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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #52971 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52971)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National
-Park, by Jack R. Williams
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-
-Title: The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-
-
-Author: Jack R. Williams
-
-
-
-Release Date: September 3, 2016  [eBook #52971]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS
-NATIONAL PARK***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Stephen Hutcheson, xteejx, and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
-
-
-
-Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
-      file which includes the original illustrations.
-      See 52971-h.htm or 52971-h.zip:
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52971/52971-h/52971-h.htm)
-      or
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52971/52971-h.zip)
-
-
-Transcriber’s note:
-
-      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
-
-
-
-
-
-_The National Park Service is dedicated to preserving the scenic,
-scientific, and historic heritage of the United States for the benefit
-and enjoyment of its people. Help protect your Park from its new exotic
-the “LITTERBUG.”_
-
-    [Illustration: At work]
-
-
-THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-
-by
-
-JACK R. WILLIAMS
-
-Cover by Phyllis Freeland Broyles
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                    Page
-  Acknowledgements                                                     2
-  The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park                        5
-  Early Man                                                            9
-  The Carlsbad Basketmakers                                           10
-  The Mescalero Apaches                                               25
-  The Comanches                                                       34
-  Bibliography                                                        38
-  Footnotes                                                           38
-
-
-
-
-                            ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
-
-
-This booklet was prepared as an elementary basis for those interested in
-the Indians of this section. It is far from complete but if it answers
-only one question—the effort was well spent.
-
-It is rare that research into any subject is done alone. This is no
-exception, for many are responsible in their contributions.
-
-First, without the help, comments and criticism of Erik Reed this paper
-would have been nought. Then thanks must go to Charlie Steen and Stanley
-Stubbs for their pottery identification which helped establish the
-various time phases.
-
-The persons listed in the bibliography represent the true basis of
-learning and I unhesitatingly refer one and all to them.
-
-To Lynn Coffin for his encouragement and comments, grateful
-acknowledgement is made. To Bob Barrel for his help—talk, photos and
-all—thanks are extended.
-
-Especial thanks must go to Mary Pauline Smith for taking care of the
-grammatical errors as well as typing the manuscript. And, to Phyllis
-Broyles for her art work.
-
-The map, head sketches and photos not credited are by the author.
-
-
-This is dedicated to my wife, Marie.
-
-
-        Copyright 1956 by Jack R. Williams, Carlsbad, New Mexico
-
-    [Illustration: _Map showing distribution of Indian groups_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_]
-
-
-
-
-                             THE INDIANS OF
-                     CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-
-
-The Indian story of the Park is quite complicated for several reasons.
-First, we cannot confine our story to the man-made boundaries of today,
-but to the natural geographic features which are mainly the Guadalupe
-Mountains. Second, we must deal with more than one group of people and
-outside cultural influences of each group. These groups, however, will
-be confined mostly to New Mexico and north and west Texas. Then, too,
-long periods of time must be taken into consideration.
-
-So, let us start our story with man’s first entry into the new world
-some 15 to 25,000 years ago. Most archaeologists agree that man came
-from Asia via the Bering Straits, perhaps by a land bridge or over the
-ice. Undoubtedly many migrations over a long period of time were made by
-various small groups of peoples. These first people were nomadic
-followers of game and perhaps gatherers of seeds. Steadily moving
-southward, they eventually reached what is now southeastern New Mexico
-and north and west Texas. How long they lived here, where they went and
-who their ancestors were are unknown. Theory plus material evidence
-suggest that they may have evolved into what archaeologists call the
-Cochise complex to Basketmaker to Pueblo, with deviations in all groups.
-Yet, at the present time there is not enough evidence this last happened
-that simply, so we shall attempt to present the evidence as interpreted
-for each group or groups coming into contact with Carlsbad Caverns
-National Park and adjacent areas.
-
-There appears to be a long time-lag between Early Man and our next
-group, the Basketmakers. Positive proof indicates that the Basketmakers
-were here before 900 A.D., and possibly as early as 4000 years ago. Our
-Basketmakers, which are not to be confused in any manner with the San
-Juan Basketmakers, were a rather isolated group and tended to remain
-that way through numerous outside influences. While Pueblo groups to the
-west and north were progressing in agriculture, architecture, and
-esthetic arts, our group, because of their environment, remained more or
-less stable in their mode of life—hunter, and gatherers of seeds—in an
-area totally unsuitable for agriculture.
-
-Next to enter our area were the Apaches from the north after 1300
-A.D.(?) Whether they exerted pressure on the Basketmakers we do not
-know. After the Apaches acquired horses from the Spanish, thus making
-them mobile, different groups moved to other parts of New Mexico and
-Arizona. Branching to the south and southeast were the Mescalero and
-Lipan bands. The Mescalero band settled in an area which included the
-Guadalupe Mountains and surrounding districts whence they raided the
-Pueblo Indians and the Spanish until about 1725, when another Plains
-group, the Comanches, came into the country from the northeast. By
-pushing the Apaches north and west, the Comanches controlled a
-tremendous portion of the Southern Plains.
-
-Quite probably all of the mentioned Indian groups knew of the entrance
-to the Carlsbad Caverns. However, physical evidence that they did was
-left by only one group—the Basketmakers. On the south wall of the
-natural entrance may be seen pictographs or paintings of some weather
-worn figures in red (ocher) and black (probably carbon). On the surface
-just above the cave mouth is a distinct “midden circle” or cooking pit.
-Many of these midden circles are found throughout the entire area and
-will be explained more fully in the chapter on the Carlsbad
-Basketmakers.
-
-There is little physical evidence that any of the Indians went into the
-cave beyond the entrance which they obviously used as a means of
-shelter. It is very unlikely that they ventured beyond the now Bat Cave
-section of the cave for several logical reasons. Light is the paramount
-factor in cave exploration, and the Indians’ only means of light would
-have been from rather crude torches of bark, grass, or wood, none of
-which gives off much light, nor burns for any appreciable length of
-time. Probably the young and agile only would attempt the precarious
-descent, if only to break the humdrum of everyday existence.
-
-Upon first viewing the Caverns entrance, one readily notices the steep
-slope downward and the sheer drop to the floor of the Bat Cave section,
-and how, at the bottom of this drop, there is built up a sizeable pile
-of rubble. From this rubble and the bat guano deposits that led away
-from it in all directions have come numerous skeletal remains, burnt and
-worked stone, and fragments of woven articles, such as bags, sandals,
-and baskets. Burials were also found in the small solution pockets or
-holes seen in the vicinity of the paintings in the entrance proper.[1]
-
-The Indians living any length of time in this area were concerned
-primarily with obtaining food, and this was a constant struggle. So,
-from this practical point of view, they wouldn’t have any business going
-into what we now call the scenic sections of the cave. On the other hand
-we cannot say they did not go down, because we know man’s curiosity can
-get the better of him sometimes. It is very logical to assume that, over
-the long period of time man has been in and around the area, someone
-climbed down and looked.
-
-Some people are of the assumption that the superstitious nature of the
-Indians kept them out of the cave. True, man has always been somewhat
-afraid of the dark and will probably always be so. That the Indians were
-superstitious of the bats, which fly out the entrance each summer
-evening in search of night-flying insects, is very questionable. First
-of all, if the people were afraid of the bats they would not have lived
-under the entrance overhang. This writer could find only one instance
-where bats were regarded other than “little brothers,” and this was a
-myth among the Guiana Indians of South America that concerned “big bats
-that suck humans dry of blood,” and also a “large bat that would carry
-people off.” The bats and night owls raided together, but the people
-overcame their fear and killed them.
-
-Animals did not, as a rule, inhabit the cavern, so the Indians would not
-be down there hunting. Animals did from time to time stumble in; and, in
-1946, there was found the skeletal remains of an extinct ground sloth.
-Beneath the entrance have been found skeletons of many small animals
-that died either from the fall or starvation.
-
-Thus, we cannot say that the Indians went into the cave any distance,
-nor can we say that they did not, simply because we do not know.
-
-To fully understand and appreciate the story of any group or groups of
-people, one must be acquainted somewhat with the country in which they
-lived. The country inhabited by the Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National
-Park has a wide temperature and altitude range, and four life zones
-(Upper and Lower Sonoran, Canadian, and Transition). The Guadalupe
-Mountains developed from a limestone reef laid down in a shallow sea
-during the Permian period of the earth’s history, over 200 million years
-ago. They are cut with many deep canyons containing numerous caves, but
-have little permanent water. Plant and animal life are abundant and
-varied. Due mainly to the lack of water, agriculture was not practiced
-in this particular area. The economy was one known as “hunting and
-gathering.”
-
-Perhaps a brief description of each group that lived, hunted, and
-visited in this area will best picture how and why they did.
-
-
-
-
-                               EARLY MAN
-
-
-About all we can say for Early Man and the Park is that he was here. The
-only material remains found was a Folsom-like projectile point. This
-point was discovered in Burnet Cave in the Guadalupe Mountains in direct
-association with extinct animal bones.
-
-What he looked like, we have no idea; but he was apparently a nomadic
-hunter and follower of game. Because he followed game is probably the
-main reason he arrived here from Asia in late Pleistocene times—15 to
-25,000 years ago. He hunted the now extinct bison (_antiquus_), two
-species of the American horse (_Equus fraternus_ and _E. complicatus_),
-a rare four-horned antelope (_Tetrameryx_), the California condor,
-camel, ground sloth, and a muskox or caribou-like animal (_Bootherium_
-sp.). Undoubtedly these old ones utilized plants for food too.
-
-It is safe to assume that he dressed in skins, if he dressed at all.
-Whether caves were used as shelter we do not know; but quite probably
-they were, as the climate was pluvial.
-
-The method of projection for the point mentioned likely was done either
-via a lance or the atlatl (spearthrower and dart). The latter is nothing
-more than a stick with a nock for the dart on one end. It extends and
-gives more leverage to the arm for throwing.
-
-Where did he go? Some call him Folsom man; others say he is of the
-Cochise complex. He may have stayed where his descendants later became
-what we now call the “Basketmakers.”
-
-
-
-
-                       THE CARLSBAD BASKETMAKERS
-
-
-    [Illustration: Human head]
-
-The true occupants of Carlsbad Caverns National Park were a group of
-Indians known as “Basketmakers.” They may have been descendants of the
-early people, or perhaps a new and distinct group. This name was applied
-because these people made excellent baskets and other woven objects, and
-had some similarity in culture traits to the San Juan Basketmakers or
-Anasazi of the Four Corners area. Moreover, there is some similarity in
-culture traits to the Big Bend Basketmakers of Texas and the Ozark Bluff
-Dwellers. Perhaps the name best suited for this group would be “cave
-dwellers,” as they used caves of all sizes, from small overhangs to
-those of huge proportions, for shelter. Yet, it must be remembered that
-seasonally they lived in the open. However, to avoid later confusion, we
-shall refer to them as the Carlsbad Basketmakers.
-
-The Carlsbad Basketmakers were an unusual group only “here and there
-adopting a few cultural traits from their neighbors, but essentially
-remaining food gatherers and hunters,” a rather simple state of culture
-as compared to their contemporaries.
-
-Our group was in contact with the Mogollon people to the west before 900
-A.D., and possibly 600 years earlier. Pottery found here indicates this
-as well as other contacts. (See Map.) Pottery is somewhat like a
-fingerprint. There are certain features about it which are peculiar to
-only one particular area, and that is the area within which it was made.
-Consequently, pottery can show time, trade, contact, and movement of
-ceramic-making prehistoric peoples. At about this same time, social
-intercourse was also being carried on with the Hueco Basketmakers to the
-west and the Big Bend Basketmakers to the south.
-
-    [Illustration: _The combined use of metate and mortar was found
-    here_]
-
-After 1200, we find Chaco or true Anasazi influence coming into the Rio
-Grande valley to Gran Quivera, thence to southeastern New Mexico. This
-influence represents the Pueblo Indians who apparently changed the
-Carlsbad Basketmakers’ way of life more than any other. This continued
-until sometime between 1500 and 1600, when a drastic and complete change
-came over all the aboriginal peoples in this section.
-
-The Spanish entered the Southwest, bringing the horse, which prompted
-this change. The Apaches had slowly been working their way southward
-from sometime after 1300 A.D. By trade and theft they acquired horses
-from the Spanish, and, in so doing, the long and bloody career of the
-Apaches got under way. This freedom and rapidity of movement afforded by
-the horse allowed them to raid, pillage, and murder Indians and Spanish
-alike. It is about this time that we lose track of our Basketmakers.
-
-    [Illustration: _A small cave dwelling in Walnut Canyon_]
-
-What happened to them is pure supposition. The Carlsbad Basketmakers,
-for defense or economic reasons, probably joined the Pueblo groups of
-either the Gran Quivera or El Paso areas and became completely absorbed.
-Many Pueblo traits found here contribute to this supposition, such as
-pottery changes and physical changes of the people themselves. For
-example, the early Carlsbad Basketmakers were long-headed individuals
-(dolichocephalic). Near the end of their era the head shape changed by
-artificial deformation, or flattening, brought about by the use of a
-hard cradle board, to a broad head or brachycephalic type. All along the
-line there was an admixture of physical types, with the three types
-being present; long, medium (mesocephalic), and broad.
-
-The Carlsbad Basketmaker would very likely fit into practically any
-present Pueblo group and not be noticed. He was of medium stature, about
-5′4″-5′6″ in average height. His life span was between 30-35 years, and
-he suffered from arthritis, bad teeth, and broken bones quite often.
-
-The material culture of a people is, perhaps, their most important
-characteristic, as it represents the utilization of the natural
-resources in a particular area or environment. Caves were used for a
-number of purposes: burial, ceremonial, transitory living, etc. It is
-from these caves that archaeologists dig out the material objects left
-by prehistoric people and are able to reconstruct the story of the
-occupants.
-
-As previously mentioned, the name of our Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-Indians was applied because they made excellent baskets and woven
-objects. Coiled baskets of yucca with grass, sotol, or twigs of flexible
-wood as the binder were the most common. Most baskets have designs of
-various colors woven into them. Red-brown dye was probably made from
-mountain mahogany. The black was strips of Devil’s Claw (_Martynia
-arenaria_). Baskets were waterproofed by smearing pine pitch or mesquite
-gum on them.
-
-Sandals of yucca and grasses are found in abundance. The square-toed
-sandal is the most prominent, although the round fishtailed type is
-common. Both were woven with a variety of ply-thicknesses. They ranged
-from 5 to 11 inches in length, and 2½ to 4 inches in width. The only
-known sandal fragment found in the natural entrance to the Caverns is of
-the square-toed type and is classed as a two warp-two ply.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Basketmaker paintings on the south wall of the
-    natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_]
-
-    [Illustration: Basketmaker paintings]
-
-Yucca seems to have been the most-used plant for weaving. Mats of yucca
-and beargrass were woven in a variety of ways. A coarse cloth netting
-and cordage of yucca fiber was used for snaring rabbits and other small
-game, and large bags of yucca fiber cordage were made for burial
-purposes. These cone-shaped, twine-woven bags were sometimes quite
-elaborately woven of red and white cords with horizontal black and
-yellow bands running completely around them.
-
-Cotton was grown to the west, and some combination of cotton and yucca
-fabrics was made here. Clothing or blankets of animal fur (usually
-rabbit) and feather (turkey) cloth was common. (This turkey cloth was
-probably traded from the Pueblos.) Too, plain fur, cloth, and skin robes
-were used for covering.
-
-Hair was woven into rope, as were mesquite fiber and agave. Raw material
-apparently kept on hand as fiber bundles and rings of grass were common
-finds. V-shaped cradles were made of grass, and sleeping pits were lined
-with it.
-
-Pottery is really incidental; and, for the most part, intrusive to
-southeastern New Mexico. It is questionable if the area inhabitants made
-pottery, but they probably did to some extent. There is found a
-considerable amount of plain brown ware, and it occurs from early to
-late times. This ware, although unnamed except for “plain Brown,” is
-thought to be of local manufacture. Practically all pottery found here
-was fired in the presence of oxygen (oxidizing atmosphere). A number of
-types, varying in color from a terracotta, through brown, to reddish
-tones, are all classed as brown ware.
-
-The earliest pottery found in southeastern New Mexico is Mogollon in
-origin. Mogollon pottery is a derivative from southwestern New Mexico
-and southeastern Arizona. The Mogollon brown and red wares found in this
-section are definitely pre-900 A.D., and possibly pre-700. These wares
-are found to have been used through 1150 A.D.
-
-The big influx of pottery came during late Pueblo III and Pueblo IV
-times from 1150 to 1450 A.D. From the west came Mimbres Black on White,
-which dates from 1050 to 1200 A.D., Jornada Brown, El Paso Polychrome,
-and Brown wares. From the north, northwest, and west, because of Pueblo
-expansion, came Three Rivers Red on Terracotta, St. Johns Polychrome
-(from the Zuni area), Chupadero Black on White (from Gran Quivira),
-Lincoln Black on Red, and Rio Grande glaze wares. It is interesting to
-note that pottery changes in this area parallel those of the Mogollon to
-some degree.
-
-Our Basketmakers were dependent primarily upon wild plant foods, as corn
-seems to be lacking; and they supplemented their diet by some hunting of
-game. To the south of the Park is the Black River. In this fertile
-valley, with its continuous water supply, it is logical to assume that
-corn was probably cultivated; but there is absolutely no evidence to
-prove this. Corn was grown about 50 miles north, near Hope, New Mexico,
-where Pueblo-like settlements were common from 1150 to 1300 A.D. Corn,
-beans, and squash may have been traded to our cave people by the
-Pueblos. Lack of practiced agriculture in the Guadalupe Mountain area
-was probably due to the scarcity of water. Water from seeps, springs,
-and shallow depressions in the limestone was, of course, utilized.
-
-The roasted young bud and heart of the mescal or agave plant apparently
-was the paramount food, with the cabbage-like base or heart of the sotol
-running a close second. Yucca pulp and seeds, mesquite beans (Tornillo
-or screwbean), grass seeds, piñon nuts, acorns, walnuts, cactus fruits
-(prickly pear and cholla), wild onions, wild potatoes and other bulb or
-tuber-bearing plants, grapes, berries and others were utilized. Herbs
-from true sage brush (_Artemisia_), wild tobacco, and possibly soap made
-from the roots of the yucca _radiosa_ were used. A favorite quick food
-was the young flower stalks of yucca in season.
-
-Mescal hearts and baked sotol leaves were stored in caves in cists lined
-with grass, twigs and bark. Stone slab-lined storage cists were known
-also.
-
-Mesquite beans were pulverized into meal, as substantiated by the many
-mortar holes throughout the area. The meal was probably fashioned by
-pounding the beans and pods together, winnowing out the pods, grinding
-until fairly uniform, and eating them either raw or molded into cakes
-and cooked in ashes, or into soups. Gourds were used for a household
-receptacle, probably as a ladle or dipper.
-
-The entire country is dotted with large “midden circles.” The one most
-seen by visitors is located at the natural entrance. For years these
-circles have erroneously been called “mescal pits” and were thought to
-have been used strictly for baking or roasting the mescal plant by both
-our Basketmakers and later the Apaches. In remote instances, it is
-possible that the Apaches used them, but not as a common practice.
-
-The main difference between the Basketmaker midden circle and the Apache
-mescal pit is that the true mescal pit or earth oven is a depression
-definitely sunk below the ground level, whereas the midden circle is on
-ground level. Consequently, the midden circle had other uses than the
-preparation of mescal hearts.
-
-There are three types of midden circles. The most common is the circular
-mound, which is found up to an altitude of 7500 feet, and out
-considerable distances into the flats. It is of interest to note that no
-midden circles of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are found east of the Pecos
-River. The circular ones will average from 30 to 35 feet in diameter in
-this area.
-
-“The first stage (of development) seems to have begun with the
-construction of a fireplace composed of fairly large rocks. When heat
-had cracked these into fragments too small to be useful, the broken bits
-were then cleared away from a circle about the fire and the hearth
-rebuilt with other large stones, which in turn were discarded when
-broken down by heat. When this process had been repeated many times, the
-cleared circle immediately around the fire was surrounded by a ring
-formed by an accumulation of the rejected small stones. In course of
-time and with constant additions of ash and discarded rock, the
-resulting mound grew to such height that it might even have proved
-serviceable as a wind break. That such a method was employed seems quite
-probable, because all the stones composing the outer ring show hard
-firing, while scattered through the mass are found ashes and rejecta of
-a camp. If this hypothesis is accepted, a large number of these
-structures would indicate an extended occupation or perhaps repeated
-occupation over a comparatively long period.” (Mera)
-
-    [Illustration: _This drawing shows the three stages of development
-    of the midden circle_]
-
-The second type is found on ledges or narrow terraces along canyon walls
-and was elongated in shape. The third is built out in front of caves and
-shelters and takes on a rough half-circle shape. The mescal pit as used
-by the Apaches is described in their section.
-
-    [Illustration: _A Basketmaker Midden Circle or cooking pit_]
-
-    [Illustration: _A cut-bank showing an elongated Basketmaker Midden
-    in Slaughter Canyon_]
-
-Practically all game was hunted, notably mule deer, elk, and buffalo;
-and next, if not the most important, rabbits, both the cottontail and
-jackrabbit. Also, antelope, plains white-tail deer, big horn sheep,
-peccary (Javelina), mountain lion, bobcat, wolf, fox, coyote, badger,
-porcupine, ring-tailed cat, opossum, prairie dog, armadillo, pack rat,
-kangaroo-rat, muskrat, field mouse, white-foot mouse, beaver, pocket
-mouse, ground squirrel, pocket gopher as well as fish, ducks, hawks,
-owls, quail, desert tortoise, pigeons, doves, large terrapin, lizards,
-and snakes were utilized.
-
-Our people had the dog and probably ate him in time of famine. Although
-some turkey bones have been found, it is quite certain that this bird
-was not domesticated here as it was among the Pueblos. Needless to say,
-leather was fashioned from the skins of practically all animals and was
-used for pouches, snares, etc.
-
-Usually the first thing to enter our minds when stone is mentioned in
-connection with aboriginal peoples is arrowheads or projectile points.
-Stone was used for many and varied purposes, and it would be difficult
-to list these in order of importance. Projectile points were, of course,
-important, though used primarily for hunting rather than warfare. Points
-of various sizes, shapes and materials were used by the Carlsbad
-Basketmakers. First were the dart and lance points, and later, as arrow
-points, after the introduction of the bow to the Southwest. Flints,
-cherts, and chalcedonies were the most common materials used for points
-and small tools, although rhyolite, felsite, etc., have been found.
-Stone was worked by grinding, pecking, drilling, and percussion and
-pressure flaking.
-
-Mortars were usually cut into stationary rock near camping places such
-as those seen near the natural entrance to the Caverns, although small
-portable mortars were used to some extent. The pestles were usually made
-of granite and were carried from camp to camp, as pestles with yucca
-leaf carrying-straps have been found.
-
-    [Illustration: _Projectile points, pottery, decorated sea shell, a
-    mano-pestle and a sandal fragment from Carlsbad Caverns National
-    Park_
-                                         (_National Park Service Photo_)
-    ]
-
-Metates or grinding bowls are less common. Metates were made from
-limestone, sandstone, and granite, while the mano, the small stone used
-for crushing and grinding on the metate, was composed of limestone,
-granite, and travertine. The metates are oval, circular, and semi-flat
-in appearance, and the manos are of the one-hand type.
-
-Leaf-shaped knives, end scrapers, side scrapers, drills, choppers,
-hammerstones, rubbing or smoothing stones, axes and stone pipes were
-made and used.
-
-Found throughout the Guadalupe Mountains, sometimes at the head of
-canyons, usually on the canyon floors, are small stone cairns and stone
-rings or circles. To date, no feasible explanation is given as to their
-function. These are not to be confused with the “midden circles”
-previously mentioned.
-
-For other than fuel, wood was widely used as clubs, digging sticks,
-atlatl, darts, spear foreshafts, bows, arrows, projectile points, fire
-sets (drill and hearth), seed storage tubes, fending sticks, throwing
-sticks (rabbit sticks), and wooden stoppers for canteens.
-
-    [Illustration: _One of the mortar holes near the mouth of the
-    entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_
-                                         (_National Park Service Photo_)
-    ]
-
-Woodworking with stone tools consisted of seven methods: chopping,
-whittling, shaving and planing, sawing, splitting, gouging and scoring,
-scraping and sanding.
-
-Fire was made with the use of a wooden hearth. Friction was created by
-revolving the point of a stick with the hands in a small depression in
-the hearth, which contained tinder of punk wood, shredded inner bark or
-grass. Cedar or juniper bark was probably used for torches.
-
-Animal bone was used for awls, stone flaking tools, jewelry ornaments
-and weaving tools; animal horn or antler was used much the same. There
-is a slight possibility that bone gaming dice were made and used, as
-perhaps were horn ladles and dippers.
-
-In earlier times our Basketmakers used the atlatl as their predominant
-weapon or hunting implement. It was composed of two parts; the stick for
-throwing the dart, and the dart itself. Later the bow and arrow replaced
-this implement in importance. Atlatls were from 19 to 25 inches in
-length and were made of oak, mesquite, thorn growth Tornillo, sinew and
-buckskin. Occasionally a small stone was attached to add weight and
-balance. Atlatl dart shafts consisted of two parts. The foreshaft was of
-heavy oak or comparatively hard wood with a stone point. This was
-inserted into the main shaft of sotol bloom stalks. The idea being upon
-impact that the base would fall away from the foreshaft, thus allowing
-full penetration and less chance of the animal or man knocking or
-pulling it out. Both the atlatl and dart shafts were sometimes highly
-decorated. A variety of stone points were used as was the dart bunt,
-which possibly was used as a stunner as its appearance suggests. The
-dart bunt was a round wooden knob carved to insert into the main shaft.
-
-Bows and arrows were made of varied hardwoods and reeds. Bows had an
-average pull of about 40 pounds and were from 3½ to 5 feet in length.
-Arrows were 20 to 28 inches long, and the bowstring was either yucca
-fiber or sinew.
-
-The lance or spear, ordinary stick clubs, grooved fending sticks, round
-fending sticks, flattened and round throwing sticks found may also have
-been used as weapons.
-
-Disposition of the dead was accomplished by burying with offerings in a
-flexed or semi-flexed position on the back, or cremated with the burned
-remains being buried in bags or baskets.
-
-The graves are usually small and quite shallow. Burials are found in
-caves, midden circles, and open sites—practically any place where
-digging was easy. Quite often the unburned burials had a “kill hole”
-pottery bowl placed over the face. Cremation, from all appearances, was
-practiced earlier and was concurrent to inhumation.
-
-The few skeletal remains found in the natural entrance and Bat Cave
-section of the Carlsbad Caverns suggest midden type burials or
-accidental demise, perhaps by falling.
-
-Possibly one of the most interesting and still visible bits of evidence
-of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are the pictographs or paintings on the
-south wall of the Cave entrance. These markings are badly weathered, but
-one can distinguish what appears once to have been a red figure with
-black up-raised arms of a person, and blobs of red and black which may
-have been anything.
-
-In other caves over the area have been found other pictographs
-(paintings) and petroglyphs (pecked) designs. Paints were made from red
-hematite (red oxide of iron); red and yellow ochers; blue and green from
-copper carbonates, azurite and malachite; black carbon and white
-kaolinite.
-
-Occasionally there are found small pebbles with painted designs or lines
-on them, but their function is unknown.
-
-Jewelry consisted of wooden combs and wooden pin hair ornaments, beads
-and pendants of white and pink shell, gypsum, black beidellite,
-turquoise, bone, squash seeds and sections of reeds. Beads were strung
-on hair cord or yucca fiber cord. Bracelets of Glycimeris shell were
-worn.
-
-For the most part the shell tells of considerable trade to the Gulf of
-Mexico and the Gulf of California by our people. Fresh water mussel
-shells common to the Pecos River were also used for ornaments. Trade was
-carried on from Mexico into this general region as indicated by the
-finds of copper bells and macaw parrot feathers from Pueblo ruins in
-southern New Mexico.
-
-Ceremonial paraphernalia finds are rather rare. Fragments of a golden
-eagle feather headdress, rattles of gourds, and turtle or tortoise
-shells, pahos (prayer sticks), wooden wands and wooden painted tablitas
-(headdresses) have been unearthed in Guadalupe Mountain caves. Closely
-related to ceremonial purposes, and usually found in close association
-with the above, are reed cigarettes and whistles, prayer offerings of
-miniature fending sticks, fiber balls, gaming dice (sticks or counters),
-as well as possible ceremonial bow sets. As to how the ceremonial
-objects were used is, naturally, conjecture.
-
-
-
-
-                         THE MESCALERO APACHES
-
-
-    [Illustration: Human head]
-
-From the north they came, this much we know, and comparatively recently.
-About 600 years ago many tribes of Apaches slowly worked their way
-southward, following the game and gathering the wild plant food,
-eventually ranging over a great land area from the Pecos River on the
-east to the borders of the Papago country in southern Arizona on the
-west; from Colorado to northern Mexico, to the Gulf of Mexico in Texas.
-The Apaches, members of the Athapascan linguistic family, were first
-recorded historically on the southern plains by the Spanish in 1540-41,
-who called them Querecho. However, it is entirely possible that Cabeza
-de Baca in 1534-35 encountered them. The Mescalero, Lipan, and Tuetenene
-(a hybrid of the former two) were living in this area at that time. They
-were first called Apaches in 1598 by Oñate.
-
-The Mescalero Apaches ranged from the Rio Grande to the Staked Plains,
-and were closely allied with both the western Apache groups and tribes
-of the southern plains. The “Natohene” or “Natshene” (mescal people or
-water willow people), as they called themselves, were composed of three
-bands; the Kahoane, Ni’ahane, and Huskaane.
-
-The Ni’ahane band lived in the Sacramento, Guadalupe, Sierra Blanca, and
-Capitan Mountains, an area that included what is now Carlsbad Caverns
-National Park. Their name means “people of the terraced mountains.” To
-the south of this band were the Tuetenene; and southeast of them, in the
-Big Bend country, lived the Lipan Apaches (a true Plains Indian group).
-
-In order to avoid confusion between the various Apache tribes and bands
-to frequent the area of Carlsbad Caverns National Park, the term
-Mescalero will be used. It should be pointed out that actually very
-little is known about this group, so the material presented is far from
-complete and is only general information.
-
-Although of a war-like nature, the Mescaleros were never considered as
-dangerous as their brethren farther west. Yet, after acquiring horses
-from the Spanish, they raided and warred until about 1875, when subdued;
-and the Mescalero Reservation was established in the White Mountains
-northeast of the White Sands in New Mexico.
-
-Culturally speaking, the Mescaleros, Lipans, and their hybrid, the
-Tuetenenes, were basically Plains with some western Apache traits common
-only to the Mescaleros.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Painted Grotto, a highly painted Mescalero
-    Apache ceremonial cave located in Slaughter Canyon, Carlsbad Caverns
-    National Park, New Mexico_]
-
-Actual physical evidence left by the Mescalero Apaches in Carlsbad
-Caverns National Park is scant. Their most prominent calling card is
-found in a small cave in West Slaughter Canyon. About 4½ miles from the
-mouth of the canyon, some 65 feet above the dry stream bed, is the
-“Painted Grotto.” This little cave is approximately 57 feet across the
-front, 21 feet at the deepest point, and the ceiling slopes from 16 feet
-at the front to about 6 feet at the back. On the walls and ceiling are
-several hundred multicolored pictographs, all painted with earth ground
-ochers in red, yellow, white, golden yellow, and shades of pink. Caves
-of this type were used as shrines or media for ceremonies or religious
-dances, incantations, etc., and are considered very sacred. This bit of
-evidence definitely establishes the Mescalero on the Park proper, and a
-legend handed down to the Modern Apaches indicated that they knew of the
-main Caverns entrance as well. This legend tells of a medicine man who
-went into the cave to make “big medicine.” Supposedly, he was last seen
-wandering away from the entrance, beating his tom-tom; and yearly, on
-the anniversary of this exploit, the Apaches would come to the entrance
-to leave offerings of food for him.
-
-The Mescaleros were attracted to the Guadalupe Mountains area due to the
-abundance of plant and animal life and the many springs found here. The
-cooking of their favorite food, the mescal, arouses some curiosity.
-Found throughout the region are remains of the Carlsbad Basketmakers’
-midden circles previously mentioned. In remote instances perhaps the
-Apaches cooked in these so-called “mescal pits.” Quite likely though,
-they cooked on the surface without the aid of a pit. Today, in many
-places along the ridges, can be seen spaces of ground, devoid of
-vegetation, covered with rocks which have obviously been broken from
-fire. The Chiricahua Apaches to the west tell of a method of baking
-mescal without digging a pit. Rocks are heated and scattered on the
-level ground; the mescal crowns are put on them, and fresh grass and
-dirt are piled over all. This “oven” has the appearance of a mound when
-in use; but after the mescal is removed, and time has elapsed, it would
-appear to be simply a space of barren ground covered with burnt stones.
-
-To the north of the Guadalupe Mountains is found evidence of true Apache
-mescal pits, and they are just that, a pit dug into the ground. The pit
-is dug round, about 7 feet across and from 3 to 4 feet deep. “The method
-of using these pits is as follows: great fires are first kindled in
-them, after which, heated stones are thrown in; on these stones are
-laid, agave leaves, sometimes to a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Fire is kindled
-over this accumulation and by action of the heat below and above, the
-leaves are roasted without being burnt.” (Fewkes) Other plants and meats
-were also cooked in this type oven, and many families could and did cook
-in one pit at the same time by marking their food in some manner. From
-24 to 36 hours were required to cook the mescal heart. Mescal heads
-baked in this manner are somewhat like candied sweet potatoes.
-
-    [Illustration: _Close-up of the paintings in the Painted Grotto of
-    Slaughter Canyon_ (_photos courtesy of Lynn Coffin_)]
-
-Occasionally the Mescaleros farmed. Most farming was done to the north
-of the Park; but Rattlesnake Springs, (source of the Park’s water
-supply), about 7 miles south of the Caverns entrance, is said to have
-been an Apache campsite, and possibly some farming was done there.
-
-The Mescalero Apaches show a curious mixture of culture traits, both
-plains and western Apache. Following is a brief summary of some of these
-that may be of interest.
-
-They were great stalkers of game and frequently employed the use of
-animal mask decoys, driving, game calls, and the running down or wearing
-out of game. They smoked or flooded rodents from their dens, set snares
-of rope for game, and hunted from blinds or pits. Communal hunting was
-supervised by a hunt master; and game, such as rabbits, peccary, and
-buffalo were surrounded by people in a circle and clubbed, shot or
-driven to hidden hunters, lassoed or run over a cliff or bank. Dogs were
-used for hunting as well as for watch dogs and pets.
-
-Religious ceremony was practiced before, during, and after the hunt.
-Prayers, songs, tobacco, pollen, and meat were offered to the hunt
-deity; and an amulet for good hunting was worn.
-
-The Mescalero did not, as a rule, eat wildcat, wolf, coyote or turkey
-vultures. Dogs, hawks, turkeys and eagles were kept as pets. They were
-never eaten and were buried at death. Sometimes plucked eagles were
-released alive. Tortoise, turtles, and fish were eaten.
-
-Hardwood digging sticks were used for gathering bulbs, roots, etc., and
-a special stone knife was used for cutting mescal. Seeds were collected
-on a blanket and carried in a skin bag. Acorns were boiled like beans,
-parched (never leached), shelled and ground on a metate or stone mortar
-and stored in a skin bag. The meal was eaten with meat stew. Mesquite
-and screwbean mesquite pods were pounded either in stone or hide
-mortars; and the seeds were thrown away, and the pod flour was soaked or
-boiled and the juice drunk, eaten as mush, or stored in cake form.
-
-Mescal heads were pit-roasted as mentioned; a buffalo shoulder-blade was
-used as a shovel to scoop coals over the pit. The fire was usually lit
-by a lucky person. The cooked head and leaf bases were pounded and dried
-on frames and stored dry. Syrup was made from the flowers and the stalk
-above the head was eaten.
-
-Yucca fruit was eaten either cooked on coals or dried, and the root
-stalk was used for soap. This pertained to practically all of the yucca
-family. Most cacti fruit and some of the pulp was eaten.
-
-Pinon seeds were gathered and eaten raw, roasted or mashed into a
-butter. Pinon pitch was chewed as gum. Walnuts, wild plums, cherries,
-grass seeds, etc., tule and some greens (cooked) were used. Fruit
-juices, mescal, mesquite, and sotol juices were drunk either fresh, or
-boiled and fermented. In later years a maize wine was made. Salt and
-honey were gathered and used.
-
-Meat was sliced, dried and made into pemmican; bone marrow extracted;
-blood boiled in paunch and sausages were made in gut. Meat food was
-stored either in skin bag, parfleche or pot.
-
-Little agriculture was practiced. Irrigation with ditches from streams
-was known. Farming was confined to the sandy soil in the stream bottom
-land. All farming was a man’s job except the harvest when women helped.
-A two-handed planting stick was used. Corn was eaten green, roasted or
-dried and shelled by women. Two varieties of beans, pumpkins, squash and
-gourds were grown. Gourds were used as canteens, dishes and spoons.
-
-Mescal harvest camps were sometimes set up in small caves, but tipis or
-thatched wickiups were the permanent houses. Tipis were three-pole
-foundation, buffalo hide with ventilator flaps, faced east or downwind,
-and had a fireplace and smoke-hole in the center. They were pegged to
-the ground, had a covered door, and a dew-cloth inner liner. When moved,
-they were carried on a travois or drag with horse.
-
-Temporary lean-tos, shades, windbreaks, domed sweat houses, log rafts
-and log bridges were built and used. Swimming was done only when
-necessary, or when water was available.
-
-Grass and agave hair brushes were made. Horn, wood and shell were used
-as containers. Knives, awls, and needles were made from stone and bone.
-Wood was worked with stone hammers, mauls, axes and fire. Stone was
-flaked, ground and polished. Fire was made by stone or a pump drill.
-
-Bows were made of mulberry, oak, juniper, walnut and other woods. Bow
-strings were made of sinew and vegetable fiber. Arrows of willow and
-other woods—points were stone. Mescalero arrow points were supposedly
-stemmed base, or the base was side notched. These types of projectile
-points are common to the Carlsbad Basketmakers, too; so it is impossible
-to differentiate the two when found. Undoubtedly, those found on the
-Park fit into both cultures. Arrows were feathered with three feathers
-from the eagle, hawk, turkey and crow; and arrows were carried in an
-open-skinned, sewn quiver of deerskin, mountain lion or wildcat. They
-were carried on the back, under the arm, or on the belt.
-
-Spears, shields, warbonnets (short, Plains type), armour of hide and
-clubs were used in battle. Rabbitsticks of wood and slingshots were also
-used.
-
-Beads and ornaments were of shell, bone, wood, feathers, seeds, claws
-and hooves, bear ears, turquoise, red stone, cannel coal (jet), and
-porcupine quills. Paint from mineral and vegetable sources was used for
-decorating objects or the body, which was painted primarily to prevent
-sunburn.
-
-The hair was worn full length by both men and women, but beard and
-eyebrows were plucked completely with fingers or tweezers of willowwood.
-During periods of mourning, hair was cropped with a stone knife,
-sometimes to about the level of the chin by women. Hair was worn loose,
-tied in a bunch or with headband, in braids and decorated with pendants,
-feathers, flowers, etc.
-
-Ear lobes of children were pierced with a snakeweed stem, and nose
-straightening was practiced on babies if nose was too broad. There was
-no cradle deformation of the head known among the Mescaleros.
-
-Tattooing of the face and arms by these people was quite an ancient
-practice, and was performed with cactus spines and black mineral pigment
-only, not charcoal as other tribes might use.
-
-Clothing consisted of fur caps, robes, shawls, ponchos, and capes of
-animal skin with the hair either on or off the hide, and woven vegetable
-fibers. Highly painted and fringed buckskin-sleeved shirts were worn by
-the men. The women wore buckskin gowns or dresses, painted and fringed.
-Buckskin belts held up a skin wrapped around the waist to serve as a
-kilt for the men, or skirts of buckskin for the women. Hard-soled
-moccasins were worn by both sexes, while only the men wore a hip-length
-buckskin leggin. Hide overshoes were used in winter.
-
-The winter bed was usually composed of a grass and hide mattress with
-hide coverings, whereas the summer bed was a willow rack or mat with a
-rawhide twining bedstead supported by four forked posts covered with
-skins (Plains type).
-
-Burdens were transported with the aid of a tump line back pack or other
-slings, baskets, gourds, pottery, rawhide or leather bags or containers
-and horse travois. Baskets (water-proofed with pitch), mats, cradles,
-cordage of vegetable and animal materials, including hair and pottery,
-were manufactured by both men and women.
-
-A variety of games were played by all, including foot racing, shinny,
-hoop and pole, etc. Gambling by adults was done with a hand game of
-guessing with bones, moccasin game, drawing straws, dice, and heads or
-tails with flat stones (wet or dry). The children played games of war,
-wrestled, and had toys of guns, dolls, stones, etc.
-
-Tobacco was gathered and smoked in an elbow pipe. Both tobacco and pipe
-were kept in a buckskin bag which was usually highly decorated.
-
-The people assembled at the Chief’s dwelling or in an open space. Unlike
-most Plains tribes, the Mescaleros did not carry a medicine bundle but
-carried “medicine” inside themselves.
-
-For music and ceremony there were rattles of gourds or horn, drums of
-pottery and wood, a musical bow, whistles and flutes.
-
-The calendar was divided into four named seasons with daily and monthly
-tallies kept on a notched stick. Counting was done on the fingers, and
-some observations of astronomy were made. Various colors were symbolic.
-East was black; south, blue; west, yellow; and north, white. Their God,
-Nayiizone, when coming from or going to the sky, rode on a black ray to
-the east, on a blue horse to the south, on a yellow (sorrel) horse to
-the west, and on a white horse to the north.
-
-Mysticism, taboo, and definite procedure governed childbirth, naming,
-education of the young, marriage, affinal relations, death, mourning,
-labor by both sexes, slaves, land ownership, personal property, war,
-scalping, dances, ceremonies, political and clan organizations, peyote,
-kinship systems, religion and shaman ritual.
-
-Little is known about Mescalero pottery, except that it was tempered
-with vegetable material, made only by women, fired in an open fire, and
-made with pointed or rounded bottom for inserting into fire coals, and
-perhaps decorated with incised marks near the rim on occasion. The
-knowledge of when this art was first practiced is unknown, but is
-logically historic and very limited. No known sherds of this pottery
-have been found on the Park.
-
-In 1875, the Mescalero Apache Reservation was established for the
-Mescalero and Lipan tribes; but in 1913, a band of Geronimo’s
-Chiricahuas was released from Ft. Sill in Oklahoma and came to Mescalero
-where they now reside.
-
-Locally there is a rumor that the Apaches have a myth concerning the
-bats of Carlsbad Caverns. The bats are said to be an ancient lost war or
-hunting party, but research has failed to verify this story. Most of the
-Western Apaches regard BAT as an excellent horseman. The Chiricahua
-Apaches say, “If a bat bites you, you had better never ride a horse any
-more. If you do ride a horse after being bitten, you are just as good as
-dead.” They were cautious of bats but not superstitious of them.
-
-
-
-
-                             THE COMANCHES
-
-
-    [Illustration: Human head]
-
-Originally the Comanches lived far to the north of southeastern New
-Mexico; but about 1700, moved to the South Plains. By this time they
-were well adapted to their relatively new life of mobility brought about
-by the acquisition of horses directly or indirectly, and by hook or
-crook from the Spanish. With horses it was much easier to follow the
-buffalo, fight their enemies, raid, and trade.
-
-Comanche is a Ute Indian word meaning “enemy,” and it is often felt that
-they found their way to New Mexico under the tutelage of the Utes. Yet,
-sometime between 1747, and April, 1749, the two became deadly enemies.
-After 1750, the Utes joined the Apaches to fight the Comanches.
-
-Actually, there are about 20 different names given for Comanche, meaning
-everything from “enemies” to “snake people.” The Ute definition is more
-fitting, however; for from about 1705 to 1875, they raided and fought
-the Spanish, Utes, Apaches, Pueblos, Texans and the U. S. Army among
-others. They ranged from Kansas to Mexico in thirteen different bands.
-
-That they were practical and businesslike is perhaps best shown by their
-dealings with the French. The Comanches were first contacted about 1725
-by the French, who traded them guns and ammunition. Yet the Comanches
-would not let the French cross their territory to trade with the Apaches
-and others, thus monopolizing the source of firearms.
-
-These Shoshonean speaking people were a true South Plains horse Indian.
-They were often considered the finest horsemen of the plains, these
-nomadic buffalo hunters who lived in tipis of the skins from this
-animal. The Comanche tongue was universally spoken by numerous other
-Indian tribes of the South Plains; so little sign language was
-necessary, as was the case farther north.
-
-    [Illustration: _A general view of the rough terrain in the Carlsbad
-    Caverns—Guadalupe Mountains area_]
-
-Buffalo were reported on the South Plains in 1540-41, by the Spanish. As
-there was constant warfare between the Comanches and the Apaches, it may
-well have started over the bison.
-
-The words fighting and Comanche go hand in hand. They were spasmodically
-at war with most of their neighbors; yet if peace and alliance achieved
-a goal, they would concede, as is shown in their relationship with the
-Kiowa. Bitter enemies, these two, until 1790, when an alliance was made
-which lasted until sometime in the 1870s. Together they raided the
-Spanish, Pueblos, Apaches, and their first real enemy, the
-Anglo-Americans of Texas.
-
-Although the Park and Guadalupe Mountains area was not part of the
-Comanches positive range, which lay north, east and southeast of the
-Pecos River, it was frequently crossed by hunting and raiding parties.
-There is no reason to assume that the Kiowas did not accompany them from
-time to time, especially when raiding into Mexico.
-
-These “Lords of the South Plains,” as they were later called, looked and
-dressed every bit the now “Hollywood” Indian. In costumes of buckskins
-or buffalo hide, decorated with beads and gewgaws, wearing the typical
-warbonnet, the Comanches ruled a tremendous portion of the South Plains
-for 175 years. (See Map.) They were fearless fighters who rescued their
-dead and wounded in battle, who on occasion used poison from an unknown
-plant on their arrow-points, or stuck them in a dead, ripe skunk to
-create the same effect; and were great thieves and gamblers. The
-successful theft of horses from the enemy was a high mark of prestige to
-a man; yet this same man could and did lose his spoils to other
-Comanches through the media of dice and hand games.
-
-The Comanches were one of the few tribes of the South Plains who did not
-eat dog or human flesh. Their religion contained the belief of an after
-life in a “Happy Hunting Ground” beyond the sun. Naturally, these people
-utilized many wild plants. One among these that grows in the Park is
-mescal, which was used as a drug. (Quite a contrast to the Apaches,
-this.)
-
-A valiant but bloody chapter in the history of the Southwest was closed
-in June, 1875, when the Comanches surrendered to the U. S. Army at Ft.
-Sill, and went on to a reservation in the then Indian Territory of
-Oklahoma. It is said the introduction of the Colt revolver, in the hands
-of the Texas Rangers, was the deciding factor toward their surrender.
-
-    [Illustration: THE INDIANS OF
-    CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-    TIME RANGE]
-
-  Early Man                    25,000-15,000 B.P.? — 2,000 B.C.?
-  Carlsbad Basketmakers        2000 B.C.? — 1750 A.D.?
-  Pueblo Culture Influence     1000 B.C.? —
-  Mescalero Apache             1300 A.D.? —
-  Comanche                     1700 A.D.? —
-  Kiowa                        1800 A.D.? —
-
-
-
-
-                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
-
-  Bailey, Vernon—_Animal Life of the Carlsbad Cavern_, 1928.
-  Bourke, John G.—_Medicine Men of the Apache_, B.A.E. #9, 1887-88.
-  Colton, Harold S. and Hargrave, L. L.—_Handbook of Northern Arizona
-          Pottery Types_, MNA, 1937.
-  Cosgrove, C. B.—_Caves of the Upper Gila and Hueco Areas in New Mexico
-          and Texas_, Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1947.
-  Dodge, Natt N.—_Flowers of the Southwest Deserts_, SMA, 1952.
-  Ferdon, Edwin N., Jr.—_An Excavation of Hermit’s Cave, New Mexico_,
-          1946.
-  Fewkes, J. W.—_Casa Grande Arizona, Antiquities of the Upper Verde
-          River and Walnut Creek, Arizona_, B.A.E. #28, 1906-07.
-  Gale, Bennett T.—_Historical Sketch Carlsbad Caverns National Park_,
-          manuscript, 1952.
-      _Carlsbad Caverns—An Interpretation of Their Origin and
-          Development_, manuscript.
-  Gifford, E. W.—_Culture Element Distributions: XII Apache-Pueblo_,
-          Anthropological Records, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1940.
-  Hawley, Florence M.—_Field Manual of Prehistoric Southwestern Pottery
-          Types_, U. of N. M., 1936.
-  Henshaw, Henry W.—_Animal Carvings from the Mounds of the Mississippi
-          Valley_, B.A.E. #2, 1880-81.
-  Howard, E. B.—_Caves Along the Slopes of the Guadalupe Mountains_,
-          Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc., Vol. 4, 1932.
-  Jennings, J. D.—_A Variation of Southwestern Pueblo Culture_, Lab. of
-          Anth., Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940.
-  Lehmer, Donald J.—_The Jornada Branch of the Mogollon_, U. of Ariz. SS
-          Bul. #17, 1948.
-  Mallery, Garrick—_Picture Writing of the American Indians_, B.A.E.
-          #10, 1888-89.
-  McGee, W. J.—_The Seri Indians_, B.A.E. #17, Part 2, 1895-96.
-  Mera, H. P.—_An Outline of Ceramic Developments in Southern and
-          Southeastern New Mexico_, Lab. of Anth., Tech. Series, Bul.
-          #11.
-      _Reconnaissance and Excavation in Southeastern New Mexico_, AAA
-          Memoir #51, 1938.
-  Mooney, James—_Myths of the Cherokee_, B.A.E. #19, 1897-98.
-      _The Ghost Dance Religion_, B.A.E. #14, 1892-93.
-      _Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians_, B.A.E. #17, 1895-96.
-  Neumann, George—_Analysis of the Skeletal Material_, Lab. of Anth.,
-          Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940.
-  Opler, Morris Edward—_An Apache Life-Way_, 1941.
-  Pearce, Dr. J. E.—_Kitchen Middens_, Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc.,
-          Vol. 4, 1932—See also Victor J. Smith.
-  Reed, Erik—_Historical Narrative and Archaeological Values_,
-          Interpretive Section, Master Plan, Carlsbad Caverns National
-          Park.
-  Roth, W. E.—_Animism and Folklore of Guiana Indians_, B.A.E. #30,
-          1908-09.
-  Schmitt, Martin F. and Brown, Dee—_Fighting Indians of the West_,
-          1948.
-  Swanton, John R.—_The Indian Tribes of North America_, B.A.E. Bul.
-          145, 1952.
-  Thomas, Alfred Barnaby—_The Plains Indians and New Mexico 1751-1778_,
-          1940.
-  Wallace, Ernest and Hoebel, E. Adamson—_The Comanches_, U. of Okla.,
-          1952.
-  Williams, Jack R.—_Papago_, manuscript, 1952.
-
-
-
-
-                               FOOTNOTES
-
-
-[1]Unfortunately, the National Park Service has been unable to obtain
-    any of these burials. However, Vernon Bailey in his _Animal Life of
-    Carlsbad Cavern_ points out that they were found. (Also, this has
-    been corroborated by writings of the late Carl B. Livingston, well
-    known attorney, writer, historian, and an outstanding authority on
-    history and prehistory of New Mexico. Too, present and former
-    employees of the National Park Service who played an important part
-    in the early stages of the development and operation of the Carlsbad
-    Caverns National Park are familiar with the evidences of prehistoric
-    man found in and around the Caverns. T. Cal Miller.)
-
-
-    [Illustration: Hunting]
-
-    [Illustration: Early Man, Carlsba Baketmaker, Mescalero Apache,
-    Comanche, Kiowa]
-
-
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s note:
-
-—Corrected a few obvious typographical errors.
-
-—Transcribed some text from illustrations, for the sake of the text
-  versions.
-
-—Added a Table of Contents based on headings in the text.
-
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS
-NATIONAL PARK***
-
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-<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National
-Park, by Jack R. Williams</h1>
-<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
-and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-eBook or online at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>.  If you are not
-located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
-<p>Title: The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park</p>
-<p>Author: Jack R. Williams</p>
-<p>Release Date: September 3, 2016  [eBook #52971]</p>
-<p>Language: English</p>
-<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
-<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK***</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<h3>E-text prepared by Stephen Hutcheson, xteejx,<br />
-    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
-    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park" width="500" height="772" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<p><i>The National Park Service is dedicated to preserving the
-scenic, scientific, and historic heritage of the United States
-for the benefit and enjoyment of its people. Help protect
-your Park from its new exotic the &ldquo;LITTERBUG.&rdquo;</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p00.jpg" alt="At work" width="500" height="377" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1>THE INDIANS OF
-<br />CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK</h1>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i>
-<br /><span class="sc">Jack R. Williams</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><i>Cover by</i>
-<br />Phyllis Freeland Broyles</p>
-</div>
-<h2 class="center">CONTENTS</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt class="small"><span class="small">Page</span></dt>
-<dt><a href="#c1">Acknowledgements</a> 2</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c2">The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park</a> 5</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c3">Early Man</a> 9</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c4">The Carlsbad Basketmakers</a> 10</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c5">The Mescalero Apaches</a> 25</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c6">The Comanches</a> 34</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c7">Bibliography</a> 38</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c8">Footnotes</a> 38</dt>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</span></h2>
-<p>This booklet was prepared as an elementary basis for those
-interested in the Indians of this section. It is far from complete
-but if it answers only one question&mdash;the effort was well spent.</p>
-<p>It is rare that research into any subject is done alone. This
-is no exception, for many are responsible in their contributions.</p>
-<p>First, without the help, comments and criticism of Erik Reed
-this paper would have been nought. Then thanks must go to
-Charlie Steen and Stanley Stubbs for their pottery identification
-which helped establish the various time phases.</p>
-<p>The persons listed in the bibliography represent the true
-basis of learning and I unhesitatingly refer one and all to them.</p>
-<p>To Lynn Coffin for his encouragement and comments, grateful
-acknowledgement is made. To Bob Barrel for his help&mdash;talk,
-photos and all&mdash;thanks are extended.</p>
-<p>Especial thanks must go to Mary Pauline Smith for taking
-care of the grammatical errors as well as typing the manuscript.
-And, to Phyllis Broyles for her art work.</p>
-<p>The map, head sketches and photos not credited are by the
-author.</p>
-<p class="tb">This is dedicated to my wife, Marie.</p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="small">Copyright 1956 by Jack R. Williams, Carlsbad, New Mexico</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="511" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Map showing distribution of Indian groups</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="795" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<h1 id="c2">THE INDIANS OF
-<br />CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK</h1>
-<p>The Indian story of the Park is quite complicated for
-several reasons. First, we cannot confine our story to the
-man-made boundaries of today, but to the natural geographic
-features which are mainly the Guadalupe Mountains. Second,
-we must deal with more than one group of people and outside
-cultural influences of each group. These groups, however,
-will be confined mostly to New Mexico and north and west
-Texas. Then, too, long periods of time must be taken into
-consideration.</p>
-<p>So, let us start our story with man&rsquo;s first entry into the
-new world some 15 to 25,000 years ago. Most archaeologists
-agree that man came from Asia via the Bering Straits, perhaps
-by a land bridge or over the ice. Undoubtedly many migrations
-over a long period of time were made by various small
-groups of peoples. These first people were nomadic followers
-of game and perhaps gatherers of seeds. Steadily moving
-southward, they eventually reached what is now southeastern
-New Mexico and north and west Texas. How long they lived
-here, where they went and who their ancestors were are
-unknown. Theory plus material evidence suggest that they
-may have evolved into what archaeologists call the Cochise
-complex to Basketmaker to Pueblo, with deviations in all
-groups. Yet, at the present time there is not enough evidence
-this last happened that simply, so we shall attempt to present
-the evidence as interpreted for each group or groups coming
-into contact with Carlsbad Caverns National Park and adjacent
-areas.</p>
-<p>There appears to be a long time-lag between Early Man
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-and our next group, the Basketmakers. Positive proof indicates
-that the Basketmakers were here before 900 A.D., and possibly
-as early as 4000 years ago. Our Basketmakers, which are
-not to be confused in any manner with the San Juan Basketmakers,
-were a rather isolated group and tended to remain
-that way through numerous outside influences. While Pueblo
-groups to the west and north were progressing in agriculture,
-architecture, and esthetic arts, our group, because of their
-environment, remained more or less stable in their mode of
-life&mdash;hunter, and gatherers of seeds&mdash;in an area totally
-unsuitable for agriculture.</p>
-<p>Next to enter our area were the Apaches from the north
-after 1300 A.D.(?) Whether they exerted pressure on the
-Basketmakers we do not know. After the Apaches acquired
-horses from the Spanish, thus making them mobile, different
-groups moved to other parts of New Mexico and Arizona.
-Branching to the south and southeast were the Mescalero and
-Lipan bands. The Mescalero band settled in an area which
-included the Guadalupe Mountains and surrounding districts
-whence they raided the Pueblo Indians and the Spanish until
-about 1725, when another Plains group, the Comanches, came
-into the country from the northeast. By pushing the Apaches
-north and west, the Comanches controlled a tremendous
-portion of the Southern Plains.</p>
-<p>Quite probably all of the mentioned Indian groups knew
-of the entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns. However, physical
-evidence that they did was left by only one group&mdash;the
-Basketmakers. On the south wall of the natural entrance
-may be seen pictographs or paintings of some weather worn
-figures in red (ocher) and black (probably carbon). On the
-surface just above the cave mouth is a distinct &ldquo;midden circle&rdquo;
-or cooking pit. Many of these midden circles are found
-throughout the entire area and will be explained more fully
-in the chapter on the Carlsbad Basketmakers.</p>
-<p>There is little physical evidence that any of the Indians
-went into the cave beyond the entrance which they obviously
-used as a means of shelter. It is very unlikely that they
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-ventured beyond the now Bat Cave section of the cave for
-several logical reasons. Light is the paramount factor in cave
-exploration, and the Indians&rsquo; only means of light would have
-been from rather crude torches of bark, grass, or wood, none
-of which gives off much light, nor burns for any appreciable
-length of time. Probably the young and agile only would
-attempt the precarious descent, if only to break the humdrum
-of everyday existence.</p>
-<p>Upon first viewing the Caverns entrance, one readily notices
-the steep slope downward and the sheer drop to the floor of
-the Bat Cave section, and how, at the bottom of this drop,
-there is built up a sizeable pile of rubble. From this rubble
-and the bat guano deposits that led away from it in all
-directions have come numerous skeletal remains, burnt and
-worked stone, and fragments of woven articles, such as bags,
-sandals, and baskets. Burials were also found in the small
-solution pockets or holes seen in the vicinity of the paintings
-in the entrance proper.<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a></p>
-<p>The Indians living any length of time in this area were
-concerned primarily with obtaining food, and this was a
-constant struggle. So, from this practical point of view, they
-wouldn&rsquo;t have any business going into what we now call the
-scenic sections of the cave. On the other hand we cannot
-say they did not go down, because we know man&rsquo;s curiosity
-can get the better of him sometimes. It is very logical to
-assume that, over the long period of time man has been in
-and around the area, someone climbed down and looked.</p>
-<p>Some people are of the assumption that the superstitious
-nature of the Indians kept them out of the cave. True, man
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-has always been somewhat afraid of the dark and will probably
-always be so. That the Indians were superstitious of the bats,
-which fly out the entrance each summer evening in search of
-night-flying insects, is very questionable. First of all, if the
-people were afraid of the bats they would not have lived
-under the entrance overhang. This writer could find only one
-instance where bats were regarded other than &ldquo;little brothers,&rdquo;
-and this was a myth among the Guiana Indians of South
-America that concerned &ldquo;big bats that suck humans dry of
-blood,&rdquo; and also a &ldquo;large bat that would carry people off.&rdquo;
-The bats and night owls raided together, but the people
-overcame their fear and killed them.</p>
-<p>Animals did not, as a rule, inhabit the cavern, so the
-Indians would not be down there hunting. Animals did from
-time to time stumble in; and, in 1946, there was found the
-skeletal remains of an extinct ground sloth. Beneath the
-entrance have been found skeletons of many small animals
-that died either from the fall or starvation.</p>
-<p>Thus, we cannot say that the Indians went into the cave
-any distance, nor can we say that they did not, simply
-because we do not know.</p>
-<p>To fully understand and appreciate the story of any group
-or groups of people, one must be acquainted somewhat with
-the country in which they lived. The country inhabited by
-the Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park has a wide
-temperature and altitude range, and four life zones (Upper
-and Lower Sonoran, Canadian, and Transition). The Guadalupe
-Mountains developed from a limestone reef laid down in
-a shallow sea during the Permian period of the earth&rsquo;s history,
-over 200 million years ago. They are cut with many deep
-canyons containing numerous caves, but have little permanent
-water. Plant and animal life are abundant and varied. Due
-mainly to the lack of water, agriculture was not practiced in
-this particular area. The economy was one known as &ldquo;hunting
-and gathering.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Perhaps a brief description of each group that lived, hunted,
-and visited in this area will best picture how and why they did.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">EARLY MAN</span></h2>
-<p>About all we can say for Early Man and the Park is that
-he was here. The only material remains found was a Folsom-like
-projectile point. This point was discovered in Burnet
-Cave in the Guadalupe Mountains in direct association with
-extinct animal bones.</p>
-<p>What he looked like, we have no idea; but he was apparently
-a nomadic hunter and follower of game. Because he
-followed game is probably the main reason he arrived here
-from Asia in late Pleistocene times&mdash;15 to 25,000 years ago.
-He hunted the now extinct bison (<i>antiquus</i>), two species of
-the American horse (<i>Equus fraternus</i> and <i>E. complicatus</i>), a
-rare four-horned antelope (<i>Tetrameryx</i>), the California
-condor, camel, ground sloth, and a muskox or caribou-like
-animal (<i>Bootherium</i> sp.). Undoubtedly these old ones utilized
-plants for food too.</p>
-<p>It is safe to assume that he dressed in skins, if he dressed
-at all. Whether caves were used as shelter we do not know;
-but quite probably they were, as the climate was pluvial.</p>
-<p>The method of projection for the point mentioned likely
-was done either via a lance or the atlatl (spearthrower and
-dart). The latter is nothing more than a stick with a nock
-for the dart on one end. It extends and gives more leverage
-to the arm for throwing.</p>
-<p>Where did he go? Some call him Folsom man; others say
-he is of the Cochise complex. He may have stayed where his
-descendants later became what we now call the &ldquo;Basketmakers.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">THE CARLSBAD BASKETMAKERS</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="Human head" width="400" height="389" />
-</div>
-<p>The true occupants of Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-were a group of Indians known as &ldquo;Basketmakers.&rdquo; They
-may have been descendants of the early people, or perhaps a
-new and distinct group. This name was applied because
-these people made excellent baskets and other woven objects,
-and had some similarity in culture traits to the San Juan
-Basketmakers or Anasazi of the Four Corners area. Moreover,
-there is some similarity in culture traits to the Big Bend
-Basketmakers of Texas and the Ozark Bluff Dwellers. Perhaps
-the name best suited for this group would be &ldquo;cave dwellers,&rdquo;
-as they used caves of all sizes, from small overhangs to those
-of huge proportions, for shelter. Yet, it must be remembered
-that seasonally they lived in the open. However, to avoid
-later confusion, we shall refer to them as the Carlsbad
-Basketmakers.</p>
-<p>The Carlsbad Basketmakers were an unusual group only
-&ldquo;here and there adopting a few cultural traits from their
-neighbors, but essentially remaining food gatherers and hunters,&rdquo;
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-a rather simple state of culture as compared to their
-contemporaries.</p>
-<p>Our group was in contact with the Mogollon people to the
-west before 900 A.D., and possibly 600 years earlier. Pottery
-found here indicates this as well as other contacts. (See <a href="#fig1">Map</a>.)
-Pottery is somewhat like a fingerprint. There are certain
-features about it which are peculiar to only one particular
-area, and that is the area within which it was made.
-Consequently, pottery can show time, trade, contact, and
-movement of ceramic-making prehistoric peoples. At about
-this same time, social intercourse was also being carried on
-with the Hueco Basketmakers to the west and the Big Bend
-Basketmakers to the south.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="586" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The combined use of metate and mortar was found here</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>After 1200, we find Chaco or true Anasazi influence coming
-into the Rio Grande valley to Gran Quivera, thence to southeastern
-New Mexico. This influence represents the Pueblo
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-Indians who apparently changed the Carlsbad Basketmakers&rsquo;
-way of life more than any other. This continued until sometime
-between 1500 and 1600, when a drastic and complete
-change came over all the aboriginal peoples in this section.</p>
-<p>The Spanish entered the Southwest, bringing the horse,
-which prompted this change. The Apaches had slowly been
-working their way southward from sometime after 1300 A.D.
-By trade and theft they acquired horses from the Spanish,
-and, in so doing, the long and bloody career of the Apaches
-got under way. This freedom and rapidity of movement
-afforded by the horse allowed them to raid, pillage, and
-murder Indians and Spanish alike. It is about this time that
-we lose track of our Basketmakers.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="624" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A small cave dwelling in Walnut Canyon</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>What happened to them is pure supposition. The Carlsbad
-Basketmakers, for defense or economic reasons, probably
-joined the Pueblo groups of either the Gran Quivera or El Paso
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-areas and became completely absorbed. Many Pueblo traits
-found here contribute to this supposition, such as pottery
-changes and physical changes of the people themselves. For
-example, the early Carlsbad Basketmakers were long-headed
-individuals (dolichocephalic). Near the end of their era the
-head shape changed by artificial deformation, or flattening,
-brought about by the use of a hard cradle board, to a broad
-head or brachycephalic type. All along the line there was an
-admixture of physical types, with the three types being
-present; long, medium (mesocephalic), and broad.</p>
-<p>The Carlsbad Basketmaker would very likely fit into practically
-any present Pueblo group and not be noticed. He was
-of medium stature, about 5&prime;4&Prime;-5&prime;6&Prime; in average height. His
-life span was between 30-35 years, and he suffered from
-arthritis, bad teeth, and broken bones quite often.</p>
-<p>The material culture of a people is, perhaps, their most
-important characteristic, as it represents the utilization of the
-natural resources in a particular area or environment. Caves
-were used for a number of purposes: burial, ceremonial,
-transitory living, etc. It is from these caves that archaeologists
-dig out the material objects left by prehistoric people and
-are able to reconstruct the story of the occupants.</p>
-<p>As previously mentioned, the name of our Carlsbad Caverns
-National Park Indians was applied because they made excellent
-baskets and woven objects. Coiled baskets of yucca with
-grass, sotol, or twigs of flexible wood as the binder were the
-most common. Most baskets have designs of various colors
-woven into them. Red-brown dye was probably made from
-mountain mahogany. The black was strips of Devil&rsquo;s Claw
-(<i>Martynia arenaria</i>). Baskets were waterproofed by smearing
-pine pitch or mesquite gum on them.</p>
-<p>Sandals of yucca and grasses are found in abundance.
-The square-toed sandal is the most prominent, although the
-round fishtailed type is common. Both were woven with a
-variety of ply-thicknesses. They ranged from 5 to 11 inches in
-length, and 2&frac12; to 4 inches in width. The only known sandal
-fragment found in the natural entrance to the Caverns is of
-the square-toed type and is classed as a two warp-two ply.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="844" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Basketmaker paintings on the south wall
-of the natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="Basketmaker paintings" width="800" height="454" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
-<p>Yucca seems to have been the most-used plant for weaving.
-Mats of yucca and beargrass were woven in a variety of ways.
-A coarse cloth netting and cordage of yucca fiber was used
-for snaring rabbits and other small game, and large bags of
-yucca fiber cordage were made for burial purposes. These
-cone-shaped, twine-woven bags were sometimes quite elaborately
-woven of red and white cords with horizontal black
-and yellow bands running completely around them.</p>
-<p>Cotton was grown to the west, and some combination of
-cotton and yucca fabrics was made here. Clothing or blankets
-of animal fur (usually rabbit) and feather (turkey) cloth
-was common. (This turkey cloth was probably traded from
-the Pueblos.) Too, plain fur, cloth, and skin robes were used
-for covering.</p>
-<p>Hair was woven into rope, as were mesquite fiber and
-agave. Raw material apparently kept on hand as fiber bundles
-and rings of grass were common finds. V-shaped cradles were
-made of grass, and sleeping pits were lined with it.</p>
-<p>Pottery is really incidental; and, for the most part, intrusive
-to southeastern New Mexico. It is questionable if the area
-inhabitants made pottery, but they probably did to some
-extent. There is found a considerable amount of plain brown
-ware, and it occurs from early to late times. This ware,
-although unnamed except for &ldquo;plain Brown,&rdquo; is thought to
-be of local manufacture. Practically all pottery found here
-was fired in the presence of oxygen (oxidizing atmosphere).
-A number of types, varying in color from a terracotta, through
-brown, to reddish tones, are all classed as brown ware.</p>
-<p>The earliest pottery found in southeastern New Mexico is
-Mogollon in origin. Mogollon pottery is a derivative from
-southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The
-Mogollon brown and red wares found in this section are
-definitely pre-900 A.D., and possibly pre-700. These wares
-are found to have been used through 1150 A.D.</p>
-<p>The big influx of pottery came during late Pueblo III and
-Pueblo IV times from 1150 to 1450 A.D. From the west
-<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span>
-came Mimbres Black on White, which dates from 1050 to
-1200 A.D., Jornada Brown, El Paso Polychrome, and Brown
-wares. From the north, northwest, and west, because of
-Pueblo expansion, came Three Rivers Red on Terracotta,
-St. Johns Polychrome (from the Zuni area), Chupadero
-Black on White (from Gran Quivira), Lincoln Black on Red,
-and Rio Grande glaze wares. It is interesting to note that
-pottery changes in this area parallel those of the Mogollon
-to some degree.</p>
-<p>Our Basketmakers were dependent primarily upon wild
-plant foods, as corn seems to be lacking; and they supplemented
-their diet by some hunting of game. To the south
-of the Park is the Black River. In this fertile valley, with its
-continuous water supply, it is logical to assume that corn was
-probably cultivated; but there is absolutely no evidence to
-prove this. Corn was grown about 50 miles north, near
-Hope, New Mexico, where Pueblo-like settlements were common
-from 1150 to 1300 A.D. Corn, beans, and squash may
-have been traded to our cave people by the Pueblos. Lack of
-practiced agriculture in the Guadalupe Mountain area was
-probably due to the scarcity of water. Water from seeps,
-springs, and shallow depressions in the limestone was, of
-course, utilized.</p>
-<p>The roasted young bud and heart of the mescal or agave
-plant apparently was the paramount food, with the cabbage-like
-base or heart of the sotol running a close second. Yucca
-pulp and seeds, mesquite beans (Tornillo or screwbean), grass
-seeds, pi&ntilde;on nuts, acorns, walnuts, cactus fruits (prickly pear
-and cholla), wild onions, wild potatoes and other bulb or
-tuber-bearing plants, grapes, berries and others were utilized.
-Herbs from true sage brush (<i>Artemisia</i>), wild tobacco, and
-possibly soap made from the roots of the yucca <i>radiosa</i> were
-used. A favorite quick food was the young flower stalks of
-yucca in season.</p>
-<p>Mescal hearts and baked sotol leaves were stored in caves
-in cists lined with grass, twigs and bark. Stone slab-lined
-storage cists were known also.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
-<p>Mesquite beans were pulverized into meal, as substantiated
-by the many mortar holes throughout the area. The meal
-was probably fashioned by pounding the beans and pods
-together, winnowing out the pods, grinding until fairly uniform,
-and eating them either raw or molded into cakes and
-cooked in ashes, or into soups. Gourds were used for a
-household receptacle, probably as a ladle or dipper.</p>
-<p>The entire country is dotted with large &ldquo;midden circles.&rdquo;
-The one most seen by visitors is located at the natural entrance.
-For years these circles have erroneously been called &ldquo;mescal
-pits&rdquo; and were thought to have been used strictly for baking
-or roasting the mescal plant by both our Basketmakers and
-later the Apaches. In remote instances, it is possible that the
-Apaches used them, but not as a common practice.</p>
-<p>The main difference between the Basketmaker midden circle
-and the Apache mescal pit is that the true mescal pit or earth
-oven is a depression definitely sunk below the ground level,
-whereas the midden circle is on ground level. Consequently,
-the midden circle had other uses than the preparation of
-mescal hearts.</p>
-<p>There are three types of midden circles. The most common
-is the circular mound, which is found up to an altitude of
-7500 feet, and out considerable distances into the flats. It is
-of interest to note that no midden circles of the Carlsbad
-Basketmakers are found east of the Pecos River. The circular
-ones will average from 30 to 35 feet in diameter in this area.</p>
-<p>&ldquo;The first stage (of development) seems to have begun
-with the construction of a fireplace composed of fairly large
-rocks. When heat had cracked these into fragments too small
-to be useful, the broken bits were then cleared away from a
-circle about the fire and the hearth rebuilt with other large
-stones, which in turn were discarded when broken down by
-heat. When this process had been repeated many times, the
-cleared circle immediately around the fire was surrounded by
-a ring formed by an accumulation of the rejected small stones.
-In course of time and with constant additions of ash and
-discarded rock, the resulting mound grew to such height that
-<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span>
-it might even have proved serviceable as a wind break. That
-such a method was employed seems quite probable, because
-all the stones composing the outer ring show hard firing,
-while scattered through the mass are found ashes and rejecta
-of a camp. If this hypothesis is accepted, a large number of
-these structures would indicate an extended occupation or
-perhaps repeated occupation over a comparatively long
-period.&rdquo; (Mera)</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="560" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This drawing shows the three stages
-of development of the midden circle</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The second type is found on ledges or narrow terraces
-along canyon walls and was elongated in shape. The third
-is built out in front of caves and shelters and takes on a
-rough half-circle shape. The mescal pit as used by the Apaches
-is described in their section.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="577" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A Basketmaker Midden Circle or cooking pit</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p06b.jpg" alt="" width="796" height="553" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A cut-bank showing an elongated Basketmaker Midden in Slaughter Canyon</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<p>Practically all game was hunted, notably mule deer, elk,
-and buffalo; and next, if not the most important, rabbits, both
-the cottontail and jackrabbit. Also, antelope, plains white-tail
-deer, big horn sheep, peccary (Javelina), mountain lion,
-bobcat, wolf, fox, coyote, badger, porcupine, ring-tailed cat,
-opossum, prairie dog, armadillo, pack rat, kangaroo-rat,
-muskrat, field mouse, white-foot mouse, beaver, pocket mouse,
-ground squirrel, pocket gopher as well as fish, ducks, hawks,
-owls, quail, desert tortoise, pigeons, doves, large terrapin,
-lizards, and snakes were utilized.</p>
-<p>Our people had the dog and probably ate him in time of
-famine. Although some turkey bones have been found, it is
-quite certain that this bird was not domesticated here as it was
-among the Pueblos. Needless to say, leather was fashioned
-from the skins of practically all animals and was used for
-pouches, snares, etc.</p>
-<p>Usually the first thing to enter our minds when stone is
-mentioned in connection with aboriginal peoples is arrowheads
-or projectile points. Stone was used for many and varied
-purposes, and it would be difficult to list these in order of
-importance. Projectile points were, of course, important,
-though used primarily for hunting rather than warfare.
-Points of various sizes, shapes and materials were used by the
-Carlsbad Basketmakers. First were the dart and lance points,
-and later, as arrow points, after the introduction of the bow
-to the Southwest. Flints, cherts, and chalcedonies were the most
-common materials used for points and small tools, although
-rhyolite, felsite, etc., have been found. Stone was worked by
-grinding, pecking, drilling, and percussion and pressure flaking.</p>
-<p>Mortars were usually cut into stationary rock near camping
-places such as those seen near the natural entrance to the
-Caverns, although small portable mortars were used to some
-extent. The pestles were usually made of granite and were
-carried from camp to camp, as pestles with yucca leaf carrying-straps
-have been found.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="664" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Projectile points, pottery, decorated sea shell, a mano-pestle
-and a sandal fragment from Carlsbad Caverns National Park</i>
-<br /><span class="jr small">(<i>National Park Service Photo</i>)</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Metates or grinding bowls are less common. Metates were
-made from limestone, sandstone, and granite, while the mano,
-the small stone used for crushing and grinding on the metate,
-was composed of limestone, granite, and travertine. The
-metates are oval, circular, and semi-flat in appearance, and the
-manos are of the one-hand type.</p>
-<p>Leaf-shaped knives, end scrapers, side scrapers, drills, choppers,
-hammerstones, rubbing or smoothing stones, axes and
-stone pipes were made and used.</p>
-<p>Found throughout the Guadalupe Mountains, sometimes at
-the head of canyons, usually on the canyon floors, are small
-stone cairns and stone rings or circles. To date, no feasible
-explanation is given as to their function. These are not to be
-confused with the &ldquo;midden circles&rdquo; previously mentioned.</p>
-<p>For other than fuel, wood was widely used as clubs, digging
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-sticks, atlatl, darts, spear foreshafts, bows, arrows, projectile
-points, fire sets (drill and hearth), seed storage tubes, fending
-sticks, throwing sticks (rabbit sticks), and wooden stoppers
-for canteens.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="764" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>One of the mortar holes near the mouth
-of the entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns</i>
-<br /><span class="jr small">(<i>National Park Service Photo</i>)</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Woodworking with stone tools consisted of seven methods:
-chopping, whittling, shaving and planing, sawing, splitting,
-gouging and scoring, scraping and sanding.</p>
-<p>Fire was made with the use of a wooden hearth. Friction
-was created by revolving the point of a stick with the hands
-in a small depression in the hearth, which contained tinder of
-punk wood, shredded inner bark or grass. Cedar or juniper
-bark was probably used for torches.</p>
-<p>Animal bone was used for awls, stone flaking tools, jewelry
-ornaments and weaving tools; animal horn or antler was used
-much the same. There is a slight possibility that bone gaming
-dice were made and used, as perhaps were horn ladles and
-dippers.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
-<p>In earlier times our Basketmakers used the atlatl as their
-predominant weapon or hunting implement. It was composed
-of two parts; the stick for throwing the dart, and the dart
-itself. Later the bow and arrow replaced this implement in
-importance. Atlatls were from 19 to 25 inches in length
-and were made of oak, mesquite, thorn growth Tornillo, sinew
-and buckskin. Occasionally a small stone was attached to add
-weight and balance. Atlatl dart shafts consisted of two parts.
-The foreshaft was of heavy oak or comparatively hard wood
-with a stone point. This was inserted into the main shaft of
-sotol bloom stalks. The idea being upon impact that the base
-would fall away from the foreshaft, thus allowing full penetration
-and less chance of the animal or man knocking or
-pulling it out. Both the atlatl and dart shafts were sometimes
-highly decorated. A variety of stone points were used as was
-the dart bunt, which possibly was used as a stunner as its
-appearance suggests. The dart bunt was a round wooden knob
-carved to insert into the main shaft.</p>
-<p>Bows and arrows were made of varied hardwoods and
-reeds. Bows had an average pull of about 40 pounds and
-were from 3&frac12; to 5 feet in length. Arrows were 20 to 28
-inches long, and the bowstring was either yucca fiber or sinew.</p>
-<p>The lance or spear, ordinary stick clubs, grooved fending
-sticks, round fending sticks, flattened and round throwing
-sticks found may also have been used as weapons.</p>
-<p>Disposition of the dead was accomplished by burying with
-offerings in a flexed or semi-flexed position on the back, or
-cremated with the burned remains being buried in bags or
-baskets.</p>
-<p>The graves are usually small and quite shallow. Burials are
-found in caves, midden circles, and open sites&mdash;practically
-any place where digging was easy. Quite often the unburned
-burials had a &ldquo;kill hole&rdquo; pottery bowl placed over the face.
-Cremation, from all appearances, was practiced earlier and
-was concurrent to inhumation.</p>
-<p>The few skeletal remains found in the natural entrance and
-Bat Cave section of the Carlsbad Caverns suggest midden type
-<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
-burials or accidental demise, perhaps by falling.</p>
-<p>Possibly one of the most interesting and still visible bits
-of evidence of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are the pictographs
-or paintings on the south wall of the Cave entrance. These
-markings are badly weathered, but one can distinguish what
-appears once to have been a red figure with black up-raised
-arms of a person, and blobs of red and black which may have
-been anything.</p>
-<p>In other caves over the area have been found other pictographs
-(paintings) and petroglyphs (pecked) designs. Paints
-were made from red hematite (red oxide of iron); red and
-yellow ochers; blue and green from copper carbonates, azurite
-and malachite; black carbon and white kaolinite.</p>
-<p>Occasionally there are found small pebbles with painted
-designs or lines on them, but their function is unknown.</p>
-<p>Jewelry consisted of wooden combs and wooden pin hair
-ornaments, beads and pendants of white and pink shell, gypsum,
-black beidellite, turquoise, bone, squash seeds and sections of
-reeds. Beads were strung on hair cord or yucca fiber cord.
-Bracelets of Glycimeris shell were worn.</p>
-<p>For the most part the shell tells of considerable trade to
-the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of California by our people.
-Fresh water mussel shells common to the Pecos River were
-also used for ornaments. Trade was carried on from Mexico
-into this general region as indicated by the finds of copper
-bells and macaw parrot feathers from Pueblo ruins in southern
-New Mexico.</p>
-<p>Ceremonial paraphernalia finds are rather rare. Fragments
-of a golden eagle feather headdress, rattles of gourds, and
-turtle or tortoise shells, pahos (prayer sticks), wooden wands
-and wooden painted tablitas (headdresses) have been unearthed
-in Guadalupe Mountain caves. Closely related to ceremonial
-purposes, and usually found in close association with the
-above, are reed cigarettes and whistles, prayer offerings of
-miniature fending sticks, fiber balls, gaming dice (sticks or
-counters), as well as possible ceremonial bow sets. As to how
-the ceremonial objects were used is, naturally, conjecture.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">THE MESCALERO APACHES</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="Human head" width="400" height="430" />
-</div>
-<p>From the north they came, this much we know, and comparatively
-recently. About 600 years ago many tribes of
-Apaches slowly worked their way southward, following the
-game and gathering the wild plant food, eventually ranging
-over a great land area from the Pecos River on the east to
-the borders of the Papago country in southern Arizona on
-the west; from Colorado to northern Mexico, to the Gulf of
-Mexico in Texas. The Apaches, members of the Athapascan
-linguistic family, were first recorded historically on the southern
-plains by the Spanish in 1540-41, who called them
-Querecho. However, it is entirely possible that Cabeza de Baca
-in 1534-35 encountered them. The Mescalero, Lipan, and
-Tuetenene (a hybrid of the former two) were living in this
-area at that time. They were first called Apaches in 1598 by
-O&ntilde;ate.</p>
-<p>The Mescalero Apaches ranged from the Rio Grande to
-the Staked Plains, and were closely allied with both the western
-Apache groups and tribes of the southern plains. The
-&ldquo;Natohene&rdquo; or &ldquo;Natshene&rdquo; (mescal people or water willow
-people), as they called themselves, were composed of three
-bands; the Kahoane, Ni&rsquo;ahane, and Huskaane.</p>
-<p>The Ni&rsquo;ahane band lived in the Sacramento, Guadalupe,
-Sierra Blanca, and Capitan Mountains, an area that included
-what is now Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Their name
-means &ldquo;people of the terraced mountains.&rdquo; To the south of
-this band were the Tuetenene; and southeast of them, in the
-Big Bend country, lived the Lipan Apaches (a true Plains
-Indian group).</p>
-<p>In order to avoid confusion between the various Apache
-<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span>
-tribes and bands to frequent the area of Carlsbad Caverns
-National Park, the term Mescalero will be used. It should be
-pointed out that actually very little is known about this
-group, so the material presented is far from complete and
-is only general information.</p>
-<p>Although of a war-like nature, the Mescaleros were never
-considered as dangerous as their brethren farther west. Yet,
-after acquiring horses from the Spanish, they raided and
-warred until about 1875, when subdued; and the Mescalero
-Reservation was established in the White Mountains northeast
-of the White Sands in New Mexico.</p>
-<p>Culturally speaking, the Mescaleros, Lipans, and their hybrid,
-the Tuetenenes, were basically Plains with some western
-Apache traits common only to the Mescaleros.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="570" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Painted Grotto, a highly painted Mescalero Apache ceremonial cave
-located in Slaughter Canyon, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Actual physical evidence left by the Mescalero Apaches in
-Carlsbad Caverns National Park is scant. Their most prominent
-calling card is found in a small cave in West Slaughter
-<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
-Canyon. About 4&frac12; miles from the mouth of the canyon, some
-65 feet above the dry stream bed, is the &ldquo;Painted Grotto.&rdquo;
-This little cave is approximately 57 feet across the front, 21
-feet at the deepest point, and the ceiling slopes from 16 feet
-at the front to about 6 feet at the back. On the walls and
-ceiling are several hundred multicolored pictographs, all
-painted with earth ground ochers in red, yellow, white, golden
-yellow, and shades of pink. Caves of this type were used as
-shrines or media for ceremonies or religious dances, incantations,
-etc., and are considered very sacred. This bit of evidence
-definitely establishes the Mescalero on the Park proper, and
-a legend handed down to the Modern Apaches indicated that
-they knew of the main Caverns entrance as well. This legend
-tells of a medicine man who went into the cave to make &ldquo;big
-medicine.&rdquo; Supposedly, he was last seen wandering away
-from the entrance, beating his tom-tom; and yearly, on the
-anniversary of this exploit, the Apaches would come to the
-entrance to leave offerings of food for him.</p>
-<p>The Mescaleros were attracted to the Guadalupe Mountains
-area due to the abundance of plant and animal life and the
-many springs found here. The cooking of their favorite food,
-the mescal, arouses some curiosity. Found throughout the
-region are remains of the Carlsbad Basketmakers&rsquo; midden
-circles previously mentioned. In remote instances perhaps the
-Apaches cooked in these so-called &ldquo;mescal pits.&rdquo; Quite likely
-though, they cooked on the surface without the aid of a pit.
-Today, in many places along the ridges, can be seen spaces
-of ground, devoid of vegetation, covered with rocks which
-have obviously been broken from fire. The Chiricahua Apaches
-to the west tell of a method of baking mescal without digging
-a pit. Rocks are heated and scattered on the level ground;
-the mescal crowns are put on them, and fresh grass and
-dirt are piled over all. This &ldquo;oven&rdquo; has the appearance of
-a mound when in use; but after the mescal is removed, and
-time has elapsed, it would appear to be simply a space of
-barren ground covered with burnt stones.</p>
-<p>To the north of the Guadalupe Mountains is found evidence
-<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span>
-of true Apache mescal pits, and they are just that, a pit dug
-into the ground. The pit is dug round, about 7 feet across
-and from 3 to 4 feet deep. &ldquo;The method of using these pits is
-as follows: great fires are first kindled in them, after which,
-heated stones are thrown in; on these stones are laid, agave
-leaves, sometimes to a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Fire is kindled
-over this accumulation and by action of the heat below and
-above, the leaves are roasted without being burnt.&rdquo; (Fewkes)
-Other plants and meats were also cooked in this type oven,
-and many families could and did cook in one pit at the same
-time by marking their food in some manner. From 24 to 36
-hours were required to cook the mescal heart. Mescal heads
-baked in this manner are somewhat like candied sweet potatoes.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="666" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Close-up of the paintings in the Painted Grotto of
-Slaughter Canyon</i> (<i>photos courtesy of Lynn Coffin</i>)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Occasionally the Mescaleros farmed. Most farming was
-done to the north of the Park; but Rattlesnake Springs,
-(source of the Park&rsquo;s water supply), about 7 miles south of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span>
-the Caverns entrance, is said to have been an Apache campsite,
-and possibly some farming was done there.</p>
-<p>The Mescalero Apaches show a curious mixture of culture
-traits, both plains and western Apache. Following is a brief
-summary of some of these that may be of interest.</p>
-<p>They were great stalkers of game and frequently employed
-the use of animal mask decoys, driving, game calls, and the
-running down or wearing out of game. They smoked or
-flooded rodents from their dens, set snares of rope for game,
-and hunted from blinds or pits. Communal hunting was
-supervised by a hunt master; and game, such as rabbits,
-peccary, and buffalo were surrounded by people in a circle
-and clubbed, shot or driven to hidden hunters, lassoed or
-run over a cliff or bank. Dogs were used for hunting as well
-as for watch dogs and pets.</p>
-<p>Religious ceremony was practiced before, during, and
-after the hunt. Prayers, songs, tobacco, pollen, and meat were
-offered to the hunt deity; and an amulet for good hunting
-was worn.</p>
-<p>The Mescalero did not, as a rule, eat wildcat, wolf, coyote
-or turkey vultures. Dogs, hawks, turkeys and eagles were kept
-as pets. They were never eaten and were buried at death.
-Sometimes plucked eagles were released alive. Tortoise, turtles,
-and fish were eaten.</p>
-<p>Hardwood digging sticks were used for gathering bulbs,
-roots, etc., and a special stone knife was used for cutting
-mescal. Seeds were collected on a blanket and carried in a
-skin bag. Acorns were boiled like beans, parched (never
-leached), shelled and ground on a metate or stone mortar
-and stored in a skin bag. The meal was eaten with meat stew.
-Mesquite and screwbean mesquite pods were pounded either
-in stone or hide mortars; and the seeds were thrown away,
-and the pod flour was soaked or boiled and the juice drunk,
-eaten as mush, or stored in cake form.</p>
-<p>Mescal heads were pit-roasted as mentioned; a buffalo
-shoulder-blade was used as a shovel to scoop coals over the
-pit. The fire was usually lit by a lucky person. The cooked
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-head and leaf bases were pounded and dried on frames and
-stored dry. Syrup was made from the flowers and the stalk
-above the head was eaten.</p>
-<p>Yucca fruit was eaten either cooked on coals or dried,
-and the root stalk was used for soap. This pertained to practically
-all of the yucca family. Most cacti fruit and some of
-the pulp was eaten.</p>
-<p>Pinon seeds were gathered and eaten raw, roasted or mashed
-into a butter. Pinon pitch was chewed as gum. Walnuts,
-wild plums, cherries, grass seeds, etc., tule and some greens
-(cooked) were used. Fruit juices, mescal, mesquite, and sotol
-juices were drunk either fresh, or boiled and fermented. In
-later years a maize wine was made. Salt and honey were
-gathered and used.</p>
-<p>Meat was sliced, dried and made into pemmican; bone
-marrow extracted; blood boiled in paunch and sausages were
-made in gut. Meat food was stored either in skin bag, parfleche
-or pot.</p>
-<p>Little agriculture was practiced. Irrigation with ditches
-from streams was known. Farming was confined to the sandy
-soil in the stream bottom land. All farming was a man&rsquo;s job
-except the harvest when women helped. A two-handed planting
-stick was used. Corn was eaten green, roasted or dried and
-shelled by women. Two varieties of beans, pumpkins, squash
-and gourds were grown. Gourds were used as canteens, dishes
-and spoons.</p>
-<p>Mescal harvest camps were sometimes set up in small caves,
-but tipis or thatched wickiups were the permanent houses.
-Tipis were three-pole foundation, buffalo hide with ventilator
-flaps, faced east or downwind, and had a fireplace and smoke-hole
-in the center. They were pegged to the ground, had a
-covered door, and a dew-cloth inner liner. When moved,
-they were carried on a travois or drag with horse.</p>
-<p>Temporary lean-tos, shades, windbreaks, domed sweat houses,
-log rafts and log bridges were built and used. Swimming
-was done only when necessary, or when water was available.</p>
-<p>Grass and agave hair brushes were made. Horn, wood and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-shell were used as containers. Knives, awls, and needles were
-made from stone and bone. Wood was worked with stone hammers,
-mauls, axes and fire. Stone was flaked, ground and
-polished. Fire was made by stone or a pump drill.</p>
-<p>Bows were made of mulberry, oak, juniper, walnut and
-other woods. Bow strings were made of sinew and vegetable
-fiber. Arrows of willow and other woods&mdash;points were stone.
-Mescalero arrow points were supposedly stemmed base, or
-the base was side notched. These types of projectile points
-are common to the Carlsbad Basketmakers, too; so it is impossible
-to differentiate the two when found. Undoubtedly,
-those found on the Park fit into both cultures. Arrows were
-feathered with three feathers from the eagle, hawk, turkey
-and crow; and arrows were carried in an open-skinned, sewn
-quiver of deerskin, mountain lion or wildcat. They were
-carried on the back, under the arm, or on the belt.</p>
-<p>Spears, shields, warbonnets (short, Plains type), armour of
-hide and clubs were used in battle. Rabbitsticks of wood and
-slingshots were also used.</p>
-<p>Beads and ornaments were of shell, bone, wood, feathers,
-seeds, claws and hooves, bear ears, turquoise, red stone,
-cannel coal (jet), and porcupine quills. Paint from mineral
-and vegetable sources was used for decorating objects or the
-body, which was painted primarily to prevent sunburn.</p>
-<p>The hair was worn full length by both men and women,
-but beard and eyebrows were plucked completely with fingers
-or tweezers of willowwood. During periods of mourning, hair
-was cropped with a stone knife, sometimes to about the level
-of the chin by women. Hair was worn loose, tied in a bunch
-or with headband, in braids and decorated with pendants,
-feathers, flowers, etc.</p>
-<p>Ear lobes of children were pierced with a snakeweed stem,
-and nose straightening was practiced on babies if nose was too
-broad. There was no cradle deformation of the head known
-among the Mescaleros.</p>
-<p>Tattooing of the face and arms by these people was quite
-an ancient practice, and was performed with cactus spines and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span>
-black mineral pigment only, not charcoal as other tribes
-might use.</p>
-<p>Clothing consisted of fur caps, robes, shawls, ponchos, and
-capes of animal skin with the hair either on or off the hide,
-and woven vegetable fibers. Highly painted and fringed
-buckskin-sleeved shirts were worn by the men. The women
-wore buckskin gowns or dresses, painted and fringed. Buckskin
-belts held up a skin wrapped around the waist to serve
-as a kilt for the men, or skirts of buckskin for the women.
-Hard-soled moccasins were worn by both sexes, while only
-the men wore a hip-length buckskin leggin. Hide overshoes
-were used in winter.</p>
-<p>The winter bed was usually composed of a grass and hide
-mattress with hide coverings, whereas the summer bed was a
-willow rack or mat with a rawhide twining bedstead supported
-by four forked posts covered with skins (Plains type).</p>
-<p>Burdens were transported with the aid of a tump line back
-pack or other slings, baskets, gourds, pottery, rawhide or
-leather bags or containers and horse travois. Baskets (water-proofed
-with pitch), mats, cradles, cordage of vegetable and
-animal materials, including hair and pottery, were manufactured
-by both men and women.</p>
-<p>A variety of games were played by all, including foot racing,
-shinny, hoop and pole, etc. Gambling by adults was done
-with a hand game of guessing with bones, moccasin game,
-drawing straws, dice, and heads or tails with flat stones (wet
-or dry). The children played games of war, wrestled, and had
-toys of guns, dolls, stones, etc.</p>
-<p>Tobacco was gathered and smoked in an elbow pipe. Both
-tobacco and pipe were kept in a buckskin bag which was
-usually highly decorated.</p>
-<p>The people assembled at the Chief&rsquo;s dwelling or in an
-open space. Unlike most Plains tribes, the Mescaleros did not
-carry a medicine bundle but carried &ldquo;medicine&rdquo; inside themselves.</p>
-<p>For music and ceremony there were rattles of gourds or horn,
-drums of pottery and wood, a musical bow, whistles and flutes.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<p>The calendar was divided into four named seasons with
-daily and monthly tallies kept on a notched stick. Counting
-was done on the fingers, and some observations of astronomy
-were made. Various colors were symbolic. East was black;
-south, blue; west, yellow; and north, white. Their God,
-Nayiizone, when coming from or going to the sky, rode on a
-black ray to the east, on a blue horse to the south, on a yellow
-(sorrel) horse to the west, and on a white horse to the north.</p>
-<p>Mysticism, taboo, and definite procedure governed childbirth,
-naming, education of the young, marriage, affinal relations,
-death, mourning, labor by both sexes, slaves, land
-ownership, personal property, war, scalping, dances, ceremonies,
-political and clan organizations, peyote, kinship
-systems, religion and shaman ritual.</p>
-<p>Little is known about Mescalero pottery, except that it was
-tempered with vegetable material, made only by women,
-fired in an open fire, and made with pointed or rounded
-bottom for inserting into fire coals, and perhaps decorated
-with incised marks near the rim on occasion. The knowledge
-of when this art was first practiced is unknown, but is logically
-historic and very limited. No known sherds of this pottery
-have been found on the Park.</p>
-<p>In 1875, the Mescalero Apache Reservation was established
-for the Mescalero and Lipan tribes; but in 1913, a band of
-Geronimo&rsquo;s Chiricahuas was released from Ft. Sill in Oklahoma
-and came to Mescalero where they now reside.</p>
-<p>Locally there is a rumor that the Apaches have a myth concerning
-the bats of Carlsbad Caverns. The bats are said to be
-an ancient lost war or hunting party, but research has failed to
-verify this story. Most of the Western Apaches regard BAT
-as an excellent horseman. The Chiricahua Apaches say, &ldquo;If a
-bat bites you, you had better never ride a horse any more. If
-you do ride a horse after being bitten, you are just as good
-as dead.&rdquo; They were cautious of bats but not superstitious
-of them.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">THE COMANCHES</span></h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="Human head" width="400" height="432" />
-</div>
-<p>Originally the Comanches lived far to the north of southeastern
-New Mexico; but about 1700, moved to the South
-Plains. By this time they were well adapted to their relatively
-new life of mobility brought about by the acquisition of horses
-directly or indirectly, and by hook or crook from the Spanish.
-With horses it was much easier to follow the buffalo, fight their
-enemies, raid, and trade.</p>
-<p>Comanche is a Ute Indian word meaning &ldquo;enemy,&rdquo; and it
-is often felt that they found their way to New Mexico under
-the tutelage of the Utes. Yet, sometime between 1747, and
-April, 1749, the two became deadly enemies. After 1750, the
-Utes joined the Apaches to fight the Comanches.</p>
-<p>Actually, there are about 20 different names given for
-Comanche, meaning everything from &ldquo;enemies&rdquo; to &ldquo;snake
-people.&rdquo; The Ute definition is more fitting, however; for from
-about 1705 to 1875, they raided and fought the Spanish, Utes,
-Apaches, Pueblos, Texans and the U. S. Army among others.
-They ranged from Kansas to Mexico in thirteen different bands.</p>
-<p>That they were practical and businesslike is perhaps best
-shown by their dealings with the French. The Comanches were
-first contacted about 1725 by the French, who traded them
-<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span>
-guns and ammunition. Yet the Comanches would not let the
-French cross their territory to trade with the Apaches and
-others, thus monopolizing the source of firearms.</p>
-<p>These Shoshonean speaking people were a true South
-Plains horse Indian. They were often considered the finest
-horsemen of the plains, these nomadic buffalo hunters who
-lived in tipis of the skins from this animal. The Comanche
-tongue was universally spoken by numerous other Indian
-tribes of the South Plains; so little sign language was necessary,
-as was the case farther north.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="586" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A general view of the rough terrain in the
-Carlsbad Caverns&mdash;Guadalupe Mountains area</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Buffalo were reported on the South Plains in 1540-41, by
-the Spanish. As there was constant warfare between the
-Comanches and the Apaches, it may well have started over
-the bison.</p>
-<p>The words fighting and Comanche go hand in hand. They
-were spasmodically at war with most of their neighbors; yet
-if peace and alliance achieved a goal, they would concede,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span>
-as is shown in their relationship with the Kiowa. Bitter enemies,
-these two, until 1790, when an alliance was made which
-lasted until sometime in the 1870s. Together they raided the
-Spanish, Pueblos, Apaches, and their first real enemy, the
-Anglo-Americans of Texas.</p>
-<p>Although the Park and Guadalupe Mountains area was not
-part of the Comanches positive range, which lay north, east
-and southeast of the Pecos River, it was frequently crossed
-by hunting and raiding parties. There is no reason to assume
-that the Kiowas did not accompany them from time to time,
-especially when raiding into Mexico.</p>
-<p>These &ldquo;Lords of the South Plains,&rdquo; as they were later called,
-looked and dressed every bit the now &ldquo;Hollywood&rdquo; Indian. In
-costumes of buckskins or buffalo hide, decorated with beads
-and gewgaws, wearing the typical warbonnet, the Comanches
-ruled a tremendous portion of the South Plains for 175 years.
-(See <a href="#fig1">Map</a>.) They were fearless fighters who rescued their dead
-and wounded in battle, who on occasion used poison from an
-unknown plant on their arrow-points, or stuck them in a dead,
-ripe skunk to create the same effect; and were great thieves
-and gamblers. The successful theft of horses from the enemy
-was a high mark of prestige to a man; yet this same man
-could and did lose his spoils to other Comanches through the
-media of dice and hand games.</p>
-<p>The Comanches were one of the few tribes of the South
-Plains who did not eat dog or human flesh. Their religion
-contained the belief of an after life in a &ldquo;Happy Hunting
-Ground&rdquo; beyond the sun. Naturally, these people utilized
-many wild plants. One among these that grows in the Park
-is mescal, which was used as a drug. (Quite a contrast to the
-Apaches, this.)</p>
-<p>A valiant but bloody chapter in the history of the Southwest
-was closed in June, 1875, when the Comanches surrendered
-to the U. S. Army at Ft. Sill, and went on to a reservation in
-the then Indian Territory of Oklahoma. It is said the introduction
-of the Colt revolver, in the hands of the Texas
-Rangers, was the deciding factor toward their surrender.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="228" />
-<p class="pcap">THE INDIANS OF
-<br />CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-<br />TIME RANGE</p>
-</div>
-<table class="center" summary="">
-<tr><td class="l">Early Man </td><td class="l">25,000-15,000 B.P.? &mdash; 2,000 B.C.?</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Carlsbad Basketmakers </td><td class="l">2000 B.C.? &mdash; 1750 A.D.?</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Pueblo Culture Influence </td><td class="l">1000 B.C.? &mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Mescalero Apache </td><td class="l">1300 A.D.? &mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Comanche </td><td class="l">1700 A.D.? &mdash;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Kiowa </td><td class="l">1800 A.D.? &mdash;</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
-<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h2>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>Bailey, Vernon&mdash;<i>Animal Life of the Carlsbad Cavern</i>, 1928.</dt>
-<dt>Bourke, John G.&mdash;<i>Medicine Men of the Apache</i>, B.A.E. #9, 1887-88.</dt>
-<dt>Colton, Harold S. and Hargrave, L. L.&mdash;<i>Handbook of Northern Arizona Pottery Types</i>, MNA, 1937.</dt>
-<dt>Cosgrove, C. B.&mdash;<i>Caves of the Upper Gila and Hueco Areas in New Mexico and Texas</i>, Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1947.</dt>
-<dt>Dodge, Natt N.&mdash;<i>Flowers of the Southwest Deserts</i>, SMA, 1952.</dt>
-<dt>Ferdon, Edwin N., Jr.&mdash;<i>An Excavation of Hermit&rsquo;s Cave, New Mexico</i>, 1946.</dt>
-<dt>Fewkes, J. W.&mdash;<i>Casa Grande Arizona, Antiquities of the Upper Verde River and Walnut Creek, Arizona</i>, B.A.E. #28, 1906-07.</dt>
-<dt>Gale, Bennett T.&mdash;<i>Historical Sketch Carlsbad Caverns National Park</i>, manuscript, 1952.</dt>
-<dd class="t"><i>Carlsbad Caverns&mdash;An Interpretation of Their Origin and Development</i>, manuscript.</dd>
-<dt>Gifford, E. W.&mdash;<i>Culture Element Distributions: XII Apache-Pueblo</i>, Anthropological Records, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1940.</dt>
-<dt>Hawley, Florence M.&mdash;<i>Field Manual of Prehistoric Southwestern Pottery Types</i>, U. of N. M., 1936.</dt>
-<dt>Henshaw, Henry W.&mdash;<i>Animal Carvings from the Mounds of the Mississippi Valley</i>, B.A.E. #2, 1880-81.</dt>
-<dt>Howard, E. B.&mdash;<i>Caves Along the Slopes of the Guadalupe Mountains</i>, Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc., Vol. 4, 1932.</dt>
-<dt>Jennings, J. D.&mdash;<i>A Variation of Southwestern Pueblo Culture</i>, Lab. of Anth., Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940.</dt>
-<dt>Lehmer, Donald J.&mdash;<i>The Jornada Branch of the Mogollon</i>, U. of Ariz. SS Bul. #17, 1948.</dt>
-<dt>Mallery, Garrick&mdash;<i>Picture Writing of the American Indians</i>, B.A.E. #10, 1888-89.</dt>
-<dt>McGee, W. J.&mdash;<i>The Seri Indians</i>, B.A.E. #17, Part 2, 1895-96.</dt>
-<dt>Mera, H. P.&mdash;<i>An Outline of Ceramic Developments in Southern and Southeastern New Mexico</i>, Lab. of Anth., Tech. Series, Bul. #11.</dt>
-<dd class="t"><i>Reconnaissance and Excavation in Southeastern New Mexico</i>, AAA Memoir #51, 1938.</dd>
-<dt>Mooney, James&mdash;<i>Myths of the Cherokee</i>, B.A.E. #19, 1897-98.</dt>
-<dd class="t"><i>The Ghost Dance Religion</i>, B.A.E. #14, 1892-93.</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians</i>, B.A.E. #17, 1895-96.</dd>
-<dt>Neumann, George&mdash;<i>Analysis of the Skeletal Material</i>, Lab. of Anth., Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940.</dt>
-<dt>Opler, Morris Edward&mdash;<i>An Apache Life-Way</i>, 1941.</dt>
-<dt>Pearce, Dr. J. E.&mdash;<i>Kitchen Middens</i>, Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc., Vol. 4, 1932&mdash;See also Victor J. Smith.</dt>
-<dt>Reed, Erik&mdash;<i>Historical Narrative and Archaeological Values</i>, Interpretive Section, Master Plan, Carlsbad Caverns National Park.</dt>
-<dt>Roth, W. E.&mdash;<i>Animism and Folklore of Guiana Indians</i>, B.A.E. #30, 1908-09.</dt>
-<dt>Schmitt, Martin F. and Brown, Dee&mdash;<i>Fighting Indians of the West</i>, 1948.</dt>
-<dt>Swanton, John R.&mdash;<i>The Indian Tribes of North America</i>, B.A.E. Bul. 145, 1952.</dt>
-<dt>Thomas, Alfred Barnaby&mdash;<i>The Plains Indians and New Mexico 1751-1778</i>, 1940.</dt>
-<dt>Wallace, Ernest and Hoebel, E. Adamson&mdash;<i>The Comanches</i>, U. of Okla., 1952.</dt>
-<dt>Williams, Jack R.&mdash;<i>Papago</i>, manuscript, 1952.</dt></dl>
-<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">FOOTNOTES</span></h2>
-<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>Unfortunately, the National Park Service has been unable to obtain any of
-these burials. However, Vernon Bailey in his <i>Animal Life of Carlsbad Cavern</i>
-points out that they were found. (Also, this has been corroborated by writings
-of the late Carl B. Livingston, well known attorney, writer, historian, and an
-outstanding authority on history and prehistory of New Mexico. Too, present and
-former employees of the National Park Service who played an important part in
-the early stages of the development and operation of the Carlsbad Caverns National
-Park are familiar with the evidences of prehistoric man found in and
-around the Caverns. T. Cal Miller.)
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="Hunting" width="500" height="374" />
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="Early Man, Carlsba Baketmaker, Mescalero Apache, Comanche, Kiowa" width="500" height="772" />
-</div>
-
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr />
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Note</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Corrected a few obvious typographical errors.</li>
-<li>Transcribed some text from illustrations, for the sake of the text versions.</li>
-<li>Added a Table of Contents based on headings in the text.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK***</p>
-<p>******* This file should be named 52971-h.htm or 52971-h.zip *******</p>
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