forthwith cast into a secret cell and subjected to -“dungeon conditions,” while awaiting trial for her grave breach of -discipline. Her self-sacrifice had not availed to avert the hunger -strike. It began immediately afterward by all the women prisoners, and -was persisted in for sixteen days with the same argument, that Colonel -Masyukov, now ridiculed and disgraced, must go. - -Madame Sigida, still waiting judgment, refused food and remained fasting -for twenty-two days, until medical intervention was decreed. Madame -Kovalskaya struck the doctor in the face when she thought he was about -to forcibly administer nourishment. But he was a humane man and -disclaimed all such intention, and she begged his pardon. - -For some time no formal inquiry into Madame Sigida’s assault was made, -and no steps were taken to deal with her case. But after the lapse of a -month or more, when the matter had been reported to St. Petersburg, a -reply came directed against the whole body of the politicals. Colonel -Masyukov, still holding his ground, assembled them and, escorted by -soldiers, behind whom he sought protection, read aloud a letter from the -governor-general in which he warned the politicals that they were in -future amenable to corporal punishment. The penalty was deemed necessary -by the authorities for the maintenance of discipline in the disturbed -state of the prison. - -Consternation fell upon these long suffering victims of a despotic -government, who although defenders of their undoubted rights, as -admitted in all civilised countries, had never rendered themselves -liable to such reprisals. The penalty was, moreover, illegal in their -case, and the threat to flog was considered an undeserved and outrageous -insult. The desire to raise indignant protest possessed all, and many -would have gone so far as to counsel a general suicide. The leader of -this extreme view was Sergius Bobohov, a man of the loftiest sentiments, -who had adopted revolutionary principles from a strict sense of their -justice and necessity. Deutsch’s estimate of his character is worth -quoting at length. “Genuine sincerity, seriousness of purpose, and -boundless devotion to his ideal were his leading traits. He was the most -modest of men, but when the honour of a revolutionist was at stake, or -if it were a question of duty, he would undergo a transformation and -become a fiery and inspired prophet.” Bobohov took the threat of -flogging very much to heart, and passionately urged that an answering -threat of suicide should be addressed to the minister of the interior. -“I cling to life as much as any man,” he said, “but I am ready to face -death as a means of protest.” His arguments had weight with his -comrades, but might not have prevailed except for the disastrous course -of events. - -At this moment a catastrophe was precipitated by the almost incredible -news that Madame Sigida, the assailant of Colonel Masyukov, was to be -flogged by order of Baron Korv, the governor-general and persecutor of -Madame Kovalskaya. The punishment was to be inflicted with rods in the -presence of the prison doctor, but without previous medical certificate. -The surgeon of the Kara penal settlement had given it as his opinion -that the poor creature was unfit to receive even a single blow, and -declined to be present, as the infliction was by administrative order -and without a sentence of court. The governor hesitated to inflict the -punishment, but Baron Korv persisted in the flogging, surgeon or no -surgeon. The executioner was the same subordinate official, Bobrovski, -who had distinguished himself in the misusage of Madame Kovalskaya. He -had received promotion for his brutal conduct on that occasion, and was -willing to curry favour further with his merciless superiors. - -Details of this horrible tragedy are wanting as the lips of those who -assisted are sealed. The authorities have, indeed, dared to deny the -facts through their mouthpieces in the press, but they were well known -throughout Siberia and their truth has been acknowledged by high -officials who strove to justify the infliction. Ill-considered attempts -have been made by at least imperfectly informed champions to discredit -the whole story, which stands nevertheless as an indelible disgrace to -Russian penal administrators, whose only excuse was that the nihilist -women “had brought troubles upon themselves by being excitable and -intractable, and an example was necessary.” - -So the example was made. Madame Sigida was stripped and beaten with -rods, when in a state of unconsciousness, for she soon fainted under the -infliction, and was carried back senseless from the place of punishment -to her cell. Two days later she died, but whether from the effects of -the flogging or from deliberate poisoning is not positively known. Three -of her female companions undoubtedly committed suicide, and on the men’s -side seventeen out of thirty-nine resolved to put an end to their own -lives. The result was not altogether successful. The drug, opium, was -either old or adulterated, and many who lay down to die only woke to -excruciating agony and were saved in spite of themselves. A few of them, -Bobohov among the number, tried again, choosing morphia as the means of -self-destruction, but once more the drug was ineffective and only two -actually died. - -The fate of those in durance is largely dependent upon the character and -quality of those who have them in charge. Nowhere does this fact stand -out more prominently than in Russian prisons. The governor, director or -commandant is a petty despot; within his own narrow limits he is almost -irresponsible, though subject, of course, to the control of superiors, -but this has never been very closely exercised. Inspections are for the -most part perfunctory, and abuses, especially that of power, may -flourish freely without detection or interference. This ramifies through -all the grades, and the prisoner, of whatever class, is very much at the -mercy of the subordinate officials with whom he is brought into daily -personal contact. The ordinary warder is very much the same everywhere: -a man placed in authority over others often superior to himself in -antecedents, birth, education and experience of life. He is apt to -become arbitrary, tyrannical and self-sufficient from the authority he -wields, whether delegated or usurped. After all he is only an agent, a -deputy and go-between, carrying out the orders of his masters, whose -moods he reflects, whose attitude he imitates, and whose temper animates -him, inspiring him to harass and oppress or, more rarely, to be merciful -and forbearing. Warders almost invariably take their tone from their -supreme chief; hence the deep importance that attaches to the governor -in prison life. - -There were good and bad rulers in Russian prisons, the latter perhaps -predominating, although occasionally a humane, well-intentioned and -considerate man was to be met with, such as Kanonovich, who for a time -governed the Kara political prison kindly and leniently, as has already -been described. After him came a succession of gendarmerie officers from -Irkutsk whose characters are summed up by Kennan as follows:—“Khalturin -was brutally cruel, Shubin was a man of little character, and Manaiev -was not only a drunkard, but a thief who destroyed hundreds of the -prisoners’ letters and embezzled 1,900 rubles of money sent to them by -their relatives and friends in European Russia.” Then came Captain -Nikolin, of whom more directly. All these were men of much the same -stamp as the “Major” of the Omsk _ostrog_ described by Dostoyevski. He -was, he says, “a fatal being for prisoners, whom he had brought to such -a state that they trembled before him. Severe to the point of insanity, -‘he threw himself upon them,’ to use their expression. But it was above -all that look, as penetrating as that of a lynx, that was feared. It was -impossible to conceal anything from him. He saw, so to say, without -looking. On entering the prison, he knew at once what was being done. -Accordingly the convicts, one and all, called him the man with the eight -eyes. His system was bad, for it had the effect of irritating men who -were already irascible.” Fortunately for the prisoners, he was under a -superior, for, as the writer tells us, “the commandant was a well-bred, -reasonable man who moderated the savage onslaughts of the major, or the -latter would have caused sad misfortune by his bad administration.” - -This major was universally loathed by the prisoners, and more than once -was on the verge of murderous attack. There were times when the convicts -at Omsk were goaded to desperation by his brutality. One day a dozen men -from Little Russia swore to take his life, and their leader had borrowed -the kitchen knife and secreted it about his person. The grievance for -the moment was the badness of the food, and when the major came in to -expostulate, the assailant rushed at him, but found that his victim was -drunk, or, according to prison superstition, “under special protection.” -It was more than he deserved, for he was a blasphemous and overbearing -wretch. After having carried the knapsack for many long years, promotion -to the grade of officer had turned his head. - -Captain Nikolin was an officer of gensdarmes who had been specially -selected at St. Petersburg and sent out to govern the state prisons at -Kara. Kennan speaks of him as “an old and experienced gendarme officer -of the most subtle and unscrupulous type, who had received his training -under General Muraviov, ‘the hangman, in Poland,’ and had been about -thirty years in the service.... He had the suavity and courteous manners -of the accomplished gendarme officer, ... and he greeted me with what he -intended for frank, open cordiality, softening, so far as possible, all -the hard lines of his face; but he could not bring a spark of good -fellowship into his cold, watchful gray eyes, and I felt conscious that -all his real mental processes were carefully masked.” He was very proud -of his position: that he, a simple captain of gensdarmes, had been sent -to this important command, where he was independent of local control and -entitled to correspond direct with the minister of the interior. His -whole object was to hoodwink Kennan, whom he assured blandly and -mendaciously that the prisoners led a life of ease, even of luxury, -sitting in a _kamera_ like a club smoking room, reading and writing and -pleasantly conversing. He further asserted that the “politicals” -received considerable sums from their friends in Russia; that they -bought what books they pleased, had newspapers, including the London -_Punch_ and other illustrated papers, and in a word, were “treated with -gracious clemency by an enlightened and paternal government.” Nikolin -showed the cloven foot later when he urged his colleague to seize Mr. -Kennan’s baggage and search it, by which high-handed proceeding, happily -avoided, much of the incriminating material so daringly secured by the -fearless American, would have been lost to the indignant readers of the -civilised world. - -We have another portrait of Captain Nikolin from one who knew him but -too well. Leo Deutsch suffered for some years under his régime and -describes him “as a malicious, ill-natured man, continually devising -petty humiliations for the prisoners.” In person he was a short, heavily -built man, some fifty years of age, “with a bald head, a full gray -beard, thin, tightly closed, rather cruel lips, an impenetrable face and -cold gray eyes. His broad round face, cunning little eyes, and bristling -moustache, gave him the look of a fat, spiteful old tom-cat, and he was -always designated by that nickname. The expression of his eyes was -particularly catlike; he looked as if just ready to pounce on a victim -and stick his claws into it. He always spoke in a low voice, this -‘tom-cat;’ but he chattered unceasingly, and kept smacking his lips all -the time, his expression being always peevish and discontented.... We -petitioned our ‘tom-cat’ for leave to plant a garden in the yard; there -was space enough, the work would have been beneficial, and then we might -have had vegetables for our table, the deficiency in which particular -had been so detrimental to our health. The ‘tom-cat’ roundly refused. -‘We should need spades,’ he said, ‘and they might be used to dig a hole -whereby to get away.’ So, again, when one of us was sent some -flower-seeds and sowed them in a wooden box, the box was taken away by -Nikolin’s orders; the earth in it might have served to conceal some -contraband article. Such needless tyrannies embittered us still more -against the detested commandant. However peaceably we might otherwise -have been inclined, our hatred of this man might well have blazed out at -any opportunity; he himself probably guessed as much, for he became more -and more mistrustful, at last never entering our prison. He felt that he -had made enemies all round him, and sat lonely in his own house, or -squabbled with his cook, afraid to show himself outside. It may be a -matter of surprise that one of his many enemies did not find a way to -put an end to him, that being a not unusual course of events in Kara; -but finally he could endure such a life no longer, and applied to be -transferred elsewhere. In the spring of 1887 his application was -granted, and he departed, accompanied by the anathemas of the entire -population of Kara.” Captain Nikolin was in due course succeeded by the -Colonel Masyukov of whom we have heard so much in his conflict with the -politicals of the state prison at Kara. - -Captain Nikolin’s colleague at Kara, coequal in authority, but with -independent functions, was Major Potulov, who governed the ordinary -criminal prison at Kara. He was a man of a pleasanter type, who was both -civil and hospitable to George Kennan, possibly to keep an eye upon his -motions and, perhaps, take the sting out of the condemnation his command -so richly deserved. He is described as a tall, fine looking, soldierly -man about fifty years of age, affable in manner and disposed to act -fairly by his charges, so far as it lay within his power. Where he -failed was in loyalty to his superiors, and he was gifted with rare -talents for fraud and embezzlement. He stole unblushingly, and enriched -himself largely at the expense of the state. His chief device was to -keep hundreds of prisoners on the rolls who were mere “ghosts;” men who -had disappeared by flight or death, but for whom rations were still -drawn and the value thereof shared between him and the purveyor. He was -presently detected and dismissed, but escaped justice through his -influential friends. - -Patrin of Saghalien came to the front at a later date, when deportation -to the island colony was in full swing, and his evil reputation became -widespread as the most brutal and rapacious official in Russian penal -annals. His character was so well known far and wide that he figured as -the prison demon on the San Francisco stage. His was a reign of terror -in the Alexandrovsk prison, and he drove through the town armed with -revolver and Winchester rifle, committing acts of atrocious criminal -violence in the open streets. Horrible stories were current of his -misusage of his charges, of constant punishments in the dark cells or -with the plet till death was the result. He was equally harsh with his -officers. One of them, who had gone to complain of the insulting and -outrageous conduct of a comrade toward his (the complainant’s) wife, was -struck on the mouth by Patrin and felled to the ground. He had an abrupt -way of dealing with recalcitrant prisoners. One day there came before -him a young convict of an irascible temper, who had obstinately refused -to work. Patrin forthwith fell upon him, striking him on the jaw. The -prisoner, although of slight build, closed with the governor and, -showing superhuman strength, dragged him to the top of the staircase. -Now the warders who had been hanging about hurried to their chief’s -assistance, and the fight became a perfect mêlée in one confused -struggling group, all gravitating toward the edge of the stairs, down -which they suddenly fell headlong. Patrin came out on top, with the -prisoner underneath. But the latter had seized a revolver from one of -the guards, and when he was raised to his feet pointed the weapon to his -own forehead and shot himself, saying, “It was Patrin I wanted to kill.” - -The political prisoners at Saghalien were subjected to the tender -mercies of Patrin, and he also had charge of the women’s prison, but his -infamous behaviour toward the women was too abominable to be told. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - CHANGES IN SYSTEM - -The Kara settlements—Descriptions of the prisons by Kennan—Filthy state - of the prison buildings at Ust Kara—Gold mining—Illicit trade in - “stolen gold”—Improvements in the prison system—The new prison of - Alexandrovsk—Mr. Foster Fraser’s account of the excellent state of the - prison in 1901—The prison at Verkhni Udinsk—The island of Saghalien - used as a penal colony—Disadvantages of the place—Coal mining chief - industry—Climate uncongenial—Exiles sent by sea from Odessa—Terrible - sufferings on the voyage—Convict marriages—Deplorable conditions on - the island—Prison discipline in force at Alexandrovsk—Punishments - inflicted—The plet. - - -Of the partial attempts made by Russia to reform the methods of -inflicting penal servitude on wrong-doers, I shall speak more at large. -A detailed account must be given of the new prisons erected more in -conformity with modern ideas; and the persistent pursuit of that -will-o’-the-wisp, penal colonisation by deportation to the desert island -of Saghalien, with its futile processes and disappointing results, -claims attention. Before leaving the older methods of enforcing hard -labour, it will be well to describe its last stronghold and the system -obtaining there until quite a recent date. “Kara the Black,” so called -from a Tartar word, aptly describes the series of prisons and convict -settlements established in the valley of the Kara River to work the -mines, chiefly gold mines, the private property of the Czar. There are -other mines of salt and silver, the latter chiefly at Nertchinsk, -supposed to have been worked out, and now leased to private hands with -profitable return, in spite of their deadly unhealthiness from the -quicksilver emanations that poisoned them. The annals of Nertchinsk are -as horrible as any in Siberian prison history, and the ancient prison of -Akatui in the district still stands to bear witness to the cruelties and -tragedies practised upon the unhappy politicals who inhabited it. The -silver mines were reopened at Algachi in the neighbourhood, where there -was a prison which Kennan saw and unhesitatingly condemned. “As a place -of confinement,” he writes, “even for the worst class of offenders, it -was a disgrace to a civilised state, and the negligence, indifference -and incompetence shown by the government in dealing with its admitted -evils were absolutely inexcusable.” Speaking further of the Nertchinsk -district and of the mines at Algachi and Pokrovski and others, Mr. -Kennan was of opinion that the prisoners permitted to work in them -suffered less than those, the larger proportion, who were doomed to -unbroken idleness in the overcrowded, foul-smelling prisons. It was -irksome enough to work eight or ten hours daily in an icy gallery, three -hundred feet below ground; the mines were badly ventilated, and the -gases liberated by the explosives used may be injurious; but there are -no deadly exhalations from poisonous ores to affect the health, and no -doubt the worst feature of penal servitude in Siberia was not the hard -labour in the mines but the almost inconceivably foul condition and -enforced idleness of the prisons. - -Returning now to the Kara prisons, seven in number, two of them were -allotted to politicals, one for each sex, and of the remaining five the -total population was approximately eighteen hundred convicts. Half of -them were detained as prisoners; the other half were permitted generally -to join the “free command.” The latter were still convicts, receiving -rations and restricted to the settlement, but residing in barracks or in -their own houses. The prison building of Ust Kara, at the Lower -Diggings, is compared by Kennan to “a long, low, horse-car stable made -of squared but unpainted logs, which are now black, weather-beaten, and -decaying from age.” It was in the form of a square surrounded by logs -twenty-five feet high, closely set together, and sharpened at the top -like enormous lead pencils. Entrance was gained after ascending a few -steps through a heavy wooden door opening upon a long, low and very dark -corridor with a wet, slippery floor, much broken and damaged. The first -sensation was that of damp air laden with the fetid odours that -constantly vitiate all Siberian prisons. Kennan was unable to compare it -to any known bad smell. He says, “I can ask you to imagine cellar air, -every atom of which has been half a dozen times through human lungs and -is heavy with carbonic acid; to imagine that air still further vitiated -by foul, pungent, slightly ammoniacal exhalations from long unwashed -human bodies.... To unaccustomed senses, it seems so saturated with -foulness and disease as to be almost insupportable. As we entered the -corridor, slipped upon the wet, filthy floor, and caught the first -breath of this air, Major Potulov (the commandant) turned to me with a -scowl of disgust, and exclaimed, ‘It is a repulsive prison.’” In the -cells there was absolutely no ventilation whatever. Even the brick oven -drew its air from the corridor. The walls of squared logs had once been -whitewashed, but had become dark and grimy, and were blotched in many -places with extensive bloodstains, the life blood of countless -insatiable enemies, bed-bugs, crushed to death in unceasing warfare. The -floor was deeply encrusted with dry, hard-trodden filth. The sloping -wooden platforms on which the convicts slept side by side, closely -packed, without bedding or covering, were inconceivably dirty. All the -cells were the same except that in one a shoemaker’s bench diffused the -quite pleasing odour of fresh leather. - -Small wonder that contagious diseases were rife in such an atmosphere; -scurvy, typhus and typhoid constantly prevailed and the prison surgeon -admitted that the first was endemic, saying, “We have more or less -scurvy here all the year round.” The infected were not at once removed -to hospital, but lay there to pollute and poison the air breathed by -their comparatively healthy comrades. All the conditions of this were so -manifestly odious that the commandant did not attempt to explain, defend -or excuse them, but, as Kennan tells us, “he grew more and more silent, -moody and morose as we went through the _kameras_.” He knew too well -that it was beyond his power to remedy the abounding evil; he might -listen to grievances, hear petitions and complaints, but was powerless -to relieve them. - -The middle Kara prison was on precisely similar lines, but the air was -fresher during the day time, when the bulk of the inmates were absent at -the mines, to which the hard-labour prisoners proceeded in the early -morning and where they spent the day. Their midday meal was taken with -them, to be eaten beside the camp fire in any weather, even the fiercest -winter storms. They returned to the prison late in the afternoon, and -dined on a fairly good meal of hot soup, bread and meat and a cup of -brick tea. This they ate on their sleeping platforms, and passed the -night without removing their clothing. - -The gold “placers” at Kara were generally in deep gravel pits, and the -auriferous sand was located beneath a stratum of clay, gravel or stones, -in what had once been the bed of the stream. The work consisted in -breaking up and removing this overlying stratum, extracting the gold -bearing sand and carrying it to the machine, where it was washed in -several waters which in flowing away left deposits of black sand and -gold particles. Pick and crowbar were in constant use by the convict -labourers, working in their leg irons silently and listlessly under the -close surveillance of a cordon of Cossack sentries. The average daily -task was of ten hours, but much time was lost in going to and fro, and -the annual amount washed was some four hundred pounds. A large quantity -of gold was stolen by the surreptitious washing of convicts of the free -command. They disposed of it to “receivers,” who ran great risks but -generally managed to smuggle it across the frontier. This illicit trade -flourishes in spite of the fact that it is a penal offence to be in -possession of the precious metal or “golden wheat,” as it is technically -called. But the great profits accruing outbalance the risks, and small -speculators are always to be found who will secretly buy the stolen -treasure secured by the convicts at large. - -One notorious criminal at Kara living in the free command acquired -considerable wealth by illicit trade in “stolen gold.” His name was -Lissenko, and his crimes had been many and heinous. In one of his -robberies he murdered a whole family, men, women and children. Leo -Deutsch came across him and describes him as a man of about sixty years -who had still the strength of a giant. He says: “He struck me as being -crafty, cunning and reckless, but not a malicious kind of fellow, and he -was extremely pious withal. No one who knew him personally could easily -believe him to have murdered innocent children.” Deutsch asked him how -he could have the heart to kill a child. “Oh, I cried all the time I was -doing it,” he replied, “but still I killed them. It was just God’s -will.” His questioner then asked, “Well, and would you murder me if you -met me in a safe place?” “If I knew you had a lot of money about you I -should certainly wring your neck,” said the man, with cheerful -frankness. “But there! one doesn’t kill without some good reason.” - -The search for gold, belonging really to the government, or more exactly -to the Czar, was almost openly practised at Kara. Whole families, both -men and women, engaged in it, taking out with them a shovel and wooden -vessel to the banks of the neighbouring streams, and often obtaining -gold dust to the value of a couple of rubles a day. No one protested, -and the authorities hardly interfered, for the officials themselves did -not scruple to profit by the illegal trade. Far more gold was obtained -by unlawful than lawful means. The middlemen got a good price from the -Chinese traders, who could always find a way to pass the gold into -China, where it would fetch a higher price than that paid by the -imperial exchequer. It is contended that these illicit gold finders have -greatly benefited Siberia. Their restless energy in prospecting has led -to the discovery of numberless gold mines, which are now being very -profitably worked, seldom to the enrichment of the finders, but to that -of the middlemen and through them to that of the country. - -The glaring shortcomings of Eastern Siberian prisons were gradually -recognised by the government, and a commendable, if not extensive, -attempt has been made to provide new and improved buildings, both to -serve as forwarding prisons, and for the confinement of penal-servitude -convicts. A larger scheme was introduced for the penal colonisation of -the island of Saghalien by the deportation of exiles thither by sea, of -which I shall have much more to say. The best of the new prisons on the -mainland are those of Alexandrovsk, forty miles above Irkutsk on the -Amgara River, of Gorni Zerentui at the Nertchinsk mines, and of Verkhni -Udinsk, fifty miles east of Lake Baikal and six hundred miles from Kara. - -The prison of Alexandrovsk, which was visited by the untiring -investigator, Kennan, had been originally built to serve as a -distillery, but was reconstructed and turned into a great central prison -in 1874. When Kennan was there, it held about a thousand prisoners and -was deemed to be almost a model prison. It is a large two-storied brick -building with a tin roof, standing in a spacious enclosure surrounded by -a high, buttressed brick wall. It contains fifty-seven general cells, in -each of which from five to seventy-five occupants are locked up; ten -cells for separate confinement, and five secret cells for the isolation -of the most dangerous and refractory prisoners. The cells, as Kennan -found, were large and lofty; the ventilation was good and the air pure; -floors and sleeping rooms were kept scrupulously clean, the only fault -in the latter being the absence of bedding. The corridors outside the -cells were spacious, well lighted, and the air was wholesome. Neatness, -cleanliness and good order prevailed in the great kitchen; the food -prepared was palatable and good. The daily rations per week consisted of -three pounds of rye bread, seven ounces of meat, three ounces of barley, -with potatoes and other vegetables occasionally. The prisoners were -permitted to purchase tea and sugar out of their own earnings and -private funds. A schoolroom, well furnished and supplied, existed in the -prison, and there were many citizens’ shops,—carpenters, shoemakers, and -tailors,—and two-thirds of the money earned was at the disposal of the -handicraftsmen. Other labour intended to be “hard” was enforced at the -mills, where rye seed was ground into meal and where the prisoners -worked for three or four hours daily. At night the _kamera_ was crowded -and dimly lighted; and when visited, was not quite so sweet and -odourless as during the daytime, but, on the whole, the prison was -infinitely superior to the foul dens already described. - -Mr. Foster Fraser, the English traveller, who saw the Alexandrovsk -central prison in 1901–2, gives a no less favourable report. He -describes it as a great square building, with lofty corridors, colour -washed, and with sanded floors, the _kameras_ containing on an average -fifty men each. The prisoners, who hailed from all parts of the polyglot -and scattered Russian Empire, were criminals of the worst stamp, mostly -heavy-jowled, sullen, brutish men, but there were some few young and -innocent looking lads. In the cells large numbers lounged away the day -in complete idleness, but all asked for employment, and were glad to get -it by being taken into the various shops. Some were clever and skilful -at particular trades, cabinet-making, tailoring, bookbinding, designing -patent locks, watch-mending or making musical instruments. The -impression conveyed was that of workshops of well contented artisans. -Conversation was general and many were smoking cigarettes. Care was -taken to classify prisoners by their religions; Mahometans, Tartars and -Caucasians were kept together in one hall; Jews were in another with -their synagogue hard by. The desire to brighten the gloomy surroundings -was to be seen in the existence of a theatre with stage and scenery, -where excellent amateur performances were given, and also musical -entertainments, for singing was much cultivated and there was no lack of -good voices among the convicts. A large library was kept up, to which -free access was permitted for several hours daily to those who could -read, by no means a large proportion. - -There is a second Alexandrovsk prison, one of the _étapes_, or -forwarding prisons, newly built in 1886–8, and on good lines, but much -handicapped by the common blot on all such places, overcrowding. Great -numbers, far in excess of available accommodation, were collected here, -awaiting distribution to various points. Mr. Fraser’s verdict on this -_étape_ prison is unfavourable. “The rooms were overcrowded and the -stench almost choked me. The men looked dirty and uncared for. They had -no work; they were just huddled together, waiting often six or eight -months before they were sent off. Among them were half a dozen young -fellows in ordinary clothes, with nothing of the criminal about them, -the youngest seventeen, the eldest twenty-one. They were political -exiles banished by ‘administrative process’ for rashly joining in some -socialistic demonstration, and were on their way to Yakutsk into the -frozen depths of the sub-Arctic Circle.” - -Verkhni Udinsk is the first halting place after leaving Lake Baikal on -the road to Kara, and all exiles to Eastern Siberia passed through it, -including the political prisoners. For many years the _étape_ prison -there was one of the foulest on the whole route. It is to the credit of -the Russian government that this abominable prison has been abolished -and replaced (in 1886) by a new forwarding prison constructed on the -most approved lines. It is a large building of four stories, built of -brick, with a stucco front painted white, and having two spacious wings, -a large inner courtyard and separate buildings for political prisoners -and military guard. The _kameras_ are even better than those at -Alexandrovsk, large, lofty, well ventilated, and each above the basement -floor has an extensive view across the surrounding country through at -least three large windows. The corridors and imposing staircases, and -even the solitary confinement cells, are of large size. It was built to -lodge 440, but of course was constantly occupied by a much larger -number. When Mr. Kennan expressed his unbounded approval of the very -best prison he had seen in Russia, or indeed in any country, his -conductor assented, “Yes; if they do not overcrowd it, it will be very -comfortable. But as the old prison intended for 140 was often filled -with as many as seven hundred, we shall probably be expected to find -room for three thousand in this.” I have come across no later -information on this point, and it is to be hoped that the substitution -of the sea passage to Saghalien has had a beneficial effect in reducing -the numbers passing along the land route, and that the Verkhni Udinsk -prison has sufficed to meet the demands on its accommodation. - -After very considerable delay, a new prison at Gorni Zerentui, to serve -for the Nertchinsk mines, was completed in 1888. The crying need for -such a prison was first realised in 1872, and in 1874 a committee was -appointed to report and submit plans. Seven years later no more progress -had been made than the erection of a few log huts and the repair of some -older buildings, on which nearly 40,000 dollars had been expended. -Constant changes of plan had tended to vexatious delay. Opinions were -divided as to whether brick or logs was the most suitable material, but -preference was finally given to the latter, because the prison could not -be permanent, as the mines were certain to become worked out. But -already brick had been employed and the building was far forward, so it -was at length completed, and was occupied at the date given. - -The advantages offered by the island of Saghalien as a place for penal -settlement were very early impressed upon Russian prison administrators. -They were rather sentimental than physical, for the island was perhaps -as unsuitable for human habitation as any place on the face of the -globe. The climate was uncongenial, and worse even than its latitude -indicated. Alexandrovsk, the chief town, is in the same latitude as -Brighton in England, and yet its mean annual temperature is just below -freezing point. No sea current wafted any warmth northward from Chinese -waters. On the contrary, a bitterly cold stream swept its eastern coast, -issuing from the ice-bound sea of Okhotsk, and the western shores of -this narrow elongated island are, so to speak, under an immense -refrigerator, the snowy mountain tracts of Siberia, separated from it by -only a narrow and shallow channel. Sparse sunlight pierced through the -heavy clouds and fogs that enveloped this inhospitable land. The milder -season was too brief to allow of great success in the germination of -crops, and the long, low valleys between the mountains were too damp and -marshy to favour agriculture. Dense forests clothed a large portion of -the island, containing poor trees of inferior, stunted growth, with -comparatively valueless wood. A scant population of degenerate tribes -eked out a wretched existence as fishermen and seal hunters. Few -settlers came to it from China or Japan. - -The report of experts definitely decided against Saghalien as an -agricultural colony. The soil forbade all hope of raising grain to -support those who worked it. Food must be imported to maintain life; -cattle breeding might succeed, but with difficulty, and fish must remain -the staple diet. One source of natural wealth which might be developed -was the coal fields, in which the island was supposed to be rich, but -the quality of the coal was inferior to the Australian and very much -below that of Newcastle and Cardiff. Mr. Hawes, a later traveller -(1903), contests this, however, and describes the coal as a good -lignite, superior to the Japanese as a steam coal, and says it commands -a higher price. As an article of commerce, it suffers from the -difficulties of lading for export. There is not a single harbour on the -whole circumference of the island, and approach is often hindered by -want of beacons and constantly prevailing fogs. - -Coal mining in Saghalien began in 1858, and some 30,000 tons were -extracted during the first ten years. The production was very costly; -the mines were worked by candle light; the ore was bad and much mixed -with stone. The largest deposits are upon the western coast, and it is -mined chiefly at Dui and Vladiminsk. Mr. Hawes saw a seam of brown coal -exposed on the banks of the river Tim. At Vladiminsk the coal was on the -ground, level, and easily reached by tunnelling into the cliff, and when -it failed at one spot, another was soon discovered. The coal sells to -the merchants at twelve shillings per ton, of which the convicts now -employed receive ten per cent. - -The adoption of Saghalien as a penal colony commended itself to the -authorities for several reasons. In the first place, the conditions of -life were more irksome than on the mainland; the work would, it was -thought, be much harder; and the place itself was wilder, more savage -and solitary,—all of which would combine to increase the severity of the -punishment. Moreover, the prospect of remaining forever as a settler -upon a remote island, after the term of hard labour was accomplished, -would still further act as a deterrent to crime. Accordingly, it was -resolved to inflict this harsher penalty upon recidivists and recaptured -fugitives, the _brodyagi_, or runaway convicts, of whom so many -thousands were always at large and who, when recaptured, as well as all -the “Ivan-don’t-remembers” who would not tell their names, were -sentenced to penal servitude for a fresh term of four years in -Saghalien. Again, Saghalien by sea was better than Siberia by _étape_ -process, with its long painful journey, the sufferings it entailed on -the travellers, and the burden of corruption inflicted upon the local -population by the way. Last of all, it would tend to free Siberia of the -convict element, and assist the colonisation and development of the new -territory, with manifest benefit to the convicts on release by the -opportunities offered for rehabilitation and betterment of character and -position. - -These were the views expressed by Governor-General Anuchin in his famous -reports to the Czar in 1880. But they had already taken effect, and -deportation to Saghalien had begun practically some years previously. -The first body of convicts, eight hundred in number, were sent there in -1869, but they went across the whole continent of Asia, having already -travelled from Russia, and descending the long length of the Amur River, -some two thousand miles, completed a total journey of 4,700 miles before -reaching its mouth at Nikolaevsk, where they arrived decimated by -disease and all more or less suffering from scurvy. After that, sea -transportation was used, the party starting from Odessa and voyaging -through the Suez Canal by the Red Sea, Indian and Northern Pacific -Oceans, but under very neglected and imperfect conditions, so that those -who embarked were subjected to terrible privations and cruelties on this -voyage half round the world. - -As time passed, and the last century drew to its close, deportation -direct to Saghalien steadily increased. Twice a year the steamer -_Yaroslav_, one of the Russian volunteer fleet, the appointed convict -ship, performed its sad mission and brought out its living freight of -eight hundred exiles from Odessa. Besides these, many hundreds regularly -arrived from the mainland, who were convicts due to become exiled -settlers. The latest law provided that the penal colony should be the -receptacle of all males sentenced to more than two years, of all females -not over forty years of age, sentenced to the same period, and of any -political prisoner at the discretion of the imperial government. -Criminals, on arrival, are classified according to their sentences and -located in the various gaols in the three administrative districts of -Alexandrovsk, Timovsk and Korsakovsk. The largest prison centre is at -the first named; the second in importance is at Korsakovsk; and there -are two prisons in the Timovsk district, one at Derbensk, the other at -Rikovsk. - -When Mr. Hawes visited the island in 1902, he found a principal gaol at -Alexandrovsk known as the “testing,” or probation prison, for the worst -criminals, those with a sentence of twelve years and upward, whose -fetters are not removed and who are confined in a quarter styled the -“chained” prison. There is a second prison known as the “reformatory,” -for those with lesser sentences, into which convicts from the testing -prison, after passing a minimum of four years, may be promoted. These -last-named prisoners are permitted to work in gangs beyond the walls, -under escort, without very strict discipline, so that many leave their -parties to work on their own account in various forms of depredation. -The “ticket-of-leave” men, or free commands, were entered on the lists -of the reformatory prison and included the vagrants, _brodyagi_, who -were deported after recapture on the mainland. Immediate release from -jail is the boon conceded to any convict, even the very worst, whose -freeborn wife has elected to come out from Russia and join him. He -becomes then an exile settler of one of the “peasant” class, so-called, -whom it is hoped will assist colonisation. The same boon is conceded to -female convicts. “Free” husbands, however, are not often eager to share -their lot. According to Mr. Hawes, there were only six of these loyal -spouses on the whole island. But the women convicts have the chance of -being chosen to join in a convict marriage or temporary coupling of -parties, which is not only permitted but strongly encouraged. The -consequences of such unions are deplorable. The effect on the woman is -most demoralising, and too often the offspring, when children are born, -have inherited the criminal taint. The civil contract cannot be entered -into without divorce in the case where a husband still exists in Russia, -although many widows have simplified the matter by murdering their -husbands before leaving home, often, indeed, the cause of their -deportation. Figures quoted for one year, 1897, show that there were -2,836 murderers in durance upon the island, and a much larger number if -ex-convicts were included, and of this total, 634 were women who had -murdered their husbands. Clergymen on Saghalien refused to give a -religious sanction to these civil contracts unless there had been a -formal dissolution of the Russian marriage. The civil bond sat lightly -on both parties; the women in particular elected to go their own way, -and if interfered with or if they found their marriage ill-assorted or -irksome, they at once transferred themselves to some other master. The -results of this outrage upon the most sacred of human institutions must -assuredly lead to its abolition; they are identically the same as -reported by Mr. George Griffith to be the case in New Caledonia. He -says: “I saw about seventy-six separate and distinct reasons for the -abolition of convict marriages at the convict school. On every face and -form were stamped the unmistakable brand of criminality, imbecility, -moral crookedness and general degeneration.” - -The testing prison at Alexandrovsk generally held some six hundred -inmates, many of them in chains and most of them in idleness; a few, -barely ten or twelve per cent., were occasionally sent out to be -employed in mining, road-making and log-hauling; and the authorities -justified this limitation by the plea that the majority of them were -such desperate characters that they could not safely be suffered to go -beyond the walls. The unutterable weariness of long-continued, unbroken -idleness bore so heavily upon this mass of caged and shackled humanity -that desperate and determined attempts at escape were of constant -occurrence. So great was their longing to be free that they would -willingly risk their lives to breathe the fresh air. The only break in -the dull round of prison life was surreptitious gambling. They would -sacrifice everything to secure the means of play; they would stake the -government clothing issued, and even their rations a month ahead. In the -latter case, as an alternative to punishment, the convict put himself in -pawn to the authorities. He was lodged in a separate cell and allowed -himself to be starved for two days out of every three; the rations saved -were accumulated and placed to his credit for the payment of his debt. - -The conditions of life at Alexandrovsk not strangely incited the -prisoners to turbulence, insubordination and the commission of crime -whenever the chance came. When at large, even for a short time after -successful escape, they were veritable brigands, robbing and -slaughtering; when once more incarcerated, they were intractable and -incorrigible, and no punishment could affright or keep them in order. - -The older brutal methods survive in Saghalien. Physical tortures are -superadded to the infliction of prolonged sentences. As to the latter, -many convicts are well advanced in life with unexpired sentences of -forty or fifty years. Hawes tells us he found thirteen in this class, -and fifty-one others, one of them a woman, with sentences of from thirty -to forty years, and 240 with from twenty to thirty years of unexpired -sentences. He also found a couple of offenders chained to wheelbarrows, -and the number had been much larger not long before. - -Employment of corporal punishment has for the most part disappeared in -Russian and Siberian prisons; its infliction at Kara on Madame Sigida in -1889, and the universal horror inspired throughout the civilised world -by this terrible catastrophe, largely led to its abandonment; but the -practice is still in force in Saghalien. Until 1902 females were flogged -with the _rozgi_, birch rods dipped in salt. The infliction was within -the power of the chief of the prison, and although it might be lightly, -was ever arbitrarily imposed. It was not an excessively cruel, but a -most brutal and disgraceful punishment. But the plet still flourishes, -although the leaded ends are said to have been replaced by knots, and -may be a very terrible weapon in the hands of a skilful flagellator. -Until recently, it was worthy to replace the murderous knout of ancient -times. The patient was very much at the mercy of the executioner, the -so-called _palach_, a salaried convict-official, to whom his comrades -paid tribute in the Saghalien prison in food and tobacco, to curry -favour with him and persuade him to lay the leaded ends of the lash so -as to catch the wooden flogging bench rather than their bare backs. The -_palach_ spared his victim at very considerable risk, and might be -flogged for neglect of duty. In one case, an offending executioner, by -name Komeleva, was punished and flogged by the hands of his particular -enemy. So terrible was the infliction that although it incurred in 1882, -a photograph taken of the wounds in 1899, seventeen years afterwards, -showed them to be still suppurating. Three strokes of the plet were -sufficient to kill, and another story is told of a convict at Saghalien -who promised the _palach_ a bottle of vodka if he would not hit him with -the leaded ends. The victim was a hardened veteran, and when he had -received ninety-five strokes, thinking he had escaped, he called out, -“It’s no matter; you can’t hurt me now, you needn’t think you’ll get -your vodka.” But he had not reckoned with his man, for after three more -strokes he was dead. It was only necessary to draw back the plet as the -stroke was spent for the ends to injure the liver and send a clot of -blood to the heart. - - - - - CHAPTER X - SAGHALIEN - -Failure of the scheme to utilise Saghalien as a convict - settlement—Testimony of an official on the terrible condition of the - exiles—Gambling and drunkenness universal—Prevalence of immorality—The - prisons hot beds of vice—No classification of the prisoners—Convicts - refuse to settle on the island as colonists at the expiration of their - sentence—Account of two assassinations at Alexandrovsk—Description of - the cemetery there—Female murderers on the island—Sophie Bluffstein, - called the “Golden Hand”—Her adventurous career of crime—Sent to - Saghalien as a political prisoner—Carried on criminal operations when - released—Recaptured and again confined—Finally released and settled on - the island until her death—The merchant of Alexandrovsk and his - unfaithful wife—The vagrants in Saghalien—Barratasvili—His capture and - death—Horrible story of the fate which befell the convict - road-makers—Politicals on Saghalien—Their terrible sufferings. - - -The day will come when Russia, like the rest of the world, will learn -that it cannot finally dispose of its worst elements by shooting them -down on some distant dust heap. Siberia will act in its own defence as -did Australia, and refuse to be forever the dumping ground for -criminals. The prosperous development of that vast and richly endowed -territory has been too long delayed and already a change is imminent. -Enterprise has been stimulated by the construction of the great -Trans-Siberian railway. As Siberia grows in wealth and importance it -will surely resent and repudiate the exile system, whether enforced by -the improved methods of railway travelling or facilitated by sea -communications. - -The old idea of removal still obtains, although an effort has been made -to avoid the horrors of the prolonged pilgrimage on land, by -substituting the long sea voyage from Odessa, through the Suez canal and -the southern seas to far Saghalien. Banishment to that convict colony, -although half the island has passed to the victorious Japanese, will -still survive, despite its manifest failure. - -After the experience of a quarter of a century, it may be most -unhesitatingly asserted that the net result of the deportation to -Saghalien has been most disappointing. Failure has met the Russian -government on every side. Transportation has fulfilled none of the aims -of penal legislation, has been neither reformatory nor deterrent, but -merely painful and punitive without any return in benefit to the colony. -The island has made no progress; its scanty natural resources have been -little utilised, and no return has been obtained from the cultivation of -the indifferent soil. At the best period, barely one-tenth of the -convicts qualifying for conditional freedom, and labouring to become -proprietors of farms with lands cleared and stocked with cattle, were of -any value in carrying on the work; of the remaining nine-tenths, half -had no heart in it, and the other half were frankly idlers and vagabonds -hanging about the settlements, looking for free rations, and when the -issue ceased, ranging the country as masterless men depending on theft -and depredation for their bare living. - -The social atmosphere was vitiated, and noxious evil elements -predominated; general depravity had become almost universal. It was the -old story of Australian transportation, and the later experience of New -Caledonia. Once more, penal exile stands condemned as a secondary -punishment, showing the same absence of any redeeming or compensating -features in the improvement of these new lands or the amelioration of -the individual. The system must be still more barren of results in the -future, now that the southern half of the island—the part most -favourable to agriculture—has been surrendered to Japan as part of the -last war indemnity. This will seriously diminish the amount of land -available for the “exile settlers,” as they are called. - -The efforts made to colonise have been feeble and fruitless. Convict -labourers were set to clear the forests and reclaim waste lands, but in -a desultory, half-hearted fashion, without skill or knowledge, and -wielding primitive instruments and imperfect tools. Much time was wasted -in covering long distances to draw rations, and depending upon the -administration for advances to provide seed and stock, both inadequate -in quantity and of very inferior quality. As a general rule, the -settlers were physically unfit for the work in hand; their health was -not robust; they soon aged and broke down under the rough conditions of -daily life. All were crushed with indebtedness to the government for -advances, and also to private usurers who supplied means for -self-indulgence. A fierce passion for gambling consumed them, and -drunkenness was universal. Vodka was smuggled in freely from Japan, and -numbers of illicit stills manufactured it secretly upon the island. One -of the principal officials spoke as follows of the deplorable state of -things:— - -“Convict life on Saghalien is a frightful nightmare. It is a compound of -debauchery, insolence and bravado, mixed with real suffering from -hardship and privation, and tainted indelibly with crime and -corruption.” Children born on or brought to the island are educated in -the worst vices, and when still of tender years are already profligate -or depraved. Modesty does not exist; young girls of twelve and thirteen -are invariably seduced and abandoned to prostitution; men enter into the -civil marriage so as to profit by the immorality of their temporary -wives; many female convicts are retained in government hands, simply to -purvey concubines for the colonial officials. The unsavoury and -shameless relations of the sexes are among the principal reasons why -colonisation has absolutely failed. There is no virtue among the female -residents of Saghalien, whether they are “free” women who have come out -voluntarily to join husbands or parents, or those condemned to -deportation. The latter are in many respects better placed than the -former, for they receive government shelter and allowances in food. - -The prisons on the island are hot-beds of vice; all classes of offenders -are herded together, with no system of classification but the one based -upon the length of sentence. An attempt has been made to separate the -uncondemned awaiting trial from the recidivist and hardened offender, -but the division is not carried far, and too often the association is -indiscriminate, and the wholly bad habitual criminals mix freely with -the less hardened wrongdoers, who are rapidly corrupted and debased by -their evil surroundings. The worst elements are concentrated in the -“testing” prison of Alexandrovsk, including those who have graduated and -grown gray in crime on the mainland. Prison discipline is generally -slack and ineffective, and from ill-judged economy the staff of warders -is too weak for supervision and control. The officers themselves are -often of inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, overbearing, given to -“trafficking” with the prisoners, accepting bribes for the clandestine -introduction of strong drink, or to assist in escapes, quick to oppress -and misuse their charges. - -Another impediment to colonisation is the noted and invincible dislike -to the place constantly present in the minds of the enforced colonists -or exiled class at large. No ex-convict would willingly remain on -Saghalien. When their terms of detention are ended, all want to turn -their backs on the island forever. Nothing would reconcile one to -continued residence, not even the acquisition of comparative wealth and -the possession of lands and herds, a house to shelter him, and domestic -ties. Anyone who can happily scrape together the necessary means hungers -to spend it in paying his passage home. He must possess his soul in -patience for a long time. Six years must be spent as an exile settler -after release from his prison probation; six more as a peasant, and then -only permission is granted to cross to the mainland, but never to return -to St. Petersburg or Moscow. Now and again a fugitive—and there is a -large percentage of escapes as we shall see—may reach home, but he is in -constant danger of rearrest. One political prisoner actually succeeded -in reaching the capital, but had the bad luck to meet in the streets of -St. Petersburg a gendarme officer who knew him. He was recognised and -sharply interrogated. “How did you manage to come so far, and what -brings you here?” asked the officer. “This brought me,” replied the -exile, as he promptly drew his revolver and shot his inconvenient -questioner down. Arrest followed immediately, and trial, with a fresh -sentence of fifteen years. Once more he was sent to Saghalien, where he -is still living as an exile settler with small hope of a second -enlargement. - -There are occasional, but very rare, exceptions among ex-convicts who -elect to remain and settle down in the colony. Mr. Hawes tells us of -one, a Cossack from the Caucasus, probably an old insurgent, who, with -tireless industry, had made himself a home at the village of Uskovo on -the upper waters of river Tim, some fifty miles from Alexandrovsk. This -man with infinite labour had cleared enough of the primeval forest to -sow a respectable crop of corn, some 150 puds or upwards of 5,000 -English pounds, which returned him a twelvefold crop. He was a careful -farmer, and sowed his seed with judgment, unlike most of the peasants -who scattered it at one place insufficiently and at another in excess. -Yet good harvests might be secured by steady industry, were the peasants -only willing to give agriculture a fair trial. Another similar case was -that of a free-command convict, whose wife had followed him out from -Europe. He was permitted to live with her outside the prison on -condition that he performed his allotted task of hard labour, which was -to haul tree trunks into Alexandrovsk to the number of one hundred and -twenty. He was energetic and thrifty, and by the aid of a loan from the -crown purchased a number of draught ponies to help him in hauling, by -which means he contrived to get a certain amount of spare time to work -on his own account. He had struck a new idea, inspired by the fact that -a steady traffic in oxen and ponies, bound to the town bazaar or market, -constantly passed his door. He established a sort of livery stable in a -little courtyard adjoining his cottage, where he provided shelter for -the cattle and sleeping places for the drovers on beds of hay. He soon -did a large business and prospered greatly. - -Sometimes there was a sad slip between the cup and the lip. It is on -record that an exile settler by unremitting diligence had put by enough -to pay for his passage home at the expiration of his term of exile. On -his way to Alexandrovsk, he was resting on a bridge when another -villager of the free command came and seated himself alongside. -Suddenly, as they chatted pleasantly together, the newcomer knocked the -other senseless with a heavy blow on the head, and having rifled his -body, dropped it into the stream running below. He thus became possessed -of his victim’s pocket-book containing his money and the certificate of -the expiration of his sentence. Fate was adverse, however, and when he -proceeded to make use of his ill-gotten gains, the certificate was -recognised as the property of the deceased. Arrest and detention were -followed by full discovery of the crime and its punishment. - -At Saghalien there was no security to life and property in the towns and -still less safety in the interior, which was ravaged and harassed by the -vagrant convicts, continually moving to and fro. Murder was committed -daringly and unblushingly on the smallest temptation, such as the -possession of even a small sum of money. When Mr. Hawes was at -Alexandrovsk, he met when on his way to church a couple of men just out -of hospital who had evidently been drinking. One of them reeled a little -in his walk and was manifestly drunk. Within a few hours this luckless -creature lay, a corpse, in the market place. He had been murdered by his -companion for the six or seven rubles he carried in his pocket. Three -days later, a man living near the market place imprudently sat near the -lamp at an open window, and was shot through it. Hawes describes the -cemetery he visited on a hill to the north of the town; it was filled -with wooden crosses, black, brown and green, clustering thickly, and -much the same epitaph was inscribed on all, “Here lies —— murdered —— -18—.” No mention was made of the assassin; that was quite unnecessary. -The victims were buried both singly and in groups of three, four or -five. The theatre of the crime was usually the market place or bazaar -near-by, where quarrels were frequent and weapons such as knives, -daggers and revolvers were constantly employed. Murderous assaults and -hand-to-hand fights were repeated almost daily, and the police seldom -took notice of the disturbance. Men were often pointed out in the open -road who had half a dozen or more murders to their credit. Mr. Hawes saw -one hovering near his hut who had slain eight victims, and it seemed -inexplicable that such a miscreant should be suffered to be still at -liberty. His immunity was due to his prompt escape into the _taiga_ or -wild, wooded interior. Convicts who did so might be captured some day, -but were seldom identified or there was insufficient evidence to secure -their conviction. The authorities, too, were generally callous when one -villain murdered another, philosophically saying, “After all the brutal -crowd has been well diminished by one.” Of course if an official was -murdered, more serious steps were taken to bring the offender to -justice. A Saghalien murderer was known to have committed the capital -offence nineteen times, and still evaded punishment. - -Female murderers were plentiful enough on Saghalien, and one of the most -remarkable was a certain Sophie Bluffstein, commonly called the “Golden -Hand.” As a criminal, she had few equals among wrong-doers in any land. -She was a Jewess, who, as a girl of rare beauty, had married a man of -her own race, a financial agent, but she left him when his affairs -became entangled. She developed into a cosmopolitan adventuress who made -the capitals of Europe her stage, and was well known in London, Paris, -Vienna and St. Petersburg. Her business was to victimise tradesmen and -attract lovers over whom she gained extraordinary influence. Her frauds -were extensive and on the well-known lines. She lived in great style in -a smart house, in the most fashionable part of the city, and drove in -her carriage to the best shops where she made large purchases of jewelry -and valuables, for which, of course, she never paid. Her depredations -were on a colossal scale and she was “wanted” by the entire police of -Europe. - -Sophie Bluffstein’s personal fascination was unrivalled. Her chief -charms were her wonderful eyes, which seemed to have had magnetic effect -upon her admirers and drew them irresistibly to her feet, tempting them -to commit any crime to secure her good graces. One of her greatest -triumphs was the beguilement of the governor of Smolensk, where she had -been arrested and incarcerated. Her influence over him was such that she -induced him to connive at her escape, to desert his wife and family, and -to accompany her in her flight. The connection was brief, and she -resumed her evil courses, until she was caught in a trap at a gay supper -party of young men, some of whom were terrorists, and which was broken -up by the police. Arrested as a political offender, she was sent to -Siberia, where in due course she escaped, was recaptured and deported to -Saghalien. - -Here she renewed her criminal activity, and when released from prison to -enter the free command, she gathered round her a choice collection of -the worst characters, whom she employed as her tools in the crimes she -planned and had carried out. In one case, a merchant, carrying on his -person a large sum in rubles, was robbed and murdered. The money was so -cleverly buried by her that it has not yet been discovered. Her -operations were greatly aided by a ship her confederates had seized and -openly used as a pirate craft. To check her villainies, she was shut up -at last in the testing prison at Alexandrovsk and kept constantly -handcuffed. Yet she eventually regained her liberty, and after living -more peaceably for a time at Rikovsk, she was allowed to settle at -Vladivostok, where she kept an inn until her death. - -That life was held cheap at Saghalien will be shown by the following -story. A merchant of Alexandrovsk had reason to suspect his wife, a -young and beautiful Tartar woman, of infidelity, and when he upbraided -her she ran off and left him. She was never seen again, and it came out -afterward that he had hired an assassin at the price of twenty-five -rubles to kill her, according to the provisions of the Mahometan law. -The assassin and his employer quarreled over the ghastly business, and -the latter simplified the matter by hiring a second assassin to murder -the first. But the second murder was not so successfully accomplished as -the first; the victim escaped; the merchant was arrested, and a witness -came forward to say she had seen him preparing a noose to hang his wife -on his own account. No arrest was made for some time, and even the -merchant was let out on bail. - -Thefts and highway robbery were of constant occurrence, and burglaries -also, both of private houses and government stores. There was a large -floating population of desperadoes, which was continually recruited by -the fugitives from justice, prison-breakers and vagrants from the free -commands, and exile settlers who preferred depredation to industry. The -_brodyaga_ was a greater scourge in Saghalien than in Siberia, another -and a potential check to the development of the colony on account of the -terrorism exercised over the well-disposed settler, whom he robbed and -maltreated. They worked generally in organised gangs, armed with stolen -rifles which they readily used. The most dangerous gang was that of -which the chief and captain was the notorious Barratasvili, the Robin -Hood of the island, whose feats are still remembered. - -Barratasvili came to Saghalien first as an exiled forger, and he passed -through his prison probation with an exemplary character. He was looked -upon as a mild and well-disposed man, quite amenable to discipline. When -he joined the free command, he became a domestic servant and continued -to be well-conducted until suddenly he ran off and escaped to -Nicholaevsk on the mainland. He was pursued, taken and brought back to -Saghalien, only to give his escort the slip and gain the recess of the -forest, where he all but died of starvation. By the murder of a merchant -on his way from Dui to Alexandrovsk carrying the price of a horse he had -lately sold, Barratasvili obtained funds and became the leader of the -band which soon began to ravage the district. He was like the typical -brigand, waging war with the rich but in sympathy with the poor, whom he -succoured instead of attacking. He was daring and unscrupulous in his -robberies, shooting “at sight” all who offered the slightest resistance. -As he became more and more reckless and his crimes multiplied, the hue -and cry was raised against him, and wide plans were laid to capture him, -all of which he successfully evaded, still boldly showing himself where -he was most “wanted.” - -On one occasion at Alexandrovsk, a strong detachment of soldiers -searched the town, house by house, in the small hours of the morning, -bent upon taking him, but quite fruitlessly. Yet four hours after the -search had begun, he was seen by a friend in the neighbourhood passing -along the street with no more disguise than being muffled up in a -fur-lined coat. Again, he entered a store in the town and having posted -a sentry to keep watch, proceeded to ransack the place, emptying the -counter cases of their jewelry, the tills and the safes of their cash. -The recklessness of these thieves was so great that they entered the -town and had their photographs taken. - -But the net was closing round Barratasvili. A combined effort was set on -foot to put an end to him and his gang. It was winter time when the end -came. Overcome with fatigue, he one day ventured off the road into the -forest close to a deserted saw-mill, and with his companions fell -asleep. An overseer, trudging along the road, noticed the tracks of his -skis, and they aroused his suspicions. Ordinary travellers do not leave -the road to plunge into the deep snow of the dense forest. He, too, was -tired, but he went back to Derbensk and secured the assistance of a -posse of soldiers. Following up the track, step by step, through the -forest, they came upon the long-sought robbers resting. The alarm was -given. Firing began on both sides. The leader of the gang was hit in the -left shoulder, but still continued to fire. The soldiers sought shelter -behind tree trunks. Barratasvili, in taking aim, exposed his head and in -so doing was shot in the forehead. Their leader killed, his companions -threw down their arms, were taken and beaten by the soldiers with the -butt ends of their muskets. In encounters of this kind, the soldiers, -furious at the loss of their comrades, treat their captives most -brutally, and in some cases the latter have died from injuries thus -received. Three of the four companions of Barratasvili were hanged at -the corners of the testing prison at Alexandrovsk. In theory, capital -punishment is supposed to have been abolished in Russia, but the -sentence is still passed by court-martial and the island of Saghalien in -under martial law. These _brodyagi_ were really strangled, not hanged. A -rope with a slip-knot was fixed round the neck of the culprit, the other -end being carried up and made taut to a crosspiece supported by two -upright poles. The convict stood on a box, which was kicked away from -under his feet, and strangulation often tardily ensued. - -The _brodyagi_ had little hope of permanent evasion. Now and again a few -determined fugitives have seized a boat and attempted a passage across -the sea to the mainland. They might win through the dangers of the sea, -having evaded the native trackers, half savage men of the Gilyak tribe, -more ready to shoot down than to capture, and they might make good their -landing at Cape Muraviev or Pogob. But they must face starvation and -almost certain death from the terrible winter cold. The alternative is -voluntary surrender, with the certainty of flogging and a prolongation -of sentence. More frequently, the _brodyagi_ infest the _taiga_ and hang -about the sparse settlements on the chance of plunder, or, if in any -numbers, combine for a descent upon the villages. In one year, 1896, -nine convicts who had escaped from the Alexandrovsk prisons at various -times joined forces in the Timovsk district and gave a great deal of -trouble. They were pursued by strong parties of soldiers, but often -turned to show fight, having become possessed of firearms. Eventually -they were captured, the survivors of the gang ending as usual upon the -gallows. - -When they are Chinese—and in Manchuria, the Russians hunt them down and -shoot as many as they can at sight—those wounded and taken alive are -decapitated and their heads hung by the way-side, but no real attempt -has been made to rid Siberia and Saghalien of this great pest and -danger. - -Statistics are not helpful, as so few arrests are made, and so few -crimes discovered. Garroting is the chief device of the footpad. With a -short stick and a noose of twine, he approaches his victim from the -rear, slips the cord over his head and strangles the man, woman or -child, who is unable to utter a cry; then he strips from the body -everything likely to lead to its identification, and decamps. If there -is an accomplice, he blocks the stranger’s advance or engages his -attention at the correct moment. Nor is there perfect safety in numbers. -“Whilst at Khabarovsk,” says a recent traveller, “I paid a visit to one -of the lone pioneers of Anglo-Saxondom in that far-off land. There, -within a stone’s throw of the governor-general’s house, three citizens -were attacked within five minutes of our passing. Their assailants got -away, but all three of the merchants succumbed to their injuries. At -Blagoveschensk, in broad daylight, between two and three o’clock in the -afternoon, and quite close to the main hotel and high street, I heard a -series of revolver shots, and turning, saw a man leisurely reloading his -revolver. His victim, a woman in this case, never uttered a cry, merely -fell. The street was almost deserted, and the people who heard and saw -took very little notice, but with the aid of a passing soldier, we -arrested that man, and in the rough and ready lock-up to which he was -taken were electric lights and telephone. In a few minutes the district -superintendent was summoned, but we were scarcely thanked for our part, -and we were told that our action was not Siberian, and that the affair -was none of ours. - -“From Cheliobinsk to Vladivostok crime is equally common. In the latter -place, I was told that after each pay-day at the naval fitting yard men -were missing and never returned. On one occasion thirty disappeared, and -ordinarily eight or ten bodies are found within a few days, stripped of -every shred of clothing, their tattooed marks gashed over and the -features hacked so that they could not be recognised. Russians suffer -more than the Chinese, and Russians are usually the aggressors. -Policemen are too few and too wary. Unless the street be crowded, men -may shout loud and long before any will venture to their assistance.” - -The suburbs and villages in Siberia, says the same authority, suffer -from the vagrant bands who raid settlements and houses, exacting all -they dare and often not falling short of other crimes. They are the -fugitives from justice, escaped criminals, the reckless and daring -convicts who have eluded their prison guards. They have nothing but what -they have stolen, a wooden staff and a short length of leather or twine. -Whoever gets into their power has a short shrift and theirs is not -longer if they are captured in the act or traced. For entering and -robbing a church in Vladivostok, some were hanged, for in Siberia the -death penalty is not in abeyance as in Russia. In Siberia—and in Russia -too—lynch law is common among the peaceable, industrious, well-to-do -peasants as it is also among the half Russianised natives. One method of -dealing with cattle thieves is to bend down two straight young birch -trees, tie the hands of the robber to one and his feet to the other, -then release the trees and hurry away. - -Later records describe the extraordinary career of a convict, Nagorny by -name, who is said to have escaped seven times from Saghalien, his last -having been effected while he was chained to a wheelbarrow. This man had -been guilty of more than fifty murders and several hundred robberies, -many of these having been perpetrated in the disguise of a gendarme, -when he entered the houses of his victims under the pretext of making an -official search. He was tall, strongly built and had a ruffianly -expression. When he was arrested, Nagorny pointed a loaded revolver at -his custodian, but the lock of the weapon proved damaged and it was -useless. - -A hideous story is preserved in Saghalien of a tragic event that -occurred in the summer of 1892, when a party of a hundred convicts were -sent from Alexandrovsk to make a road through the _taiga_ to Rikovsk. It -was a terrible task; the road followed the course of the Boroni River, -in a wide and swampy valley, rendered impassable by unexpected heavy -rains, which cut the workmen off from their base of supplies. Great -numbers of the gang perished from starvation, dysentery and fevers. -Three of them, maddened by their privations, escaped into the _taiga_, -and when pursued, wandered further and further into the primeval forest. -It was strongly suspected, but never proved, that one of the three was -killed and eaten by his two comrades, for one of them when caught was -found to be carrying a human bone in his pouch, but his mind was -unhinged and he could give no coherent account of what happened. He was -treated as a lunatic, and his insanity saved him from punishment, but he -was ever afterward known as “Vasiliv the Cannibal.” The other fugitive, -Kalenik, was sentenced to ninety-nine strokes of the plet, which killed -him. - -Political exiles have been deported to Saghalien, but not in any great -number. They were among the earliest convicts transported by sea, and it -is worth noting that the Russian government in 1888 was anxious to make -no distinction between them and the common criminals. Mr. Kennan prints -a letter concerning some of them from M. Galkin Vrasski, the well-known -chief of prison administration, directing that no difference should be -made between them and the ordinary criminals. They were to be subjected -to the same discipline, but to be kept under stricter surveillance, if -anything, and were to be liable to more severe punishments inflicted on -Saghalien and in Siberia. Two, indeed, were flogged at Alexandrovsk, -after an unhappy collision with the prison authorities caused by the -neglect of one of them to raise his hat on meeting a subordinate -official. Their sufferings were, of course, greater owing to the -remoteness of their domicile and their savage surroundings. They were -naturally more in touch with the civilised world at Tobolsk, Tomsk and -Irkutsk, and were at a peculiar disadvantage on Saghalien, because of -the dearth of educated people among the exiled population. They were in -request for more cultured employment as schoolmasters, accountants or in -scientific labours. As a rule, they bore their expatriation and the -hardships of their daily life with equanimity, and were quiet and -well-conducted. Many of them had been victims of Russian despotism and -had suffered much in the Russian state prisons. One of them whom Mr. -Hawes met on Saghalien was a lady who had at one time belonged to a -secret society unknown to her husband. When Alexander II was -assassinated she fled the country. On returning later to Russia, she was -arrested on suspicion, but her identity could not be proved until her -husband was tricked into recognising her when they were suddenly brought -face to face. This lady was consigned to the fortress of Schlüsselburg, -and was so entirely lost sight of that her husband, presuming she was -dead, married again. Ten years later he heard that she was alive and had -been transported to Saghalien. Having somehow settled matters with his -second wife, he followed his first to the other end of the world and was -eventually allowed to settle with her at Vladivostok. - -In spite of restrictions, hardships and almost intolerable conditions, -the political exile has been a distinct aid and valuable factor in the -settlement and development of Siberia, carrying with him ideals and -standards and a degree of intelligence far in advance of the native -Siberian settler and peasant. The infusion of such an element is all the -more needed because of the low average of intelligence of the great mass -of the convicts, many of whom become permanent residents of Siberia. Mr. -Henry Norman has said of the prisoners in the prison of Irkutsk, as he -found them: “Never has it been my lot, though I have visited prisons, -civilised and uncivilised, in many parts of the world, to see human -nature at such a low ebb.... From this point of view, Russian -criminology has a task unknown in countries where civilisation has -reached a higher average of development.” It is the criminal exile who -has been a bar to progress in Siberia, and with the cessation of the -transportation of this class of convicts, the future is brighter for the -great exile territory which is so rich in natural possibilities. - -Siberia will no doubt become the granary of the world. Its millions of -fertile acres must ere long develop its great food producing qualities. -With its great stretches of prairie waiting for the plough, its huge -forests and magnificent waters, “it is evident that the Siberia of -convicts and prisoners is passing away and the Siberia of the reaping -machine, the gold drill, the timber yard, the booming, flourishing new -town is awakening into new life.” - -The present condition of Russia is appalling. Centuries of autocratic -rule, backed by barbarous methods, such as have been set forth at some -length in the foregoing pages, have culminated now in a social upheaval -that threatens the collapse of a vast empire. The stability of the -government is wholly undermined; long continued, merciless repression -has failed; resistance to constituted authority becomes daily more -daring and embittered. The Czar and his bureaucracy are more and more -fiercely and systematically assailed, despite the increased reprisals of -despotic power and the temporary triumph of a reactionary policy. - -Rulers, with their backs to the wall, plead these outrages are -imperative in self-defence. The malcontents, ever increasing in numbers -and violence, have openly determined to make government impossible and -that terrorism by bomb-throwing and assassination is the only argument -left. They will accept no compromise; they distrust all promises, and -move steadily on to social revolution. “We cannot call our souls our -own,” said a working man in Moscow to an English writer; “we cannot -discuss affairs of our country without risk of Siberia; we are taxed -down to the last kopeck; we are black-mailed by every petty official; we -have no freedom of the press; if anybody in authority does us wrong, we -have no redress ... we hate the bomb-throwing as much as you do. But it -is the only argument left to us.” This is characteristic of the spirit -animating the “great mass of lethargic ignorant Muscovites” goaded at -last to action and gaining hourly in strength and recklessness. -Meanwhile the government maintains the struggle. Its persistent answer -is to refuse reforms until order is restored, and it still finds -champions and supporters, especially in the so-called “Black Hundred,” a -powerful reactionary organisation based upon an unofficial union of the -Russian people. - -An examination of any of the recent budgets for yearly expenses of this -huge empire will show a most astonishing percentage appropriated to the -maintenance of order,—the upkeep of the police and censorship of the -press,—and will furnish to the intelligent observer a reason for present -conditions, as well as a reason for admiring the fidelity of the -educated members of the lower classes to their ideal of liberty. - - Transcriber’s Note - -Spelling and punctuation, where printer or editorial errors were -obvious, has been corrected, as summarized here: - - 221.4 Bogo[lom/mol]etz Transposed. - - 267.8 and the number had been much larger not long Replaced. - before[,/.] - - 289.25 the fortress of Sch[l]üsselburg, Added. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime; -Russian Prisons, by Arthur Griffiths - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY AND ROMANCE OF CRIME *** - -***** This file should be named 52937-0.txt or 52937-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/9/3/52937/ - -Produced by KD Weeks, KD Weeks, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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} - .c014 { margin-top: 1em; font-size: 95%; } - .c015 { text-decoration: none; } - .c016 { vertical-align: top; text-align: left; } - div.illo { width:80%; text-align:center; margin:auto; margin-bottom:2em; } - a:link { text-decoration: none; } - div.tnotes { padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em;background-color:#E3E4FA; - border:1px solid silver; margin:1em 5% 0 5%; text-align: justify; } - .epubonly {visibility: hidden; display: none; } - @media handheld { .epubonly { visibility: visible; display: inline; } } - .htmlonly {visibility: visible; display: inline; } - @media handheld { .htmlonly { visibility: hidden; display: none; } } - .blackletter { font-family: "Old English Text MT", Gothic, serif; } - @media handheld { .blackletter { font-family: "Century Gothic", Gothic, serif;} } - </style> - </head> - <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime; Russian -Prisons, by Arthur Griffiths - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The History and Romance of Crime; Russian Prisons - -Author: Arthur Griffiths - -Release Date: August 30, 2016 [EBook #52937] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY AND ROMANCE OF CRIME *** - - - - -Produced by KD Weeks, KD Weeks, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Transcriber’s Note:</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The position of illustrations have been adjusted slightly to avoid -falling in mid-paragraph.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Please see the transcriber’s <a href='#endnote'>note</a> at the end of this -text regarding the few textual issues encountered during its preparation.</p> - -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>The History and <br /> Romance of <br /> Crime</h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES</div> - <div>TO THE PRESENT DAY</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/dec.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>THE GROLIER SOCIETY</div> - <div>LONDON</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='illo'> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_frontis.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><i>Young Girl Revolutionist Condemned to the Scaffold</i></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='small'>So severe was the Russian government in the measures -adopted to repress the revolutionists that mere school-girls -were exiled, imprisoned or executed. Many well-born girls -made it their chief aim to help the peasants, enduring the -privations and hardships of the labouring classes. Madame -Vera Phillipova, a young woman of great beauty, was long -the most popular person in the revolutionary movement. She -became identified with the conspiracy of “the Fourteen,” and -was thrown into the Schlüsselburg for the term of her natural -life.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='xlarge'><span class="blackletter">Russian Prisons</span></span></div> - <div class='c002'>ST. PETER AND ST. PAUL</div> - <div>THE SCHLÜSSELBURG</div> - <div>THE OSTROG AT OMSK</div> - <div>THE STORY OF SIBERIAN EXILE</div> - <div>TIUMEN, TOMSK, SAGHALIEN</div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'><i>by</i></span></div> - <div class='c002'>MAJOR ARTHUR GRIFFITHS</div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'><i>Late Inspector of Prisons in Great Britain</i></span></div> - <div class='c002'><span class='small'><i>Author of</i></span></div> - <div><span class='small'><i>“The Mysteries of Police and Crime,”</i></span></div> - <div><span class='small'><i>“Fifty Years of Public Service,” etc.</i></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/dec.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>THE GROLIER SOCIETY</div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c004' /> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>EDITION NATIONALE</div> - <div>Limited to one thousand registered and numbered sets.</div> - <div class='c002'>NUMBER 307.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c004' /> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span> - <h2 class='c005'>INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>The huge empire founded by the Czars of Russia -in the latter half of the sixteenth century was -based upon absolute autocracy. The Czar by virtue -of his divine origin exercised absolute authority -over the many diverse elements consolidated under -his sovereign will. From the earliest times no idea -of personal liberty was tolerated; the slightest expression -of independence in thought and action was -peremptorily forbidden. The attitude of the government -has ever been uncompromisingly severe -toward all malcontents, and Russian history for the -last two centuries is one long record of conspiracy -constantly afoot, and constantly repressed by savagely -cruel coercion. Imprisonment, the absolute -loss of physical freedom, has taken a wider meaning -in Russia than in other countries, for it is the lot -in one form or another of two classes of offenders: -the ordinary criminal under a civil code, from which -capital punishment is now excluded, and the political -dissidents deemed criminal by the arbitrary -government of the land and deserving of exemplary -and vindictive punishment. Russian prisons are in -some respects the worst and most horrible the world -has seen, and they are more especially reprehensible -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>in these latter days when humane considerations -are allowed weight in the administration of -penal institutions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In giving a description of Russian prisons as -they have been and to some extent still remain, it -is fair to state that the facts are authenticated by -unimpeachable evidence. We have the statements of -eye-witnesses speaking from their own knowledge, -and these unsparing critics have not always been -foreigners and outsiders; Russians themselves have -also raised their indignant voices in energetic protest, -and official reports can be quoted to substantiate -many of the charges. On the other hand, -Russian methods have found champions and apologists -among travellers, who were, perhaps, superficial -observers, easily misled, and their accounts -cannot in the least upset the conclusions arrived -at by more thoroughgoing and disinterested investigators. -Such men as George Kennan, indefatigable, -honest, courageous and of the highest veracity, -have framed an indictment from which there -is no appeal. The facts have been vouched for, -moreover, by the trustworthy narratives of those -who have themselves been personal victims of the -worst horrors inflicted, and buttressed by confidential -reports from great Russian functionaries sent -direct to the Czar. Secret despatches which have -fallen into hands for which they were not intended, -and have been made public by the searchers for -truth, frankly admit the justice of the sentence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>passed upon at least one frightful portion of Russian -penal institutions,—the system of exile to -Eastern Siberia. Governor-General Anuchin twice -addressed the Czar Alexander III, in 1880 and -1882, after long tours of personal inspection, in -such condemnatory terms that the mighty ruler -upon whom the terrible burden of responsibility -rested, was moved to endorse the report in his own -handwriting with the words, “It is inexcusable, -even criminal, to allow such a state of affairs in -Siberia to continue.” The frightful system which -allowed an irresponsible bureaucracy to sentence -untried persons to exile by so-called “administrative -process” is fully explained and described in -the present volume.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='16%' /> -<col width='64%' /> -<col width='20%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='small'>CHAPTER</span></td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>I.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>General Survey</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>II.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Two Famous Fortresses</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>III.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>The Exile System</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>IV.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>The Ostrog at Omsk</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>V.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Life in the Ostrog</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>VI.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Tiumen and Tomsk</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>VII.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Vagabondage and Unions</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Treatment of Politicals</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>IX.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Changes in System</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>X.</td> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Saghalien</span></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>List of Illustrations</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='76%' /> -<col width='11%' /> -<col width='11%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Young Girl Revolutionist</span></td> - <td class='c007' colspan='2'><i>Frontispiece</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Fortress of Peter and Paul</span></td> - <td class='c007'><i>Page</i></td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#i038'>38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Russian Prisoners</span></td> - <td class='c010'>”</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#i229'>229</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span><span class='xlarge'>RUSSIAN PRISONS</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER I <br /> GENERAL SURVEY</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>Commencement of judicial reform in Russia—Abandonment -of knout and branding iron—The plet—Two classes of -prisons, the “lock-up” and the “central” or convict prisons—Experiences -of a woman exiled from Russia—Testimony -of Carl Joubert—The state of the central prisons—The -“model” prison in St. Petersburg—Punishments -inflicted—The food in different prisons—Attempted escapes—Myshkin—His -early history and daring exploits—Failure -of his plan to rescue Chernyshevski from Siberia—His -escape, recapture, and sentence of death—The -prisoner Medvediev.</p> - -<p class='c012'>A definite movement toward judicial reform -began in Russia in the early sixties. The old law -courts with their archaic procedure and evil repute -as sinks of bribery and corruption were abolished. -Trial by jury was revived, and justices of the peace -were established to dispose of the smaller criminal -offences. Shortly afterward, two of the most disgraceful -features in the Russian penal code, the -knout and the branding iron, disappeared. The -punishment of splitting the nostrils to mark ineffaceably -the prisoners exiled to the salt mines of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>Okhotsk also ceased, and the simple Chinese no -longer were surprised with the sight of a hitherto -unknown race of men with peculiar features of their -own. The knout, however, had long served its -devilish purpose. It was inflicted even upon women -in the time of Peter the Great, and was still remembered -as an instrument which would surely kill at -the thirtieth stroke, although in the hands of a skilful -performer a single blow might prove fatal.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Flogging did not go entirely out of practice and -might still be ordered by peasant courts, in the army -and in the convict prisons. But another brutal whip -survived; the plet is still used in the far-off penal -settlements, although rarely, and only upon the -most hardened offenders. It is composed of a thong -of twisted hide about two feet in length, ending in -a number of thin lashes, each a foot long, with small -leaden balls attached, and forms a most severe and -murderous weapon. The number of strokes inflicted -may vary from twenty-three to fifty and at -Saghalien in some cases reaches ninety-nine. If the -victim has money or friends, the flogger is bribed -to lay on heavily; for when the blow is so light -as to fail to draw blood, the pain is greater. By -beginning gently the flagellator can gradually increase -the force of each blow until the whole back -is covered with long swollen transverse welts which -not uncommonly mortify, causing death.</p> - -<p class='c013'>At one time trial by court-martial could sentence -a soldier to the frightful ordeal of the “rods,” flogging -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>administered by comrades standing in two -ranks between which he moved at a deliberate pace -while they “laid on” the strokes with sticks upon -his bare back. This is exactly the same penalty -as that of “running the gauntlet,” or “gantlope,” -well known in old-time military practice, and sometimes -called “Green Street” in Russia, for the rods -used were not always stripped of their leaves. The -infliction might be greatly prolonged and the number -of strokes given sometimes amounted to several -thousand. Devilish ingenuity has now replaced the -physical torture of knout and plet by a modern -device for inflicting bodily discomfort, nothing less -than riveting a wheelbarrow to a man’s legs, which -he must take with him everywhere, even to bed,—the -apology for a bed on which he passed the -night.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Russian prisons are of several classes. There -are first the “lock-ups,” or places of detention for -the accused awaiting trial, scattered throughout the -country, and quite unequal in the aggregate to the -accommodation of the number of prisoners on hand. -It has been estimated that to lodge all adequately, -half as many more than the existing prisons would -be required. Those of another class, the houses of -correction, the hard labour or “central” prisons -where compulsory labour is exacted, are very much -like the “public works” convict prisons in the English -system. Many of these are established in European -Russia; more are to be found in Western -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>Siberia, and, on somewhat different lines, in the -penal settlements of Eastern Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In the provincial “lock-ups” or <em>ostrogs</em> the conditions -have always been deplorable. They are horribly -overcrowded with wretched, hopeless beings -for whom trial is often greatly delayed, and who lie -there in inconceivable discomfort at the mercy of -brutal and extortionate gaolers, “packed like herrings -in a cask, in rooms of inconceivable foulness, -in an atmosphere that sickens even to insensibility -any one entering from the open air,” says one -writer.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The same author gives the experiences of a lady -who was expelled from Russia for opening a school -for peasants’ children, and who was transferred to -the Prussian frontier from prison to prison. “At -Wilna,” she says, “we were taken to the town -prison, and detained for two hours late at night in -an open yard under a drenching rain. At last we -were pushed into a dark corridor and counted. -Two soldiers laid hold of me and insulted me -shamefully. After many oaths and much foul language, -the fire was lighted and I found myself in -a spacious room, in which it was impossible to take -a step in any direction without treading on the -women sleeping on the floor. Two women who -occupied a bed took pity on me and invited me to -share it with them.... The next night we were -turned out from the prison and paraded in the yard -for the start under a heavy rain. I do not know -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>how I happened to escape the fists of the gaolers, -as the prisoners did not understand the evolutions -and performed them under a storm of blows and -curses; those who protested were put in irons and -sent so to the train, although the law prescribes -that in the cellular wagons no prisoner shall be -chained.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“Arrived at Kovno, we spent the whole day in -going from one police station to another. In the -evening we were taken to the prison for women -where the superintendent was railing against the -head gaoler and swearing that she would give him -‘bloody teeth.’ The prisoners told me that she -often kept promises of this sort. Here I spent a -week among murderesses and thieves and women -arrested by mistake. Misfortune unites the unfortunate, -and everybody tried to make life more tolerable -for the rest; all were very kind to me and -did their best to console me. On the previous day -I had eaten nothing, for prisoners receive no food -on the day they are brought to prison. I fainted -from hunger, and the prisoners brought me round -by giving me some of their black bread; there was -a female inspector, but she did nothing but shout -out shameless oaths such as no drunken man would -use.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“After a week’s halt at Kovno, I was sent on -to the next town. After three days’ march we came -to Mariampol. My feet were wounded and my -stockings full of blood. The soldiers advised me -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>to ask for a vehicle, but I preferred physical suffering -to the continued cursing and foul language of -the chiefs. I was taken before the commander, who -remarked that as I had walked for three days I -could very well manage a fourth. On arrival at -Volkovisk, the last halt, we were lodged provisionally -in the prison, but the female side was in ruins -and we were taken to the men’s quarters, and had -nowhere to sit but on the filthily dirty and foul-smelling -floor. Here I spent two days and nights, -passing the whole time at the window. In the -night, the door was constantly thrown open for -new arrivals; they also brought in a male lunatic -who was perfectly naked. The miserable prisoners -delighted in this, and tormented the maniac into a -paroxysm of passion, until at last he fell on the -floor in a fit and lay there foaming at the mouth. -On the third day a soldier of the depot, a Jew, took -me into his room, a tiny cell, where I stayed with -his wife.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“The prisoners told me that many of them were -detained by mistake for seven or eight months, -awaiting their papers before being sent across the -frontier. It is easy to imagine their condition after -a seven months’ stay in this sewer without a change -of linen.... I had been six weeks on the road -and was still delayed, but I got leave to send a registered -letter to St. Petersburg, where I had influential -friends, and a telegram came to send me on -to Prussia immediately. My papers were soon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>found, and I was sent to Eydtkuhnen, where I was -set at liberty.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>It is asserted by our author that this horrible -picture was not one whit overcharged. “To Russians -every word rings true and every scene looks -normal. Oaths, filth, brutality, bribery, blows, hunger, -are the essentials of every <em>ostrog</em> and of every -depot from Kovno to Kamtchatka, from Archangel -to Erzerum.” It is summed up by Kropotkin as follows: -“The incredible duration of preliminary detention, -the disgusting circumstances of daily life; -the congregation of hundreds of prisoners into -small dirty chambers; the flagrant immorality of -a corps of jailers who are practically omnipotent, -whose whole function is to terrorise and oppress; -the want of labour and the total absence of all that -contributes to the moral welfare of man; the cynical -contempt for human dignity and the physical -degradation of prisoners—these are the elements -of prison life in Russia.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another writer of more recent date, Carl Joubert, -whose works on Russia have been widely read, -says, “I am aware that in no part of the world -is the lot of a prisoner a happy one. It is not intended -that it should be; but in civilised countries -they are, at least, given the opportunity of keeping -themselves clean and decent. They are treated as -human beings and their health is considered; but -in Russia it is different. The prisoners in Russia, -whether before or after the trial—and a great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>many of the political prisoners have no trial—the -Russian prisoners are considered beasts, and treated -accordingly. The warders know what is expected -of them; and if a warder shows any glimmering -of humanity in his treatment of the prisoners committed -to his charge, his services are dispensed with -and a stronger-hearted warder takes his place.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“I said that Russian prisoners have no sex; but -I must qualify that statement. In so far as the -normal treatment of the women is concerned, they -are separated from the men, but no other distinction -is made. If they are young and attractive, however, -their sex can procure for them, and worse still, -for those who are dear to them, a certain amount -of consideration from those in authority over them -on the road to Siberia.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The penalties inflicted by the Russian code may -be classed under four heads. The first is hard -labour with the loss of civil rights, so that the convict’s -property passes to his heirs; he is dead in -law, and his wife may marry another; he endures -his term either after deportation to Siberia, or in -one of the “central prisons” which have been built -on purpose in European Russia, and where he -spends a third or fourth of his entire sentence, until -he goes finally to Siberia or Saghalien as a penal -colonist. These central prisons were created to -substitute a more regular and more severe treatment -than was possible at a distance from home, -and the aim was achieved. According to the best -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>authorities, the central prisons are practically “hells -upon earth.” “The horrors of hard labour in -Siberia,” says Peter Kropotkin, “have paled before -them, and all those who have had experience of -them are unanimous in declaring that the day a -prisoner starts for Siberia is the happiest in his -life.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A few specific details may be quoted about one -or two of these prisons. In that of Kharkov, in -Little Russia, at one time two hundred of the five -hundred inmates died of scurvy in the course of -four months. In the Byelogorod prison, nearly -half of a total of three hundred and thirty prisoners -died within a year, and forty-five more in the following -six months. At Kiev the scourge of typhus -was endemic. In one month in the year 1881 the -deaths were counted by hundreds and the places of -those who died were promptly filled by others similarly -doomed. All the rooms occupied were very -damp, the walls sweating with moisture, the floor -rotten in many places, the cesspools overflowing and -the neighbouring ground saturated. The epidemics -were officially explained and the causes acknowledged -by the chief board of prisons. It was urged -that although the prison was dreadfully overcrowded, -there was plenty of room elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The chief prison in St. Petersburg at one time -was the Litovski Zamok, and it was credited with -being kept clean, but the buildings, old-fashioned, -dark and damp, were only fit to be levelled to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>ground. A newer prison is the House of Preliminary -Detention which is ambitiously designated as -the “model,” and which was built on the plan of -modern prisons in Belgium and at an immense cost. -Kropotkin characterises it as the only clean gaol -for ordinary prisoners in Russia. Cleanliness in -it amounts to a craze; the scrubbing brush is never -idle; broom and pail are used with demoniacal activity. -Particles of asphalt dust from the floor continually -load the atmosphere and make breathing -difficult. The three upper stories are infected by -the exhalations from the lower, and the ventilation -is so abominably bad that at night when the doors -are shut the interior of the cells is suffocating. -Endeavours to remedy this have ended in a recommendation -to rebuild the prison entirely as nothing -less will serve. The cells are large enough, ten -feet in length by five feet wide, and it is yet essential -to keep the traps in the door constantly open -to prevent asphyxiation.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Strict individual separation was the rule established -in this St. Petersburg House of Detention, -and it extended to both cells and exercising yards. -The space allotted to the latter was circular in shape -and was divided into segments by walls radiating -from a common centre to the circumference. Each -inmate walked to and fro singly in his own compartment, -under the surveillance of an official standing -on a raised platform in the centre. Nothing -was visible from within the partition but the backs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>of the lofty prison buildings topped with a narrow -strip of sky.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The rule of cellular isolation was defeated, however, -by the ancient prison device of rapping on the -walls according to a conventional alphabet based -upon a fixed number of blows for each letter. The -letters are arranged in certain groups as follows:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c014'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>a b c d e f</div> - <div class='line'>g h i k l m</div> - <div class='line'>n o p r s t</div> - <div class='line'>u v w x y z</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Words are composed by knocking so many times -on the wall for each letter. First, the horizontal -line on which the letter stands is counted and its -place numbered on the vertical line. Thus to frame -the word “you,” the first signal for “y” would -be four knocks, indicating the vertical line; then a -pause and five taps to give the place on the horizontal -line. Three taps followed after a short -pause by two taps would form the letter “o,” and -four short taps with one final tap after a pause -would fix the letter “u.” These sounds are not -only distinguishable in cells alongside each other -but in those far distant if the wall is the same. -Communications by this means passed continually, -although the system was abhorrent to the authorities -and severe punishments were imposed upon all -caught in the act.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Punishments were the only break in the monotony -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>of this dull solitary life, and they were varied -and ingenious. A prisoner guilty of minor offences, -such as smoking or the secreting of a match or a -morsel of bread saved from a meal, might be condemned -to kneel for a couple of hours on the bare -flags of a freezingly cold thoroughfare, or be cast -into a dark cell, originally intended for cases of -ophthalmia, and kept there for months, frequently -until he became blind or mad or both. Cruelty was -of common occurrence in this House of Detention. -It was here that General Trepov ordered a prisoner -Bogolubov to be flogged for not removing his hat -when he came into the great man’s presence, and -punished others who protested by confining them -in cells near the lavatory amidst all kinds of filth, -and heated to a temperature of 110 degrees Fahrenheit.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The personal experiences of an officer who spent -a long time in a prison near St. Petersburg were -afterward published in a liberal journal. “In the -evening,” he reports, “the governor went his -rounds and usually began his favourite occupation—flogging. -A very narrow bench was brought out -and soon the place resounded with shrieks, while -the governor smoked a cigar and looked on, counting -the lashes. The birch rods were of exceptional -size, and when not in use were kept immersed in -water to make them more pliant. After the tenth -lash the shrieking ceased, and nothing was heard -but groans. Flogging was usually applied on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>groups of five or ten men or more at one time, and -when the execution was over a great pool of blood -remained to mark the spot. People in the street -without would cross themselves and pass to the -other side. After every such scene we had two or -three days of comparative peace; for the flogging -had a soothing effect on the governor’s nerves.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>“On one occasion,” says the same writer, “we -were visited by an inspector of prisons. After casting -a look down at us, he asked if our food was -good or if there was anything else of which we -could complain. Not only did the inmates declare -that they were completely satisfied; they even enumerated -articles of diet which we had never so -much as smelled.” The food here and elsewhere -was neither plentiful nor palatable. “It consisted -of a quarter of a pound of black bread for breakfast; -and a soup made of bull’s heart or liver, or of seven -pounds of meat, twenty pounds of waste oats, -twenty pounds of sour cabbage and plenty of -water.” The daily sum allowed to cover cost was -one penny, three farthings, not a great deal when -officials expected to embezzle a substantial part.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Leo Deutsch, an important political prisoner, says -that his daily ration of black bread was two pounds, -with a dinner at midday of two dishes, not bad, -but insufficient and always half cold, as the kitchen -was far away. This was in the fortress of St. Peter -and St. Paul. At the “Butirki”—this was the -popular name for the central prison of Moscow—the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>food, he says, “was beneath criticism; even -the most robust at their hungriest could scarcely -swallow a spoonful of the repulsive malodorous -broth in wooden bowls brought to our cells at midday. -This is explained by the fact that the sum -originally provided by government for our maintenance -was extremely small; and on its way -through to us a great part of it found its way into -the bottomless pockets of officials great and small, -among whom there is an organised system of general -peculation. The big cauldrons used for cooking -the food of several thousand prisoners were -filled up with the worst materials that were procurable.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>George Kennan in his “Siberia” tells us he -tasted the soup in the kitchen of the Tiumen, or -forwarding prison, and “found it nutritious and -good.” The bread was rather sour and heavy, but -not worse than that prepared and eaten by Russian -peasants generally. The daily ration of the prisoners -consisted of two and a half pounds of this -black bread, about six ounces of boiled meat, and -two or three ounces of coarsely ground barley or -oats with a bowl of <em>kvas</em> morning and evening for -drink.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Carl Joubert says, “I inspected the rations in the -prison at Tomsk. The soup stank with the odour -of a soap factory. I asked for a piece of bread -from a warder, and when I had examined it I called -for a bowl of warm water. I put the bread to soak -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>in the water, and in a couple of minutes I handed -the wooden bowl to Dr. Anatovich, and asked him -to look at it. ‘Why should I examine it?’ he asked. -But a moment later I heard him exclaim: ‘My -God! My God!’ The surface of the water was -covered with worms.” The soup at the infamous -prison fortress of the Schlüsselburg often contained -cockroaches floating on the surface, and the director -thus explained their presence to a complainant: -Whenever the copper lid is lifted, the steam -rises to the ceiling and dislodges the cockroaches -which fall into the soup.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Various attempts have been made to bring the -Russian prisons into line with the more modern -development of penal principles, but they have never -been carried out consistently nor resulted in marked -reforms. A good deal of money has been spent in -constructing new buildings on the most approved -plans, and the favourite theory in vogue, that of -cellular confinement, has been adopted to a limited -extent. Such enormous numbers have to be dealt -with, and over such a wide area, that no comprehensive -uniform system could possibly be introduced -to meet even a fraction of the demand. But -a certain number of cellular prisons were provided, -seemingly with the idea of intensifying the pains -and penalties of imprisonment.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The prison at Kharkov was one of the worst of -its class; the cells were dark and damp, and the -régime of solitary confinement was unduly prolonged. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>The most terrible sufferings were endured -by the political prisoners who were chiefly lodged -in them, until special prisons were appropriated for -them, such as those of St. Peter and St. Paul and -the Schlüsselburg. At Kharkov a “hunger strike” -was organised, the fixed resolve to abstain altogether -from food—a form of protest common -enough in Russian prisons until a remedy was applied -to their grievances. Concessions were then -made to the extent of permitting exercise in the -open air, removing fetters from the limbs of the -sick in hospital and giving daily employment, but -not before disastrous results had shown themselves. -Six of the political prisoners went out of their -minds and several died.</p> - -<p class='c013'>During the time that the Kharkov prison was -used for this class of offenders, it was the scene -of some startling events. Several escapes and attempts -at rescue occurred. The case of Hypolyte -Myshkin, a determined and most courageous man, -was remarkable and deserving of more success. -Myshkin was lodged at Kharkov in a small cell on -the lower story, which had once been occupied -by Prince Tsitianov, a distinguished revolutionist. -He concentrated all his energies upon contriving -escape, and within the first year had manufactured -a dummy figure to lie on the guard-bed in his place, -and proceeded to excavate a tunnel beneath the -prison wall. He had no implements except his -hands and a small piece of board, but he dug deep -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>and far, disposing of the earth by packing it into -a space between the floor of his cell and the ground. -He had also made a suit of clothes to substitute for -the prison uniform when at large. The material -used for this purpose was obtained from a number -of old maps, given to the former occupant of the -cell and which had been left lying on the stove. -Myshkin soaked the paper off the muslin on which -it was mounted, and made a shirt and a pair of -trousers. He was actually on the point of departure, -when, unfortunately, a gaoler visited his cell -at an unusual hour. He was down in his tunnel, -and the dummy betrayed him. The alarm was -raised, the other end of the tunnel was entered, and -the fugitive was caught in a trap. He was transferred -to another cell from which there was no -prospect of escape.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Myshkin, hopeless and reckless, now sought freedom -in death. Resolving to commit an offence -which would entail capital punishment, he obtained -leave to attend divine service at the prison church, -and managed to get close to the governor, whom -he struck in the face when in the act of kissing the -cross in the hands of the officiating priest. Under -ordinary conditions, trial and condemnation to -death would follow, but just at this time the distressing -state of affairs at Kharkov had caused so -much uneasiness that the Minister of the Interior -had sent a sanitary expert to report upon the conditions -which had produced so much lunacy and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>so many deaths. Professor Dobroslavin pronounced -the place unfit for human habitation, and -urged the immediate removal of all political convicts. -It was no doubt supposed that Myshkin -was of unsound mind when he struck the governor, -and he was not even tried for the offence, but -shortly afterward was despatched to the far-off -silver mines of Kara.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Myshkin’s antecedents and his ultimate fate are -of interest. He was a young student at the Technological -Institute of St. Petersburg in 1870, when, -fired by the ardent spirit of the new revolutionists, -he conceived a bold project to effect the escape of -the well-known author and political writer, Chernyshevski, -at that time in Siberian exile. After spending -some time in the old Alexandrovski central -prison near Irkutsk, the prisoner was presently interned -under police surveillance in Villuisk, a small -village in the subarctic province of Yakutsk. Myshkin -planned to travel across Asia disguised as a -captain of gendarmerie, present a forged order to -the head of the police at Villuisk, desiring him to -hand over Chernyshevski to the sham captain, who -was to escort him to another place on the Amur -river. Myshkin got safely to Irkutsk, where he -was employed in the office of the gendarmerie and -became greatly trusted. He had the freedom of -the office and cleverly abstracted the necessary blank -forms, forged the signatures, affixed the seals, got -his uniform, and, thus provided with all proper credentials, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>appeared before the <em>ispravnik</em>, or local -chief of police, at Villuisk, who received him with -all deference and respect. Myshkin was a man of -fine presence, eloquent and well spoken, and when -he produced his order he was within an ace of success.</p> - -<p class='c013'>But there was a weak point in the plot. It was -quite unusual for officers of rank to travel without -escort, and Myshkin had not had sufficient funds -to take with him confederates disguised as soldiers -or gensdarmes. The <em>ispravnik</em> grew suspicious, -the more so as the exile Chernyshevski was an -important political offender, and he hesitated to -surrender him without seeing his way more clearly. -He told Myshkin that he must have the authority -of the governor to set his exile free. Myshkin, unabashed, -offered to go in person to seek the governor’s -consent, and he set off for Yakutsk, attended -by a complimentary escort of Cossacks. -The <em>ispravnik</em> astutely sent another Cossack to pass -them on the road with a letter of advice for the -governor. The messenger caught up with the first -party and made no secret of his mission.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The game was up, and Myshkin, in despair, -made a bolt for the woods. The Cossacks promptly -gave chase, but Myshkin drew his revolver, beat -off his pursuers and succeeded in getting away. -He wandered through the forests for a week, and -was at last captured, half dead from cold and privation. -He was lodged first in the prison of Irkutsk -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>and then brought to St. Petersburg, where -he was thrown into the fortress of St. Peter and -St. Paul, and he lay there for three years in a solitary -cell awaiting trial. He was kept in the Trubetzkoi -Bastion, near a prisoner whom Mr. Kennan -afterward met in Siberia and who described his -neighbour’s sufferings feelingly. “Myshkin,” he -said, “was often delirious from fever, excitement -or the maddening effect of long solitary confinement, -and I frequently heard his cries when he was -put into a strait-jacket or strapped to his bed by -the fortress guard.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Myshkin’s trial caused a great sensation. The -government had refused to allow the proceedings -to be taken down in shorthand, and the prisoner -declined to make any defence; he made a fiery -speech, however, denouncing the secrecy of the trial -and declaring that the public ought to hear the -whole case through the press. He was ordered out -of court, and being removed by force, his last -words, half stifled, were: “This court is worse -than a house of ill-fame; there they sell only bodies, -but here you prostitute honour, justice and -law.” This insult aggravated the original offence, -and the court increased his sentence to ten years’ -penal servitude with forfeiture of all civil rights.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Myshkin was a born orator, but by his own -admission he lived to regret his eloquence. When -on his long journey to Eastern Siberia, one of his -comrades died at Irkutsk, and he was moved to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>make a brief oration at the funeral. He spoke out -in church, eulogising the high moral character of -the deceased, and declaring that “out of the ashes -of this heroic man and others like him will grow -the tree of liberty for Russia.” Here the police -interfered; Myshkin was dragged out of church -and sentenced later to an additional fifteen years’ -penal servitude. So it was said of him that he -never made but two speeches in his life, one of -which cost him ten and the other fifteen years of -imprisonment. Myshkin regretted the second -speech, which, he said, would do no good, as the -world could not hear; it was the mere gratification -of a personal impulse, and it added so many years -to his detention, that, even if he lived to emerge -from exile, he would be too aged to work effectively -in the cause of Russian freedom.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Myshkin afterward escaped from Kara, when a -more rigorous régime had been introduced by -Count Loris Melikov, and permission to work in -the open air had been withdrawn. One prisoner, -Semyonovski, driven to desperation, committed suicide, -and several condemned to long terms made up -their minds to break prison. Myshkin and a comrade -were the first to go; a second and a third pair -followed; a fourth couple were caught in the act, -and the authorities, spurred on to extreme activity -by the presence at Kara of the head of the prison -department, recaptured six of the fugitives. Myshkin -succeeded in reaching Vladivostok, and was on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>the point of embarking on board a foreign ship -when he was recognised and retaken.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Myshkin and thirteen others who were deemed -dangerous were sent back to St. Petersburg in -1883, where they were lodged at first in the fortress -of St. Peter and St. Paul and then in the “stone -bags” of the fortress of Schlüsselburg. The dread -of insanity from a new term of solitary confinement -drove Myshkin to repeat the same tactics as at -Kharkov. He struck one of the officers, and found -more prompt retaliation this time, for he was tried -by court-martial and shot.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another striking incident occurred at the Kharkov -prison. Two prisoners on their way there were -nearly rescued by an attack on the prison van. One -of the guards was shot, and the release would have -been effected had not the horses taken fright and -stampeded, which led to their recapture. The attack -was made by a number of mounted men, -armed, and one of these, Alexei Medvediev, also -called Fomin, was afterward caught in Kharkov -station. He was committed to the gaol, but managed -to escape with a party of ordinary criminals -by burrowing under a wall. They did not get farther -than a wood near-by when they were recaptured. -Medvediev’s friends arranged a plan to set -him free again. Two of them, disguised as gensdarmes, -brought a forged order to the prison gate -calling for the prisoner, who was to be escorted, -they said, to the gendarmerie office for examination. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>The false gensdarmes were detected and -taken into custody, sent for trial and condemned -to death. The sentence was afterward commuted -to penal servitude for life, and they were sent to -Kara. Medvediev was treated after the same fashion, -but he was detained in various prisons of Western -Siberia, closely guarded, and was at last returned -to the Alexis Ravelin in the fortress of St. -Peter and St. Paul for five or six years. He is -described by a comrade—Leo Deutsch—as “a -man of consummate bravery who literally despised -danger, and was always ready to embark on the -most terrible adventure. He had been a postilion -and had received only a scanty education at an -elementary school, but by his own exertions he had -gained a respectable amount of knowledge.... -At Kara he became an adept in various handicrafts; -he was an excellent tailor, shoemaker, engraver and -sculptor, and afterward, when he was living as a -free exile, he became a watchmaker and goldsmith. -Unfortunately, soon after he left the prison he fell -a victim to alcoholism, to which he had an inherited -predisposition; all attempts at reclaiming him were -vain, and in a few years he was beyond hope.”</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER II <br /> TWO FAMOUS FORTRESSES</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul—Political prisoners -confined within its walls from an early date—Used by -Peter the Great—The imprisonment of the author, Chernyshevski—Dmitri -Pisarev—The Trubetzkoi Bastion—Kropotkin’s -account of the prison—Leo Deutsch’s experiences -there—The sad case of Netchaiev—Probability that he -was flogged to death—Severity of the régime of the Alexis -Ravelin—The fate of prisoners confined in Schlüsselburg -unknown—The prison of Kiev—Leo Deutsch confined -there—Succeeds in making his escape—Other escapes—Prison -of Moscow—General depot for exiles about to -embark for Siberia—Account of the journey to Siberia by -train—Kindliness shown by the peasants—Food and gifts -of clothing brought to the train for the exiles—The Red -Cross League—The exiles’ begging song—Treatment of -the “politicals”—Dastievich and the governor—Women -revolutionists.</p> - -<p class='c012'>The government of the Czar was not slow to -avail itself of the coercive means afforded by cellular -confinement, and to use them especially against -political offenders. At first these prisoners were -distributed among the common criminal prisons -such as that of Kharkov, and located, where the -accommodation existed, in “secret” or solitary -confinement cells. According to George Kennan, -the secret cells in Siberian prisons were intended -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>for persons accused of murder and other capital -crimes. They had neither beds nor sleeping platforms -and contained no furniture. Their occupants -slept without pillows or bed clothing on the cold -cement or stone floor, and during the day they had -either to sit or lie on this floor, or to stand.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The politicals at Kara in Eastern Siberia lived -under “dungeon conditions,” absolutely apart, -breathing foul air continually, starving on bad and -insufficient food and completely deprived of exercise. -The need for separate prisons nearer home -led presently to the adaptation of existing fortresses -in or close to St. Petersburg, such as the St. Peter -and St. Paul on the banks of the Neva, and the -Schlüsselburg or “Castle of Stone-bags” on an -island in Lake Ladoga, whose waters lap the base -of its walls. The records of these formidable places -of durance are made up of human suffering.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The first named, the “Petropaolovskaya,” is -never mentioned by Russians without a shudder. -It is stained indelibly with the imprint of appalling -cruelty and savage ill-treatment. Its grim, gray -bastions crouch low, flush with the water’s edge, -opposite the imperial palace, and in full view of -the great city. Within its extensive perimeter are -included several fine buildings; the mint, the cathedral, -the burial place of the reigning dynasty, -military barracks and well filled arsenals, while the -ordinary street traffic passes through it in the day -time.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>From its earliest days this fortress was the scene -of murderous and cruel atrocities. Peter the Great -used it recklessly when imposing his will upon the -enslaved people; torture, the lash, horrible mutilations -and death were continually inflicted within -its gloomy walls. Peter is said to have executed -his only son Alexis in this fortress. Defeated conspirators -against autocracy constantly languished -in its deep sunken dungeons or were thrown into -the Neva from its battlements. Generations of unsuccessful -revolutionists, during reign after reign, -have eaten out their hearts here in lifelong imprisonment. -Many of the “Dekabrists,” mostly nobles -who rose against the Czar Nicholas in 1826, -lingered in one of its cells for twelve years. Since -then, numbers of hapless people, defeated in their -vain efforts to compass freedom and liberal institutions -for their country, have been imprisoned, neglected -and forgotten in the fortress of St. Peter -and St. Paul.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The fortifications of St. Peter and St. Paul cover -an extent of three hundred acres. It is a five-sided -or pentagonal work, constructed on the old-fashioned -plan of Vauban, having six conventional -bastions and two salient ravelins, one on the eastern -and the other on the western front. To the northward, -on the far side of the Neva, leading away -from the city and partly overlooking the zoological -gardens, is a crown work or hornwork of red brick -built by Nicholas I. Various parts of the fortress -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>have been appropriated for prison purposes. One -of the most famous was the so-called “Courtine” -of Catherine, connecting the south and west bastions, -facing the Neva; the bastion on the west -being known as the Trubetzkoi. This also became -a famous prison, for when completed and opened, -being newer, more spacious and safer, it largely -replaced the Courtine, now no more than a place -of detention for officers under arrest for breaches -of discipline.</p> - -<div class='illo'> - -<div id='i038' class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i_038fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><em>The Fortress of Peter and Paul</em>,</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c013'><span class='small'>The famous fortress of “Peter and Paul” is stained indelibly -with the imprint of appalling cruelty and savage ill-treatment. -Its grim, gray walls rise opposite the Imperial Palace -in St. Petersburg. Within the enclosure are several fine -buildings, including the burial place of the Czars. In the daytime -ordinary street traffic passes through it. Peter the Great -is said to have executed his only son, Alexis, in this fortress, -after torture. Many noted conspirators against the government -of the Czar have languished in its deep sunken dungeons -or have been thrown into the river Neva from its battlements.</span></p> - -</div> - -<p class='c013'>Some notable prisoners have been lodged in the -Courtine of Catherine. Chernyshevski wrote his -novel “What is to be done?” in one of its cells,—a -book which had potent, widespread influence over -the youth of Russia, and which greatly developed -the usefulness of women in the revolutionary propaganda -by raising their status. He is the gifted -writer who inspired the chivalrous attempt of the -student Myshkin to effect his release, as already -described. Another inmate of prominent literary -attainments was Dmitri Pisarev, who devoted himself -while imprisoned to writing his remarkable -analysis of Darwin’s “Origin of Species.” He -was confined without even the form of trial, and -was held a close prisoner until his mental powers -waned. Soliviov was the last “political” immured -in the Courtine, but individuals have been sent there -from the Trubetzkoi Bastion when special isolation -was deemed necessary. One, Saburev, was removed -to one of its cells, where he was stupefied with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>drugs so that he might be photographed while insensible.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The best account of the Trubetzkoi Bastion and -its prison is to be found in Count Kropotkin’s book, -“In Russian and French Prisons.” He spent more -than two years there after 1873. The prison was -in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>reduit</em></span>, an inner building of vaulted casements -conforming to the five sides of the main -bastion and constructed within to serve as a second -line of defence. One side was taken up by the -quarters of the governor of the fortress, and two -sides were occupied by cells on two stories. These -cells were spacious enough for a gun of large calibre; -they were not light, for the windows opened -upon the interior enclosure, and the high wall of -the outer bastion faced the windows at a distance -of fifteen or twenty feet. In St. Petersburg the -sky is often overcast, but Kropotkin was able to -write his book on the Glacial period in his cell, and -to prepare his maps and plans on especially bright -days. A lining of felt covered the cell walls, at -a distance of five inches, intended to prevent communication -by knocking, which nevertheless frequently -took place.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The cells in this prison were heated from the corridor -outside by large stoves, and the temperature -was kept high to prevent the exudation of moisture -on the walls. It was necessary to close the stove -doors very soon and while the coal was blazing, -with the result that asphyxiating gases were generated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>and the inmates ran the risk of being suffocated. -An idea prevailed that the authorities -purposely caused these mephitic gases to enter the -cells so that the prisoners might be poisoned, but -this was an exaggeration with no foundation in -fact. The food at one time was good, but Kropotkin -says that it deteriorated, and no provisions -were permitted to be brought in from outside except -the Christmas and Eastertide doles of white -bread, charitably given by compassionate merchants. -Books, if approved, might be received -from relatives, and there was a small prison library. -Out-of-door exercise was allowed daily -from half an hour to forty minutes, but in the -short daylight of the northern winter it was limited -to twenty minutes twice a week.</p> - -<p class='c013'>On the whole, detention in the Trubetzkoi Bastion -was not, according to Kropotkin, “exceedingly -bad, although always hard.” One of its -worst features was the unduly prolonged solitary -confinement, which was extended to two or three -years, far beyond the limit ordinarily prescribed in -modern civilised countries. Another terrible infliction -was the dead silence compelled. “Not a -word is heard,” wrote Leo Deutsch, “the silence -is intense. No one could imagine that men live -here year after year. Only the chimes of the clock -upon the ear, sound out every quarter of an hour -the national hymn, ‘How glorious is our Lord -in Zion.’” As to this, Kropotkin says, “The cacophony -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of the discordant bells is horrible during -rapid changes of temperature, and I do not wonder -that nervous people consider these bells as one of -the plagues of the fortress.” The same writer -bears witness to the taciturnity of the officials. “If -you address a word to the warder who brings you -your clothes for walking in the yard, if you ask -him what the weather is, he never answers. The -only human being with whom I exchanged a few -words every morning was the colonel (governor) -who came to write down what I wanted to buy: -tobacco or paper. But he never dared to enter into -conversation, as he himself was always watched -by some of the warders.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The fortress contained other prisons far worse -than that of the bastion. There was the Trubetzkoi -Ravelin to the west of it, the cells in which are -so dark that candles are burned in them for twenty-two -hours out of the twenty-four. Their walls -were literally dripping with moisture and there -were pools of water on the floor. An account of -the sufferings of some who were concerned in the -“Trial of the Sixteen,” whose death sentences had -been commuted to imprisonment in the ravelin, -was published in the <cite>Narodnaya Volya</cite>. “Not only -books were prohibited, but everything that might -help to occupy the attention. Zubkovski made geometrical -figures with his bread to practise geometry, -and they were immediately removed by the gaoler, -who said that hard-labour prisoners were not permitted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>to amuse themselves.” Of those whose sentences -were commuted one became consumptive and -another was attacked with scurvy and brought to -death’s door. Two of the five condemned to hard -labour in the same fortress went mad, and one -attempted to commit suicide.</p> - -<p class='c013'>One of a party transferred to the Moscow prison -was so helpless from scorbutic wounds that he -was carried out of the cellular wagon in a hand-barrow. -Two fainted as soon as they were taken -into the open air. Tatiana Lebedieva had been -sentenced to twenty years’ hard labour. “But,” -says the medical report, “she cannot live so long. -Scurvy has destroyed all her gums; the jaws are -visible beneath; she is moreover in an advanced -stage of consumption.” Another, a mother, was -nursing her eighteen months’ old baby, and every -minute it seemed the child must die in her arms. -As for herself, she did not suffer much, either physically -or morally.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Regarding the Alexis Ravelin on the eastern -front, no very authentic details are forthcoming, -but it is said to contain underground cells as bad -as any <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>oubliettes</em></span> in the dark ages. The only proof -of their existence is to be found in the fact that a -number of soldiers of the garrison were tried by -court-martial for having conducted a clandestine -correspondence for some of the prisoners, carrying -out letters for them and smuggling in newspapers, -money and other prohibited articles. The prisoners -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>concerned were nameless. The inevitable fate of -those committed to the Alexis Ravelin was to lose -their identity; they were forgotten and became -mere numbers, only distinguished by the numerals -of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>oubliettes</em></span> they occupied. This happened to -one, Netchaiev, who killed a spy at Moscow and -fled to Switzerland, from where he was extradited -by the authorities of a free country, but on condition -that he should be tried as a common-law prisoner. -Netchaiev absolutely disappeared after he -was tried at Moscow and sentenced to hard labour. -There is no record of his incarceration in any central -prison or of his departure for Siberia. It is -nearly certain that he was lost to all knowledge in -some hidden depth of the Schlüsselburg fortress.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Netchaiev was treated with great inhumanity. -Overtures had been made to him by General Potapov -to turn informer, and so insultingly that the -prisoner struck the general in the face. For this -he was flogged terribly, chained hand and foot and -riveted to the cell wall. He managed to appeal -direct to the Czar, Alexander II, in a letter written -with his own finger nail and in his own blood; -a modest letter stating the facts of his imprisonment, -and asking if they were really known to the -emperor and met with his sanction. This letter was -entrusted to some one working under his window, -but it was intercepted and the ultimate fate of the -prisoner was never positively known. It was said -that he had died of a second flogging, and posthumous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>letters attributed to him were published in the -year 1883.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The régime of the Alexis Ravelin was brutally -severe. Exercise was forbidden, the windows of -the cells were boarded up, and the hot-air openings -of the stove were closed, so that consumption rapidly -developed in the feeble frames of the prisoners. -It was fatal to one young man, Shirayev, whose -crime was too free comment upon the state of affairs. -He had dared to prophesy a time when the -Czar would no more govern, and power would be -held by popular representatives. Another, Shevich, -an officer of the military academy, went mad in -the Alexis Ravelin, to which he was committed for -having left the ranks and improperly addressing -Alexander III on the occasion of an imperial parade.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Despite the elaborate precautions taken, and the -strict rules prescribed, the secrecy of the Alexis -Ravelin could not be kept inviolate. The government -hoped that the silence of the grave might close -over its captives. But too many travelled the sad -road, and news came back from some. Letters -penetrated the thick walls; the inmates found sympathy -with their gaolers, who would not remain -invariably mute. Some more effectual tomb for the -living must be devised, and a large sum (150,000 -rubles) was forthwith expended upon the enlargement -and improvement, from a disciplinary point -of view, of the ancient castle of Schlüsselburg, once -the favourite prison of Paul I.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>This new prison became available in 1884, and -was to be the receptacle for the most dangerous and -influential politicals. It was freely admitted by the -authorities that the very harshest régime would -prevail there: close confinement, scanty diet and -entire absence of all that makes life endurable,—books, -correspondence, the visits of relatives and -friends. Above all, when the gates closed on a new -arrival in the Schlüsselburg, hope died within him. -Lifelong imprisonment was before him; there was -no release this side of the grave. Few who enter -the prison are ever set free again. The inmates -are buried alive, suffering perpetual martyrdom.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was here that the “humane” Peter the Great -imprisoned his first wife, the unhappy Evdokia. He -had forced her to enter a convent as he had become -tired of her. Young and beautiful, she rebelled -against the life of a working nun, and when, a few -years later, a young army officer was detailed to inspect -the convent, they fell in love with each other. -When Peter heard of this, he had the officer impaled -on a stake, and at the instigation of his new wife, -the empress Catherine, Evdokia was thrust into the -Schlüsselburg. The stone tower which she occupied -and where she died is still known as the “Czarina’s -Bower.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>In a cell underneath this stone tower, the great -Polish patriot Valerian Lukasinski spent the greater -part of the thirty-seven years of his imprisonment in -the fortress. He had previously been immured in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>Polish prison for nine years, so that he endured a -continuous imprisonment of forty-six years, and -died in the Schlüsselburg at the age of eighty-two.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The castle of Schlüsselburg figured in the war -with Charles XII when Peter the Great took it from -the Swedes in 1702. It stands just where the Neva -issues from Lake Ladoga, a bare fortress on a -lonely island. A small, desolate town surrounds it, -whose sparse inhabitants are easily kept under surveillance, -and access to the castle is impossible for -any but those authorised or permitted by the police.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The political prison was emptied in 1905; the -prisoners were freed, and the building was thrown -open to the public for inspection. It was supposed -this would end the gruesome history of the fortress -as a prison, but just one year later, after the triumph -of the reactionists, it was again put to use -as a place of durance, and instead of the few veteran -politicals who were liberated in 1905, three hundred -revolutionists were crowded into the prison under -fearful conditions.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A French publicist, M. Eugene Petit, a member -of the bar, seems to have visited the prison, and his -report appeared in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Revue Penitentiare</cite></span> of July, -1906.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The government has always chosen to send whom -it pleases to this state prison and to subject them -to such treatment as it pleases, usually of the most -arbitrary and rigorous kind. The leading idea is -absolute isolation in cells of limited dimensions, nine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>feet by seven feet. The furniture is of the conventional -kind; an iron flap, fastened to the wall when -not in use, supplies the bed, but cannot be let down -except between eight o’clock in the evening and six -in the morning, and at other times rest can only be -obtained by lying on the floor. A petroleum lamp -lights the cells while darkness lasts, which in winter -is for eighteen hours out of the twenty-four, and -this has a very injurious effect on the eyesight besides -vitiating the air; the windows are high and -glazed with opaque glass. The prisoner is kept constantly -under observation through the “judas” or -inspection plate in the door, and a warder in slippered -feet comes to look through every five minutes. -The dietary is characterised as detestable and quite -insufficient. The early morning meal consists of cabbage -soup, <em>shchi</em>, and <em>kasha</em>, a kind of porridge, -with black bread often full of worms.</p> - -<p class='c013'>To complete isolation is added deadly silence and -unbroken idleness. Not a word is uttered anywhere -in the neighbourhood of a prisoner; the warders -never speak to them, but issue orders by signs and -gestures. Books are withheld until after a long -period of confinement and when the mind is failing, -and then only devotional works are allowed. -Brief exercise in the open air is conceded after -about the same lapse of time, first for a quarter of -an hour, then half an hour, and when over, a warder -carefully brushes away the footsteps lest it might -be imagined they had been made by a friend. Employment -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>is also given as a great favour,—permission -to remove a little sand from a heap, which -the next prisoner shovels back to the old place.</p> - -<p class='c013'>All communication from without or within is -peremptorily forbidden. No news of the day comes -in; no report of the condition of prisoners filters -out. Konachevich’s father died after years of fruitless -inquiry, without hearing where his son was or -whether he was still alive. A prisoner, Polivanov, -left the prison in 1902 to hear that his father had -died thirteen years before. It was not until 1896, -that a prisoner, when he died in hospital, was allowed -to have a single friend or comrade at his -bedside. He was quite alone. Every sort of humiliation -was inflicted upon him. He was never permitted -to use the familiar address “thou” to his -warders, although they spoke to him in that way -in the second person and he must not resent it.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A retired military officer named Lagovskoi was -shut up in Schlüsselburg in 1885 by “administrative -process,” without trial, and sentenced for five -years, which was prolonged for another five years, -still without trial. For having dared to address the -governor with the familiar “thou,” he was confined -in a strait-jacket and his legs were tied together; -then they gagged him, and holding him just a yard -above the ground dropped him repeatedly till his -head was cut open. The same treatment was administered -to another prisoner, Popov, who was -also gagged and his head banged upon the floor.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>The effect of the imprisonment was seen in its -results. In the six years after 1891, just forty-eight -persons were removed into Schlüsselburg -from the Alexis Ravelin, all of them young and in -sound health at the time. At the end of these six -years, five had committed suicide or had been shot, -three were still retained but were out of their minds, -three had died insane, nine others had died, the -majority of them carried off by consumption. -Twenty out of forty-eight was a large proportion, -and the fact is authenticated by M. Petit, who can -give the names and exact dates.</p> - -<p class='c013'>After the year 1896, the rigours of the régime -were in some measure slackened. Books were allowed, -such as scientific manuals, grammars and -dictionaries for the study of languages, and historical -books of a date previous to the eighteenth -century, but no works of a purely literary character -and no periodicals, reviews or newspapers. Writing -materials were issued, a few sheets during the -daytime, which, with whatever was written thereon, -were withdrawn in the evening. By degrees the -dietary was slightly improved, the period of exercise -was prolonged and the prisoners were occasionally -allowed to work in the garden or in the -carpenter’s shop. Still better, association with a -fellow prisoner for a brief space was conceded twice -a week when at exercise. Later, extracts from the -letters of relatives were read out to the prisoner -once yearly, communicating a brief message such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>as, “We are alive and well and living at such and -such a place.” By and by the prisoners were permitted -to reply no less briefly, but never to state -where they were confined.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Two provincial prisons were much concerned -with political prisoners, those of Kiev and Moscow. -The former was the scene of many tragic episodes, -and fierce conflicts between the revolutionists and -the authorities. Some remarkable escapes were -made from them. The university of Kiev was a -hot-bed of political unrest, and its students were -active and determined conspirators. An independent -spirit was always present in the prison, the -product of past resistance. It was from Kiev that -the well-known Leo Deutsch escaped with two -others in 1878, through the courageous assistance -of a comrade Frolenko, who managed as a free man -to get a false passport and obtain employment as -a warder in the prison. He took the name of -Michael and was in due course appointed to take -charge of the corridor in which his friends Deutsch, -Stefanovich and Bohanovsky were located. They -had pretended to protest against his coming to their -ward so as to disarm suspicion.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Frolenko set to work without loss of time. He -provided disguises, two suits of private clothes and -a warder’s uniform, which the prisoners put on, and -he then released them from their cells. As they -were stumbling along the passage, one of them -tripped against a rope which he caught at and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>pulled frantically. It proved to be the alarm bell -of the prison and caused a deafening noise. The -false “Michael” at once explained to the authorities -what he had done unwittingly, and the disturbance -passed off without further discovery. Again -the fugitives, who had hidden themselves in the -first corners they found, started on their journey -and got out of the prison, where a confederate met -the party and led them to the river and to a boat -stored with provisions which awaited them. They -voyaged along the Dnieper for a whole week, concealing -themselves when necessary in the long -rushes, and at last reached Krementchug, where -they were furnished with passports and money and -successfully passed the frontier. “Michael” went -with them, and it was long supposed by the officials -that he had been made away with by the prison -breakers.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Beverley, a young man of English extraction, -met death when escaping from the Kiev prison. -He had been arrested for living under a false passport -and being active in the revolutionary propaganda -with a comrade Isbitski. He had driven a -tunnel from their cell to a point beyond the prison -walls. The authorities had discovered the tunnel -and had posted a party of soldiers at the exit, -where the fugitives must emerge into the upper -air. As soon as they appeared they were shot -down. Beverley was mortally wounded, and as -he lay on the ground he was despatched by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>repeated bayonet stabs. Isbitski was also struck -down, but was carried back alive after a severe -beating.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Leo Deutsch gives other cases of escape that -proved more successful. A student Ivanov was -helped to freedom by the officer commanding the -guard, Tihonov, who was a member of the <cite>Narodnaya -Volya</cite> society, or the “Will of the People.” -Another prisoner disappeared under the most mysterious -circumstances which were never explained. -But the most important escape was in August, 1902, -when eleven noted prisoners, arrested a short time -before, broke prison in a body. They exercised -every evening in the prison yard which was bounded -on one side by an outer wall overlooking fields and -which was unguarded on the outside. The prisoners -got into the field, taking with them an iron anchor -weighing twenty pounds, and a rope ladder. At a -given moment some of them had fallen upon their -warder, overpowered him, gagged and bound him. -Two others, climbing on each other’s shoulders, -reached the top of the wall, where they pulled up -the anchor, made it fast, and then secured the rope -ladder, which served for the ascent of the prisoners -on one side and their descent on the other. So -much sympathy was felt for them in the town that -they were effectually concealed when at large and -provided with the necessary funds for leaving the -country. Throughout the whole affair no blood -was shed and no one was hurt. Many more escaped -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>from Kiev in a different fashion, passing out -of its walls to the scaffold.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The great central prison of Moscow, locally -known as the “Butirki,” served as a general depot -for ordinary criminals on the point of departure -as exiles about to be transported to Siberia. It is -a vast establishment with accommodation for thousands; -a mighty stone building which looks like a -gigantic well. A great wall with a tower at each -of the four corners encloses it, and the various -classes of politicals were confined in these towers. -In the north tower were the “administrative” exiles; -in the “chapel” tower were those still under -examination, and in another the female prisoners -were kept. All the male political prisoners in Moscow -wore chains and the convict dress. It was a -degrading costume, made the more humiliating by -the method of shaving the right side of the head -and leaving the left side with the hair cut close.</p> - -<p class='c013'>To Leo Deutsch, who was subjected to the prison -barber before leaving Kiev, the ordeal was extremely -painful. He says: “When I saw my own -face in the glass a cold shudder ran down my spine -and I experienced a sensation of personal degradation -to something less than human. I thought of -the days—in Russia, not so long ago—when -criminals were branded with hot irons.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“A convict was waiting ready to fasten on my -fetters. I was placed on a stool and had to put my -foot on an anvil. The blacksmith fitted an iron -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>ring round each ankle, and welded it together. -Every stroke of the hammer made my heart sink, -as I realised that a new existence was beginning for -me.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“The mental depression into which I now fell -was soon accompanied by physical discomfort. The -fetters at first caused me intolerable pain in walking, -and even disturbed my sleep. It also requires considerable -practice before one can easily manage to -dress and undress. The heavy chains—about thirteen -pounds in weight—are not only an encumbrance, -but are very painful, as they chafe the skin -round the ankles; and the leather lining is but little -protection to those unaccustomed to these adornments. -Another great torment is the continual -clinking of the chains. It is indescribably irritating -to the nervous, and reminds the prisoner at every -turn that he is a pariah among his kind, ‘deprived -of all rights.’</p> - -<p class='c013'>“The transformation is completed by the peculiar -convict dress, consisting of a grey gown, made of -special material, and a pair of trousers. Prisoners -condemned to hard labour wear a square piece of -yellow cloth sewn on their gowns. The feet are -clad in leather slippers nicknamed ‘cats.’ All these -articles of clothing are inconvenient, heavy and ill-fitting.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“I hardly knew myself when I looked in the -glass and beheld a fully attired convict. The -thought possessed me, ‘For long years you will -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>have to go about in that hideous disguise.’ Even -the gendarme regarded me with compassion. -‘What won’t they do to a man?’ he said. And I -could only try to comfort myself by thinking how -many unpleasant things one gets used to, and that -time might perhaps accustom me even to this.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A later episode in the experience of Deutsch is -rather amusing. Many of the ordinary prisoners -were in the habit of ridding themselves of their -chains, at first at night and afterward during the -day. The trick was winked at by the warders. -Deutsch called for a nail and a hammer and openly -broke the rivets in the presence of his warders. -“Go and tell the governor what I have done,” he -said, and the offender was haled into the presence -of the great man who indignantly protested, saying -that it was a serious business. “Not at all,” replied -Deutsch, “it should prove to you that I have -no intention of attempting to escape. And you see -I still keep them on tied up with string.” Nothing -more was said for the moment; nor was the barbarous -practice insisted upon when the politicals stoutly -refused to submit to it.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The immunity continued until the time of departure -arrived, when the officer who was to command -the convoy insisted upon the strict observance -of the regulations. Deutsch and his comrades still -refused to comply. They were determined to resist -till the last, and kept together lest they might -be overcome singly. Just as they were to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>marched off, they were told that if they chose to -be examined by the prison doctor, he would excuse -them from travelling on foot. When taken into -his presence, a strong posse of warders fell upon -them and overpowered them by sheer force. One -by one they were dragged into a corner and held -forcibly down on a bench while the barber shaved -half their heads and the blacksmith firmly riveted -the chains.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Dostoyevski, whose “Reminiscences of the Dead -House,” recording his personal experiences of convict -life, are quoted, says that long afterward he -shuddered at the mere thought of the head shaving: -“The prison barbers lathered our skulls with cold -water and scraped us afterward with their sawlike -razors.” Fortunately it was possible to evade the -torture by payment. A fellow convict for one kopeck -would shave anyone with a private razor. -This man was never to be seen without a strop in -his hand on which, night and day, he sharpened his -razor, which was always in admirable condition. -“He was really quite happy when his services were -in request, and he had a very light hand, a hand -of velvet.” He was always known as “the Major,” -no doubt a survival of the old institution of the -barber-surgeon, as military doctors often bear the -rank of major.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There were some compensations for the politicals. -One was the unvarying sympathy they -evoked from the population on the rare occasions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>when they came in contact with them. Kindly folk, -when they could, forced charitable gifts upon them. -When Deutsch and his party took the train at Moscow -for Nizhni-Novgorod, the platform was -crowded with well-wishers, and they started for -Siberia amid the tears and sobs of friends and -relatives, shouting affectionate farewells and joining -in the plaintive melody struck up by the prisoners, -many of whom sang beautifully. At the first -station peasants and workmen came to the carriage -windows unhindered, with humble offerings. One -old woman pressed a kopeck, the smallest copper -coin, upon Deutsch, crying, “Here! Take it in -the Virgin’s name. Take it, take it, my dear.” She -insisted when he protested he did not need it as -much as many others. But he accepted it, and kept -it as a remembrance of the warm-hearted old creature.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was the same all along the road. Everywhere, -as they passed, groups of people waved their hands -with expressive gestures. It was the custom of the -country to show compassion thus for “the children -of misfortune,” the kindly designation of the poorer -classes for all prisoners. Deutsch, with his shaven -head, convict garb and clanking chains, won especial -interest. Many sought to serve him and begged -him to write down any special article he was in need -of and it should be sent after him.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There were societies formed to assist prisoners -with presents of small useful articles when starting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>for their dreary exile. Long before the party left -Moscow, Deutsch and his companions were begged -to make out a list of their requirements, and as they -were fifty in number, and were to be half a year -on the road, the demands on the kindness of their -benefactors were not few. But at any cost and -with much personal inconvenience, all that was -asked for was given. These same friendly societies -came under the officious attentions of the police, -for a list of the members was once seized at a search -of houses, and as they were supposed to belong -to some secret associations with evil aims, they were -immediately classed as a branch of the Red Cross -League of the “People’s Will” organisation. The -most criminal action of the society was that of seeking -to provide political prisoners with old clothes. -Yet a number of arrests of members followed, and -many of these perfectly harmless, well-meaning people -were detained for some time in gaol.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The kindly custom prevails throughout Russia -of sending gifts of food to the prisoners at festival -seasons. The “Easter table” is generally the rule -in Russian cities, when the master keeps open house -and any visitor may enter to be hospitably entertained -with food and drink. The principle is even -carried further and helps to soften the hardships of -the prisoners. At Moscow all manner of good -things were sent in, Deutsch tells us: “Easter cakes, -eggs, hams, poultry, and all that is customary, including -several bottles of light wine and beer, so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>that our Easter table was a magnificent sight. Under -the superintendence of the old governor and his -staff,” he continues, “we spent the evening and half -the night in a merry fashion not often witnessed in -a prison. Songs were sung, there were jokes and -laughter; finally a harmonica appeared, and the -young people began to dance. Yet, despite so much -hearty and unfeigned cheerfulness, not one of us -could forget our real condition; indeed, the very -sight of gaiety brought to the minds of many of us -remembrance of home, where our dear ones were -at this moment celebrating the feast-day, though -with many sad thoughts of the absent.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was the same in far-off Siberia. At Omsk, -where Dostoyevski was confined for four years, -gifts were sent to the prison at Christmastide -in enormous quantities,—loaves of white bread, -scones, rusks, pancakes and pastry of various kinds. -There was not a shopkeeper in the whole town who -did not send something to the “unfortunates.” -Among these gifts were some magnificent ones, -including many cakes of the finest flour, and also -some very poor ones, rolls worth no more than a -couple of kopecks, the offerings of the poor to the -poor, on which a last kopeck had been spent. These -delicacies were divided in equal portions among the -occupants of the various prison barracks, and -caused neither protest or annoyance, as every one -was satisfied.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There were good Samaritans in Siberia who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>spent their lives in giving charitable assistance to -the “unfortunates.” Dostoyevski very rightly calls -their compassion, which is quite disinterested, -“something sacred.” There was a lady in the town -of Omsk who laboured unceasingly to assist all exiles -and especially the convicts in the prison. It -was conjectured that some dear one in her family -had gone through a like punishment, and, in any -case, she spared no effort to offer help and sympathy. -The most she could do was but little, for -she was very poor; “but,” says the author, “we -convicts felt when we were shut up in the prison -that outside we had a devoted friend.” He made -her acquaintance when leaving the town, and with -some of his comrades spent an entire evening at -her house. “She was neither old nor young, -neither pretty nor ugly. It was not easy to guess -whether she was intelligent or high-bred. But in -her actions could be seen infinite compassion, and -an irresistible desire to please, to solace, to be in -some way agreeable. All this could be read in the -sweetness of her smile.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>When her visitors left she gave each of them a -cardboard cigar box of her own making. It was -all but valueless, but the gift was inestimable as a -proof of her desire to be remembered. Dostoyevski -here analyses the theory that a great love for one’s -neighbour is only a form of selfishness, and asks -very pertinently what selfishness could animate such -a nature as this.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>But for the charity of the Siberian peasantry, -the terrible journey of many thousands into exile -could never be accomplished. The government issues -a beggarly allowance in cash, a sum varying -between five and twelve kopecks per head, according -to the locality, out of which the exiles provide their -own food. The prices also vary with the season -and the harvests. This money hardly suffices for -the commonest ration; it will buy at most bread, -a few vegetables and a little tea. Gambling is, however, -such an ingrained vice that many waste all -of their substance daily, and the spendthrifts would -starve but for begging by the road. When a party -passes a village, permission is sought from the convoy -officer to raise the <em>miloserdnaya</em> or “exiles’ -begging song,” and selected convicts go from door -to door, cap in hand, soliciting alms.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This song is inconceivably pathetic. George -Kennan, who often heard it, declares that it resembles -nothing with which he was acquainted. It is -not singing nor chanting, nor like wailing for the -dead, but a strange blending of all three. “It suggests -vaguely the confused and commingled sobs, -moans and entreaties of human beings who were -being subjected to torture, but whose sufferings -were not acute enough to seek expression in shrieks -or high pitched cries.... No attempt was made -by the singers to pitch their voices in harmony or -pronounce the words in unison. There were no -pauses or rests at the ends of the lines, no distinctly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>marked rhythm. The singers seemed to be constantly -breaking in upon one another with slightly -modulated variation of the same slow, melancholy -air, and the effect produced was that of a rude -fugue of a funeral chant.” The following is an -extract from the words sung:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c014'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Have pity on us, O our fathers!</div> - <div class='line'>Do not forget the unwilling travellers,</div> - <div class='line'>Do not forget the long imprisoned.</div> - <div class='line'>Feed us, O our fathers—help us!</div> - <div class='line'>Feed and help the poor and needy!</div> - <div class='line'>Have compassion, O our fathers,</div> - <div class='line'>Have compassion, O our mothers,</div> - <div class='line'>For the sake of Christ, have mercy</div> - <div class='line'>On the prisoners.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>“If you can imagine these words, half sung, half -chanted slowly, in broken time and in a low key, -by hundreds of voices, to an accompaniment made -by the jingling and clashing of chains, you will have -a faint idea of the song. Rude, artless and inharmonious -as the appeal for pity was, I never in my -life heard anything so mournful and depressing. -It seemed to be the half articulate expression of all -the griefs, the misery and the despair that had been -felt by generations of human beings in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>, -the forwarding prisons and the mines.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The collections made both in cash and kind were -taken on to the next halting place, when they were -divided with scrupulous exactitude under the watchful -control of the <em>artel</em>, or prisoners’ association, -which rules in every prison with an iron hand.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>An advantage enjoyed by the political prisoners -in Russian prisons is the affable demeanour of the -official staff towards them. Every prison official as -a rule treats them with a certain amount of courtesy -and respect. This is due to an unwritten law arising -from the long established belief that these “politicals” -belonged to the educated and cultured -classes, and that their offences, so-called, have been -committed with high motives, in obedience to the -dictates of reason and conscience, in the hope of -improving the condition of the people and winning -a greater measure of liberty and independence for -their down-trodden nation. Superior officers were, -as a rule, polite in their address, and subordinates -spoke civilly and treated them with marked consideration. -The prisoners watched jealously the -attitude of their masters toward them, and fiercely -resented any failure of respect, or anything that -tended to lower their personal dignity.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Leo Deutsch tells a story of the sharp lesson in -manners taught to a great functionary, the chief -personage and head of the prison department, M. -Galkin Vrasski. The incident occurred at Moscow -when he was making a tour of inspection through -the provincial prisons. The politicals had heard that, -conscious of his power and self-importance, he was -in the habit of entering cells, when visiting them, -with his hat on. The first he reached was occupied -by one Dashkievich, who had been a theological -student,—“a man of very calm but unyielding -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>temperament, and permeated to an uncommon degree -with the instinct of justice and fairness.” The -great chief entered with much ceremony, escorted -by the governor and a brilliant staff, and asked -Dashkievich pompously whether he had any complaint -to make. “Pardon me,” interrupted the -prisoner quietly, “it is very impolite of you, sir, -to enter my apartment without removing your hat.” -Vrasski reddened to the roots of his hair, turned on -his heel and walked out, followed by his entire entourage.</p> - -<p class='c013'>He was at pains to ask the name of the man who -had dared to reprove him thus openly. He had -learned his lesson, for he appeared at all the other -cells hat in hand. But the offence rankled, and as -Deutsch avers, he took his revenge later. Dashkievich -had been sentenced to “banishment to the less -distant provinces of Siberia;” this was altered by -Vrasski’s order, and he was sent eventually to -Tunka in the furthest wilds, on the border of Mongolia.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In this matter of removing the head-dress, the -politicals were very punctilious. Once, on arrival -at the Krasnoyarsk prison, which was chiefly cellular, -a party of politicals had a serious conflict of -opinion with the governor, who ordered that they -should be placed in separate cells singly, instead -of in association. They resented and positively -refused to abide by this order, and demanded to -be lodged as heretofore along the road, in company -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>with one another. Pending a change of decision, -they remained in the corridor with their baggage, -and would not budge a step. The governor of the -prison insisted upon compliance with the regulations, -and he was backed up by the chief of police, -a very blustering and overbearing person. The -prisoners would not yield and the matter was referred -to higher authority, first to the colonel of -gendarmerie, then to the public prosecutor, and -lastly to the governor of the district. Nothing -could be decided that night, and the prisoners, still -obdurate, camped out in the passage, being permitted -to have their own way until the district governor -had been heard from.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As they sat at dinner the next day, the chief of -police brought the answer. He was in full parade -uniform and wore his helmet. “Gentlemen,” he -began ceremoniously, “I am to inform you”—He -was abruptly interrupted by the request to first -remove his helmet. The officer protested that when -in parade uniform he was forbidden to do so. -“Then we shall not listen to you,” said the prisoner -Lazarev. “We have nothing to do with your uniform. -It is a mere question of manners.” “But -I really cannot, I will not,” replied the officer. -“Then you may take your message back to the -governor, we shall not listen to it,” was the answer -of the politicals, and their firmness won the day. -The result was a concession to their demands. “I -wonder how many officials,” remarks Deutsch, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>“have had to learn this elementary lesson in politeness -from us.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The women revolutionists also showed the highest -spirit and were always ready to fight for their -own rights. A police <em>ispravnik</em> had insulted a political, -mistaking him for another with whom he had -a difference. It came to the knowledge of the wife -of the political, who was a clever resolute woman, -and she went straight to the police office and boxed -the officer’s ears. The harshness with which one -police officer, the chief at Irkutsk, had treated a -number of women politicals brought down on him -a severe rebuke. The officer accompanied a high -official during a visit to the prison of that city. The -moment he appeared he was addressed by the leading -political prisoner in these words: “We are -astonished at your impudence in daring to appear -before us, after having by your treatment forced our -women comrades into a terrible hunger strike.” -The room was hurriedly emptied of all officials, the -chief and his suite, and the odious policeman was -followed by a chorus of uncomplimentary epithets.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER III <br /> THE EXILE SYSTEM</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The exile system—A principal secondary punishment—Reform -of 19th century—Classification of exiles—The hideous -march into Siberia—Infant mortality—Less than -half the exiles sentenced by regular tribunals—Many banished -by “administrative process” on arbitrary order—The -“untrustworthy”—Power to banish exercised by -many even minor authorities—Some cases of rank injustice—Monstrous -ill-usage of a medical man—Dr. Bieli -and his wife’s insanity—Students and young schoolgirls -exiled—Simple banishment—The exile’s life in Siberia—Danger -of protesting against ill-usage—Penalties of infringing -rules—Surgeon forbidden to practise in a case -of life and death—Terrors of banishment to the far north -in the arctic province of Yakutsk—A living death—Denounced -by Russian press.</p> - -<p class='c012'>An account has been given of the most prominent -Russian penal institutions in the mother country -and of the prisons established for all offenders upon -whom confinement has been generally imposed as -a preparatory step to deportation. It remains to -describe the system of Siberian exile, long the principal -element of penal coercion known to the Russian -code. For all alike, the undoubtedly guilty -and the resolute patriots with high aims, but often -violent methods, this penalty exists and has existed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>for centuries, ever imposed recklessly with marked -indifference to the human suffering it has entailed.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Banishment to the far-off wilds began soon after -the vast region of Siberia became part of the Empire, -that is to say, in the middle of the seventeenth -century. It originated in the idea of “removal;” -and was adopted as a convenient outlet for the -wrecks of humanity who had survived the cruel, -personal inflictions prescribed by savage laws. All -who escaped the capital sentence and were neither -impaled nor beheaded, endured secondary punishment -of atrocious severity; they were flogged by the -knout or bastinadoed; they were cruelly mutilated, -their limbs were amputated or their tongues torn -out; they were branded with hot irons or suspended -in the air by hooks run into the ribs, and left to die -a death of lingering torment. Those that were -left were transported to Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c013'>What the system was and to a great extent still -is, despite skin-deep reforms, with its most glaring -evils, claims description in any account purporting -to be complete. It is necessary to refer to the sufferings -endured and the infamies practised in some -detail, so that we may realise the true measure of -the infinite misery they have caused. It is almost -impossible to conceive of the horrors of that march -of thousands of both sexes across a continent; -ragged, debilitated men, weak women and helpless -children, tramping on and on for a whole year or -more, shoeless, insufficiently clad and subsisting on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>the chance alms of the charitable; fed by a meagre -pittance, lodged nightly in half-ruinous log prisons, -or festering for weeks in detestable forwarding -prisons. The Russian exile system has rivalled in -its inflictions the cruelties and barbarities of the -darkest ages.</p> - -<p class='c013'>By degrees changes in the penal code, multiplying -offences punishable by exile, increased the numbers -sent to Siberia. The colonisation and development -of the new country claimed the attention of the -government. Throughout the seventeenth and -eighteenth centuries increasing numbers were deported, -but with no attempt at organised system and -with the most callous neglect of the human beings -driven forth like cattle along the dreary road. They -were at all times abominably misused everywhere, -harassed, whipped, starved, and treated worse than -the four-footed beasts, which from their intrinsic -value would have been worth a certain amount of -care. Exile was substituted for the death penalty, -and the families of the offender often accompanied -him. The punishment was sometimes accorded for -breaking laws and regulations that were most trivial -and ridiculous. Among offences were included -fortune-telling, prize-fighting, snuff-taking, and -driving with reins—a culpable western innovation—for -the Russian rode his draught horse then or -ran beside it.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The demand for enforced labour steadily increased -as Siberia’s natural resources became more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>and more evident. The discovery of mineral wealth, -the rich silver mines of Nertchinsk in the Trans-Baikal, -and the establishment of large manufactories -at Irkutsk called for more exiles, and laws were -passed extending the punishment. Any kind of misconduct -led to deportation. Jews were exiled for -failing to pay their taxes, serfs for cutting down -trees without permission, and minor military offences -were visited with this penalty. Large numbers -took the road, but without the slightest organisation. -There was no system; the exiles were -driven in troops like cattle from town to town. No -one knew exactly the cause of exile or could differentiate -between individuals. Some were murderers -and the most hardened offenders; some were simple -peasants guilty of losing their passports or the victims -of an oppressive proprietor. “The exile system,” -says Kennan, “was nothing but a chaos of -disorder in which accident and caprice played almost -equally important parts.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Two cases may be quoted here of the haphazard -arbitrary treatment that commonly prevailed. A -peasant who had innocently bought a stolen horse -was sent to Siberia as an enforced colonist, but was -not set at liberty on arrival. Through some error -and confusion as to his identity, he was transported -to the Berozev mines and worked there underground -for three and twenty years. Again, the governor -of Siberia, Traskin, of notoriously evil repute, having -a spite against one of the councillors of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>State Chamber, banished him from the province of -Irkutsk, with an order that he should never be permitted -to remain more than ten days in the same -place. The wretched man accordingly spent the -rest of his life in aimless wanderings through Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c013'>With the nineteenth century some reforms were -introduced. The exiles were organised in parties, -marched under escorts, and <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>, or halting stations -for a stay of a night or more, were built at -regular intervals along the road. The identification -and separate personality of individuals were established -by means of proper papers showing whom -they were, their history and destination. A great -administrative measure was the creation in 1823 of -a central bureau at Tobolsk (removed later to -Tiumen) for the record and registration of all exiles -arriving and passing into Siberia. Sub-offices -at the principal Siberian towns assisted with the -necessary details showing the distribution and disposal -of all persons banished. Full statistics are -consequently available for estimating accurately the -extent of penal deportation in recent years. Approximately, -since the beginning of the nineteenth -century, more than a million souls have passed the -boundary line between Europe and Asia. Speaking -more exactly, the total number banished between -1823 and 1887 amounted to 772,979, or an annual -average of about seventeen thousand.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Siberian exiles have been grouped by Kennan into -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>four great classes. These are as follows: the hard-labour -convicts, in Russian called the <em>katorzhniki</em>; -the penal colonists, or <em>poselentzy</em>; the persons -merely banished, the <em>ssylny</em>; women and children -who go to Siberia voluntarily as the companions -of fathers and parents, and conversely, in rare cases, -men who accompany their wives. Members of this -class are called <em>dobrovolny</em>. According to law, they -are not under the disciplinary control of the escort, -but, as a matter of fact, they are subjected to the -same treatment as the convicts. An eye-witness -reported in a Moscow paper in 1881 that when he -met a party of exiles on the march, “the exhausted -women and children literally stuck in the mud, and -the soldiers dealt them blows to make them advance -and keep pace with the rest.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Members of the two first classes wore chains, leg -fetters, and walked in slippers for distances of six -and seven thousand miles. The rest went free of -such physical encumbrances, but were otherwise exposed -to the terrible hardships and privations of -the long protracted, wearisome march. The mere -atmospheric conditions and extremes of temperature -in the varying seasons suffice to break down the -health of all but the most hardy, for winter succeeded -summer before the march ended and vice -versa, so that arctic cold alternated with tropical -heat, and deep snow with burning sun and torrential -rains. When to such exposure are superadded -unsuitable clothing, bad and insufficient food, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>insanitary condition of the over-crowded <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span> and -the absence of medical care, “one is,” Kennan -says, “surprised, not that so many die, but that so -many get through alive.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A Russian painter, M. Jacoby, has painted an -awful picture depicting the frightful scene. It has -been graphically described by Kropotkin and may -be quoted here in full to give a clear idea of this -hideous march.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“You see a marshy plain where the icy wind -blows freely, driving before it the snow that begins -to cover the frozen soil. Morasses with small -shrubs or crumpled trees, bent down by wind or -snow, spread as far as the eye can reach; the next -village is twenty miles distant. Low mountains, -covered with thick pine forests, mingling with the -gray snow clouds, rise in the dust on the horizon. -A track marked all along by poles to distinguish it -from the surrounding plain, ploughed by the passage -of thousands of carts, covered with ruts that keep -down the hardest wheels, runs through the naked -plains. The party slowly moves along this road. -In front a row of soldiers opens the march. Behind -them heavily advance the hard-labour convicts, -with half-shaved heads, wearing gray clothes with -a yellow diamond on the back, and open shoes worn -out by the long journey, and exhibiting the tatters -in which the wounded feet are wrapped. Each convict -wears a chain riveted to his ankles, its rings -being twisted with rags. The chain goes up each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>leg and is suspended to a girdle. Another chain -closely ties both hands and a third chain binds together -six or eight convicts. Every false movement -of any of the gang is felt by all his chain companions; -the feebler is dragged forward by the stronger -and he must not stop the way; the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> stage is -long and the autumn day is short.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“Behind the hard-labour convicts march the -<em>poselentzy</em>, condemned to be settled in Siberia, wearing -the same gray clothes and the same kind of -shoes.... In the rear you discover a few carts -drawn by the small, attenuated, cat-like peasants’ -horses. They are loaded with the bags of the convicts, -and with the sick or dying who are fastened -by ropes on the top of the load. Behind the carts -struggle the wives and children of the convicts; a -few have found a free corner on a loaded cart, and -crouch there when unable to move further, whilst -the great number march behind the carts, leading -their children by the hand or bearing them in their -arms. In the rear comes a second detachment of -soldiers, stimulating these weak, feeble creatures to -fresh exertions by blows with the butt end of their -muskets.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The infant mortality under these conditions almost -exceeds belief, and deportation to Siberia has -been aptly and truthfully described as a “massacre -of the innocents.” In the year 1881, when 2,561 -children followed the exile march, very few survived. -The majority succumbed to the hardships -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>of the road and died before or immediately after -their arrival at their destination. The yearly quota -has constantly increased, numbering from five to -eight thousand. To the danger to health incurred -must be added the moral degradation, especially in -the case of the young girls.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Before reviewing the conditions and setting forth -the actual facts, with the processes that produced -them, it will be well to dissect the grand totals and -arrive at the relative proportions of the three principal -classes composing the whole body of exiles -constantly moving across the frontier to fill the -prisons and to people Siberia to its uttermost ends. -Less than one-half were criminal in the sense that -they had committed offences and had been adjudged -guilty in open court by duly constituted tribunals. -The larger moiety had had no legal trial; they had -been punished with banishment by the irresponsible -action and simple fiat of minor officials and bodies -of ill-educated peasants, wielding the extraordinary -powers conferred by “administrative process.” At -no time and in no civilised land have people been so -ruthlessly sacrificed and subjected to the forfeiture -of personal liberty by this utter abnegation of justice -and fair play, and the result is a standing disgrace -to the government that permitted and encouraged -it. The extent to which this most reprehensible -system has obtained may be judged by a simple -statement of figures. For many years past the average -number sentenced to exile by legal verdict in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>regular courts was 45.6 per cent. of the whole yearly -contingent, and those banished by “administrative -process” was 54.4 per cent. It must always be -borne in mind that, in describing the methods pursued -and the painful results attendant on them, -more than half the sufferers were either entirely innocent -or guilty of offences that could only be -deemed criminal by a strained interpretation of the -exercise of authority, and in no case had they been -properly tried and convicted by law.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The system has been defined by Mr. Kennan as -“the banishment of an obnoxious person from one -part of the empire to another without the observance -of any of the legal formalities which in most civilised -countries precede the deprivation of rights and -the restriction of personal liberty.” A person might -be entirely guiltless of any offence, he need not have -made himself amenable to the law; it was enough -that the local authorities should suspect him of being -“untrustworthy”<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> or believe that his presence -in any place was “prejudicial to public order,” or -threatened public tranquillity. He might be arrested -forthwith and detained in prison for a period -varying from two weeks to two years, and then by -a stroke of the pen be deported, forcibly, to any part -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>of the empire and kept there under police surveillance -for from one to ten years. He could not protest -or seek to defend himself. The same impenetrable -secrecy was maintained as in the dungeons of the -Spanish Inquisition. Not a whisper reached him -of the causes of his arrest; he might not examine -the witnesses who accused him or supported the -charge against him. He must not call upon friends -to speak of his loyalty and good character; he was -perfectly helpless and altogether at the mercy of the -authorities, and even his nearest relatives were in -ignorance of his whereabouts or what happened to -him. They could not help him or must not if they -would.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c013'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. The Russian word is “neblagonadiozhny” and means -literally, “of whom nothing good can be expected,” and the -expression has been given a very wide interpretation. Young -people who read certain forbidden books or join forbidden -societies for the ventilation of certain principles are deemed -untrustworthy.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>The power to send people into exile thus arbitrarily -was vested in petty authorities, officers of gendarmerie, -subordinate police officials, or mere executive -orders countersigned by the minister of the -interior and approved by the Czar. There is nothing -new in this system. The people of Russia, from -noble to serf, have never enjoyed the semblance of -liberty; the Russian bureaucracy has wielded the -unlimited power delegated to it by the autocratic -Czar, and from the beginning of the eighteenth century -twenty different classes of officials could employ -“administrative methods” as a substitute for -judicial process. The right was vested in governors, -vice-governors, chiefs of police, and provincial bureaus, -ecclesiastical authorities and landed proprietors. -In addition to the power to send into exile, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>these various authorities could at their discretion -confiscate property, brand, inflict torture and flog -with the knout. Village communes had also the -power to order the removal by exile of members -who were worthless and ill-conducted, of whom -their fellows were anxious to get rid.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Innumerable cases of oppression and injustice are -on record of which a few may be cited. One of -the most flagrant was that of Constantine Staniukovich, -who was the son of a Russian admiral. He -had been in the navy but had a fondness for literature -and became a writer of plays and novels condemned -by the censor as of “pernicious tendency.” -But he continued to write and finally became the -proprietor of a magazine. He was seized without -warning and locked up in the fortress of St. Peter -and St. Paul. His wife, who was at Baden Baden, -heard nothing of his arrest, and found when she -returned to St. Petersburg that he had mysteriously -disappeared. She learned, after diligent inquiry, -that he was in prison, and that his letters had been -secretly tampered with, his offence being a correspondence -through the post with a well-known Russian -revolutionist residing in Switzerland. At -length, after a long imprisonment, he was exiled by -administrative process to Tomsk for three years. -His magazine was discontinued by his absence and -he was financially ruined. Neither wealth nor a -high social position could save him from arbitrary -treatment.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>Another literary man, M. Berodin, was banished -to Yakutsk, close to the Arctic Circle, because the -manuscript of an article deemed “dangerous” was -found in his house in St. Petersburg by the police. -This was a spare copy of an article he had written -for the <cite>Annals of the Fatherland</cite>, which had been -accepted but had not appeared. When he was on -his way to Eastern Siberia to expiate this horrible -offence, the incriminated article was passed by the -censor and actually published without objection in -the same magazine, and without the alteration or -omission of a single line. The exile read his own -article, for which he had suffered, in the far-off -place of his confinement.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The most monstrous instances of high handed -proceedings are recorded. One unfortunate gentleman -was exiled because he was suspected of an -intention to put himself in an illegal situation, no -more than a projected change of name. Another -man was exiled and sent to Siberia because he was -the friend of an accused person who was waiting -trial on a political charge, and of which he was in -due course acquitted. But the friend of this innocent -man was deemed an offender, and was sent -across the frontier. Such was the chaos of injustice, -accident and caprice, that errors were constantly -made as to identification. When the roll -of a travelling party was called, no one answered -to the name of Vladimir Sidoski. A Victor Sidoski -was in the ranks and was challenged to answer. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>“It is not my name. I am another man, I ought -not to have been arrested; I am Victor, not Vladimir,” -was the answer. “You will do quite as -well,” retorted the officer. “I shall correct the name -in the list.” And Victor the innocent became -Vladimir the prisoner. It sometimes happened that -an arrest was made by mistake; the wrong man -was taken and it was clearly shown, but no release -followed. It was unsafe to take up the case of any -victims of misusage. One lady who resented acts -of manifest injustice was arrested and banished -because “it was no business of hers.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A young and skilful surgeon, Dr. Bieli, was -shamefully ill-treated. Two women students at a -medical college in St. Petersburg had been expelled -on suspicion of “untrustworthiness,” and being -anxious to continue their studies, had remained in -the capital and had secretly become the doctor’s -pupils. They were without passports in an “illegal” -position and should have been handed over -to the police. But Dr. Bieli shielded them until -their visits to his house, generally at night, attracted -the attention of the police, and it was thought that -some political conspiracy was in progress. Arrests -followed, the fatal truth came out, and Dr. Bieli was -exiled to the arctic village of Vorkhoyansk. His -wife was expecting her confinement and could not -go with him, but travelled after him, starting on -a journey of six thousand miles to be made in the -rough jolting <em>telyegas</em> and enduring endless hardships. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>Her health broke down and gradually her -mind gave way. But she bore up until the end of -her trials seemed near, when she learned that a mistake -had occurred in the place of her destination -and that she must traverse another three thousand -miles before she reached her husband. The sudden -shock was fatal; she became violently insane and -died a few months later in the prison hospital at -Irkutsk.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The measure of administrative process has been -defended by intelligent Russians who visit the blame -upon the Nihilists and terrorists,—“a band so -horribly vile that their crimes are beyond parallel.” -A writer in a German periodical justifies this language -by denouncing the bloodthirsty recklessness -of the revolutionists who have not hesitated to use -the assassin’s knife and dynamite bombs. To give -local authorities power to banish the suspected was -essential as a means of precaution, “the only possible -means to counteract the nefarious doings of -these dark conspirators.” Admitting, however, that -the decision was unfortunate and has caused unspeakable -misery, he says: “From the day this -power was delegated no man knows at what moment -he may not be seized and cast into prison or -doomed to exile.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>He casts all the responsibility on the revolutionists, -but in doing so, as Kennan says, puts the cart -before the horse. Terrorist measures were the -reply to grievous oppression. “It was administrative -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>exile, administrative caprice, and the absence of -orderly and legal methods in political cases that -caused terrorism, not terrorism that necessitated -official lawlessness.” Already the true facts are -patent and thoroughly understood by the world at -large. The so-called excesses of the revolutionists -have not been committed, as the champions of the -Russian government would have us believe, “by -bloodthirsty tigers in human form at the prompting -of presumptuous fancies,” but “by ordinary men -and women exasperated to the pitch of desperation -by administrative suppression of free speech and -free thought, administrative imprisonment for years -upon suspicion, administrative banishment to the -arctic regions without trial, and, to crown all, administrative -denial of every legal remedy and every -peaceful means of redress.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Already “the whirligig of time has brought its -revenges.” Russia is wading through blood to the -still far-off horizon which is at last dawning on a -vexed and tortured people. The overthrow of despotism -is approaching inevitably if slowly. The will -of the people cannot be ignored or their aspirations -checked and crushed by the old arbitrary methods -of repression and coercion.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A whole volume might be filled with the detailed -iniquities of the administrative process, which was -so largely operative and so long before the oppressed -people were goaded into retaliation. As far back -as the early decades of the nineteenth century, statistics -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>were gathered by a careful and industrious -writer covering the period between 1827 and 1846 -and showing the average number banished annually -to be between three and six thousand, and the aggregate -for the twenty years to be nearly eighty -thousand. Beyond doubt in more recent years the -numbers have steadily grown, although the exact -figures are not available.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Kropotkin ably summarises the objects of exile: -“Students and girls suspected of subversive ideas; -writers whom it was impossible to prosecute for -their writings, but who were known to be imbued -with a ‘dangerous spirit;’ workmen who -were known to have spoken against the authorities; -persons who have been irreverent to some governor -of a province or <em>ispravnik</em> were transported by hundreds -every year.” The barest denunciation and -the most casual suggestion were sufficient to afford -a motive.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Several young girls were condemned, not merely -to exile, but to hard labour for from six to eight -years for having given a socialistic pamphlet to one -workman. A child of fourteen became a penal colonist -for shouting aloud that it was a shame to condemn -people to death for nothing.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A flagrant case was that of M. Annenkov, a -landed proprietor, who proposed the health of the -governor at a banquet given him by the nobility of -Kursk. At the end he was bold enough to remark -that he greatly hoped his excellency would devote -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>more time to the affairs of the province. The following -week a <em>tarantas</em> containing two gensdarmes -stopped at his door; he was arrested, was forbidden -to bid his wife farewell, and was conveyed as a -prisoner to a distant part. Only after six months -and the most urgent representations of influential -friends was he again set free.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In the last decade of the reign of Alexander II, -between 1870 and 1880, administrative exile was -employed with unprecedented recklessness and the -most consummate indifference to personal rights. -Unlimited discretionary powers were vested in governors -of provinces. General Todleben, in Odessa, -banished all of the “untrustworthy” class without -inquiry or discrimination, and sent into exile every -one whose loyalty to the existing government was -even doubtful. It was enough to be registered as -a “suspect” on the books of the secret police, or -to have been accused, even anonymously, of political -disaffection. Parents who had the most honourable -record of unblemished loyalty were exiled because -their children had become revolutionists; schoolboys -were exiled because they were acquainted with -some of the disaffected and had failed to report the -fact to the police; teachers were exiled for circulating -copies of a harmless magazine; members of -provincial assemblies, who claimed the right to petition -the Czar for redress of grievances, were sent -across the frontier; and university students, who -had been tried and acquitted of a political offence, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>were re-arrested and exiled by administrative process,—all -in violation of the most elementary principles -of justice.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The majority of the administrative exiles were -political prisoners, but all politicals were not let off -with simple banishment. A considerable number -of political offenders were sentenced to hard labour -and also to penal exile. They did not live apart but -were incorporated with the common-law criminals -and subjected to precisely the same irksome treatment; -they were equally deprived of civil rights, -and could never count upon freedom absolute and -unconditional. A few might in the long run be -allowed to return to European Russia, at the intercession -and with the guarantee of influential friends, -but endless exile was generally their portion and a -hard hand-to-mouth existence, with unceasing struggles -to gain bread, for when nominally free they -are still under police surveillance and do not easily -find the means of a livelihood. They are worse off -than when prisoners, for they are granted no government -allowance and must fight for every kopeck -under many disadvantages.</p> - -<p class='c013'>We come thus to the large class of the <em>ssylny</em>, -those simply banished, whose liberty is forfeited, -although they are not actually subjected to imprisonment; -and with them must be comprised the emancipists, -those who have completed their penalty but -are not permitted to leave Siberia. Both classes are -practically prisoners, although not within four walls -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>perhaps. Their movements are restricted, and they -are still held under observation within a certain -area and must observe certain stringent rules of -conduct. Their condition is only a modified form -of imprisonment applicable to at least half of the -entire number transported to Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A code of rules has been drawn up for all whom -the law condemns to exile and enforced domicile, -whether at home or in far-off Siberia. The pregnant -word “banishment” is carefully excluded from -these rules, and police surveillance takes effect on -those “assigned to definite places of residence,” an -expression euphemistically applied to the wildest and -most remote regions of the empire. It is an obviously -colourable suppression of true facts. The -names of such places as the frontiers of Mongolia, -the arctic province of Yakutsk, or the sub-tropical -mountain districts of Central Asia are never mentioned, -but there can be no mistakes as to the irksome -character of the rules. It is a life of sufferance, -of sometimes open arrest, and often of rigorously -curtailed freedom of movement. The exile -must remain where he is planted; to move his quarters -he must give notice and obtain the consent of -the police, to whom he must constantly report himself. -His chosen place of residence is liable to -visitation and search at any time of the day or -night, and anything it contains may be removed; -his correspondence, all letters and telegrams, inward -and outward, may be read or withheld at all times.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>The manner of the exile’s daily life is laid down -with great minuteness, and the nature of his employments -specified, chiefly in the negative sense. -He cannot hold any position in the service of the -state; he must do no clerical work for any society -or institution; he must not promote, or serve with -any company; he cannot act as curator of any -museum; he must not give lectures or impart instruction -as a schoolmaster; he must not take any -part in any theatricals, and is forbidden generally -to exercise any public activity. He may not embark -in any photographic or literary occupation; -may not deal in books, must not keep a tea house -or grog shop, or trade in intoxicating liquors. He -shall not appear or plead in court except on behalf -of himself and his near relations, nor without special -permission may he act as physician, accoucheur, -apothecary or chemist. The penalty of contravening -any of these regulations is imprisonment for -terms varying from three days to one month. Exiles -without means are granted a meagre allowance -from the treasury, but it is withdrawn if they fail -to obtain employment through bad conduct or laziness. -The difficulty of getting a living under so -many restrictions is not considered.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The exile’s life is full of irksome conditions. -When, after a nearly interminable journey, he -reaches his “definite domicile,” he must find his own -residence with some reluctant householder who does -not care to shelter a presumably dangerous political, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>subject at all times of the day or night to police -visitation; and, moreover, the householder is expected -to spy upon his tenant and report any suspicious -circumstance. When at length he overcomes -these irritating and causeless objections and -rents a bare room, he has to settle the question of -daily subsistence. His wife and family he has left -behind in Russia, probably destitute, while he is here -in Siberia without means, and with little hope of -being able to secure them. He falls back on the -government grant, no more than twelve shillings -a month, and finds that it is utterly insufficient to -provide him with the commonest necessaries of life. -Rent, coarse food, meat, rye flour, a few eggs, -“brick” tea and a little cheap tobacco exhaust his -allowance and leave a substantial deficit, and this -without spending a kopeck on washing, kerosene or -medicine.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Naturally the exile seeks to supplement his inadequate -income. His position is nearly hopeless. -Possibly he has had the best education, is a graduate -of the university, knows several languages, and is -a skilful surgeon or practised physician. He does -not, of course, expect to find in the wilds of Siberia -as many openings for his trained intelligence -as in St. Petersburg or Moscow, but surely there is -room for an expert penman, a good accountant, a -competent teacher, a fair musician? Yet he seems -to have no chance to earn a few rubles, a few -kopecks even, day by day. The regulations, quoted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>above, close every avenue, debar him from every -employment but ordinary manual labour. He has -never learned any handicraft; he cannot work as -carpenter, shoemaker, wheelwright or blacksmith; -he has no capital and cannot go into trade; he must -not engage himself as driver or teamster, for he -cannot leave the village to which he has been assigned. -There is nothing left for him except to dig, -but there is not an inch of land for him to cultivate. -All the ground in the neighbourhood belongs to the -village commune and has been already allotted to -its members, so that any available land is so far distant -that he would risk arrest by going there.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In this dilemma he petitions the government to -relieve him of his restrictions, and permit him to -engage in such a harmless vocation as teaching -music, but he is referred to the rule forbidding it. -To this refusal was once added the cruel suggestion -that the starving and impecunious convict might -hire himself out as a labourer to the king, his peasant, -for half a dozen kopecks a day. The same answer -was given to a petition from some political -prisoners who begged to be allowed to occupy and -cultivate a tract of government ground near their -village.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was dangerous to protest against ill-usage. A -number of exiles, goaded to desperation by brutal -severity of the acting governor of the province of -Tobolsk, respectfully declared that there was a -limit to human endurance and that their position -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>had become intolerable. This petition was adjudged -“audaciously impudent” and its authors, nineteen -in number, were removed to a barren village within -the Arctic Circle. Memorials from free and independent -bodies were equally unpalatable to the authorities. -The medical society of Tver in European -Russia, a short distance from Moscow, dared to -back up a request made by a number of qualified -physicians exiled to Siberia to be allowed to practise -in the places of their banishment. A year or -two before, the governor-general of Eastern Siberia -had reported to the Czar that the number of doctors -in the country was utterly insufficient, saying, “In -the cities only is it possible to take measures for the -preservation of health. In every other part of -Eastern Siberia physicians are almost wholly lacking, -and the local population is left helpless in its -struggle with diphtheria and other contagious diseases -which desolate the country.” Two years later -the medical school of Tver was swiftly punished for -venturing to endorse this statement, and for daring -to ask that the prohibition to practise might be rescinded -in the case of the doctors so urgently -needed. The school was forthwith broken up and -two of its members who were in state services were -summarily dismissed from their posts.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Exiled physicians who dared to infringe the rules -were mercilessly dealt with. A student named -Dolgopolov had been banished for a most trifling -offence. During a riot at the Kharkov university, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>when the streets were being cleared by the mounted -Cossacks with their heavy dog-whips, Dolgopolov -indignantly took the brutal horsemen to task. For -this he was promptly arrested and banished by administrative -process to Western Siberia. Here, at -the earnest entreaty of two suffering fellow creatures, -one ill with typhus fever, and the other afflicted -with cataract, he ventured to prescribe for -them. He was immediately summoned before the -chief of police, who had a personal grudge against -him, and roughly reminded him he had transgressed -the regulations. A little later he was called in to -attend the major’s wife who had been accidentally -shot in the leg by her son. The immediate extraction -of the bullet was essential, and no one but -Dolgopolov was competent to perform the operation. -He explained that he was forbidden to practise -under pain of imprisonment, but it was put to -him as a matter of life and death, and he at last -consented. The next day he was arrested by order -of the <em>ispravnik</em> and thrown into prison at Tiukalinsk, -where he contracted typhus fever. His case -excited profound sympathy in the town, which was -magnified by the authorities into a charge of exercising -a pernicious and dangerous influence, and -was so reported to the governor, who immediately -ordered his removal to the arctic town of Surgut. -No mention had been made of his illness, but the -convoy officer refused to receive him. As the -<em>ispravnik</em> would not be baulked, however, he obtained -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>a peasant’s cart, dragged the patient from his -bed in hospital and sent him away in his night-shirt -under the escort of two policemen.</p> - -<p class='c013'>He arrived at Ishim after 126 miles en route. -Other political exiles who resided here rallied -around him, had him examined by the local surgeon, -and got the local chief of police to draw up a statement -and telegraph it to the governor, who heard -for the first time of the sufferer’s dangerous illness, -and who replied by ordering him to be taken into the -local hospital. It was currently reported that the -governor took a substantial bribe from the <em>ispravnik</em> -at Tiukalinsk for sparing him the prosecution he -richly merited. Dr. Dolgopolov gradually recovered -and was later sent to Surgut. The Siberian <em>ispravniks</em>, -or chiefs of police, were notorious offenders, -and Kennan says that at the time of his journey -there were ten under accusation of criminal charges -but still evading trial by timely propitiation, in cash, -of their superiors.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Police surveillance was the more difficult to bear -because a large number of the officials who carried -out this duty were degraded characters with criminal -antecedents. Many had been originally common-law -exiles taken into the government service at -the expiration of their terms. Kennan states that -he came across police officers whom he would not -dare to meet at night, when alone and unarmed. -He records that in the city of Tomsk the police had -been constantly guilty of “acts of violence, outrage -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>and crime, including the arrest and imprisonment -of innocent citizens by the hundreds, the taking -of bribes from notorious criminals, the subornation -of perjury, the use of torture and the beating -nearly to death of pregnant women.” A newly appointed -governor, on visiting a prison, heard three -hundred complaints of unjust imprisonment, and on -investigation of them two hundred prisoners were -set at liberty. The methods of surveillance were -unceremonious and rudely intrusive. An exile -wrote to the press as follows, complaining that the -police entered his quarters repeatedly to verify his -presence and to see if any one else was there. -“They walk past our houses constantly, looking in -at the windows and listening at the doors. They -post sentries at night on the corners of the streets -where we reside, and they compel our neighbours -to watch our movements and report upon them to -the local authorities.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Many ladies were to be found among the political -exiles, often defenceless girls from sixteen to twenty -years of age and young married women temporarily -separated from their husbands who were interned -elsewhere or were at hard labour in the mines. -They were constantly exposed to indignity or -worse, suffered insult or outrage, and were compelled -to associate with others for common protection. -One young woman, on returning from a short -walk, found that a police officer had invaded her -private apartment and was lying asleep in helmet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>and boots upon her bed. The chief of police also -shamelessly misused his control of the exiles’ correspondence, -which was absolute; he might at his -discretion suppress and destroy any letters after perusal -of their contents, or detain them and postpone -delivery on the ground that they were in secret -cipher which he was anxious to penetrate. Sometimes -he carried them to his club and read them -aloud between drinks to his boon companions, who -laughed brutally at the tender messages contained -in them.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It must be admitted that the fate of those merely -banished is stern enough and their condition is in -some respects worse than that of the actually imprisoned. -Loss of liberty is a terrible punishment, -of course, but at least food and lodging are provided -and, as has been shown, the simple exile is -not certainly assured of either. There are phases -of exile, too, which far transcend the worst form of -incarceration. Banishment to a <em>ulus</em> or <em>yurt</em> of the -arctic province of Yakutsk is the most barbarous -penalty that could well be devised for the prolonged -torture of a civilised being. The province of -Yakutsk is very sparsely inhabited, the climate is -arctic, the post arrives rarely and at long intervals; -common necessaries, not to say luxuries, such as tea, -sugar, petroleum, are unprocurable. Even stale -black bread can seldom be obtained and at an exorbitant -price. The native’s hut, or <em>yurt</em>, is tent-shaped -and built of rough logs, the interstices filled up with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>earth and turf. The life of an exile there has been -stigmatised as a “living death,” and a description -by a writer in the <cite>Russian Gazette</cite> is quoted.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“The Cossacks who brought me from the town -of Yakutsk to my destination soon returned, and -I was left alone among the Yakuts who do not understand -a word of Russian. They watch me constantly, -for fear that if I escape they will have to -answer for it to the Russian authorities. If I go -out of the close atmosphere of the solitary <em>yurt</em> to -walk I am followed by a suspicious Yakut. If I -take an axe to cut myself a cane, the Yakut directs -me by gestures and pantomime to let it alone and -go back into the <em>yurt</em>. I return thither, and before -the fireplace I see a Yakut who has stripped himself -naked, and is hunting for lice in his clothing—a -pleasant picture! The Yakuts live in winter in the -same buildings with their cattle, and frequently are -not separated from the latter even by the thinnest -partition. The excrement of the cattle and of the -children; the inconceivable disorder and filth; the -rotting straw and rags; the myriads of vermin in -the bedding; the foul, oppressive air, and the impossibility -of speaking a word of Russian—all -these things taken together are positively enough -to drive one insane. The food of the Yakuts can -hardly be eaten. It is carelessly prepared, without -salt, often of tainted materials, and the unaccustomed -stomach rejects it with nausea. I have no -separate dishes or clothing of my own; there are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>no facilities for bathing, and during the whole winter—eight -months—I am as dirty as a Yakut. I -cannot go anywhere—least of all to the town, -which is two hundred versts away. I live with the -Yakuts by turns—staying with one family for six -weeks, and then going for the same length of time -to another. I have nothing to read, neither books -nor newspapers, and I know nothing of what is -going on in the world.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The editor of the <cite>Russian Gazette</cite>, M. S. A. -Priklonsky, an eminent publicist and man of letters, -in commenting upon this state of things writes, -“Beyond this severity cannot go. Beyond this -there remains nothing but to tie a man to the tail -of a wild horse, and drive him into the steppe, or -chain him to a corpse and leave him to his fate. -One does not wish to believe that a human being -can be subjected, without trial and by a mere executive -order, to such grievous torment.... And -yet we are assured ... that up to this time none -of the exiles in the province of Yakutsk have been -granted any alleviating privileges.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Mr. Kennan bears witness in 1891 that exiles -were still sent to Yakutsk, and Leo Deutsch speaks -of the practice as still prevailing much later, although -he and his colleagues did not shrink from -removal there, hoping it might lead to some more -advantageous change later. But humanity shudders -at the detestable treatment of the poor people -whose worst crime was a passionate desire to alleviate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>the sufferings of their fellow countrymen. -Life at Yakutsk was infinitely more terrible than -the worst tortures inflicted by prolonged confinement -in a separate cell, which is commonly described -as “the greatest crime of the nineteenth century.”</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IV <br /> THE OSTROG AT OMSK</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>Centre of exile system at Omsk—Dostoyevski—His famous -book “Recollections of the Dead House” based on his experiences -in this Ostrog—Description of the prison and -its heterogeneous inmates—Detestable character of an ex-noble—His -attempted escape with another convict—Another -well-born criminal of very different character—His -industry and skill with his hands—The prison routine—Food—Extra -delicacies could be obtained—Passion for -gambling—Various devices for indulging it—Method of -smuggling strong drink into the Ostrog—Drunken carousals—Gazin, -the vodka seller—His history and atrocious -crimes—Dostoyevski narrowly escapes being murdered by -him.</p> - -<p class='c012'>In the early decades of the nineteenth century -the exile system centred chiefly at Omsk, an ancient -military post situated on the junction of the rivers -Om and Irtysh. A place of arms had been erected -here in 1719 to strengthen the Russian dominion -among the nomads of the Asiatic Steppes. This -was replaced by a formidable fortress and became -a chief post on the Siberian boundary line. A large -town sprang up around it, which grew into the -headquarters of local administration, and was long -the residence of the governor-general of Western -Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>Just outside the ramparts of the fortress stood -a wooden prison, enclosed by a high stockade, which -has an interesting penal history, having served for -long years as a base and starting point for the convict -exiles on their eastward march. The prison -population constantly numbered about eight hundred -and it was the place of durance for several -remarkable prisoners. One of the greatest of Russian -novelists, Dostoyevski, based his famous book, -“Reminiscences of the Dead House” on his personal -experiences in this old <em>ostrog</em>.<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a> He was one of the -early “politicals” who were subjected to the same -régime as the common-law prisoner or ordinary -gaol-bird, and he suffered four years as a hard-labour -convict at Omsk. His offence was being -involved in the Petrachevski affair in 1849, and -with him in Omsk was the poet Dirov, who suffered -a like term of four years for the same reason.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c013'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. The <em>ostrog</em> was the name given to the stockaded entrenchment -or rude fort built by the Cossack invaders of -Siberia in the old days. As prisoners were confined more and -more in these forts, the word <em>ostrog</em> came to define a place of -durance, and is now applied to all local prisons in Siberia, and -provincial lock-ups. The prison had disappeared when Kennan -looked for it on his visit to Omsk. New buildings have -been erected on the site.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>Dostoyevski’s treatment, having regard to his -offence, was a disgrace to civilisation, and it is satisfactory -to know that intelligent Russian officials -to-day are heartily ashamed of the episode. A full -account of its enormities has been since written by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>a fellow prisoner named Rozhnovski, and was published -in the Tiflis newspaper, <cite>Kavkaz</cite>. He was at -the mercy of harsh taskmasters, endured the severest -discipline, wore irons always and the prisoners’ -dress, and was twice flogged. The first corporal -punishment he received was for complaining in the -name of the other prisoners of filthy foreign matter -floating in the daily soup, and the second was for -saving the life of a comrade from drowning, in -direct defiance of his officer’s order to do nothing -of the kind. The second “execution” was so terrible -that the victim was taken up for dead; he lay -insensible for so long that he was afterward nicknamed -the “deceased.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Never have the inner life and history of a Russian -prison of that epoch—the middle of the nineteenth -century—been so thoroughly explored and -exposed as by the gifted writer, Dostoyevski. He -draws on his own experience, speaking at first hand -from his personal knowledge. He knew exactly -what imprisonment meant, for he had been through -it, constantly subjected to its irksome restraints and -almost intolerable conditions. He had learned to -habituate himself to its laws and penalties; to endure -the most acute discomforts; to face with patient -resignation the endless vista of the slow moving -years, continually tortured and tormented by -suffering and the complete absence of all that tends -to brighten life and make it bearable. He had -ample opportunities for studying and observing the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>convicts with whom he was so long obliged to consort. -He draws them with photographic exactitude. -He observed, and has effectively reproduced their -traits, thoughts, feelings and inner nature. He saw -them at their best and at their worst; he noted -the generous emotions that sometimes swayed them, -the evil passions that more often possessed them. -He can do justice to the sympathy and compassion -lavished on suffering comrades and reprobates; to -the envy, hatred and uncharitableness constantly -exhibited when moved by jealousy or consumed -with temper and overmastering desire for revenge. -The daily life of a Siberian place of durance at that -time is brought before us with striking force: its -generally wearisome monotony, to which severe toil -is a welcome break; the petty, pitiful recreations -enjoyed often at the risk of punishment; the vices -of drunkenness and gambling, strictly forbidden -although constantly indulged in; the gormandising -at Christmas and other festivals. He describes the -ambitious theatrical entertainment given in the convict -barrack room, when the convicts, despite the -difficulties raised by discipline and the dearth of -means, produced a striking performance.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The old prison at Omsk was situated at the end -of the citadel just under the ramparts. It was surrounded -by a high palisade of stakes buried deep -in the ground, enclosing a court-yard two hundred -feet long by one hundred and fifty feet broad. A -great gate in the stockade guarded by sentries gave -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>admission to the prison. Looking through the interstices -of the palisades from within, a narrow -glimpse was obtained of the glacis of the fort sloping -downward, and of a little corner of the sky -above. The prison buildings consisted of a number -of log huts of one story, each providing a separate -barrack to accommodate roughly about two hundred -convicts herded together in very close association. -This was long before the extension of the -cellular system to Russia, and the terrors of isolated -confinement did not exist in those days. But -life in common had its peculiar horrors, which our -author enlarges upon. “I could not,” he says, “possibly -have conjured up the poignant and terrible -suffering of never being alone, even for one minute, -during ten years. Working always under surveillance -in the barracks, ever in the unvarying companionship -of two hundred others; never alone, never! -This enforced cohabitation was the sharpest and -most painful sensation endured. Nowhere is it so -horrible as in a prison, where the society must contain -many with whom no one would willingly live.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“Among them were murderers by imprudence -and murderers by profession, simple thieves and -chiefs of thieves, masters in the art of finding money -in the pockets of a passer-by or of lifting anything, -no matter what, from the table.... The majority -were depraved and perverted, so that calumnies and -scandal rained among them like hail. Our life was -a constant hell, a perpetual damnation.... Those -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>who were not already corrupt on reception soon -became so. Intrigues, calumnies, scandalous backbiting -of all kinds, envy and hatred reigned above -everything else. No ordinary tongue could hold its -own against these adepts at abuse with insults constantly -in their mouths.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A curious trait in this heterogeneous assembly, -in which the elements of evil predominated, was the -reticence of the convicts. Some were malefactors -of the worst kind, veterans in habitual crime, -guilty of the most atrocious misdeeds, but they -would not talk of them. On one occasion in the -barrack room a miscreant who had killed and cut -up a child of five began to relate the horrible details; -how he had tempted the little one with a toy, -inveigled it into a private place, and there used his -murderous knife. He was one of the licensed buffoons -of the establishment, who as a rule found a -ready audience, but he was now received with one -unanimous cry of indignant disgust; and he was -shamed into silence. It was contrary to the unwritten -law of the prison to speak of such things.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another case was that of a parricide, a young -man of noble birth who had filled the post of a public -functionary. A wastrel, a spendthrift and a -reckless gambler, he had been a cause of constant -annoyance to his father, who remonstrated with -him in vain. The son had reason to believe that -he would inherit a substantial sum from his father, -so he killed him in order to come into the estate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>more quickly and thus continue his debaucheries. -Presently the corpse was unearthed from a drain; -the head had been severed and placed on a cushion -beside the body. The parricide’s crime was brought -home to him, he was tried and convicted, degraded -and deprived of his privileges, and sentenced to -twenty years’ hard labour. At the <em>ostrog</em> he was -despised by his fellow convicts because he was -shameless and permitted himself to talk lightly of -his crime. He sometimes spoke of his father with -extraordinary callousness, and once, in boasting of -the hereditary good health of his family, quietly -remarked, “My father, for example, never was ill -until the day of his death”—by the hand of his -unnatural son.<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c013'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. In the latter part of his book Dostoyevski corrects this -early account of the supposed parricide, and tells us that it -was all a mistake. It was a grave case of judicial error. -The convict, when he had served ten years’ imprisonment, was -proved to be entirely innocent. When the real murderers had -been discovered and had confessed their crime, the wronged -man was set at liberty.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>This animal insensibility carried so far was no -doubt phenomenal. It showed an organic defect -in the man’s nature, but conscience still lurked in -its lowest depths, and there were times when he -was vexed and tormented by great agitation in his -sleep, when he cried aloud, “Hold him! Cut off -his head!” Outwardly, in his waking hours, he -never showed the slightest signs of remorse or repentance, -and this is characteristic of the great bulk -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>of criminals. Dostoyevski avers that in all the -years he mixed with them he never noticed even -the most fugitive indication of regret or moral compunction -for crimes committed. “The criminal,” -he adds, “who has revolted against society, hates -it, and considers himself in the right; society was -wrong, not he. Is he not, moreover, undergoing -his punishment? Accordingly, he is absolved, acquitted -in his own eyes.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Most convicts exhibited similar personal traits. -A few showed a gay, frivolous demeanour, which -drew down on them the unmixed contempt of their -fellows; the larger number were morose, envious, -inordinately vain, presumptuous, susceptible and excessively -ceremonious. Their first endeavour was -to bear themselves with dignity; to submit to discipline -and obey the rules, but with self-respect, so -long as they were enforced fairly and reasonably. -Established usage had great weight, almost as much -as official regulations. Every new arrival was soon -brought into line and found his level with the rest. -A man at first reception might seek to show off -and astonish his fellows by bold talk and loud -threats, but it was all wasted breath; he soon -yielded submission, willingly or unwillingly, unconsciously -perhaps, to the predominant tone of the -place.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Class distinctions were not ignored in this Russian -<em>ostrog</em>, but convicts of noble birth, of title even, -and educated as gentlemen, had an especially hard -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>time. In English prisons such persons receive a -certain consideration from their fellows, are addressed -civilly and treated with some respect. At -Omsk they were cordially disliked and subjected to -many annoyances. There were some half-dozen, -like Dostoyevski, of noble rank, who had been degraded -from their position and were looked down -upon and despised by the other convicts, who would -not admit them as members of their class. A -gibe commonly heard was, “Ah, Monsieur’s carriage -once drove people in the street; now Monsieur -picks hemp.” Their comrades were aware of -their peculiar sufferings and made sport of them. -“It was above all when we were working together,” -declares Dostoyevski, “that we had most to endure, -for our strength was not equal to theirs and we -were seldom of much use at labour. Nothing is -more difficult than to gain the confidence of the -common people; above all such people as these!”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The unequal effect of the punishment was very -marked in the <em>ostrog</em>. “A common man,” says our -author, “sent to hard labour, finds himself in kindred -society, perhaps even in a more interesting -society than he has known. He loses his native -place and his family, but his ordinary surroundings -are much the same as before. A man of education, -condemned by law to the same punishment as the -common man, suffers incomparably more. He must -stifle all his needs, all his habits; he must descend -into a lower sphere, must breathe another air. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>is like a fish thrown upon the sand. The punishment -he undergoes, nominally equal for all criminals -according to law, is ten times more painful -and more severe for him than for the common man. -This is an incontestable truth, even if one thinks -only of the material habits that must be sacrificed.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The principle holds good in penal codes everywhere. -As a general rule, there is no differentiating -treatment, no regard for antecedent conditions of -rank, position, or education, and it is argued, no -doubt rightly, that the offender of the better class -knows better and has no excuse for lapsing into -crime. When he falls, it is under the impulse of -irresistible evil nature, and his misdeeds will rival -the worst. There were five ex-nobles at Omsk, and -the majority, three at least, were incorrigible blackguards, -criminal to the backbone. Dostoyevski -sketches their portraits in a few incisive strokes and -in the blackest colours. One was a man who offered -the most repulsive example of degradation and -baseness to which he may fall whose feeling of honour -has perished within him. This youth acted as -spy and informer for the governor, to whom, by -the intermediary of a servant, he repeated all that -was said and done in the prison. It was a base -trade which he had adopted when at large in St. -Petersburg and before he had completed his studies. -Being short of funds, he sold himself to the police -authorities after a quarrel with his parents, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>betrayed a number of associates to obtain the means -for satisfying the grossest and most licentious desires. -At last, moved by insatiable greed, he joined -in a mad plot which he should have seen was hopeless, -for he was not without intelligence, and was -arrested, tried and condemned to ten years as a -hard-labour convict in Siberia. He accepted his -fate without repining; he could fall no lower, and -as a convict he might perpetrate any villainies without -shame or compunction.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“I think of this disgusting creature,” says Dostoyevski, -“as of some monstrous phenomenon. -During the many years I lived in the midst of murderers, -debauchees and proved rascals, never in my -life did I meet a case of such complete moral debasement, -determined corruption and shameless turpitude.... -To me he was never more than a piece -of flesh furnished with teeth and a stomach, greedy -for the most offensive and ferocious animal enjoyments, -and ready to assassinate anyone to compass -them. He was a perfect monster, a mere animal -restrained by no feelings, no rules of conduct.... -Fire, plague, famine, no matter what scourge, is -preferable to the presence of such a man in human -society.... The common-law convicts maintained -friendly relations with him and were more affable -with him than with us. They thought nothing of -his base actions; espionage and denunciation were -in the air as natural products of the place, and the -kindly attitude of the authorities, whose creature -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>he was, gave him importance and a certain value -in the eyes of his fellows.... He poisoned the -first days of my imprisonment and drove me nearly -to despair. I was terrified by the mass of baseness -and cowardice into which I had been thrown. I -imagined that every one else was as foul and contemptible -as he.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Some years later this man was the hero in an -escape from the prison which caused considerable -commotion at the time. A change had come over -his circumstances, for his patron and protector, the -major for whom he acted as spy, had left the prison, -and his palmy days were a thing of the past. He -then spent his time in forging passports, but pined -for more remunerative employment, and at last -resolved to make a bold stroke for freedom. He -allied himself with another convict named Kulikov, -a man of active, enterprising character, full of -strength and self-reliance, who calculated the -chances coolly and was prepared to take any risks -to get away from the prison and lead his own life -outside. They were well suited to each other, -equally bold and determined, equally intelligent and -cunning.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Their first step was to seduce a soldier to assist -them in their flight. According to the rules, convicts -were never suffered to go about without an -escort of one or more soldiers, but thus attended -they might leave the prison precincts and enter -the town. The man selected for an escort was a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>Pole who had been in trouble, and had served in -one of the disciplinary companies, but had at length -rejoined his battalion, in which he rose to the rank -of corporal. He was a prey to home-sickness in -an acute form, and was prepared to risk much to -return to his native country. He was quite willing -to further the plans of the intending fugitives, and -managed to form with them part of a force detailed -to execute some repairs at a distant military -barrack at that time empty of troops. In the middle -of the job, the corporal took off his two prisoners, -ostensibly to fetch some tools from another -shop. Kulikov, with a wink, added that he would -bring back some vodka, but the liquor never arrived -nor the prisoners. They had gone into the -town to a secure hiding place, where they changed -their clothes and got rid of their irons and lay -by waiting for a quiet moment to escape after the -first excitement had blown over.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Their disappearance was not realised for some -hours. The hue and cry was then raised and a -thorough search instituted. The authorities were -most unhappy, for stringent regulations had been -neglected; the convicts should have been guarded -by at least two men apiece and not allowed to come -and go as they pleased. Inside the prison everything -was turned upside down, and the prisoners -were repeatedly searched and cross-questioned. -The guards were doubled in the prison and beyond -it, expresses were despatched to all police stations -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>around, and mounted Cossacks beat up all the surrounding -country. It was comparatively open -ground; the forests were at some distance and no -cover was at hand. At the end of a week the -prison-breakers were recaptured in a village only -seventy versts distant, and were brought back to -the <em>ostrog</em>, chained hand and foot. Severe flogging -was the certain retribution for attempted escape; -Kulikov was adjudged by a court-martial to suffer -fifteen hundred lashes, and the originator of the -plot five hundred, but as he was consumptive, he -was excused from a portion of the punishment by -the doctor of the prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another well-born convict was of a character so -different that he merits a detailed description. His -name was Akim Akimych, and he had been an officer -who, when serving as a sub-lieutenant in the -Caucasus, had put a small tributary prince to death. -He was in command of a petty fort in the mountains, -and his neighbour, the prince, made a night -attack upon it, meaning to burn it about his ears, -but the enterprise failed. Akimych pretended not -to be aware of his real assailant, and invited the -prince to come and pay him a friendly visit. A -great show was made; the garrison was paraded -and the guest royally entertained. After dinner -Akimych took the prince severely to task, reproached -him with his treachery, and shot him. -He at once reported this summary action to his -superior officer, who placed him under arrest and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>brought him to trial by court-martial, which sentenced -him to death; but the penalty was commuted -to twelve years’ imprisonment in Siberia. -He bowed submissively to his hard fate, but defended -his conduct. “The prince had tried to burn -my fort. What was I to do? Was I to thank him -for it?” he asked pertinently.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Akimych was a strange medley of opposite qualities. -In aspect tall and much emaciated, in temper -obstinate, and not very well educated, he was excessively -argumentative and particular about the -accuracy of details. He was very excitable, very -quarrelsome, easily offended and most sensitive. -The other convicts, who generally despised the -nobles, laughed at him when not afraid of him, and -he claimed at once a footing of perfect equality -with them, which he maintained by insulting them, -calling them thieves and vagabonds and, if necessary, -beating them. He had a keen appreciation -of justice and fair play and would interfere in anything -he thought unjustifiable, whether it concerned -him or not. He was esteemed for his straightforward -ways and not a little for his cleverness and -skill with his fingers.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Akimych could do almost anything; he was an -adept at all trades, was a good cobbler and boot-maker, -an excellent locksmith, a painter, and a -carver and gilder. These trades he had acquired -in the prison by merely watching and imitating his -fellow workmen. One handicraft at which he laboured -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>assiduously was the making of variegated -paper lanterns, which he sold at a good price in -the town, from where orders came in abundance. -He also manufactured baskets and toys, so that he -was never without money, which he spent in the -purchase of shirts, pillows, tea and extra food. -Akimych laboured methodically and regularly until -a late hour in the night, and then put away his -tools, unfolded his mattress, repeated his prayers -and turned in to sleep the sleep of the just.</p> - -<p class='c013'>After the night closing, the interior of the barrack -became a hive of industry. It looked like a -large workshop. Strictly speaking, private labour -was not permitted, but this was winked at as the -only means of keeping the convicts quiet during -the long hours of a winter’s evening. They were -then quite safe from interruption. During the day, -some of the under officers might come in prying -and poking about, and the convicts had to be on -their guard. As soon as the gates were padlocked, -however, everyone sat down in his place and began -his work. The interior of the barrack was suddenly -lighted up; every man had his own candle -and his wooden candlestick, and they all set to work -without fear of interruption. Work was not exactly -forbidden, but the possession of tools was, -and the order was secretly evaded. Each man hungered -for the earnings of this private labour, a -few coppers, and that it apparently was allowed in -this Russian <em>ostrog</em>, unlike prisons elsewhere, was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>a tangible boon, a certain small compensation for -the loss of liberty. Money might be spent, surreptitiously, -in buying tobacco and drink, both strictly -prohibited, but all the more sweet because indulgence -in them was forbidden. Besides, if not -quickly expended, the money might be confiscated -in the constant and minute searches made. The -prisoners were being continually “turned over,” -and ruthlessly deprived of any money that might be -found. The only safe plan was to entrust the cash -to one old man, who was strictly honest and extremely -cunning at concealment. One of his hiding -places was in the stockade at some height, where -the stump end of a branch protruded; it was removable, -and within was a cavity running down -to some depth. The secret was jealously guarded, -for the convicts were expert thieves and without a -scrap of conscience.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Dostoyevski, for the safe keeping of his small -possessions, bought a small box with a lock and -key. This was forced open the first night and -everything was abstracted. At another time, a -comrade who pretended a warm friendship, stole -his pocket Bible from him, the only book he was -permitted to possess, and sold it forthwith for -drink. The friend had been asked to carry it into -the barrack only a few yards away. On the way -he met a purchaser and at once disposed of the -Bible for a few kopecks. He confessed the theft -the same evening, explaining that he had a sudden -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>craving for vodka and could not resist it. When -the thirst was on him he would have committed -murder to gratify it. He talked of the theft as -quite an ordinary incident, and when reproved was -not in the least ashamed. He listened calmly, -agreed that it was a very useful book and was -sorry he had taken it, but in his inner heart thought -the grievance was mere nonsense.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Ameliorations of this life might be secured (for -money); recreations were possible, though they -were mostly vicious, and amusements even might -be surreptitiously enjoyed or winked at by the authorities. -Human nature is so constituted that it -becomes habituated to anything, and the inmates -of the <em>ostrog</em> learned to endure its worst evils, and, -except for the pain of personal chastisement or the -acute sufferings engendered by disease, they spent -their weary, unlovely days with dogged, callous -indifference.</p> - -<p class='c013'>At daybreak every morning a drum beaten near -the principal entrance roused all from the last refreshing -sleep obtained in the small hours when -mosquitoes and more loathsome insects had desisted -from their attacks. The convicts rose from -their plank beds to the music of clanking leg irons, -their inseparable companions, and, trembling with -cold as the icy air rushed in through the unbarred -open gates, gathered around the water pails, took -water into their mouths and washed their faces -with their hands. These pails had been filled the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>night before by appointed orderlies. Personal -cleanliness is not entirely neglected by the peasant -class in Russia, nor even by convicts, and the periodical -vapour bath was greatly appreciated. The -orderlies, like the cooks, were chosen by the convicts -themselves from among their numbers; they -did not work with the rest, but, as elsewhere, attended -to the washing of the floors, the condition -of camp bedsteads, and the provision of water for -ablutions and for drinking.</p> - -<p class='c013'>After roll-call, the entire number proceeded to -the kitchen, where the first meal of the day was -eaten in common. The convicts, in their sheepskin -overcoats, received their ration of black bread in -their parti-coloured, round, peakless caps, from the -cooks who had cut up the loaves for them with the -“rascal,” the prison knife, which was the only -weapon permitted in the place. As many as could -find room, sat grouped around the tables and -laughed noisily; some soaked pieces of bread in -the cups of sour tea, <em>kvas</em>, in front of them; others -drank the tea they were permitted to provide for -themselves. This privilege was extended to food -generally, and the convicts who could pay for it -bought their own, which was cooked in the public -kitchen and substituted for the ordinary prison -fare. Osip, one of the prison cooks, or “cook -maids” as they were commonly called, prepared -the food, which was purchased in the town market -by the old soldiers who were attached to the prison -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>to watch over the general discipline and good order -of the place. They were good-natured veterans, -always ready to run messages and purvey -to the needs of the prisoners.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Dostoyevski at first could not stomach the regulation -cabbage soup, but eventually overcame his -repugnance. Meanwhile, he had his own private -table, which cost him no more than a couple of -rubles monthly, and he had a morsel of roast meat -every day, cooked by Osip in some mysterious fashion -that was never divulged. Osip was practically -his servant, and was paid regular wages. Suchilov -was another who acted as personal attendant, boiled -the tea-urn, performed commissions, mended -clothes and greased the great-boots four times -monthly. Suchilov was an “exchange,” a convict -who had changed places with another of longer -sentence, assuming the punishment for a sum in -cash. He was a poor devil, always impecunious, -ready for any menial occupation and regularly employed -as a lookout man by the gamblers when at -play. For five kopecks a night he kept watch in -the passage in absolute darkness and in temperatures -varying between winter cold and extreme -summer heat, to give alarm if any superior officer -paid a night visit, for when caught at cards the -convicts would pay the penalty with their backs,—all -would be soundly flogged. But the terrors of -corporal punishment did not conquer the passion -for play. There were always men who had the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>wherewithal,—a small piece of carpet as board, -or “deck,” a candle and a greasy pack of well-thumbed -cards. The fortunate possessor of these -necessaries received fifteen kopecks for their use. -The game played was chiefly <em>gorka</em>, or “three -leaves,” a pure game of chance, and it was continued -until far into the night, often until the break -of dawn, or within a few minutes of the morning -drum. The stakes were for copper coins, but relatively -large sums were won and lost.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The passion for gambling was deeply rooted and -still consumes the Russian prisoner. Among the -exiles travelling in pain and anguish across the -Siberian continent, it had such a hold that men -would risk their last farthing of the meagre allowance -issued for daily rations, and if unlucky, would -be obliged to go hungry or depend entirely upon -charity. Cards were generally forthcoming, but -when none were on hand, various ingenious devices -were put in practice on the road. One was -to spread an overcoat, or soiled linen foot-robe, -on the floor of the prison room, and the game was -to guess the exact number of fleas that would jump -upon it in a given length of time, and back the -opinion with a wager. Another plan was to chalk -two small circles, one within the other, on one of -the sleeping platforms, <em>nary</em>, and place a number of -vermin in the inner circle. Then the player would -bet on the animal he believed would first cross the -line into the outer circle. These unsavoury methods -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>were also pursued in the old English war prison -at Dartmoor.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A craving for strong drink was constantly exhibited, -and strange to say, could generally be gratified. -A large business was done in smuggling -spirits into the <em>ostrog</em>. The trade was hazardous -but proportionately lucrative. It was undertaken -by the convict who was ignorant of any handicraft -or too idle to acquire one. His capital was his -back, which he was ready to lay bare to the lash -if detected in the nefarious traffic, and he must -possess a small amount of cash to expend in the -vodka. This money he entrusted to some resident -in the town, soldier, shopkeeper or free labourer, -who brought it up to the prison and concealed it -in some hiding place agreed upon outside the gates, -on the works to which the convict had access. The -stuff paid contribution in transit, and was well -watered, but the convict buyer had no redress and -took what he could get. With the fluid a length -of bullock’s intestines was left, which, when -washed, was filled with the vodka and wound -around the waist of the convict about to introduce -it into the prison. The carrier ran the risk of detection -when searched, but he had a bribe convenient -to slip into the hand of the corporal at the -gate, and he might have the good luck to escape -observation. If he failed, he paid the penalty of -a severe flogging. On the other hand, the forbidden -liquor might win through, and the convict -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>dealer would then have a supply of stuff for the -convict customers among his comrades.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As soon as enough money had been earned or -stolen, the time was ripe for a carouse, a drunken -holiday, when the whole sum, painfully put together, -kopeck by kopeck, was lavished in one -glorious burst of self-indulgence. The man was -resolved to enjoy himself. “These days of rejoicing -had been looked forward to long beforehand,” -says Dostoyevski. “He had dreamed of -them during the endless winter nights, during his -hardest labour, and the prospect had supported him -under his severest trials. The dawn of this day -so impatiently awaited has just appeared ... accordingly -he takes his savings to the drink seller -who at first gives him vodka, almost pure, but -gradually as the bottle gets more and more empty, -he fills it up with water. It may be imagined that -many glasses and much money are required before -the convict is drunk. But, as he is out of the habit, -the little alcohol remaining in the liquid easily intoxicates, -he drinks all he can get, pledges or sells -all his own clothes and then those belonging to -the government. When he has made away with -his last shirt, he lies down in a drunken sleep and -wakes up next day with a bad headache.” Then -he began again to work for many weary months -and amass the means for another debauch.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As for the drink seller, he made his profit to be -spent in adding to his stock in trade. But this time -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>he drank it himself. Enough of trade, he would -have a little amusement. Accordingly he ate, drank -and paid for a little music, and kept it up for several -days until his money was gone, unless, indeed, -misfortune overtook him. It might be that some -of the officers had noticed his condition, and he -was dragged before the major in the orderly room, -where he was arraigned, convicted and punished -with the rods. Then he shook himself like a beaten -dog, and after a few days resumed his trade as -drink seller. Detection was not frequent, for the -convicts would do all they could to shield a man -under the influence of drink. Russians have generally -a sympathy for drunkenness. Among convicts -it amounted to worship. The condition implied -aristocratic distinction, and the man in his -cups swaggered and showed himself off with a -great assumption of superiority.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The phrase “pay for a little music” needs explanation. -A convict in funds and half drunk was -in the habit of hiring a musician to make a greater -show. There was one who had been a bandsman -in the army and who possessed a fiddle which he -was ready to play for anyone who paid him, and -he would follow his employer about from barrack -to barrack, grinding out dance tunes with his utmost -strength and skill. His face showed his disgust -and boredom, but if he slackened his arm he -was roughly reminded to go on more briskly and -earn his wage properly.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>This love of ostentatious extravagance found -other outlets. Drinking to excess was not the only -form of self-indulgence. Gormandising was another. -The convict when in funds would treat -himself to a fine feast, the materials for which were -brought in from the town by the old soldier go-between -above mentioned. The occasion chosen -was always on some religious festival and began -by the convict placing a wax candle before the holy -image or <em>ikon</em> in its honoured corner. Then he -would dress himself with extreme care and sit -down to dinner in state. He would devour course -after course,—fish, meat, patties,—gorging himself -quite alone. It was seldom that the selfish -creature invited any comrade to share his repast.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A fondness for new clothes was very noticeable -in the prosperous convict, and he was not forbidden -to substitute the garments of his choice for the -prison uniform, which consisted of a coarse shirt, -long gray dressing gown, loose drawers and peakless -cap. Their taste in clothes ran to gay waistcoats -and fancy trousers, coloured shirts, and belts -with metal clasps. On Sundays the dandies in the -prison put on their best clothes to strut about the -barrack yard. But the glory of display soon -yielded to the temptation to buy drink and make -a little cash. The evening of the very day on which -they were first worn the smart clothes would disappear, -sold or pledged to the convict pawnbrokers, -ever ready for business.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>Usury was followed in the <em>ostrog</em> quite as a profession. -Money was borrowed on all kinds of -pledges, often upon articles of equipment, the property -of the government. There was no good faith -about the transaction. When the money had been -advanced, the borrower would go at once and inform -the authorities that goods belonging to the -state were in the unlawful possession of the usurer, -who was forthwith obliged to give them up -and accept his loss with the usual penalty of the -lash.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A notable specimen of the dealers in vodka was -a convict named Gazin, a terrible creature of gigantic -proportions and enormous bodily strength. -“A more ferocious and more monstrous creature -could not exist. He was a Tartar with an enormous -and deformed head, like a gigantic spider -of the size of a man.” The strangest reports were -current about him. He was said to have been at -one time a soldier; to have been repeatedly exiled, -and to have as often escaped only to be recaptured. -He had been guilty of the most frightful crimes. -He took a delight in killing small children, whom -he attracted to some deserted spot, terrified into -convulsions, tortured horribly and then murdered. -In the prison, however, he seldom exhibited his -worst traits. He was generally quiet in demeanour, -rarely quarrelsome, and careful to avoid disputes, -having too great a contempt for his companions -and too good an opinion of himself. His face was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>not without intelligence, but cruel and derisive in -expression like his smile.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Gazin was the richest of all the vodka sellers, -and at regular intervals used his stock in trade for -self indulgence. Twice yearly he got completely -drunk and when in his cups displayed all his brutal -ferocity. As he grew more and more excited, he -assailed his comrades with gibes, invectives and -venomous satire long since prepared. When quite -intoxicated, he waxed furious and, flourishing his -knife, truculently rushed at some one to kill him. -Then a combined attack was made upon him, and -he was disarmed after he had been made unconscious -by blows upon the pit of the stomach. When -well beaten, he was wrapped up in his pelisse and -thrown on to his camp bed to sleep off the effects -of drink. On every occasion exactly the same -thing occurred; the prisoners knew what would -happen as did Gazin himself. This went on for -years until his physical energy began to fail; he -weakened, complained of illness, and frequently -became a patient in hospital, where he was well -treated and in due course died.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Gazin, in one of his drunken bouts, fell foul of -Dostoyevski and nearly murdered him. He came -into the kitchen one day, followed by his fiddler, -and staggered up to a table where our author sat -with a friend or two drinking. He smiled maliciously -and asked with an insolent jeer how they -could afford to buy tea. No answer was given, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>as any contradiction would have maddened him. -Their continued silence had just the same effect. -“You must have money,” he went on, “a great -deal of money; but tell me, are you sent to hard -labour to drink tea? Please tell me; I should like -to know.” Still there was no reply. He trembled -and grew livid with rage and looking round for -some weapon of offence, seized the heavy bread box -and rushed at Dostoyevski, raising it over his head. -Death seemed imminent for one and all when a -diversion was fortunately created by a voice crying, -“Gazin! they have stolen your vodka.” The miscreant -instantly dropped the box and ran off to -recover his treasure. It was never known whether -there had been any theft, or whether the words -were invented as a stratagem to save the lives -threatened.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The vodka seller was in his glory at Christmas -time, when there were great festivities and a -drunken orgy was in progress with the tacit permission -of the authorities. Gazin kept sober until -toward the end of the celebration. He stood by the -side of his camp bedstead, beneath which he had -concealed his store of drink, after bringing it from -his customary hiding place deep buried under the -snow in the barrack yard. “He smiled knowingly -when he saw his customers arrive in crowds. He -drank nothing himself; he waited for that till the -last day when he had emptied the pockets of his -comrades,” who degenerated into the wildest excesses, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>singing, laughing and crying by turns, patrolling -the barrack room in bands, and striking -the strings of their <em>balalaiki</em> or native guitars.</p> - -<p class='c013'>To drink to excess was the chief way to find an -outlet for rejoicing; it was also the means of deadening -the hideous anticipation of acute and inevitable -pain. A convict sentenced to be flogged invariably -contrived to swallow the largest possible -dose of spirits beforehand, often a long time ahead -and at a fabulous price. A certain conviction prevailed -that a drunken man suffered less from the -plet or “the stick” than a sober one in the full -possession of his faculties. In one case, an ex-soldier -awaiting punishment infused a quantity of -snuff into a bottle of vodka and drank it off at once. -He was seized with violent convulsions, vomited -blood, and was taken to hospital unconscious. His -lungs had been hopelessly affected, phthisis declared -itself and he soon died of consumption.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER V <br /> LIFE IN THE OSTROG</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The hospital life at Omsk—Humanity of the prison doctors—Tender -treatment for victims of the lash—Sympathy -shown to one another by convicts—The prison bath—Different -classes of criminals—The murderer Petrov—Sirotkin; -his history—Luka Kuzmich, the murderer of six -men—The “old believer” from Little Russia—Ali, the -young Tartar—Two brigands—The Jew, Isaiah Fomich; -the prison usurer—The festival of Christmas—Gifts of -food and drink sent in from the town—Prison theatricals—Convicts’ -pets—Tanning and skin dressing carried on -by the convicts—Dostoyevski’s release.</p> - -<p class='c012'>The one bright spot in the <em>ostrog</em> was the -hospital. It was no part, however, of the prison -proper. The convicts when sick were lodged in a -couple of wards in the military hospital, which -stood outside the fortress at a distance of five or -six hundred yards. It was a large building of one -story, painted yellow, spacious and well managed. -Dostoyevski bears witness to the humanity and -good feeling of the prison doctors, who made no -distinction between the convicts and those who had -never come under the ban of the law. In Russia -the common people alone vie with the doctors in -showing compassion for prisoners, whom they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>never reproach with their misdeeds, satisfied that -they are suffering sufficiently in working out the -sentences imposed upon them. The convicts were -grateful for the kindness shown them, and were -in the habit of saying that the doctors were like -fathers to them and that they could not praise them -too highly. This was also the common attitude of -the peasantry toward the doctors, who in Russia -generally enjoy the affection and respect of the -people, although the latter would often prefer to -take the empirical remedies of some old witch than -go into a hospital and be treated with regular medicine, -being influenced by the fantastic stories currently -reported of the horrors perpetrated in hospitals. -These fears vanish when they have once -made acquaintance with the doctors and their humane -and compassionate methods of practice. Personal -prejudices disappear with personal knowledge.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The prison doctors were careful and attentive to -their patients, questioning them minutely about -their ailments, diagnosing anxiously and prescribing -the necessary remedies with judgment and -much medical skill. They were quick to detect imposture -and malingering, but were not too hard -upon the pretended invalids, whom they could forgive -for seeking the ease and comfort of the hospital -with its warm lodging, its bed with a mattress -and the more palatable food. They had a scientific -name for feigned disease, which they styled <em>febris -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>catharalis</em>, a formula quite understood, and an -imaginary malady required a week’s treatment. -But they drew the line at last, and refused to be -further imposed upon. If any one seemed disposed -to linger on in hospital, the doctor would say -plainly, “Come, come, you have had your rest, -you must go out now and take no more liberties.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>One case of persistent malingering must be -quoted. It was of a class not unknown in western -prisons. A convict long suffered from a seemingly -incurable disease of the eyes for which no treatment -availed, although plasters, blisters, and leeches -were tried. This particular prisoner was under -sentence to receive a thousand lashes, and he was -eager to postpone the punishment as long as possible. -The most desperate devices have been tried -for this purpose, sometimes even a murderous attack -upon an officer or comrade, which would entail -a fresh trial and an additional penalty, but -which would also delay the flogging. The man -with the sore eyes had some secret method of aggravating -the disease which was never discovered, -but its use was eventually checked by another -operation applied to the back of the patient’s neck. -The skin was taken up into the form of a blister, -into which a double incision was made, one on each -side and a thick thread of cotton was passed -through the wound. Every day at a certain hour -the thread was pulled backward and forward so -that the wound would suppurate and never heal. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>The torture of this was intolerable, and to escape -the continual suffering the convict volunteered to -leave the hospital. Almost immediately after he -went out, his eyes became well and as soon as the -neck was healed he underwent his corporal punishment.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was a painful moment for the hospital when -the victim of a severe flogging was brought in -fresh from the lash. He was received with grave -composure and a respect proportioned to the enormity -of his offence and the amount of punishment -it had entailed. Those who had suffered most -cruelly were thought more of than the mere deserter -guilty of a minor military crime. If the -patient were too much injured to attend to himself, -he received even more sympathy. The surgeons -knew they were leaving him in kindly and -experienced hands. The treatment of the poor -back, all scored and mangled, was extremely simple: -the constant application of a piece of linen -steeped in cold water. A very delicate operation -inflicting acute torture was the picking out from -the lacerated wounds the scraps and fragments of -the twigs when the flogging had been performed -by rods. Yet the sufferers usually exhibited extraordinary -stoicism. Dostoyevski says: “I have -seen many convicts who had been whipped cruelly. -I do not remember one who uttered a groan. Only -after such an experience the countenance becomes -pale and discomposed, the eyes glitter, the look wanders -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>and the lips tremble so that the patient sometimes -bites them till they bleed.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Quoting further and speaking of one man just -flogged, the same writer says: “He was only -twenty years old. He had been a soldier and was -rather a fine man, tall and well-made, with a -bronzed skin. His back, uncovered down to the -waist, had been seriously beaten and his body trembled -with fever beneath the damp sheet applied to -his bleeding sores. For the first half hour he -walked up and down the room in agony. I looked -in his face; he seemed to be thinking of nothing, -his eyes had a strange expression at once wild and -timid; they fixed themselves with difficulty upon -surrounding objects. He stared at the hot tea I -had before me steaming in its cup. I offered it to -the poor creature who stood there shivering, with -chattering teeth, and he drank it down at one gulp, -without looking at me or making a sign, then put -the cup down silently and resumed his walk. His -pain was too intense for words or thanks. No one -questioned him or spoke; the other prisoners attended -to the changing of the cold compresses, -thinking rightly that he would prefer that to outspoken -compassion, and the sufferer seemed satisfied -and grateful to be left severely alone.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>That the convicts, even the most criminal and -degraded, were not quite heartless or insensible to -the finer feelings, was to be seen in their demeanour -when a sick comrade died in hospital. The passing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>away of one poor victim of consumption is told -with infinite pathos and much painful realism. -Toward the end he became almost unconscious, his -sight was confused, he recognised no one and was -evidently suffering acutely. His respiration was -painful, deep and irregular; his breast rose and -fell convulsively as he struggled for breath, and -he cast off his bedding as an intolerable burden. -When exposed, it was terrible to see his immensely -long body—with fleshless arms and legs, and ribs -as clearly marked as a skeleton’s—which was -absolutely naked but for the cross pendent from -his neck and his leg irons. As his last moment -approached, a death-like stillness prevailed, no one -spoke or only in whispers. The convicts stepped -on tiptoe across the floor, gazing furtively at the -dying man, who caught with trembling hand at -the cross, which seemed to be suffocating him, and -tried to tear it off; the rattling in his throat grew -more and more pronounced, and at last he died.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The spectators behaved with impressive reverence. -One convict closed the dead man’s eyes, -crossing himself, and the rest imitated the action. -The corporal on duty came in, removed his helmet -and also crossed himself, as he looked intently at -the naked, shrivelled corpse still loaded with irons, -which fell to the ground with a sharp sound and -rattled along it as the body was lifted from the -bed and carried out. The spell was broken; every -one spoke as usual, and the voice of the corporal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>was heard calling for the blacksmith to remove -chains no longer needed as a restraint. The spirit -had taken flight; no physical precaution could -serve to prevent its escape.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It is hardly necessary to dilate upon the cruel -and indefensible practice, still observed by some -so-called civilised countries, of imposing fetters -upon those whom the law has condemned to the -loss of personal liberty. The poor excuse of their -need for safe custody is always pleaded, and the -best answer is that of the old English judge who -suggested that gaolers build their prison walls -higher when he forbade the use of irons. No such -argument can be used with the Russian authorities, -who would still maintain the necessity of irons as -a means of preventing escape, although they have -never availed, entirely, and they would urge as a -secondary reason that their use implies a moral -degradation no less than a physical burden. It is -a well known fact that the determined convict can -and does constantly rid himself of his chains in -Russian prisons, by hammering out the rivets with -a stone, or elongating the basils sufficiently to allow -the ankles to be drawn through. But the retention -of irons upon convicts when sick and suffering cannot -be justified, viewed from any standpoint. -When men are really ill and must still carry their -chains unvaryingly in bed and in hospital, the cruelty -is manifest. In health it is found that the -limbs shrivel and waste away, but for those in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>fangs of disease, such as scurvy, phthisis or fever, -it is an added intolerable torment, altogether prejudicial, -postponing or often preventing recovery. -Yet the doctors themselves, kindly men, convinced -of their evil effects, hesitate to recommend the -removal of irons from their patients in the very -worst stages of illness and, as we have just seen, -death itself is the only relief that can come.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The horrible inconvenience caused by those inseparable -companions is well illustrated by the difficulty -in putting on or taking off clothing, a rare -business, no doubt, for the convicts made few -changes and slept fully clothed, but it must be done -at the periodical visit to the public bath. The -chains were fastened to a leather waistbelt by two -straps, one for each leg, and they must be held up -in this way, or walking would be impossible. Each -end of the chain was attached to a ring loosely -fitting the leg so that a finger must be inserted -between the iron and the flesh; the straps were -necessary to keep the ring in its place, or the skin -would be chafed and broken the very first day. -To remove the trousers or the shirt is quite an art -and only slowly acquired.</p> - -<p class='c013'>We get a graphic description of the prison bath -as taken in collective fashion by a hundred convicts -at one time, all of them crowded into one small -apartment some twelve feet square. Not a single -scrap of space was unoccupied, they were huddled -together on benches tier above tier, so that the feet -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>of those above trampled on those below and the -leg chains became inextricably entangled and numbers -were trampled on or dragged about the floor. -The bath itself was like a drunken orgy; a dense -volume of steam filled the room and deluges of -dirty hot water were dashed to and fro from the -pailful carried by every bather. Everyone was -naked save for the rattling chains to which the -convicts howled a mad accompaniment. They -were maddened by the excitement, the tropical -heat, the smart of the blows self-administered or -struck by the hired rubbers, for convicts were -always to be found who for a kopeck or two were -willing to lay strokes on the heated flesh of the -employers with birch rods of twisted twigs. It -must have been a hideous scene, a great mass of -commingled humanity in a state of half intoxication, -shouting and shrieking at the top of their -voices. The steam grew thicker and thicker until -all were soaked and saturated with it, and their -bodies became scarlet in the intolerably burning -and overheated atmosphere.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The <em>ostrog</em> at Omsk contained a number of -widely differing types, embracing many classes of -crime, the most heinous as well as venial offences. -All classes and many nationalities of the widespread -Russian Empire were represented; well-bred -nobles, degraded from their rank and sent -to herd with serfs and peasants, and “old believers” -from little Russia, insurgent Poles, mutinous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>soldiers sentenced by court-martial for desertion -and grave acts of insubordination, mountaineers -from the Caucasus exiled for brigandage, and Mahometans -from Daghestan who lay in wait for -passing caravans and pillaged them and assassinated -the merchant travellers. There were murderers -in many varieties; Cain who killed slowly -and deliberately with deep malice and forethought, -and the slayer moved to murder by swiftly risen, -passionate impulse in a sudden irresistible access -of fury. Thieves of all sorts abounded; petty pilferers -and robbers on a grand scale; the wandering -tramps or <em>brodyagi</em> who had escaped from -durance to range the woods and steal from all -they met. There were also many smugglers, long -trained and practised in the traffic, who clung with -great attachment to the business and who were -constantly engaged in the clandestine introduction -of spirits into the prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The story of one murderer, Petrov, exhibits a -curious and somewhat uncommon character. He -had been a soldier and had suddenly revolted at -the ill-usage of his colonel who struck him one day -on parade. It was not the first time he had been -beaten, for the personal chastisement of their men -was by no means uncommon with Russian officers, -but on this occasion Petrov would not tamely submit, -and retaliated by stabbing the colonel to the -heart. It was said of him in prison that when the -spirit moved him, nothing would stop him; he was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>capable of anything, and he would kill a man without -the smallest hesitation or without showing the -slightest remorse. The evil temper in him was -easily aroused and was then ungovernable. Once -he was sentenced to be whipped for some minor -offence, no small punishment certainly, and he resolved -not to submit to it. He had been previously -flogged more than once and had borne his punishment -calmly and philosophically. But this time -he considered that he was innocent and wrongfully -sentenced. He meant to resist, even to go so far -as to kill the governor, if necessary, sooner than -yield. This major-governor was a much dreaded -being, a tyrannical disciplinarian, with lynx-like -eyes for the detection of any irregularity; he was -commonly called by the convicts “the man with -eight eyes.” His severe method had generally the -effect of irritating his charges, naturally ill-tempered -and irascible men.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Petrov made no secret of his fell purpose, and it -was known throughout the prison that when called -up for punishment he would make an end of the -major. He had successfully concealed a sharp-pointed -shoemaker’s awl, which he held ready in his -hand as he was marched under escort to the place of -execution. The prisoners, in breathless anticipation -of what they might see, clung close to the stockade, -peering through the interstices, for they believed the -major’s last hour had come. But the major, quite -ignorant of his impending doom, had suddenly decided -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>not to witness the flogging, and drove home -in his carriage leaving his lieutenant to superintend -the punishment parade. “God has saved him,” -ejaculated the convicts piously, and Petrov submitted -to his ordeal without a murmur. His anger -was against the major and it had disappeared when -the object was removed.</p> - -<p class='c013'>On another occasion, he had quarrelled with a -comrade over the possession of a worthless piece of -rag. They disputed with great violence and a collision -seemed inevitable. Suddenly Petrov turned -pale, his lips trembled, growing blue and bloodless, -his respiration became difficult, and slowly he approached -his antagonist step by step—he always -walked with naked feet—while a deathlike stillness -around succeeded the noisy chatter of the other convicts -in the yard. The man he threatened awaited -him tremblingly and suddenly blanched and gave in -by throwing the cloth of contention at his adversary, -using the most horrible and insulting language -toward him.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This Petrov was a man of contradictory traits. -In person he was of short stature, agile and strongly -built, with a pleasant face, a bold expression, white -regular teeth and an agreeable voice. He seemed -quite young, no more than thirty, although he was -fully forty years of age. He always appeared absent-minded -and had a habit of looking into the distance -over and beyond near objects. An attentive -listener, joining with animation in the talk, he would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>suddenly become silent, oppressed, as it were, with -disturbing thoughts. He was deemed a most resolute -character and inspired the utmost awe in every -one, as capable of anything if the caprice seized -him; ready to murder any one out of hand without -hesitation, and never deterred by the dread of subsequent -remorse. He generally showed tact and -forbearance in his relations with others, spoke to -them civilly and was not easily roused or annoyed.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Sirotkin was another type of ex-soldier who had -found military discipline insufferable and was resolved -to escape from it at any cost. All went -wrong with him; every one was harsh and cruel -and he was forever being punished, and sobbing as -if broken-hearted in some remote corner. One dark -night when on sentry duty he was so unutterably -sad that he placed the muzzle of his piece to his -breast and pressed the trigger with his big toe. The -gun missed fire twice; then he paced his beat carrying -his musket reversed. He was checked for this -by the captain of the guard, whereupon he bayonetted -his officer then and there. He received a -long sentence and could never realise that he richly -deserved it. He was an enigma to all; mild-mannered, -with tranquil blue eyes, a clear complexion -and a soft air, and seemingly quite incapable of a -murderous crime. When addressed, he answered -quickly and with deference, but otherwise spoke -little and rarely laughed. There was an expression -in his eyes as of a child of ten; he cared for nothing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>but ginger-bread cakes, on which he lavished the -small sums he sometimes earned, although he was -lazy and apathetic and had no trade.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Luka Kuzmich was a convict who had killed as -many as six men in cold blood and was much given -to glory in his misdeeds. Yet for all his bragging -words he was despised by his comrades, who -summed him up as a conceited swaggerer inspiring -no real fear. He often told the story of a crime -of which he was especially proud, the murder of a -major in another prison, but it made no impression -because of his vanity and self-sufficiency. The major -was a bully, one of those who used the blasphemous -formula, customary at times with common men -promoted undeservedly to high office, and who -cried to his charges, “I will teach you to behave -yourselves—I am your Czar, your God!” Luka, -after upbraiding his comrades for not resenting -these pretensions, borrowed the “rascal,” the one -sharp knife permitted to be kept in the kitchen, went -up to the major, and stabbed him in the intestines. -He gained great notoriety for this horrible deed, -and a crowd assembled to witness the infliction of -the five hundred lashes given him for the crime, but -no one in the prison thought the more of him when -he told the story, or believed him when he posed -as a very terrible person.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In sharp but pleasing contrast to these miscreants -were convicts who had undoubtedly broken the law, -but from mistaken motives,—under pressure of religious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>dissent, or in obedience to and by the example -of elders. One man belonged to the sect of -“old believers,” dissenters in Little Russia from the -orthodox state religion, and when a number of them -had been converted at Starodub, this old man, -Notey, bitterly resented the building of a new Greek -church and joined with others to burn it down. -This act of incendiarism was visited with a sentence -of imprisonment which this well-to-do shopkeeper -accepted courageously, convinced that he was “a -sufferer for the true faith.” He bore his penalty as -a martyrdom and was proud of it, firmly believing -he had done well in destroying an opposition church. -A peaceable, kindly old man of sixty years, he had -a mild, good-natured face and clear limpid eyes -which were surrounded with many little wrinkles. -He was of a gay, light-hearted temperament, ready -to crack jokes with his fellows, not with the coarse -cynical laughter of other convicts, but with something -of simple childish glee. He had quickly acquired -the respect and good will of all the prisoners, -who had such implicit confidence in him that -he was the universal banker trusted to hold and conceal -their little hoards of cash and to honestly account -for all moneys deposited with him.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In spite of the firmness with which he endured -his hard fate, he was tormented by profound and incurable -grief. At night, or in the small hours, he -was in the habit of leaving his bed and climbing up -to the top of the great porcelain stove where he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>regularly performed his devotions, praying aloud -with broken, agonised sobs. He might be heard repeating -as he wept, “Lord, do not forsake me. -Master, strengthen me! My poor little children, my -dear little children, we shall never see each other -again.” He would remain there in earnest supplication -until dawn came and the prison was opened.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another estimable creature was a young Tartar, -Ali by name, one of a band of brigands from Daghestan. -He had been drawn into evil practices by -his elder brothers and sentenced for what was really -their crime, but “extenuating circumstances” were -admitted, and he received the minimum punishment. -One day he had been ordered to take his yataghan, -mount his horse and ride abroad with his brothers -as they were bent upon plundering the caravan of -a rich Armenian merchant, whom they slew, taking -possession of his goods. They were captured, tried, -flogged and sent to Siberia. Every one liked this -lad—he was only twenty-two years old—on account -of his gaiety and good temper. His frank, -intelligent face was always calm and placid; there -was a childish simplicity in his confident smile; his -large and expressive black eyes were so full of -friendliness and tender sympathy that it was a relief -to look at him. His three brothers, the real cause -of his misfortune, loved him with paternal affection. -He was their chief consolation. Dull and sad as -a rule, they always smiled when they spoke to him, -as to a child, and their forbidding countenances -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>lighted up. He did not dare address them first; he -recognised their superiority as elders and treated -them with great deference and respect. It was a -strange fact that he could preserve his native honesty -and remain firm and uncorrupted among such -surroundings. Chaste as a young girl, everything -that was foul, shameful or unjust filled him with indignation. -He carefully avoided quarrels and yet -he was no coward and could not be insulted with -impunity.</p> - -<p class='c013'>At this time there were two Lesghians from the -Caucasus, mountain brigands, one of whom was tall -and thin, with a bad face. The other, by name -Nourra, was universally popular. Of middle height -and built like a Hercules, with fair hair, and violet -eyes, he had exceedingly mild manners, although he -had been constantly engaged as a rebel and his body -bore many scars from old bayonet wounds. His -conduct in prison was exemplary, and he punctiliously -observed the rules. Thieving, cheating and -drunkenness filled him with disgust; he evinced his -indignation and turned away, but without quarrelling. -Fervently pious, he said his prayers religiously -and strictly observed all Mahometan fasts. -He clung firmly to the hope that when his sentence -ended he would be sent back to the Caucasus. Indeed, -without this consolation he would certainly -have died in prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There is a humourous side to every situation, and -the dark, gloomy life in the <em>ostrog</em> was brightened -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>at times by the comicalities of one prisoner, a Jew, -Isaiah Fomich by name, who was a butt and laughing-stock -for all. He was a murderer who had been -publicly whipped, exposed on the pillory and -branded for a crime of greed. The branding had -left frightful scars, to remove which he had received -a famous specific, but he was waiting until his release -to use it, years ahead. “Otherwise, I shall -not be able to marry,” he would say, “and I must -absolutely get married.” His first appearance in -the prison evoked general laughter. He looked like -a poor, plucked fowl, gaunt and thin and with hardly -an ounce of flesh on his bones. Already of uncertain -age, small, feeble, cunning and at the same -time stupid, but boastful, and a horrible coward, it -was difficult to believe he could have borne a flogging. -The life of the prison seemed to agree with -him and it was believed he was quite pleased to be -condemned, as it gave him a chance of making a -good deal of money. He was a jeweller by trade -and a good workman. There was no “free” jeweller -in the town of Omsk, and he secured more orders -than he could execute, for which he was always -well paid. Being rich, he soon was able to purchase -all he wanted. He fared sumptuously; he -bought a samovar, a tea cup, and a mattress. With -his spare cash he also soon became the prison usurer, -and almost every convict in the prison was in his -debt and paid him heavy interest on small loans.</p> - -<p class='c013'>His arrival was greeted with great interest. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>was the only Jew in the prison, and everyone -crowded round to stare at him when he was first -brought in with his hair shaved on the right side -of his head. He sat on his plank bed, clinging to -his bag, not daring to raise his eyes or resent the -ridicule heaped upon him. A young convict came -up to him, bringing a ragged pair of old linen trousers, -and asked what Fomich would advance on -them. “A silver ruble? No, only seven kopecks -(seven farthings),” said the Jew, “and three kopecks -interest.” “By the year?” he was asked. -“No, by the month,” he replied. And the bargain -was struck after much contemptuous laughter, -whereupon Fomich put the pledged rags carefully -away in his bag.</p> - -<p class='c013'>They all laughed at him, but no one insulted him, -and he was rather proud of being noticed, as he -thought it added to his importance. He gave himself -great airs; he would sing in a squeaking, falsetto -voice some idiotic refrain to a ridiculous tune, -and perform the most comical antics. On Saturday -evening, the convicts would collect to see him celebrate -his Sabbath and he was greatly flattered by the -curiosity displayed. He prepared his table in one -corner with a very dignified air, lighted two candles, -clothed himself in his robes, put on the phylacteries -and tied a little box on his forehead where it protruded -like a horn. Then he read aloud, wept and -tore his hair, and suddenly changed into a hymn of -triumph delivered with a nasal tone. All this, as he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>readily explained, was to typify the lamentations at -the loss of Jerusalem, changing into rejoicing at -the return.</p> - -<p class='c013'>One day, when at his worship, the major came -in and stood behind the Jew while he was wildly -gesticulating without noticing the governor, who, -after watching him for some time, burst out laughing -and went off with the one exclamation, “idiot.” -Afterward Fomich declared that he had not seen -the major; that he was always in a state of ecstatic -abstraction when saying his prayers. He was, or -pretended to be, a very strict Jew, and liked people -to admire his punctilious observance of the rule of -idleness on his Saturday Sabbath; and was very -proud of his visit to the synagogue under escort as -a single worshipper, a privilege to which he was entitled -by law. Fomich was at the height of his -glory in the bath, where he treated himself to the -services of several rubbers and sang loudly when -the hubbub was highest and the steam most plentiful.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The festival of Christmas, so highly esteemed -throughout Russia, was strictly observed also in the -prison. The convicts were eager to show that they -were doing the same as the rest of the world outside, -and to feel that they were not altogether reprobates -cast out by society. It was essentially a high -day and holiday, when no work was enforced or -undertaken, and when rejoicing, enjoyment and -sensual gratification became, with permission, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>order of the day. A complete change came over the -prison on the eve of the great day. Almost all were -busy preparing to keep Christmas in suitable fashion -according to their own ideas. The chief of these -was to revel in unaccustomed good living. The old -soldiers, the guards who might come and go, -brought in openly the supplies ordered from the -town, suckling pigs, poultry and joints of meat; -and the drink sellers, no less active, smuggled in -their vodka secretly.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Every one was moving early, the drum beat was -heard long before dawn and the convicts were well -up and dressed when the officer of the day came in -to muster the men and wish them a happy Christmas. -This interchange of compliments was general -even between convicts who had not spoken to each -other before; those who had once quarrelled forgot -their enmity in the desire for peace and good-will. -A sort of universal friendship prevailed in harmony -with the sentiment of the day. It was encouraged -by the good feeling expressed from outside, for -relays of gifts of food, great and small, began to -arrive from the town to be distributed among the -prisoners.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The kitchens were the chief centre of interest. -Great fires were blazing, and the cooks were preparing -the festive entertainment, under the eyes, or -with the assistance of the convicts themselves. -Every one supplemented the daily ration with choice -morsels privately purchased out of hard-earned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>savings. But no one tasted food until the priest -arrived with cross and holy water; a small table -had been prepared for him with a holy image on -it, and before it a lamp was burning. After he had -conducted the service, the pre-Christmas fast ended, -and the feast began by the permission of the commandant, -who had visited the barrack formally and -tasted the cabbage soup, but had made no remark -about the additional delicacies provided and which -were now brought in to be greedily devoured.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The scene presently degenerated into an orgy. -Faces became flushed with drink and good cheer; -the <em>balalaiki</em>, or banjos, were produced; the fiddler, -paid by a convivial convict, played lively dance -music. The conversation became more and more -animated and more and more noisy, but the dinner -ended without great disorder. Later, drunkenness -was general; it was no offence that day, and even -the officers, who made the regulation visits, paid no -attention. The antics of the intoxicated were an -amusing spectacle to most. But a few of the more -orderly and right-thinking showed their disapproval. -The “old believer” from Starodub climbed up to -his favourite perch on top of the stove and fervently -prayed for the rest of the day. The sight of these -excesses was exceedingly painful to him. The -Mahometan prisoners took no part in the revels; -they looked on with much curiosity and manifest -disgust. The youth Nourra, already mentioned, -shook his head crying, “Aman, Aman. Alas! -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>Alas! It is an offence to Allah!” The Jew, Isaiah -Fomich, declined to join in a celebration commemorating -an offence committed by his co-religionists, -and to show his contempt for Christ, lighted a candle -and went to work in a favourite corner.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As the day passed, reckless self-indulgence gradually -increased, but the general drunkenness and -debauchery began to lapse into wearisome depression. -Men who had been convulsed with uproarious -laughter became maudlin and dropped into -some out of the way spot, weeping bitter tears; -others, pale and sickly, tottered about, seeking quarrels -with all whom they met. Old differences were -revived; disputes soon developed into personal conflicts; -frequently two of the men would come to -blows as to which should stand treat to the other. -The whole spectacle was insupportable, nauseating -and repulsive. The great festival, which should -have passed with so much delight, ended in dejection -and disappointment. The convicts, drunken or -sober, alike dropped down on their camp beds and -slept heavily.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In some countries prisoners have been permitted -to find relief in theatrical performances. It was so -in the Spanish presidios, and here in the old Russian -<em>ostrog</em> a dramatic entertainment, on a most ambitious -scale, was a feature of the Christmas holidays. -A convict company was organised very secretly; -it was always uncertain whether the major -would consent, and all was kept from his knowledge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>until the last moment. The rehearsals were quite -private; the names of the plays were unknown, or -how the costumes and scenery were to be obtained. -The stage was created in a space cleared in the centre -of the barrack, and could be put up and taken -down in a quarter of an hour. The moving spirit -was one Bakluchin, who had been a soldier in Riga, -and had murdered his rival, a German, whom he -had caught paying addresses to his fiancée and who -was preferred by her. This Bakluchin, who was -thirty years old, was of lofty stature, with a frank, -determined countenance, but good-natured and generally -popular. He had the comedian’s knack of -changing his face in comic imitation of any -passer-by, and convulsed all who saw him. As the -projected performance took place, Bakluchin -swelled with ill-concealed importance and boasted -of the success he would achieve. He went about -declaiming portions of his part and amusing everybody -by anticipation.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Two popular pieces were chosen for performance, -plays from an old book, preserved by memory in the -traditions of the prison. Many of the “properties,” -too, had been handed down, carefully concealed in -secret places for years. One of them, the curtain, -which was a work of art, was composed of numerous -scraps of cloth sewed together, such as the linen -of old shirts, bandages, and underwear; even pieces -of strong paper were added to fill in empty spaces; -and on the surface was painted in oil a landscape -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>with trees and ponds of flowers. This curtain delighted -the convicts and shared the first applause -with the orchestra of eight instruments,—two violins, -three banjos, two guitars and a tambourine. -The musicians played well, and the tunes were all -original and distinctive.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The audience, before the curtain rose, crowded -and crushed into the narrow theatre, wild with -suppressed excitement. Two benches were placed -immediately in front of the stage, which was lighted -with candle ends. These seats, with one or two -chairs, were for the officers who might deign to be -present,—the overseers, clerks, directors of works -and engineers. Behind stood the convicts respectfully, -row after row. Some were posted on the -camp beds or had climbed up on the porcelain stove, -and every face glowed with delight, a strange look -of infinite contentment and unmixed pleasure shining -on these scarred and branded countenances so -generally dark and forbidding. Everyone was -dressed in his best, his short sheepskin pelisse, in -spite of the suffocating heat, and each face was -damp with perspiration. Everyone was there: The -Tartars and Circassians, who showed a passionate -delight for the theatre; Young Ali, whose childish -face beamed and whose laughter was contagious; -the Jew, Isaiah Fomich, who was in an ecstasy -from the rising of the curtain to its fall, and rejoiced -at the chance of showing off, for when the -plate was passed he ostentatiously contributed the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>imposing sum of ten kopecks, or twopence, halfpenny.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As the play proceeded, it was received with warm -applause. Cries of approbation were heard in all -parts of the house. The convicts nudged each other -with loud whispers, calling attention to the jokes, -laughing uproariously, smacking their lips and -clacking their tongues, and toward the end the -gaiety reached its climax. “Imagine the convict -prison,” says Dostoyevski, “the chains of long -years of captivity in close confinement, the bodily -toil monotonous and unending, the accumulated, -long protracted misery and despair, and the grim -place of durance transformed on this occasion into -one of light-hearted amusement where prisoners -might forget their condition, dismiss the nightmare -of crime and breathe freely and laugh aloud.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A comedy in prison! The convicts were in costumes -altogether different from the daily garb of -shame, but with the inseparable chains always obstructing. -One was in female attire, wearing an -old worn-out muslin dress, with neck and arms bare -and a pert calico cap on his half shaven head. Another -represented a gentleman of fashion in a frock -coat, round hat and cloak, but his chains rattled as -he strutted across the stage; one was in the full-dress -but faded uniform of an aide-de-camp. There -were convicts in many characters, strange and varied: -a nobleman, an innkeeper, demons, a Brahmin -in flowing robes. Every one was delighted when -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>the performance ended, and the convicts separated, -quite pleased to have been taken away from themselves -for a brief space, full of praise for the actors -and of gratitude to their superiors, who had permitted -the play to be given. It was a wise concession, -for the convicts made a point of conducting -themselves in the most exemplary fashion.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The prisoners in the <em>ostrog</em> were fond of live animals, -and if permitted, would have filled the prison -with domesticated pets. They had dogs, geese, a -horse and even an eagle whom they vainly sought -to tame. “Bull” was a good-sized black dog with -white spots, intelligent eyes and a bushy tail. He -lived in the prison enclosure, slept in the courtyard, -ate the waste scraps from the kitchen and had little -hold on the sympathy of the men, all of whom he -regarded as masters and owners. He came to greet -the working parties on their return from labour, -wagging his tail and looking for the caresses which -he seldom got. Dostoyevski, as he tells us, was one -of the first to make friends with Bull by giving him -a piece of bread and patting him on the back, which -pleased him greatly. “That evening, not having -seen me for the whole day,” says the author, “he -ran up to me leaping and barking. Then he put -his paws on my shoulders and looked me in the face. -‘Here is a friend sent to me by destiny,’ I said to -myself, and during the first weeks, so full of pain, -every time I returned to the barrack I hastened to -fondle and make much of Bull.”</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>Another dog was called Snow. He was a luckless -creature who had been driven over and injured in -the spine by the wheels of a <em>telyega</em>, “country cart.” -He looked like two dogs because of the curvature of -his spine, and he was mangy, with bleared eyes and -a hairless tail always drooping between his hind -legs. Snow was abjectly submissive to all, both -men and fellow-dogs. He never barked nor made -overtures, but continually turned on his back to -curry favour, and received the kick of every passer -without a sign of resentment, except that if hurt -he would often utter one low deprecatory yelp. -When surprised with a caress wholly unexpected -and unusual, he quivered and whined plaintively -with delight. His fate was sad and brutal; he was -torn to pieces by other dogs in the ditch of the fortress.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A third dog was Kultiapka, brought in as a puppy -soon after he had been born in one of the prison -workshops. Bull took him under his especial protection -and “fathered” and played with him. He -was always of abbreviated height but grew steadily -in length and breadth, and was quaint in appearance. -One ear hung constantly down while the -other was always cocked up. He had a fine, fluffy, -mouse-coloured coat which cost him his life. One -of the convicts who made ladies’ shoes cast greedy -eyes upon Kultiapka, and having felt his skin lured -him into a corner, killed and flayed him. A little -later the young wife of one of the officers appeared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>in a smart pair of velvet boots trimmed with mouse -coloured fur.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Tanning and skin dressing was a trade much followed -in the prison. Dogs which had been stolen -by servants were brought in and sold. On one occasion -a fine black dog of good breed was disposed -of by a scamp of a footman for thirty kopecks. The -poor beast must have anticipated what was in store -for him, for he looked up at the convicts in a distressed, -beseeching way, but could find no pity, and -he was speedily hanged. The same fate overtook -the prison goat, a beautiful white kid of whom every -one was fond. The pretty creature was full of -grace and was very playful, jumping on and off -the kitchen table, wrestling with the convicts and -always full of fun and spirits. He grew up into -a fine, fat beast with magnificent horns, which it was -proposed to gild and which were often decorated -with flowers. It was the custom for the goat to -march at the head of the convicts when returning -from labour, and when the eyes of the choleric -major fell upon it in the procession, he forthwith -ordered it to be executed. The goat was killed and -flayed; both carcass and skin were sold in the -prison; the latter went to the leather dresser, the -former, which fetched a ruble and fifty kopecks, -was roasted and the flesh retailed among the convicts.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Other strange pets were a flock of geese, which -somehow had been hatched within the enclosure, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>and as they grew up they attached themselves to -the prisoners and would march out with them regularly -to labour. When the drum beat and the parties -assembled at the great gate, the geese came cackling, -flapping their wings and hopping along. While the -convicts worked, the geese pecked about close at -hand until the time came for return, when they -again joined the procession and marched with their -friends solemnly back to the barracks, to the great -amusement of the bystanders. The close attachment -between the birds and their friends did not -save the geese from having their necks twisted and -being added to the dinner on a feast day.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The captive eagle did not take kindly to detention. -It had been brought in wounded, with a broken wing -and half dead. Nothing could domesticate or tame -it. It gazed fiercely and fearlessly on the curious -crowd and opened its beak as if determined to sell -its life dearly. As soon as a chance came it hopped -away on one leg, flapping its one uninjured wing, -and hid in a far-off, inaccessible corner, from which -it never emerged. The convicts often gathered to -stare at it and would bait it with the dog Bull, who -hesitated, in wholesome dread of the savage bird’s -beak and claws. The eagle long refused food, and -although he finally took meat and drank water left -with him, he would consume nothing that was given -him by hand or when any one’s eye was upon him. -When no one was near, he would creep out of his -corner and take a walk of a dozen steps, hopping -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>and limping backward and forward with great regularity -under the lee of the stockade. He resisted -pugnaciously all overtures to friendship, and would -suffer no one to pet him or pat him but pined away, -lonely and irreconcilable, waiting only for death.</p> - -<p class='c013'>At last the convicts were moved to compassion -for the caged bird, deprived of liberty like themselves. -It was seriously discussed whether he ought -not to be set free. So he was securely tied, taken -out to the ramparts when the parties went to labour, -and thrown out on the bare, barren steppe. The -bird immediately hurried away, flapping his -wounded wing and striving desperately to get out -of sight of his captors. They looked after him enviously; -they had given him the freedom they did -not possess, a boon they hungered for unceasingly -night and day, winter and summer, but especially -when the sun shone bright and they could see the -boundless plain stretching away in the blue distance -beyond the river Irtysh and across the free Kirghiz -Steppe.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Dostoyevski feelingly records his sensations when -the day for his release at length arrived. The night -before, as darkness fell, he went round the enclosure -for the last time, revisiting every spot where he had -suffered the bitter pangs of imprisonment, solitary -and despairing,—the place where he had counted -over and over again the thousands and thousands -of days he had still to remain inside. The next -morning, before the exodus for labour, he made -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>the rounds to bid his comrades farewell; and many -a coarse, horny hand was held out to him with -hearty good-will. The generous souls gave him -Godspeed, but others who were more envious turned -their backs on him and would not reply to his kindly -greetings. His last visit was to the blacksmith’s -shop. He went without escort, and placed his feet -on the anvil, each in turn; the rivets were struck -out of the basils and he was freed from his chains.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“Liberty! New life, resurrection from the dead! -Unspeakable moment!”</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VI <br /> TIUMEN AND TOMSK</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>New route taken by exiles since opening of the Trans-Siberian -railway—Increased numbers produced overcrowding -in all prisons both in Europe and Asia—The “forwarding -prisons” the cause of much distress—The Tiumen prison; -cells, kitchen, hospital—Infectious diseases—Death-rate—Tomsk -forwarding prison—Conditions worse than at Tiumen—The -balagan or family “kamera”—Futile attempts -to dispute incontrovertible evidence—“Étapes” or road -prisons and “polu étapes” or half-way houses—Distance -covered daily by the marching parties—The “telyegas” -or country carts which carried the sick—Method of buying -provisions from villagers en route—The “étape” of -Achinsk—Infectious diseases in these prisons—The reports -of Governor-General Anuchin—Sympathy of the -Czar Alexander III.</p> - -<p class='c012'>The old order changeth slowly, and the hideous -memories of the black and baleful past will long -survive. The pages which record the disgraceful -facts may be torn out of Russian prison history but -they can never be eradicated or forgotten. Let it -be granted that reforms and improvements have -been introduced, and that some of the most glaring -evils have been removed, we may doubt whether in -the present condition of the empire, still shaken to -its very base by disaster and disaffection, the betterment -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>goes below the surface or will be lasting. The -governing authorities in these troublous times have -but little leisure to discuss penology, and although -long since aroused to a lively sense of the shortcomings -of their prison system, they are slow to -mend their ways. Changes and ameliorations -promised still tarry by the way, and there is but -little hope that the frightful conditions so long prevailing -have even in part disappeared.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The chief blot upon the method of transportation -no longer exists, it is true. The wearisome, almost -interminable march has been replaced by the long -railway journey over the Trans-Siberian line, completed -in 1897 and opened the following year for -the conveyance of exiles. The convicts no longer -spend a couple of years or more on a journey now -performed in eight or ten days. Their sufferings -are no longer protracted indefinitely, but for a brief -space they are still locked up like cattle in dirty, ill-ventilated -vans, and are still collected in the foul -“forwarding prisons,” whence they pass on for distribution -to Eastern Siberia, the convict colony of -Saghalien, or the outer darkness near the North -Pole. A few well-planned and commodious new -prisons have been erected in recent years, for which -credit must be given to the prison administration, -but they have applied only a partial remedy to existing -conditions.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The exile route to-day naturally follows the new -line of railway. From Moscow the road strikes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>south to Samara on the Volga, to which point a -large passenger traffic is brought by the great water-way -to board the trains. From Samara to Ufa on -the west slope the Ural Mountains, and after scaling -them the line descends to Chelyabinsk on the Siberian -frontier. Here the convict travellers are -divided into parties according to their destination. -Some go north toward Tiumen and Tobolsk, others -travel due east in the direction of Lake Baikal, -and others start south for Semipalatinsk and the -Altai.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The route before the railway was built was from -Moscow, the centre of the home prison system, -thence by train to Nizhni-Novgorod, and on by boat -down the Volga through Kazan to Perm, and thence -by train across the Ural Mountains to Ekaterinburg -and Tiumen. All exiles of whatever class, without -distinction or separation, travelled this way, and all -halted at Tiumen, where they were made up into -parties and forwarded to their several destinations.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Overcrowding was the curse of all Russian prisons; -the cause of discomforts innumerable, inflicting -untold suffering, producing deadly endemic and -epidemic diseases. That it was the same everywhere, -we are told on incontestable authority, and -the futile attempts made by superficial inquirers to -vindicate the government which is responsible are -contemptible. To begin with St. Petersburg, the -official report of the society for prisons stated that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>in 1880 the show prison, the Litovski Zamok, although -built for seven hundred inmates, uniformly -contained from nine hundred to a thousand; and -the depot prison, supposed to hold two hundred, -was always filled with double the number. The -first named had 103 rooms nominally for eight -hundred persons. These rooms, as described by an -eye-witness, were exceedingly dirty, and he further -says: “The ‘black holes’ are dreadful; they are -absolutely deprived of light; a dark labyrinth leads -to them and within all is wet, with rotten floors and -dripping walls. A man coming from the outer air -staggers away half asphyxiated. Specialists say -that the healthiest man will surely die if he is kept -there for three or four weeks. After a short stay -prisoners went out exhausted; several could hardly -stand on their feet.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>As to the specific charge of overcrowding, a few -details must carry conviction. The prison at Nizhni-Novgorod -was built for three hundred, and generally -held seven or eight hundred persons. In Poland -there were four prisons occupying the space -required for one. The prison at Perm was built in -1872 for 120 inmates, but in the same year it held -just double that number and the cubical air space -allotted to each individual was from 202 to 260 -cubic feet, or, as Kropotkin puts it, it was just as -if a man was living in a coffin eight feet by six feet. -Another authority, the <cite>Journal of Legal Medicine</cite>, -issued by the medical department of the Ministry -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>of the Interior, gives the cubical contents as no more -than 124 cubic feet per head. At Tomsk the prison -was disgracefully overcrowded. It was built for -nine hundred but contained over two thousand -souls. At Samara the average prison population -was 1,147, but the aggregate cubic capacity of all -the prisons in the town was for 552 inmates. At -Verkhni Udinsk an <em>ostrog</em> built for 140 prisoners -was often packed with five hundred and even eight -hundred inmates. On the whole, summing up the -dreadful facts, an apologist of the Russian government -admits that the prisons contain half as many -more than the number originally intended.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Let us pass to the direct evidence of a perfectly -veracious witness, speaking out of his own experience. -George Kennan approached his self-imposed -task with a judicial, well-balanced mind, quite unprejudiced -against the Russian system, predisposed, -if anything, to view it with favour. He paid a -lengthy visit to the Tiumen forwarding prison, with -the full permission of the authorities, who withheld -nothing from his observation, premising only that -it was greatly overcrowded and in a bad sanitary -condition.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As to the first point, the figures were conclusive. -It was a well-known fact that the prison was built -originally for 550 inmates but was subsequently enlarged -by the addition of detached barracks so as -to hold nominally 850 prisoners. On the day Kennan -visited it, the number was 1,741, as witnessed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>by a blackboard hanging up at the office door. In -the first room entered, a <em>kamera</em> or cell, 35 feet -long, 25 feet wide and 12 feet high, the accommodation -and air space at the outside was for forty -persons. On the night before, 160 had slept or, -more exactly, passed the night in the room. The -same dreadful superfluity of human beings existed -throughout the entire prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“I looked around the cell,” says Kennan. -“There was practically no ventilation whatever, -and the air was so poisoned and foul that I could -hardly force myself to breathe it. We visited successively -in the yard six <em>kameras</em> or cells, essentially -like the first, and found in every one of them three -or four times the number of prisoners for which it -was intended, and five or six times the number for -which it had adequate air space. In most of the -cells there was not room enough on the sleeping -platforms for all of the convicts, and scores of men -slept every night on the foul, muddy floors, under -the <em>nary</em>, ‘sleeping platforms,’ and in the gangways -between them and the walls.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The main building, containing the kitchen, the -workshops, the hospital and a large number of -<em>kameras</em>, was in a worse sanitary condition than the -barracks. The air in the corridors and cells, particularly -on the second story, was indescribably foul. -The oxygen had been breathed again and again; -it was laden with fever germs from the unventilated -hospital wards, fetid odours from diseased human -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>lungs and unclean human bodies, and the stench of -unmentionable receptacles. “It was like trying to -breathe in an underground hospital drain,” says -Kennan. The kitchen was a dark, dirty room in -the basement where three or four half naked cooks -were baking large loaves and preparing soup. -The bread was sour and heavy, but as good as that -usually eaten by Russian peasants; the soup was -found to be good and nutritious.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The hospital was on the third floor and the wards -were larger and lighter than the <em>kameras</em>, but -wholly unventilated; no disinfectants were in use, -and the air was polluted to the last degree. The -prospect of regaining health in such unwholesome -dens was small. A man in robust condition must -certainly become infected in a few weeks, and there -was little hope for the recovery of the sick. All the -worst disorders were to be found among the patients; -scurvy, typhus fever, typhoid fever, acute -bronchitis, rheumatism and syphilis. Only the -patients affected by malignant typhus were isolated -in a single ward. The women were separated from -the men, but that was all. “The patients, both -men and women, seemed to be not only desperately -sick, but hopeless and heart broken.” The mortality -was excessive. Typhus was epidemic every -year. The prison was uniformly overcrowded; it -had been built for eight hundred and generally contained -eighteen hundred. Some scanty ventilation -was possible when the windows could be opened, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>but in the stormy autumn or bitter winter no fresh -air could be admitted.</p> - -<p class='c013'>According to the official reports of the inspectors -of exile transportation, in the eleven years between -1876 and 1886 the greatest number of deaths in the -Tiumen prison hospital was 354, the lowest 175, -the average 270. This is an unparalleled death-rate. -In various European prisons the rate is on -the average as follows:—England, 1.4 per cent.; -France, 3.8 per cent.; Austria, 3.5 per cent.; Belgium, -1.8 per cent.; United States, 1.7 per cent. -“In the Tiumen forwarding prison it was 29.5 per -cent., or almost 300 per thousand.... This would -entirely annihilate a fixed population in from two -and a half to four years,”—a death-rate such as -this, in the words of Mr. Cable, “exceeds that of -any pestilence that ever fell on Europe in the Middle -Ages.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The female prison was in a separate yard within -a high stockade of sharpened logs. The <em>kameras</em> -were clean and well-lighted; floors and sleeping -platforms had been scrubbed; the rooms were not -so densely overcrowded, and the air was purer than -on the men’s side. But the condition of the third -detached prison, that for exiled families, in which -men, women and children were herded together to -the number of three hundred, was horrible. It was -overcrowded; the air was heavy and foul; “dozens -of children were crying from hunger and -wretchedness; and the men and women looked -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>tired, sleepless and dejected.” All the women were -voluntarily accompanying their husbands or fathers -into banishment.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The disgraceful state of the Tiumen forwarding -prison was perfectly well known to the authorities, -and has been strongly commented upon in official -reports. How far amendment has proceeded I have -no definite information, although we may hope that -the diversion of the outward stream of exiles since -the opening of the Trans-Siberian railway has -greatly reduced the excessive demands upon the imperfect -accommodation. But there is another forwarding -prison further eastward and at one time -on the direct line of exile traffic. This is at the city -of Tomsk, which is actually fifty miles distant from -the railway, because the local authorities refused -to pay the blackmail demanded by the projectors -of the line to bring it through, or within easy reach -of the city. Before railway days, the convicts travelled -in barges on the river Tobol from Tiumen to -Tomsk. These barges were planned to accommodate -six hundred on each voyage; they were towed -by steamers and made the journey in from seven to -ten days, completing eighteen trips during the season -of open navigation, and thus they transported -annually between ten thousand and eleven thousand -souls.</p> - -<p class='c013'>If the Tiumen prison was in horrible condition, -that of Tomsk was infinitely worse. Its deplorable -state was frankly admitted to George Kennan by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>the authorities when they granted him permission to -visit it. “I think you will find it the worst prison -in Siberia,” said the acting governor of the province -of Tomsk. What else was to be expected when the -buildings were filled with more than twice the number -of inmates which they could properly accommodate? -The Tomsk forwarding prison was designed -to hold fourteen hundred, but three thousand -or even four thousand were habitually -crammed into it. The numbers arriving exceeded -the power of distribution, and week by week a -residuum remained to increase the permanent population. -The <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>, or halting stations along the -road, could accommodate only a limited number and -there were not enough troops to provide for more -than one marching party each week.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The Tomsk forwarding prison is described by -Mr. Kennan, who saw it in 1885, as, “a stockaded -camp or enclosure three acres in extent, lying on -open ground outside the city.” Within were some -fifteen to twenty log buildings grouped about a -pyramidal church tower. Each wooden building in -the enclosure was a one-storied barrack prison of -square logs with board roofs, heavily grated windows -and massive iron doors secured with padlocks. -There were eight of these, each constituting a prison -ward and each divided into two <em>kameras</em>, one on -each side of a central corridor running through the -building. Each ward or building was calculated -to hold 190 inmates, but was crowded with at least -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>three hundred. Each cell was about forty feet -square and the air space was seven-eighths of a cubic -fathom per head. The cells were fairly well lighted, -but the atmosphere was pestilential and the temperature -from the natural heat of the prisoners’ bodies -was fifteen or twenty degrees higher than the external -air. The usual sleeping platforms ran across -the cells, but there was not room on them for half -of the number confined there, and the other half was -forced to sleep beneath the platforms, or on the -floor in the adjoining gangways. These lay there -on the mud-stained and filthy floor, without pillows, -blankets or bedclothing. They were in such a -grievous state that they complained feelingly of the -heat, foulness and oppressiveness of the air and -declared that it was impossible to move about in -the day time or to get rest at night.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The same evils were present in every cell. But -the horrors culminated in the “family” room or -<em>balagan</em>, the long, low shed of rough pine boards,—a -frame work hastily put together and with sides -of thin white cotton sheeting. There were three of -these crammed full of family parties, men, women -and children. The shed was surrounded by a foul -ditch half full of filth which soaked through and -from under the cotton-sheeting wall. The only light -that penetrated within the windowless <em>balagan</em> was -through this wall of cotton. The place was packed -with hundreds of occupants,—“weary-eyed men, -haggard women and ailing children,” sitting and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>lounging about the sleeping platforms and on the -broken boards of the floor through which exuded -all kinds of abominations. The air was insufferably -fetid from the great numbers of infants unwashed -and wholly uncared for. Wet underclothing, -washed in the camp kettles, was hanging from the -beams to dry; an indistinguishable chaos of bags, -bundles and domestic utensils encumbered the floor, -and the crowd was so closely packed that people -could not move without touching each other. No -remedy, no alleviation was possible. The cold at -night in these cotton enclosed walls, or the damp -heat and imperfect ventilation in the bath-house—which -many would have preferred—were equally -fatal to infant life. Detention in these wretched -apologies for shelters was greatly prolonged. No -change of clothing was provided; a man wore the -same shirt for months, until it almost dropped off, -in dirty ragged scraps, full of vermin. Not -strangely was it thought a welcome relief when the -orders came to take the road. The toilsome march -with its incessant hardships and exhausting fatigue -was preferable to the fixed residence in a forwarding -prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The hospital at Tomsk was in some respects better -than that at Tiumen; it occupied a separate -building, and was kept in better order. There were -always more patients than beds to receive them, and -the surplus in various stages of acute disease lay -about on benches or on the floor. Despite the overcrowding, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>the place was kept fairly clean, the bed -clothing was fresh and plentiful and the air was less -polluted than at Tiumen. The percentage of the -sick varied according to the season. It rose in -November, when the population was at its highest, -to twenty-five per cent., and among the diseases -malignant typhus, the true type of the ancient, but -now happily rare, “gaol fever,” was always largely -present. There were twenty-four hundred cases of -illness in the year and at the most crowded time -there have been 450 cases in the hospital with beds -for only 150 patients.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The prison surgeon, one of the most humane and -devoted of his class, Dr. Orzheshko, has described -his experience covering fifteen years. In November, -he says, “three hundred men and women dangerously -sick lay on the floor in rows, most of them -without pillows or bed clothing; and in order to -find even floor space for them we had to put them -so close together that I could not walk between -them, and a patient could not cough or vomit without -coughing or vomiting into his own face or into -the face of the man lying beside him. The atmosphere -in the wards became so terribly polluted that -I fainted repeatedly upon coming into the hospital -in the morning, and my assistants had to revive me -by dashing water into my face. In order to change -or purify the air, we were forced to keep the windows -open; and as winter set in, this so chilled -the rooms, that we could not maintain ... a temperature -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>higher than five or six degrees Réamur -above the freezing point.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>This hospital was so saturated with contagious -disease that it stood condemned, and deserved to be -burned down. Official procrastination delayed its -destruction, but in 1887 a sum of 30,000 rubles was -granted for the erection of a new hospital, which is, -presumably, now occupied. It was high time to -make a change. The city of Tomsk, the capital of -Siberia, the great centre of Siberian trade, flourishing, -prosperous and increasing, naturally became -alarmed. The free inhabitants were threatened -with the spread of dire epidemic diseases. The local -press, defying the censorship, eloquently denounced -the horrible condition due to the vast accumulation -of excessive numbers in the forwarding prison, and -the resultant evils in sickness and mortality. The -newspapers stated incontrovertible facts. The -death-rate in the city of Tomsk was fifty per thousand -per annum, sufficiently large, but in the prison -it was three hundred per thousand. Typhus was -the predominating disease, accompanied by smallpox, -diphtheria, measles and scarlatina. This typhus -constituted 56.4 per cent. of all the sickness -in the forwarding prison in 1886, 62.6 per cent. in -1887 and 23 per cent. in 1888. The corresponding -death-rate in these years was 23.2, 21 and 13.1 per -cent.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A violent controversy was aroused between the -enterprising and outspoken American investigator, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>Mr. George Kennan, and a well-known English -explorer, Mr. H. de Windt, who undertook to contest -the statements, and, indeed, to deny the facts -set forth by Mr. Kennan, plainly condemning them -as the phantasy of a disordered imagination and -boldly affirming that such a place as the Tomsk -forwarding prison “does not exist.” Mr. de -Windt’s arguments are based upon the negative evidence -of his own experience. He declares that he -saw nothing of the horrors described, but then he -never saw or closely inspected the prisons incriminated. -He was, no doubt, admitted to certain -prisons, which he visited under the auspices of the -authorities, and he reported upon them hastily and -on imperfect knowledge. Mr. Kennan’s painful -story is so completely sustained by Russian official -reports and the open condemnation of the Siberian -press, that it is entitled to full credence and may -be relied upon as absolutely trustworthy and conclusive. -His account of Tiumen and Tomsk must -take a prominent place in the history of penal institutions.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The exile system called the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span> or “road -prisons” into being. They were very numerous -and were planted at intervals of every twenty-five -or forty miles, and as this distance was beyond the -limit of a single day’s march, half-way houses, or -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>polu étapes</em></span>, were to be met with regularly along the -road. Each <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> was the headquarters of a detachment -of soldiers who formed the convoy or escort -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>of the convicts moving eastward. At the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>polu étapes</em></span> -there were no troops. The head of each convoy -was a commissioned officer styled the <em>nachalnik</em>.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The marching parties covered 330 miles every -month, doing from fifteen to twenty miles on two -succeeding days and resting on the third. Thus a -party leaving Tomsk on Monday morning reached -a <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>polu étape</em></span> that night, slept there and passed on -to another regular <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> on Wednesday, where they -halted for twenty-four hours. On Thursday the -journey was resumed with a fresh escort, a <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>polu -étape</em></span> was reached that night, and a regular <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> -the next, and so on, day after day and week after -week for many months. Until 1883, there was no -separation of the sexes on the march, but after that -date single men were excluded from the family -parties in which women and children were included. -Terrible demoralisation was previously the rule in -the constantly overcrowded <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>, and the grossest -offences were commonly committed.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The departure of a marching party from the -forwarding prison was generally fixed at eight -o’clock in the morning, when the <em>telyegas</em>, or country -carts, for the conveyance of the sick and infirm, -began to collect in front of the prison gate. Next -appeared the prison blacksmith with his anvil and -portable forge, to test the fetters as the convicts -came forth, and after he had satisfied himself that -the rivets were fast and the basils had not been -bent, an under officer doled out ten kopecks to each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>individual, and the convicts were formed in line, by -classes, for convenience of inspection and calling the -roll. The hard-labour convicts removed their gray -visorless caps to show that their crowns were half -shaved according to regulation. From the other -sides of their heads hung a mat of long, coarse and -dishevelled hair. At length the whole party, numbering -from three to four hundred, assembled in the -street; each convict carried a gray linen two-bushel -bag for the storage of his personal effects. Many -possessed tea-kettles, dangling from the waist belts -that supported the leg irons, and one or two might -be seen with a favourite dog in their arms. All the -men were dressed alike in long gray overcoats over -coarse linen shirts and loose gray trousers. The -women wore no distinctive uniform, but were -dressed mostly in peasant costume with gaily coloured -handkerchiefs on their heads. Square foot-wrappers -of gray linen were used in lieu of stockings -and all wore the <em>koty</em>, or low shoes, while they -lasted, but they were of such rotten, worthless material -that they fell to pieces in a couple of days and -the wretched wayfarers went barefooted.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The <em>telyegas</em> were carts of the rudest description, -one-horsed and without springs or seats, and the -occupants, sick and suffering, old, infirm and emaciated, -lay at the bottom on a scanty layer of grass. -A doctor’s certificate was essential to secure a place -in the carts, and a sharp lookout was kept to weed -out the malingerers. In one year more than twenty-five -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>hundred broken-down persons were conveyed -to their destination in as many as 658 carts.</p> - -<p class='c013'>When the column started, the marching party -led the van at a brisk pace, followed by the military -escort, the carts bearing the sick, and those conveying -the gray linen bags. The commanding officer -brought up the rear. “This strange procession,” -says Deutsch, who knew from personal experience, -“extends itself along the road for about three-quarters -of a mile, and raises clouds of dust.” A -terrible scourge was the Siberian midge, a pest attacking -not only the exposed hands and face but -getting into the mouth, nose, ears and eyes, and -under the clothing, and inflicting unendurable irritation. -The pace maintained was at the rate of two -miles an hour. After traversing ten miles, a halt -was called for rest and the noon-day meal. The -effort was little for the able-bodied, but for the -weaker, laden with chains and bundles, the long -march was most exhausting, and all gladly flung -themselves on the ground, wet or dry. A spot was -chosen at the entrance of some village, and its residents -came forth to haggle and huckster over the -sale of coarse food, such as black rye bread, fish -pies, hard boiled eggs, milk and <em>kvas</em>, or sour country -beer. Prices varied, and no attempt was made -to control them officially; they were liable to be -extortionate at seasons of scarcity, after bad harvests, -and the government allowance was at times -ludicrously inadequate, barely enough to satisfy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>hunger. Besides, the average convict is an inveterate -gambler, and many became penniless risking -and losing the whole of their allowance. Then they -would beg by the roadside, as already described. -After a short hour’s pause, the march was resumed, -a second ten miles was painfully covered, and it was -almost dark when the halt for the night was reached, -whether at an <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> or <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>polu étape</em></span>.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There was little to choose between the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span> and -the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>polu étapes</em></span>, but the latter were smaller and the -accommodation was consequently worse. Both -were stockaded enclosures, containing three or -more long, low, one-story buildings. One of these -was the commanding officer’s quarters, a second was -for the soldiers of the escort, and the remaining hut -or huts formed the prison. Each was divided into -two or three cells; each was furnished with the -usual plank sleeping platforms in a double row, and -a brick stove. The available space was much too -small for the prisoners passing through as these -halting prisons were built for about half the number. -“All of these,” says an official report, “are -not only too small, but old and decayed and demand -capital repairs.” The governor-general of Eastern -Siberia, Anuchin, reported confidentially in 1880, -to the Czar, Alexander III, that all prisons he had -visited, including the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>, were tumbled-down -buildings in a lamentable sanitary condition; that -they were cold in winter and saturated with miasma; -that the prisons of the empire generally, with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>exception of the principal ones recently erected, -were not remarkable for their good qualities, but -the Siberian prisons were particularly bad because -they were built quickly, with insufficient means, and -almost wholly without supervision of any kind. -Only one architect had been employed and his -sphere of action was so wide that he paid only a -rare visit to new works in progress. The contractors -departed from the original plans and evaded -conditions, so that the work was continually neglected. -In the first place the money was insufficient, -after a portion of the government appropriation -had been stolen by fraudulent contractors and -corrupt officials, and the new <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span> were run up -without stone foundations, so that the walls soon -“settled” and the buildings rapidly deteriorated -under climatic agencies and the injurious wear -and tear of the constant overcrowding. In temperate -weather half the prisoners slept on the -ground in the outer courtyard, but when it was too -inclement they filled the <em>kameras</em>, lay about the corridors -and packed themselves into the garrets. Not -the smallest care was taken to make places habitable. -Dirt accumulated everywhere; no provision had -been made for ventilation, and the windows would -not even open. Occupation of quarters was a matter -of force, when the weakest went to the wall.</p> - -<p class='c013'>On arrival at an <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span>, generally in the afternoon, -a halt was called outside the palisade for roll-call, -and then the great gates were thrown open for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>indiscriminate admission of the crowd. “With a -wild, mad rush and a furious clashing of chains, -more than three hundred men made a sudden break -for the narrow gateway, struggled, fought and -crowded through it, and then burst into the <em>kameras</em>, -in order to secure, by preoccupation, places on -the sleeping platforms,” says Kennan. Leo Deutsch -graphically describes this “battle for the best sleeping -places, the weaker being thrust aside or trampled -down by the stronger. At our first sight of this -mad fighting and struggling among some hundred -men in a narrow space, we thought they would kill -each other, but generally the wild tumult of blows -and kicks and curses did not result in anything -serious.” The losers in the game took the worst -places, or bartered for a better bed with the more -fortunate at the price of a few kopecks.</p> - -<p class='c013'>When the scramble for a night’s lodging ended, -the tired wayfarers fell to preparing their own suppers. -Hot water for making tea was retailed by the -soldiers of the escort, and cooked food with coarse -bread was bought from the market women who -came in to sell their wares. Sometimes they did -not appear and the convicts would almost starve, -or the times were hard and impossible prices were -charged. The daily allowance issued by the authorities -was sometimes insufficient, and again the convicts -went short. Often enough the buyers cheated -the sellers, or stole their goods, and the poor women -could get no redress. After supper, roll was again -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>called, the watch was set, sentries were posted, and -the prisoners were locked up and left for the night.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The <i>étape</i> at Achinsk, for instance, between -Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk, is described by a newspaper -of Irkutsk as “a <em>cloaca</em> where human beings -perish like flies. Typhus fever, diphtheria and -other epidemic diseases prevail there constantly, -and infect all who have the misfortune to get into -that awful place,” and a St. Petersburg newspaper -says, “There one doctor has on his hands more than -three hundred sick.” A correspondent wrote to a -Tomsk journal, “As soon as you enter the court-yard -of the prison you notice the contaminated, -miasmatic air.... Dante himself would have -thrown down his pen if he had been required to -describe the damp, cold, dilapidated cells of this -prison. At night myriads of bed-bugs torture every -prisoner into a condition not far removed from -frenzy. The prison sometimes has six hundred inmates -and to its filth and disorder are attributable -the typhus fever, diphtheria and other diseases that -spread from it, as from a pit of contagion, to the -population of the city.” In the Isham <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span>, the -cold was intense and the exiles arriving had no -warm clothing. One man was frozen to death on -the road. At Cheremkhovsky the air space which -was barely enough for two persons had to serve for -thirty. It was described by a prisoner as “a grave -and not a prison.” At Kirinsk, the building of decayed -logs would have fallen down had it not been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>shored up by other logs equally rotten. A prisoner, -to show the state of the wood, thrust his fingers -out of sight into the wall.</p> - -<p class='c013'>We have seen how the marching parties were -accompanied by a large contingent of sick who were -unfit to travel and yet could not be left behind, sometimes -even at the point of death. They were compelled -to sit all day in a cramped position in the -rude carts, intensifying the already acute pains of -their often mortal ailments, and were exposed to all -conditions of the weather. When dry and warm, -they were enveloped in clouds of dust, causing intolerable -discomfort, especially in the case of disease -of the respiratory organs; when cold and inclement, -still worse dangers attended the exposure -to snow and wintry winds. No change into dry -clothing on arrival was feasible, for with inconceivable -carelessness the baggage was allowed to -become soaked through on the road. The baggage -carts were unprovided with cover even by tarpaulins. -Thus the sickly, in the worst stages of illness, -were forced to lie down upon the same platforms, -side by side with the more robust, to whom they -quickly passed the contagion of their diseases. In -the rare cases when the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> was provided with a -lazaret, newcomers who were ill might fare better, -but the average <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> hospital was infamously bad.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The indictment against the Czar and his government -for their brutal defiance of the commonest -rules of humanity has been more than substantiated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>by the deplorable facts set forth in the previous -pages. It is agreeable to note some disposition to -mend matters on the part of the supreme authorities. -Certain reforms in prison administration have been -introduced in recent years, showing that the autocrat -of all the Russias has not continued utterly indifferent -to the sufferings of Siberian exiles and -convicts. Widespread radical changes have been -impossible; the evils were too deep seated and too -extensive for general removal; but one or two new -prisons have been erected, more in accord with the -dictates of penitentiary science and aiming at partial -improvement. A brief account of one or two -of these may serve to relieve somewhat the gloomy -picture which has been by no means over-coloured.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The Czars Alexander II and III could not plead -ignorance of the horrible conditions prevailing in -Eastern Siberia which were brought unmistakably -to their notice by the reports of Anuchin in 1880 -and 1882. Some of his condemnatory remarks have -already been quoted and may be repeated here as -summing up his final verdict. After minute inquiry -and much investigation, he characterises the Siberian -prisons as follows: “The exile system and -penal servitude in Eastern Siberia are in the most -unsatisfactory state ... while the exile bureaus in -the provinces are not organised in a manner commensurate -with the importance of the work that -they have to do and are prejudicial rather than useful -to the service.” The Czar Alexander III was so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>deeply impressed with the necessity for reform that -he endorsed on this report in his own handwriting, -“I should greatly like to do this and it seems to -me indispensable.” Events proved too strong however -even for the autocrat ruler of all the Russias. -He says: “I have read this report with great interest, -and I am more than troubled by this melancholy -but just description of the government’s forgetfulness -of a country so rich and so necessary to Russia.” -On the part dealing with prisons the Czar -endorsed the words, “A melancholy but not a new -picture.” On a later page I shall go further into the -ameliorations and improvements attempted since -1886.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VII <br /> VAGABONDAGE AND UNIONS</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>Peculiar phases of criminality to be found in Siberian prisons—Country -overrun with convict fugitives—Terrible privations -suffered by these vagrants—The “call of the -cuckoo”—The vagrants known as “brodyagi”—Number -of runaway convicts in the summer months said to exceed -thirty thousand—The formation of the “artel” or union -in all companies of convicts—The power and methods of -the “Ivans” or recidivists in the “artel”—Leo Deutsch’s -story—Life of the politicals in the Middle Kara state -prison—The “Sirius” or student who worked during the -night—The humane governor, Colonel Kanonovich—He -resigns rather than obey the government’s orders that the -prisoners should be perpetually chained to wheelbarrows.</p> - -<p class='c012'>Certain types of criminals and some peculiar -phases of criminality have grown up in Russian, and -especially in Siberian prisons. They are mainly due -to the negation of proper penitentiary principles and -the absence of any fixed methods of treatment. Callous -indifference has generally alternated with brutal -repression and savage, disciplinary punishments. -The chief result has been the growth of classes of -criminals seldom seen elsewhere. The so-called -“habitual offender” is to be met with strongly developed -and in a peculiarly vicious form in Siberia. -The whole country is overrun with fugitive convicts -who have made good their escape in various fashions. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>Some have run from the marching parties, -carrying their lives in their hands as they braved the -bullets of the generally straight-shooting soldiers -of the escort; others have successfully evaded the -police at remote points of settlement as established -exiles; not a few have benefited by the exchange of -identity with some one who remained behind. All -have become wild men of the woods, the terror of -all peaceable members of society whom they may -come across in the scattered settlements or single -houses of the sparsely inhabited districts. Many -thousands of these vagrants are at large in the summer -months, when they may live in the open air -and subsist as best they can on what they find or -steal. Large numbers are recaptured; many perish -from cold and starvation when winter approaches; -many more give themselves up voluntarily to save -their lives, accepting the severest flogging or a new -sentence as the penalty of their escape.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Yet they are incorrigible wanderers and pass their -lives in short periods of freedom and longer doses -of confinement. When Kennan saw a marching -party start, he was shown convicts who were treading -the dolorous road for the sixth time. The captain -of the escort assured him that he had known -cases in which the journey had been repeated sixteen -times. In other words, the vagrant had crossed Siberia -just thirty-two times on foot, and had, therefore, -walked as much as if he had twice made the -circuit of the globe at the Equator.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>The passionate craving for freedom has been well -described by Dostoyevski. “At the first song of the -lark throughout all Siberia and Russia, men set out -on the tramp; God’s creatures, if they can break -their prison and escape into the woods.... They -go vagabondising where they please, wherever life -seems to them most agreeable and easy; they drink -and eat what they can find; at night they sleep undisturbed -and without a care in the woods or in a -field;... saying good night only to the stars; and -the eye that watches them is the eye of God. It is -not altogether a rosy lot: sometimes they suffer -hunger and fatigue ‘in the service of General -Cuckoo.’ Often enough the wanderers have not a -morsel of bread to keep their teeth going for days -at a time.... They are almost all brigands and -thieves by necessity rather than inclination.... -This life in the woods, wretched and fearful as it -is, but still free and adventurous, has a mysterious -seduction for those who have experienced it.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>A curious illustration of this consuming passion -is to be found in the case of an aged convict who -had become the servant of a high official at the -Kara gold mines. This man ran away periodically -at the return of spring, and although suffering always -the same terrible privations, was brought back -in irons. At last, at the fateful moment, he came -to his master and begged that he might be locked -up. “I am a <em>brodyaga</em>, heart and soul, quite irreclaimable, -and I cannot resist the cuckoo’s call. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>Please do me the favour to put me under lock and -key so that I cannot go off.” He was closely confined -until the summer passed, and when the fever -of unrest left him, he was released and became quiet, -contented and docile as ever. A convict who has -earned conditional freedom and received a grant of -land, may have married, had children and lived -quietly for some years, when suddenly some day he -will have disappeared, abandoning wife and family, -to the stupefaction of everybody. Vagrancy is in -his blood. He probably was a deserter before his -conviction; the passion for wandering has always -possessed him. He has hungered after a change of -lot, and nothing would hold him, not even his -family, much less police surveillance or prison bars.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The largest number of these vagabonds, or “passportless” -men, as they are called, have begun at the -earliest opportunity to make a break for liberty -while on the road between the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>. As the party -was being marshalled after the midday rest, or when -it reached some defile or stretch of broken ground, -a simultaneous dash was made by several through -the marching cordon of guards. Fire was then -opened instantaneously, and one or more of the -fugitives fell while the rest got away. If the rush -was made near some wood and cover could be -gained, the escape was successful. The first step -on reaching a safe shelter was to remove the leg -irons by pounding the basils into an oblong shape -with a stone. Then the fugitive’s face was turned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>westward toward the Ural Mountains, and one or -two might by chance reach European Russia.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As a rule, they travel along byways and tracks -known only to themselves through the <em>taiga</em>, or primeval -forest, but they sometimes boldly appear upon -the great highways to Moscow. They are often to -be met with in couples or small bands, still in their -prison rags, skirting the forest and keeping near -the edge so as to hide quickly at the first alarm. -Before the days of the railway, they would engage -in conversation with friends in any passing party -of convicts on the march, and even dared to salute -the officers, who might know them perfectly but who -would not interfere with them. Life is often very -hard with them, but the Siberian peasants are -usually charitable, partly from religious feeling, but -not a little from fear, for the <em>brodyaga</em> is vindictive -and capable of showing his ill-will murderously. -The doors of dwelling houses are kept fast shut, but -food is often placed outside on the window-sill,—a -piece of bread and cheese or a bowl of thickened -milk. Sometimes the bath-house, at a little distance, -in a detached building, is left open to give a night’s -shelter, but it is dangerous to admit a tramp into -the main residence. Leo Deutsch tells the following -story of the unfortunate results of incaution. It -is from the lips of one of the principal actors.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“We’d been a few days on the road when one -stormy night we came to a village. It was pouring -in torrents, and we could find nobody who would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>let us in, till at last an old man opened the door -of his hut. We begged him in God’s name to give -us shelter. ‘Well,’ he said, ‘will you promise to -leave us old folks in peace?‘ ‘What do you take -us for, grandfather?‘ said we. ‘Have pity on us!’ -So he let us in, and the old woman gave us something -to eat, and they allowed us to lie on the stove -by turns. Well, they went to sleep and we just <em>did -for them</em>, and went off with everything that could -be of any use to us. We didn’t get far: the peasants -came after us and caught us; and then there -was the usual game: trial and sentence to penal -servitude.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Frequently the recaptured <em>brodyaga</em> is sentenced -to only a few years’ penal servitude, when he was -originally sentenced for a much longer period, and -thus escape not only gives him freedom for a time, -but considerably lessens his punishment even after -a second or third trial. This is the result of the -impossibility of establishing the identity of persons -arrested without passports, but the difficulty has -largely disappeared in recent years with the more -systematic methods of photographing the convicts.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The <em>brodyagi</em> were Ishmaelites against whom -every hand was turned. The people of Siberia -showed them little mercy and constantly hunted -them down simply to rob them of anything they -possessed. It was better than chasing an antelope, -they said; the beast had only one skin, the convict -had two; his coat, his shirt, boots and clothes, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>something in his pockets. Again—quoting from -Deutsch—there was the case of a tramp who had -engaged himself as a labourer during the winter -months. When paid his wages, a mere pittance, he -wandered forth; his late master pursued him, shot -him from behind a bush and repossessed himself -of the money. The Siberian woods held many unrecognised -corpses, about whom no questions were -asked. Life is cheap in the great convict land.</p> - -<p class='c013'>With the advent of spring, when approaching -summer renders life in the woods bearable, the “free -commands,” comprising persons sentenced to simple -banishment or conditionally released, begin to overflow -into the forests, and a constant stream of fugitives -bent upon changing their lot sets westward. -The signal for the start is the first note of the -cuckoo; hence the prison synonym for an escape -is “to go to General ‘Kukushka’ for orders.” They -pass around Lake Baikal, climbing the high, barren -mountains that surround it, or they cross it on a -raft or empty fish cask. Their fires are to be seen -in the distance guiding the hunters who are out to -avenge some new outrage of the runaways.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It is estimated that the numbers of vagabonds at -large in the summer months exceed thirty thousand. -By far the larger part of these reappear at the convicts’ -settlements when winter arrives. They are -not recognised and have steadfastly refused to recollect -their proper names, so one and all are provided -with the same appellation of “Ivan Dontremember,”—a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>large family, and the name carries with -it the penalty of five years’ hard labour. When -deportation to Saghalien was later adopted on a -large scale, the hope was entertained that the fever -for escape would in a measure be cured by the difficulties -and dangers of the savage conditions of -that wild and distant land. The prison administration -strongly recommended that the most incorrigible -runaways should be interned on that convict -settlement, where, hemmed in by sea and ice, they -were cut off from the mainland of Asia and circumscribed -in their bids for freedom. The Saghalien -<em>brodyagi</em>, however, have been as active for evil and -as irrepressible as in Siberia; they have worked in -gangs, and rendered more desperate by the poverty -of the country and the greater difficulties of subsistence, -they have become more recklessly criminal. -Fugitives who had broken prison joined forces and -terrorised whole districts, attacking posts and settlements, -committing the worst outrages, and long -defying pursuit and recapture. More detailed accounts -of the prevailing lawlessness in Saghalien -belong to a later date.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The multiplication of escapes by the most desperate -characters in Siberia, and their almost inevitable -recapture and reconviction, developed some detestable -features in prison life. If anything were -needed to emphasise the misusage of the comparatively -innocent victims of Russian oppression, it will -be found in the permitted predominance of the worst -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>elements. The best were forever at the mercy of -the worst; the hardened miscreants ruled the prisons; -they might not be in the majority, but they -depended upon the strength that came with combination -of the truculent and masterful banded together. -Where convicts gathered together in any -number the first step was the organisation of the -<em>artel</em>, or “union,” which governed the rest with irresistible -despotism. In the days of marching by road -the union was generally formed at the first halting -place, when a <em>starosta</em>, or “chief,” was forthwith -elected by the prisoners from among their own -body, and nominally by the vote of the majority. -But the decision lay really with the “Ivans,” the -recidivists who had been in exile before; the old, -experienced rogues and vagabonds, who imposed -their will upon their comrades through their nominee. -It was the ruthless rule of a secret oligarchy, -wielding despotic and irresponsible power entirely -in its own interests. The individual prisoner sacrificed -his personal rights to gain the protection of the -association which pretended to stand between him -and the authorities. The union had funds acquired -by means of a tax assessed on the whole body, and -from other sources of revenue, such as the sale by -auction to the highest bidder of the privilege of -keeping a sutler’s shop where tea, sugar and white -bread were sold openly, and where tobacco, playing -cards and intoxicating liquor might be secretly purchased.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>The will of the <em>artel</em> was law; its functions were -far-reaching and its authority absolute over all the -members. It worked secretly and out of sight, securing -its ends by astute devices and a free use of -bribes to officers and soldiers, and by utilising the -knowledge that it was backed up by the whole number -of prisoners. Among its duties were concerting -plans of escape with the requisite assistance; the -suborning of the executioner to flog lightly; the -hiring of <em>telyegas</em> and sleighs for conveyance by -the road of those who could pay for the privilege, -frequently to the exclusion of the really weak and -suffering; the bribery of all officials; and the enforcement -of all contracts and agreements among -the prisoners. It had its own unwritten code, its -own standard of honour and obligation, its own -penalties. A member might commit almost any -crime, provided he was loyal and obedient to the -organisation; if he betrayed it or revealed its secrets, -no matter under what compulsion, he was -already a dead man. The whole continent of Asia -could not hide or save the unfaithful exile. If condemned -by the pitiless tribunal, his fate would certainly -overtake him somehow, somewhere, even at -a long distance from the scene of his offence. The -traitors might secure the protection of the authorities -and live altogether in the strictest solitude, but -immunity was only secured for a time. The blow -would fall eventually. Kennan quotes two cases, -in one of which the victim was choked to death on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>board a convict steamer on the voyage to Saghalien, -and in the other, he was found dead, with his throat -cut, in a Caucasian <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span>.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The chief of the union was a person of great importance; -he had the whole strength of the society -at his back and was the recognised intermediary -with the authorities. An astute convoy officer -would enter into relations with him, and in return -for a promise that no escapes would be attempted, -winked at the removal of leg irons on the road, -which, as has been said, the wearer could always -accomplish by altering the shape of the anklets. -Even a high official, no less a personage than the -inspector-general of exiles, would make a cash contribution -to the funds of the <em>artel</em> to secure this same -promise. If any daring convict should then escape, -the union was eager to effect the recapture, either -of the actual fugitive or of some runaway found at -large. The ultimate fate of the fugitive has already -been indicated.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The <em>artel</em>, acting through its leaders, the “Ivans,” -who helped the <em>starosta</em> to his place and practically -controlled him, claimed the right to enforce the strict -observance of the agreements made between convicts, -and especially in regard to “swops,” or the -exchange of identities, with all the attributes and -responsibilities attaching to each. In recent years, -great pains have been taken to prevent this by such -means as the obligation to carry photographs and -personal description which are constantly compared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>with the individual. But the exchanges were long -made with impunity, facilitated by the loose system -prevailing. Every marching party consisted of two -principal classes; the convicts sentenced to imprisonment -with hard labour, and the <em>ssylny</em>, sentenced -to exile only as forced colonists. The penalties are -quite unequal, and many of those doomed to suffer -the most severe would be glad to exchange positions -with the colonists when any could be induced to accept -the heavier burden. There were many such; -it was only a question of price, and that was not -generally high; often a ridiculously small compensation -sufficed and the bargain was soon made.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There are in every exile party a number of abject -creatures, degraded gamblers, who have lost their -clothing (government property) and mortgaged -their food allowance for weeks ahead, and who will -sell their souls for a few rubles and a bottle of vodka. -Such a creature will listen greedily to the overtures -of the more prosperous convict, who has won or -saved money on the road, and who tempts with -splendid offers: a warm overcoat, five rubles and -a few glasses of drink as the price of his personality. -The bribe is backed up by specious arguments. The -new convict might console himself with the thought -that he need not remain long at hard labour. When -duly arrived at his destination in the mining settlements, -or at some great prison, he had only to declare -that he was not the man he pretended to be. -He would confess, in fact, that he had fraudulently -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>exchanged with another, whom he named but who -could not be found. The first act of the sham exile -would be to escape from the village in which he was -interned and to get lost in the <em>taiga</em>. The false convict -might be held for a time and subjected to a -severe flogging and a term of imprisonment, after -which he could count upon release as an ordinary -exile.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This is no fanciful story. Cases were of constant -occurrence. Leo Deutsch, when on his way to the -Kara mines, was seriously approached by a comrade -on the march, who suggested an exchange and -showed unblushingly how it might be carried out. -This man was a veteran “Ivan,” a criminal aristocrat -and dandy among his fellows; he wore a white -shirt with a gay tie under his gray overcoat, and a -brightly coloured scarf round his waist, to which -his chains were cleverly attached so that they did -not rattle or incommode him when walking. The -suggestion was nothing less than a cold-blooded -murder. The substitute to be provided was to have -some personal resemblance to Deutsch, and would -take his place with the other politicals one day, and -disappear the next. When his body should be picked -up presently in a neighbouring stream, it would be -supposed that Deutsch had committed suicide, while -in reality, still alive and hearty, he was to be disguised -as the substitute who had been permanently -“removed” to make a place for him. The price of -this atrocity was a few rubles, twenty or thirty at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>most, and the blood money was to be divided among -the murderers, with a large contribution to the revenues -of the union.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was to the interest of the <em>artel</em> to encourage -these exchanges and insist upon their punctual performance. -The substitute was never permitted to -back out of his bargain. He generally belonged to -the class contemptuously styled “biscuits,” and the -name suited these pale, emaciated creatures, the -pariahs of the party, upon whom fell all the dirty, -disagreeable jobs. These poor wretches had lost all -power of will, and cared for nothing but the cards -that had been their ruin. They stole all they could -lay their hands on, except from the “Ivans,” who -would have retaliated with a murderous thrashing, -justified on the ground that the thief had stolen from -his own people. The condition of these “biscuits” -was heart-rending, especially in bad weather, when, -clothed in rags that barely covered their nakedness, -they ran rather than walked on the line of march -so as to keep themselves warm. Their only pleasure -was in gambling, when anything and everything was -staked, even the government clothing for which they -were responsible and for losing which they were -punished cruelly.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Next in importance to the chief, the storekeeper -was a prominent official in the union. He had -bought his place, bidding the highest price for it -when put up at auction, and he had acquired the -exclusive right to sell provisions to the prisoners, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>and to supply them secretly with tobacco, spirits and -playing cards. The last mentioned were in constant -use and the games were eagerly watched. -When a winner was lucky, it was customary for him -to stand treat to his starving comrades. The storekeeper -also, on the expiration of his office, would -entertain everyone with a feast when the prisoners -would hungrily eat their fill, crying, “It is the storekeeper -who pays.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>There is now, however, little chance of any such -extended organisation among the convicts on the -journey or in the forwarding prisons. The officials -have learned how to prevent and break up such combinations -and more recent regulations have rendered -them inoperative. So the old <em>brodyagi</em> must lament -for the good old days and the power that they once -exercised.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Some curious details of the organisation of the -<em>artel</em> in the Middle Kara, or state prison for politicals, -are given by Leo Deutsch. It was formed for -domestic administration and was worked fairly and -equitably for the general good. Coöperation was -the leading principle. All issues of food, the daily -rations for the whole number, were collected and -afterward divided with such additions as were provided -out of a common fund obtained by general -contribution of moneys received by prisoners from -their friends at home. This fund was expended in -three ways: one part went to the “stock pot” as -explained above, to supplement the food; a second -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>was applied to help prisoners about to be released; -and the third was divided as pocket money among -the whole number, to be spent according to individual -taste, in buying small luxuries or books approved -by the authorities. The <em>starosta</em> kept strict account; -no actual money passed hands; paper orders circulated -and were debited to each member on a monthly -balance sheet, with the result brought out as “plus” -or “minus.” It was the same as in ordinary life; -some thriftless people were always in debt; the -impecunious hoped to get clear at Christmas time -when gifts came in, but if still on the wrong side, -the “minus” was “whitewashed” by the consent -of the <em>artel</em> but not always with the concurrence of -the debtor, who was sometimes too proud to accept -the favour.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Under this union, life in common was admirably -organised, with a division of labour and a regular -roster of employment. Work was of two classes; -for private purposes, and for the general good. The -former included washing of clothes and mending, -the latter cooking, cleaning, attending to the steam -bath and the various domestic services. No pains -were spared to insure cleanliness. All rooms occupied -by the prisoners were scrupulously washed and -kept tidy; the bed-boards and floors were regularly -scrubbed with hot water; the beds were aired; -tables and benches were washed in the yard; all -sanitary appliances were thoroughly disinfected. -Proper ventilation was insisted upon, and close attention -<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>was paid to hygienic conditions. All worked -cheerfully, and illness only was allowed as an exemption. -The cooking was done by groups of five -each which served for a week at a time. A head -cook, an assistant cook for invalids, and two helpers -made up the group. This was hard work, fatiguing -while it lasted, but a relief to the monotonous -life. The kitchen became a sort of club-house, -where men came to laugh and jest and play practical -jokes, a pleasant change in their gruesome existence. -The dietary was meagre and little varied on account -of dearth of materials. Thin soup and black bread -was the staple food, but the soup-meat was often -served as a separate dish with great ingenuity, a -favourite method being to mince it with groats. -This dish was nicknamed “Every-one-likes-it,” and -it was joyfully welcomed on the days it appeared -on the bill of fare. Another favourite dish was the -<em>pirog</em>, a sort of “resurrection pie,” containing -scraps saved up during the week. Except on rare -holidays, when roast meat and white bread were -supplied out of the fund, the food was neither nutritious -nor appetising. But many of the cooks were -skilful,—worthy, as the prisoners declared, of -“better houses.” The cook’s perquisite was the -issue of a rather increased portion of food.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Certain officials were appointed by the <em>artel</em>. A -“bread issuer” cut up the loaves and served them -out to the different rooms; it was his duty also to -collect the scraps, even to the crumbs, and send them -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>to the “free command,” where ex-prisoners in semi-liberation -resided; and the pieces helped to feed the -horses and two cows, the property of the union. -There was a poultry man, too, who took charge of -the fowls, which were raised and tended most carefully. -Two bath-keepers were in charge of the -steam bath, the one luxury in the prison, indulgence -in which once a week afforded a short period of delightful -ease and comfort. What the bath meant to -the convicts in the Omsk <em>ostrog</em> has already been -described.</p> - -<p class='c013'>One of the most important offices was that of -librarian of the prison. He was elected by ballot. -By degrees the library at Kara had reached a large -number of volumes, partly brought in by prisoners, -partly sent from Russia, always with permission. -It contained many standard works in several languages; -history, mathematics and natural science -were largely represented; the books were well cared -for and cleverly rebound by self-taught workmen. -The librarian at Kara was long a political named -Vladimir Tchuikov, a youth who had been condemned -to twenty years’ hard labour for being in -correspondence with a remarkable woman revolutionist, -who was long buried alive in the Schlüsselburg -fortress. It was also charged against him that -he was found in possession of implements for printing -and manufacturing false passports, and of a list -of subscriptions to the journal, <cite>Will of the People</cite>. -As a librarian he was invaluable; he had a prodigious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>memory and could indicate any article on any -given subject which had appeared in a certain work -or pile of newspapers.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Leo Deutsch describes the effect made upon him -by Tchuikov at their first meeting. “I noted their -youthful but worn faces (Tchuikov and Spandoni); -both of them wore spectacles and on their heads -were round caps with no brims. With their yellow -sheepskins and rattling chains, my comrades gave -one the impression that they could not be real convicts, -but were just dressed up for the part—so -great was the contrast between their refined faces -and behaviour and this uncouth disguise.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Other officials under this coöperative association -were the general “dividers,” one for each room, -whose duty was to parcel out with great care every -atom of food, and especially the tid-bits arriving -from friends, which he divided honourably and exactly. -He was also the carver for the room. As -has been said, the utmost generosity prevailed; no -prisoner claimed to retain any gifts he received -from outside; all linen, clothing, and boots were -handed over to the chief, and their final possession -was decided by lot, their nature being first declared, -so that any one in need might put in a claim to draw -for them.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Some further details of the common life at this -time in the Middle Kara state prison will be found -interesting. All the inmates were more or less acquainted -with one another; all were comrades devoted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>to a common cause. Youth was a general -characteristic, and its buoyancy and sanguine spirit -animated every one. Light-hearted conversation, -with jokes and laughter, were not unknown; free -association was not forbidden; the prisoners were -not locked up singly or confined to a particular room, -but were at liberty to run to and fro exchanging -ideas and sometimes news when it came in, which -was but rarely.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Each room had its nickname, the survival of a -dim and distant past. One was called the “Sanhedrin,” -another the “Yakutsk,” a third the “Volost,” -and a fourth the “Nobles’ room.” There was always -a large contingent of clever and well educated -young men among the politicals, but the popular -idea of the lesser officials that they were all nobles, -princes and counts was ridiculously far-fetched. -Still, they profited by the civility and consideration -accorded to them. Many were deeply read; many -were members of the universities who were eager -to improve themselves. Some of them were known -as “Siriuses,” a prison name given to the ardent -students, who worked in the middle of the night, -taking advantage of the hours of perfect stillness -broken only by the snores of the sleepers. The -“Sirius” turned in early in the evening when the -noisy chatter of many voices was disturbing to -study, but he could sleep through it and, waking at -midnight, would light the shaded lamp at his table -and work till dawn. Then when Sirius, star of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>morning, arose, he again took a short rest for a -couple of hours.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The attainments of these students sometimes -reached a high standard; they were proficient in -metaphysics, abstruse mathematics, or languages, -and professors in each of these branches were glad -to take pupils. Marvellous skill in handicrafts was -also acquired, mainly from books of technical instruction, -and lessons in theory were admirably applied -in practice. One clever workman constructed -a pocket lathe out of a few old rusty nails, and by -its help fashioned all the parts of a clock which kept -good time, although he was no watchmaker. The -possession of the tools required for these productions -was forbidden by the rules, and they were kept -out of sight when the regular searches and inspections -were made. When the rules in this respect -were relaxed, there was a great development in arts -and crafts, a vise was set up in one of the rooms, -and an amateur photographer opened a regular -studio.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A mechanical genius, an original and inventive -character, was prominent among the politicals at -this period. He was Leo Zlatopolski, a student of -the Technological Institute of St. Petersburg, who -had joined the revolutionary party and through his -mechanical skill had been of great assistance in the -manufacture of bombs. Prison seclusion had stimulated -his inventive powers. He designed a flying -machine and planned a circular town, in which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>everything was to be run by electricity, but he did -not despise working for the improvement of domestic -appliances, such as new schemes for the boiling -of potatoes and the making of shoes. He had advanced -theories for the heating of dwellings; he -invented new games of cards and aspired to regenerate -and reorganise daily life. But none of his -schemes were practical, and his comrades made him -their butt, although he was really a very capable -and learned man. The activity and productiveness -of the political prisoners reminds us of the same -qualities exhibited in the Omsk <em>ostrog</em> as described -by Dostoyevski.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Other amusements were much indulged in during -the more troublous times. Chess was played in the -long, dismal, and monotonous hours, and by first -class performers who had studied the game scientifically. -There were well-contested tournaments, the -result of which excited lively interest. Music was -greatly cultivated, and the prison choir had a large -repertory of the now widely popular Russian composers. -One of the gifted handicraftsmen constructed -a very passable violin which was constantly -in use, and less ambitious performers were proficient -with the simple hair-comb. Physical exercise was -obtained within the prison enclosure during the -winter on snow slides, after the fashion of the -modern toboggan at fashionable winter resorts in -Europe.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The relegation of political offenders to the Kara -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>mines began in 1873, but did not become a regular -practice till 1879, when the terrorists’ propaganda -seriously alarmed the Russian government. It was -then resolved to subject the worst cases to penal -servitude under the same painful conditions as -common criminals, with whom they worked side by -side at the gold placers. This was no child’s play, -but it was not unendurable. On the contrary, the -daily egress from prison for six or eight hours into -sunshine and open air was much appreciated. For -some time the supreme power at Kara was wielded -by the humane and rightly esteemed Colonel Kanonovich, -during whose mild régime the prisoners enjoyed -the privileges detailed above. But with the -changed temper of the government and the increased -severity decreed, Colonel Kanonovich proved restive -and declined to give effect to the new orders. He -had already protested against some of the penalties -enforced, especially that of chaining to wheelbarrows, -and although he was unable to abolish it or -relieve those subjected to it without permission -from St. Petersburg, he gave orders that whenever -he visited the prisons all suffering that inhumane -punishment should be released from the wheelbarrows -for the time so that his eyes might not be -offended by the sight.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This savage and abominable practice, although -discontinued on the Siberian continent, is still authorised -by law, and is constantly inflicted at Saghalien -on convicts condemned to a life sentence. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>The penalty consists in making a prisoner fast to a -small miner’s wheelbarrow by means of a chain -attached to the middle link of the leg irons. While -the chain is long enough to allow of freedom of -movement, the victim cannot take any exercise, nor -cross his cell without trundling his wheelbarrow in -front of him. One political offender, Shchedrin, -indignant at the gross misconduct of Colonel -Soliviof, adjutant to the governor-general of Trans-Baikal, -struck him in the face. This man was sentenced -to the wheelbarrow and was sent back to -Russia to be imprisoned in the Schlüsselburg. He -travelled across Asia fastened to his wheelbarrow, -even when in a vehicle. When jolted on the rough -roads, he was so much bruised by his barrow that -it was found necessary to unchain him and lash the -implement behind the cart, and this strange spectacle -was witnessed by many. Shchedrin became insane -in the “stonebags” of Schlüsselburg, and he -died eventually in an insane asylum. At night it -was necessary to hoist the wheelbarrow into such -a position as to allow the sleeper to lie alongside.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A high-souled, chivalrous man of the stamp of -Colonel Kanonovich could not bear to witness the -miseries of his charges unmoved. He was not a -revolutionist, nor in sympathy with the reforming -spirit, but he was willing to admit that many of the -political offenders were disinterested patriots and -that there were among them numbers of refined -and cultivated men and women. He treated them, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>as I have tried to show, with kindness and consideration, -and sought to lighten and brighten their -grievous lot. When at last he saw that he was to -be employed as an intermediary for the infliction -of fresh tortures, he resolved to resign rather than -be responsible for them. He wrote boldly to his -superiors saying he was not a hangman, and that -he would not do violence to his feelings by enforcing -the cruel orders recently issued. When his -resignation was accepted, and he was recalled to -St. Petersburg, he was sharply taken to task by -Governor-General Anuchin as he passed through -Irkutsk.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“No one holding your views,” said this great -official, “could expect to retain his appointment as -chief of the Kara prisons and mines. I question -whether any one like you can hold a post in the -government service.” “Very well,” was the sturdy -reply, “then I will get out of it forthwith. The -government has imposed an impossible duty on me, -and I cannot perform it and keep an approving conscience.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Colonel Kanonovich fortunately had many influential -friends, and the accusations brought against -him could not injure him permanently. He was an -officer of the Cossacks and was appointed to another -command in the Trans-Baikal, and later promoted -to be a general officer, in charge of the enlarged -penal colony of Saghalien. He also supervised the -erection of the new Verkhni Udinsk prison, in which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>a praiseworthy and conspicuous effort at reform was -subsequently made. The building of the political -prison at Middle Kara was under his direction, but -he left just before it was occupied and was in no -wise responsible for the atrocities committed there.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VIII <br /> TREATMENT OF POLITICALS</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>Withdrawal of privileges accorded to politicals—Lunatics -confined in association with other prisoners—Suicides—Many -escapes attempted—Fresh deprivations—The politicals -separated and confined in common prisons of the Kara -district—Subjected to “dungeon conditions”—Much disease—Finally -transferred to the state prison—Hunger -strike which lasted thirteen days—Some remarkable female -revolutionists—A hunger strike instituted by the women—Attempts -to pacify them—The resignation of the governor -Masyukov demanded—Madame Sigida strikes Masyukov in -the face—Subjected to flogging and dies—Three of her -companions commit suicide—Thirteen of the men determine -to put an end to their lives—Governors, good and -bad—Deutsch’s account of Nikolin’s régime—The atrocities -committed by the governor Patrin at Saghalien.</p> - -<p class='c012'>The changed attitude of the government toward -the state prisoners at Kara dated, as we have said, -from the end of the year 1880, under the initiative of -Loris Melikov, and this action, so inconsistent with -his supposed views as a liberal minister, has never -been explained. Kennan suggests that it was caused -by bad advice, carelessly adopted. But, as Leo -Deutsch tells us, the harsh régime was introduced at -a time when the revolutionary agitation had revived -in great strength, and the dominant bureaucracy was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>more than ever on the defensive, ready to wreak its -revengeful feelings upon the captives it held in durance. -In any case, the orders issued evidenced a -retrograde policy and a revival of the old methods -of repression with new punishments superadded. -All existing privileges, even the most trivial, were -withdrawn. A peremptory stop was put to all correspondence -with relatives and friends; work in the -open air for ordinary criminal convicts was forbidden; -and all the politicals who had finished their -sentences of imprisonment and were living in the -“free command” were again immured, with the old -inflictions of leg irons and half shaved heads. At -three days’ notice they were sent back to prison, -many of them leaving their wives and children alone -and unprotected in a vicious and disorderly penal -settlement.</p> - -<p class='c013'>When they reëntered they were herded with the -rest in the new political prison at or near the Kara -Lower Diggings, a building somewhat better than -those for common criminals, being larger, more -spacious and better lighted, with four <em>kameras</em>, each -warmed with a brick oven and provided with the -conventional <em>nary</em> or sleeping platforms. At first -the windows looked out upon the valley, an open if -not very picturesque prospect. This was the case -in other prisons for all criminal convicts, but it did -not please Governor-General Anuchin, who ordered -the whole place to be shut in by a high stockade. -“A prison is not a palace,” he cynically declared, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>as he condemned his fellow creatures to be deprived -of all view and restricted in the matter of light. -Anuchin, in his report to the Czar, dated two years -later, admits that the life of state criminals was -“unbearable,” but quite forgot how far he himself -contributed to their sufferings.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Under the brutal system in force, insane companions, -often raging lunatics, were confined with the -rest. There were no asylums in Siberia, and the insane -lived in association with the sane, adding much -to the miseries of both. “In more than one place -in the Trans-Baikal we were startled,” says Kennan, -“as we entered a crowded prison <em>kamera</em>, by -some uncared-for lunatic, who sprang suddenly -toward us with a wild cry or with a burst of hysterical -laughter.... It is easier and cheaper to make -the prison comrades of a lunatic take care of him -than to keep him in seclusion and provide him with -an attendant. For educated political prisoners, who -dread insanity more than anything else, it is, of -course, terribly depressing to have constantly before -them, in the form of a wrecked intelligence, an illustration -of the possible end of their own existence.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Several painful episodes soon followed the recommittal -of the “free command” to prison. One was -the suicide of Eugene Semyanovski, a young journalist -connected with the underground journal <cite>Onward</cite>, -who had gained his conditional freedom and -lost it. He left a letter to his father bemoaning his -hard fate, written the night before his reëntry to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>prison, and shot himself in his bed. Another political -hanged himself in the prison bath-house, and -a third poisoned himself by drinking water in which -he had soaked lucifer matches. Another most affecting -incident was the mental failure of Madame -Kovalevskaya, a brilliant woman, who had been -actively concerned in the revolutionary propaganda -as the only means of securing free institutions in the -empire. She was sentenced to penal servitude at -Kara, where she presently joined the “free command.” -Her husband was also exiled, but was sent -to Minusinsk in Eastern Siberia, so that no less than -a thousand miles intervened between the pair. Their -only child had been left behind at Kiev in Russia. -Madame Kovalevskaya’s insanity declared itself -after she went back to Kara prison and while Colonel -Kanonovich was still in command, and she was -then allowed to join her husband, but after partial -recovery she was returned to Kara. Eventually, -after the cowardly oppression of her comrades, she -committed suicide.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another consequence of the increased severity in -the treatment of politicals was their widespread determination -to break prison. Many escapes were -attempted, and although they were for the most part -frustrated, the feeling of unrest was so general that -the authorities resolved to use more severe methods -of coercion. A high official stated that they meant -“to reduce the prison to order and give the politicals -a lesson.” Daily life was made more and more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>irksome; privileges, great and small, were withdrawn; -all books were removed; money, underclothing, -beds and bedding were taken from them; -they might possess nothing more than the bare necessaries -allowed to ordinary convicts. But worse -than all, the whole number, kept hitherto in one -prison, was broken up into small parties and distributed -among the various common prisons of the -Kara district, where they were to be treated under -“dungeon conditions.” This treatment meant more -than the deprivation of small luxuries as above mentioned; -it also entailed the loss of all exercise in the -open air or communication with the outside, and a -diet of only black rye bread and water, with sometimes -a little broth thickened with barley.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The removal was made forcibly. Cossacks were -concentrated at the Lower Diggings in anticipation -of resistance, or perhaps to provoke it, and suddenly -a descent was made upon the prison in the dead of -night. A strong, armed force marched into the -prison with bayonets fixed, and seized the poor politicals -as they were roused from sleep. They were -stripped, searched, driven forth with blows and -otherwise cruelly maltreated. The next morning, -having been robbed and despoiled of all their private -possessions, they were marched off under escorts to -the other Kara prisons. They marched continuously -for ten miles without food or drink, or a halt for -rest, and one man who was chained to a wheelbarrow -rolled it all the way. Goaded to desperation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>those prisoners who were not ironed attacked the -Cossacks with stones, but they were speedily overpowered. -They arrived in a state of utter exhaustion -at the common prisons, and were lodged two -and two in “secret” cells, hitherto employed only -for the safe custody of the worst criminals, which -were bare rooms with no more furniture than the -open <em>parasha</em>, or bucket, and with only the stone -floor to sleep on.</p> - -<p class='c013'>These essentially “dungeon conditions” spent in -the secret cells of the ordinary criminals were continued -for two months, and at length the health of -the politicals became grievously impaired. Foul air, -insufficient food, close confinement and the lack of -all exercise brought on an epidemic of scurvy, which -resulted in serious illnesses in many cases. They -were still without underclothing, bedding or nourishing -food, although the authorities held prisoners’ -moneys out of which the cost might have been defrayed. -All the politicals were then transferred to -the Lower Diggings, and lodged in the new cells of -the state prison. Seven or eight prisoners were -crowded into a narrow space obtained by dividing -each <em>kamera</em> into three parts by the creation of partitions. -The sleeping platform nearly filled each interior -and left little standing room, and the pollution -of the air was “simply maddening.” Protest and -remonstrance were continuous, and only ceased -when threats of flogging were made, a form of -punishment never yet inflicted on politicals.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>At length the unhappy victims of such savage -repression had recourse to a “hunger strike,” the -last terrible weapon of the otherwise helpless prisoners. -It is a strange and almost incomprehensible -fact that the Russian prison authorities have always -yielded to the pressure exercised by a number of -prisoners resolutely determined to starve themselves -to death. Our deepest sympathy must be accorded -to the great courage that inspires this last appeal -against intolerable cruelties. We admire and understand -it, but are amazed that it should be so effectual -with the brutal and otherwise insensible oppressors. -When the much wronged politicals delivered their -ultimatum, the authorities at first received it with -indifference, but soon became anxious and at length -despairing, as the refusal to take food was steadfastly -persisted in. Not a morsel of sustenance was -taken. “As day after day passed, the stillness of -death gradually settled down upon the prison. The -starving convicts, too weak and apathetic even to -talk to one another, lay in rows, like dead men, upon -the plank sleeping platforms, and the only sounds -heard in the building were the footsteps of the sentries, -and now and then the incoherent mutterings -of the insane.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Overtures were made and amelioration in their -condition was promised; fears of flogging were -ridiculous, the officials said, and nothing of the kind -had been contemplated. But the strike continued, -for the strikers had no confidence in the plausible -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>assurances of the governor. On the tenth day of -starvation, the state of affairs was desperate. The -indomitable sufferers had reached the last stage of -physical exhaustion, and release by death seemed -close at hand. The struggle was anxiously watched -from St. Petersburg. Telegrams passed daily between -the local authorities and the minister of the -interior, who could only suggest medical intervention, -which does not seem to have been tried beyond -feeling pulses and taking the bodily temperatures. -The wives of the strikers were finally granted the -unusual privilege of an interview, on condition that -they would implore their husbands to take food. -These loving entreaties, backed by fresh promises -from the commandant, finally overcame the resolution -of the politicals, and on the thirteenth day of -abstention the great hunger strike ended.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The physical endurance called forth by a hunger -strike has been well described by Leo Deutsch, who -was driven to refuse food by his ill-usage in the -Odessa prison in the early stages of his sentence. -His well-known character for sturdy defiance had -so disturbed the prison authorities that they had -taken extraordinary precautions to secure him, by -lodging him in a dark underground cell, with no -bedding except straw infested with rats, and no -ventilation. He decided to starve himself in protest. -They threatened to feed him artificially; he retorted -that he knew how to bring on sickness. Then they -listened to his very justifiable protest, and on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>fourth day he ended his strike. He says, “It was -only when I began to eat that I realised how fearfully -hungry I was. I could have devoured an ox.... -During the two following days I felt very -seedy, as though I had had a bad illness.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Hunger strikes were more especially the weapon -of the weaker sex, although there was no weakness -among the women revolutionists, and the movement -owed much of its vigour and vitality to their indomitable -courage and unconquerable strength of -character. In the days to come, when the great, -patient people of a cruelly oppressed and misgoverned -land have achieved its emancipation, ample -justice must be done to the feminine champions, who -entered boldly into the fray and fought strenuously -for the vindication of the rights of their fellow countrymen -to freedom and independence. Many of -their names will then be honoured and revered with -the greatest of those known to history. Russian -women of all stations, and some of them of the -highest rank, have won the admiration of the whole -world, for their disregard of self, the sacrifice of -all ease and comfort, and the braving of the worst -dangers and the most poignant sufferings in their -constant efforts to oppose political slavery. We may -be inclined to quarrel with their methods, overlooking -the greatness of their provocation, and believing -that nothing could justify the violent means -adopted, but we cannot withhold our sympathy for -the ardent souls who have dared employ them.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>Some of the most remarkable female revolutionists -were concerned with the hunger strikes in Eastern -Siberia and were victims of the methods inflicted -in retaliation of outraged discipline. There were -those who emulated the crime of Vera Zassulich, -who in 1878 tried, but failed, to shoot General Trepov, -the chief of the St. Petersburg police, for ordering -the corporal punishment of a political prisoner. -Madame Kutitonskaya fired at General -Ilyashevich, the governor of the Trans-Baikal, to -avenge the intolerable ill-usage of the political prisoners -on the 11th of May, 1882. Madame Hope -Sigida struck Colonel Masyukov in the face, to -shame him into withdrawing from Kara, where he -was commandant of the political prisons, and where -his indignant female charges had boycotted him, insisting -upon his removal. Madame Elizabeth Kovalskaya -deliberately showed her contempt for the -governor-general of the Amur, Baron Korv, by refusing -to rise in his presence, and was in consequence -removed to the central prison in Verkhni-Udinsk.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The lives and antecedents of some of these female -exiles who suffered so bitterly for their opinions, -merit special notice. Maria Kutitonskaya was a -pupil in a girls’ school at Odessa and joined the revolutionists -while still a young girl. She was arrested -with Lisogub, a wealthy man who lived in extreme -poverty in order to devote his fortune to the revolutionary -funds, and she was condemned to four years’ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>hard labour. Madame Kutitonskaya was the uncompromising -foe of the prison officials and constantly -resisted the irksome rules imposed. With -three other women, Mesdames Kovalevskaya, <a id='corr221.4'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Bogolometz'>Bogomoletz</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_221.4'><ins class='correction' title='Bogolometz'>Bogomoletz</ins></a></span> -and Elena Rossikova, she was removed to -Irkutsk and there got into contest with the chief of -the police, against whom they organised a hunger -strike in which they persisted for ten or eleven days, -until the prison doctor grew alarmed and representation -was made to the governor of the district who -brought the police officer to reason.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Kutitonskaya was a lady of great personal -attractions, with fair face and winning manner, -and was greatly admired. After her attempt -to assassinate General Ilyashevich, she was closely -confined on bread and water in a damp, gloomy -dungeon. The ordinary convicts brought her food, -fell at her feet and christened her “Cupidon Skaya,” -as a pet name in recognition of her beauty. The -story of her murderous attack is told in full by -Kennan.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“Stirred to the very depths of her soul by a feeling -of intense indignation” at the shameful ill-treatment -of the politicals at Kara, she did not hesitate -to sacrifice her life and that of her unborn child -by committing a deed that must give publicity to -the wrongs she and her companions had suffered. -When interned in the town of Aksha in the Trans-Baikal -district, she purchased a small revolver from -a released criminal colonist, ran away from her place -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>of banishment and made for Chita, where the governor -resided. She was too pretty to travel alone -without attracting attention and when she reached -Chita she was arrested. At the police station she -did not deny her identity but pleaded that she was -eager to have an interview with the governor. Accordingly, -she was detained in the reception room -while a message was sent to Ilyashevich which -brought the general to her. They had neglected to -search her, and she held her revolver ready cocked -under a handkerchief as the governor entered, shooting -him forthwith through the lungs. The wound -was not mortal, and the assailant was promptly -seized and carried off to the Chita prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Her subsequent treatment was abominable. She -was lodged in a “secret” cell, cold, dark, dirty, too -short to allow her to lie down at full length, and -too low to permit her to stand upright. Her own -dress and underclothing were taken from her, contrary -to the usual treatment of women politicals, -and a ragged petticoat infested with vermin was -given her in exchange. Despite her condition, she -was obliged to lie for three months without bed-clothing -on the bare floor. Serious illness seized -her, and she begged at least for a little straw to -sleep on; it was contemptuously denied her. But -for the succour brought by her criminal comrades, -she could not have survived until her trial. This at -last took place before a court-martial, and she was -sentenced to be hanged. Had she made known her -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>pregnancy, it might have gained her a reprieve, but -she forbore to speak, although she suffered bitterly -at the prospect of becoming the murderess of her -unborn child. The feeling was intensified by the -dreadful thought that it might remain alive after -she had died. The question was solved by the unexpected -leniency of the government, by whom the -death penalty was commuted to penal servitude for -life at the creditable intercession of her intended -victim. She was then removed in mid-winter to -Irkutsk, and would have been entirely unprovided -with warm clothing but for the charity of her criminal -comrades, who gave her felt boots and a sheepskin -overcoat. The immediate result of her treatment -was the birth of a still-born child, and she herself -succumbed eventually to lung trouble.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Kovalevskaya is described by Deutsch, -who knew her well, as one of the most notable -women in the revolutionary movement. She was -the daughter of a landed proprietor named Vorontsov, -her brother was Basil Vorontsov, a well known -political economist, and she married Kovalevskaya, -a tutor in a gymnasium of Kiev. She had thrown -in her lot with the advanced party in the early sixties, -and she devoted herself constantly to the work. -In appearance she was short in stature, gipsy-like -in appearance, alert and energetic in manner, keen -witted, ready and logical in speech. She took the -lead in theoretical discussions, imparting life and -spirit into debate without becoming personal or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>hurting people’s feelings. Her gifts were exceptional; -she was a brilliant creature born to play a -distinguished part in society. At an early age she -had opened a peasant school and sought to improve -the mental condition of the poorer classes. Her -efforts soon drew upon her the attention of the -police, and she was harried and thwarted by them -until they drove her into the ranks of the revolutionary -party. The circle in Kiev to which she belonged -was broken up, its members were arrested -and she and her husband were exiled to Siberia. -Her fiery and uncompromising temper kept her in -constant antagonism with the authorities, and her -active protest against the ill-treatment of her comrade -politicals brought her prominently to the front, -with the fatal consequences already described.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Of her three friends, one, Madame Kutitonskaya, -has been mentioned; a second was Sophia Bogomoletz, -whose maiden name was Prisyetskaya, and who -was the daughter of a rich landowner of Poltava. -She had graduated at a medical school in St. Petersburg -and, having married a doctor, threw herself -ardently into revolutionary work. She was arrested -as a member of the South Russian Workmen’s -Union and was sent to ten years’ hard labour in -Siberia with a companion, Madame Kovalskaya. -They escaped from the Irkutsk prison but were recaptured -in a few weeks, before they could leave -the city. When brought back, the customary search -was personally supervised by Colonel Soliviov, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>an adjutant of the governor-general and a -man of vicious character, and by his order the two -women were stripped naked before him. After this -disgrace to humanity and the uniform he wore, he -went immediately to one of the men’s wards and -boasted of the shameful deed, adding contemptuously, -“Your political women are not much to look -at.” Whereupon one of those present, Shchedrin, -who had been a school-teacher before sentence, -struck the brute upon the mouth, calling him coward -and liar. For this violent protest Shchedrin was -condemned to be chained perpetually to a wheelbarrow -as already described.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Bogomoletz was punished with an additional -five years’ penal sentence, to be passed as -a “probationer” prisoner, serving the full term -without the remission granted to others, and with -no prospect of the “time of alleviation” or that of -conditional release. She was quite indomitable, and -looked upon all prison officials as her natural enemies -to whom she would make no compromise and -yield no obedience. Nothing deterred her, no fear -of punishment, threats, or infliction of the most irksome -conditions, and the whole staff trembled before -her.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Elena Rossikova had been sentenced to a life -term for a daring robbery from the finance department -at Kherson. She was the wife of a country -gentleman who had been a school-teacher at Elizabetgrad, -and with a confederate she had succeeded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>in seizing a large sum of public money, meaning -to devote it to revolutionary purposes. Her accomplice -was Anna Alexieova, afterward Madame -Dubrova, a convict and a professional burglar who -had escaped from Siberia. They had entered the -government treasury through a tunnel driven under -the stone floor in the vault of a house adjoining, a -wild and desperate scheme for two young and inexperienced -girls. That they planned and dared effect -it bears witness to the determined character of the -Russian women revolutionists. Kennan says the -thieves were caught before they could remove all the -stolen money, but, according to Leo Deutsch, they -succeeded in their attempt. The next day, however, -a woman was intercepted as she drove a cart laden -with sacks through the town, and the sacks were -found to be stuffed full of ruble notes, to the number -of a million. Arrest followed, including that of the -convict, who at once confessed her share in the transaction -and gave such information as led to the recovery -of the greater part of the stolen money.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Rossikova, as the elder woman and originator -of the plan, was condemned by court-martial, -before which she was arraigned, to hard labour for -a long term at the mines; Anna Alexieova was sentenced -merely to exile as a forced colonist and she -married Dubrova, a missionary at Krasnoyarsk. -The two girls began as philanthropists, eager to -benefit and improve the peasant class, but developed -under the persecution of the authorities and their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>unjust, overbearing treatment into pronounced revolutionists. -Both were large-minded women, capable -of the greatest self-sacrifice and acting in accordance -with a high moral standard. Madame Rossikova -had given proof of her sincerity by accepting the ordeal -known as “going to the people”; in other -words, she lived for seven or eight months like a -common peasant woman, in a peasant village, that -she might see how best to reach and help the people. -She had long disapproved of terrorism, but became -a pronounced terrorist herself, moved to the fiercest -indignation by the reports that reached her of the -sufferings of her exiled friends.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Perhaps one of the most celebrated of the female -revolutionists was Madame Vera Phillipova, born -Figner, who never found her way to the mines of -Kara, where she would undoubtedly have become -prominent among the most active champions of her -party. She was long the most popular personage -in the revolutionary movement; her name was in -everybody’s mouth, her fine traits, her unfailing and -unlimited constancy, her undefeated, self-sacrificing -devotion to the cause, her talents for organisation, -her boundless inventive powers, her tireless energy,—all -won for her profound respect from her comrades; -and even her enemies, the members of the -court-martial which condemned her, were forced to -admire her dignified demeanour when arraigned and -tried for her life. A mere girl, of striking beauty, -and possessing extraordinary personal influence, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>she freely spent herself in the service of her fellows. -Like many other well-born girls, her chief aim was -to help the peasants, and she devoted herself to the -rough life in small villages on the Volga, enduring -all the hardships and privations of the labouring -classes, and her self sacrifice was greatly stimulated -by what she saw of misery, poverty and hopeless -ignorance.</p> - -<p class='c013'>It was borne in on her that reform could only -be effected by the most reckless measures, and she -became a terrorist heart and soul, vowed to violence, -and prepared to go to any extreme. In this -temper, she readily joined in the plot for the assassination -of the Czar, Alexander II, on his return -from Livadia to St. Petersburg, and the dynamite -for use in the bombs was stored in her house. This -did not absorb all her energies, and she was still -active in the organisation of secret societies and in -preaching revolutionary principles among people of -good society, to which she belonged by birth and -education; for she was the daughter of a distinguished -general and was well received by the best -people.</p> - -<p class='c013'>At Odessa she mixed much with the military set -and thus became identified with the conspiracy of -“the Fourteen.” Nearly all of those concerned -were military or naval officers, five of whom, with -Vera Figner and Ludmilla Volkenstein, were condemned -to death. She knew that she and her companions -had been betrayed, and she might have escaped -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>by timely flight into another country, but she -scorned to yield, although arrest was certain, and -she held her ground, only to be convicted and -thrown into the Schlüsselburg, condemned to imprisonment -for the term of her natural life.</p> - -<div class='illo'> - -<div id='i229' class='figcenter id004'> -<img src='images/i_229fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic002'> -<p><em>Russian Prisoners</em><br /><span class='small'><em>After the painting by Marckl</em></span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c013'><span class='small'>The Fortress of Schlüsselburg is situated on an island in -Lake Ladoga, about forty miles from St. Petersburg. The -worst of all fates meted out to political prisoners in Russia -is imprisonment in the subterranean dungeons of this fortress. -No news penetrates the walls of the isolated prison and no -information from within leaks out. Few ever leave the -prison alive except to be transferred to an insane asylum.</span></p> - -</div> - -<p class='c013'>While in the Schlüsselburg, Vera Figner studied -Italian and English, and translated many of Kipling’s -works into Russian. After she had spent -altogether twenty years in prison, she committed the -offence of striking an officer. Her mother, who had -promised not to intercede for her, could no longer -keep silent; and appealed to the Czar, with the result -that the life sentence passed upon the famous -revolutionist was reduced to one of twenty years. -Instead of releasing her immediately, however, -Plehve kept her two more years in the Schlüsselburg, -saying, “There is still too much life left in -her.” To her unspeakable grief, her mother died -a few weeks before she was released in 1904.</p> - -<p class='c013'>She was exiled to a tiny village close to the arctic -regions, and a year and a half afterward she was -allowed to return to her estate in the Kazan province. -She has since made a trip to Italy for her -health, and although her nervous system received -such a shock that she has never fully recovered, she -has renewed activity for the cause to which she has -devoted her life by lecturing in foreign cities.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another woman revolutionist who afterward suffered -greatly at Kara was Madame Anna Pavlovna -Korba, the daughter of a German nobleman naturalised -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>in Russia, named Meinhardt. She had married -a Swiss gentleman living in Russia. She was -the friend of Madame Löschern von Herzfeld, who -had been one of those banished, but afterward pardoned, -in “the case of the 193.” She was again -arrested at Kiev with arms in her hand, and suffered -a second exile with a long imprisonment at -Kara. On her return from the campaign of 1878–9 -in Turkey, where she had worked as a nurse, she -adopted the revolutionary programme. The “white -terror” was at its height; the government was active -in pursuing the politicals who were pledged to -destroy the Czar; and in 1882, Soudyehkin, the -chief of the secret police, laid a heavy hand on them, -arresting them in batches, executing many and -burying the rest alive in St. Petersburg dungeons. -Anna Korba, undaunted, threw herself into the fight, -and strove earnestly to replace those who had fallen -in the ranks. She was arrested for being concerned -in the manufacture of dynamite bombs at a secret -laboratory, and her trial ended in exile at Kara with -twenty years at hard labour, which nearly killed her.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Elizabeth Kovalskaya, whose fruitless -effort to escape from Irkutsk has been described, deliberately -planned to offend a great official in order -to secure her removal. One day, when Baron Korv, -the governor-general, visited the prison, she failed -purposely to rise from her seat in his presence. -Baron Korv objected harshly to this mark of disrespect -to a man in his position, and Madame Kovalskaya -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>quietly replied that she had not elected -him to it. The enraged official left the prison saying -he would send instructions how to deal with this -refractory female, and shortly afterward an order -came to remove her to the central prison at Verkhni -Udinsk, as her unruly behaviour had a demoralising -effect at Kara.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The new removal would have been in accordance -with Madame Kovalskaya’s wishes, but it was most -savagely carried out. The blame lay with the commandant -of the Kara political prison. Colonel -Masyukov, an officer of the gendarmerie, had held -this post for about ten years. He was a man of -weak character, of low mental calibre, without judgment -and quite unfitted for the functions he discharged. -Once an officer of the guards, he had -wasted his substance in riotous living and had accepted -this well paid post to discharge his liabilities -and his gambling debts.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Colonel Masyukov stupidly supposed that the female -prisoners stirred up by Madame Kovalskaya -would have risen to resist her transfer. He resolved, -therefore, that she should be conveyed away -secretly without a word of notice. A subordinate -officer, named Bobrovski, accompanied by a party -of gensdarmes and ordinary convicts, burst into her -cell at four o’clock in the morning and dragged her -out of bed, half naked, with no more covering than -her nightdress. She was hurried to the office and -here ordered to put on the coarse garments of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>common criminal. After this she fainted, and, -wrapped up unconscious in a blanket, was carried -out to the bank of the river Shilka, where an open -boat was in readiness to carry her to Stretensk, the -steamboat navigation not being yet practicable. In -this small boat she travelled seventy miles for three -days and nights with the soldiers of her escort who -had already treated her with shameful indignity.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This forcible seizure had aroused the whole -prison, and the other women, maddened by the victim’s -shrieks and believing that her honour was being -outraged, became perfectly infuriated. They -declared a hunger strike forthwith and refused food -unless Masyukov was dismissed from his post. The -commandant now deeply regretted his foolish action, -and took counsel a little too late from his more -sensible subordinates, especially one wise old sergeant, -Golubtsov, a tactful man of long experience -and much common sense. On his advice the male -prisoners were called in to pacify their incensed -women comrades and persuade them to abandon -their strike. They suggested that the commandant -should be requested to apologise to his offended -charges, a satisfaction altogether scouted as insufficient -by the strikers. The famishing women still -insisted upon the withdrawal of Masyukov. The -condition seemed impossible of concession by the -authorities, but it was hoped that the commandant -might himself solve the difficulty by applying for a -transfer elsewhere. This settled the question for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>moment, and the women consented to take food on -the clear understanding that if Masyukov had not -disappeared within a certain period, the hunger -strike would be recommenced.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This in effect came to pass. The commandant -held his ground. The malcontents again refused -food, and now the men, although they thought the -suggested apology would have been sufficient atonement -by Masyukov, joined in the protest and also -went out “on strike.” The commandant thereupon -came to terms; he produced a telegram accepting -his resignation; and once more food was eaten, -after a week’s starvation. But the women would not -forgive Masyukov and declined to hold any communication -with him. He was “boycotted” completely -to the extent even of a refusal on their part -to receive their letters from home after passing -through his hands. This high spirited resolve reacted -very painfully upon themselves. Mental torture -worse than the physical was superadded to their -sufferings, and they were all but driven to despair. -No letters were sent and all which were received -were returned unopened through the post to their -senders.</p> - -<p class='c013'>This absolute severance of home ties bore especially -hard upon one of the latest arrivals in the -prison,—Madame Hope Sigida, “a sensitive young -creature, gentle, affectionate and attracted by all that -was good and beautiful. She was deeply attached -to her family, who lived in Taganrock, a small town -<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>in South Russia.” She had been a school teacher, -and was condemned to eight years’ hard labour -because a printing press and some bombs had been -discovered in the house where she resided with her -husband who was an officer in Taganrock circuit -court. The latter was condemned to death, but the -sentence was commuted to deportation to Saghalien, -and he died on his way to that island. Madame -Sigida, in her bereavement, felt acutely the cessation -of all relations with her distant home, and when her -comrades, goaded to desperation, were upon the -point of resuming the hunger strike, she determined -to sacrifice herself for the common good. Hoping -that relief might in that way come to the rest, she -planned to attack Masyukov alone. She sought an -interview with the commandant, and it was granted -in due course. A most dramatic incident followed, -as told by eye-witnesses. She was driven to the -office in a carriage under escort, and was taken in -to speak to Colonel Masyukov, who the next moment -was seen to jump out of the window, evidently -much excited and terrified, and take to his heels. -Then Madame Sigida came to the door, and after -caressing some warder’s children who stood there, -in a quiet, unperturbed voice begged that a telegraphic -message might be despatched to the proper -authorities informing them that she had assaulted -the commandant by striking him in the face. She -justified her violence as the only means of shaming -him into taking his departure. At least she succeeded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>in forcing him to show himself in his character -of a mean, despicable coward.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Sigida was forthwith cast into a secret -cell and subjected to “dungeon conditions,” while -awaiting trial for her grave breach of discipline. -Her self-sacrifice had not availed to avert the hunger -strike. It began immediately afterward by all -the women prisoners, and was persisted in for -sixteen days with the same argument, that Colonel -Masyukov, now ridiculed and disgraced, must -go.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Madame Sigida, still waiting judgment, refused -food and remained fasting for twenty-two days, -until medical intervention was decreed. Madame -Kovalskaya struck the doctor in the face when she -thought he was about to forcibly administer nourishment. -But he was a humane man and disclaimed -all such intention, and she begged his pardon.</p> - -<p class='c013'>For some time no formal inquiry into Madame -Sigida’s assault was made, and no steps were taken -to deal with her case. But after the lapse of a -month or more, when the matter had been reported -to St. Petersburg, a reply came directed against the -whole body of the politicals. Colonel Masyukov, -still holding his ground, assembled them and, escorted -by soldiers, behind whom he sought protection, -read aloud a letter from the governor-general -in which he warned the politicals that they were in -future amenable to corporal punishment. The penalty -was deemed necessary by the authorities for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>maintenance of discipline in the disturbed state of -the prison.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Consternation fell upon these long suffering victims -of a despotic government, who although defenders -of their undoubted rights, as admitted in -all civilised countries, had never rendered themselves -liable to such reprisals. The penalty was, moreover, -illegal in their case, and the threat to flog was considered -an undeserved and outrageous insult. The -desire to raise indignant protest possessed all, and -many would have gone so far as to counsel a general -suicide. The leader of this extreme view was Sergius -Bobohov, a man of the loftiest sentiments, who -had adopted revolutionary principles from a strict -sense of their justice and necessity. Deutsch’s estimate -of his character is worth quoting at length. -“Genuine sincerity, seriousness of purpose, and -boundless devotion to his ideal were his leading -traits. He was the most modest of men, but when -the honour of a revolutionist was at stake, or if it -were a question of duty, he would undergo a transformation -and become a fiery and inspired prophet.” -Bobohov took the threat of flogging very much to -heart, and passionately urged that an answering -threat of suicide should be addressed to the minister -of the interior. “I cling to life as much as any -man,” he said, “but I am ready to face death as -a means of protest.” His arguments had weight -with his comrades, but might not have prevailed -except for the disastrous course of events.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>At this moment a catastrophe was precipitated by -the almost incredible news that Madame Sigida, the -assailant of Colonel Masyukov, was to be flogged -by order of Baron Korv, the governor-general and -persecutor of Madame Kovalskaya. The punishment -was to be inflicted with rods in the presence -of the prison doctor, but without previous medical -certificate. The surgeon of the Kara penal settlement -had given it as his opinion that the poor creature -was unfit to receive even a single blow, and -declined to be present, as the infliction was by administrative -order and without a sentence of court. -The governor hesitated to inflict the punishment, but -Baron Korv persisted in the flogging, surgeon or -no surgeon. The executioner was the same subordinate -official, Bobrovski, who had distinguished -himself in the misusage of Madame Kovalskaya. -He had received promotion for his brutal conduct -on that occasion, and was willing to curry favour -further with his merciless superiors.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Details of this horrible tragedy are wanting as -the lips of those who assisted are sealed. The authorities -have, indeed, dared to deny the facts -through their mouthpieces in the press, but they -were well known throughout Siberia and their truth -has been acknowledged by high officials who strove -to justify the infliction. Ill-considered attempts -have been made by at least imperfectly informed -champions to discredit the whole story, which -stands nevertheless as an indelible disgrace to Russian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>penal administrators, whose only excuse was -that the nihilist women “had brought troubles upon -themselves by being excitable and intractable, and -an example was necessary.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>So the example was made. Madame Sigida was -stripped and beaten with rods, when in a state of -unconsciousness, for she soon fainted under the infliction, -and was carried back senseless from the -place of punishment to her cell. Two days later she -died, but whether from the effects of the flogging -or from deliberate poisoning is not positively -known. Three of her female companions undoubtedly -committed suicide, and on the men’s side seventeen -out of thirty-nine resolved to put an end -to their own lives. The result was not altogether -successful. The drug, opium, was either old or -adulterated, and many who lay down to die only -woke to excruciating agony and were saved in spite -of themselves. A few of them, Bobohov among the -number, tried again, choosing morphia as the means -of self-destruction, but once more the drug was -ineffective and only two actually died.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The fate of those in durance is largely dependent -upon the character and quality of those who have -them in charge. Nowhere does this fact stand out -more prominently than in Russian prisons. The -governor, director or commandant is a petty despot; -within his own narrow limits he is almost irresponsible, -though subject, of course, to the control of -superiors, but this has never been very closely exercised. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>Inspections are for the most part perfunctory, -and abuses, especially that of power, may flourish -freely without detection or interference. This -ramifies through all the grades, and the prisoner, -of whatever class, is very much at the mercy of the -subordinate officials with whom he is brought into -daily personal contact. The ordinary warder is -very much the same everywhere: a man placed in -authority over others often superior to himself in -antecedents, birth, education and experience of life. -He is apt to become arbitrary, tyrannical and self-sufficient -from the authority he wields, whether -delegated or usurped. After all he is only an agent, -a deputy and go-between, carrying out the orders -of his masters, whose moods he reflects, whose attitude -he imitates, and whose temper animates him, -inspiring him to harass and oppress or, more rarely, -to be merciful and forbearing. Warders almost invariably -take their tone from their supreme chief; -hence the deep importance that attaches to the governor -in prison life.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There were good and bad rulers in Russian prisons, -the latter perhaps predominating, although -occasionally a humane, well-intentioned and considerate -man was to be met with, such as Kanonovich, -who for a time governed the Kara political -prison kindly and leniently, as has already been -described. After him came a succession of gendarmerie -officers from Irkutsk whose characters are -summed up by Kennan as follows:—“Khalturin -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>was brutally cruel, Shubin was a man of little character, -and Manaiev was not only a drunkard, but a -thief who destroyed hundreds of the prisoners’ letters -and embezzled 1,900 rubles of money sent to -them by their relatives and friends in European -Russia.” Then came Captain Nikolin, of whom -more directly. All these were men of much the -same stamp as the “Major” of the Omsk <em>ostrog</em> -described by Dostoyevski. He was, he says, “a -fatal being for prisoners, whom he had brought to -such a state that they trembled before him. Severe -to the point of insanity, ‘he threw himself upon -them,’ to use their expression. But it was above all -that look, as penetrating as that of a lynx, that was -feared. It was impossible to conceal anything from -him. He saw, so to say, without looking. On entering -the prison, he knew at once what was being -done. Accordingly the convicts, one and all, called -him the man with the eight eyes. His system was -bad, for it had the effect of irritating men who were -already irascible.” Fortunately for the prisoners, -he was under a superior, for, as the writer tells us, -“the commandant was a well-bred, reasonable man -who moderated the savage onslaughts of the major, -or the latter would have caused sad misfortune by -his bad administration.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>This major was universally loathed by the prisoners, -and more than once was on the verge of murderous -attack. There were times when the convicts -at Omsk were goaded to desperation by his brutality. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>One day a dozen men from Little Russia swore -to take his life, and their leader had borrowed the -kitchen knife and secreted it about his person. The -grievance for the moment was the badness of the -food, and when the major came in to expostulate, -the assailant rushed at him, but found that his victim -was drunk, or, according to prison superstition, -“under special protection.” It was more than he -deserved, for he was a blasphemous and overbearing -wretch. After having carried the knapsack for -many long years, promotion to the grade of officer -had turned his head.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Captain Nikolin was an officer of gensdarmes -who had been specially selected at St. Petersburg -and sent out to govern the state prisons at Kara. -Kennan speaks of him as “an old and experienced -gendarme officer of the most subtle and unscrupulous -type, who had received his training under General -Muraviov, ‘the hangman, in Poland,’ and had -been about thirty years in the service.... He had -the suavity and courteous manners of the accomplished -gendarme officer, ... and he greeted me -with what he intended for frank, open cordiality, -softening, so far as possible, all the hard lines of his -face; but he could not bring a spark of good fellowship -into his cold, watchful gray eyes, and I felt -conscious that all his real mental processes were -carefully masked.” He was very proud of his position: -that he, a simple captain of gensdarmes, had -been sent to this important command, where he was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>independent of local control and entitled to correspond -direct with the minister of the interior. His -whole object was to hoodwink Kennan, whom he -assured blandly and mendaciously that the prisoners -led a life of ease, even of luxury, sitting in a <em>kamera</em> -like a club smoking room, reading and writing and -pleasantly conversing. He further asserted that the -“politicals” received considerable sums from their -friends in Russia; that they bought what books -they pleased, had newspapers, including the London -<cite>Punch</cite> and other illustrated papers, and in a -word, were “treated with gracious clemency by an -enlightened and paternal government.” Nikolin -showed the cloven foot later when he urged his -colleague to seize Mr. Kennan’s baggage and search -it, by which high-handed proceeding, happily -avoided, much of the incriminating material so daringly -secured by the fearless American, would have -been lost to the indignant readers of the civilised -world.</p> - -<p class='c013'>We have another portrait of Captain Nikolin -from one who knew him but too well. Leo Deutsch -suffered for some years under his régime and describes -him “as a malicious, ill-natured man, continually -devising petty humiliations for the prisoners.” -In person he was a short, heavily built man, -some fifty years of age, “with a bald head, a full -gray beard, thin, tightly closed, rather cruel lips, -an impenetrable face and cold gray eyes. His broad -round face, cunning little eyes, and bristling moustache, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>gave him the look of a fat, spiteful old tom-cat, -and he was always designated by that nickname. -The expression of his eyes was particularly catlike; -he looked as if just ready to pounce on a victim and -stick his claws into it. He always spoke in a low -voice, this ‘tom-cat;’ but he chattered unceasingly, -and kept smacking his lips all the time, his -expression being always peevish and discontented.... -We petitioned our ‘tom-cat’ for leave to -plant a garden in the yard; there was space enough, -the work would have been beneficial, and then we -might have had vegetables for our table, the deficiency -in which particular had been so detrimental -to our health. The ‘tom-cat’ roundly refused. -‘We should need spades,’ he said, ‘and they might -be used to dig a hole whereby to get away.’ So, -again, when one of us was sent some flower-seeds -and sowed them in a wooden box, the box was -taken away by Nikolin’s orders; the earth in it -might have served to conceal some contraband article. -Such needless tyrannies embittered us still -more against the detested commandant. However -peaceably we might otherwise have been inclined, -our hatred of this man might well have blazed out -at any opportunity; he himself probably guessed -as much, for he became more and more mistrustful, -at last never entering our prison. He felt that he -had made enemies all round him, and sat lonely in -his own house, or squabbled with his cook, afraid -to show himself outside. It may be a matter of surprise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>that one of his many enemies did not find a -way to put an end to him, that being a not unusual -course of events in Kara; but finally he could endure -such a life no longer, and applied to be transferred -elsewhere. In the spring of 1887 his application -was granted, and he departed, accompanied -by the anathemas of the entire population of Kara.” -Captain Nikolin was in due course succeeded by the -Colonel Masyukov of whom we have heard so much -in his conflict with the politicals of the state prison -at Kara.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Captain Nikolin’s colleague at Kara, coequal in -authority, but with independent functions, was -Major Potulov, who governed the ordinary criminal -prison at Kara. He was a man of a pleasanter -type, who was both civil and hospitable to George -Kennan, possibly to keep an eye upon his motions -and, perhaps, take the sting out of the condemnation -his command so richly deserved. He is described -as a tall, fine looking, soldierly man about fifty -years of age, affable in manner and disposed to act -fairly by his charges, so far as it lay within his -power. Where he failed was in loyalty to his superiors, -and he was gifted with rare talents for fraud -and embezzlement. He stole unblushingly, and enriched -himself largely at the expense of the state. -His chief device was to keep hundreds of prisoners -on the rolls who were mere “ghosts;” men who -had disappeared by flight or death, but for whom -rations were still drawn and the value thereof shared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>between him and the purveyor. He was presently -detected and dismissed, but escaped justice through -his influential friends.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Patrin of Saghalien came to the front at a later -date, when deportation to the island colony was in -full swing, and his evil reputation became widespread -as the most brutal and rapacious official in -Russian penal annals. His character was so well -known far and wide that he figured as the prison -demon on the San Francisco stage. His was a -reign of terror in the Alexandrovsk prison, and he -drove through the town armed with revolver and -Winchester rifle, committing acts of atrocious criminal -violence in the open streets. Horrible stories -were current of his misusage of his charges, of constant -punishments in the dark cells or with the plet -till death was the result. He was equally harsh -with his officers. One of them, who had gone to -complain of the insulting and outrageous conduct -of a comrade toward his (the complainant’s) wife, -was struck on the mouth by Patrin and felled to the -ground. He had an abrupt way of dealing with recalcitrant -prisoners. One day there came before -him a young convict of an irascible temper, who had -obstinately refused to work. Patrin forthwith fell -upon him, striking him on the jaw. The prisoner, -although of slight build, closed with the governor -and, showing superhuman strength, dragged him to -the top of the staircase. Now the warders who had -been hanging about hurried to their chief’s assistance, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>and the fight became a perfect mêlée in one -confused struggling group, all gravitating toward -the edge of the stairs, down which they suddenly -fell headlong. Patrin came out on top, with the -prisoner underneath. But the latter had seized a -revolver from one of the guards, and when he was -raised to his feet pointed the weapon to his own -forehead and shot himself, saying, “It was Patrin -I wanted to kill.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The political prisoners at Saghalien were subjected -to the tender mercies of Patrin, and he also -had charge of the women’s prison, but his infamous -behaviour toward the women was too abominable -to be told.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IX <br /> CHANGES IN SYSTEM</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The Kara settlements—Descriptions of the prisons by Kennan—Filthy -state of the prison buildings at Ust Kara—Gold -mining—Illicit trade in “stolen gold”—Improvements -in the prison system—The new prison of Alexandrovsk—Mr. -Foster Fraser’s account of the excellent state -of the prison in 1901—The prison at Verkhni Udinsk—The -island of Saghalien used as a penal colony—Disadvantages -of the place—Coal mining chief industry—Climate -uncongenial—Exiles sent by sea from Odessa—Terrible -sufferings on the voyage—Convict marriages—Deplorable -conditions on the island—Prison discipline in -force at Alexandrovsk—Punishments inflicted—The plet.</p> - -<p class='c012'>Of the partial attempts made by Russia to reform -the methods of inflicting penal servitude on wrong-doers, -I shall speak more at large. A detailed account -must be given of the new prisons erected -more in conformity with modern ideas; and the -persistent pursuit of that will-o’-the-wisp, penal colonisation -by deportation to the desert island of -Saghalien, with its futile processes and disappointing -results, claims attention. Before leaving the -older methods of enforcing hard labour, it will be -well to describe its last stronghold and the system -obtaining there until quite a recent date. “Kara the -Black,” so called from a Tartar word, aptly describes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>the series of prisons and convict settlements -established in the valley of the Kara River to work -the mines, chiefly gold mines, the private property -of the Czar. There are other mines of salt and -silver, the latter chiefly at Nertchinsk, supposed to -have been worked out, and now leased to private -hands with profitable return, in spite of their deadly -unhealthiness from the quicksilver emanations that -poisoned them. The annals of Nertchinsk are as -horrible as any in Siberian prison history, and the -ancient prison of Akatui in the district still stands -to bear witness to the cruelties and tragedies practised -upon the unhappy politicals who inhabited it. -The silver mines were reopened at Algachi in the -neighbourhood, where there was a prison which -Kennan saw and unhesitatingly condemned. “As -a place of confinement,” he writes, “even for the -worst class of offenders, it was a disgrace to a civilised -state, and the negligence, indifference and incompetence -shown by the government in dealing -with its admitted evils were absolutely inexcusable.” -Speaking further of the Nertchinsk district and of -the mines at Algachi and Pokrovski and others, Mr. -Kennan was of opinion that the prisoners permitted -to work in them suffered less than those, the larger -proportion, who were doomed to unbroken idleness -in the overcrowded, foul-smelling prisons. It was -irksome enough to work eight or ten hours daily -in an icy gallery, three hundred feet below ground; -the mines were badly ventilated, and the gases liberated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>by the explosives used may be injurious; but -there are no deadly exhalations from poisonous ores -to affect the health, and no doubt the worst feature -of penal servitude in Siberia was not the hard labour -in the mines but the almost inconceivably foul condition -and enforced idleness of the prisons.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Returning now to the Kara prisons, seven in -number, two of them were allotted to politicals, one -for each sex, and of the remaining five the total -population was approximately eighteen hundred -convicts. Half of them were detained as prisoners; -the other half were permitted generally to join the -“free command.” The latter were still convicts, -receiving rations and restricted to the settlement, -but residing in barracks or in their own houses. -The prison building of Ust Kara, at the Lower Diggings, -is compared by Kennan to “a long, low, -horse-car stable made of squared but unpainted logs, -which are now black, weather-beaten, and decaying -from age.” It was in the form of a square surrounded -by logs twenty-five feet high, closely set -together, and sharpened at the top like enormous -lead pencils. Entrance was gained after ascending -a few steps through a heavy wooden door opening -upon a long, low and very dark corridor with a wet, -slippery floor, much broken and damaged. The first -sensation was that of damp air laden with the fetid -odours that constantly vitiate all Siberian prisons. -Kennan was unable to compare it to any known bad -smell. He says, “I can ask you to imagine cellar -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>air, every atom of which has been half a dozen times -through human lungs and is heavy with carbonic -acid; to imagine that air still further vitiated by -foul, pungent, slightly ammoniacal exhalations from -long unwashed human bodies.... To unaccustomed -senses, it seems so saturated with foulness -and disease as to be almost insupportable. As we -entered the corridor, slipped upon the wet, filthy -floor, and caught the first breath of this air, Major -Potulov (the commandant) turned to me with a -scowl of disgust, and exclaimed, ‘It is a repulsive -prison.’” In the cells there was absolutely no ventilation -whatever. Even the brick oven drew its air -from the corridor. The walls of squared logs had -once been whitewashed, but had become dark and -grimy, and were blotched in many places with extensive -bloodstains, the life blood of countless insatiable -enemies, bed-bugs, crushed to death in unceasing -warfare. The floor was deeply encrusted -with dry, hard-trodden filth. The sloping wooden -platforms on which the convicts slept side by side, -closely packed, without bedding or covering, were -inconceivably dirty. All the cells were the same -except that in one a shoemaker’s bench diffused the -quite pleasing odour of fresh leather.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Small wonder that contagious diseases were rife -in such an atmosphere; scurvy, typhus and typhoid -constantly prevailed and the prison surgeon admitted -that the first was endemic, saying, “We have more -or less scurvy here all the year round.” The infected -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>were not at once removed to hospital, but lay -there to pollute and poison the air breathed by their -comparatively healthy comrades. All the conditions -of this were so manifestly odious that the commandant -did not attempt to explain, defend or excuse -them, but, as Kennan tells us, “he grew more and -more silent, moody and morose as we went through -the <em>kameras</em>.” He knew too well that it was beyond -his power to remedy the abounding evil; he might -listen to grievances, hear petitions and complaints, -but was powerless to relieve them.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The middle Kara prison was on precisely similar -lines, but the air was fresher during the day time, -when the bulk of the inmates were absent at the -mines, to which the hard-labour prisoners proceeded -in the early morning and where they spent the day. -Their midday meal was taken with them, to be eaten -beside the camp fire in any weather, even the fiercest -winter storms. They returned to the prison late -in the afternoon, and dined on a fairly good meal -of hot soup, bread and meat and a cup of brick tea. -This they ate on their sleeping platforms, and passed -the night without removing their clothing.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The gold “placers” at Kara were generally in -deep gravel pits, and the auriferous sand was located -beneath a stratum of clay, gravel or stones, in what -had once been the bed of the stream. The work -consisted in breaking up and removing this overlying -stratum, extracting the gold bearing sand -and carrying it to the machine, where it was washed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>in several waters which in flowing away left deposits -of black sand and gold particles. Pick and crowbar -were in constant use by the convict labourers, working -in their leg irons silently and listlessly under the -close surveillance of a cordon of Cossack sentries. -The average daily task was of ten hours, but much -time was lost in going to and fro, and the annual -amount washed was some four hundred pounds. A -large quantity of gold was stolen by the surreptitious -washing of convicts of the free command. They disposed -of it to “receivers,” who ran great risks but -generally managed to smuggle it across the frontier. -This illicit trade flourishes in spite of the fact that -it is a penal offence to be in possession of the precious -metal or “golden wheat,” as it is technically -called. But the great profits accruing outbalance -the risks, and small speculators are always to be -found who will secretly buy the stolen treasure secured -by the convicts at large.</p> - -<p class='c013'>One notorious criminal at Kara living in the free -command acquired considerable wealth by illicit -trade in “stolen gold.” His name was Lissenko, -and his crimes had been many and heinous. In -one of his robberies he murdered a whole family, -men, women and children. Leo Deutsch came across -him and describes him as a man of about sixty -years who had still the strength of a giant. He -says: “He struck me as being crafty, cunning and -reckless, but not a malicious kind of fellow, and he -was extremely pious withal. No one who knew -<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>him personally could easily believe him to have murdered -innocent children.” Deutsch asked him how -he could have the heart to kill a child. “Oh, I -cried all the time I was doing it,” he replied, “but -still I killed them. It was just God’s will.” His -questioner then asked, “Well, and would you murder -me if you met me in a safe place?” “If I knew -you had a lot of money about you I should certainly -wring your neck,” said the man, with cheerful -frankness. “But there! one doesn’t kill without -some good reason.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The search for gold, belonging really to the government, -or more exactly to the Czar, was almost -openly practised at Kara. Whole families, both -men and women, engaged in it, taking out with -them a shovel and wooden vessel to the banks of -the neighbouring streams, and often obtaining gold -dust to the value of a couple of rubles a day. No -one protested, and the authorities hardly interfered, -for the officials themselves did not scruple to profit -by the illegal trade. Far more gold was obtained -by unlawful than lawful means. The middlemen -got a good price from the Chinese traders, who -could always find a way to pass the gold into China, -where it would fetch a higher price than that paid -by the imperial exchequer. It is contended that -these illicit gold finders have greatly benefited Siberia. -Their restless energy in prospecting has led -to the discovery of numberless gold mines, which are -now being very profitably worked, seldom to the enrichment -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>of the finders, but to that of the middlemen -and through them to that of the country.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The glaring shortcomings of Eastern Siberian -prisons were gradually recognised by the government, -and a commendable, if not extensive, attempt -has been made to provide new and improved buildings, -both to serve as forwarding prisons, and for -the confinement of penal-servitude convicts. A -larger scheme was introduced for the penal colonisation -of the island of Saghalien by the deportation -of exiles thither by sea, of which I shall have much -more to say. The best of the new prisons on the -mainland are those of Alexandrovsk, forty miles -above Irkutsk on the Amgara River, of Gorni Zerentui -at the Nertchinsk mines, and of Verkhni -Udinsk, fifty miles east of Lake Baikal and six hundred -miles from Kara.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The prison of Alexandrovsk, which was visited -by the untiring investigator, Kennan, had been -originally built to serve as a distillery, but was reconstructed -and turned into a great central prison -in 1874. When Kennan was there, it held about -a thousand prisoners and was deemed to be almost -a model prison. It is a large two-storied brick -building with a tin roof, standing in a spacious enclosure -surrounded by a high, buttressed brick wall. -It contains fifty-seven general cells, in each of which -from five to seventy-five occupants are locked -up; ten cells for separate confinement, and five -secret cells for the isolation of the most dangerous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>and refractory prisoners. The cells, as Kennan -found, were large and lofty; the ventilation was -good and the air pure; floors and sleeping rooms -were kept scrupulously clean, the only fault in the -latter being the absence of bedding. The corridors -outside the cells were spacious, well lighted, and the -air was wholesome. Neatness, cleanliness and good -order prevailed in the great kitchen; the food prepared -was palatable and good. The daily rations -per week consisted of three pounds of rye bread, -seven ounces of meat, three ounces of barley, with -potatoes and other vegetables occasionally. The -prisoners were permitted to purchase tea and sugar -out of their own earnings and private funds. A -schoolroom, well furnished and supplied, existed in -the prison, and there were many citizens’ shops,—carpenters, -shoemakers, and tailors,—and two-thirds -of the money earned was at the disposal of -the handicraftsmen. Other labour intended to be -“hard” was enforced at the mills, where rye seed -was ground into meal and where the prisoners -worked for three or four hours daily. At night the -<em>kamera</em> was crowded and dimly lighted; and when -visited, was not quite so sweet and odourless as during -the daytime, but, on the whole, the prison was -infinitely superior to the foul dens already described.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Mr. Foster Fraser, the English traveller, who saw -the Alexandrovsk central prison in 1901–2, gives a -no less favourable report. He describes it as a great -square building, with lofty corridors, colour washed, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>and with sanded floors, the <em>kameras</em> containing on -an average fifty men each. The prisoners, who -hailed from all parts of the polyglot and scattered -Russian Empire, were criminals of the worst stamp, -mostly heavy-jowled, sullen, brutish men, but there -were some few young and innocent looking lads. -In the cells large numbers lounged away the day in -complete idleness, but all asked for employment, and -were glad to get it by being taken into the various -shops. Some were clever and skilful at particular -trades, cabinet-making, tailoring, bookbinding, designing -patent locks, watch-mending or making -musical instruments. The impression conveyed was -that of workshops of well contented artisans. Conversation -was general and many were smoking -cigarettes. Care was taken to classify prisoners by -their religions; Mahometans, Tartars and Caucasians -were kept together in one hall; Jews were -in another with their synagogue hard by. The desire -to brighten the gloomy surroundings was to be -seen in the existence of a theatre with stage and -scenery, where excellent amateur performances were -given, and also musical entertainments, for singing -was much cultivated and there was no lack of good -voices among the convicts. A large library was -kept up, to which free access was permitted for several -hours daily to those who could read, by no -means a large proportion.</p> - -<p class='c013'>There is a second Alexandrovsk prison, one of -the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étapes</em></span>, or forwarding prisons, newly built in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>1886–8, and on good lines, but much handicapped -by the common blot on all such places, overcrowding. -Great numbers, far in excess of available accommodation, -were collected here, awaiting distribution -to various points. Mr. Fraser’s verdict on -this <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> prison is unfavourable. “The rooms -were overcrowded and the stench almost choked me. -The men looked dirty and uncared for. They had -no work; they were just huddled together, waiting -often six or eight months before they were sent off. -Among them were half a dozen young fellows in -ordinary clothes, with nothing of the criminal about -them, the youngest seventeen, the eldest twenty-one. -They were political exiles banished by ‘administrative -process’ for rashly joining in some socialistic -demonstration, and were on their way to Yakutsk -into the frozen depths of the sub-Arctic Circle.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>Verkhni Udinsk is the first halting place after -leaving Lake Baikal on the road to Kara, and all -exiles to Eastern Siberia passed through it, including -the political prisoners. For many years the -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>étape</em></span> prison there was one of the foulest on the -whole route. It is to the credit of the Russian government -that this abominable prison has been abolished -and replaced (in 1886) by a new forwarding -prison constructed on the most approved lines. It -is a large building of four stories, built of brick, -with a stucco front painted white, and having two -spacious wings, a large inner courtyard and separate -buildings for political prisoners and military -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>guard. The <em>kameras</em> are even better than those at -Alexandrovsk, large, lofty, well ventilated, and each -above the basement floor has an extensive view -across the surrounding country through at least -three large windows. The corridors and imposing -staircases, and even the solitary confinement cells, -are of large size. It was built to lodge 440, but -of course was constantly occupied by a much larger -number. When Mr. Kennan expressed his unbounded -approval of the very best prison he had -seen in Russia, or indeed in any country, his conductor -assented, “Yes; if they do not overcrowd -it, it will be very comfortable. But as the old -prison intended for 140 was often filled with as -many as seven hundred, we shall probably be expected -to find room for three thousand in this.” I -have come across no later information on this point, -and it is to be hoped that the substitution of the -sea passage to Saghalien has had a beneficial effect -in reducing the numbers passing along the land -route, and that the Verkhni Udinsk prison has sufficed -to meet the demands on its accommodation.</p> - -<p class='c013'>After very considerable delay, a new prison at -Gorni Zerentui, to serve for the Nertchinsk mines, -was completed in 1888. The crying need for such -a prison was first realised in 1872, and in 1874 a -committee was appointed to report and submit plans. -Seven years later no more progress had been made -than the erection of a few log huts and the repair of -some older buildings, on which nearly 40,000 dollars -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>had been expended. Constant changes of plan -had tended to vexatious delay. Opinions were divided -as to whether brick or logs was the most suitable -material, but preference was finally given to -the latter, because the prison could not be permanent, -as the mines were certain to become worked -out. But already brick had been employed and the -building was far forward, so it was at length completed, -and was occupied at the date given.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The advantages offered by the island of Saghalien -as a place for penal settlement were very -early impressed upon Russian prison administrators. -They were rather sentimental than physical, for the -island was perhaps as unsuitable for human habitation -as any place on the face of the globe. The climate -was uncongenial, and worse even than its latitude -indicated. Alexandrovsk, the chief town, is -in the same latitude as Brighton in England, and -yet its mean annual temperature is just below freezing -point. No sea current wafted any warmth -northward from Chinese waters. On the contrary, -a bitterly cold stream swept its eastern coast, issuing -from the ice-bound sea of Okhotsk, and the western -shores of this narrow elongated island are, so to -speak, under an immense refrigerator, the snowy -mountain tracts of Siberia, separated from it by -only a narrow and shallow channel. Sparse sunlight -pierced through the heavy clouds and fogs that -enveloped this inhospitable land. The milder season -was too brief to allow of great success in the germination -<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>of crops, and the long, low valleys between -the mountains were too damp and marshy to favour -agriculture. Dense forests clothed a large portion -of the island, containing poor trees of inferior, -stunted growth, with comparatively valueless wood. -A scant population of degenerate tribes eked out a -wretched existence as fishermen and seal hunters. -Few settlers came to it from China or Japan.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The report of experts definitely decided against -Saghalien as an agricultural colony. The soil forbade -all hope of raising grain to support those who -worked it. Food must be imported to maintain life; -cattle breeding might succeed, but with difficulty, -and fish must remain the staple diet. One source of -natural wealth which might be developed was the -coal fields, in which the island was supposed to be -rich, but the quality of the coal was inferior to the -Australian and very much below that of Newcastle -and Cardiff. Mr. Hawes, a later traveller (1903), -contests this, however, and describes the coal as a -good lignite, superior to the Japanese as a steam -coal, and says it commands a higher price. As an -article of commerce, it suffers from the difficulties -of lading for export. There is not a single harbour -on the whole circumference of the island, and approach -is often hindered by want of beacons and -constantly prevailing fogs.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Coal mining in Saghalien began in 1858, and -some 30,000 tons were extracted during the first -ten years. The production was very costly; the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>mines were worked by candle light; the ore was bad -and much mixed with stone. The largest deposits -are upon the western coast, and it is mined chiefly at -Dui and Vladiminsk. Mr. Hawes saw a seam of -brown coal exposed on the banks of the river Tim. -At Vladiminsk the coal was on the ground, level, -and easily reached by tunnelling into the cliff, and -when it failed at one spot, another was soon discovered. -The coal sells to the merchants at twelve -shillings per ton, of which the convicts now employed -receive ten per cent.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The adoption of Saghalien as a penal colony -commended itself to the authorities for several reasons. -In the first place, the conditions of life were -more irksome than on the mainland; the work -would, it was thought, be much harder; and the -place itself was wilder, more savage and solitary,—all -of which would combine to increase the severity -of the punishment. Moreover, the prospect of -remaining forever as a settler upon a remote island, -after the term of hard labour was accomplished, -would still further act as a deterrent to crime. Accordingly, -it was resolved to inflict this harsher -penalty upon recidivists and recaptured fugitives, -the <em>brodyagi</em>, or runaway convicts, of whom so -many thousands were always at large and who, -when recaptured, as well as all the “Ivan-don’t-remembers” -who would not tell their names, were -sentenced to penal servitude for a fresh term of four -years in Saghalien. Again, Saghalien by sea was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>better than Siberia by <em>étape</em> process, with its long -painful journey, the sufferings it entailed on the -travellers, and the burden of corruption inflicted -upon the local population by the way. Last of all, -it would tend to free Siberia of the convict element, -and assist the colonisation and development of the -new territory, with manifest benefit to the convicts -on release by the opportunities offered for rehabilitation -and betterment of character and position.</p> - -<p class='c013'>These were the views expressed by Governor-General -Anuchin in his famous reports to the Czar -in 1880. But they had already taken effect, and -deportation to Saghalien had begun practically some -years previously. The first body of convicts, eight -hundred in number, were sent there in 1869, but -they went across the whole continent of Asia, having -already travelled from Russia, and descending -the long length of the Amur River, some two thousand -miles, completed a total journey of 4,700 miles -before reaching its mouth at Nikolaevsk, where they -arrived decimated by disease and all more or less -suffering from scurvy. After that, sea transportation -was used, the party starting from Odessa and -voyaging through the Suez Canal by the Red Sea, -Indian and Northern Pacific Oceans, but under very -neglected and imperfect conditions, so that those -who embarked were subjected to terrible privations -and cruelties on this voyage half round the world.</p> - -<p class='c013'>As time passed, and the last century drew to its -close, deportation direct to Saghalien steadily increased. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>Twice a year the steamer <em>Yaroslav</em>, one -of the Russian volunteer fleet, the appointed convict -ship, performed its sad mission and brought out its -living freight of eight hundred exiles from Odessa. -Besides these, many hundreds regularly arrived -from the mainland, who were convicts due to become -exiled settlers. The latest law provided that -the penal colony should be the receptacle of all males -sentenced to more than two years, of all females not -over forty years of age, sentenced to the same -period, and of any political prisoner at the discretion -of the imperial government. Criminals, on arrival, -are classified according to their sentences and -located in the various gaols in the three administrative -districts of Alexandrovsk, Timovsk and Korsakovsk. -The largest prison centre is at the first -named; the second in importance is at Korsakovsk; -and there are two prisons in the Timovsk district, -one at Derbensk, the other at Rikovsk.</p> - -<p class='c013'>When Mr. Hawes visited the island in 1902, he -found a principal gaol at Alexandrovsk known as -the “testing,” or probation prison, for the worst -criminals, those with a sentence of twelve years -and upward, whose fetters are not removed and who -are confined in a quarter styled the “chained” -prison. There is a second prison known as the -“reformatory,” for those with lesser sentences, into -which convicts from the testing prison, after passing -a minimum of four years, may be promoted. -These last-named prisoners are permitted to work -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>in gangs beyond the walls, under escort, without -very strict discipline, so that many leave their parties -to work on their own account in various forms -of depredation. The “ticket-of-leave” men, or -free commands, were entered on the lists of the -reformatory prison and included the vagrants, -<em>brodyagi</em>, who were deported after recapture on the -mainland. Immediate release from jail is the boon -conceded to any convict, even the very worst, whose -freeborn wife has elected to come out from Russia -and join him. He becomes then an exile settler of -one of the “peasant” class, so-called, whom it is -hoped will assist colonisation. The same boon is -conceded to female convicts. “Free” husbands, -however, are not often eager to share their lot. -According to Mr. Hawes, there were only six of -these loyal spouses on the whole island. But the -women convicts have the chance of being chosen to -join in a convict marriage or temporary coupling -of parties, which is not only permitted but strongly -encouraged. The consequences of such unions are -deplorable. The effect on the woman is most demoralising, -and too often the offspring, when children -are born, have inherited the criminal taint. -The civil contract cannot be entered into without -divorce in the case where a husband still exists in -Russia, although many widows have simplified the -matter by murdering their husbands before leaving -home, often, indeed, the cause of their deportation. -Figures quoted for one year, 1897, show that there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>were 2,836 murderers in durance upon the island, -and a much larger number if ex-convicts were included, -and of this total, 634 were women who had -murdered their husbands. Clergymen on Saghalien -refused to give a religious sanction to these civil -contracts unless there had been a formal dissolution -of the Russian marriage. The civil bond sat -lightly on both parties; the women in particular -elected to go their own way, and if interfered with -or if they found their marriage ill-assorted or irksome, -they at once transferred themselves to some -other master. The results of this outrage upon the -most sacred of human institutions must assuredly -lead to its abolition; they are identically the same -as reported by Mr. George Griffith to be the case -in New Caledonia. He says: “I saw about seventy-six -separate and distinct reasons for the abolition -of convict marriages at the convict school. On -every face and form were stamped the unmistakable -brand of criminality, imbecility, moral crookedness -and general degeneration.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The testing prison at Alexandrovsk generally -held some six hundred inmates, many of them in -chains and most of them in idleness; a few, barely -ten or twelve per cent., were occasionally sent out -to be employed in mining, road-making and log-hauling; -and the authorities justified this limitation -by the plea that the majority of them were such -desperate characters that they could not safely be -suffered to go beyond the walls. The unutterable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>weariness of long-continued, unbroken idleness -bore so heavily upon this mass of caged and shackled -humanity that desperate and determined attempts -at escape were of constant occurrence. So -great was their longing to be free that they would -willingly risk their lives to breathe the fresh air. -The only break in the dull round of prison life was -surreptitious gambling. They would sacrifice everything -to secure the means of play; they would stake -the government clothing issued, and even their rations -a month ahead. In the latter case, as an alternative -to punishment, the convict put himself in -pawn to the authorities. He was lodged in a separate -cell and allowed himself to be starved for two -days out of every three; the rations saved were -accumulated and placed to his credit for the payment -of his debt.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The conditions of life at Alexandrovsk not -strangely incited the prisoners to turbulence, insubordination -and the commission of crime whenever -the chance came. When at large, even for a short -time after successful escape, they were veritable -brigands, robbing and slaughtering; when once -more incarcerated, they were intractable and incorrigible, -and no punishment could affright or keep -them in order.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The older brutal methods survive in Saghalien. -Physical tortures are superadded to the infliction of -prolonged sentences. As to the latter, many convicts -are well advanced in life with unexpired sentences -<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>of forty or fifty years. Hawes tells us he -found thirteen in this class, and fifty-one others, -one of them a woman, with sentences of from -thirty to forty years, and 240 with from twenty -to thirty years of unexpired sentences. He also -found a couple of offenders chained to wheelbarrows, -and the number had been much larger not -long <a id='corr267.8'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='before,'>before.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_267.8'><ins class='correction' title='before,'>before.</ins></a></span></p> - -<p class='c013'>Employment of corporal punishment has for the -most part disappeared in Russian and Siberian -prisons; its infliction at Kara on Madame Sigida -in 1889, and the universal horror inspired throughout -the civilised world by this terrible catastrophe, -largely led to its abandonment; but the practice is -still in force in Saghalien. Until 1902 females were -flogged with the <em>rozgi</em>, birch rods dipped in salt. -The infliction was within the power of the chief of -the prison, and although it might be lightly, was -ever arbitrarily imposed. It was not an excessively -cruel, but a most brutal and disgraceful punishment. -But the plet still flourishes, although the leaded ends -are said to have been replaced by knots, and may -be a very terrible weapon in the hands of a skilful -flagellator. Until recently, it was worthy to replace -the murderous knout of ancient times. The -patient was very much at the mercy of the executioner, -the so-called <em>palach</em>, a salaried convict-official, -to whom his comrades paid tribute in the -Saghalien prison in food and tobacco, to curry -favour with him and persuade him to lay the leaded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>ends of the lash so as to catch the wooden flogging -bench rather than their bare backs. The <em>palach</em> -spared his victim at very considerable risk, and -might be flogged for neglect of duty. In one case, -an offending executioner, by name Komeleva, was -punished and flogged by the hands of his particular -enemy. So terrible was the infliction that although -it incurred in 1882, a photograph taken of the -wounds in 1899, seventeen years afterwards, -showed them to be still suppurating. Three strokes -of the plet were sufficient to kill, and another story -is told of a convict at Saghalien who promised the -<em>palach</em> a bottle of vodka if he would not hit him -with the leaded ends. The victim was a hardened -veteran, and when he had received ninety-five -strokes, thinking he had escaped, he called out, -“It’s no matter; you can’t hurt me now, you -needn’t think you’ll get your vodka.” But he had -not reckoned with his man, for after three more -strokes he was dead. It was only necessary to draw -back the plet as the stroke was spent for the ends -to injure the liver and send a clot of blood to the -heart.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER X <br /> SAGHALIEN</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>Failure of the scheme to utilise Saghalien as a convict settlement—Testimony -of an official on the terrible condition of -the exiles—Gambling and drunkenness universal—Prevalence -of immorality—The prisons hot beds of vice—No -classification of the prisoners—Convicts refuse to settle on -the island as colonists at the expiration of their sentence—Account -of two assassinations at Alexandrovsk—Description -of the cemetery there—Female murderers on the island—Sophie -Bluffstein, called the “Golden Hand”—Her adventurous -career of crime—Sent to Saghalien as a political -prisoner—Carried on criminal operations when released—Recaptured -and again confined—Finally released and settled -on the island until her death—The merchant of Alexandrovsk -and his unfaithful wife—The vagrants in Saghalien—Barratasvili—His -capture and death—Horrible -story of the fate which befell the convict road-makers—Politicals -on Saghalien—Their terrible sufferings.</p> - -<p class='c012'>The day will come when Russia, like the rest of -the world, will learn that it cannot finally dispose -of its worst elements by shooting them down on -some distant dust heap. Siberia will act in its own -defence as did Australia, and refuse to be forever -the dumping ground for criminals. The prosperous -development of that vast and richly endowed territory -has been too long delayed and already a change -is imminent. Enterprise has been stimulated by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>the construction of the great Trans-Siberian railway. -As Siberia grows in wealth and importance -it will surely resent and repudiate the exile system, -whether enforced by the improved methods of railway -travelling or facilitated by sea communications.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The old idea of removal still obtains, although -an effort has been made to avoid the horrors of -the prolonged pilgrimage on land, by substituting -the long sea voyage from Odessa, through the Suez -canal and the southern seas to far Saghalien. Banishment -to that convict colony, although half the -island has passed to the victorious Japanese, will -still survive, despite its manifest failure.</p> - -<p class='c013'>After the experience of a quarter of a century, -it may be most unhesitatingly asserted that the net -result of the deportation to Saghalien has been most -disappointing. Failure has met the Russian government -on every side. Transportation has fulfilled -none of the aims of penal legislation, has -been neither reformatory nor deterrent, but merely -painful and punitive without any return in benefit -to the colony. The island has made no progress; -its scanty natural resources have been little utilised, -and no return has been obtained from the cultivation -of the indifferent soil. At the best period, -barely one-tenth of the convicts qualifying for conditional -freedom, and labouring to become proprietors -of farms with lands cleared and stocked with -cattle, were of any value in carrying on the work; -of the remaining nine-tenths, half had no heart in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>it, and the other half were frankly idlers and vagabonds -hanging about the settlements, looking for -free rations, and when the issue ceased, ranging -the country as masterless men depending on theft -and depredation for their bare living.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The social atmosphere was vitiated, and noxious -evil elements predominated; general depravity had -become almost universal. It was the old story of -Australian transportation, and the later experience -of New Caledonia. Once more, penal exile stands -condemned as a secondary punishment, showing the -same absence of any redeeming or compensating -features in the improvement of these new lands or -the amelioration of the individual. The system -must be still more barren of results in the future, -now that the southern half of the island—the part -most favourable to agriculture—has been surrendered -to Japan as part of the last war indemnity. -This will seriously diminish the amount of land -available for the “exile settlers,” as they are called.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The efforts made to colonise have been feeble -and fruitless. Convict labourers were set to clear -the forests and reclaim waste lands, but in a desultory, -half-hearted fashion, without skill or knowledge, -and wielding primitive instruments and imperfect -tools. Much time was wasted in covering long -distances to draw rations, and depending upon the -administration for advances to provide seed and -stock, both inadequate in quantity and of very inferior -quality. As a general rule, the settlers were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>physically unfit for the work in hand; their health -was not robust; they soon aged and broke down -under the rough conditions of daily life. All were -crushed with indebtedness to the government for -advances, and also to private usurers who supplied -means for self-indulgence. A fierce passion for -gambling consumed them, and drunkenness was -universal. Vodka was smuggled in freely from -Japan, and numbers of illicit stills manufactured it -secretly upon the island. One of the principal officials -spoke as follows of the deplorable state of -things:—</p> - -<p class='c013'>“Convict life on Saghalien is a frightful nightmare. -It is a compound of debauchery, insolence -and bravado, mixed with real suffering from hardship -and privation, and tainted indelibly with crime -and corruption.” Children born on or brought to -the island are educated in the worst vices, and when -still of tender years are already profligate or depraved. -Modesty does not exist; young girls of -twelve and thirteen are invariably seduced and abandoned -to prostitution; men enter into the civil marriage -so as to profit by the immorality of their temporary -wives; many female convicts are retained -in government hands, simply to purvey concubines -for the colonial officials. The unsavoury and -shameless relations of the sexes are among the principal -reasons why colonisation has absolutely failed. -There is no virtue among the female residents of -Saghalien, whether they are “free” women who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>have come out voluntarily to join husbands or parents, -or those condemned to deportation. The latter -are in many respects better placed than the former, -for they receive government shelter and allowances -in food.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The prisons on the island are hot-beds of vice; -all classes of offenders are herded together, with no -system of classification but the one based upon the -length of sentence. An attempt has been made to -separate the uncondemned awaiting trial from the -recidivist and hardened offender, but the division -is not carried far, and too often the association is -indiscriminate, and the wholly bad habitual criminals -mix freely with the less hardened wrongdoers, -who are rapidly corrupted and debased by their evil -surroundings. The worst elements are concentrated -in the “testing” prison of Alexandrovsk, including -those who have graduated and grown gray in crime -on the mainland. Prison discipline is generally -slack and ineffective, and from ill-judged economy -the staff of warders is too weak for supervision -and control. The officers themselves are often of -inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, overbearing, -given to “trafficking” with the prisoners, accepting -bribes for the clandestine introduction of -strong drink, or to assist in escapes, quick to oppress -and misuse their charges.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Another impediment to colonisation is the noted -and invincible dislike to the place constantly present -in the minds of the enforced colonists or exiled class -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>at large. No ex-convict would willingly remain on -Saghalien. When their terms of detention are ended, -all want to turn their backs on the island forever. -Nothing would reconcile one to continued residence, -not even the acquisition of comparative wealth and -the possession of lands and herds, a house to shelter -him, and domestic ties. Anyone who can happily -scrape together the necessary means hungers to -spend it in paying his passage home. He must possess -his soul in patience for a long time. Six years -must be spent as an exile settler after release from -his prison probation; six more as a peasant, and -then only permission is granted to cross to the mainland, -but never to return to St. Petersburg or Moscow. -Now and again a fugitive—and there is a -large percentage of escapes as we shall see—may -reach home, but he is in constant danger of rearrest. -One political prisoner actually succeeded in reaching -the capital, but had the bad luck to meet in the streets -of St. Petersburg a gendarme officer who knew him. -He was recognised and sharply interrogated. -“How did you manage to come so far, and what -brings you here?” asked the officer. “This -brought me,” replied the exile, as he promptly drew -his revolver and shot his inconvenient questioner -down. Arrest followed immediately, and trial, with -a fresh sentence of fifteen years. Once more he -was sent to Saghalien, where he is still living as an -exile settler with small hope of a second enlargement.</p> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>There are occasional, but very rare, exceptions -among ex-convicts who elect to remain and settle -down in the colony. Mr. Hawes tells us of one, -a Cossack from the Caucasus, probably an old insurgent, -who, with tireless industry, had made himself -a home at the village of Uskovo on the upper -waters of river Tim, some fifty miles from Alexandrovsk. -This man with infinite labour had cleared -enough of the primeval forest to sow a respectable -crop of corn, some 150 puds or upwards of 5,000 -English pounds, which returned him a twelvefold -crop. He was a careful farmer, and sowed his seed -with judgment, unlike most of the peasants who -scattered it at one place insufficiently and at another -in excess. Yet good harvests might be secured by -steady industry, were the peasants only willing to -give agriculture a fair trial. Another similar case -was that of a free-command convict, whose wife -had followed him out from Europe. He was permitted -to live with her outside the prison on condition -that he performed his allotted task of hard -labour, which was to haul tree trunks into Alexandrovsk -to the number of one hundred and twenty. -He was energetic and thrifty, and by the aid of a -loan from the crown purchased a number of -draught ponies to help him in hauling, by which -means he contrived to get a certain amount of spare -time to work on his own account. He had struck -a new idea, inspired by the fact that a steady traffic -in oxen and ponies, bound to the town bazaar or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>market, constantly passed his door. He established -a sort of livery stable in a little courtyard adjoining -his cottage, where he provided shelter for the cattle -and sleeping places for the drovers on beds of hay. -He soon did a large business and prospered greatly.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Sometimes there was a sad slip between the cup -and the lip. It is on record that an exile settler by -unremitting diligence had put by enough to pay -for his passage home at the expiration of his term -of exile. On his way to Alexandrovsk, he was resting -on a bridge when another villager of the free -command came and seated himself alongside. Suddenly, -as they chatted pleasantly together, the newcomer -knocked the other senseless with a heavy -blow on the head, and having rifled his body, -dropped it into the stream running below. He thus -became possessed of his victim’s pocket-book containing -his money and the certificate of the expiration -of his sentence. Fate was adverse, however, -and when he proceeded to make use of his ill-gotten -gains, the certificate was recognised as the property -of the deceased. Arrest and detention were followed -by full discovery of the crime and its punishment.</p> - -<p class='c013'>At Saghalien there was no security to life and -property in the towns and still less safety in the interior, -which was ravaged and harassed by the -vagrant convicts, continually moving to and fro. -Murder was committed daringly and unblushingly -on the smallest temptation, such as the possession -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>of even a small sum of money. When Mr. Hawes -was at Alexandrovsk, he met when on his way to -church a couple of men just out of hospital who had -evidently been drinking. One of them reeled a -little in his walk and was manifestly drunk. Within -a few hours this luckless creature lay, a corpse, in -the market place. He had been murdered by his -companion for the six or seven rubles he carried -in his pocket. Three days later, a man living near -the market place imprudently sat near the lamp -at an open window, and was shot through it. -Hawes describes the cemetery he visited on a hill -to the north of the town; it was filled with wooden -crosses, black, brown and green, clustering thickly, -and much the same epitaph was inscribed on all, -“Here lies —— murdered —— 18—.” No mention -was made of the assassin; that was quite unnecessary. -The victims were buried both singly and -in groups of three, four or five. The theatre of -the crime was usually the market place or bazaar -near-by, where quarrels were frequent and weapons -such as knives, daggers and revolvers were constantly -employed. Murderous assaults and hand-to-hand -fights were repeated almost daily, and the -police seldom took notice of the disturbance. Men -were often pointed out in the open road who had -half a dozen or more murders to their credit. Mr. -Hawes saw one hovering near his hut who had -slain eight victims, and it seemed inexplicable that -such a miscreant should be suffered to be still at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>liberty. His immunity was due to his prompt escape -into the <em>taiga</em> or wild, wooded interior. Convicts -who did so might be captured some day, but -were seldom identified or there was insufficient evidence -to secure their conviction. The authorities, -too, were generally callous when one villain murdered -another, philosophically saying, “After all the -brutal crowd has been well diminished by one.” -Of course if an official was murdered, more serious -steps were taken to bring the offender to justice. A -Saghalien murderer was known to have committed -the capital offence nineteen times, and still evaded -punishment.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Female murderers were plentiful enough on -Saghalien, and one of the most remarkable was a -certain Sophie Bluffstein, commonly called the -“Golden Hand.” As a criminal, she had few -equals among wrong-doers in any land. She was -a Jewess, who, as a girl of rare beauty, had married -a man of her own race, a financial agent, but she -left him when his affairs became entangled. She -developed into a cosmopolitan adventuress who -made the capitals of Europe her stage, and was well -known in London, Paris, Vienna and St. Petersburg. -Her business was to victimise tradesmen -and attract lovers over whom she gained extraordinary -influence. Her frauds were extensive and -on the well-known lines. She lived in great style -in a smart house, in the most fashionable part of -the city, and drove in her carriage to the best shops -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>where she made large purchases of jewelry and -valuables, for which, of course, she never paid. Her -depredations were on a colossal scale and she was -“wanted” by the entire police of Europe.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Sophie Bluffstein’s personal fascination was unrivalled. -Her chief charms were her wonderful -eyes, which seemed to have had magnetic effect -upon her admirers and drew them irresistibly to -her feet, tempting them to commit any crime to secure -her good graces. One of her greatest triumphs -was the beguilement of the governor of Smolensk, -where she had been arrested and incarcerated. Her -influence over him was such that she induced him -to connive at her escape, to desert his wife and -family, and to accompany her in her flight. The -connection was brief, and she resumed her evil -courses, until she was caught in a trap at a gay -supper party of young men, some of whom were -terrorists, and which was broken up by the police. -Arrested as a political offender, she was sent to -Siberia, where in due course she escaped, was recaptured -and deported to Saghalien.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Here she renewed her criminal activity, and when -released from prison to enter the free command, she -gathered round her a choice collection of the worst -characters, whom she employed as her tools in the -crimes she planned and had carried out. In one -case, a merchant, carrying on his person a large -sum in rubles, was robbed and murdered. The -money was so cleverly buried by her that it has not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>yet been discovered. Her operations were greatly -aided by a ship her confederates had seized and -openly used as a pirate craft. To check her villainies, -she was shut up at last in the testing prison -at Alexandrovsk and kept constantly handcuffed. -Yet she eventually regained her liberty, and after -living more peaceably for a time at Rikovsk, she -was allowed to settle at Vladivostok, where she -kept an inn until her death.</p> - -<p class='c013'>That life was held cheap at Saghalien will be -shown by the following story. A merchant of Alexandrovsk -had reason to suspect his wife, a young -and beautiful Tartar woman, of infidelity, and when -he upbraided her she ran off and left him. She was -never seen again, and it came out afterward that -he had hired an assassin at the price of twenty-five -rubles to kill her, according to the provisions of -the Mahometan law. The assassin and his employer -quarreled over the ghastly business, and the -latter simplified the matter by hiring a second assassin -to murder the first. But the second murder -was not so successfully accomplished as the first; -the victim escaped; the merchant was arrested, and -a witness came forward to say she had seen him -preparing a noose to hang his wife on his own account. -No arrest was made for some time, and -even the merchant was let out on bail.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Thefts and highway robbery were of constant -occurrence, and burglaries also, both of private -houses and government stores. There was a large -<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>floating population of desperadoes, which was continually -recruited by the fugitives from justice, -prison-breakers and vagrants from the free commands, -and exile settlers who preferred depredation -to industry. The <em>brodyaga</em> was a greater scourge -in Saghalien than in Siberia, another and a potential -check to the development of the colony on account -of the terrorism exercised over the well-disposed -settler, whom he robbed and maltreated. -They worked generally in organised gangs, armed -with stolen rifles which they readily used. The -most dangerous gang was that of which the chief -and captain was the notorious Barratasvili, the -Robin Hood of the island, whose feats are still remembered.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Barratasvili came to Saghalien first as an exiled -forger, and he passed through his prison probation -with an exemplary character. He was looked -upon as a mild and well-disposed man, quite amenable -to discipline. When he joined the free command, -he became a domestic servant and continued -to be well-conducted until suddenly he ran off and -escaped to Nicholaevsk on the mainland. He was -pursued, taken and brought back to Saghalien, only -to give his escort the slip and gain the recess of the -forest, where he all but died of starvation. By the -murder of a merchant on his way from Dui to -Alexandrovsk carrying the price of a horse he had -lately sold, Barratasvili obtained funds and became -the leader of the band which soon began to ravage -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>the district. He was like the typical brigand, waging -war with the rich but in sympathy with the poor, -whom he succoured instead of attacking. He was -daring and unscrupulous in his robberies, shooting -“at sight” all who offered the slightest resistance. -As he became more and more reckless and his -crimes multiplied, the hue and cry was raised -against him, and wide plans were laid to capture -him, all of which he successfully evaded, still boldly -showing himself where he was most “wanted.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>On one occasion at Alexandrovsk, a strong detachment -of soldiers searched the town, house by -house, in the small hours of the morning, bent upon -taking him, but quite fruitlessly. Yet four hours -after the search had begun, he was seen by a friend -in the neighbourhood passing along the street with -no more disguise than being muffled up in a fur-lined -coat. Again, he entered a store in the town -and having posted a sentry to keep watch, proceeded -to ransack the place, emptying the counter cases of -their jewelry, the tills and the safes of their cash. -The recklessness of these thieves was so great that -they entered the town and had their photographs -taken.</p> - -<p class='c013'>But the net was closing round Barratasvili. A -combined effort was set on foot to put an end to -him and his gang. It was winter time when the -end came. Overcome with fatigue, he one day -ventured off the road into the forest close to a deserted -saw-mill, and with his companions fell -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>asleep. An overseer, trudging along the road, -noticed the tracks of his skis, and they aroused his -suspicions. Ordinary travellers do not leave the -road to plunge into the deep snow of the dense forest. -He, too, was tired, but he went back to Derbensk -and secured the assistance of a posse of soldiers. -Following up the track, step by step, through -the forest, they came upon the long-sought robbers -resting. The alarm was given. Firing began on -both sides. The leader of the gang was hit in the -left shoulder, but still continued to fire. The soldiers -sought shelter behind tree trunks. Barratasvili, -in taking aim, exposed his head and in so doing -was shot in the forehead. Their leader killed, his -companions threw down their arms, were taken and -beaten by the soldiers with the butt ends of their -muskets. In encounters of this kind, the soldiers, -furious at the loss of their comrades, treat their -captives most brutally, and in some cases the latter -have died from injuries thus received. Three of -the four companions of Barratasvili were hanged -at the corners of the testing prison at Alexandrovsk. -In theory, capital punishment is supposed to have -been abolished in Russia, but the sentence is still -passed by court-martial and the island of Saghalien -in under martial law. These <em>brodyagi</em> were really -strangled, not hanged. A rope with a slip-knot was -fixed round the neck of the culprit, the other end -being carried up and made taut to a crosspiece supported -by two upright poles. The convict stood -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>on a box, which was kicked away from under his -feet, and strangulation often tardily ensued.</p> - -<p class='c013'>The <em>brodyagi</em> had little hope of permanent evasion. -Now and again a few determined fugitives -have seized a boat and attempted a passage across -the sea to the mainland. They might win through -the dangers of the sea, having evaded the native -trackers, half savage men of the Gilyak tribe, more -ready to shoot down than to capture, and they -might make good their landing at Cape Muraviev -or Pogob. But they must face starvation and almost -certain death from the terrible winter cold. -The alternative is voluntary surrender, with the certainty -of flogging and a prolongation of sentence. -More frequently, the <em>brodyagi</em> infest the <em>taiga</em> and -hang about the sparse settlements on the chance of -plunder, or, if in any numbers, combine for a descent -upon the villages. In one year, 1896, nine -convicts who had escaped from the Alexandrovsk -prisons at various times joined forces in the -Timovsk district and gave a great deal of trouble. -They were pursued by strong parties of soldiers, but -often turned to show fight, having become possessed -of firearms. Eventually they were captured, the -survivors of the gang ending as usual upon the -gallows.</p> - -<p class='c013'>When they are Chinese—and in Manchuria, the -Russians hunt them down and shoot as many as -they can at sight—those wounded and taken alive -are decapitated and their heads hung by the way-side, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>but no real attempt has been made to rid Siberia -and Saghalien of this great pest and danger.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Statistics are not helpful, as so few arrests are -made, and so few crimes discovered. Garroting is -the chief device of the footpad. With a short stick -and a noose of twine, he approaches his victim from -the rear, slips the cord over his head and strangles -the man, woman or child, who is unable to utter a -cry; then he strips from the body everything likely -to lead to its identification, and decamps. If there -is an accomplice, he blocks the stranger’s advance -or engages his attention at the correct moment. -Nor is there perfect safety in numbers. “Whilst -at Khabarovsk,” says a recent traveller, “I paid a -visit to one of the lone pioneers of Anglo-Saxondom -in that far-off land. There, within a stone’s throw -of the governor-general’s house, three citizens were -attacked within five minutes of our passing. Their -assailants got away, but all three of the merchants -succumbed to their injuries. At Blagoveschensk, in -broad daylight, between two and three o’clock in the -afternoon, and quite close to the main hotel and -high street, I heard a series of revolver shots, and -turning, saw a man leisurely reloading his revolver. -His victim, a woman in this case, never uttered a -cry, merely fell. The street was almost deserted, -and the people who heard and saw took very little -notice, but with the aid of a passing soldier, we -arrested that man, and in the rough and ready -lock-up to which he was taken were electric lights -<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>and telephone. In a few minutes the district superintendent -was summoned, but we were scarcely -thanked for our part, and we were told that our -action was not Siberian, and that the affair was -none of ours.</p> - -<p class='c013'>“From Cheliobinsk to Vladivostok crime is -equally common. In the latter place, I was told that -after each pay-day at the naval fitting yard men -were missing and never returned. On one occasion -thirty disappeared, and ordinarily eight or ten -bodies are found within a few days, stripped of -every shred of clothing, their tattooed marks gashed -over and the features hacked so that they could not -be recognised. Russians suffer more than the Chinese, -and Russians are usually the aggressors. Policemen -are too few and too wary. Unless the street -be crowded, men may shout loud and long before -any will venture to their assistance.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The suburbs and villages in Siberia, says the -same authority, suffer from the vagrant bands who -raid settlements and houses, exacting all they dare -and often not falling short of other crimes. They -are the fugitives from justice, escaped criminals, the -reckless and daring convicts who have eluded their -prison guards. They have nothing but what they -have stolen, a wooden staff and a short length of -leather or twine. Whoever gets into their power -has a short shrift and theirs is not longer if they are -captured in the act or traced. For entering and robbing -a church in Vladivostok, some were hanged, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>for in Siberia the death penalty is not in abeyance -as in Russia. In Siberia—and in Russia too—lynch -law is common among the peaceable, industrious, -well-to-do peasants as it is also among the -half Russianised natives. One method of dealing -with cattle thieves is to bend down two straight -young birch trees, tie the hands of the robber to one -and his feet to the other, then release the trees and -hurry away.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Later records describe the extraordinary career -of a convict, Nagorny by name, who is said to have -escaped seven times from Saghalien, his last having -been effected while he was chained to a wheelbarrow. -This man had been guilty of more than fifty -murders and several hundred robberies, many of -these having been perpetrated in the disguise of a -gendarme, when he entered the houses of his victims -under the pretext of making an official search. -He was tall, strongly built and had a ruffianly expression. -When he was arrested, Nagorny pointed -a loaded revolver at his custodian, but the lock of -the weapon proved damaged and it was useless.</p> - -<p class='c013'>A hideous story is preserved in Saghalien of a -tragic event that occurred in the summer of 1892, -when a party of a hundred convicts were sent from -Alexandrovsk to make a road through the <em>taiga</em> to -Rikovsk. It was a terrible task; the road followed -the course of the Boroni River, in a wide and -swampy valley, rendered impassable by unexpected -heavy rains, which cut the workmen off from their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>base of supplies. Great numbers of the gang perished -from starvation, dysentery and fevers. Three -of them, maddened by their privations, escaped into -the <em>taiga</em>, and when pursued, wandered further and -further into the primeval forest. It was strongly -suspected, but never proved, that one of the three -was killed and eaten by his two comrades, for one -of them when caught was found to be carrying a -human bone in his pouch, but his mind was unhinged -and he could give no coherent account of -what happened. He was treated as a lunatic, and -his insanity saved him from punishment, but he was -ever afterward known as “Vasiliv the Cannibal.” -The other fugitive, Kalenik, was sentenced to -ninety-nine strokes of the plet, which killed him.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Political exiles have been deported to Saghalien, -but not in any great number. They were among -the earliest convicts transported by sea, and it is -worth noting that the Russian government in 1888 -was anxious to make no distinction between them -and the common criminals. Mr. Kennan prints a -letter concerning some of them from M. Galkin -Vrasski, the well-known chief of prison administration, -directing that no difference should be made -between them and the ordinary criminals. They -were to be subjected to the same discipline, but to -be kept under stricter surveillance, if anything, and -were to be liable to more severe punishments inflicted -on Saghalien and in Siberia. Two, indeed, -were flogged at Alexandrovsk, after an unhappy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>collision with the prison authorities caused by the -neglect of one of them to raise his hat on meeting -a subordinate official. Their sufferings were, of -course, greater owing to the remoteness of their -domicile and their savage surroundings. They were -naturally more in touch with the civilised world at -Tobolsk, Tomsk and Irkutsk, and were at a peculiar -disadvantage on Saghalien, because of the dearth of -educated people among the exiled population. They -were in request for more cultured employment as -schoolmasters, accountants or in scientific labours. -As a rule, they bore their expatriation and the hardships -of their daily life with equanimity, and were -quiet and well-conducted. Many of them had been -victims of Russian despotism and had suffered much -in the Russian state prisons. One of them whom -Mr. Hawes met on Saghalien was a lady who had at -one time belonged to a secret society unknown to -her husband. When Alexander II was assassinated -she fled the country. On returning later to Russia, -she was arrested on suspicion, but her identity could -not be proved until her husband was tricked into -recognising her when they were suddenly brought -face to face. This lady was consigned to the fortress -of <a id='corr289.25'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Schüsselburg'>Schlüsselburg</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_289.25'><ins class='correction' title='Schüsselburg'>Schlüsselburg</ins></a></span>, and was so entirely lost sight -of that her husband, presuming she was dead, married -again. Ten years later he heard that she was -alive and had been transported to Saghalien. Having -somehow settled matters with his second wife, -he followed his first to the other end of the world -<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>and was eventually allowed to settle with her at -Vladivostok.</p> - -<p class='c013'>In spite of restrictions, hardships and almost intolerable -conditions, the political exile has been a -distinct aid and valuable factor in the settlement -and development of Siberia, carrying with him -ideals and standards and a degree of intelligence far -in advance of the native Siberian settler and peasant. -The infusion of such an element is all the more -needed because of the low average of intelligence -of the great mass of the convicts, many of whom -become permanent residents of Siberia. Mr. Henry -Norman has said of the prisoners in the prison of -Irkutsk, as he found them: “Never has it been my -lot, though I have visited prisons, civilised and uncivilised, -in many parts of the world, to see human -nature at such a low ebb.... From this point of -view, Russian criminology has a task unknown in -countries where civilisation has reached a higher -average of development.” It is the criminal exile -who has been a bar to progress in Siberia, and with -the cessation of the transportation of this class of -convicts, the future is brighter for the great exile -territory which is so rich in natural possibilities.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Siberia will no doubt become the granary of the -world. Its millions of fertile acres must ere long -develop its great food producing qualities. With -its great stretches of prairie waiting for the plough, -its huge forests and magnificent waters, “it is -evident that the Siberia of convicts and prisoners is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>passing away and the Siberia of the reaping machine, -the gold drill, the timber yard, the booming, -flourishing new town is awakening into new life.”</p> - -<p class='c013'>The present condition of Russia is appalling. -Centuries of autocratic rule, backed by barbarous -methods, such as have been set forth at some length -in the foregoing pages, have culminated now in a -social upheaval that threatens the collapse of a vast -empire. The stability of the government is wholly -undermined; long continued, merciless repression -has failed; resistance to constituted authority becomes -daily more daring and embittered. The Czar -and his bureaucracy are more and more fiercely and -systematically assailed, despite the increased reprisals -of despotic power and the temporary triumph -of a reactionary policy.</p> - -<p class='c013'>Rulers, with their backs to the wall, plead these -outrages are imperative in self-defence. The malcontents, -ever increasing in numbers and violence, -have openly determined to make government impossible -and that terrorism by bomb-throwing and -assassination is the only argument left. They will -accept no compromise; they distrust all promises, -and move steadily on to social revolution. “We -cannot call our souls our own,” said a working man -in Moscow to an English writer; “we cannot discuss -affairs of our country without risk of Siberia; -we are taxed down to the last kopeck; we are black-mailed -by every petty official; we have no freedom -of the press; if anybody in authority does us wrong, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>we have no redress ... we hate the bomb-throwing -as much as you do. But it is the only argument -left to us.” This is characteristic of the spirit animating -the “great mass of lethargic ignorant Muscovites” -goaded at last to action and gaining hourly -in strength and recklessness. Meanwhile the government -maintains the struggle. Its persistent answer -is to refuse reforms until order is restored, and -it still finds champions and supporters, especially in -the so-called “Black Hundred,” a powerful reactionary -organisation based upon an unofficial union -of the Russian people.</p> - -<p class='c013'>An examination of any of the recent budgets for -yearly expenses of this huge empire will show a -most astonishing percentage appropriated to the -maintenance of order,—the upkeep of the police -and censorship of the press,—and will furnish to -the intelligent observer a reason for present conditions, -as well as a reason for admiring the fidelity -of the educated members of the lower classes to their -ideal of liberty.</p> - -<p class='c013'><a id='endnote'></a></p> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'>Transcriber’s Note</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c013'>Spelling and punctuation, where printer or editorial errors were obvious, has been corrected, -as summarized here:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='12%' /> -<col width='69%' /> -<col width='18%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><a id='c_221.4'></a><a href='#corr221.4'>221.4</a></td> - <td class='c008'>Bogo[lom/mol]etz</td> - <td class='c016'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><a id='c_267.8'></a><a href='#corr267.8'>267.8</a></td> - <td class='c008'>and the number had been much larger not long before[,/.]</td> - <td class='c016'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><a id='c_289.25'></a><a href='#corr289.25'>289.25</a></td> - <td class='c008'>the fortress of Sch[l]üsselburg,</td> - <td class='c016'>Added.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime; -Russian Prisons, by Arthur Griffiths - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY AND ROMANCE OF CRIME *** - -***** This file should be named 52937-h.htm or 52937-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/9/3/52937/ - -Produced by KD Weeks, KD Weeks, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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