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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Snakes - Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life - - -Author: Catherine Cooper Hopley - - - -Release Date: September 27, 2016 [eBook #53153] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SNAKES*** - - -E-text prepared by Giovanni Fini, MWS, Bryan Ness, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries -(https://archive.org/details/americana) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 53153-h.htm or 53153-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/53153/53153-h/53153-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/53153/53153-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/American Libraries. See - https://archive.org/details/snakescuriositie00hopl - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - A carat character is used to denote superscription. A - single character following the carat is superscripted - (example: 25^e). Multiple superscripted characters are - enclosed by curly brackets (example: 2^{me}). - - - - - -SNAKES: - -Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life. - - -Morrison & Gibb, Edinburgh, -Printers to Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. - - -[Illustration: - - Hamadryad, - _Ophiophagus bungarus_. - - _Echis carinata._ - - Cobra, - _Naja tripudians_. - - Reticulated Python, - _Python reticulatus_. - - Rat Snake, - _Ptyas mucosus_. - - _Amphisbæna._ - -SOME OPHIDIANS AT HOME. - -INDIA.] - - -SNAKES: - -Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life_. - -by - -CATHERINE C. HOPLEY, - -Author of ‘Sketches of the Ophidians,’ ‘Life in the South,’ ‘Rambles and -Adventures in the Wilds of the West,’ etc. etc. - - - ‘These lithe and elegant Beings.’—RYMER JONES. - - ‘Can outswim the Fish and outclimb the Monkey.’—OWEN. - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -Griffith and Farran, -Successors to Newbery and Harris, -West Corner of St. Paul’s Churchyard, London. -E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. -1882. - -The Rights of Translation and of Reproduction are reserved. - - - - - _TO MY - MUCH HONOURED AND ESTEEMED FRIEND_, - Professor Richard Owen, F.R.S., - _WHO HAS GRACIOUSLY ENCOURAGED THE STUDIES - OUT OF WHICH IT CAME; - AND WHOSE CORDIAL SYMPATHY AND REGARD, - WITH FRANKEST RECOGNITION OF HIS - DEEP DEVOTION TO HIS ART, - GAVE ONE OF ITS FEW GREAT PLEASURES TO THE - SHORT LIFE OF - A DEAR BROTHER OF MINE, - THIS BOOK - IS HUMBLY DEDICATED, - WITH GRATEFUL RECOLLECTIONS OF THE PAST_. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAP. PAGE - - I. SEEING A SNAKE FEED, 27 - - II. SNAKES OF FICTION AND OF FACT, 41 - - III. OPHIDIAN TASTE FOR BIRDS’ EGGS, 59 - - IV. DO SNAKES DRINK? 75 - - V. THE TONGUE OF A SNAKE—PART I. WHAT IT IS ‘NOT,’ 94 - - VI. THE TONGUE OF A SNAKE—PART II. WHAT IT ‘IS,’ 107 - - VII. THE TONGUE OF A SNAKE—PART III. ITS USES, 115 - - VIII. THE GLOTTIS, 129 - - IX. BREATHING AND HISSING OF SNAKES, 142 - - X. HIBERNATION, 159 - - XI. THE TAIL OF A SNAKE, 170 - - XII. OPHIDIAN ACROBATS: CONSTRUCTION AND CONSTRICTION, 192 - - XIII. FRESH-WATER SNAKES, 221 - - XIV. THE PELAGIC OR SEA SNAKES, 233 - - XV. ‘THE GREAT SEA SERPENT,’ 247 - - XVI. RATTLESNAKE HISTORY, 268 - - XVII. THE RATTLE, 294 - - XVIII. THE INTEGUMENT—‘HORNS,’ AND OTHER EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES, 315 - - XIX. DENTITION, 342 - - XX. VIPERINE FANGS, 368 - - XXI. THE CROTALIDÆ, 381 - - XXII. THE XENODONS, 395 - - XXIII. OPHIDIAN NOMENCLATURE, AND VERNACULARS, 413 - - XXIV. DO SNAKES INCUBATE THEIR EGGS? 431 - - XXV. ANACONDA AND ANGUIS FRAGILIS, 452 - - XXVI. ‘LIZZIE,’ 470 - - XXVII. DO SNAKES AFFORD A REFUGE TO THEIR YOUNG? 483 - - XXVIII. SERPENT WORSHIP, ‘CHARMING,’ ETC., 507 - - XXIX. THE VENOMS AND THEIR REMEDIES, 532 - - XXX. NOTES FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, 561 - - - INDEX, 593 - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -TO the many friends who have repeatedly asked me, ‘What _could_ induce -you to take up such a _horrid_ subject as snakes?’ a few words of -explanation must be offered. Some words of apology are also due that -I, a learner myself, should aspire to instruct others. I cannot do -better, therefore, than tell the history of this book from its birth, -and in so doing cancel both obligations. The little history will be a -sort of _OPHIDIANA_, or gossip about snakes; and in this I only follow -the example of most herpetologists, who, when writing exclusively on -these reptiles, preface their work with some outline of the history of -ophiology, and generally with an excuse for introducing the unwelcome -subject at all. There is still reason to lament that traditional -prejudice invests everything in the shape of a serpent with repulsive -qualities, and that these prejudices are being only very slowly swept -away by the besom of science. - -Serpents are intimately associated with our religious beliefs. Not -that we _worship_ them! Far otherwise. Many excellent and orthodox -persons associate with a serpent all the sin and misery which ever -existed on our globe, and are persuaded that the sooner everything in -the shape of one is exterminated the better. - -On the other hand, those who can look at a snake with unprejudiced eyes -and study its habits, find continual reason to wonder at and admire the -extraordinary features which exhibit themselves in its organization. -Owing to their retiring habits, many of them nocturnal, and partly in -consequence of preconceived errors, less is understood about them than -almost any other natural group of animals; therefore—as the reader -will discover—a student, when left to himself, has to wade through -ages of writers in order to find out what to believe regarding them. -Scientific ophiologists are still engaged in settling mooted questions -concerning them. But apart from science there is a glamour of poetry, -romance, and mystery about snakes, and not without reason. There has -been a great deal of what we may call ‘Drawing-room Natural History’ -of late years—charmingly sensational and romantic; attractive also in -illustrations and colouring, but not always intended as reliable guides -for students. - -All travellers are not naturalists; and though they may contribute -valuable information in one branch of science, it is possible they may -mislead in another; and from the very popularity of their books, such -errors are rapidly disseminated. I aspire to a place on drawing-room -tables for my book also, but let me assure my readers that my aim has -been to assist by diligent search to establish truthfulness. Whatever -of romance or sensation attaches to it, is due to the marvellous powers -of the creatures who fill its pages, and whose true nature I have -laboured to comprehend. - -Schlegel and Dumeril are two authorities on serpents much quoted by -English writers, and both give us a list of all the naturalists of -repute who have done service to herpetology, up to the date of their -works. As many of these are introduced in the body of my work, let -us glance at the progress of ophiology since the date of these two -distinguished authors. In zoology as much as in any branch of science -progressiveness is observable; and in zoology the advance of ophiology -has of late years been remarkable. In 1843, when Schlegel’s _Essai sur -la Physionomie des Serpents_, 1837, was translated into English by Dr. -Thos. Stewart Traill, of the University of Edinburgh, he mentioned as a -reason for curtailing the original (and not adding the atlas containing -421 figures, with charts and tables), that the low state of ophiology -in this country did not invite a larger work, and ‘deters booksellers -from undertaking such costly illustrations;’ but he hoped to be useful -to science by cultivating a branch of zoology hitherto neglected. Ten -years prior to that date, viz. 1833, the monthly scientific magazine -_The Zoologist_ was started; in introducing which the Editor, Mr. Ed. -Newman, wrote: ‘To begin, the attempt to combine scientific truths with -readable English has been considered by my friends one of surpassing -rashness;’ that he had ‘many solicitations to desist from so hopeless -a task,’ and many ‘supplications to introduce a few Latin descriptions -to give it a scientific character,’ science being then confined to -the scientific alone. Nevertheless the _Zoologist_ has survived half a -century, and under able editorship has taken its stand as a popular as -well as scientific journal. Formerly you might have hunted the pages of -such magazines year after year without finding mention of an ‘odious -snake;’ but within the last decade, not only this but other periodicals -have frequently opened their pages to ophiology, and a considerable -removal of prejudice is noticeable. - -Mr. Newman felt encouraged by the success attending the publication -of White’s _Selborne_, that being one of the first works to induce a -practical study of nature. Yet, until the appearance of Bell’s _British -Reptiles_ in 1849, our present subject occupied but very stinted space -in literature. Indeed, we must admit that as a nation we English have -_followed_, not _taken_, the lead as naturalists. So long ago as -1709, Lawson in his _History of Carolina_ lamented the ‘misfortune -that most of our Travellers who go to this vast Continent are of the -meaner Sort, and generally of very slender Education; hired laborers -and merchants to trade among the Indians in remote parts.’ ... ‘The -French outstrip us in nice Observations,’ he said. ‘First by their -numerous Clergy; their Missionaries being obedient to their Superiors.’ -Secondly by gentlemen accompanying these religious missions, sent out -to explore and make discoveries and to keep strict journals, which duly -were handed over to science. And what Lawson remarked of the American -colonies was extended to wherever the French, Portuguese, and Italians -established religious communities. We find our book-shelves ever -enriched by foreign naturalists. - -In Germany, also, ophiology was far in advance of us. Lenz, Helmann, -Effeldt, and many others pursued the study practically; and produced -some valuable results in their printed works, which unfortunately are -too little known in England. Doubtless because we in England have so -few native reptiles, there is less inducement to concern ourselves -about them. Not so in America, where herpetology soon found many -enthusiasts; and the researches of Holbrooke, Emmons, De Kay, and Weir -Mitchell were published within a few years of each other. Dr. Cantor -in India, and Dr. Andrew Smith in South Africa, Drs. Gray and Günther -and P. H. Gosse in England, all enriched ophiological literature -previous to 1850, to say nothing of the valuable additions to the -science dispersed among the _Reports_ and _Transactions_ of the various -scientific Societies. After the appearance of Dr. Günther’s important -work, _The Reptiles of British India_, in 1864, published under the -auspices of the Ray Society, another fresh impetus was observable, and -we had Krefft’s _Snakes of Australia_, 1869; _Indian Snakes_, by Dr. E. -Nicholson, 1870; culminating in _The Thanatophidia of India_, by Sir -Joseph, then Dr. Fayrer, F.R.S., C.S.I., etc., Surgeon-Major of the -Bengal Army, in 1872, which brings me to the commencement of my own -studies. - -A few years ago, I knew nothing whatever about snakes; and to them, -though deriving my chief pleasures from an inherited love of all -things in nature, a faint interest _at a respectful distance_, was -all I accorded. In Virginia and Florida, where a country life and a -gorgeous flora enticed my steps into wild and secluded districts, we -not unfrequently saw them and one or two ‘narrow escapes’ seasoned -the pages of my notebook. When in such rambles we caught sight of one, -we flew at our utmost speed, encountering the far greater danger of -treading on a venomous one in our precipitous flight, than in shunning -the probably innocent one from which we were fleeing. - -My first startling adventure in Virginia was more ridiculous than -dangerous. We were about to cross a little rivulet that ran rippling -through a wood, in which there were many such to ford. Often fallen -boughs or drifting logs, dragged into the shallow parts by the negroes, -served as stepping-stones. These becoming blackened in the water, and -partially covered with tangled drift-weed, were so familiar a sight -that, without pausing to observe, I was making a spring, when my -companion caught hold of my dress, crying out, ‘Don’t step on them! -They will bite you!’ The supposed shining and tangled boughs were -two large black snakes commonly known as ‘Racers,’ enjoying a bath; -but until I had hastily regained the top of the bank, alarmed at the -excitement of my young friend, I did not discover the nature of our -intended stepping-stones. The snakes were not venomous, but very -‘spiteful,’ and might have resented the interruption by sharp bites. In -moving, they probably would have caused me to fall upon them and into -the water, when they might have attacked me with unpleasant results. -Now, however, my chief vexation was that they got away so quickly, I -could learn nothing about them. - -Another ‘escape’ was on an intensely hot day, when in early morning -we had started for a botanical ramble. Our way lay along a sloping -bit of pasture land, bounded on the east and higher ground by a dense -wood, which afforded shelter from the sun. Beguiled on and on, among -the lovely copses of exquisite flowering shrubs and a wealth of floral -treasures which carpeted the turfy slopes, we were unconscious of time. - -Though only in the merry month of May, blackberries of enormous size -and delicious flavour, trailing on long briars yards and yards over the -mossy grass, invited us to break our fast; and, all unmindful of the -breakfast-hour, we feasted and rested. - -Suddenly we found ourselves no longer shaded by the wood to the east -of us, for the sun had mounted high; and at the first touch of his -scorching rays as we rose to our feet, we glanced at each other in -dismay, for we had open ground to cross in getting home. My Virginia -companion said that it would be better to ford the streams in the wood, -than risk sunstroke by crossing a cornfield, our nearest way home. - -This we decided to do, and having surmounted all obstacles, were almost -within earshot of the house, when Ella, with a shriek, started and ran -back, exclaiming, ‘A moccasin!’ - -‘What? where?’ I eagerly inquired, trying to follow the direction of -her eye. - -‘Oh, Miss Hopley, come back! Quick! Come away! Water moccasins are -worse than rattlesnakes, for they dart at you!’ - -Sufficiently alarming, certainly; yet I wanted to _see_ the terrible -object, and ascertain how far off it was, and at length discovered -the head and neck of a snake erect. About a foot of it was visible, -and might have been taken for a slight stem or stick standing -perpendicularly out of the swampy herbage bordering the narrow path. -The fixed eyes and darting ‘sting’—which I then thought the tongue to -be—seemed to endorse the character my young friend had given it. Yet -I lingered, ‘fascinated,’ no doubt, by its gaze, the fascination in my -case partaking of curiosity chiefly. The reptile remained so rigid that -I was inclined to venture nearer; nor did I welcome the idea of having -to retrace our steps and risk the open field under that Virginia sun. -But Ella would not hear of passing the deadly snake. There were others, -she was sure, in that swampy part. - -Well, we reached home at last, more dead than alive, having discarded -our treasured specimens and substituted sprays of enormous leaves with -which to shield our heads from the sun. And I have ever reflected, that -of the two dangers—snakes and sunstroke—we risked the greater in -traversing that cornfield at such an hour. - -Besides that ‘deadly moccasin’ and frequent ‘black snakes,’ there -were ‘whip snakes,’ ‘milk snakes,’ and many others which the negroes -would bring home as trophies of their courageous slaughter; but by no -scientific names were they known there. Except this name _moccasin_ -or _mokeson_, which probably conveyed some especial meaning to the -aborigines, few of the Indian vernaculars have been preserved in the -United States, as we find them in other parts of America, which latter -are treated of in chapters xxii. and xxiii. of this work; but common -English names prevail. - -After a time I proposed to write a book about snakes, starting with the -stereotyped ideas that they all ‘stung’ in some incomprehensible way; -that the larger kinds crushed up horses and cattle like wisps of straw; -and that all, having viciously taken the life of the victim, proceeded -with epicurean gusto to lick it all over and smear it with saliva, that -it might glide down their throat like an oyster! There are those who to -this day believe the same. - -My proposed book was, however, simply to recount some adventures -among the snakes which were encountered in our American rambles. It -was intended for the amusement of juvenile readers, and to supplement -the little work about my pet birds[1], which had met with so kind and -encouraging a reception. - -But in order to merely recount an adventure with a snake, some -knowledge of the reptile is essential. One must, at least, be sure -of the correct name of the ‘horrid thing’ which lifted its ‘menacing -head’ a few feet in front of us; such local names as ‘black snake’ and -‘moccasin snake’ affording no satisfactory information. - -Nor were hasty references to books much more satisfactory. Mr. P. H. -Gosse had been over the same ground, gathering many interesting items -of natural history; but in his _Letters from Alabama_ I could not -decide on my moccasin snake. From this and his other works, and then -from the authors quoted by him, I discovered only that there were -many ‘black snakes,’ some deadly, others harmless. The same with the -‘moccasin’ snake, which was now of this colour, now of that. While one -writer expatiates on the beauty of the ‘emerald snake,’ a ‘living -gem, which the dark damsels of southern climes wind round their necks -and arms,’ another describes snakes of emerald green which are dreaded -and avoided. One traveller tells of a ‘coral snake’ whose bite is -fatal within an hour; while elsewhere a ‘coral snake’ is petted and -handled. Equally perplexing were the ‘carpet snakes,’ ‘whip snakes,’ -‘Jararacas,’ and ‘brown snakes.’ - -Nor were names the only puzzle to unravel; for in almost every other -particular writers on snakes are at variance. - -Those ‘moccasin snakes’ in Virginia were venomous, I was sure, having -known of accidents from their bite. Hoping to become enlightened as to -their true name and character, I repaired to the Zoological Gardens to -ascertain if they were known there. Yes; there were several together -in one cage, labelled ‘Moccasins’ (_Tropidonotus fasciatus_) ‘from -America;’ but to identify them with the one in Virginia, of which I -had seen only a short portion from a distance, was impossible. To add -to the perplexity, Holland the keeper assured me these were ‘quite -harmless.’ - -‘But are you _sure_ these are harmless snakes? They are poisonous in -America.’ - -‘Well, miss, they have bitten my finger often enough for me to know,’ -returned Holland. - -‘Then there must be _two_ kinds of moccasin snakes,’ I argued, ‘for -the others are _extremely_ venomous;’ and I related my Virginia -experiences, and that I had known of a horse bitten by one that had -died in an hour or so, fearfully swollen. - -‘They have never hurt me,’ persisted Holland. - -Subsequently I discovered that in the United States this name -_moccasin_ is a common vernacular, first and chiefly applied to a -really dangerous viper, _Ancistrodon pugnax_ or _piscivorus_, the -one, most likely, that we saw in the wood; and secondly, to a number -of harmless snakes which are _supposed_ to be dangerous, and of which -those at the Gardens, _Tropidonotus fasciatus_, are among the latter. -Thus at the very outset the puzzles began. - -Nevertheless, after some research I learnt enough of snake nature to -feel safe in proceeding with my book of _Adventures_, and in presenting -it to a publisher. - -‘As a gift-book no one would look at it, and as an educational work -there would be no demand for it,’ was its encouraging reception. - -This was about ten years ago; and so far from inducing me to relinquish -the subject, I began to aspire to become a means of assisting to -overcome these prejudices. For the space of two years the anticipated -‘sequel’ to my _American Pets_ went the round of the London publishers -of juvenile works, and to several in Scotland. It was read by many -of them, who professed to have been unexpectedly and ‘extremely -interested’ in it—‘_but_’—none could be persuaded to ‘entertain so -repulsive a subject.’ One member of a publishing house distinguished -for the high standard of its literature, positively admitted among -his insurmountable objections, that when a child his mother had never -permitted him to look through a certain favourite volume late in -the day, ‘for fear the pictures of snakes in it should prevent his -sleeping!’ - -An editor of a magazine told me he should lose his subscribers if he -put snakes in its pages; and another made excuse that his children -would not look at the magazine with a snake in it. - -Perhaps this is not so surprising when we reflect that until within -a late date snakes in children’s books, if represented at all, -are depicted as if with full intent of creating horror. They are -represented with enormously extended jaws, and—by comparison with -the surrounding trees or bushes—of several hundred feet in length; -sometimes extending up a bank or over a hedge into the next field, or -winding round a rock or a gnarled trunk, that must be—if the landscape -have any pretensions to perspective—a long way off. Slender little -tree snakes of two or three feet long are represented winding round -and round thick stems and branches strong enough to support you. Into -the chasm of a mouth from which an enormous instrument (intended for a -tongue) is protruding, a deer the size of a squirrel (by comparison), -or a squirrel the size of a mouse, is on the point of running meekly to -its doom. - -No wonder children ‘skip’ the few pages devoted to snakes in -their natural history books, and grow up full of ignorance and -prejudices regarding them. In no class of literature are original and -conscientious illustrations more required than to replace some of those -which reappear again and again, and have passed down from encyclopædias -into popular works, conveying the same erroneous impressions to each -unthinking reader. - -The strongly-expressed opinions of publishers convinced me that the -prejudices of adults must first be overcome before children could be -persuaded to look at a snake as they would look at a bird or a fish, -or to enter the Reptile House at the Zoological Gardens without the -premeditated ‘Aughs!’ and ‘Ughs!’ and shudders. - -During the two years that witnessed the MS. of _Aunt Jenny’s -Adventures_ lying in first one and then another publishing house, an -especial occurrence acted as a great stimulant, and induced an almost -obstinate persistence in my apparently hopeless studies. - -This was the sensation caused by the daily papers in reporting the -case of ‘Cockburn _versus_ Mann;’ and the ‘SNAKES IN CHANCERY.’ To -the horror and dismay of the ‘general public,’ Mr. Mann, of Chelsea, -was represented as ‘keeping for his amusement _all manner of venomous -serpents_;’ or, as another paper put it, ‘Mr. Mann had a peculiar -penchant for keeping as domestic pets a large number of venomous -snakes.’ (I copy verbatim from the papers of that date.) That these -‘water vipers and puff adders’ were ‘apt to stray in search of -freedom;’ or, ‘being accustomed to take their walks abroad,’ had -strayed into the neighbours’ gardens, to the terror of maid-servants -and children;’ and were ‘now roaming up and down Cheyne Walk,’ and -‘turning the College groves into a garden of Eden.’ So an action was -brought against Mr. Mann: for the neighbours decided that ‘there was no -better remedy for a stray cobra than a suit in Chancery.’ ‘Everybody’ -during July 1872 was reading those delightfully sensational articles, -and asking, ‘_Have_ you heard about Mr. Mann’s cobras?’ - -Mr. Frank Buckland was brave enough to venture into the dangerous -precincts of Cheyne Walk, and even into the house of Mr. Mann, to test -the virtues and vices of both the ‘pets’ and their possessors. He -finally tranquillized the public mind by publishing accounts of his -visit, affirming that not _one_ of the snakes was venomous, but, on -the contrary, were charmingly interesting and as tame as kittens. The -testimony of so popular an authority served not only to allay local -terrors, but to modify the sentence that might otherwise have been -passed on the ophiophilist, who was merely cautioned by the honourable -judge to keep his pets within due bounds. - -After this, Mr. and Mrs. Mann and their domesticated ophidians held -daily receptions. I was invited to see them, and in company with a -clerical friend repaired to Chelsea. It was the first family party -of snakes I had ever joined, and I must confess to considerable -fluctuations of courage as we knocked at the door. Nor could one quite -divest oneself of apprehension lest the boa-constrictors to which we -were introduced should suddenly make a spring and constrict us into a -pulp. But they didn’t. On the contrary, towards ourselves they were -disappointingly undemonstrative, and only evinced their consciousness -of the presence of strangers by entwining themselves about the members -of the family, as if soliciting their protection. They were very -jealous of each other, Mr. Mann said; jealous also of other company, as -if unwilling to lose their share of attention. There were half-a-dozen -or more snakes—viz., several boas, of whom ‘Cleo,’ or Cleopatra, has -become historical; two or three lacertine snakes from North Africa; and -a common English snake. The smaller ones were regaled on frogs for our -special edification. At that time I had never been to the Reptilium at -the Zoological Gardens on feeding days, and when Mr. Mann permitted a -frog to hop about the table, and we saw the ring snake glide swiftly -towards it and catch it in its mouth, we could not comprehend what was -to happen next. ‘What _will_ he do with it?’ we both exclaimed. We had -not long to wait. Somehow or other the frog, caught by its hind leg, -got turned round till its head was in the snake’s mouth and the hind -legs were sprawling and kicking, but in vain. Then head-foremost it -vanished by degrees into the jaws of the snake; while the head of the -latter, ‘poor thing,’ seemed dislocated out of all shape! It was a -wonderful but painful sight; for how the snake’s head stretched in that -amazing manner, and how the frog was drawn into the mouth, was past our -comprehension. - -An equally wonderful but far more attractive sight was Mrs. Mann, -a graceful and charming little lady in black velvet, with Cleo -coiling around her in Laocoon-like curves. The rich colouring of the -beautifully-marked reptile entwining the slender form of the woman, the -picturesque and caressing actions of Cleo, and the responsive repose -of Mrs. Mann as the snake was now round her waist, now undulating -around and over her head and neck, was altogether a sight never to -be forgotten. Two sweet little children were equally familiar with -the other boas, that seemed quite to know who were their friends and -play-fellows, for the children handled them and patted and talked to -them as we talk to pet birds and cats. - -Such were the ‘vipers, cobras, and puff adders’ that had figured in the -daily papers. - -After this, the reptile house at the Zoological Gardens became a -new attraction. From there to the bookshelves and back again to the -Gardens, my little book of adventures was discarded for a more -ambitious work; but still was confronted by disaffected publishers, -whom even the Chelsea snakes failed to convince of public interest. - -Friends protested—and still demand—even while I write—‘How _can_ -you give your mind to such odious, loathsome, slimy creatures?’ and -I boldly reply, ‘In the hope of inducing you to believe that they -are _not_ odious and loathsome, and especially not “slimy,” but in -the majority graceful, useful, beautiful, _wonderful_!’ And I invite -them to accompany me to the Zoological Gardens, and endeavour there -to contemplate a reptile as they look at the other denizens of the -Gardens, simply as a member of the wide family of the brute creation, -appointed by the Great All-wise to live and feed and enjoy existence -as much as the rest, and that have to accomplish the purpose for which -they were created equally with the feathered families which we admire -and—devour! - -And as whatever may be original or novel in this book has been obtained -at the Zoological Gardens, I now invite my readers to accompany me in -imagination to the Ophidarium, where we may learn how that little ring -snake was able to swallow his prodigious mouthful without separating it -limb from limb, as a carnivorous mammal would divide the lamb it has -killed. - -‘But’—you exclaim in horror—‘we do not wish to contemplate so -painful, so repulsive a spectacle! How _could_ you, how _can_ you, -stand coolly there and see that poor frog tortured and swallowed alive?’ - -Dear, tender-hearted reader, I did not, I _could_ not, unmoved, -contemplate this sight at first; nor for a very long while could I -bring myself to watch a living creature being drawn into that living -trap. Nor could we—you and I—feel aught but horror in visiting a -slaughter-house and watching a poor calf slowly die. Nor could we, for -pleasure merely, look coolly on at a painful surgical operation. Yet we -know that such things must be. The life of the snake is as important -as that of the frog. If we are to talk about cruelty, this book of -natural history, and of intended—let me say, of hoped-for—usefulness, -would become one of political economy instead. We might discuss the -sport of the angler, the huntsman; the affairs of the War Office; -of railroad managers and of road-makers; the matters of the Society -for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals; followed by an examination -into the questions that have been ventilated in so-called ‘benevolent -organs;’ and how some of them employ writers who in every tenth line -betray their ignorance of the creatures they attempt to describe. Not -even theology could be dispensed with in this work; for, since the time -when Adam was told to have ‘dominion over the fish of the sea, and -over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon -the earth,’ the question of ‘cruelty’ has never been satisfactorily -solved. Morally and broadly, let us understand it to mean _unnecessary_ -torture—pain and suffering that can be _avoided_, and which offers -a very wide scope indeed. In the animal world, ‘every creature is -destined to be the food of some other creature;’ and by these economies -only is the balance of nature maintained. Happily we are spared the -too vivid realization of the destruction of life ceaselessly going on -throughout creation; the myriads of insects destroyed each moment by -birds, the sufferings inflicted by the feline families and by birds -of prey, the countless shoals of the smaller fish devoured—swallowed -_alive_ too!—by larger ones, or caught (and not too tenderly) for -our own use. These things we dismiss from our minds, and accept as -inevitable. We do not ventilate them in daily journals. Nor do we -take our children to the slaughter-house or the surgery for their -entertainment; or repair thither ourselves for the sake of minutely -discussing afterwards the sufferings we have witnessed. You will, -I hope, discover that the pain inflicted by the constrictor or the -viper is not, after all, so acute as it is by some imagined to be. The -venomous bite of the latter causes almost immediate insensibility; the -frog which the ring snake ate probably died of suffocation, which also -produces insensibility; the constriction of the boa—in its natural -condition—produces also a speedy death. Besides, as Dr. Andrew Wilson, -in a paper on this subject, has explained to us, the sufferings of a -frog or a rat are not like _our_ sufferings. Their brain and nerves are -of a lower order.[2] - -Permit me, therefore, in the outset, to dismiss from these pages the -question of cruelty as not being a branch of zoology; and as we cannot -prevent snakes from eating frogs, or the vipers from catching field -mice (nor need we wish to do so, or the small quarry would soon become -too many for us), let us examine the curious construction of a snake’s -head and jaw-bones that enables it to accomplish the task so easily. - -With reference to the rapid development of science, it has been said -that a scientific work is old as soon as the printer’s ink is dry. Up -to the moment of sending my concluding pages to press, I realize this; -and remarkably so in the growing interest in the Ophidia. Writings on -this subject are becoming so frequent that, while correcting proofs, I -am tempted to add footnotes enough almost for another volume. - -Several circumstances have combined to enrich ophiological literature -within a few years; one which, in 1872, I quite think established a -sort of new era in this branch of zoology, was the appearance of Dr. -Fayrer’s magnificent work, _The Thanatophidia of India_. Mr. Bullen, -then the Superintendent of the Reading-Room at the British Museum, -knowing that the subject was engaging my attention, informed me of the -arrival of this book, and, with his ever kind thought for students, -ordered it into the room for my express use; and I think I may affirm, -that I was the very first ‘reader’ who had the privilege of inspecting -the work, and, I hope, of helping to make it popular. For as day after -day those huge folio leaves stood open, with the conspicuous and -lifelike illustrations almost moving before your eyes, readers would -linger and gaze, acquaintances would stop to inquire and inspect; some -with a shudder would ask ‘how on earth I could endure the sight of such -fearful creatures?’ while a few would manifest sufficient interest and -intelligence to be indulged with a full display, and to whom I eagerly -aired my convictions of the tremendous errors afloat concerning the -snake tribe. - -‘Beyond the pale of science but little is known of Ophiology,’ were -Fayrer’s words. Two years previously to this, in 1870, Dr. Edward -Nicholson wrote his book, _Indian Snakes_, ‘in the hope of dispelling -the lamentable ignorance regarding some of the _most beautiful and -harmless_ of God’s creatures.’ - -This enthusiasm is gradually spreading, and we now not unfrequently -hear of domesticated snakes in English homes; both from friends -who keep them, and from the correspondence of the _Field, Land and -Water_, and similar papers, in whose columns inquiries for information -are often made regarding ophidian pets. Lord Lilford, one of the -kindest patrons of the London Reptilium, has, I believe, for many -years been a practical ophiologist. There is one little favourite -snake that figures in these pages of which his lordship gave an -excellent character from personal acquaintance, ‘the beautiful species -_Elaphis-quater-radiatus_, as being the most naturally tame of all the -colubrines, never hissing or trying to bite though frequently handled.’ -A noble lady not long since carried a pet snake to the Gardens. It was -twined round her arm, where it remained quiet and content, though to -the alarm of some monkeys who caught sight of it. Some members of our -Royal Family, with the enlightened intelligence which displays itself -in them all, have more than once paid visits to the Reptile House at -the Zoological Gardens, where the keeper has enjoyed the high honour of -taking snakes out of their cages to place in royal hands. The good-will -and interest towards the inmates of the Ophidarium are likewise -displayed by some country gentlemen in presents of game, in the form -of ring snakes for the Ophiophagus and frogs for the lesser fry. Lord -Arthur Russell, Lord Lilford, and other distinguished personages set -excellent examples of this kind. All of which proofs of prejudices -overcome are features in the history of ophiology, and especially in -the last decade. - -Then, in glancing at recent literature, a great change is discernible, -more particularly so during the last two years, since the popular -contributions of Dr. Arthur Stradling, a corresponding member of the -Zoological Society, have imparted a novel interest to this branch of -zoology. To this gentleman my own most grateful acknowledgments are -due, as will be evident to the reader, not only for the zest imparted -by his correspondence from Brazil, but for some important specimens -presented to me by him, which have enabled me to describe them -minutely from personal observations, as well as to add some original -illustrations from them. Though my work and my studies were far -advanced, previous to his valued acquaintance, yet I have been able to -enrich my pages from his experience, and have added footnotes from his -published writings. - -Already, however, some few dispassionate students of nature among -editors were promoters of herpetology, and I must here express my -acknowledgments to the talented daughters of the lamented Mrs. Alfred -Gatty (and editresses of that _facile princeps_ among juvenile -periodicals, _Aunt Judy’s Magazine_), for having been the first -to encourage and accept from my pen a snake in their pages, and -subsequently several papers on ophidian manners and habits for their -magazine. - -In preparing ‘Sketches of the Ophidians’ for the _Dublin University -Magazine_, December 1875, and January and February 1876 (in all, about -forty closely-written pages), I, by request of the editor, included -a paper on the venom and the various remedies, though, reluctant to -intrude within the arena of professional science, a sort of summing -up of evidence was all that I attempted. Having been thus required to -glean some crude ideas from technical writings (which necessitated -glossaries and dictionaries to be ever at hand), I again add a chapter -on the ‘Venoms’ to my present work. Left entirely to my own independent -conclusions, if I have ventured to think in opposition to some popular -writers, and have even presumed to offer some suggestions of my own, I -trust I may be treated with clemency. - -With regard to the terrible death-rate from snake-bite in India, it -does, however, appear to me that journalists who hold up their hands -in horror, and write strong articles on this subject, lose sight of -the religious and social condition of the low-caste Hindûs, who are -the chief sufferers, and whose superstition is so fatal to them. -_Snake-worship_ is the root of the evil! _Education_ must lower the -death-rate. During the visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales to India, -the entire programme was on one occasion interrupted because some -Hindû children, to whom a feast was to be given, could not eat in -the presence of Christians, whose ‘shadow would have polluted their -food,’ or some obstacle of this nature. Similar difficulties arise when -they are snake-bitten; their creed prohibits their having recourse to -approved remedies. ‘Snake-charmers’ and native quacks are sent for -instead, and often when cures are possible the fatalists submit to -death. - -To Professor Owen, who six years ago permitted me the honour of -dedicating this contemplated work to him, and to others who were then -led to expect its early appearance, I may be allowed to offer an excuse -for tardiness. Like the creatures which fill its pages, I succumb to -the chills of winter, and depend on the suns of summer for renewed -vigour and activity. At one time impaired health, and the enforced -suspension of literary pursuits under the threatened loss of the use of -my right hand, were grievous interruptions. - -Filial duties and domestic bereavements caused another two years’ -delay. Banished to the seaside, and the pen prohibited during the -winter of 1874-75, I had almost despaired of turning my studies to -account, when a new impulse arrived in the shape of a note from the -editor of _Chambers’s Journal_, begging to know if my ‘work on the -Ophidia was out, and by whom published’? My ‘work on the Ophidia’? -Could that mean my poor, despised little book that had been long ago -submitted among others to those Edinburgh publishers? _My work on the -Ophidia!_ I began to get better from that day; and from that date, -March 1875, I have had the inexpressible pleasure and privilege of -including among my kindest and most sympathetic ophiological friends, -the Editor of that popular journal. On the Ophidia, he entrusted me -with work in various directions, encouraged by which I again returned -to town, and to the Zoological Gardens. - -If I am so fortunate as to afford instruction or entertainment in the -following pages, my readers will join me in congratulating ourselves -on the possession of so large and valuable a zoological collection as -that in the Regent’s Park, without which this book could not have been -attempted. And I may embrace this opportunity of expressing my sincere -thanks to the President and Council of the Zoological Society for the -privileges and facilities afforded me at their Gardens, where not only -the Reptilium but the annual series of zoological lectures there, given -by the first biologists of the day, have been of inexpressible use to -me. - -I would also express my thanks to Professor Flower, Hunterian Professor -at the Royal College of Surgeons, London, for his invariable courtesy -in facilitating my examination of the ophiological specimens in the -museum of that College, to which my honoured father (himself a member) -attributed all the love of the study of natural history which from our -earliest recollections were encouraged in his children. My thanks are -also due to Dr. Günther of the British Museum for similar facilities -there. Indeed, the words of encouragement given me, no less than six -years ago, by the distinguished heads of the zoological department -of our great national collection, sustained my courage in opposition -to all counter influences _outside_ the British Museum. When first -contemplating and presenting some outline of this work to Dr. Günther, -he honoured me by expressing his opinion that such a book was ‘much -needed;’ that it would be ‘extremely useful and interesting.’ He was -even so kind as to promise to state this opinion in writing to any -publisher who might consult him on the subject. I here claim the -pleasure of thanking my present publishers for dispensing with the -necessity of troubling Dr. Günther, and for entrusting me with the -preparation of this book, which, before a chapter of it was completed, -they engaged to publish. Deficient as I feel it to be, it is at length -launched on the doubtful waters of public criticism. If any scientific -eyes honour it with a glance, they will with clemency remember that, -with no scientific knowledge whatever to start with, I have had to -grope my way unaided, plodding over technicalities which in themselves -were studies; and if, as no doubt is the case, any misapprehension of -such technicalities has here and there crept in and misinterpreted the -true meaning, I anxiously trust that the truth has not been altogether -obliterated by such obscurities. - -In conclusion, let me not omit a grateful tribute to the invariable -kindness of the heads of the Reading-Room at the British Museum; -and for their assistance in obtaining books of which I might never -have known. The kindness of Mr. Garnett extended even beyond the -Reading-Room; for while I was invalided at the seaside, and could only -read, _not write_, he translated and forwarded to me some important -pages from Lenz, a German ophiologist. To him, therefore, the thanks of -the reader are also due. - -In the choice of illustrations my aim has been rather to exemplify a -few leading features than to attract by brilliantly-figured examples. -Some of the woodcuts are borrowed from Günther’s and Fayrer’s works; -others I have drawn faithfully from natural specimens; but in them -all I am indebted to the kind and patient work of Mr. A. T. Elwes in -reproducing my own imperfect attempts. And as it was impossible to draw -a snake _in action_ from life, or to witness a second time the precise -coils or movements which had at first struck me as remarkable, the -composition of some of these subjects was by no means an easy one. Our -united efforts have been to represent the natural actions as far as -possible, and this I hope may commend them to the reader. - -There are few English persons who have not relatives in India, -Australia, America, and Africa, and from whom they are continually -hearing of escapes or accidents from snakes. Many letters from these -friends beyond the seas find place in the columns of the daily -journals. Whether, therefore, naturalists or not, a very large class of -the intelligent public claims an anxious interest in the Serpent race, -and to all of whom my OPHIDIANA or snake gossip is hopefully addressed. - - CATHERINE C. HOPLEY. - - LONDON, _October 1882_. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -SNAKES: - -_CURIOSITIES AND WONDERS OF SERPENT LIFE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -_SEEING A SNAKE FEED._ - - -IN any person who for the first time witnesses a snake with prey -just captured, the predominant feeling must be one of surprise at -the seemingly unmanageable size of the animal it has seized; and he -probably exclaims to himself, or to his companion, as we did on the -occasion described in the introduction, ‘What will he do with it?’ -Let us again take our common ring snake, _Coluber natrix_, that ate a -frog for our edification; only, in the present instance, instead of -seeing a tame snake in a private residence at Chelsea, we will suppose -ourselves to be watching one on the banks of a stream in fine summer -weather. A slight movement in the grass causes us to turn our eyes -towards the spot, and we are just in time to see the quick dash, and -the next instant a recalcitrant frog held aloft in the jaws of a snake -that with elevated head glides up the bank. Coluber’s head is no bigger -than a filbert, and the frog is nearly full grown, its body inflated -to twice its original size, and its legs, of impracticable length and -angles, kicking remonstrantly. - -‘How in the world is the snake going to manage it?’ again you exclaim, -and your amazement is not exceptional. It is what has been witnessed -and heard weekly in London when the public were admitted to the -Reptilium on feeding days, and it is what the reader will recall in his -own case when first informed that a snake was going to swallow that -monstrous mouthful undivided. - -In the present instance, the injury to froggie’s feelings thus far -partakes more of moral than of physical pain, for the grasp of the -snake is not violent, and he finds that the more he struggles the -more he injures himself. Yet he kicks and struggles on, at thus being -forcibly detained against his will. In the mouth of the snake he is -as proportionately large as the shoulder of mutton in the jaws of -the dog that has just stolen it from the butcher’s shop. How do the -canines manage unwieldy food? The dog can tackle the joint of meat, big -though it be, because he has limbs to aid him, and he was prepared for -emergencies before he stole it. He knew of a certain deserted yard up -a passage close by, and of some lumber stacked there; he watched his -opportunity, and is off to his hiding-place; and once hidden behind the -lumber, he settles down quietly with his ill-gotten dinner firmly held -between his fore-paws, while, with eyes and ears on the alert, he gnaws -away. - -The snake, no doubt, knows of a hole in the bank, or in a hollow -tree, in which he can hide if alarmed; but he cannot set his frog down -for one instant, nor can he relax his jaws in the slightest degree, -or his dinner hops away, and he has to pursue it, or wait for another -frog, when the same thing may happen again. He has only his teeth to -trust to, and these have all the work of paws and claws, and nails -and talons, to accomplish, while yet, not for one instant, must they -relinquish their hold. - -‘Besides!—how much too big that frog is for Coluber’s small mouth!’ -And we continue to gaze in wonderment, filled with amazement that -brings us to the bookshelves, to endeavour to comprehend the -phenomenon. Not, however, until we have seen the end of that frog on -the banks of the stream, where the reader is supposed to be waiting. - -First, let me explain that in the manner of feeding, snakes may -be divided into three classes, viz. those that kill their prey by -constriction or by smothering it in the coils of their body; those -that kill by poison; and some smaller kinds, which, like the ring -snake, eat it alive—the latter a quick process, which may also be -said to be death by suffocation. Our little Coluber is in a spot where -we can watch it easily; so we keep rigidly still, and soon perceive -that though the snake just now had hold of froggie’s side, he now has -the head in his mouth. How can this be? and how has he managed to -shift it thus, almost imperceptibly, while seeming to hold it still? -Now the head begins to disappear, and the snake’s jaws stretch in a -most distorted fashion, as if dislocated; its head expands out of all -original shape, while slowly, slowly, the frog is drawn in as if by -suction. Now its legs are passive; they no longer kick right and left, -but lie parallel, as by degrees they also vanish, and only the four -feet remain in sight. These presently have been sucked in, and the -skin of the snake is stretched like a knitted stocking over the lump -which tells us just how far down Coluber’s neck the frog has reached. -Gradually the lump gets farther and farther down, but is less evident -as it reaches the larger part of the body. The snake remains still for -a few moments till his jaws are comfortably in place again; then he -yawns once or twice, and finally retires for his siesta, and we to the -bookshelves. - -‘Snakes work their prey down through the collapsed pharynx,’ says -Günther. That is, the muscles of the throat seize upon what is -presented to them, and do their part, as in other animals. Only, in -most other animals there is the _action_ of swallowing, one mouthful -at a time; whereas in serpents the action is continuous, the throat -going on with the work begun by the teeth, which in a snake is -only grasping and working the food in with a motion so gradual as -to simulate suction. The reason why the head and jaws have been so -enormously stretched and distorted, is because all the bones are, in -common language, _loose_; that is, they are not consolidated like the -head-bones of higher animals, but united by ligaments so elastic as -to enable them to separate in the way we have seen. This extends to -the jaws, and even to the palate, which is also armed with teeth, two -rows extending backwards. The lower jaw or mandible being extremely -long, the elastic ligament by which the pair of bones is connected -in front, forming the chin, enables them to separate widely and move -independently. This is the case in a lesser degree with the palate -bones, and the upper jaw-bones, all six being furnished with long, -fine, recurved, close-set teeth, adapted for _grasping_ and _holding_, -but not for dividing or for mastication in any way. - -For, as we have seen, if a snake were to open its mouth one moment -for the purpose of what we call _biting_, the prey would escape. In -addition to a very unusual length, the lower jaw is joined to the -skull by an extra bone,—one which is not found in mammals, but only, -I think, in birds,—a long ‘tympanic’ bone, which forms an elbow, and -permits of that wide expansion of the throat necessary for the passage -of such large undivided prey. - -The illustration of the skeleton of a cobra, on p. 33, will enable -the student to distinguish the principal head-bones. There is so much -similarity of construction throughout the whole ophidian families -that a cobra is chosen here, because the unusually long anterior ribs -which form the hood can be observed, and the expansion of which is -described elsewhere. The longer teeth in the upper jaw are here fangs; -the inclination of the other rows of teeth and the bones sufficiently -illustrate those of the non-venomous kinds generally, such as the -little ring snake that has just swallowed his frog. A few of the larger -constricting snakes possess an additional bone—an intermaxillary in -front between the upper jaws, very small, yet sometimes furnished with -two or four teeth, thus facilitating the expansion of the jaws as well -as the retention of the food. - -It is this adaptive development of head-bones that enabled _Coluber -natrix_ to turn his frog round to a more convenient position, and then -draw it into his mouth so gradually that we scarcely comprehended how -it disappeared. The six rows of small teeth form six jaws so to speak, -each one of which advanced a very little, while the other five were -engaged in holding firmly. In those largest pythons which have the -little bone in front between the two upper jaw-bones (intermaxillary) -we may say there are _seven_ jaws. As those gigantic snakes have to -deal with proportionately large and strong prey, they are thus enabled -to retain and manage it. - -In the graphic language of Professor Owen let me recapitulate. - -The mouth can be opened laterally or transversely, as in insects, as -well as vertically, as in other vertebrates. The six jaws are four -above and two below, each of which can be protruded or retracted -independently of the others. ‘The prey having been caught and held, -one jaw is then unfixed by the teeth of that jaw being withdrawn and -pushed forward, when they are again unfixed farther back upon the prey; -another jaw is then unfixed, protruded, and re-attached, and so with -the rest in succession. This movement of protraction, being almost -the only one of which they are susceptible, while stretched apart to -the utmost by the bulk of the animal encompassed by them: and thus by -their successive movements, the prey is slowly introduced into the -gullet.’[3] - -[Illustration: Skeleton of a Cobra (from Owen’s _Anatomy of the -Vertebrates_).] - -This working of the jaws would be almost imperceptible excepting to -a very close observer. In the lower jaw-bones the independent action -can be more readily perceived and is often very grotesque, one side of -the mouth opening while the other is closed, conveying the idea of the -reptile making grimaces at you; but the gradual disappearance of the -prey so much more bulky than the snake itself is quite incomprehensible -until we are acquainted with the remarkable phenomena of the six rows -of teeth acting independently. Thus, in turning the frog round to -adjust it to a more convenient position, the jaws acted like hands in -moving, dragging, or shifting some cumbrous article, say a carpet or -a plank, when the left hand follows the movement of the right hand -until the plank or carpet is worked round or forward in the required -direction. - -The form and arrangement of the fine claw-shaped teeth assist the -process. They are too close together, and the pressure is too slight -to inflict a wound; they merely retain what they hold, and it is in -vain for the prey to struggle against them, or it might get some ugly -scratches as they all incline backwards. In chapter xix. illustrations -of teeth, life-size, show their forms and direction; here it only need -be added regarding them, that the above description refers chiefly to -the non-venomous snakes. - -The palate being covered with that armoury of teeth, the snake must -have but a slight sense of taste, which is to its advantage, we should -say; for having no assistant in the shape of beak or limbs to divide -its prey, hair, fur, feathers, dust—all must be swallowed with the -meal, completely disguising whatever flesh they cover, so that we -should suppose the process of feeding could be productive of very -little enjoyment to the reptile. Perhaps out of this state of things -has developed their habit of eating so seldom, but when they do take -the trouble of feeding, of doing it thoroughly, so that their meal -lasts them a long while. - -Deglutition is greatly facilitated by an abundant supply of saliva, -which lubricates that uncomfortable coating of feathers or fur; but -‘lubrication’ is understood to refer merely to the natural secretions -of the mouth, in which the tongue performs no part at all. - -The salivary apparatus of snakes is peculiar to them, and very -complicated. Even the nasal and lachrymal glands pour their superfluous -secretions through small canals into the mouth.[4] These active and -abundant glands are excited by hunger or the sight of food, just as in -mammals; and for the more common expression of the mouth ‘watering’ -that of ‘lubrication’ is here used, because over the rough-coated -prey these salivary secretions act as a great aid in deglutition. The -erroneous impressions that have obtained on this subject are touched -upon in describing the tongue (chap. vi.). - -A circumstance happened at the London Zoological Gardens a few years -ago, which, although familiar to many, may be referred to as bearing -on two of the above features—namely, the dull sense of taste in a -snake, and the abundant supply of mucous secretions. It was in the case -of a large boa which swallowed her blanket. She was about to change -her skin, and, as usual on such occasions, was partially blind, as -also indifferent to food. The rabbits given to her dodged her grasp, -and her appreciation of flavours was not sufficient to enable her to -discriminate between blanket and rabbit fur; so, seizing a portion of -the rug, she with natural instinct constricted this, and proceeded to -swallow it. She was, however, made to disgorge it afterwards, when it -was scarcely recognisable from the thick and abundant coating of mucous -in which it was enveloped. Mr. F. Buckland described its appearance as -that of a ‘long flannel sausage.’ - -These highly-developed salivary glands are beneficent provisions in -the economy of the serpent race. The reptile cannot, as we said, tear -flesh from bones, and discard the latter; nor separate the food from -the enveloping feathers or fur; nor reject whatever unsavoury portions -other animals might detach and leave uneaten. All must be swallowed by -a snake, and all digested; and its digestion, sufficiently powerful, is -aided by the excessive flow of saliva, or the insalivation of such food. - -It is not difficult to make snakes disgorge their food. They often -do so on their own account, when, after swallowing some bulky meal, -they are alarmed or pursued, and escape is less easy with that load to -carry. The illustration exhibiting the numerous ribs, which are all -loosely articulated with the spinal column, enables us to comprehend -the capacity for bulk, and the ease with which these fine ribs would -expand to accommodate a body even broader than the snake itself. We -comprehend, also, why it is that a creature swallowed alive need not -be injured or wounded by the mere fact of being swallowed, but would -die of suffocation after all. A frog has been known to turn round and -escape from the body of the snake, if the latter indulge in a prolonged -yawn; and yawning almost always does follow as soon as the prey is -swallowed, because the snake has for the time breathed less regularly, -and now requires to take in a fresh supply of air. In this act you see -the two jaws extended to an enormous degree, almost, indeed, to form -one straight line perpendicularly. In such condition the teeth are well -out of the way, and the adjustable ribs, expansile covering, and loose -head bones render them not insurmountable obstacles to an escape when -the prey is uninjured. - -One sometimes hears of the egg-stealing snakes, cobras, etc., when -surprised and pursued, first relieving themselves of their plunder -before they attempt to escape. Often it may be observed, when two -snakes are in a cage together, and both get hold of the same frog -or rat, that they each advance upon it till their heads meet, when -either the stronger or the larger snake will gain the day, and -finish his frog, and then proceed to swallow his friend; or else -one will relinquish his hold, when, even in those few minutes, the -half-swallowed prey will be completely disguised in the mucous saliva -which has already enveloped it. - -Some snakes, though not quarrelsome at other times, for some reason -inexplicable to the looker-on, persistently set their heart on the same -bird or frog, though many are presented for their choice. In a pair -of _Tropidonoti_ at the Gardens this occurs almost every week; and in -such instances the keeper keeps a sharp watch over them; for as neither -snake will relinquish its capture, the one that begins first comes in -contact with the head of his comrade, who will assuredly be swallowed -too, were not a little moral, or rather physical coercion in the shape -of a good shaking administered. Sometimes both get their ears boxed, -figuratively; yet the discipline has no more than a passing effect, -and next week the same thing happens again. - -Not many months ago a very valuable snake was thus rescued literally -from the jaws of death. A South American rat snake (_Geoptyas -collaris_) began to eat a rabbit that was put in the cage for a python, -which also began to eat it. _Collaris_ would not let it go, and so the -python continued to advance upon it until he came to his comrade, and -proceeded with this prolonged repast. _Collaris_ is a rather large -snake of some eight or ten feet long. When nearly the whole of him had -vanished, the keeper—who, of course, had been occupied at each cage in -turn—fortunately discovered about a foot of tail fast disappearing in -the mouth of the python, the whole of _Collaris_, excepting this caudal -portion, having been swallowed. Just in time to rescue the victim, -the keeper, by his experienced manipulation, made the python open his -mouth, while the assistant helped to pull at _Collaris_. At last they -pulled back all the seven feet of snake, which sustained no further -injury than a slight scratch or two against the python’s teeth; but he -seemed none the worse, and was no sooner free than he seized a rat, -constricted and ate it with a celerity which seemed to say he would -make sure of a meal this time. - -On the following Friday the very same thing was about to occur again. -_Collaris_ had begun to swallow the python’s rabbit, the latter having -prior hold; but the keeper was on the watch, and administered a little -practical reproof which made the rat snake loosen his hold. Matters -were further complicated on this occasion by the python throwing some -coils around his intended feast, so that to get a purchase and manage -these two constrictors was less easy than on the previous occasion, -though then the snake had been swallowed. In the same cage were also -two other pythons, quite strong enough to strangle a person had -they taken a fancy to hug him round the neck. Both were aroused and -displeased at the commotion, and ready to ‘fly’ at the men, who, on the -whole, had an exciting time with the four constrictors, all from eight -to twelve feet long. - -Cannibalism is very common in snakes, particularly among the _Elapidæ_, -which have small and narrow heads, and can therefore more conveniently -swallow a fellow-creature than a bird or a quadruped. The keeper told -me that often a box arrives at the Gardens labelled ‘Ten cobras,’ -or ‘twelve,’ as may be; when, on opening the box, the number falls -short; suggesting that cannibalism has diminished the company. It is -a curious fact, however, that snakes, as a rule, seize prey whose -bulk far exceeds their own, even when a more manageable kind could be -easily caught. It is as if they were aware of the accommodating nature -of their multifold ribs; as a snake longer than themselves must be -doubled up in their stomach, and those broader than themselves must, -one would imagine, be a most uncomfortable meal to dispose of. Yet this -is common. Mr. H. W. Bates found in a jarraraca an amphisbœna larger -than itself, and in another snake a lizard whose bulk exceeded its own. -My Brazilian correspondent, Dr. Arthur Stradling, wrote me of a similar -circumstance. He received a little _Elaps lemniscatus_ in Maceio, which -presented a singularly bloated appearance. It no doubt felt itself -in a condition not favourable to rapid escape; or captivity impaired -its digestion, for ‘the next morning it disgorged an amphisbœna or -small serpent (it was half digested) actually longer than itself, and -weighing half as much again.’ - -Prodigious meals engender drowsiness, and thus the Ophidia habitually -repose a long while after taking food. - -This habit of gorging enormous prey being one of the most striking -of ophidian characteristics, it has been introduced thus early in my -work, as affording opportunity for a general glance at the anatomical -structure. In the next chapter we will enumerate a few other peculiar -features, ere proceeding to examine in detail some of the most -important organs. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_SNAKES OF FICTION AND OF FACT._ - - -IN a celebrated lecture on ‘Snakes,’ given by Mr. Ruskin at the London -Institution in March 1880, he introduced his subject with the three -considerations: ‘What has been thought about them?’ ‘What is truly -known about them?’—extremely little, as he suggested;—and, ‘What is -wisely asked about them, and what is desirable to know?’ - -The three questions exactly agree with the object of my work, this -chapter especially; and I will invite my readers to seek in their own -minds the answer to the first question, which will also furnish a -solution to the second, and, I trust, incite some interest in the third. - -The learned lecturer carried us through the realms of fancy, to conjure -up all the grotesque creatures which, under the name of ‘serpents,’ -have figured in heraldry and mythology. By these, and by the light -of the poets of old, and in later times through the naturalists of -the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we learn what a ‘serpent’ -was to them, and what it included. In remote antiquity it was an -embodiment of the hideous and the terrible; and in spite of Aristotle -(a comparatively recent authority), dragons and such-like chimærical -creatures have pervaded the mind both of the erudite and the ignorant, -in association with serpents, till within three hundred years, and are -not even yet altogether discarded. - -Nor am I inclined to believe that the terror-inspiring representations -of classic days are so unreal as might be supposed. Palæontology is -continually bringing to light new evidences of the presence of man -on the earth in ages far remote; and we do not know for certain what -strange forms of animal life were his contemporaries, or when the -faculty of speech was so far developed in him as to enable him to learn -about his predecessors, which were still more terrible. We do know that -fossils of mammoth creatures, passing strange, are coeval with fossil -human remains, and to those early types of humanity a knowledge of -still stranger creatures of reptilian forms may have been handed down -from mouth to mouth; for there is generally a germ of truth at the root -of a myth. Fossil remains tell us of the gigantic forms of ancient -reptiles, or compound reptile-fish or reptile-birds, and quadrupeds -which have gradually diminished in size or become altogether extinct as -our own period has been approached. - -Said Professor Huxley, at the British Association in 1878, ‘Within the -last twenty years we have an astonishing accumulation of evidence of -the existence of man in ages antecedent to those of which we have any -historical record. Beyond all question, man, and what is more to the -purpose, intelligent man, existed at a time when the whole physical -conformation of the country was totally different from that which now -characterizes it.’ - -Did these intelligent beings know anything of the _Dinotherium_ -(dreadful beast), or the _Dinornis_ (dreadful bird), or any other of -those fearful forms which have furnished historic ages with a dragon? - -Coming down to our own era, and the time when travel and education -first induced the observation and study of animals with a view to learn -their habits, and to arrange them under some system of classification, -we begin to see the perplexities that presented themselves to -naturalists, especially with regard to egg-producing creatures. To -Topsell, a writer of the seventeenth century, every creeping or -crawling thing was ‘a Serpente,’ and many insects were included in his -category. To Lawson, on the contrary, every egg-producing creature, if -not a bird, was an ‘Insect.’ In his _History of Carolina_, 1709, he -describes, under ‘Insects of Carolina,’ all the snakes he saw, also -the alligators, lizards, etc., and thus continues: ‘The Reptiles or -smaller Insects are too numerous to relate here, the Country affording -innumerable quantities thereof; as the Flying Stags with Horns, -Beetles, Butterflies, Grasshoppers, Locusts, and several hundred of -uncouth Shapes.’ Having thus gone through the ‘Insects,’ except the -‘Eel-snake’ (which turns out to be a ‘Loach’ or _leech_), he gets -puzzled over a ‘Tortois, vulgarly called Turtle, which I have ranked -among the Insects, because they lay Eggs, and I did not know well -where to put them.’ And Lawson was not alone in not knowing ‘where to -put’ a countless number of other creatures that go to form the endless -links in the long chain of living organisms; even plants, which, to -use Darwin’s words, ‘with animals, though most remote in the scale of -nature, are bound together by a web of complex relations.’ You may -place the dove at one end of the chain and the crocodile at the other, -without one broken link. The earliest bird which palæontology has -revealed had teeth in its bill, claws on the end of its wings, and a -long tail with feathers growing out of it, like a pinnate leaf. - -We see those strange forms reproduced in the gardens of the Crystal -Palace. Lizards with the head of a bird and other combinations, the -Pterosauria or winged-lizards, Ichthyosauria or fish-lizards, of which -some representative types still exist in the African _Lepidosiren_ -and the Mexican _Axolotl_, which have puzzled modern physiologists as -much as the Carolina tortoise puzzled Lawson; for whether to call them -reptiles or fishes was long a disputed question. Dr. Carpenter, in his -_Zoology_, reckons fifty-eight of such links among reptiles; as, for -instance, the transition from turtles to crocodiles, from tortoises -to lizards, in which latter we find the legs growing shorter, till -they are gone altogether in the blindworms and amphisbænas. These -again branch off to the cecilias, and the cecilias to worms on one -side, and to frogs on the other, having the form of a snake, but the -skin of the batrachian. There are the Ophiosaurians, snake-lizards, -and Saurophidians, lizard-snakes; there are lizard-like frogs and -frog-like lizards; some of them beginning life with gills, and becoming -air-breathers afterwards, others of saurian aspect retaining their -gills through life; and from these, again, is the transition between -reptiles and fishes. There are diminutive snakes of worm-like aspect, -and gigantic worms which might be mistaken for snakes; and among modern -naturalists, that is to say within one hundred years, worms have been -classed with reptiles when none such enormous species as those lately -found in Africa were dreamed of. - -There is in no branch of zoology so much confusion as in herpetology; -and if the reader will, with a sweep of the imagination, embrace the -innumerable forms that come under the class _Reptilia_, their various -coverings, and their close gradations, he will not wonder at this. Let -us glance at a few of the systems adopted by Linnæus and others of his -time, who, we must remember, had to combat not only inherited ideas -of ‘creeping things,’ but the difficulties presented by badly stuffed -or bottled specimens; the latter often having been so long in alcohol -that their colours had flown, or their covering changed in texture. The -Atlantic was not crossed in a week in those days; and three months, -instead of three weeks, barely sufficed to reach India, to say nothing -of inland journeys when you got there. If foreign specimens came home -after the manipulations of a taxidermist, he had done his very best to -render them as hideous as tradition painted them. Sometimes a wooden -head on a stuffed body; teeth that might furnish the jaws of the -largest felines, and a tongue to match; while with external cleansings, -scrapings, and polishings, it were hard to discover what manner of skin -had originally clothed the creature. - -Carefully chosen was Aristotle’s name for reptiles, ‘the terrestrial, -oviparous, sanguineous animals;’ for those which we are considering, -breathe by lungs, and are therefore red-blooded. Cuvier divided the -egg-producing animals into oviparous quadrupeds (lizards, turtles, -crocodiles, and frogs); bipeds, the birds; insects and serpents. -Linnæus—who, by the way, preceded Cuvier—called all reptiles -‘amphibious animals,’ of which serpents were the second order, those -‘without limbs.’ He also divided them into orders, genera, and species; -but in the Ophidia was guided too much by the scales, which has caused -confusion ever since, as both poisonous and harmless snakes often -present similar characters in this respect. - -[Illustration] - -If the reader will turn to the illustration of scales (p. 193), he will -see an example of the large scutæ or ventral plates that are possessed -by the majority of the true Ophidia. The burrowing snakes, most of -them small and allied to lizards in their structure, are protected by -a cuirass of hard, close-set, polished scales, _alike all round_; or -else with a thick, smooth skin arranged in rings. Some very poisonous -serpents, notably the sea-snakes, have also the scales alike all round, -because they do not require the hold which those large ventral scales -afford to land serpents in progression; but it will at once be seen -that on so slight a resemblance it would be unsuitable to arrange such -widely-differing families in the same group. The majority of snakes -have the scales under the tail different from those under the body; -and a very large number, both of venomous and innocuous snakes, have -broad ventral scales, as far as the termination of the body, and then a -double row where the tail commences. The accompanying illustration is -sufficient to convey a general idea of the arrangement of the scales -before and after the anus. - -Linnæus called all serpents with these two rows of sub-caudal scales, -_Colubers_, including under this name many both large and small, -land and water, poisonous and harmless snakes. In respect for the -great talent and vast work accomplished by this eminent naturalist, -as well as his then paramount and diffusive knowledge, his systems -prevailed for a very long while. Cuvier, after Linnæus, became also a -great authority for a time. He recognised distinctions in the fangs -of venomous snakes, and would reform some previous errors regarding -scales. ‘_Boa_ comprenaient autrefois tous les serpens venimeux ou -non, dont le dessous du corps et de la queue est garni de bandes d’une -seul pièce.’[5] It was equally unsuitable to mingle those with the -double rows, as it put a viper and a coluber together. Cuvier also -made closer distinctions between the lizard-like snakes and the true -Ophidia, ‘_serpens proprement dit_.’ The words _herpetology_ (from the -Greek), and _serpents_ (from the Latin _serpo_), formerly embraced a -much larger variety; the former may include _all_ reptiles, while the -more recently adopted one of _ophiology_ comprises snakes only. And the -history of the word tells of the history of the distinctions gradually -adopted as above described, as the true snakes or serpents, without -external limbs, were separated from the rest. - -The various names for a snake—Anguis, Serpens, Coluber, etc.—having -been made generic distinctions by some of the older naturalists, cause -considerable puzzle to the student, who finds these words applied -alike to many varying species in as many books, because a writer has -often taken one author for his guide, instead of comparing a number. -Many modern writers on ophiology give us a list of synonymes, which -in time are found to unravel the above perplexities, but which are at -first more puzzling than not, because a single snake is presented to -you under so many different names. This will be apparent in the course -of this work, wherein much that is merely suggestive in the present -chapter will be treated more fully under various headings, without, I -trust, offering a too wearisome repetition. Indeed, the whole study of -the Ophidia presents so many exceptions that recapitulations may be -acceptable rather than otherwise. An interlacing of subjects has not -here been avoided so much as contrived, in the hope of presenting the -whole more clearly to the mind of the student. - -Ruskin favoured his audience with printed lists of the ‘names of the -snake tribe in the great languages.’ And these I gladly reproduce for -the benefit of my readers. - - -‘NAMES OF THE SNAKE TRIBE IN THE GREAT LANGUAGES.’ - - 1. Ophis (Greek), ‘the seeing’ (creature, understood). Meaning - especially one that sees all round it. - - 2. Dracon (Greek), Drachen (German), ‘the beholding.’ Meaning one that - looks well into a thing, or person. - - 3. Anguis (Latin), ‘the strangling.’ - - 4. Serpens (Latin), ‘the winding.’ - - 5. Coluber (Latin), Couleuvre (French), ‘the coiling.’ - - 6. Adder (Saxon), ‘the grovelling.’ - - 7. Snake (Saxon), Schlange (German), ‘the crawling’ (with sense of - dragging, and of smoothness). - -The first, and _Ophidion_, a small serpent, _Ophiodes_, etc., have -given the name _Ophiology_ to the science; the second was also a -‘serpente’ in days of yore. The third, _Anguis_, is now applied to some -of the smooth, burrowing snakes; and the rest speak for themselves. - -Before quite taking leave of obsolete teachings, a few lines from -two very distinguished authors of the seventeenth century must be -quoted, the influence of both having no doubt gone a great way towards -diffusing beliefs. Lord Bacon—in his book, _Of the Proficience and -Aduancement of Learning, Diuine and Humane_. To the King. 1605—writes, -‘It is not possible to join Serpentine Wisdom with the Columbine -Innocency, except men know exactly all the conditions of the Serpent; -his Baseness and going upon his Belly, his Volubility and Lubricity, -his Envy and Sting; for without this, Virtue lyeth unfenced.’ - -What quality is to be understood by ‘Volubility,’ the reader must -decide. Of the other five offences, all except that of crawling are -simply imaginary. By ‘Lubricity,’ a supposed sliminess may be intended, -or the old fable of ‘licking’ the prey; and the only reasonable -interpretation of the ‘Sting’ is that the old Saxon word _styng_ did -imply a wound punctured or pierced with any fine, sharp instrument; and -the venomous tooth is not so very unlike an insect’s sting after all. - -The next is from _Pepys’ Diary_, vol. i. p. 322.—Feb. 4th, -1661:—‘Mr. Templer, an ingenious Man, discoursing of the Nature of -Serpents, told us that some in the waste Places of Lincolnshire do grow -to a Great Bigness, and do feed upon Larkes which they take thus:—They -observe when the Larke is soared to the Highest, and do crawl till they -come to be just underneath them, and there they place themselves with -their mouth uppermost; and there, as it is conceived, they do eject -Poyson upon the Bird; for the Bird do suddenly come down again in its -course of a Circle, and falls directly into the Mouth of the Snake.’ - -This story, founded on fact, is related by a beholder who, to use the -words of Dr. Andrew Wilson when discoursing on ‘Zoological Myths,’ made -‘an unscientific use of his imagination.’ Our largest English snake has -no poison to ‘eject, as it was conceived.’ Quite possible that it might -have looked up towards the singing lark, and with the swiftness of the -bird in its descent, glided towards the spot, ready to pounce upon it. -The absurdity of poison being ejected upwards through a needle-like -fang,—had the snake possessed such an instrument,—and to such a -height, is evident. - -Having reduced a very large circle of anomalous reptiles, till the -Ophidia only are in possession of the enclosure, let me endeavour -to dispose of these according to the present accepted methods—not -of classification, or this volume would be mere lists of names. In -1858, when Dr. Günther arranged and classified the collection in -the British Museum, there were 3100 colubrine snakes (those with no -viperine features); and when you think of these three thousand odd -having, on an average, a dozen names each (the reason for which is -deferred till the later chapters), my readers will cheerfully dispense -with much in the way of classes and orders, especially as the present -methods are reckoned very defective, and there is a loud cry for a new -classification of the _Reptilia_. Already the reader can surmise some -of the difficulties, and they will be more evident as we proceed. - -The whole order of Ophidia may be divided into the venomous and the -non-venomous, or into other two divisions, viz. those which approach -the Saurians, having scales alike all round, vestiges of shoulder bones -and hind limbs, and with ribs nearly encircling the body; and those -which have the broad ventral plates, no rudimentary limbs, and a tongue -far more extensible than the previous group. - -It will not, I trust, be out of place to introduce a table as presented -to us at some of the ‘Davis Lectures’ at the London Zoological Gardens; -for I think I am safe in saying this arrangement is adopted by nearly -all our living authorities. To go back to the days of our childhood -and the game of ‘Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral?’—the original three -kingdoms of Nature,—the first heads our table: ANIMAL KINGDOM. Next -comes the sub-kingdom, comprising five divisions, namely mammals, -birds, reptiles, frogs, and fishes, each of which is divided into -class, order, family, genus, species, with sometimes a sub-class or -a sub-order. Professor St. George Mivart divides the whole of the -reptiles into—(1) _Chelonia_, the tortoises; (2) _Ophidia_, the -snakes; (3) _Crocodilia_, or _Loricata_, the crocodiles; (4) _Sauria_, -the lizards. _Batrachia_, the frogs, he separates, because they begin -life as a fish. Originally there were nine orders of reptiles; then -for a long while we were taught that there were four,—Chelonians, -Ophidians, Saurians, and Batrachians. Every one of the above so merges -into the others that many herpetologists differ in drawing the lines -between them. - -If we were asked to define our little friend, the ring snake, that ate -a frog while we were studying his anatomy, we would say that he belongs -to the— - - 1. ANIMAL KINGDOM. - 2. SUB-KINGDOM, _Vertebrata_. - 3. CLASS, _Reptilia_. - 4. ORDER, _Ophidia_. - 5. FAMILY, _Tropidonotus_. - 6. GENUS, _Coluber_. - 7. SPECIES, _Natrix_. - -He is most frequently known as _Coluber natrix_, though as both words -mean simply a snake, the name is inadequate. In fact, our common -English snake has been rather neglected in the way of titles, the -only generic name which is at all descriptive being _Tropidonotus_, -so called from the keel which characterizes the scales. So he is -_Tropidonotus natrix_, and _Natrix tropidonotus_, and _Natrix torquata_ -of the different authors, the last-named specific presumably given on -account of the collar which he wears, and which being often yellow, -has gained for him the name of ‘ring snake.’ _Coluber natrix_, having -so few synonymes, they are all given, in illustration of what has -been already said of the perplexity of names assigned by different -naturalists. And, by the way, this ‘ring’ or ‘collar’ is not an -invariable mark. Sometimes the yellow is wanting altogether, and only -a white collar is displayed. At the time of writing[6] there is one -of these snakes at the Zoological Gardens with not the least tint of -yellow on its neck; and I have before me in alcohol a very young and -beautiful little specimen in which the white collar is very bright -and large, and set off with deep black behind it, but there is not an -approach to yellow or to a ring, the throat being pure white. His Latin -specific is therefore more appropriate than his English one, the collar -being always there, but not always the ring. - -Dr. Günther divides the whole of the Ophidia into five groups, and in -briefly describing these I shall hope to conduct my readers towards -a consideration of those remarkable features which will be discussed -under their various heads, and which will exhibit the class as unique -in their marvellous organization and physical powers. - -The five groups are— - - 1. BURROWING SNAKES. - 2. GROUND SNAKES. - 3. TREE SNAKES. - 4. FRESH-WATER SNAKES. - 5. SEA SNAKES. - -(1) The _Burrowing Snakes_ live chiefly underground, some of them -working their way down like the worms; and to fit them for this life -they are characterized by having short stiff bodies covered with hard, -firm, close scales, to form an armour. Most of them have short and -rather curious tails, as described in chap. xi.; but many that burrow -and hide in the ground live a good deal on the surface as well. Our -little native slow-worm (_Anguis fragilis_) is allied to these. Their -heads are small and narrow, their muzzle smooth and strong to help them -to work their way. Their jaws do not stretch apart, nor does their head -get out of shape in eating, the bones being all more consolidated; -and their food being chiefly insects, slugs, worms, etc., they seize -upon these, and hold them, and then with quick snaps get them down -their throats. Many of them have rudiments of a sternum, and pelvic -bones—_vestiges_, perhaps, is a more correct term, as we shall find -by and by, for their saurian ancestors had perfect limbs. The group is -large, perfectly harmless, and has representatives in most countries -where a snake or a lizard is to be found. None are of great size. - -(2) The _Ground Snakes_ include by far the greatest number and -diversity, and though passing their time chiefly on the surface like -our ‘ring-snake,’ can both climb trees and enjoy the water. Some of the -most venomous as well as the harmless and gentle kinds, and some of the -largest as well as the smallest, live habitually on the ground. To fit -them for progression, they have the broad ventral scales described on -p. 46, wide dilatable jaws like _Coluber natrix_, and scales of various -patterns and colourings. Vipers, the cobras, the coronellas, the boas, -moccasins, ‘carpet snakes,’ and other familiar names belong to this -large group. - -(3) _Tree Snakes_ include both venomous and innocent genera. They are -none of them large, many of them of a brilliant green, and some of them -exquisitely beautiful. Slender and active, the harmless kinds skim -among the branches, which scarcely bend beneath their weight. Many of -them have small and peculiarly arranged ventral shields, not requiring -to hold on in progression; many also have long prehensile tails, which -wind and cling while the little acrobats swing to and fro, or hang down -to take a young bird or an egg out of the nest. The poisonous kinds -of tree snakes abound in India, have a thick body, broad head, and a -dull, sluggish habit, but still are handsome as to colour, and mostly -green. They hide in the trunks of trees, or in the hollow forks of the -branches, and rarely venture upon the ground. Some, however, live only -in bushy foliage lower down, while other arboreal species frequent the -highest branches, where, moving with amazing celerity, they are as much -at home as the feathered inhabitants. - -(4) _Fresh-Water Snakes_ are especially adapted for an aquatic -existence, and have their nostrils on the top of the snout, to enable -them to breathe easily when in the water. Some of them can hold on -to weeds or other things by their tails. They swim and dive, and are -as active as eels. None are very large, and all are harmless. But a -good many of the second group that are poisonous, spend so much of -their time in the water that they are known as ‘water vipers,’ ‘water -moccasins,’ etc., though not truly water snakes. - -(5) _Sea Snakes._—All highly venomous. These, as also the fresh-water -snakes, are treated fully in chapters xiii. and xiv. The five divisions -assist the student towards grasping an idea of the principal groups, -but the whole five pass into each other by intermediate forms and -imperceptible degrees. - -Some other general characteristics of the Ophidia are that all -are carnivorous, catching their prey alive; all are oviparous; -and in organization and intelligence they rank between birds and -fishes,—higher than fishes in having lungs, and lower than birds, -which are warm-blooded animals. Their heart is so formed as to send -only a portion of blood to the lungs on each contraction of it; -their temperature, therefore, is that of the surrounding atmosphere -(see p. 142). Their normal condition, particularly that of the -venomous species, is one of lethargic repose and indolence, with a -disposition to retreat and hide, rather than to obtrude themselves. -On this account, and also because so many of them are nocturnal in -their habits, less has been truly known of serpents than of most -other creatures, prejudice having added to a prevailing indifference -regarding them. The duration of their lives is uncertain, or whether -they have a stated period of growth. Some naturalists think they grow -all their lives; but this must not be taken literally, or that if a -small snake happened to escape dangers, and live a very long while, it -would acquire the dimensions of a python. Some think that formerly the -constrictors did attain more formidable proportions than those of the -present day. - -Snakes have small brains, slight intelligence, and slow sensations, -amounting almost to insensibility to pain. They can live a long while -without their brains and without their heart; while the latter, if -taken from the body, will continue its pulsations for a considerable -time. Also if the head be severed, the body will for a certain time -continue to move, coil, and even spring, and the head will try to bite, -and the tongue dart out as in life. - -Persons who dislike snakes continually ask, ‘What is the use of them?’ -That they are not without a use will, I hope, appear in the course of -this work, were it necessary to preach that _all_ things have their -use. But in one habit that offended Lord Bacon, viz. of ‘going on -their belly,’ lies one of their greatest uses, because that, together -with their internal conformation and external covering, enables them -to penetrate where no larger carnivorous animal could venture, into -dense and noisome morasses, bogs, jungles, swamps, amid the tangled -vegetation of the tropics, where swarms of the lesser reptiles, on -which so many of them feed, would otherwise outbalance the harmony -of nature, die, and produce pestilences. Wondrously and exquisitely -constructed for their habitat, they are able to exist where the higher -animals could not; and while they help to clear those inaccessible -places of the lesser vermin, they themselves supply food for a number -of the smaller mammalia, which, with many carnivorous birds, devour -vast numbers of young snakes. The hedgehog, weasel, ichneumon, rat, -peccary, badger, hog, goat, and an immense number of birds keep snakes -within due limits, while the latter perform their part among the -grain-devouring and herbivorous lesser creatures. Thus beautifully is -the balance of nature maintained. - -Dr. Kirtland, an eminent naturalist of Ohio, who lived at a time when -that State was being very rapidly settled, namely, during the early -and middle part of the present century, observed a great increase of -certain snakes as game birds which fed on them decreased. The latter -were, of course, in request for the market, and the snakes, the ‘black -snake’ particularly, having fewer enemies to consume him, flourished -accordingly. It would be worth while to ascertain whether the farmer -in Ohio had reason to rejoice over this redundancy of rat and vermin -consumers. At the present time, when so much of the land is under -cultivation, snakes have decreased again through human agency. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -_OPHIDIAN TASTE FOR BIRDS’ EGGS._ - - -CAN we correctly say that snakes have a ‘taste’ for eggs? What flavour -can there be in an egg-shell, and what pleasure or gratification can -a snake derive from swallowing a hard, round, tasteless, apparently -odourless, and inconvenient mass like a large egg? - -That snakes do devour eggs and swallow them whole, though the -fact is often questioned in zoological journals, is well known in -countries where snakes abound. Therefore, we are led to consider by -what extraordinary insight or perception a snake discovers that this -uncompromising solid contains suitable food? Avoiding, as snakes do as -a rule, all dead or even motionless food, it is the more surprising -that eggs should prove an exception. And not merely the small and -soft-shelled eggs of little birds, that can be got easily into the -mouth and swallowed, but the eggs of poultry and the larger birds, -which must in the first place be difficult to grasp, and in the second -place to which the jaws so wonderfully adjust themselves that the egg -passes down entire into the stomach. - -Many snakes which do not habitually live in trees, will climb them -in search of birds’ eggs; and many others, not so agile in climbing, -consume vast numbers of eggs from the nests of birds which build upon -the ground. In countries where snakes are numerous and population -sparse, their depredations in the poultry-yards of secluded residences -are of common occurrence. And it is a noteworthy fact that the crawling -culprits possess an excellent memory for the localities of hens’ nests, -so that when once the eggs have been missing, and the snake’s tracks -discovered, the farm-hands well know that the offence will be repeated, -and watch for the thief, to whom no mercy is shown. But between their -virtues as mousers and their vices as egg-thieves, an American farmer -does sometimes hesitate in destroying certain non-venomous snakes, and -may occasionally feel disposed to save his crops, to the sacrifice of -his wife’s poultry-yard. - -A gentleman, long a resident in India, informed me that a cobra once -got through a chink into his hen-house, and ate so many eggs from under -a sitting hen, that it could not effect its exit through the same -chink, and so remained half in and half out, where the next morning it -was discovered in a very surfeited condition. It was immediately killed -and cut open, when, as the eggs were found to be unbroken and still -warm, the experiment was tried of replacing them under the mother, -who in due time hatched the brood none the worse for this singular -‘departure’ in their process of incubation. - -In another poultry-yard a cobra was found coiled in a hen’s nest, from -which all the eggs were gone but two. In this case, also, the snake -had swallowed more than it could conveniently manage, but either alarm, -capture, or greediness so impaired its digestion that all the eggs were -ejected entire! - -A similar incident was recorded in the _Field_ newspaper, in May 1867, -the editor introducing the narrator as one of undoubted intelligence -and veracity. - -His gardener informed him that a cobra had attacked a guinea-fowl’s -nest in the compound. He took his gun and repaired immediately to -the spot, where he saw the cobra making off, followed by a host of -screaming fowls. The gentleman shot the culprit through the head, and -then observed a tumour-like swelling, as of an egg recently swallowed. -The gardener cut the reptile open, and took out the egg safe and sound. -The gentleman marked the egg, and set it with fourteen others under a -guinea-fowl. In due time the young chick was hatched; and this he also -marked, in order to observe whether it would grow up a healthy bird, -which it did. - -Several other well-authenticated instances of this nature might be -related; but those who have friends or relatives in India are no doubt -sufficiently familiar with such stories to dispense with them here. - -Aware of a cobra’s penchant for eggs, the snake-catchers, or those who -pack them for transportation to Europe, sometimes place a supply in the -cages, as convenient food for the snakes during the voyage. The keeper -of the Ophidarium[7] at the London Zoological Gardens frequently finds -hens’ eggs unbroken on opening a case containing the newly-arrived -cobras. How many eggs were originally in the box, and how many had -been eaten and digested, or reproduced during the voyage, it would be -interesting to ascertain if possible. - -Snakes are fastidious feeders and long fasters during confinement. -Those cobras may have fasted during the whole journey, or they may have -swallowed and disgorged the eggs through terror, like their friends -at home. Two things are clear, viz. that the eggs were deposited in -the cage as a favourite delicacy, and that a hen’s egg is not a too -cumbrous morsel for even the small-headed cobra to manage. - -A gentleman, accustomed to snakes, on hearing of this, regarded the -eggs found intact in the box as a proof against their egg-eating -propensities, and pointed to the Ophiophagus which, for lack of his -ordinary food one winter, had in vain been tempted with both pigeons’ -and hens’ eggs. ‘He won’t eat them, he won’t notice them,’ was the -keeper’s testimony; but, then, other snakes often decline food, even -their habitual and favourite food, when in confinement; and so far as -the Indian snakes are concerned, their egg-eating habits are confirmed -by many writers, including Sir Joseph Fayrer, who affirms that ‘they -will eat and swallow the eggs whole.’ ‘Snakes are all carnivorous, -existing on animals and birds’ eggs,’ he again remarks.[8] ‘Cobras rob -hen-roosts, and swallow the eggs whole.’[9] - -And does not the very fact of the eggs being placed in the cages by the -natives for their food during a journey, show that these latter knew -what would be most likely to tempt them? - -The Indian vernacular of the Ophiophagus is _Sunkerchor_, which means, -as Fayrer tells us, ‘a breaker of shells.’ I have taken some pains to -ascertain a more definite reason for this name being assigned to the -Ophiophagus, or snake-eater, but without success. Is it because he is -an _exception_ to the rule of eggs being swallowed _whole_, he having -for his size a particularly small mouth and swallow; and that he, like -his relatives the cobras, being unwilling to relinquish the dainty, -manages them clumsily, and breaks the shells? There must be some reason -for his being known as the ‘shell-breaker.’ - -Being a tree snake, it may be that ‘Sunkerchor,’ the shell-breaker, -attempts the smaller birds’ eggs, which are too tender to be swallowed -without fracture. - -The cobra-worshipping Hindûs on their festivals place eggs for their -gods, that they also may partake of the feast. - -But examples of egg-eating snakes are not confined to India. America, -the Cape colonies, and all snake countries are prolific of them. - -Mr. P. H. Gosse in Jamaica killed a yellow boa (_Chilobothrus -inornatus_), inside of which he found seven unbroken hen’s eggs. It had -been caught in a rat trap. - -Catesby, the early American naturalist, in describing the corn-coloured -snake, says ‘it is harmless except as a robber of hens’ roosts.’ -Lawson, the still earlier traveller, in his quaint description of the -‘Racer,’ or ‘black snake’ (_Coluber constrictor_), says:—‘He is an -excellent Egg Merchant, for he does not suck the Eggs, but swallows -them whole. He will often swallow all the Eggs from under a Hen that -sits, and coil himself under the Hen in the nest, where sometimes the -Housewife finds him.’ Lawson, also, describes the ‘Egg and Chicken -Snake’ (a doubtful vernacular), ‘so called because it is frequent about -the Hen-Yard, and eats Eggs and Chickens.’ The early American settlers -guarded their poultry-yards against snakes as vigilantly as against -rats, foxes, and other such predators. As for the ‘black snake,’ though -non-venomous, all rearers of poultry visit him with vengeance. - -Often in our rambles through the woods in Virginia we saw these snakes, -and the swiftness with which they would vanish through the grass like -a flash of steel, proved how well they merited their name of ‘Racer.’ -These are the ‘black snakes’ _par excellence_, in distinction to the -black water-viper and several other kinds which have more or less black -about them. Sometimes they lay basking in our path, probably after a -meal, when they become sleepy and inactive. On one such occasion I had -an excellent opportunity of examining one of them, and of measuring -it. It was exactly six feet long, and in the largest part as thick as -a man’s arm. Its scales were beautifully bright, like an armour of -steel, the white throat and pale under tints completing the resemblance -of polished metal. It was sleeping on a soft carpet of moss and grass -which bordered our sandy path, and which showed the Racer to great -advantage. My young companion, a Virginian boy to whom no sport came -amiss, espied it with delight, and ran to pick up a stout stick. -Knowing that it was harmless, and so excellent a mouser, I pleaded for -its life; for in truth the nocturnal visitors in the shape of rats -at our country dwelling were so noisy and numerous, that I regarded -the Racer as a friend rather to be encouraged and domesticated than -ruthlessly slain. Its couch now, in its spring green and freshness, -was enamelled with the star-like partridge-berry (_Mitchella repens_), -dotted here and there with twin coral berries that had lingered through -the winter; the bright-leaved, white-flowered winter green (_Chimaphila -maculata_); the Bluets (_Oldenlandia purpurea_), and other exquisite -little flowers too lovely to be crushed and tainted; while a sunbeam -glancing through the trees, and showing up the polished scales of the -unconscious Racer, all seemed eloquent with mercy. - -It was the first time I had been close enough to touch so large a -snake; and the whole scene is vividly before me now. Culprit though it -might be, it was splendid and beautiful; and I entreated Johnny to wait -and wake it up, so that we might watch its actions. - -‘All very fine!’ cried the boy, not yet in his teens, ‘and fourteen -more eggs gone from the hen-house last night!’ - -So he pounced upon a fallen bough, which he rapidly trimmed to suit -his purpose, then with one sharp blow across the poor thing’s back, -disabled it. I think the snake was quite killed by the blows the boy -subsequently dealt, for I do not remember that it moved at all. - -‘_Now_ you can look at it as much as you please,’ said the juvenile -sportsman as he straightened the reptile out to its full length. Then I -examined and measured it, and found it was more than two lengths of my -long-handled parasol. Black creatures with two hands and two legs were -far more likely to be the egg-stealers than that poor Racer far off in -the woods. - -This ‘black snake’ climbs trees with ease, and hangs from a branch to -reach a nest below him. ‘He is the nimblest creature living,’ says an -old writer on Virginia, for he not only has the credit of stealing -hens’ eggs, but he ‘even swallows the eggs of small birds, without -breaking them,’ which again is a proof of the remarkable control these -creatures possess of regulating the pressure of their powerful jaws. - -Many of the African snakes climb trees, and also suspend themselves -from a branch while reaching into a bird’s nest lower down for the -eggs it may contain. Both Livingstone and Dr. Andrew Smith[10] make -particular mention of some of the egg-eating snakes of South Africa, -the latter in his general description of ophidians stating that ‘many, -perhaps all snakes, devour eggs when they have an opportunity. A few -feed entirely on eggs,’ notably some of the small tree snakes, to which -the name _Oligodon_ (few teeth) has been given, this family having no -teeth on the palate, like all other snakes. Their food, therefore, -cannot be of a nature to require a very strong grasp, though we have no -authority for stating that the _Oligodons_ feed exclusively on eggs. - -There is, however, one of the family with a dentition so remarkable -that it has been considered a distinct type, and Dr. Andrew Smith, -who was the first to observe its habits, gave it the generic name -of _Anodon_ (toothless), the jaws being merely roughened with the -rudiments of teeth. This little snake, of about two feet in length, is -exclusively an egg-feeder. ‘Its business,’ says Professor Owen in his -_Odontography_, ‘is to restrain the undue increase of small birds by -devouring their eggs.’ Its remarkable organization is favourable for -the passage of these thin-shelled eggs unbroken until far back in the -throat or gullet, when the egg comes in contact with certain ‘gular -teeth,’ which then break the shell without any loss of the contents to -the feeder. These gular teeth are a curious modification of some of -the spinal processes, presenting a singular anomaly in the presence of -points of enamel on the extremity of some of them. - -Professor Owen has very fully described this remarkable -development,[11] and as his works have been the text-books of many -later physiologists, his words may here be quoted, even at the risk of -repetition. - -‘In the rough tree snake, _Deirodon scaber_, with 256 vertebræ, -a hypapophysis—from ὑπὸ (Latin, _sub_), an offshoot from -beneath—projects from the 32 anterior ones, which are directed -backwards in the first ten, and incline forwards in the last ten, -where they are unusually long, and tipped with a layer of hard cement -(dentine). These perforate the dorsal parietes of the œsophagus, and -serve as teeth. - -‘Those who are acquainted with the habits and food of this species -have shown how admirably this apparent defect—viz. the lack of -teeth—is adapted to its well-being. Now, if the teeth had existed -of the ordinary form and proportions in the maxillary and palatal -regions, the egg must have been broken as soon as it was seized, and -much of the nutritious contents would have escaped from the lipless -mouth; but owing to the almost edentulous state of the jaws, the -egg glides along the expanded mouth unbroken, and not until it has -reached the gullet, and the closed mouth prevents the escape of any -of the nutritious matter, is it exposed to the instruments adapted to -its perforation. These instruments consist of the inferior spinous -processes,’ etc., already described. ‘They may be readily seen even in -very small subjects, in the interior of that tube in which their points -are directed backwards. The shell being sawed open longitudinally by -these vertebral teeth, the egg is crushed by the contractions of the -gullet, and is carried to the stomach, where the shell is no doubt soon -dissolved by the acid gastric juice.’ - -[Illustration: - -Portion of spine of the Deirodon, from Andrew Smith’s -_Zoology of South Africa_. - -Gular teeth penetrating into the gullet, _ib._ - -Portion of spine from a skeleton at the museum of the R. -C. S., natural size.] - -The two from Smith’s _Zoology_ must be much magnified; the third, from -the skeleton, being the true size, excepting that the ribs are broken -short off, some entirely so. The minute processes extend two or more -inches. - -As the learned professor has described the _Deirodon_ (neck-toothed) -both under the head of teeth, and also of vertebrated animals, the two -accounts are blended, but given _verbatim_ as far as possible. - -The colour of the _Deirodon_ is of a brightish or yellowish brown, very -minutely spotted with white. Such few true teeth as some individuals -may possess are extremely small and conical, discovered only towards -the angle of the mouth. - -Dr. Andrew Smith first examined a specimen in 1829, when he found that -the gular teeth commence exactly 2-1/4 inches behind the apex of the -lower jaw, and penetrate the œsophagal canal through small holes in its -tunics, and that each point is armed with enamel. He had observed that -the living specimens which he had in captivity always, when feeding, -retained the egg stationary about two inches from their head, and while -there, used great efforts to crush it. Dissecting a specimen in order -to investigate this strange action, he discovered the gular teeth just -where the egg had stopped, and which, he felt satisfied, had assisted -in fixing it there, and also in breaking the shell when subjected to -the muscular action of the surrounding parts. The gular teeth are -developed in very young _Deirodons_. - -Dr. Smith saw that the broken shell was ejected, while the fluid -contents were conveyed onwards; but this may have been an exceptional -case, because by a snake in health egg-shells are easily digested. -Probably those snakes watched by Dr. A. Smith being captives, and -presumably not altogether as happy and healthy as in their sylvan -homes, found the shells too much for them, and so ejected them; as -the cobras above described disgorged the stolen eggs. This habit of -disgorging food appears to be sometimes voluntary. - -Snakes have been known to pass the egg through their body entire, but -this also must be owing to an abnormal state of health or of habit, as -the strong juices of the stomach, which can convert even bones and horn -to nutriment, ordinarily dissolve an egg-shell. - -Throughout nature we find that, whatever the habits of the creature may -be, its structure and capacities are adapted to it. Every need is, as -it were, anticipated in the process of development; and wherever, as -in this harmless little tree snake, we find a departure from general -rules, it is because some especial requirements are met, and in order -that the creature may be the better prepared for the struggle for -existence. In the present example we find a marvellous adaptation of -spine bones to dental purposes; how many ages it has taken to develop -them we cannot conjecture. All we know is that these spinal projections -are just the sort of teeth that the egg-swallower requires, and that -its natural teeth are gradually becoming obsolete from disuse. - -A writer who was quoted at some length in the _Zoologist_ for 1875, and -in several other contemporary journals, stated that some snakes ‘suck -out the contents of hen’s eggs by making a hole at the end.’[12] - -We are not told with what instrument these evidently scientific -serpents punctured the shell. Some skill is required, as schoolboys -give us to understand, to prick an egg-shell without breaking it; and -even when the hole _is_ bored, additional care is required to suck out -the contents. How a snake could first grasp firmly, and then puncture a -fowl’s egg, is incomprehensible; how the sucking process is achieved -is still more so. We can understand that a snake which discovered a -broken egg might seem to lap some of the contents, because, as we shall -by and by show, the tongue habitually investigates, and is immediately -in requisition under all circumstances. But to lap up an egg would be a -very slow process for so slender an instrument. One is reminded of the -dinner which Sir Reynard invited his friend the Stork to partake with -him. - -While still marvelling over these South African egg-suckers, I -watched some lizards with a broken egg in their cage. Their tongues -were long, thin, blade-like, and bifid, much better adapted for -the purpose of lapping than that of a snake, yet stupidly slow and -inefficient was this ribbon-like tongue. The lizards threw it out, -spatula-fashion, into the midst of the pool of egg which was spreading -itself over the floor, and caught whatever of the fluid adhered to it. -Had the lizards possessed lips adapted for such a purpose, and, in -addition, intelligence enough to ‘suck,’ they might have drawn some -of the cohesive mass into their throats, but they only obeyed their -instinctive habit of lapping. Snakes would do the same. Their habit -is to moisten the tongue in lapping; and I fear we must not place too -much credence in the exceptional intelligence of that South African -egg-sucker, but rather regret the loose account which conveys so -erroneous an impression. I watched those lizards for many minutes, and -decided that the egg would be dried up long before it could be consumed -by lizard-lapping. - -The tongue of a snake is undoubtedly an important and highly-developed -organ. That its sensitiveness assists the smell, we have reason to -believe, and possibly it possesses other faculties of which we are at -present ignorant. In the case of an unbroken egg, for instance, the -tongue has told the snake that there is something good inside it; and -instinct immediately leads the reptile to get the awkward mouthful -between its jaws, which expand just so far as to retain it safely, -yet just so lightly that not one of those rows of long, sharp teeth -shall penetrate the shell or fracture it in the slightest degree. How -delicate must be the adjustment whereby those six jaws, all bristling -with fine, needle-like teeth, grasp and yet not break the delicate -shell! for, after all, an egg _is_ a fragile substance in proportion to -the size of the feeder and its muscular power. - -Snakes have been known to get choked in attempting to swallow an egg, -as they have also come to grief with other impediments, such as horns -of cattle; but this we must attribute to their not being able to -estimate their own swallowing capacities, or to some other untoward -event. - -The Messrs. Woodward’s scientific snake would not have crept into -these pages had it not previously figured in the _Zoologist_, and -thence copied in other prints, thereby misleading many readers. It -also proved a subject worth discussing by thinking persons, and was -alluded to very particularly by an ophiological friend and publisher -in a letter to myself, which may be here usefully quoted. My friend, -who has long stimulated me by his kind encouragement of my work, and by -the assistance of his experience and judgment, was pleased to express -much interest in a little paper on the _Deirodon_[13], which I had -written for _Aunt Judy’s Magazine_, he having read it shortly before -the appearance of the Messrs. Woodward’s statement in the _Zoologist_, -April 1875:— - -‘In this month’s _Zoologist_,’ wrote my friend, ‘a writer says that a -certain snake makes havoc of the hen-house, by boring a hole in the -egg and sucking its contents! Can this be true? To a letter of mine to -Mr. Newman (the then editor of the _Zoologist_), on the subject, he -replies, “With regard to snakes eating eggs, it has been repeated so -often that I cannot help fearing Mr. Woodward may have _imbibed the -notion from American sources_. It is so common in the United States to -find snakes in holes in the bottoms of trees made by woodpeckers, that -it seems almost impossible to resist the conviction that they enter -these holes to get the birds themselves, or their young, or their eggs. -It must be regretted that those witnesses who come into court with -such evidence are not, generally speaking, the kind of close observers -in whose dicta we can place implicit reliance.” This,’ continues my -correspondent, ‘Mr. Newman writes after I had suggested that some -families of snakes have triturating powers (learned from _Aunt Judy_) -in the throat, independent altogether of palatal teeth. The subject -seems to be as much steeped in the unknown, as are the ways of the -beautiful creatures themselves.’ - -This from a well-known and highly-popular publisher, a man of -education, culture, and scientific attainments, though snakes hitherto -had not been his specialty, any more than that of the late editor of -the _Zoologist_. The latter, however, admitting his doubts on the -subject of ophidian egg-feeders, would have done well to have added -a note to that effect to the account given by Mr. Woodward, which, -simply from its appearance in a scientific journal, might be received -as authority. - -A few more well-known proofs of ophidian taste for eggs may conclude -this chapter. Of our own green or ring snake (_Coluber natrix_), Mr. -Bell says, ‘It feeds upon young birds, _eggs_, and mice, but prefers -frogs.’ In Balfour’s _India_, on the subject of cobra-worship, mention -is made of the snakes getting into larders for _eggs_ and milk, and -being protected as the good genius of the house on such occasions. - -But the Hindû custom of placing eggs for snakes at their serpent -festivals must be too familiar to most of my readers to need further -comment. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -_DO SNAKES DRINK?_ - - -PERHAPS in no other branch of natural history has such a degree of -interest been awakened during the last decade, and such an advance made -as in ophiology. The result of a spirit of inquiry thus set afloat is -that information is being continually elicited from travellers and -observers. Those who now entertain predilections for this branch of -science, will many of them admit that whatever interest they feel in -the subject has been of a comparatively recent date; that since they -have at all studied snake nature, they have repeatedly had to combat -with preconceived notions. Again and again they have been ‘surprised to -learn that so-and-so’—some now established fact, perhaps—is the case, -when they had ‘_always_ thought’—probably something quite the contrary. - -This has been frequently verified in my own experience in my -correspondence with really scholarly men, who have generously admitted -as much. Not a few, during my ten years’ study of the Ophidia, have -traced their interest in snakes to my own enthusiasm. Preconceived -errors are not to be wondered at when we consider that, apart from -scientific works, so much that has been related of serpents has -been mingled with prejudice, fable, and tradition, clouding our -intelligence at the very outset. Nor need we hesitate in admitting our -misconceptions, when we find scientific men themselves devoting page -after page to a mooted question, and after all, sometimes venturing to -sum up a given subject with a modest doubt only. (Would that the less -scientific writers were equally cautious in their statements!) Whether -snakes drink, and _what_ they drink, have been among these debated -questions. - -Those who possess a love for natural history are, of course, acquainted -with the works of the eminent naturalist, Dr. Thomas Bell, on our -native fauna; and those who admit their interest in the much-maligned -snakes have included in their studies his _British Reptiles_.[14] In -one portion of that work, where science is so charmingly blended with -personal observations, we are carried on to the heaths and commons to -watch our pretty little agile lizards skim across the grass, and flit -away with legs too fleet for us to follow them. - -We linger on the banks of a stream where a ring snake lies in wait for -a frog; and then we are conducted into Mr. Bell’s study, where the same -harmless creature, now tamed, is nestling in his sleeve, or lapping -milk from his hand. - -Most of my readers also, whether naturalists or not, are familiar -with some of the numerous works on India, its creeds, customs, and -superstitions, where mention is so frequently made of cobra-worship, -and of the natives setting saucers of milk near its hole to conciliate -and propitiate the serpent. Familiar to us all, too, is the picture of -a little child with a bowl of milk on its lap, and a snake receiving -a tap with the spoon to check the too greedy intrusion of its head -into the bowl, but into which, according to the story, it had been -accustomed and permitted to dip its tongue. Some persons place that -story in Wales; others, and with better reason, trace it to New -England. The child and its surroundings, the size of the snake, all -justify this latter belief, and that the intruder is the notorious -milk-stealer so common in the United States, the ‘black snake,’ or -Racer (introduced p. 64). - -In the face of these well-known facts, it may seem strange to propose -the question, ‘Do snakes ever drink?’ and still stranger to affirm that -this was lately a disputed point among some of our scientific writers. -‘On s’ignore,’ says Schlegel, ‘si les serpents boivent, et s’il est -juste d’opiner pour la negative; toutefois on n’a jamais aperçu des -fluides dans ceux dont on a examiné l’estomac.’[15] - -Schlegel, when he wrote, had not the benefit of Mr. Bell’s experience, -and as a foreigner, probably he had not read Jesse’s _Gleanings_ nor -White’s _Selborne_; nor, as a scientific student, had he time to bestow -on promiscuous works on India, which, by the way, were not so numerous -then as now. But there are several well-known milk-drinking snakes -in America which had been described by writers prior to Schlegel. -This learned author, however, puts down the milk-loving snakes among -the ‘fables’ and ‘prejudices;’ and, as we have seen, dismissed the -water-drinkers with a doubt. - -Mr. Bell’s work has enjoyed upwards of thirty years’ popularity, and -his milk-drinking pet has been quoted by scores of writers of both -adult and juvenile books. Thomas Bell, F.L.S., F.G.S., was secretary -to the Royal Society; Professor of Zoology of King’s College, London; -and one of the Council of the Zoological Society of London. He was -also a ‘corresponding member’ of the learned societies of Paris and -Philadelphia, and of the Boston Society of Natural History. - -As a gentleman of widely recognised learning and veracity, therefore, -it may be considered that Mr. Bell, and with good reason, entertained -no doubt whatever as to snakes drinking, and also drinking milk. Mr. -Bell, moreover, had known of the celebrated python at Paris (see chap. -xxiv.), which in 1841 evinced a thirstiness that has become historical -in all zoological annals. The circumstance was fully recorded by M. -Valenciennes at the time; when a no less distinguished ophiologist -than M. Dumeril,[16] _Professeur d’Erpétologie au Musée à Paris_, -was especially appointed to the management of the reptile department -there. That very distinguished ophidian lady, the python, need be -referred to here only as regards the drinking question, the rest of her -history coming in its place in this book. It will be remembered that -she laid eggs, and to the surprise of all, coiled herself upon them -to hatch them. ‘Pendant tout le temps d’incubation la femelle n’a pas -voulu manger’ (she began to incubate on the 6th May); ‘mais le 25^e de -mai, après vingt jours de couvaison, son gardien, Vallée, homme très -soigneux et très intelligent, la voyant plus inquiète que de coutume, -remeuée la tête, et lui présenta de l’eau dans un petit basin; elle -y plongea le bout de son museau, et l’animal en _but_ avec avidité -environs de deux verres. Elle a ensuite bu quatre fois pendant le reste -du temps de sa couvaison: le 4 juin, 13, 19, 26.’ (Her eggs began to -hatch early in July.) - -The interesting invalid, ordinarily tame and gentle, had latterly -displayed anger and irritability on being disturbed, pushing away -the hand if touched; but in her present state the want of water was -so great that she evinced uneasiness to her guardian, and permitted -him to move and turn her head, so that she could dip the end of her -muzzle into the basin. The narrator argued, from this remarkable -demonstration, that the incubation (in which a rise of temperature was -observable) produced a sort of feverishness which caused her to decline -solid food, though her thirst was so great that she almost asked for -drink. - -When eight of the fifteen eggs were hatched, the little pythons ate -nothing until after their first moult (which happened to them all -within a fortnight), but during those early days of their existence -they ‘_drank several times_, and also bathed themselves.’ - -This event perhaps established the fact beyond any doubt that snakes -do drink, so far as modern and scientific ophiologists had ventured to -decide; and M. Dumeril, from long observation, is able to tell us how. - -Speaking of the tongue of a snake, this experienced naturalist informs -us that ‘cette langue fort longue sert-elle comme on l’a observée -quelquefois à faire pénétrer un peu de liquide dans la bouche, car nous -avons vu nous-même des couleuvres laper ainsi l’eau, que nous avions -placée auprès d’elles dans la cage, où nous les tenions renfermées -pour les observer à loisir.’[17] - -But, as he goes on to describe, ‘quelques serpents avalent de l’eau -sans se servir de la langue pour laper. Alors ils tiennent la tête -enfoncée sous l’eau au-dessous du niveau, ils écartent un peu les -mâchoires, et font baisser le fond de la gorge, dans laquelle l’eau -descend par son propres poids.’ You can then perceive the slight -movements of swallowing, like a thirsty man gulping down a beverage (_à -la régalade_). - -What follows affords an explanation of M. Schlegel’s statement that -he had never discovered water in a snake which he had dissected, this -learned author not having gone so thoroughly into the matter. ‘Cette -eau,’ says M. Dumeril, ‘sert à laver les intestines; car elle est -rendue liquide avec les fèces, elle ne parait pas expulsée par les -voies urinaires.’ - -M. Dumeril speaks very clearly on this point both in his introductory -preface, and again in vol. vi., under the more detailed descriptions of -each especial sense and organ. - -Snakes rarely drink (that is, not every day, as most animals do), -most of them living in dry regions or forests, where for long periods -they are deprived of water. The live prey upon which they subsist -supplies them with sufficient liquid. This may be known by the natural -discharges, which are usually of a liquid nature. Nevertheless, a large -number of serpents live close to water, and love to plunge and to swim. -These truly drink,—lapping with the tongue, as above described; at -other times with the head under water, and the neck still lower, so -that the water _falls into the mouth by its own weight_, and is then -swallowed. But this, he repeats, does not go into the blood, or _very -little_ of it, _car ils rendent en grand partie_, etc., as above, its -function being principally to moisten the intestines. - -Lenz, a German ophiologist of still earlier date than Schlegel, -went very conscientiously into the subject of whether snakes drink -or not,[18] having adopted various means in order to test them. His -personal experience was, however, of a more limited range. - -It is worth while to bear in mind the dates of some of these writings, -both that we may watch the gradual advance of ophidian knowledge, and -also that we may the better appreciate the vast amount of time, care, -labour, and research by which we are finally put in possession of facts -of natural history. - -As a comparatively modern writer, Lenz, without doubt, made very -valuable contributions to the science of ophiology, and at a time when -fact was only beginning to be sifted from fable. It will be seen that, -though writing several years before Schlegel, he had arrived at the -same conclusions. - -‘The numerous snakes and other animals which inhabit arid mountains, -or plains destitute of water, can only quench their thirst with rain -or dew. Snakes require but little water as long as they live in the -open air. It is an established rule that no water is found in the maw, -stomach, or entrails of snakes killed in the open air, even when -destroyed by or in a piece of water. _Snakes are never seen to go to -drink in any part of the world._’ - -This last clause is, as we have now seen, a too positive assertion, -and one not subsequently borne out by other equally conscientious and -intelligent writers. Livingstone, who was a close observer of nature, -informs us that he has known some of the African snakes _come a long -way to pools and rivers to drink_. Dr. Theodore Cantor, who is one of -the best authorities on the Indian sea snakes, and who was a member -of the Zoological Society, tells us that he has seen snakes ‘both -drink and also moisten the tongue; _two distinct operations_,’ he -explains.[19] This conviction having been stated prior to Dumeril’s -elaborate and much-prized work, is valuable testimony. The majority of -snakes in India are partial to water, he tells us, with the exception -of the arboreal species, which probably obtain sufficient moisture from -the rain or dew upon the leaves; and as it is not in their nature to be -on the ground, their organization doubtless renders them independent of -water. - -We of late so often see it said of any particular snakes in captivity -that ‘they neither ate nor drank at first;’ or that ‘they drank, though -they would not eat,’ that we almost wonder their bibulous propensities -were ever doubted; especially as the majority of snakes are fond of -water, and swim readily. We are surprised, therefore, that the second -edition of Mr. Lenz’ really valuable work, published so lately as 1870, -should still retain the assertion that snakes have never been _seen_ to -drink. - -Mr. Frank Buckland saw his Coronella drink frequently, though she -ate nothing; and as the discovery and captivity of this interesting -lady and her brood, born in London in 1862,[20] formed the subject of -many papers in the scientific journals at the time, one would suppose -that they would have been heard of in Germany, where the species (_C. -lævis_) is well known. - -‘Though not to be tempted with food, they are very fond of water,’ says -Mr. F. Buckland. - -Lenz’ experiments are, however, well worth noticing, because subsequent -observations have in many instances confirmed this author’s conclusions. - -‘In confinement,’ he says, ‘snakes are more easily induced to lick up -drops sprinkled on grass than to drink from a vessel.’ Naturally so. In -their native haunts they are not accustomed to pans of water or saucers -of milk, but they _are_ accustomed to moisten their tongues on the -blades of grass or the leaves of plants which hold the drops of rain -or dew. Lenz then mentions some experiments which he himself made with -snakes. He placed a ring snake and an adder in an empty box, and kept -them there without food for a fortnight, at the end of which period he -placed them in a tub containing half an inch of water, and left them -there for half an hour. He then killed them both, and on dissection -found no water inside of them. This led him to the conclusion that -they had not drank at all; but, in the first place, had they occupied -the whole half-hour in lapping with their thread-like tongue, it may -be doubted whether any appreciable quantity could be imbibed during -that time; and in the second place, the sudden transition and strange -situation in which they found themselves would, through fright, -entirely destroy whatever inclination they might have had to appease -hunger or thirst. - -It will be seen that snakes are exceedingly capricious in taking food; -and that when in an abnormal or strange locality they rarely feed for -a long while. Mr. Lenz himself is of opinion that, had he left them -longer in the water, or placed them in a dry tub where liquid could -be got at, they would or might have drunk. Thus, the experiments only -go to corroborate what all keepers of snakes have observed, viz. that -captivity or strange surroundings render them averse to feed. - -M. Lenz placed his snakes among the cows in order to test the foolish -belief that obtains in some countries that snakes will ‘suck’ the -udders; but of course, and for similar reasons, even could such an -achievement be possible, the snakes attempted no such thing. - -His snakes were strict members of a temperance society also, for not -even wine could tempt them to drink, though this and other liquids -were placed within reach to entice their taste. Not so Pliny’s snakes, -for he would have us believe that they show ‘a great liking for wine,’ -whenever an opportunity presented itself for their tasting it! - -But how came the idea to obtain that snakes suck cows,—a fact so -frequently asserted by the older naturalists? One old writer goes so -far as to state that a certain American snake ‘causes cows to give -forth bloody milk.’ And yet, to the thinking or observing person, -the origin of the belief may be easily accounted for. That snakes -have partiality for milk no longer admits of a doubt; that they like -warmth and shelter is an equally established fact. Therefore, they -find their way into cattle-sheds, and hide in the straw or any snug -corner, possibly even among the recumbent cattle; and, being there, -their ever busy exploring tongues discover a savour of milk, and the -snake is led by this intelligent tongue to the very fountain of their -favourite drop. The irritated cow would then naturally stir or kick, -and endeavour to shake off the strange intruder, who, in its turn -alarmed or angered, would bite the udder, and fetch blood. This, in the -dark ages of natural history, and during the period when the serpent -was invested with all manner of cruel and revolting wilfulness, would -suffice to give rise to the belief that has so long prevailed. The -rat snake (_Ptyas mucosus_) and the _Clothonia_ of India are ‘said’ -to suck the teats of cows; so also are the ‘hoop snake’ and several -other American species, which, with their climbing propensities, may -sometimes twine themselves about the legs of cattle, and thus reach the -udders, where persons have discovered them. It is just possible that -the snakes may get the teat into their mouths, and advance upon it, -with the intention of swallowing it, not knowing that it was only a -teat, with a cow inconveniently attached to it, and not some small and -more manageable prey. - -Among the American milk-drinking snakes is _Coluber eximius_, known as -the ‘milk snake,’ one of the dairy frequenters, which is said to seek -milk with avidity. This snake is mentioned by De Kay,[21] Emmons,[22] -and Holbrooke,[23] who all describe it as being very beautiful and -‘innocent’ (except in the eyes of the farmers’ wives). It is of a pale, -pearly white, sometimes tinged with pink, and with rich chocolate spots -on its back. The Racer, of egg-stealing notoriety, is also a sad milk -thief, and, like our own little ring snake, has been known to retrace -its way into dairies. Such depredations were more frequent formerly -when the snakes were more numerous. Of the Racer, Lawson[24] says, -‘This Whipster haunts the Dairies of careless Housewives, and never -misses to skim the Milk clear of the Cream.’ - -The same love of warmth which takes the reptiles among cattle, guides -them into dwellings, particularly during the night; and in hot -countries where nursing-women of the poorer classes lie exposed, snakes -have been found upon their breasts, and absurd stories have been told -of their sucking the teats of women. In India, Australia, and America, -such stories are common. - -After all, it does not seem surprising that snakes should like milk. -Being carnivorous by nature, they would at once detect an animal -flavour in the liquid by the agency of their sensitive tongue. - -Now turning to India, we find that the love of snakes for milk is -mentioned by numerous writers on the manners and customs of the Hindûs, -as well as by travellers and naturalists. Balfour[25] tells us ‘when -a snake discovers how to get at the eggs and _milk_ in a larder, no -native will on any account kill it, because it is regarded as the good -genius of the house.’ And again, ‘that the cobra is fed with _milk_ in -some of the temples where it is worshipped.’ - -Dr. Shortt of Madras keeps a man to attend to his cobras, and finds -they thrive excellently on sour milk, which is administered once in -ten or twelve days.[26] ‘Snakes feed on eggs and _milk_,’ says Sir J. -Fayrer. - -When we read similar facts mentioned incidentally, and with no especial -object, we may give them credence even more than if a prejudiced writer -were endeavouring to prove such or such a thing. For instance, during -the visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales to India, the exhibition -of snakes and snake-charming formed a not unimportant item in the -programme, and furnished many columns of cobra performances and -cobra traditions to the papers. More than one of the journalists -unintentionally corroborated what Balfour and other writers tell us -about the ‘good luck’ of having a cobra in the _chuppur_ of the hut, -the fearlessness with which the children regard their ‘uncle,’ as they -call it, and their care in placing _milk_ and eggs for it each evening. - -But I am reminded of a singular case which came to me through a -personal acquaintance from India who was present at the time. - -Four officers sitting in a bungalow in India were deep in a game of -whist. Suddenly one of them, turning deadly pale, made signs that no -one should move or speak. In a hushed voice he exclaimed, ‘Keep still, -for God’s sake! I feel a cobra crawling about my legs!’ He knew that -timidity was one of the strongest characteristics of this snake, and -that if not disturbed or alarmed, it would in due time depart of its -own accord. All present were accustomed to the stealthy intruders, and -did not, happily, lose their presence of mind. They very noiselessly -bent down so as to take a survey beneath the table, when, sure enough, -there was the unwelcome visitor, a full-sized cobra, twining and -gliding about the legs of their hapless friend. Literally death was at -his feet! A movement, a noise, even an agitated tremble might have been -fatal. - -Luckily one of the four was acquainted with the milk-loving habit of -the cobra, and rising from his seat with quiet and cautious movements, -not daring to hasten, yet dreading delay, he managed to steal from -the room, while he signed the rest to remain motionless. Quickly he -crept back with a saucer of milk in his hand, and still with noiseless -movements set the saucer under the table as close to the terrible -reptile as it was safe to venture. - -That fearful strain on their nerves was happily of not long duration, -for presently they were relieved by seeing the creature gradually -untwine itself and go to the milk. - -Never before or since did that officer leap from his seat as he did -then, the moment he felt himself free from the coils of the cobra, and -read in the faces of his comrades that he was saved. Short thrift, -however, had Mr. Cobra, for sticks and whip-handles were freely -administered, even before the saucer was reached. - -The enemy got rid of, the game was resumed; and it is worth the while -of those in India to bear this narrow escape in mind, and bring milk to -the rescue in case of similar danger. - -That snakes drink, and occasionally drink milk, is sufficiently -established. Modern authorities now affirm it decidedly. Says Dr. -Günther in his great work, published by the Ray Society,[27] ‘All -snakes drink, and _die_ when deprived of water.’ Dr. Edward Nicholson, -another of our practical ophiologists, speaking of one of his pet -snakes, a _Tropidonotus_, says ‘the offer of a drink of water will at -once gain its heart.’ In watching snakes drinking, he has frequently -counted one hundred gulps before the drinker is satisfied.[28] If -_Anguis fragilis_, the common blindworm, from its snake-like form, may -be cited here, I may mention one of my own, which, after being shut up -in a box for safety during my absence from home for some days, drank -for such a long while when first released from captivity, that I was -really tired of waiting to watch her. She almost immediately went to -a flower-pot saucer of water, with which she was familiar, and which -I placed near her. For some time I watched the tongue thrown out and -withdrawn, till I began to wonder how much longer she would remain -dipping that little bifid organ. I then began to count, and she dipped -it seventy-five times more, after drinking at least as long as that -previously. Then she moved away, and explored among the books on the -table, but soon returned to the saucer and dipped her tongue again -upwards of seventy times. How much more I cannot affirm, as I could -not remain any longer waiting for her, and left her still drinking. -(‘Lizzie,’ thus named from her lizard nature, must claim a chapter -to herself in this book, for she greatly distinguished herself in -lacertine doings.) - -While puzzling over this drinking question, I find a favourite author, -P. H. Gosse, affirm, ‘Snakes drink by suction, not by lapping,’ and -that ‘serpents are said to lap up fluids with their forked tongue, -which, however, seems to be ill suited to such an operation.’[29] - -Then one naturally turns to the encyclopedias, where we grow still more -perplexed, for no two agree precisely on all points. - -‘The use of the tongue in serpents is not exactly known.’[30] And -again, ‘It is believed that serpents never drink.’[31] It is true that -the compiler of the article _Reptilia_ quotes Schlegel a good deal; -but unfortunately that is the very point on which Schlegel speaks -doubtfully. Nor do we presume to include the learned Schlegel as one -of the inaccurately informed individuals, though he does discredit -the milk-drinkers. Of him Dumeril thus writes, or of his work rather, -which he pronounced to be ‘le plus detaillé et le plus complet qui -ait paru jusqu’ici (1844), et auquel nous serons sans cesse obligé -d’avoir recours.’ Schlegel is also quoted by Cantor, 1841; by Dr. J. E. -Gray, 1849; by Dr. A. Günther, 1864; and, in fact, by most scientific -ophiologists. Natural history is an ever-advancing science, more so, -perhaps, than any other. Linnæus and Cuvier were great in their day, -but their systems obtain no longer. - -Unfortunately, a dozen book-makers and a thousand journalists seek -no farther than encyclopedias when they are ‘reading up’ a subject; -and not until too late, if at all, or after long searchings and a -realization of the importance of dates, do these wide spreaders of -information discover the error. Compilers of articles for encyclopedias -are always limited as to space, and often as to time; and life would -not be long enough to wade through _Zoological Records_ covering fifty -years, or _Annales des sciences naturelles_ which date from 1824 to the -present time. Only, the compilers of articles on the _Reptilia_ should -surely have known of Mr. Bell’s _Coluber natrix_, and of the Paris -python, and of the _Amphisbæna_ of the Zoological Gardens, all ophidian -celebrities in their day. - -The mention of the Zoological Gardens reminds me of my promise -to conduct my readers thither as an agreeable change from the -book-shelves. Therefore, without further wearying them with the -conflicting statements of fifty writers, let us repair thither, and see -what Holland, the keeper, tells us about his thirsty snakes. - -First, we observe that most of the cages are furnished with a tank or -a pan of water, and this not for the watersnakes only. Many of the -others, also, are lying in their bath, coiled up in apparent enjoyment. -Questioning the intelligent keeper, he tells us that when fresh -ophidian inmates arrive, they almost invariably go to the water, and -though for a time they refuse food, they _always drink_. On several -occasions some have drunk so eagerly that the water has visibly sunk in -the tank. These were the larger snakes, of course. He does ‘not believe -they would live without water.’ He then tells us the story of the -_Amphisbæna_ over again, the snake that lived for six months on milk -only, and which was chronicled in the zoological magazines of the day, -and has figured in books ever since. - -Mr. Mann confirmed all these facts in his own ophidian pets, and going -to see these interesting individuals, we felt no doubt about it when a -saucer of water was in the way. - -But I do feel inclined to doubt whether the use of the tongue in -‘lapping,’ as it has been called, is not rather to moisten that organ -than to quench the thirst. We shall see in the following chapter what -it does for its owner, and we shall see the necessity for this delicate -organ to be well lubricated. Both it and its sheath require to be -constantly moistened; how else could it glide in and out with that -wonderful activity? how in a dry and parched condition could it retain -its exceeding flexibility and delicacy of perception? - -Unfortunately, the position of the tanks in the cages at the London -Zoological Gardens, and the stone ledge in front of them, prevent the -visitors from watching the actions of the snakes in the water, either -when swimming or drinking. Occasionally one of the inmates of the -larger cages may be seen in a pan of water, though their motions are -necessarily restricted there. One day, however, the yellow Jamaica -boa, when drinking from the pan, afforded an excellent opportunity for -observation. And he was a long time imbibing. There was no perceptible -action of the lips, which were barely parted. The snake kept its mouth -just below the level of the water, and the only action or movement -seen was at the back of the head, or on each side of the neck, like -a pulsation, as the water passed down in short gulps. This is the -‘suction’ which writers describe, a drawing in of the liquid; but the -lips do not take part in the act. When, therefore, we read that snakes -drink both by lapping and also by suction, we may surmise that the -former is for the benefit of the tongue, the latter of the body; and -a large quantity of liquid is often drawn in by this sort of suction, -very distinct from ‘sucking,’ the reputed way of enjoying milk from the -living fountain, and a process impossible to creatures that have not -soft lips and a broad tongue. The Jamaica boa drew in those perceptible -gulps for a long time, then raised his head, and rested awhile, and -presently drank again, and this several times while we were watching. -It was what Dumeril described _à la régalade_. - -Mr. Sam Lockwood of New Jersey, writing in the _American Naturalist_, -vol. ix. 1875, describes the pine snake drinking. ‘It lays its head -flat upon the water, letting the lower jaw just sink a little below the -surface, when with a very uniform movement the water is drawn up into -the mouth and passed into the throat. It is true drinking, like that of -a horse.’ One that he watched drank five minutes by the clock without -taking breath. Then it paused, looked about for three minutes, and then -drank again for five minutes more. ‘In all, it drank a little over a -gill. Previously it has been without water for four weeks.’ - -In size this pine snake differs not much from the Jamaica boa -(_Chilobothrus inornatus_), that we watched at the Gardens, and the -manner and time were very similar. True, we did not time him by a -watch, nor could we tell exactly how much he drank, nor how long -previously he had been without drinking; but, at a guess, he could not -have been much less than five minutes without taking breath. _Anguis -fragilis_, that lapped seventy times, and stopped, and lapped again, -must also have been some minutes without breathing, because hers was -the most leisurely lapping I ever saw. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_THE TONGUE OF A SNAKE._ - -PART I.—WHAT IT IS _NOT_. - - -GOSSIP from the Zoological Gardens to confirm what has been so often -said, namely, that nine out of every ten of the visitors to the -Ophidarium will point to the tongue of a snake and exclaim, ‘Look -at its sting!’ seems too trivial and too defiantly challenging the -credulity of my readers, to introduce here. Nevertheless, that it is -necessary emphatically to state not only that the tongue of a snake is -not its sting, but that a snake has no sting at all, you will admit -the very next time you go there. You will hear not only the Monday, -but the _Sunday_ visitors—well dressed, and apparently well educated -persons—say to each other when watching a snake, ‘That’s its sting!’ I -must be permitted, therefore, to ‘gossip’ a moment in confirmation. - -One Friday, in April 1881, just before the time when the public were -excluded at feeding hours, we were watching the movements of a pretty -little harmless snake, the rapid quivering of whose tongue denoted -excitement of some kind. Probably it was anticipating the frog in -store for it, as this was feeding day. Its tongue was unusually active, -and was exserted to its extreme length, its motions being almost -invisible in their rapidity. - -Two gentlemen drew near, and also stopped before this cage. One of -them, a tall, dark man, looked like a foreigner; but he was talking -pure English to his friend, and had been talking a good deal about the -snakes, as if he were familiar with their habits. ‘From the Tropics,’ -observed my companion, _sotto voce_, and looking as if we might hear -something worth knowing from this large, loud-voiced visitor. - -‘See _that_?’ he presently exclaimed to his friend. ‘Look there!’ - -‘That thing it keeps putting out of its mouth?’ - -‘Yes. That’s its sting. One touch of that, just one little touch, and -you’re a dead man. There’s no cure for it!’ - -No less than four different parties made similar remarks in our hearing -during our short visit to the reptile house that day, and these not of -the common crowd either. - -First, two lads who looked as if they ought to have known better. Next, -a party of several persons, of whom the one more particularly addressed -when his friend informed him, ‘That’s the sting that it jerks out so,’ -replied, ‘Ah, but they extract it!’ Thirdly, a young gentleman remarked -to his lady companion, ‘See how it keeps darting out its sting!’ to -whom she ejaculated, ‘Oh, the fearful creature!’ Fourthly, the tall -man. And all this of poor little innocent _Tropidonotus_ (our common -ring snake), with not even a fang to injure you! - -Like many other of the zoological myths not yet extinct, this -‘stinging tongue’ has its origin in mystery. Long before a deadly -serpent was examined by an intelligent reasoner, and the nature of its -fatal stroke comprehended, the mysterious ‘dart’ was seen to play; -this, to the ignorant, being the only visible and possible instrument -of such fatality. But that the fable should still obtain is amazing. -Even some learned men of the present century, if they do not happen to -have included natural history in their studies, assist in disseminating -the error. Can they, however, be acquainted with classical writers? -Pliny, to whom many of the old-time errors in natural history have -been traced, must be acquitted as regards the poisonous tongue; for -though he speaks of the ‘sting’ of a serpent, I do not recall that he -once attributed the injury to the tongue. Aristotle, whose reputation -as a naturalist ranks far higher, distinctly and frequently speaks of -the _bite_, and the degrees of injury inflicted by the various kinds -of serpent bites. It is possible that some classical writers may have -supposed the tongue to be an instrument of death, as it is certain -that some of the sacred writers did. But our inherited faith in Bible -history has, until recently, checked all doubt and even inquiry. Now, -however, that a new version of Holy Writ has been deemed essential, it -is to be hoped that an efficient naturalist is included in the Council. - -In justification of the above criticism I may be permitted to quote -just one of the many unquestioning writers. The author of the _History -of Egypt_, W. Holt Yates, M.R.C.P. of London, President of the Royal -Medical Society of Edinburgh, Physician to the General Dispensary, -etc., says in a footnote (vol. i. p. 322), ‘It is a mistake to suppose -that snakes hurt only with their teeth. Some have no teeth, but only -hard gums. Others only attack with their tongue—the same end is -attained in either case by the insertion of the poison.’ - -Now were you to ask that writer, as I have several times asked persons -who were under the same impression, ‘What reason have you to suppose -that the snake’s tongue is poisonous?’ he would very likely reply, -‘Oh! well—it _is_ venomous. I always thought so.’ Then, reflectively, -he might add, ‘Poisonous-tongued?—“whose tongue outvenoms”—“with -deadlier tongue than thine, thou serpent”’—or some such familiar -words, proving that his idea was poetical, imaginative, and acquired he -can scarcely explain how. - -What very little he knew about snakes, then, was learned from -Shakspeare—we say Shakspeare, for what other author has been read and -re-read, and committed to memory, and quoted during the last three -centuries like the Bard of Avon? The bard, genius though he was, and -wide his field of information, was certainly _not_ a naturalist. Nor -did he make any pretensions to be one. He was as unconscious of the -errors in natural history which he was handing down to posterity, as -he was unconscious of his own enduring fame; or that he would be ‘the -immortal bard’ three hundred years later, with every probability of -ever living in the human mind as such. - -His idea of the poisonous tongue of a snake was the prevalent one of -his day. It was an inherited prejudice, which he had never stopped -to question, any more than nine hundred and ninety-nine out of every -thousand of his readers have ever stopped to question the fact of an -adder’s _tongue_ being poisonous, Shakspeare having affirmed that it is -so. - -People do not read Shakspeare to learn natural history, you say. True; -but his poetry, his similes, take hold of the mind, fix themselves in -the memory, and take root; and an assertion, as in the case of the -gentle little ‘blindworm,’ takes very deep root, as it seems, and -thrives for three hundred years; or naturalists of the present day -would not feel called upon to explain that it is neither ‘blind,’ nor -‘deaf,’ nor ‘venomous.’ - -Still you reject the idea that Shakspeare through his immense and -universal popularity is responsible for a ridiculous error. Not -Shakspeare alone, then, or culpably so. But since the idea has -prevailed for thousands of years, even to the present time, and since -persons are more likely to quote Shakspeare on the subject than any -other author, let us glance at the literature of Shakspeare’s time, -and endeavour to account for his fixed impression as to a serpent’s -tongue being poisonous. Let us also try to recall from any one of the -writers of the same era, or those who wrote in English previously, any -single line on the present subject that has become so engrafted on the -mind, so incorporated with our education, as those, for example, above -quoted. There was a host of other play-writers in Shakspeare’s time, -but very few naturalists. - -Poetry, plays, and Protestantism characterized the literature of the -period. But familiar to us _by name_ as are his contemporaries, it will -be as easy to find one educated person who has read the whole of their -works, as it would be to find one educated person who has not read -Shakspeare. - -There were travels and histories written, the great maritime -discoveries of the age giving birth to this new class of literature. -Hakluyt’s voyages were printed when Shakspeare was only twenty-five -years of age, and even if he read them he would not have learned much -about serpents there. Nor in Sir Walter Raleigh’s histories either, -which were written chiefly during his prison life, he being liberated -the same year that saw the death of Shakspeare, 1616. - -Many other well-known authors will occur to the reader, to say nothing -of the writers of the previous eras, the great divines and scholars who -wrote in Latin, and the many English ballad-writers more likely to be -perused by ‘the Bard.’ - -As for natural history, it found no place on those shelves, for as a -science it did not as yet exist in England. Lord Bacon, Shakspeare’s -celebrated contemporary, did make some pretensions to be a naturalist; -but his _Novum Organum_ was written in Latin, and we are not led to -believe that the poet enjoyed any very great educational and classical -advantages, having had - - ‘Small Latin and less Greek,’ - -according to his friend and eulogist, Ben Jonson. - -And even if Shakspeare did read what was then _the Book_ of the period, -Lord Bacon unfortunately fell into some of the popular errors, or made -very hazardous conjectures, so far as natural history was understood; -and of him Dr. Carpenter says, ‘So far from contributing to our -knowledge of natural history, he often gave additional force to error -by the weight of his authority.’ - -In recalling some lines from Shakspeare, the reader will find how very -familiar to the mind are the serpent similes. Some of them prove that -the poet was cognizant of a tooth being also a source of evil; but -it is evident that he thought the tongue was so also, especially the -tongue of the ‘blindworm.’ - -For a few out of the many in which Shakspeare’s plays abound, _vide_ -_Timon of Athens_, Act iv. Scene 3: ‘The gilded newt and eyeless -venomed worm.’ - -_Midsummer Night’s Dream_, Act iii. Scene 2. When Hermia thinks -that Demetrius has killed Lysander while sleeping, she scathingly -ejaculates: ‘O brave touch! Could not a worm, an adder do so much? An -adder did it; for with deadlier tongue than thine, thou serpent, never -adder stung!’ - -In _Cymbeline_, Act iii. Scene 2, Pisanio says: ‘What false Italian, as -poisonous tongued as handed, hath prevailed on thy too ready hearing?’ -Again, in Scene 4 of the same Act, Pisanio would not hear evil of his -mistress, and cries: ‘No, ‘tis slander; whose edge is sharper than the -sword, whose tongue outvenoms all the worms.’ - -_Henry VI._, Act ii. Scene 2, Clifford says to the King: ‘Who ‘scapes -the lurking serpent’s mortal sting!’ Act iii. Scene 2: ‘Their touch -affrights me as a serpent’s sting.... What! art thou like the adder -waxen deaf? Be poisonous too!’ - -_Much Ado about Nothing_, Act v. Scene 1, Antonio says: ‘As I dare take -a serpent by the tongue.’ - -And in _King John_, Act ii. Scene 1, Randolph says to King Philip, -‘France, thou may’st hold a serpent by the tongue!’ - -Not snakes only, but toads, lizards, spiders, and other ‘creeping -things,’ were thought venomous in Shakspeare’s time. - -Song in _Midsummer Night’s Dream_: ‘You spotted snakes, with double -tongue.’ Then, in appeal to the ‘serpents’ not to injure the Fairy -Queen: ‘Newts and blindworms, do no wrong.’ - -The nearest approach to a scientific work on natural history written in -English at that time was a curious volume published in 1608, in whose -folio pages may be seen most astonishing ‘Serpentes,’ combinations -of worms and feathered fowls, saurian, ophidian, and batrachian, -wonderfully adorned with horns, gills, wings, spear-shaped or forked -tongues, and arrow-shaped tails. The zoological illustrations of that -work give us some idea of what a snake was supposed to be. Among them -is one with a human head, and another with a crown, because he is ‘the -King of Serpentes for his Magnitude or Greatnesse.’ There is also a -‘Dragon’ with horns, wings, scales, claws, two rows of robust teeth, -and an arrow-headed tongue. Mingled fable and fancy with some few -facts, these anomalies are solemnly described as ‘The Naturall Historie -of Serpentes,’ the said serpents including bees, wasps, ‘frogges,’ -toads, earthworms, lizards, spiders, etc., and a ‘cockatrice.’ - -The author, E. Topsell, addresses the ‘gentle and pious Reader’ on the -‘publishing of this Treatise of Venomous Beasts,’ and more particularly -of ‘Serpentes, Divine, Morall, and Naturell, their Poyson and Bitings, -since the gentle and pious Reader will see how that the Historie of -Serpentes begineth at the Creation.’ - -[Illustration: Fabulous tongues.] - -Thus we see that the ideal snake was a religious principle, carried -out in illustrations and architectural embellishments, where ‘that -old serpent the devil’ was depicted as a creature as terrible as -imagination could conceive it; and of course with a highly-developed -tongue in the form of a dart or a spear, more or less alarming. - -Far in advance of Topsell, and far in advance of England, were the -naturalists of Southern Europe. Gesner, professor of philosophy at -Zurich, published his _Historia Animalium_ in 1551; and Aldrovanus, -professor of philosophy and physic at Bologna, wrote thirteen folio -volumes of natural history, four only of which were published during -his lifetime, and the rest after his death, which was in 1605. These -two authors, though out of date at the present day, have left their -names perpetuated in plants and animals examined by them. - -As one of the objects of this work is to trace the origin of some of -the many errors that have obtained regarding the serpent race, and to -note the gradual enlightenment observable in successive writers, it is -a part of our duty to quote the Bible; and this we do with reverence, -emboldened by the fact that the present state of knowledge has demanded -a new translation to satisfy the intellect of the age. - -Shakspeare himself might have had the Bible devoutly in his mind when -he talked of the adder’s ‘sting.’ - -Among the many commentators and exponents of Holy Writ, Cruden (A.D. -1794) says, ‘Some place the venom of the serpent in its gall, others -in its tongue, and others in its teeth.’ David seems to place it in -its tongue:—Ps. cxl. 3, ‘They have sharpened their tongues like a -serpent.’ So also Job, xx. 16, ‘The viper’s tongue shall slay him.’ - -The sacred writers, however, quite understood that serpents did bite as -well as ‘sting.’ Solomon made the same distinction that is observable -in Shakspeare, ‘biteth like a serpent, stingeth like an adder.’ - -In fact, the _tongue_ of an adder, whether in allusion to ‘the worm of -the Nile,’ or to our own pretty little ‘deaf-adder,’ seems still to -bear the evil character which it has borne from time immemorial. - -Superstition, prejudice, and ignorance are still rampant whenever a -snake is thought of. Inherited and educated antipathies regarding them -are still so strong that some persons will not even allow themselves to -_un_learn their misconceptions; others by misrepresentations do their -best to prevent a true comprehension of their habits from being better -understood; and, again, there are those who know better, and who are -even engaged in instructing others by their pen, but who fall into the -habit of encouraging horror and hatred, instead of reason, truth, and a -tolerance towards a creature wisely produced to fulfil its part and to -perform its duties in the great balance of organized beings. - -Some journalists religiously keep up the delusion about the tongue -of a snake, by using a prejudicial prefix. From a pile of newspaper -cuttings and other printed matter relative to snakes, I transcribe a -few sentences at random, to illustrate what is meant:—‘Its horrid -forked tongue.’ ‘Its slithering tongue.’ ‘Its villanous poisonous -tongue,’ etc. And if sensationalism seem to demand still more forcible -language, as, for instance, in describing an injury or an escape, our -journalist tells us of the ‘forked tongue darting defiance.’ ‘The -wicked-looking serpent tongue protruded with lightning-like swiftness.’ -‘To see the reptile run its devilish tongue out at you.’ ‘Its horrid -lancinating tongue protruded,’ etc. These are only a few of such -sentences copied _verbatim_, but they are unfortunately too common, -even with the better-informed writers. - -The idea of a snake being sufficiently intelligent, reasoning, and -reflective to deliberately ‘run its tongue out at you,’ as if conscious -of its own moral power and your moral weakness, is too ludicrous. -If the snake could truly inflict injury with those soft, flexible, -delicate filaments,—if it could, with one rapid touch, insert poison, -as the tall talker at the Zoological Gardens affirmed, the threatening -quiver could only be in friendly warning. Let the poor reptile at least -be thanked for that. - -Our lamented friend, Frank Buckland, fell into the same error (or -inadvertency, since he quite understood that the tongue could do no -harm) when he wrote thus of the tongue in his _Curiosities of Natural -History_:—‘The tongue is generally protruded in order to intimidate -the bystanders;’ and, ‘The tongue acts as a sort of intimidation -to its aggressors;’ thus giving the snake the credit of a waggish -sort of intelligence, far more complimentary to the reptile than -to the bystander. In imagination we behold a solemn Convention of -snakes, held in ages long ago, and a resolution to this effect passed -unanimously:—‘Now these poor ignorant mortals think we can kill them -with our soft and tender tongues. Though so tall, and powerful, and -terrible to us, they look dreadfully frightened whenever we use our -tongues in our own service. Therefore, whenever any of these two-legged -creatures come near us, we will put out our tongues at them, and -frighten them off,’—a resolution which has answered admirably well -down to the present time. ‘Down to the present time’ is written and -repeated in all seriousness. - -Let me be pardoned for introducing a little more gossip here, as it is -the fashion to relate what is seen and heard at the Zoological Gardens. -And so much is related, and has been related, and even printed, to -mislead the public, that, in the earnest hope and aspiration of -assisting in correcting false impressions, I claim to repeat what was -heard as well as the rest. Besides, when persons talk as loudly as if -they were delivering a lecture, and apparently with the benevolent -intention of instructing the public generally, one feels justified in -quoting them. - -Eight years ago, when first contemplating this work, and anxiously -seeking to ascertain precisely what could be learned, and what was -already understood about snakes, so far as the reptile house at the -Zoological Gardens was a means of instruction, I made very careful -notes of what I saw there, and occasionally of what I _heard_ there. - -In the summer of 1874 some well-dressed children, accompanied by their -parents, were watching the pythons in the largest cage, when one of -the little ones asked, ‘Papa, what is that thing that the snake keeps -putting out of its mouth?’ ‘Oh, that is its poisonous sting,’ replied -the father. The eldest girl (in her teens), with an affected shudder, -cried ‘Ugh!’ and a boy exclaimed, ‘I am glad it can’t put it through -the glass at _us_!’ - -August 3, 1877.—A gentleman, to all appearance well-bred and -intelligent, told his two boys, ‘That’s the sting,’ as they were -watching the play of a snake’s tongue in one of the cages. The boys -looked wonderingly at the terrible instrument, and were evidently -anxious to know more about it, and turned to ask their father. But he -had passed on, and was then calling to them to look at something else. - -July 1880.—A lady, apparently the governess of two girls of about -twelve and fourteen, and of a boy of about eight, who were with her, -was conscientiously endeavouring to blend instruction with amusement, -and was telling them some strange and hitherto unheard-of facts -about the snakes; as, for instance, that the rattlesnake was now -going to ‘crush a guinea-pig by winding itself round it;’ for it was -feeding-day, and the keeper had just put poor piggy into the cage. -But the children got tired of waiting to see what did not occur; the -rattlesnake was merely investigating matters by means of its useful -tongue. ‘Now, watch it!’ cried the lady eagerly, ‘and you’ll see it -lick the guinea-pig with its poisonous tongue.’ - -Neither was this feat performed by the Crotalus, and as the children -got tired of waiting, and were impatient to ‘see something else,’ the -party moved on. - -But the reader will be weary of hearing what the tongue of a snake is -_not_, and be desirous of knowing what it _is_; and to this purpose we -will devote another chapter. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_THE TONGUE OF A SNAKE._ - -PART II.—WHAT IT _IS_. - - -IF only by the law of compensation, another chapter must be devoted to -the innocent tongue of a snake. It has been an object of hatred and -aversion for untold ages, and the misrepresentation of it, and the -abuse of it, would fill many chapters. Were it endowed with speech, and -the words of St. James applied to it,—‘the tongue is a fire, a world -of iniquity,’—no stronger animosity could be displayed. - -Happily, this animosity is by degrees dying away; but only by degrees, -as we have seen, some writers during the last twenty years having -been undergoing a sort of transition state with regard to the use of -the tongue, inasmuch as, while they have arrived at the conviction -that it does not ‘sting,’ they are not yet quite clear as to what it -does do. Some few have even clung to the lubrication theory. _Popular -writers_, to speak more correctly, not scientific ones. Still, it is -the popular writers who most influence the casual reader. To satisfy a -passing interest, we turn to these, to the books they quote, and next -to encyclopedias, and not to scientific text-books, where we are beset -by technicalities which are in themselves a study to be first mastered. -Otherwise, from scientific works a good deal might have been learned -long ago about this exceedingly wonderful organ, the tongue of a snake. - -It is evident, however, that a good many of our drawing-room -naturalists have not thought it necessary to first devote themselves to -the scientific study of a snake’s tongue before they ventured to write -about it; therefore they remained only partially enlightened. To such -an extent has the supposed ‘lubrication’ prevailed, that ophiologists -of the day have not thought it too trivial to speak of and to refute. -The same visitors to the Zoological Gardens who tell their friends or -children to look at the snake’s ‘sting,’ also wait to ‘see the snake -lick the rabbit all over before it begins to swallow it.’ - -Were a painter to set to work to paint a house, or a mason to whitewash -the ceiling, with a camel’s-hair pencil, it would not be a more tedious -and impossible process than that of a snake ‘licking all over with its -tongue’ the body of the animal it is about to devour. Illustrations, in -order to be as startling as possible, and to feed the educated horror -of snakes, often represent a boa or an anaconda coiled round a bull or -some other equally large and rough-coated animal, which, as the writer -informs us, ‘it was seen to lick all over and cover with its mucus.’ - -Let the reader reflect a moment, and he will perceive what supply -of moisture this degree of lubrication would demand. Even were the -snake’s whole body furnished with salivary glands, and were it provided -with a broad, flat tongue to work with, what must the rate of secretion -be to enable the snake to go through such a task, and to enable it to -perform it in a period of time in which a spectator (supposing he had -sufficient powers of endurance) could stand by and watch the process! - -Snakes are, it is true, supplied very abundantly with a mucous saliva. -Describing the mode of swallowing, Dr. Günther says: ‘But for the -quantity of saliva discharged over the body of the prey, deglutition -would be slow.’ Slow in comparison with the feeding of other animals -it is, under any circumstances, and it would be painfully tedious, -almost impossible, for the unfortunate reptile to feed at all, were -its difficulties not relieved by this ‘abundant supply’ of saliva. -But this is not saying that the tongue performs any office in -systematic lubrication. It simply means that the mouth of the hungry -snake ‘waters’ over its food, and waters far more freely than is the -usual case with other animals. We ourselves know something of this -stimulation of the salivary glands at the sight or smell of food when -we are hungry; but snakes are beneficently provided with the salivary -apparatus (described in the first chapter), and the mouth waters -over its prey, as much when the tongue is in its sheath as when the -tongue is engaged in its own peculiar and distinct functions. What the -spectator does see is this tongue fulfilling its office of feeling, -examining, exploring, investigating, ascertaining whether the prey is -thoroughly dead, and the best way of setting to work on the great task -of swallowing the huge, rough mass. All this work the tongue does for -its owner; and we shall, as I hope, see before we have done with it, -that so far from exciting our hatred and disgust, there is perhaps no -other feature or organ belonging to the helpless snake so important -to it, so worthy of our own observation and admiration, as this -much-abused tongue. - -We have an admirable opportunity for study in our visits to the -Zoological Gardens, and there the lover of nature can decide for -himself. Hours and hours has one watched, and I admit (in the early -days of my studies) _waited_, to see this lubrication which, as the -books told me, was performed by the tongue. Often and often one has -heard visitors say to each other when they have seen the prey about to -be devoured, ‘Now we shall see, or you will see’ (as the case might be) -‘the snake lick it all over before he swallows it.’ - -An observation to this effect was once made in our hearing while I was -on the point of asking the keeper if he had ever observed anything of -the kind, and was telling him how often it had been so stated in print. - -‘Snakes never did, and never _will_, lick their prey, ma’am,’ returned -Holland emphatically; ‘but I have seen the saliva flow, it is so -plentiful.’ And so have I, and so may you, patient reader, if you are -sufficiently interested in the subject. You will soon become convinced -that such a process as ‘licking’ is impossible, and you will soon -decide that if the reptile did this instinctively, its tongue would -have developed into something more like that of a cat, strong and rough -with tiny spines, or some organ better adapted to the performance than -a thin pencil or fork of tender flesh. - -It is much to be regretted that a number of anecdotes which describe -this ‘lubrication’ have been retained and quoted over and over again in -books on snakes. Writers who are conscientiously instructing us, and -who are even telling us ‘snakes do _not_ lick their prey,’ quote the -anecdotes which tell us that they _do_, and thus appear to favour the -assumed mistake. - -Space will not permit of the numerous examples which might be here -introduced in proof of this. Nor is it necessary to name more than -two or three of these misleading anecdotes; the reader will at once -recognise them, for they appear everywhere. - -First comes the M’Leod narrative, which has found favour with popular -writers for no less than sixty-three years! The first edition of the -_Voyage of the Alceste_, by Dr. M’Leod, the surgeon on board, was -published in London in 1817, a second edition in 1818, and a third -(so popular was the work) in 1819. His account of feeding the boa -constrictor was not the least popular part of the little book; for in -those days there were few who knew what to believe where a snake was -concerned. The account of a goat being swallowed fills several pages, -written in a style to exaggerate horrors, and apparently deny to the -reptile any right to obey nature’s laws. ‘The python fixed a deadly and -malignant eye on the goat:’ ... ‘first operation was to dart out its -forked tongue:’ ... ‘continued to grasp with its fangs:’ ... ‘began -to prepare for swallowing:’ and ‘commenced by lubricating with its -saliva:’ ... ‘commission of this murder,’ etc. - -Maunder, in his _Treasury of Natural History_, quotes this, having -previously stated (under the head Boa Constrictor): ‘The prey is -then prepared for being swallowed, which the creature accomplished by -pushing the limbs into the most convenient position, and _then covering -the surface with a glutinous saliva_.’ Though not positively asserted -that the tongue is the agent in this ‘covering,’ the reader naturally -jumps to this conclusion. The ‘Penny’ and several other encyclopedias -quote the M’Leod story, among them the _Encyclopedia Britannica_, ed. -1856, notwithstanding the compiler of the article ‘Reptilia’ affirms, -‘The use of the tongue is not exactly known.’ Surely this licking over -an enormous mass of fur or wool, each time the reptile partakes of -food, would be a very important use indeed of the tongue, did such a -process take place. - -Mr. Philip Henry Gosse, in his _Natural History of Reptiles_, 1860, -repeats the M’Leod story but he follows it up by also quoting a writer, -Broderip, who carefully considered the subject, and who doubted the -possibility of such a tongue performing this office. - -Mr. Gosse is one of the most popular of our ‘drawing-room’ naturalists. -A careful and conscientious writer, he has contributed in his various -works a great deal of valuable information, and has done as much, if -not more, towards inducing a taste for natural history than any other -author of his day and class. - -Another popular anecdote much used is that of Sir R. Ker Porter, -who (_cir._ 1820-24) sent an anaconda to the United Service Museum, -accompanied by an account of its seizing its prey. ‘In an instant every -bone is broken, and the long, fleshy tongue passes over the entire form -of the lifeless beast, leaving on it a sort of glutinous saliva which -greatly facilitates deglutition.’ This last clause was particularly -striking, and you find those three words, ‘greatly facilitates -deglutition,’ used ever since by more writers than one can enumerate. - -A third of the many well-worn anecdotes in which the ‘lubrication’ is -conspicuous, is taken from a German journal, the _Ephemerides_, in -which a combat between a boa constrictor and a buffalo is described in -the approved sensational style, and this sentence occurs:—‘In order to -make the body slip down the throat more glibly, it (the snake) was seen -to lick the whole body over, and thus cover it with its mucus.’ - -Perhaps these three anecdotes, copied from book to book for, say, only -fifty years, have done as much to mislead regarding the second reputed -use of the tongue, as Shakspeare and his predecessors did regarding the -stinging theory. - -Sir Robert Ker Porter published two very handsome quarto volumes -(illustrated) of his _Travels in Georgia, Persia, and the East_, during -the years 1817 to 1821. Such a work from a distinguished traveller in -that day would soon grow into popularity; but, like Dr. M’Leod, he does -not describe his snake by the cool light of science. - -In a very able article, ‘Boa’ in the good old _Penny Cyclopedia_, -dated 1835, the writer, quoted by Mr. Philip Henry Gosse, mildly -criticises the lubrication theory, and gives at length an excellent -paper on the subject, contributed to the _Zoological Journal_ in 1826 -by the distinguished naturalist, W. J. Broderip, F.L.S., etc.[32] -Very courteously Mr. Broderip discusses Dr. McLeod’s description, -and in giving an account of what he himself witnessed in the manner -of a boa feeding, speaks of ‘the secretion of lubricating mucus -being excessive,’ and that ‘the jaws dripped with the mucus which had -lubricated the parts,’ but not once mentioning the tongue as having any -part in this function. The writer in the _Penny Cyclopedia_ concludes -by saying that he had himself frequently watched the snakes while -feeding, and they ‘never covered the victim; the tongue was thrust -forth, but only,’ etc. And yet so many book-makers who must have read -this have copied the anecdotes without the comment, and have thus -popularized the lingual lubrication! - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_THE TONGUE OF A SNAKE._ - -PART III.—_ITS USES_. - - -ONE more function in which the tongue has no part it is important first -to mention. ‘It is supposed to be concerned in the function of voice, -that is, hissing,’ says Mr. Frank Buckland in his _Curiosities of -Natural History_, 1860. Now, as this is an extremely popular book, and -as Mr. Buckland was a very popular writer, and much quoted and believed -in from his pleasant and genial style, and his many opportunities, it -is necessary to explain that the tongue is often or generally in its -sheath while the snake hisses, and therefore has _no part whatever_ in -the ‘function of voice.’ - -More recently still, a writer in 1876 is under the same impression. -It is well known that the contributors to that excellent magazine, -the _Leisure Hour_, are for the most part persons of good literary -standing. However, in the matter of snakes we are all only learners. - -There are in the magazine referred to, three chapters ‘On Snakes,’ -occupying, with the illustrations, about eight pages, in which the -general subject is treated. - -‘It is a very general belief that the sting of a poisonous snake is in -its tongue,’ says this writer, ‘and to any one who has seen an adder -ready for attack, with its body coiled, its head and neck reared aloft, -and its long, narrow tongue, split for a considerable distance from -the point inwards, and thus resembling a two-pronged fork, vibrating -rapidly, accompanied by a hissing sound, the needle-like points of the -tongue have a decidedly stinging aspect. It need hardly be said that -the tongue is only responsible for the hissing.’ The hissing is from -the lungs (see chap. ix.), and, as may be repeated, often while the -tongue is within its sheath, the opening of which is forward in the -mouth. - -The tongue of a snake occupies much the same place in the lower jaw as -that of other animals; only being, while passive, within its sheath, -which opens at the tip, the tongue can move but in one direction, -namely, _forwards_. - -The illustration in the _Leisure Hour_ which accompanies the above -writer’s explanation, displays a rattlesnake with widely-extended jaws, -and a tongue which, by comparison, must be from root to tip half a foot -in length, and represented as coming from far back in the throat, as if -no sheath existed. - -The tongue of a snake not being so planted, and not by any possibility -intercepting the breath, it is needless to repeat that it can never -be any agent of the voice, _i.e._ ‘hissing,’ nor is it every snake -that does hiss (see chap. ix.). Illustrations conveying an entirely -erroneous impression are very much to be regretted, and unfortunately -this misplacing of the snake’s tongue is an extremely common error, -and we recognise the familiar woodcut again and again in a number of -different publications, misconceptions thus being seriously multiplied. -Bad illustrations, even more than printed errors, are responsible, -because more persons turn the leaves of a book to look at these, than -those who read the page, and a glance either instructs or misinforms -the eye. - -The hissing of a snake, as we may here add, is merely an escape or -expulsion of air from the lungs, more or less quick or ‘loud,’ as -the reptile is more or less alarmed or angry. Conjecturally, one may -suppose this hissing to correspond with the agitated breathing or -panting of other animals, or of an excited person. - -In the seventeenth century, when travellers were visiting for the first -time the newly-settled colonies in America and Africa, and when the -early explorers in various parts of the world were sending home stuffed -specimens of animals (in the days when taxidermy, like other sciences, -was in its infancy), a stuffed snake was furnished with a huge, broad, -fleshy tongue, big enough to crowd its entire mouth, minus teeth and -gums.[33] Whether this broad tongue was to favour the delusion of -‘licking,’ or whether the licking was presupposed from the look of the -tongue, we cannot say, but that the stuffed specimens did encourage the -delusion is clear. - -Our Philosophical Society, founded about the middle of that century, -and the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ of those days record the first -arrival of tropical serpents in England, and the marvellous beliefs -concerning them. From them we learn, nevertheless, that many things -said to be ‘new to science’ in our own time, were not unknown two -centuries ago. - -Passing by a large number of writers on snakes, who, being convinced -that the tongue neither ‘stings’ nor ‘licks’ nor ‘aids in hissing,’ -and who, therefore, cursorily dismiss it with, ‘the use of the tongue -is not known,’ let us thoroughly examine for ourselves this mysterious -organ; and this we can do with the assistance of those who have devoted -careful attention to the subject. - -Quoting first our English authorities, Dr. J. E. Gray tells us: ‘Tongue -very long, retractile into a sheath at its base. Apex forked, very -long, slender, and tapering.’ - -Says Dr. Günther: ‘Tongue long, vermiform, forked; an organ of touch; -frequently and rapidly exserted to examine an object. The slightest -provocation brings the tongue into play.’ - -Rymer Jones, in his _Organization of the Animal Kingdom_, tells us that -‘in snakes the bulk of the tongue is reduced to the utmost extent. The -whole organ seems converted into a slender, bifid instrument of touch, -and is covered with a delicate membrane.’ Again, in Todd’s _Cyclopedia -of Anatomy_, the same writer says that ‘the tongue of a snake seems to -perform functions, the nature of which is not so obvious’ (as that of -some other reptiles). - -Der Hœven (Clark’s translation) tells us ‘the tongue of a snake is an -organ of feeling or tact, and much used, as the antennæ of insects.’ - -It will be observed that while no two of the above writers use -precisely the same words, each helps us to picture the tongue -more accurately, and we glean from each some new particular. The -_Encyclopedia Britannica_, after telling us ‘the use of the tongue is -not exactly known,’ adds, ‘they (the snakes) are continually lancing it -into the air, and may possibly in this way gather moisture from grass -or herbage’ (alluding to the question of ‘drinking,’ see chap. iv.). - -Professor Owen still further defines it as a pair of muscles, or -a double muscle partly connected and partly free. The reader will -prefer the learned Professor’s own words, notwithstanding the slight -repetition. - -In his _Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, p. 463, after describing the -prehensile character of the tongue in some reptiles, notably the toad -and the chameleon, he says: ‘In serpents the tongue takes no other -share in the prehension of food than by the degree in which it may -assist in the art of drinking. It is very long, slender, cylindrical, -protractile, consisting of a pair of muscular cylinders in close -connection along the two basal thirds, but liberated from each other, -and tapering each to a point at the anterior third; these are in -constant vibration when the tongue is protruded, and are in great -part withdrawn with the undivided body of the tongue into a sheath -when the organ is retracted.’ The pair of parallel muscles can be -distinguished in the largest of the accompanying illustrations, viz. -the tongue of a Jamaica boa of about 8 feet long. It was cut out and -given me immediately after the death of the reptile, and while soft -and flexible was carefully copied. The hair-like points diminish to an -almost invisible fineness impossible to represent with pen or pencil. -The _slender_ little tongue is that of the young _Jararaca_; and the -shortest is that of the African viperling. I have drawn only as much as -is usually exserted when in use. The entire tongues are much longer, -of a pale flesh tint, and somewhat thicker towards the root. It is -observable that the organs, like their possessors, are either shorter -and stouter, or longer and more slender. - -[Illustration: Three tongues from nature (exact size).] - -The reader will concur with Mr. P. H. Gosse and the _Penny Cyclopedia_, -that ‘no instrument is less adapted for licking.’ - -There is yet one more of our English scientific writers who must be -quoted, and who, though he wrote so far back as 1834, shows us that -even then this tongue was far better understood by the French and -German zoologists than ourselves. Roget, in his _Animal Physiology_ -(one of the Bridgewater Treatises), says: ‘Hellmann has shown us that -the slender, bifurcated tongue of snakes is used for the purposes of -touch.’ - -It is to be regretted that we have no translation of this and of -several other German ophiologists of whom mention is made by Roget and -others. Lenz gives us to understand that in 1817 Hellmann had decided -that a snake uses its tongue as an insect does its antennæ. And in -watching with unprejudiced eyes the varying play of the organ, the -similarity of action will at once be recognised. - -After all, how little can we ever know of these organs beyond -conjecture! Who shall say whether each or both may not possess a -sense of which we ourselves have no true perception? Close observers -are convinced that the tongue of a snake is endowed with peculiar -sensibilities; and it is the more astonishing, therefore, that reason -and observation have so long been blinded and enslaved by prejudice -regarding it. - -Some naturalists think that the sense of smell lies in antennæ. The -sense of smell itself is dull in snakes; yet they have means of -ascertaining what other animals learn by smell. Says Huxley, ‘The -great majority of the sensations we call taste are in reality complex -sensations, into which smell and even touch largely enter.’[34] It is -certain that the snake’s tongue is in constant use for some purpose or -other, though beyond what we see of its form and actions we can only -speculate, or, at best, draw conclusions from observation. - -Both Dumeril and Lenz give the result of their own observations. The -former, however, devotes so many pages to the tongue and its functions -under the various headings of ‘touch,’ ‘nutrition,’ ‘the senses,’ etc., -that it will be necessary to curtail a good deal, particularly as this -great author has been quoted by those other physiologists whose words -were given above. Of the sheath into which the tongue is received he -says:—‘Une gaîne cylindrique, charnue; mais l’extrémité de cette -langue est fourchue, ou divisée en deux pointes mobiles, vibrantes, -susceptible de se mouvoir indépendamment l’une de l’autre, de s’écarter -et d’être lancées, pour ainsi dire: ce que la fait regarder par le -vulgaire comme une sorte de darte, auquel même quelques peintres ont -donné dans leurs tableaux la forme d’un fer de flêche. Le vrai est que -cette langue est molle, humide, très faible, et que l’on a fait des -conjectures, plutôt sur les usages auquels on l’a cru destinée, que -sur l’utilité réelle dont elle peut être aux serpents dans l’acte de -la deglutition; car les serpents ne mâchent jamais leurs alimens.’[35] -‘Quoiqu’on ignore le véritable usage de la langue humide et charnue que -les serpents brandissent et font continuellement sortir de la bouche -et vibrer dans l’air, il est facile de concevoir qu’à cause de la -forme cylindrique et de son etroitesse elle ne pourrait faciliter la -mastication, quand même les dents seraient propres de cet usage.’[36] - -This first volume of _Erpétologie générale_ treats of all reptiles -inclusively; but in the sixth volume, where the _ophidia_ particularly -are introduced, the tongue is, with the rest of the organs, more -minutely described. Some repetition necessarily occurs; but there is -still a good deal that will repay perusal. - -After stating that in serpents the sense of touch is dull, on account -of the integument, and the absence of what may be regarded as tactile -organs, and that the sense of smell is dull, the nostrils being feebly -developed, Dumeril adds: ‘The tongue, though fleshy, very mobile, and -constantly moist, is rather an especial instrument for touch, for the -action of lapping, and for other functions, than to perceive the nature -of liquids;’ in other words, than as an organ of _taste_. ‘It is, -however, very remarkable; though smooth and even above, it is furnished -with little fringes or papillæ along the sides. Notwithstanding its -length and narrowness, it is singularly protractile and retractile; and -in its exceedingly rapid vibrations has impressed the vulgar with the -idea that it is formed with the two spear-like points. It is clothed -with a delicate skin.’[37] - -Lenz made many interesting experiments. In his work he gives us the -result of these, and also what some other German ophiologists had seen -and done. He observed how entirely the snake trusted to its tongue -in any unusual circumstances; the all-important member was then in -ceaseless activity. Confined in a glass jar containing wine or any -liquid that the snake did not like, the tongue was ever agitated. -Crawling up the side, the tongue was in constant request to feel the -glass (as may be often seen at the Zoological Gardens); and on arriving -at the top, the head was turned this way and that, and then bent over -the edge, as if to make certain that no further obstacle existed; the -tongue not for one instant quiet, but exserted sometimes as far forward -as the whole length of the head, telling to its owner all that the -other senses could not discover. - -Permitting it to touch his hand, he felt it like the sweep of a thread, -so light and delicate. Too fine and flexible to injure any surface, the -slightest touch of one or both the tips suffices for intelligence. Nay, -sometimes without even touching—that is, without positive contact, but -by some subtle sense, it seems to act as guide. - -When the snake is excited by fear or alarm, or when in a strange place, -the activity of the tongue is so great, the vibrations are so rapid, -that the eye cannot follow them. It is like the play of electricity. - -So far from participating in deglutition, the snake withdraws the -slender instrument into its sheath, which, while feeding, is safely -closed. For this highly-endowed organ is so guarded against injury, -that the reptile has not only a place of safety provided, but power -to close the mouth of its scabbard, lest dust or other irritating -particles should enter. - -We have only to reflect upon and to observe the habits of snakes to -perceive the importance of their tongue to them. For the most part -nocturnal, winding their way under tangled masses of vegetation, often -in dark caves, holes, crevices, and obscure retreats, with their eyes -so placed that they can see neither before nor under them, and with -other senses only feebly developed, the tongue with its sensitive -papillæ feels its way, and conveys impressions to its owner. - -Cats have their whiskers to help them in the dark; moles and mice have -their quick sense of smell to guide them; all nocturnal animals are -gifted in some manner or another, but snakes have only their tongue. - -We can now imagine the helpless condition of the reptile if deprived of -the tongue! Rudolph Effeldt, of whom Lenz speaks as the ‘most eminent -observer of living snakes,’ found that when deprived of the tongue, -they would neither eat nor drink, and, of course, died after a while. -But Lenz had some snakes sent him which had been deprived of their -tongues, and he observed that though for a time dull and declining, -they did recover, and by and by ate as usual. From which we can only -conclude that snakes, like other animals, differ in their powers of -endurance. Some survive mutilation and suffering, some do not. - -Another error in illustrations is to represent the tongue far extended -while the mouth is wide open. Snakes very rarely open their mouths and -use their tongues at the same time. Indeed, excepting to gape, the -snake does _not_ generally open its mouth; nor invariably keep it open -while advancing on its prey, as illustrations often represent. - -Nature has further provided for the safety of the tongue by leaving a -small opening in the upper lip, or at the point of the muzzle, just -where no teeth are in the way, so that the snake can use its tongue -without exposing the sheath and mouth to injury. This ‘chink in the -rostral shield,’ to use technical language, permits the free exit of -the tongue and the independent actions of the two muscles of which -it is formed, enabling the reptile to hold the two fine tips close -together as one tip, while passing the tongue through the narrow chink, -and to expand them afterwards. - -Lenz never observed any dust or small particles adhering to the tongue; -but Mr. Arthur Nicols, the author of _Zoological Notes_, informs me -that he _has_ noticed little fragments of rubbish cling to the tongue -and carried into the mouth. Dr. Cantor also says: ‘Sea snakes make no -use of the tongue while _in_ the water, but considerable use of it as -a feeler when out of the water.’ He has noticed ‘several Indian land -snakes use it to bring into the mouth various small bodies, as stones, -sand, twigs, which they swallow to stimulate digestion.’ - -This is curious and noteworthy. The power or volition which can control -the sheath and close the valve can, no doubt, exclude these foreign -particles; as, while lapping, the mouth must be moistened as well as -the interior of the sheath, both it and the tongue requiring frequent -lubrication. - -But we have now reached the confines of speculation. There is enough of -real fact about this ‘horrid forked tongue’ to interest and astonish -us. We find it guarded, aided, especially provided for, and especially -constructed and endowed; especially _harmless_ also. To the owner its -importance ranks not second even to the eyes. - -The importance of the antennæ to insects is evident to all who have -ever watched the play of those active and beautifully-elaborate organs, -their infinitely varying forms (often many times the length of the -insect itself), their ceaseless play and independent action. Constantly -waving, they lightly touch every contiguous object; investigating on -all sides, they convey to insect intelligence all it requires to know -regarding its environments. Like a herald or a scout, they literally -‘spy out the land,’ and thus become a guide and a guard to the tiny -feeble creature which possesses them. Through them the owner learns all -that is needful for its well-being. - -Much as an insect uses these exquisitely-constructed antennæ, so does -a snake its long, slender, pliant, bifurcate, and highly-sensitive -tongue. Ever busy, ever vigilant, exploring while barely touching each -surface within reach, yet by night and by day conveying with that -slight contact all necessary information to its owner. Sent out with -the speed of a flash, it telegraphs back with like quickness the result -of its discoveries. - -If we may assign intelligence to any single organ, we might affirm that -there is more of what we consider rational intelligence in the tongue -of a snake than in any other of its perceptive faculties. Probably the -most important knowledge demanded by the reptile is conveyed, or, at -least, confirmed by this organ. - -‘_Colorée_,’ says Dumeril of the tongue, as botanists say of the part -of a plant ordinarily green, as, for instance, a calyx; ‘coloured,’ but -not what colour. This is precisely as we may describe the colour of a -snake’s tongue. My attention was first drawn to this on reading one of -Dr. Arthur Stradling’s communications to _Land and Water_, April 2, -1881. ‘It would be interesting to know why some snakes have red tongues -and others black,’ he writes. ‘Here beside me, in a glass case, are two -little snakes, both belonging to the same genus (_Tropidonotus_)—a -seven-banded (_T. leberis_), and a moccasin (_T. fasciatus_), both -hailing from the United States, and both alike in their habits and -choice of food; yet it is a case of _rouge et noir_ with their lingual -appendages.’ - -After reading this, I noticed the varieties of colour in all the -‘forked tongues’ that exhibited themselves at the Zoological Gardens. -Black or very dark tongues, I think, predominate; and next to black, -brownish or olive tints, resembling those of the snake itself. But -not as a rule; for some very light snakes have dark tongues, and the -converse. In two small green tree snakes of distinct genera, one had -a pale pink or flesh-coloured tongue, and the other a black one. Some -tongues are almost white, while a few are red. There seems to be as -much caprice as in the colour of the human hair and eyes; and as -physiologists have traced some sort of connection or relationship with -complexions and constitutions in these, so ophiologists may, after a -time, discover a similar relation or sympathy between the colour of a -snake’s tongue and its integument or eyes. At present, I have observed -only so far as that two entirely black and two entirely green snakes -may present four distinct colours as regards their four tongues, and -that many tints of brown, black, and pink may be seen in the tongues of -as many snakes. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -_THE GLOTTIS._ - - -ONE Friday in august 1873, while watching a large python, at the -Zoological Gardens, swallowing a duck which it had just killed, I was -struck by a singular something projecting or hanging from the side of -the snake’s mouth. It looked like a kind of tube or pipe, about one -inch and a half or two inches of which were visible. The python had -rather an awkward hold of the duck, having begun at the breast with the -neck doubled back, the head forming some temporary impediment to the -progress of the jaws upon the prey. So the strange protuberance gave -one a ‘sort of turn,’ and a shudder. It looked as if it might be some -part of the crushed bird, and then again it had the appearance of some -internal arrangement; and another shudder crept over one as the idea -suggested itself that the poor snake had ruptured its throat in some -way. What _could_ this queer thing be, hanging on one side, as you see -the tongue of a horse or dog sometimes lolling sideways over its lower -jaw? While intently pondering and observing this strange tube-like -object, in size somewhat as big as the edge of a thimble, I saw the -end of it moving of itself, an orifice contracting and closing tight, -by the loose skin puckering up, so to speak. Presently it opened, and -by and by again closed tight, as you see the breathing orifice of the -octopus contract and expand, open and close, at regular intervals, only -in the present case the intervals were not regular. This strange tube, -then, had life and volition in it! What could it be? - -Suddenly a certain day of one’s childhood flashed into my mind, and a -certain scene of home. One Michaelmas Day it was, when, having stolen -surreptitiously into the kitchen to coax the cook to ‘_let_ me see -the goose!’ I found her busy preparing the bird, and clambered into a -chair to watch her. ‘What’s _that_?’ I demanded, seeing part of a long, -pipe-like looking thing lying there. - -‘Oh, that’s the windpipe. That’s like what _you’ve_ got in _your_ -throat; and that’s where the crumbs get to make you choke so,’ in -allusion to a recent occurrence. - -I gazed with awe and interest at that very strange thing, and wondered -if it really could be like anything in my own throat, and where it -began and ended, and so on. And that goose’s windpipe was indelibly -stamped on my memory. - -And now that scene came vividly back to me, for there was a windpipe -sort of look about this appendage to the snake’s jaw, only it did not -appear to be bruised or injured in any way. Nor from the position of -the duck (by this time half swallowed) could it belong to the bird. -And, again, it moved with an independent motion! - -And now the snake threw up its head, to free the legs of the duck from -its folds where it had been held, and as you see horses toss up their -heads to get the grain in the bag hung on their noses, and I saw the -tube-like object still more plainly. Then, with a strange, awe-struck -feeling, came a conviction that this could be nothing less than the -poor snake’s windpipe, and that something must be very wrong with it. - -I beckoned to the keeper, and pointed to it, telling him, ‘I do think -that must be its windpipe. Is it hurt?’ - -The keeper said, ‘No, the snake was not hurt. That he had often seen -it like that when the snakes were feeding; and that he also thought it -must be the windpipe, to enable the snake to breathe while feeding.’ - -Next day, with eager steps and excited curiosity, I hurried to the -British Museum reading-room, thinking I had made a wonderful discovery, -for I had never heard this strange phenomenon alluded to, and the -keeper evidently knew very little about it. - -With this great secret on my mind, I flew to the well-known shelves, to -secure those books which would certainly enlighten me if information -were to be had. Alas! for my wonderful discovery, though it really had -been a portion of the windpipe which was thus extended from the mouth, -it was what had been known long ago by those physiologists who had -studied the anatomy of the ophidia, and it was as coolly described as -if it were the commonest occurrence in the world for creatures to do -what they pleased with their windpipe! - -Says Professor Owen in his _Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, vol. i. p. -525: ‘The glottis of serpents can be drawn forward and protruded -from the mouth by the action of’ (certain surrounding) ‘muscles. In -marine serpents the glottis is situated very near the fore part of the -mouth, and the air can be inspired at the surface of the water without -exposure of the jaws.’ - -The lungs of snakes, then, are supplied with air through that moveable -tube, and the ‘glottis,’ which is the mouth or opening of what may here -be called the air-tube, not to venture on scientific terms, was what I -had seen ‘puckered up,’ as it appeared. - -We may briefly remind the reader that our own throats contain two -passages, one to the lungs, the other to the stomach; and in order that -the air passage may be safely guarded from the entrance of any foreign -particles, there are various parts, valves, and muscles which come -into play with the action of swallowing, each and all having technical -names, larynx, pharynx, glottis, epiglottis, etc., which need not be -here described. But in the adaptive development of those wonderful -creatures, snakes, the entrance or mouth of the windpipe—which begins -_in_ their mouth—can not only be closed at will, but still further to -protect the passage, and also to enable the reptiles to breathe during -the long process of swallowing, they can absolutely bring the apparatus -forward, even _beyond_ their mouths; and this was what had so surprised -me on witnessing it. - -The glottis, being the soft, membranous end or aperture, was what -opened and closed, expanded and contracted, by that sort of puckering -up and loosening again that was observable, and which here was rounded, -but in the higher animals is a narrow, lip-like slit. - -Some physiologists, in describing this ‘air-tube’ of serpents, speak -of it as the _larynx_, which is what we unscientific folk would call -the entrance to, or the upper portion of, the true windpipe or trachea. -Others, again, affirm that they saw the ‘windpipe’ projecting. After -all, much less has been said about it than one could wish; and what -is said is somewhat conflicting, perhaps on account of the obscurity -connected with this surprising adaptation of means to necessities. -A thorough examination of the position of the trachea of snakes -_while feeding_, and a perfect realization of its functions, could -only be obtained were it possible to arrest the process of feeding -by the instantaneous death of the feeder, and while every muscle of -the snake’s mouth remained in position. Even then, one could not be -positive, as snakes are endowed with the astonishing power of carrying -out their intentions, or, in common language, ‘going on with their -business,’ even after death. That is to say, owing to the irritability -of their muscles, the action which they were about to perform (as, -for instance, springing at a foe) continues should the head be shot -off at the moment of making the attempt. In p. 56 and chap. xxi. some -remarkable elucidations of this are given. - -The general appearance of a windpipe is familiar to every one. It -is formed of a series of rings or hoops, partially cartilaginous in -mammals; that is to say, they are incomplete behind, where their -ends are united by muscle and membrane, and come in contact with the -gullet; but in serpents the rings are entire, the ends of each being -joined together by an elastic substance. The rings themselves are -also connected with each other by elastic membranes, so that the -windpipe is capable of being extended like an india-rubber tube, and of -regaining its former position. - -The length of it naturally varies according to the size and species -of serpent; but as a rule it is always much longer comparatively than -in man. In a full-sized rattlesnake, the trachea is about twenty -inches long. In a boa constrictor, also, though a much larger snake, -it measures about the same. In smaller snakes it is, of course, much -shorter; but there is the same singular diversity in this as we find in -other serpent anomalies, viz. a great variation in the length in snakes -of equal size, and without any very apparent reason. - -Bingley, in his _Animal Biography_, 1820, describes the appearance of -a large snake (M’Leod’s celebrated boa) when gorging a goat; but the -account, like those of that time, is more sensational than scientific. -‘His cheeks were immensely dilated, and appeared to be bursting, and -his _windpipe_ projected three inches beyond his jaws.’ - -Broderip, a few years later, 1825, more lucidly and dispassionately -describes what he had observed. ‘I have uniformly found that the larynx -is, during the operation of swallowing, protruded sometimes as much as -a quarter of an inch beyond the edge of the dilated lower jaw. I have -seen, in company with others, the valves of the glottis open and shut, -and the dead rabbit’s fur immediately before the aperture stirred, -apparently by the serpent’s breath, when his jaws and throat were -stiff, and stretched to excess’ (_Zoological Journal_, ii. 1826). This -account is quoted from the paper entitled, ‘Some Account of the Mode in -which the Boa Constrictor takes its Prey, and of the Adaptation of its -Organization to its Habits,’ by W. J. Broderip, Esq., F.L.S. The paper -was written as a criticism of the M’Leod story. - -I, also, on several occasions, saw the fur or feathers stirred by -air when the mouth or valve opened of what we may safely call the -_air-tube_, whether larynx or trachea. - -Though so rarely mentioned in popular books on snakes, this -surprising modification of the breathing apparatus was described by -the indefatigable Dr. Edward Tyson, on his dissection of the first -rattlesnake that fell into the hands of the Royal Society, 1683, and -whose paper on the _Vipera caudisona_, as he named it, is quoted in -chapters xvi. and xx. ‘Over the tongue did lye the _larynx_, not formed -with that variety of cartilages as is usual in other animals, but so as -to make a rime or slit for receiving or conveying out the air. Nor was -there any epiglottis for preventing other bodies from slipping in, this -being sufficiently provided for by the strict closure of it.’[38] - -Dr. Tyson examined only a dead specimen, and could not therefore -witness the action observable in life; but his remarkable accuracy in -describing the parts will be evident in comparing what he said with -Dumeril, who did observe the living reptiles. The confusion which -sometimes occurs in distinguishing the parts may be also explained by -the less complicated structure of the tube, which in higher animals -presents the nicer distinctions of the parts, glottis, epiglottis, -larynx, etc. - -‘Il n’y a pas de véritable larynx, une petite languette mobile qui -s’ajuste, sur l’ouverture linéaire; c’est la glotte.... La glotte, -située au-dessous de la victime, se porte en avant, et l’acte de -respiration ne se trouve point empêché. C’est que nous avons indiqué à -l’article de la déglutition; car on voit distinctement alors la glotte -se fermer et se délater.’[39] - -This _petite languette_ became a new object of curiosity, and soon -came fresh opportunities for observation, namely, when some of the -larger snakes were engaged in yawning. On account of its extreme -mobility, you do not always detect the form of this little point on -the upper lip, which as often as not presents a rounded opening; but -occasionally the little tongue—which can be nothing but an apology for -an epiglottis—is very distinct, and may be compared with the moveable, -pointed snout of some of the large pachyderms, or, still better, with -an exactly similar formation at the end of the elephant’s trunk, and -which, though for a different purpose, moves similarly. - -As to the _exact position_ of this glottis when at rest, a word or two -must be said; for a number of prepositions have been used to describe -it. One writer says ‘beneath’ the tongue sheath, others say ‘beyond,’ -others again ‘before;’ ‘over,’ ‘above,’ ‘behind,’ ‘in front of,’ have -been variously used, and all depending on which way the snake is -viewed; but without drawing upon half a score of prepositions to puzzle -the reader, as I myself was sorely puzzled until a yawning snake was so -kind as to afford me an ocular scrutiny of its lingual arrangements, we -can easily comprehend where a passage to the windpipe and lungs must -necessarily be, and which, it is clear, is not _under_ the tongue. -When a snake’s head is raised, as in crawling up a wall or a tree, -the glottis may be said to be ‘beneath’ or ‘under;’ but the general -position of a snake being horizontal, the mouth then opened would show -you the opening of the tongue sheath _nearest_ to you and to the front; -and beyond that, behind, over, or _upon_ the tongue sheath, is another -aperture, which is the glottis or entrance to the larynx and trachea or -windpipe. - -So there are in fact two sheaths or tubes lying one upon the other, -viz. the tongue sheath, and upon this and parallel with it, the -windpipe. - -After becoming better acquainted with the nature of that tube which -had impressed me so strangely, I lost no opportunity of making further -observations, and on the following feeding day at the Gardens I saw the -air-tubes of several snakes plainly. In September of that year, a new -‘Horseshoe’ snake (_Zamenis hippocrepis_) arrived from Morocco. It was -a small and very pretty snake, and while enjoying the privilege of a -private inspection, the keeper got its mouth open for me, enabling me -to see the glottis, as well as to both see and _feel_ the four upper -rows of its beautiful little teeth, closely placed, and as sharp as -the finest pins. But the action of the air-tube was very distinct. -Probably little _Zamenis_ was breathing harder and nervously under the -detention, but no word better describes the formation of the aperture -of the perfectly rounded tube, and the movement of it, than the _petite -languette_. - -Subsequently, there were opportunities of observing the air-tube in -two of the large African vipers, the ‘River Jack’ or ‘Nose-horned’ -vipers (_Vipera rhinosceros_) occupying the same cage. Each struck a -guinea-pig and held it. One of them began to eat his before it was -quite dead, and had finished it before his friend had begun. In his -case, the air-pipe was at the side of his distended jaws. In the other, -it projected more than half an inch _beneath_, nearly in the centre. - -This happened on a mild, damp day in November 1873, and after that -I saw the tube in ‘several snakes,’ but I regret the names were not -entered in my notebook at the time. In the smaller non-venomous snakes, -or in the lacertines—of which there were then a large number—I do -not remember to have observed it. They despatch their frog or mouse so -quickly that they would scarcely need a fresh supply of air meanwhile. -In the larger vipers, rattlesnakes, and constrictors, the air-tube -was undoubtedly witnessed. Winter then terminated my observations, -and afterwards a prolonged absence from town. Unfortunately, when -observations were about to be resumed, the change of the plans at -the Zoological Gardens, and the exclusion of the public, defeated my -intentions, though on one occasion I did see the windpipe of little -_Natrix torquata_ very distinctly; and this was the smallest snake in -which I had ever observed it. _Natrix_ had nearly disposed of a large -frog. The whole of it was in his mouth, which was widely expanded, -and the air-tube was protruded sideways, not _out_ of the mouth, but -sufficiently forward to enable one to distinguish its form, and the -action of the _petite languette_. The prey being unusually large, the -snake had needed air while swallowing it. - -On several occasions in snakes recently dead, and of various sizes, one -has been able to notice how admirably this tube, which lies along the -mouth like a soft cushion, somewhat in the form of a parrot’s tongue, -is supplied with space in the roof, arched to fit it, the palate teeth -enclosing it on each side, while the opening, or glottis, exactly meets -the nostrils, _les arrières nez_, bringing it into communication with -the outer air. - -In a little _Coluber_, just dead, I again had an opportunity of making -observations. The membranous coating was so thin and transparent that -the rings of the windpipe could be very distinctly traced from a quite -forward position in the mouth, and beginning on and over the tongue -sheath. The surrounding skin or membrane was also loose and abundant, -so that with the point of a needle the upper part of the windpipe could -be easily drawn forward _beyond_ the lips. In life the little snake -could thus have voluntarily protruded it as occasion required. - -Another day the large reticulated python seemed to intentionally -gratify my curiosity by affording me a most leisurely and excellent -opportunity for observation. His head was raised, and so close to the -glass that the process of swallowing could be watched conveniently. -The final swallow, or successive efforts at the last were, as usual, -attended with frequent yawns. The glottis, as could on these occasions -be distinctly seen, was repeatedly opened and closed, and after being -extended beyond the mouth, it gradually resumed its natural position. -While the prey occupied the entire space between the gaping jaws, one -could see the air-tube pushed forward _beneath_; but as by degrees -the duck disappeared down the throat, the interior of the mouth could -be better and better observed. In this large snake the membrane or -skin was too thick to enable one to discern rings as in the little -_Coluber_; but as the larynx is merely the upper part of the trachea, -and as the glottis is the mere membranous opening to the larynx, it -seems evident that the windpipe itself is also extensible, the windpipe -being, indeed, the only portion of the air-tube sufficiently firm and -resisting to aid the purpose of respiration under such conditions. - -The exact distance which the tube is extended cannot be accurately -stated. It would not be equally protruded in snakes of different sizes -nor under different conditions. Broderip saw it ‘as much as a quarter -of an inch.’ Bingley, an earlier and a less safe authority, says ‘the -windpipe projected _three inches_ beyond his jaws.’ The keeper at the -Gardens thought he had sometimes seen it ‘as much as two inches in the -largest snakes;’ and my own impression was, one inch, at least, in the -python, and almost that in the large vipers. - -It is undoubtedly one of those interesting features worthy of further -investigation, and one is surprised that more accurate information -regarding it has not appeared in our later encyclopedias and in the -‘Proceedings of the Zoological Societies.’ - -So long ago as 1826, it was observed and confirmed by the distinguished -author of _Zoological Researches_, and _Leaves from the Notebook of -a Naturalist_. The author of _British Reptiles_, who conducted the -_Zoological Journal_ when Mr. Broderip contributed the valuable paper -above quoted, added a note by special request, stating that his own -‘not unfrequent observations have on every point been completely -confirmatory of those above recorded’ by W. J. Broderip, Esq. - -A very good account of the whole is quoted in the _Penny Magazine_, -1836, and we are therein further enlightened by reading that Joseph -Henry Green, Esq., F.R.S., in one of his lectures at the Royal College -of Surgeons, alluded to Broderip’s paper ‘On the Mode in which -Constrictors swallow their Prey,’ and which had drawn his attention to -the statement about the larynx, and led him to examine the mouth of a -snake. - -In process of dissection, he detected two muscles in the lower jaw, -evidently intended for the purpose of bringing the larynx forward; how -far forward and how much of the true windpipe was also brought forward, -he did not say. But this in a dead specimen could scarcely be affirmed -with certainty. - -From the large size of their prey, and the jaws being stretched -open and gorged to their utmost capacity, it is plain that snakes -cannot breathe freely in the ordinary manner while feeding, a process -sometimes of an hour or more. Owing to the construction of their lungs -and their capability to contain a large volume of air, they do not -require to breathe frequently; still they do occasionally take a fresh -inspiration, and their needs are met by this wonderful arrangement of -the breathing apparatus. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -_BREATHING AND HISSING OF SNAKES._ - - -FOLLOWING on the subject of the last chapter comes that of respiration; -and in connection with breathing is the ‘voice,’ so far as this class -of animals can be said to possess a voice. - -As already seen in the description of the glottis, serpents do not -breathe in the ordinary way, with short and regular inspirations, but -when they do respire, they take in a supply of air to last them for -some time. Their lungs, instead of occupying one particular portion of -the body corresponding with the chest of the higher animals, are less -developed. One lung—or what Professor Owen calls the long pulmonary -bag—of snakes extends along more than half of their body; in some -species nearly to the anus. Only one lung is normal, the other is -rudimentary. The circulation is so arranged that on each contraction -of the heart only a part of the blood is exposed to the influence of -the air and becomes oxygenated, the rest returning to the parts without -having undergone the action of respiration at all. The blood is, in -consequence, poor in red corpuscles, its circulation is comparatively -languid, the reptile becomes easily torpid, and its temperature is -influenced by the surrounding atmosphere more than by the vigour of its -own functions. This is why, when not excited to activity by external -warmth, reptiles can pass a long time without food. Having no fixed -temperature to maintain, one important source of demand for food is -withdrawn. - -The air enters their lungs chiefly in a direct course from the -nostrils, only by the mouth when open. If you observe the flatness of -the head, and the very short space that can exist between the nose and -the mouth of snakes, you will readily trace the communication between -the entrance to the trachea and the outer air through the nostrils -when the glottis is not closed. Professor Owen, in his _Anatomy of -the Vertebrates_, vol. i. p. 528, describes this process fully. In -the foregoing description I have borrowed from him, as well as from -Dr. Carpenter, Todd, and others; but as there is nothing like ‘seeing -for oneself,’ I would persuade my readers to watch a snake for a few -minutes. An inspiration at intervals will be easily discerned by the -expansion of the body. You will also perceive partial or slighter -breathings, and the trunk dilating and expanding gently through a sort -of internal respiration which is going on; every now and then comes the -deeper, fuller breath. - -You may perceive that sometimes one short portion of the body expands, -as if the lung in that part only were at work. This is more easily seen -in the larger snakes. I have watched these for a quarter of an hour or -more at a time, during which period only a comparatively short portion -of the body showed any signs of breathing. Schlegel, who carefully -studied this action, observed sometimes as many as thirty such partial -dilatations of the trunk and lung between two full inspirations. - -In the large reticulated python I once saw that about two feet of the -body, viz. four to six feet from the head, dilated with occasional and -irregular inspirations, and no other part. By and by slight indications -of breathing were observable much lower down, many feet apart from -the previous action, while during the whole time I was watching I saw -not one full and entire inflation of the lungs. This was on a rather -chilly September afternoon, and the python had partaken of a couple of -ducks for dinner the previous day, and it was a time when inactivity is -usual. In a rattlesnake, on the same day, similar partial and irregular -respirations were observable, this serpent having caused four rats to -disappear at his last night’s supper. - -Sometimes you can discern no indication whatever of breathing for a -very long time. When the reptiles are not in health, when they are -about to cast their skin, or when in a half-torpid condition, you may -observe this. - -When a snake yawns—a long and leisurely proceeding—the lungs are -doubtless greatly refreshed; otherwise these reptiles do not rest with -their mouths open, and the only possible access of outer air by the -lips being through the chink appropriated to the service of the tongue -(and which is as exactly opposite the opening of the tongue-sheath as -the nostrils are opposite to the glottis), they must breathe almost -entirely through the nose, _except when yawning_. - -From the elongated form of the pulmonary bag, and the large volume -of air which it contains, we can understand not only how a temporary -suspension of respiration can be supported, but we comprehend how it is -that these reptiles can remain under water for long periods, as they -often do,—not because they breathe _in_ the water, but because they -can for a while do without breathing. - -Snakes have been seen to remain perfectly quiet at the bottom of a -clear stream for half an hour or more. Sometimes in this totally -quiescent state one has been supposed to be dead, until, on a stone -being thrown, it has darted away like a fish. None of the aquatic birds -or the cetaceous mammalia can remain so long under water without coming -to the surface to breathe as serpents can. - -At the Zoological Gardens they remain for hours at a time in their -tanks. Often you will see a head peeping out—which, unfortunately, is -all we _can_ see—while the bath is being enjoyed, but as often the -head is also immersed, though, of course, for a shorter interval, the -snake lifting it to breathe occasionally. - -We can imagine also the great assistance in swimming which this long -air-receptacle must be, these reptiles deriving from it the same -advantage, says Professor Owen, ‘as an eel from its swim-bladder.’ In -chap. XII. is described the almost swimming motion of the more active -snakes when gliding through long grass, or effecting progress over -a very smooth surface. In the water the action is similar—that is, -the progression is by lateral undulations, the tail being the chief -propelling power. Whether through the resisting medium of water, or -beating the air, so to speak, when skimming over smooth or unresisting -surfaces, this swimming motion is ever easy and graceful. In the -chapter on Tails, we shall see what an important agent in progression -is this limb, whether by pressure, as in the burrowing snakes, or by -its oar-like or paddle-like use in rapid motion. - -To recapitulate the above in a few words—first, respiration warms the -blood; snakes are cold-blooded because only a portion of the blood -passes through the lungs to become oxygenated, and in proportion to the -diminution of the quantity of blood transmitted to the lungs, so does -respiration become weaker; therefore reptiles are less dependent on -breathing. - -Regarding the ‘voice’ of serpents, so surprising are the qualities -attributed to it, that one would imagine the existence of varieties of -snakes of widely differing organizations, if we were to believe all we -read of the sounds they produce. ‘Hissing loudly,’ or ‘whistling,’ is -the rule. No ordinary writer or traveller who says a word about a snake -ever heard it hiss anything but ‘loudly,’ a statement traceable to -the same sentiment which causes persons to talk of the ‘horrid forked -tongue.’ A benevolently-disposed snake who would warn you away with -that terrible tongue would also strengthen his argument by a prolonged -hiss, and the louder the better. - -But let us turn to the hard, cold, unpoetical, unimaginative language -of science, and see what a snake can really do in the vocal expression -of its feelings. - -Says Dr. Carpenter: ‘In all air-breathing vertebrata the production -of sound depends upon the passage of air through a certain portion -of the respiratory tube, which is so constructed as to set the air -in vibration. In reptiles and mammals it is at the point where the -windpipe opens into the front of the pharynx, that this vibrating -apparatus is situated. Few of the animals of the former class, however, -can produce any other sound than a _hiss_, occasioned by the passage of -air through the narrow chink by which the trachea communicates with the -pharynx; but this sound, owing to the great capacity of their lungs, is -often very much prolonged’ (_Animal Physiology_),—prolonged, but not -powerful, be it observed. - -Says Professor Owen: ‘The true “_chordæ vocales_” are absent in -serpents, and the voice is reduced to a hissing sound, produced by the -action of the expired air upon the margins of the glottis’ (_Anatomy of -the Vertebrates_). - -Speaking of the escape of air from the lungs, Dumeril says: ‘Lorsqu’il -est passé plus vivement il laisse entendre une sorte de vibration, qui -le plus souvent, ne consiste que dans le bruit d’un soufflement.’[40] - -Sometimes, according to the position of a snake, or when the passage is -well open and uninterrupted, the hiss partakes somewhat of a whistling -sound, like the blowing through a quill. I observed this particularly -in a ‘tree boa’ (_Epicratis cenchris_), which hissed at me angrily one -day because I took the liberty of touching it when the keeper opened -its cage to arrange its blanket. The ‘hiss,’ not loud, or by any means -musical, differed from the ordinary blowing only as a current of -air passing through a round tube would differ from the same current -passing through a narrow slit. A true ‘hiss,’ such as we produce -with closed teeth in prolonging the sound of _s_, a serpent can never -express. The nearest approach to it in the human voice is when the -tongue is in the position as if we are about to say _ye_ or _he_, and -then prolong the breath; that is to say, breathe out while the tongue -is so placed before the word is uttered. - -Naturally the larger the snake the stronger the ‘hiss;’ the more rapid -the expiration, the more powerful will be the volume of air with its -attendant _soufflement_. - -The sound and action, as well as degree, are easily seen in the ‘puff -adder’ (_Clotho_, or _Vipera arietans_). When angry or alarmed, it -draws in a full breath, and its body swells perceptibly; then you hear -the escaping air like a prolonged sigh or blowing till the lungs are -empty. This process is repeated as long as the provocation lasts. - -These alternate inspirations and expirations, with their accompanying -movements, the swelling and then diminishing of the trunk and the -regular _soufflants_, are so precisely like those of a pair of bellows, -that excepting in shape, we require no more complete comparison. The -_degree_ or strength of hiss is in this reptile very perceptible. When -recently imported and easily excited, its violent ‘puffing’ corresponds -with a very large pair of bellows; but in time it grows less alarmed -at the appearance of the human beings who unceremoniously stare at it; -and at length the puffing is very slight, ceasing altogether after -the snake becomes accustomed to its surroundings. But if molested and -alarmed, you then see the full play of the lungs, and the whole body -alternately expanding and contracting as before. - -We may almost compare this pulmonary action to the panting or full -breathings of ourselves under alarm or agitation. Only, in comparison -as the lung of snakes is elongated, and there is so much of it to fill -with air, so is the sound prolonged, and the breathing a slower process. - -There is another viper, the small Cape adder (_Vipera atropos_), a most -deadly little reptile, in which a similar sound to that of the ‘puff -adder’ may be heard. When this creature is disturbed, it draws in a -long breath which expands its whole body in the same manner, and then -in expelling the air, a long sort of wheeze or blowing is audible. -Even in drawing the breath in, a slight sound is heard (as it also is -in our native viper and some others); but instead of the prolonged -hiss by which most snakes display their agitation, this little adder -expresses itself in long successive blowings, like its larger relative -_arietans_, only a little less regularly. In the present instance, I -saw the lung inflated with an agitated undulating motion, as if the -fluid air were entering in little waves. I do not state positively that -this is invariably the case from having witnessed it in one specimen. -This might be the normal process, or this viper’s lungs and health may -have been impaired. I am thus precise because it is unsafe to establish -as an invariable fact in natural history what may have been seen only -occasionally, a habit which has so often led to the promulgation of -erroneous impressions. - -The prolonged sound of the hiss in snakes is due to the size of the -lung, they having a large supply of air to draw upon. Some serpents -expand their bodies under excitement without any perceptible hiss: -the cobra both hisses and expands, so do some others; but all these -movements are, no doubt, connected with respiration in some way, just -as in human beings, sighing, sobbing, panting, etc., in which the -ribs take part, are only modifications of the ordinary movements of -respiration, and chiefly emotional. - -Very similar also to the manner of the puff adder is that of _Vipera -rhinosceros_, one of the largest African poisonous serpents, known as -the ‘River Jack,’ being fond of water. One of these was in the London -collection for several years, and I observed that whenever disturbed, -its body swelled considerably, while the ‘hissing,’ or expulsion of -breath, alternated with this expansion. - -Snakes, like other animals, probably differ in temper or in -nervousness; for while some are noted hissers, others hiss only on -great provocation, and others, again, not at all. One remarkable -example of a non-hissing snake, though from no amiability of temper, -is the little carpet viper of India (_Echis carinata_). Unless you -were positively assured by learned authorities that this exceedingly -irritable little viper never hisses, you would scarcely believe your -ears, so sibilant is the sound it causes by rustling its scales -together. - -Sir Joseph Fayrer, in the _Thanatophidia_, describes this as a very -fierce and aggressive little viper, always ready to attack and be on -the defensive. It throws itself into a double coil, and its agitated -motion causes the rough, carinated scales to rub against each other, -and make a sound like hissing, but ‘_it does not hiss_.’ - -This rustling is very much like the sound of the crotalus rattle, and -the dry scales must be raised in a sort of way, or ruffled, as an -alarmed hen ruffles her feathers. ‘The outer scales are prominent, -and at a different angle to the rest,’ says Fayrer. It generally lies -coiled in a compact form, often like a ‘w,’ as may be seen in the -frontispiece, with its head in the centre, but always towards the point -of supposed danger, which in a cage is facing the spectator. - -Curious and wonderful is the agitation into which this carpet snake -throws itself when disturbed, every inch of it, excepting the head, in -motion. The head retains its fixed position, the eyes intently keeping -guard, while the body moves in every conceivable curve, like wheels -within wheels, yet retaining the same outline, or occupying the same -place and space, though every muscle must be in activity. - -One can liken this behaviour only to what is seen in the blending -of liquids of different densities. As you look down into a glass -containing one fluid while drop after drop of another is falling, you -perceive fresh currents and curves in every direction. Watching one -of these, it has changed places with another, you lose trace of it, -each drop is lost in the commingling of the whole. So it is with this -wonderful little echis. It is almost impossible to follow with the eye -any one portion or coil of its moving length; but each inch changes -places and mingles with the rest, like blending fluids. - -Speaking of an American snake (_Pituophis melanoleucus_), in which a -similar excitement is observable, Mr. Samuel Lockwood[41] likens it -to a ‘mystic wheel.’ ‘The movement consists of numberless units of -individual activities,’ he says, ‘and all regulated by and under the -perfect control of one will that is felt in every curved line.’ There -is some likeness to the ‘thousand personal activities of a regiment of -soldiers on their winding way.’ He has watched the creature ‘melting -into movements so intricate and delicate that the lithe and limbless -thing looks like gossamer incarnate.’ - -This Pine snake is very smooth, and in the excited actions thus -graphically described, it makes no noise like the little Indian viper; -but Mr. Lockwood’s words are so appropriate to both snakes that -the reader has only to add in imagination the rustling noise that -accompanies the quivering echis. - -Among other of the ophidians remarkable for their hissing is _Psamophis -sibilans_, the ‘hissing sand snake,’ a very slender little creature. -Several mentioned by the earlier naturalists as ‘the hissing snake,’ -are evidently _Heterodons_. Catesby, Lawson, and others mention one as -the ‘blowing viper;’ _Blauser_ of the Dutch, also the ‘chequered’ or -‘spreading-adder,’ which leaves no difficulty in identifying _Heterodon -platyrhinos_. An American writer indulges in a figure of speech while -describing this little Coluber by saying, ‘It emits a succession -of hisses, “sibilant sounds,” similar to letting off steam from a -small steam engine.’ He at the same time admits that it is harmless -and inoffensive in spite of its threatening aspect when flattening -its head.’ This is the ‘spread head’ alluded to in chap. xxii., an -unfortunate demonstration of alarm which has gained for it its venomous -titles. Several of this species have from time to time been added to -the collection at the Zoological Gardens, and the chief drawback to -their anticipated attractions is that they so soon become tame and -peaceful that you can scarcely provoke them to exhibit their reputed -power. I have seen one flatten its head so slightly as to be barely -noticeable, but I never heard it ‘hiss.’ - -‘Its spots become visibly brighter through rage,’ wrote Carver in 1796, -‘and at the same time it blows from its mouth with great force a subtle -wind that is reported to be of a nauseous smell.’ Chateaubriand, of -course, had something to say of ‘the hissing snake,’ frequent in the -warmer States of America. ‘When approached it becomes flat, appears -of different colours, and opens its mouth hissing. Great caution is -necessary not to enter the atmosphere which surrounds it. It decomposes -the air, which, imprudently inhaled, induces languor. The person wastes -away, the lungs are affected, and in the course of four months he dies -of consumption!’ Of another snake this author says, ‘He hisses like a -mountain eagle, he bellows like a bull!’ - -It may be objected, ‘Why occupy space by quoting such old wives’ -fables?’ I reply, because they have already been so abundantly quoted; -and to such fables are in great part due the erroneous impressions -which exist to the present day. Several members of the _Heterodon_ -family have from time to time been in our London collection. Friends -of mine have had _Heterodons_ in their keeping as pets; I have often -handled them, and found them gentle and inoffensive in every way. They -are indeed so popularly and peculiarly interesting that they will claim -a page presently, the present chapter being devoted exclusively to -ophidian lungs, not human lungs, supposed to be destroyed by them! - -While admitting various degrees and qualities of hissing, we may give -a passing mention to Du Chaillu’s snakes, all of which appear to be of -the whistling, as well as of the ‘springing’ kind. He saw ‘an enormous -black shining snake, loathsome and horrid.’ ... ‘Then the fellow gave a -spring, and whistled in a most horrid manner.’ And when he was wounded, -he again ‘gave a sharp whistle.’ On another occasion, while a Goree man -was playing with a large Naja, ‘the air around seemed to be filled with -the whistling sound of the creature,’ and so on. - -Another African snake, the ‘Green Mamba,’ has such very bad manners -that it not only hisses, but spits and darts at you. In this instance -my informant was a young lady, who had ‘seen it!’ - -Somewhat more perplexing, because more deserving of notice, is what -Livingstone tells us of a serpent called _Nega-put-sane_, or ‘serpent -of a kid,’ which ‘utters a cry by night exactly like the bleating of -that animal,’ and that he had ‘heard one at a spot where no kid could -possibly have been.’[42] - -‘_Il canta como un gallo_,’ said Albert Seba of an astonishing snake in -Hayti and St. Domingo once. - -‘Beyond a hissing and often a peculiar drumming noise, snakes emit -no sound,’ says Krefft, one of our very able authorities.[43] This -experienced writer does not positively affirm that the ‘drumming’ -is produced by the voice, and it is more likely to proceed from -the beating of an agitated tail, an action which may be frequently -witnessed in excited snakes. - -Dr. Otto Wucherer saw this in a South American snake, _Xenodon -colubrinus_. ‘It has the habit of striking the ground rapidly with the -tail when irritated’ (_Zoo. Soc. Proc._ 1861). - -So do _Spilotes variabilis_, and some others. So also does the Pine -snake, whose tail ends in a horny tip, ‘like a four-sided spike,’ and -which vibrates like a crotalus in rudiment, or strikes the ground. - -Several American naturalists have contributed interesting accounts -of this last species, known as the ‘Bull’ or ‘Pine snake,’ or ‘Pilot -snake,’ the largest of the N. American Colubers. It was this species -(_Pituophis melanoleucus_) whose actions Mr. Sam. Lockwood described as -mystic circles, and its activity as almost equal to that of the ‘Racer’ -(_American Naturalist_, vol. ix. 1875). But it is called the Bull snake -because it ‘roars like a bull.’ Bartram went so far as to say like -thunder! ‘Said to hiss like thunder,’ or ‘resembling distant thunder,’ -is the cautious testimony of Holbrooke, who adds, ‘but I never heard -it, though well acquainted with it.’ - -Mr. Lockwood minutely described one in his possession. In reading -his account we can but notice the similarity of action between this -‘Bull snake’ and the African vipers in ‘puffing,’ though regarding -the nature of the sound, the writer positively affirms that ‘there is -nothing sibilant in this blowing, not the slightest hiss about it.’ -Mr. Lockwood records his experience of several that he had seen and -heard, and of a fight between one and a rat. ‘Now began that fearful -blowing. The snake slowly fills its lungs with air, and then expels it -with a bellowing sound that is really formidable.’ And again, in the -same volume, in reference to the former account, he says: ‘As there -noted, the _Pituophis_, when alarmed or enraged, slowly inflates itself -with air, thus nearly doubling its normal size along its entire length, -except the tail. It then slowly expels the air with its own peculiar -sound.’ He recalls his boyish terror on once hearing this sound, which -came upon him suddenly in a field, ‘like the restrained roaring of a -bull.’ This was in New Jersey; but the _Pituophis_ family extends to -the Western States, and to the Rocky Mountains, where ‘Bull snakes’ -are frequently seen. In the reports of the United States Exploring -Expeditions, mention has been made of the prairie Bull snake, and of -others in Nebraska and as far west as California. - -Some attain to seven feet in length; Holbrooke mentions one of nine -feet, and ‘as thick as your arm,’ in common parlance. An angry snake of -this size could, of course, blow with considerable force, and the term -‘bellowing’ might not unreasonably be applied to the sound; as it is -also applied to the croaking of the ‘bull frog’ (_Rana mugiens_), the -sound of which is really so like the lowing of cattle, that, on hearing -one for the first time in the woods of Virginia, I looked round, quite -expecting to see a young heifer in close proximity.[44] Probably, had -the bovine lungs sounded at the same moment, the reptilian ‘bellow’ -would have proved but a feeble imitation. A sound out of place, so -to speak, or unanticipated, strikes upon the ear more forcibly than -when expected. But if one reptile, and that a very small one, can so -well imitate a bull as it is universally known the bull frog does, -why may not another do the same?—an argument which I venture to use -notwithstanding many herpetologists accept doubtfully the possibility -of a snake producing such a sound. ‘Il est difficile à concevoir -comment les serpents auraient la faculté de siffler, comme on pretend -que peuvent le faire certaines espèces de couleuvres, et comme les -poëtes se plaisent à nous les representer. Jamais nous n’avons pu -entendre qu’un soufflement très sourd, provenant de l’air qui sortait -avec plus ou moins de rapidité de l’interieur de leur poumon que l’on -voyait s’affaisser en trouvant une issue par la glotte, à travers -les trous des narines ou directement par la bouche dont la mâchoire -superieure est naturellement echanchrée. Alors la bruit était seulement -comparable à celui qui resulterait du passage rapide et continue de -l’air dans un tube ou par un tuyau sec et etroit, comme serait celui -d’une plume.’[45] - -This no doubt answers to the ordinary ‘hissing’ of the majority of -snakes; but that the sound varies under certain conditions, and in the -same serpent, cannot be denied. A. R. Wallace relates an incident which -may well be introduced here, as affording both a proof of the length -of time snakes can sustain a sort of half suffocation, and also the -expression or power of ‘voice’ in breathing. A young boa was caught, -and in order to prevent its escape, its captors, while preparing a box -in which to convey it away, tied it tightly round the neck to a thick -stick, which not only fettered its movements, but appeared to nearly -stop its respiration. It lay writhing in much discomfort, sometimes -opening its mouth with a suspicious yawn, as if trying hard to -breathe. By and by, when relieved from its clog and safely consigned -to a box with bars on the top, it began to make up for loss of time by -breathing violently, ‘the expirations sounding like high-pressure steam -escaping from a locomotive. This continued for some hours, of four and -a half respirations a minute,’ when the breathing—in this case we may -say panting—gradually subsided, and then the poor thing settled down -into silence.[46] - -The expression of feelings by the tail in so many snakes, producing a -sibilant sound in rustling dead leaves, and in some which are supposed -never to hiss, is a subject well worth the attention of scientific -naturalists. It would be interesting to ascertain if any peculiarity of -trachea or of glottis exist in these. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -_HIBERNATION._ - - -THE periodical torpor known as the winter sleep of reptiles is -intimately connected with respiration, and a chapter must now be -devoted to this subject. - -‘Reptiles are obedient to the external atmosphere,’ has been aptly said -of them. Thus, they obey the sun; for if exposed to his rays, they -warm into life and activity. They obey the frost; for when exposed to -its influence, their functions grow feeble or fail altogether, and -they succumb to within a verge of lifelessness. They obey all the -intermediate variations of temperature during the changing year, by -displaying degrees of animation and activity responsive to the degree -of warmth externally which they do not possess in themselves. - -Bell speaks of hibernation as ‘amongst the most remarkable and -interesting phenomena which occur in the history of animals.’ It is -not a state of suffering, like that of a warm-blooded creature that is -frozen to death; but with one common impulse, reptiles all retire, and -remain in an almost lifeless repose, with every function so nearly -suspended, that no external signs of existence are visible. For them it -is a sort of rest, and we may cease to wonder at their longevity since -they live only half their lives. It is, indeed, a convenient mode of -getting through life, reminding us of a theory or proposal ventilated -not long since, by which convicts were to be economically provided -for by submitting them to a certain freezing process, and disposing -them neatly on rows of shelves until the expiration of their term of -punishment; all to be done then was to dust them thoroughly—perhaps -scrub them a little—and restore them to the world and life again. And -they were promised to be none the worse, not even to have lost their -memory or to have acquired the rheumatism. Unfortunately the wonderful -process has never been made clear to anxious inquirers, or some others -of us, who are _not_ convicts, might gladly resort to this method of -rest occasionally, and of freezing out the worries of existence. - -On the principle of political economy, this would be all very well, and -in the great routine of nature there is beneficence in the hibernation -of creatures, whether reptiles or other animals, that are sent to -sleep at the very time when food fails them. The smaller members of -the class have no longer insects and molluscs; the larger ones feed -chiefly on rodents and birds which have also retired or migrated, or on -their lesser kinsfolk, that no longer abound where most wanted by them. -Therefore, this going to sleep every winter, and doing without food -when there is no food to be had, is most convenient for a considerable -section of animated nature. - -There is something strangely analogous in the almost total suspension -of vital forces in reptiles to that which vegetation undergoes. -Circulation stops, the juices become stagnant, whether in a tree or -in a snake, and it is sometimes difficult to decide in either case -whether life is extinct or not. But with returning warmth comes renewed -vitality; the fluids, whether of the animal or the vegetable organism, -are thawed by the revivifying solar rays, which set them circulating -and start the pulsation; and the animal machinery, like a watch wound -up, is set in working order again. - -It is owing to this lack of warmth in themselves that snakes can live -only in hot countries, or in cooler latitudes, during the warmer -weather, and not at all in the frigid zones. In speaking of them, -Dumeril says Linnæus was right in calling them cold animals in hot -countries. ‘Aussi la plupart des Ophidiens habitent-ils les climats -chauds, et c’est en parlant d’eux que Linné a pu dire avec raison: -“Frigida æstuantium animalia.”’[47] - -Dumeril describes their respiration as arbitrary, suspended, retarded, -or accelerated at will. ‘La respiration étant volontairement accélerée -ou retardée, les actions chimiques et vitales qui en resultent doivent -être naturellement excitées ou ralenties par cette cause.’[48] ‘The -electric fluid,’ says Latreille, ‘is one of the great agents in -animating living beings; and upon reptiles it operates in conjunction -with warmth in rousing them from their inactivity.’ - -The periodical torpor and insensibility which reptiles undergo cannot, -however, be always associated with extremes of cold, nor in all cases -called strictly a ‘_winter_’ sleep; because it is during the hottest -seasons in the tropics that they resign themselves similarly to an -almost death-like repose and temporary tomb, burying themselves in the -mud, which is hard-baked around and over them, almost hermetically -sealed until the rainy season loosens the soil, and frees them from -this literal sarcophagus. In this case the so-called ‘hibernation’ is -the result of drought. It is moisture now which revivifies them, rain -which restores their vital functions, and like the chrysalis bursting -its shell and emerging a new and brilliant creature, the reptile lives -anew, doffs his muddy coat, and reappears in all his resplendent -colouring. - -The prairie rattlesnake (_Crotalus confluentus_) is known to undergo -this species of torpor, which is, in fact, estivation. It is described -as having been found in this ‘stupid condition’ in the dry cañons of -the Rocky Mountains during the droughts of July and August. American -naturalists who accompany the Exploring Expeditions affirm that this -partial torpor is common to many species of snakes, and analogous to -hibernation. They are ‘sluggish, stupid, blind, striking wildly,’ says -one of the official Reports. - -Snakes remain torpid on an average half the year. It is a winter sleep -in colder and temperate climates, and a summer sleep in hot ones. -The green garter-snake of the United States hibernates eight months -out of the twelve. So do some of the Australian snakes, others being -underground five months in the year, Krefft tells us. The duration of -insensibility varies, of course, with the climate and season. - -Snakes in menageries have been known to manifest inactivity and -disinclination for food as early as September if the season be -unusually cold, at other times in October; but, on the contrary, -during a milder season they keep active until November, while some do -not hibernate at all. Their habits there can, however, scarcely be -cited as normal, since the artificial heat regularly maintained in the -Ophidarium never permits the rigours of an out-door winter to affect -them. Nevertheless they manifest the disposition for repose; and if -it could be so arranged that the tropical snakes could be submitted -to tropical heat and drought, and those of cooler countries to frosty -air, as in a state of nature, we might witness both estivation and -hibernation under the same roof. - -A partial hibernation is observable in reptiles in captivity when, -though not absolutely inactive, they decline food. For twenty-two -weeks a python at the Zoological Gardens fasted during one winter; at -another time, twenty weeks. The large python (_reticulatus_) fasted -for one year and eleven months, covering two winters, but fed well -and retained its health after this. Meanwhile, during this prolonged -fast, should a gleam of sunshine penetrate the foggy atmosphere of our -London winters, and shine through the glass roof upon a constrictor’s -coverlet, he may slowly emerge therefrom, displaying a few feet of his -lazy length for an hour or so, thus verifying the words, ‘obedient -to the external atmosphere.’ No creatures are so susceptible of the -changes of temperature; and the same degree which caused them to seek a -retreat will, on the return of spring, reanimate them. And warmth—in -them almost another word for vitality—equally affects their appetite. -In the very height of summer, should their feeding-day prove a chilly -one, a much lighter drain on the larder is observable, while a warm, -bright day will show a heavy poulterer’s bill _in re Ophidarium_. Dr. -A. Stradling, a practical ophiologist, found that the common English -snakes ‘thrive exceedingly by reason of their increased appetites,’ -when taken to the tropics. ‘It is impossible to say what degree of heat -a reptile will not stand and enjoy,’ says this writer (_Field_, July -28, 1881). ‘On the hottest days in the hottest places on earth, one -surprises snakes and lizards basking in the blazing sun-glare, on sands -and rocks which it would almost blister the hand to touch.’ Florida is -the most southern extreme of my own experience; but during a summer -there one could not rest the hand on the almost burning stones and -walls on which the reptiles delightedly reposed; and even in England, -during a hot August, my little Bournemouth lizards were positively -hot to the touch when basking in the full power of a bright noon sun. -Dumeril corroborates these facts when he says some reptiles can endure -a temperature higher than blood-heat. Sometimes in early spring he -found a snake seeming to be asleep under a very hot wall which had been -exposed to the mid-day sun, but which had been several hours in shadow. -So tenaciously had the reptile retained the heat it had then absorbed, -that though the air now felt cold, the snake imparted _une chaleur très -notable_ when he touched it. Many times, in taking up a lizard from a -sunny rock in summer, it really has _brulé les doigts_.[49] The old -fable about salamanders living in fire no doubt originates in the fact -of reptiles loving heat as they do. Many pages might be filled with -instances of this, and of their approaching fire to a suicidal extent. - -Equally strange is the degree of cold to which they can sometimes -submit, and yet recover. But we must conclude that this is when they -are overcome _gradually_, not suddenly, by it, and not exposed to the -outer air so that the tissues would be injured. Dr. Carpenter mentions -reptiles having been kept three years in an ice-house, and recovering -on being gradually restored to warmth. Too recklessly acting upon this, -I deposited my pet lizards in a small, shallow box containing moss, -sand, and soft rubbish, and left them outside a window to hibernate. -They buried themselves as deeply as they could go,—only a few inches, -alas!—but a sudden and severe frost set in, and the poor little -victims were frozen stiff at the bottom of their prison-house. It was -in a bleak north-eastern aspect, and the sharp frost easily striking -through the wood, that slight box must have proved a very different -sort of nest to what they would have chosen on their native heath,—far -down, and well protected from the icy winds. In a strong, deep box, or -an earthenware jar, with sufficient earth and rubbish in it, they might -have survived. - -In the Museum of Paris in 1875-76, sixteen rattlesnakes are said to -have died of cold. The heating apparatus at the Jardin des Plantes is -less effective than our own in London, where very few of the snakes -have been known to suffer from lowered temperature. - -Snakes are abundantly supplied with oily fat; thick layers of it line -their intestines in autumn, and this is gradually absorbed during -their torpor. They therefore lose weight, and awake in an enfeebled -condition, only gradually recovering their normal strength after some -days. - -The power of endurance in serpents, and their independence of a large -supply of oxygen, render them important agents in the economy of -nature. In the swamps and morasses where malaria abounds, reptiles -are most numerous. Many such places under canopies of pestilential -vapours, swarm with insects, molluscs, worms, caterpillars, and the -smaller reptiles on which snakes mostly feed. They are, therefore, the -scavengers of such localities; they fulfil a great law by keeping up -the balance of nature even to the extent of rendering certain countries -habitable. - -Those ophidian families which prefer higher lands, sandy or rocky -districts, select the sunny hill-sides when the frost sets in, and -hide themselves under stones or in caves where, as described in the -chapter on rattlesnakes, they congregate in vast numbers. Piles and -convolutions of serpents in this condition have often been discovered, -and as often described. It is as if the small degree of animal -warmth each one possessed were harvested for their mutual good, and -to the benefit of the whole community. Nor are these assemblages -at all exclusive as to kind, but are dens of discordant materials, -where, as an American wrote, ‘the liberal terms of admission seemed -only to require the evidence of snakeship.’ Lizards, too, though -of widely-branching kinship, are guided by the same instinct, and -sometimes share the retreat. - -A few years ago, near Hayward’s Heath in Sussex, some men who were -levelling the ground for building, dug out of a bank at a depth of from -four to five feet, upwards of one hundred slow worms and as many small -lizards, all in a torpid state. It was during February. - -At the end of September more recently, a farmer in Wales, who with his -labourers was removing a heap of manure, came upon an extraordinary -bed of snakes and slow worms, and no less than 352 were killed, -together with an enormous quantity of eggs; ‘thousands in clusters were -destroyed.’ Three of the snakes were of immense size, and one hundred -of them nine to twelve inches long.’ These latter were probably slow -worms, and the three ‘immense’ ones ring snakes. One feels curious -to know whether judgment for this act of wanton cruelty visited that -farmer in a destruction of his crops next year by the mice and insects -from which these harmless reptiles would have saved them! - -The general reptilian instincts are the same in all climates where -the temperature is similar. In Australia, as Krefft tells us, this is -a grand time among schoolboys for ‘snake-hunting.’ They lay traps of -large flat stones on open sunny ridges where the reptiles are likely -to resort. Six to ten specimens of different species are often taken -under one such stone. Even the venomous kinds may be easily captured -and transferred to a bag in their half-dormant condition. Sometimes -in lifting a stone, a dozen or more handsome and beautiful lizards -are found among their ophidian cousins. The Wallaby hunters generally -provide themselves with a collecting-bag, and thousands of snakes have -thus been transferred to museums. So expert do the hunters become, -that in eight years, the same author affirms, not one accident has -occurred from a venomous species. From May to September in Australia, -timid persons need be in no fear of snakes in the ‘scrub.’ The larger -and more dangerous species retire deep into the ground, and only the -young ones under stones. Warm days entice them out for an hour or two, -and they retire again at night, just as is the case with those of the -United States. - -The ancients were aware of this hibernation of reptiles; and Pliny, -who, having sometimes a foundation of fact to build upon, is all the -more dangerous from his fabulous superstructure, writes, ‘The viper -is the only serpent that conceals itself in the earth. It can live -there without taking food for a whole year. _They are not venomous -when they are asleep_,’ he sagely adds. Vipers can live without food -for even more than a year, and so can other snakes; but this often is -irrespective of hibernation, and of this more will be said presently. - -A still stronger evidence of vitality or suspended animation is -witnessed in the extraordinary custom of packing the poor wretched -snakes in air-tight bottles, which some barbarous (the word here in -both senses may be used) people adopt. A Cerastes arrived in England -in a bottle, which had been hermetically closed for six weeks, and -it revived. It was so crowded into the bottle as to look quite dead, -but revived directly it was released, and struck a fowl, which died -instantly! Sometimes a bottle or jar is literally crowded with ophidian -captives, that are certainly out of harm’s way so far as others are -concerned, and travel in a compact compass; but it stands to reason -that even when they survive this close imprisonment, they are not in a -very lively condition, and the large mortality which is found in most -collections may be imputed to a great extent to the unhealthy condition -in which they arrive after injudicious packing. Nailed up in air-tight -boxes, is a very ordinary mode of transportation, a species of cruelty -which would raise a cry of horror were the captive any other than a -despised ‘reptile!’ In connection with breathing or not breathing, and -powers of endurance, _such packing_ receives only a passing mention -here, but is one that should be thoroughly exposed in the _Animal -World_ and similar papers. - -One more singular example of periodical repose, but which can scarcely -be called either hibernation or estivation, is seen in the sea snakes, -the _Hydrophidæ_ of the Eastern Ocean. Of these Dr. Cantor affirms -that they are seen so soundly asleep on the surface of the water, -that a ship passing among them does not awaken them. This is the more -remarkable because the eyes of sea snakes are organized to endure -the glare of light only when modified or subdued through water, and -are easily affected when out of it, the reptiles becoming dazzled, -and even blinded, by bright sunshine. So that we must suppose some -peculiar insensibility of nerve in these, or a cessation of active -functions during their repose analogous to the hibernation of land -snakes. Another interesting inquiry suggests itself: viz. How does -one ascertain that an open-eyed snake is ‘_asleep_’? We called that -Racer (p. 64) ‘asleep,’ as it appeared to be quite unconscious of -interruption, and did not move at our approach. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -_THE TAIL OF A SNAKE._ - - -SETTING aside for the present the true death-dealing powers of -the ophidians, viz. the fangs of the poisonous families and the -constricting powers of the larger non-venomous kinds, another -_supposed_ medium of mischief, second only to the tongue, is the tail! - -The old-time fables of the ‘stinging tails’ have always obtained -credence, and do so still among the ignorant classes in many countries. -Nor is the belief without some apparent reason, for the tail of a large -number of snakes, both of the poisonous and the non-poisonous families, -terminates in a horny spine more or less hard and pointed. In a few, -this sharp spine is curved with an undeniably weapon-like aspect. Some -of these thorn-like tips might even be capable of inflicting a slight -wound were the owners conscious of this, and had they a disposition to -avail themselves of it. But, as a weapon, snakes do _not_ instinctively -use their pointed tails; they are chiefly assistants in locomotion. As -a fulcrum, and sometimes a propeller, certain species make constant -and important use of them. You may observe that when in a position -of danger, many snakes trust greatly to the pressure of their tails, -whether pointed or not, as a balance or even a support. This pressure, -which is forcible, but not aggressive, no doubt gave rise in the first -instance to the belief that the snake was intentionally endeavouring to -inflict a wound—a myth which, like all the other ophidian myths, is so -hard to eradicate. - -Sir Thomas Browne, in his _Pseudoxia_, more than two hundred years -ago, mentioned this as one of the ‘Vulgar Errours.’ As very little -was known of foreign snakes at that time, 1672, excepting through -classic writers, one must suppose that our poor little native _Anguis -fragilis_ was included among the weapon-tailed snakes, ‘that worm with -venomed tongue’ which does really in a remarkable manner make important -though innocent use of its very blunt tail as a means of progression. -He says, ‘That Snakes and Vipers do sting, or transmit their Mischief -by the Tail, is a common Expression, not easy to be justified.... The -Poison lying about their Teeth and communicated by Bite in such as are -destructive. And Bitings mentioned in Scripture are differentially set -down from such as Mischief by Stings.’[50] ‘God commanded Moses to -take up the Serpent by the Tail,’ Sir Thomas Browne reminds us, as if -in proof that the caudal extremity was perfectly harmless. ‘Nor are -all Snakes of such empoisoning Qualities as common Opinion presumeth,’ -the author endeavours to impress upon his readers, because there are -several histories of domestic snakes from ‘Ophiophagous Nations and -such as feed on Serpents.’ Then follows an opinion equally wise and -witty. ‘Surely the destructive Delusion of Satan in this Shape hath -much enlarged the Opinion of their Mischief. Which was not so high with -the Heathens, in whom the Devil had wrought a better Opinion of this -Animal, it being sacred unto the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and the -common symbol of Sanity.’ - -But, alas! many spiny-tailed snakes have sprung to light in various -countries, long since Sir Thomas Browne so wisely instructed his -readers; and even now, the ‘death adder of Australia (_Acanthophis -antarctica_) is much dreaded on account of its thorn-like tail.’ -Krefft’s[51] description of the repulsive aspect of this snake is -sufficiently terrifying, apart altogether from its looks alone, its -ragged-looking head, with its loose scales, thick body, and its -short, rough, unmistakeable tail, terminating in a suspicious-looking -point, as if one sharp spine had taken root there, and was capable of -inflicting a wound. The tail spine hardens only in age, he tells us, -and ‘is really not a weapon either of attack or defence.’ - -[Illustration: Death Adder (from Krefft’s _Snakes of Australia_).] - -Another tail of evil repute belongs to the Water Viper of the United -States, vernacularly known as the ‘Thorn-tail’ snake, _Trigonocephalus -piscivorus_ of American herpetologists. - -John Lawson, in his _History of Carolina_, published in 1707, was one -of the first to describe it. After him we hear of it from Catesby. The -quaint descriptions of each of these early travellers are amusing; and -from such accounts the progress of science is traced. - -‘Of the Horn Snake,’ says Lawson, ‘I never saw but two that I remember. -They are like the Rattlesnake in Colour, but rather lighter. They hiss -exactly like a Goose when anything approaches them. They strike at -their Enemy with their Tail, and kill whatsoever they wound with it, -which is armed at the End with a Horny Substance like a Cock’s Spur. -This is their Weapon. I have heard it credibly reported by those who -said they were Eye-Witnesses, that a small Locust Tree, about the -Thickness of a Man’s Arm, being struck by one of these Snakes at Ten -o’clock in the Morning, then verdant and flourishing, at Four in the -Afternoon was dead, and the Leaves dead and withered.’ (Probably the -tree had been struck by lightning during the interval, a very frequent -occurrence in those parts.) ‘Doubtless, be it how it will, they are -very venomous. I think the Indians do not pretend to cure their wound.’ - -When Lawson travelled, setting out in December 1700, as an appointed -‘Surveyor-General’ of the newly settled colony of North Carolina, very -little was known of the natural history and productions of those parts, -and he relied on the native tribes for much of his information. - -His work was dedicated ‘To His Excellency, William Lord Craven, -Palatine; The Most Noble Henry, Duke of Beaufort; The Right Hon. John -Lord Carteret; and the rest of the True and Absolute Lords, Proprietors -of the Province of Carolina in America.’ - -‘As a Debt of Gratitude the Sheets were laid at their Lordships’ Feet, -having nothing to recommend them but Truth, a Gift which every Author -may be Master of if he will.’ - -With ever so praiseworthy an _intention_ of telling ‘the Truth,’ Lawson -did not possess the scientific knowledge to enable him to guard against -error. Neither did Colonel Beverley, who wrote a _History of Virginia_, -published in London in 1722, and who perpetuated the ‘stinging tail.’ -‘There is likewise a Horn Snake, so called from a Sharp Horn it carries -in its Tail, with which it assaults anything that offends it, with that -Force that, as it is said, it will strike its Tail into the Butt End of -a Musket, from whence it is not able to disengage itself.’ - -A few years later, Catesby went over the same ground as a professed -naturalist, and afforded a more rational account of this ‘horn snake,’ -to which he assigned the name of _Vipera aquatica_, ‘Water viper,’ or -‘Water rattlesnake.’ ‘Not that it hath a Rattle. The Tail of this Viper -is small towards the End, and terminates in a blunt, horny Point, about -half an Inch long. This harmless little Thing has given a dreadful -Character to its Owner, imposing a Belief on the Credulous that he is -the terrible Horn Snake armed with Death at both Ends, thus attributing -to him another Instrument of Death besides that he had before, though -in reality of equal Truth with that of the Two-headed Amphisbæna. Yet -we are told that this fatal Horn, by a Jerk of the Tail, not only -mortally wounds Men and other Animals but if by Chance struck into a -young Tree, whose Bark is more easily penetrated than an old one, the -Tree instantly withers, and turns black and dies.’[52] - -Unfortunately, in mentioning the ‘Horn snake,’ many subsequent writers, -seizing on the marvellous rather than the rational, have omitted the -qualifying ‘it is said to inflict a wound,’ and Catesby’s exposition of -the absurdity; thus handing down as a fact that the tail was truly a -terrible weapon! - -It was probably this water viper which Chateaubriand had in his mind -when, towards the end of that century, he described the ‘Prickly snake, -short and thick. It has a sting in its tail, the wound of which is -mortal!’ Chateaubriand was much quoted for a long period. - -Dr. J. E. Holbrooke, in his _North American Herpetology_, published -at New York in 1842, corroborates all Catesby further said regarding -the fish-loving tastes of the ‘Thorn-tail’ snake, and which obtained -for it the specific name _piscivorus_. It frequents damp and swampy -places, and is never seen far from water. In the summer (during -Catesby’s time), great numbers might be seen lying on the low boughs -of trees overhanging a river, whence they would drop into the water -and pursue the fish with great swiftness. Few fish exceed its velocity -in swimming. _Cenchris_ or _Trigonocephalus piscivorus_ is the name by -which American herpetologists now recognise it. It is becoming rare -where formerly it abounded, but is still found in the wilder districts -of the less settled States, and in the hot weather may be seen lying -motionless on the low branches, and often so like a portion of the -bough as not to be observed till the sudden plunge tells that a deadly -snake was close at hand. It is a cannibal besides, and other snakes -are afraid of it and give it a wide berth. The horny spine (which is -a mere hardening and consolidation of the terminal scales) and another -feature, namely the ‘pit’ in its cheeks, described in chap. xxi., prove -it to be allied to the rattlesnake. It is therefore included among the -_Crotalidæ_, of which more hereafter.[53] - -A number of the ‘Pit vipers’ and _Trigonocephali_ are furnished with -hard-pointed tails, and when they vibrate them rapidly, as many snakes -do under excitement, the rustling against the dead leaves produces a -sound very similar to the sibilation of the true _Crotalus_ tail. - -[Illustration: Tail of _Lachesis mutus_ (exact size).] - -_Trigonocephalus contortrix_, the ‘Copper-head,’ is another of these. -Also the renowned ‘Bushmaster’ of Guiana and Brazil (_Lachesis mutus_, -or _Crotalus mutus_), of which latter Darwin wrote, confirming Cuvier’s -reasons for making it a sub-genus of the rattlesnake:—‘I observed a -fact which appears to me very curious, as showing how every character, -even though it may be independent of structure, has a tendency to vary -by slow degrees. The extremity of the tail of this snake is terminated -by a horny point, which is slightly enlarged, and as the animal glides -along, it constantly vibrates the last inch or so; and this part, -striking against the dry grass and brushwood, produces a rattling -noise which can be distinctly heard at the distance of six feet. As -often as the animal was irritated or surprised, its tail was shaken, -and its vibrations were extremely rapid. This _Trigonocephalus_ has, -therefore, in some respects the structure of a viper with the habits of -a rattlesnake.’ - -Dr. Günther and Sir Joseph Fayrer both mention a peculiarity of this -kind in some of the Eastern representatives of the _Crotalus_, viz. -the _Trimeresuri_, Indian tree snakes. The former writes: ‘Some have -prehensile tails, which, when not so occupied, vibrate rapidly, -producing a rustling sound among the leaves.’[54] Others of the family -have horny tails. - -Dr. Andrew Smith, in his _Zoology of South Africa_, mentions _Vipera -caudalis_ especially, as having a ‘tail distinctly recognised, at the -termination of his very thick body, and which is not often seen.’ In -the vipers, however, more than others, tails are distinguishable, -those of many of them being short as well as suddenly tapering to a -point. The deadly Puff adder is called _Brachyura_ on this account, its -tail being extremely short for the size of the snake. One exceedingly -dangerous kind in St. Lucia is known as the ‘Rat-tailed snake.’ For -climbing, and as a propelling power, this slender tail can be of little -service. In St. Lucia is also a ‘Rat snake,’ _Crebo_ or _Cribo_ in -vernacular (_Spilotes variabilis_), one of the active non-venomous -kinds which, not content with rats and mice for food, wages war on its -most venomous fellow-reptiles; as the ‘Racer’ and the ‘King snake’ -do against the rattlesnake of the United States. This _Crebo_ is a -graceful, elegant creature, and on account of its twofold virtues of -mouser and ‘rat-tail’ catcher, is domesticated and petted in some of -the islands.[55] - -In many of the Colubrine snakes it is almost impossible to distinguish -where the ribs cease and the tail begins, except by the anus, so very -gradually does the body taper. Nor does there appear to be any certain -rule about the _length_ of tails, which in some snakes are even longer -than their bodies, and in others not one-tenth the length. - -In giving the length of a few snakes (not in feet or inches, but in -the number of their vertebræ), the reader will obtain a clear idea of -this variation in tails. One species of rattlesnake has 194 vertebræ, -of which 168 support each a pair of ribs, leaving 24 for its tail, -or one-eighth. The python has 291 vertebræ, of which the 3d to the -251st support a pair of ribs, leaving 40 for its tail, or less than -one-seventh of its length. - -Let me explain a seeming discrepancy of arithmetic. The spine of the -boa constrictor consists of 304 vertebræ, of which 2 next the head -support no ribs, and 252 support each a pair of ribs. Taking away the -first two, which, having _no ribs_, may be said to form the neck of the -snake, that leaves fifty joints for the tail, or about one-sixth of the -entire length. Our little sums, therefore, are as follows, in reckoning -the vertebræ:— - - RATTLESNAKE. BOA CONSTRICTOR. PYTHON. - - Neck, 2 Neck, 2 Neck, 2 - Supporting ribs, 168 Supporting ribs, 252 With ribs, 249 - Tail, 24 Tail, 50 Tail, 40 - —— —— —— - Total, 194 Total, 304 Total, 291 - -Though in form the ‘neck’ of a snake is often as undistinguishable as -the tail—‘une tête sans col, et une queue, dont l’origine se confond -avec le reste du corps,’ as Dumeril expresses it—there is the one -invariable rule belonging to it, namely, that the first two joints of -a snake’s spine are ribless, and that the ribs begin at the third. -Physiologists tell us a snake has no neck, and for reasons which will -be explained in the next chapter; yet, by way of distinction, all speak -of ‘the neck’ as an accepted fact. - -No invariable rule as to tails can, however, be established, either as -regards length, shape, or character. Firstly, the length of the tail -varies from inches to feet in snakes of nearly the same size. Secondly, -both venomous and harmless ones are occasionally furnished with horny -tips, and both vibrate them with equal rapidity. Thirdly, snakes that -have long _spineless_ tails also vibrate them rapidly; as do snakes -with short spineless tails; so that one cannot say that spines are -confined to one genus, any more than is their use or their action. -The vibration of the tail is, in fact, only ‘an outlet for suppressed -energy,’ as Professor Shaler of the United States has lucidly put it. -Excitement displays itself in the tail of a snake as much as in the -tail of a dog. This may be observed at the Ophidarium, or wherever -an active snake can be watched. In the rattlesnake it is, of course, -more conspicuous, and always audible when agitated; but many others -similarly display their feelings in their eloquent caudal terminations. - -A handsome young python, of about eight feet long, at the Zoological -Gardens, has a tail of which the last few inches taper so suddenly that -the extreme end of this reptile appears almost ludicrously trivial for -so fine a possessor. One inch of this—hardly thicker than a rat’s -tail—you may see wriggling so rapidly that you can scarcely follow its -movements, or believe that it is a part of the large quiescent body to -which it is attached. In pursuit of its prey the python itself glides -with slow dignity, while the trifling little terminal inch or so of -tail is in a perpetual but most _un_dignified wriggle. - -In the ‘Racer,’ already familiar to the reader, the tail is one-fourth -the length of the body; in the ‘milk snake’ (_Coluber eximius_), -introduced in chapter iv., it is one-fifth. The extensive variation in -tails may be comprehended by their number of vertebræ, which in some -snakes amount to 200, and in others are reduced to 5. - -Of the practical uses of the snake’s tail, the _natural_ uses,—those -above mentioned being either imaginary ones, or a mere expression -of feeling,—the prehensile power is one of the greatest. ‘Strictly -speaking, the true prehensile tail is found only in the boa,’ Schlegel, -Owen, and other physiologists tell us; but that statement refers to -some peculiar anatomical construction, enabling the tail to twine and -grasp with extraordinary force, because nearly all snakes can manage to -climb, or to raise themselves when occasion requires it, making use of -their tails, as was stated at the commencement of this chapter. ‘Even -the clumsy, ugly death adder can climb well,’ Krefft assures us, and -that it can support itself against a wall with only a portion of its -tail on the ground. - -Many writers and observers, in describing this power or force in -the snake, have given rise to the idea that snakes can _stand_ on -their tails. Erect themselves nearly upright they certainly do, even -without extraneous support for a few moments, and _with_ support for a -considerable time. - -Cobras can do this. A personal friend, Colonel C——, when in India, -once heard a sort of muffled sound at his door, which caused him to -open it suddenly, when a cobra, which had raised itself three or more -feet against it, fell straight into the room. He sprang quickly aside, -and ran to fetch a stick, but when he got back the cobra was gone. - -But to return to their prehensile powers. Snakes which are not habitual -climbers are often found in trees, suspending themselves from or -supporting themselves upon the branches, as instanced in the chapter -on the egg-eaters. The _Hamadryad_ is also much in trees, as its name -implies, and is seen hanging from the branches. This latter, and also -the Indian tree snakes, _Trimeresuri_, are poisonous, and far removed -from the boas with the true prehensile tail. Familiar to every one are -illustrations of tropical scenery, in which the boa constrictor and -the anaconda, hanging from trees, are important features. Dumeril, in -general terms, says: ‘Les ophidiens rampent, glissent, s’accrochent, -se suspendent, gravissent en s’aidant de la totalité de leur corps, -sautent, s’élancent, bondissent, nagent, et plongent,’[56] in every -one of which movements the tail is an important agent. _S’accrocher_ -and _se suspendre_ must be mainly by the agency of the tail. Schlegel -follows up his statement, ‘tail strictly prehensile found only in -boas,’ by explaining, nevertheless, that a short tail is sufficiently -vigorous to _attach_ itself to any point, and support the whole -body.[57] In the non-venomous tree snakes the tail is long and slender, -and no squirrel or bird is more active and at home in a tree than -these. They glide, swing, climb, and almost fly from branch to branch, -scarcely disturbing a leaf. - -Our ‘excellent egg merchant,’ introduced as the Racer, though a -ground snake, is equally at home in a tree, and holds on by its tail -with remarkable adroitness, but then the Racer or ‘Pilot snake’ is a -true boa also. (The true ‘boa’ is distinguished by its dentition and -formation of jaw-bones, the term ‘boa,’ so variously and perplexingly -used by some of the older naturalists, being now restricted to certain -non-venomous species which possess such anatomical structure.) - -Lawson’s description of this ‘Racer’ is graphic. ‘The long black Snake -frequents the Land altogether, and is the nimblest Creature living. His -Bite has no more Venom than a Prick with a Pin. He is the best Mouser -that can be; for he leaves not one of that Vermin alive where he comes. -He also kills the Rattlesnake wherever he meets him by twisting his -Head about the Neck of the Rattlesnake, and whipping him to Death with -his Tail. This Whipster, for all his Agility, is so brittle that when -he is pursued, and gets his Head into the Hole of a Tree, if anybody -gets hold of the other End, he will twist and break himself in the -Middle.’ - -Lawson does not appear to have understood the nature of constrictors. -‘Whipping’ the rattlesnake was probably only the tail lashed in anger, -or used in controlling the exceedingly active movements of the captor. -As for its ‘breaking itself in halves,’ many exaggerated stories are -told by unscientific spectators of the ‘brittleness’ of snakes, the -simple explanation being that all are alike irritated and terrified -when rendered helpless by their tail being fettered, and may then -struggle until they injure themselves. The common blindworm (_Anguis -fragilis_) has been seen to so-call ‘break itself in halves;’ but this -will be explained in its place (chap. xxv.). - -This sensitiveness—_sensibility_, one may almost term it—in the -tail of snakes has been pointed out by the late Frank Buckland, Dr. -Stradling, and others of like practical experience, affording useful -information in case of danger. ‘If attacked by a boa constrictor, it -is of no use to pull and haul, but catch held of the tip of the tail -and unwind him.’ Also, ‘when striking, aim at the tail. The spinal cord -there being only thinly covered with bone, it is more easily wounded; -and when the spine is broken, the animal is disabled.’[58] - -Certain it is, that by the muscular power of the tail snakes perform -wonderful feats, not only erecting themselves, and maintaining their -balance for a short time, as a long pole is balanced by an acrobat -on his chin or his nose; hanging by an inch or so of the tip, as an -acrobat hangs for a time on one foot or one finger; raising themselves -against a smooth surface, as you see the large pythons at the Gardens -do against the smooth sides or glass fronts of their cages, even to the -very top, but springing, ‘executing leaps,’ as Roget and others term -it. For though the ‘leap’ is not strictly like the action of a frog or -a grasshopper, or a man whose two limbs act in concert and together, -the result is the same,—the reptile accomplishes a long distance with -quickness, decision, and aim. Professor Owen[59] calls it a saltatory -motion, ‘the sudden extension of the coils of the body reacting upon -the point of earth on which the tail presses, throwing the serpent -forward.’ Sometimes, when the creature lies closely coiled, the sudden -unbending has the effect of a spiral spring; and occasionally, when -the tail is brought suddenly up to the head, and the serpent springs -forward again, and continues to do this in pursuit, as has often been -witnessed, the effect is that of a rolling hoop, and has given rise to -a belief among the ignorant that the reptile really rolls along. - -One in America, known as the ‘Hoop snake,’ is reported to ‘roll down -hill,’ the idea originating possibly from the optical illusion in -consequence of the rapid changes of position—an effect which we see in -that amusing toy, the zoetrope. - -The ‘black snake’ of Australia, _Hoplocephalus pseudechis_, is one of -the very active venomous kinds, whose motions in pursuit or escape are -almost like leaps, and present the appearance of a hoop or circle. -Reputed ‘hoop snakes’ are there also. The reptile rapidly extends -itself to full length, then brings up its posterior portion in a loop, -and so springs forward again, continuing to do this with amazing -rapidity. - -The most easy and natural convolutions of a snake are _lateral_. As -closely as their body can be coiled on a given space, as close as a -ribbon or a rope, they can curl themselves round sideways, that is, -with the ventral scales all prone to the ground, and the vertebral -column upwards; nor could they, from the construction of their spine, -coil themselves similarly in a vertical position, as a hedgehog and -a dormouse roll themselves up. But temporarily and partially they -_can_ bend themselves vertically; for you see a snake often with a -part of its body raised vertically against a wall, while the rest is -horizontally along the ground, and consequently one part is at right -angles with the other part, and as the creature rises against the wall -every joint has in turn taken this position. Also, when coiled round -a branch, you do occasionally see that the curves are not invariably -and unexceptionally lateral, but sometimes vertical, although not so -closely so as in the more natural coils. I have very narrowly observed -this, because the ‘hoop’-like motion is often ridiculed; but it seems -a not impossible action when a large circle is described by the body, -though close coils would be less possible.[60] - -A clergyman of Australia had a narrow escape from one of these -‘rolling’ creatures. His daughter gave me an account of the -circumstance, she also, when a resident there, having been well -acquainted with such scenes. Her father accidentally trod on one of -those dangerous serpents, which immediately made a spring at him, -but which he expertly eluded, and took to his heels with all speed, -knowing the vicious nature of that snake. Looking back, he saw the -reptile pursuing him with ‘strides’ or ‘bounds,’ stretching itself to -full length, then bringing up its tail and springing forward again -with terrific vigour. In its excitement it seemed almost to fly, now -gaining on him, and now, as an occasional obstacle had to be avoided, -giving his victim some slight advantage. For the space of three whole -fields, ‘paddocks,’ he was thus chased, he the while using his utmost -speed. His home was in the bush, and when, almost dropping with -excessive fatigue and terror, he came within sight of it, one of his -farm-servants saw him thus tearing along, and, guessing the cause, -seized his gun, and hastened to meet the fugitive, and put an end to -the chase. - -Du Chaillu’s snakes were almost always ‘springing’ at him, and very -probably some of them did so. At the same time, most of his snakes had -‘fangs’ as well; but then, in his ‘_Wild Life_’ he witnessed many other -anomalies. - -As a rule, the most active are the non-venomous kinds; yet among -the venomous colubrines, the slender _elapidæ_, of which the above -Australian snake is one, we find much activity. - -Mr. P. H. Gosse was struck with the amazing springing power of the -yellow Jamaica boa (_Chilobothrus inornatus_), and by a similar use -of its tail as a propelling power.[61] It rears itself up and leaps -an incredible distance, he tells us; one covered nearly twenty feet -in such a spring, but that was on the incline of a hill. He noticed -another suspending itself from a branch, not with its tail _curled_ -round, but with a mere tip of it lying longitudinally, pressure alone -supporting the reptile. The slightest contact suffices to maintain the -hold. - -There is still one more offending tail to describe. It belongs to a -West Indian relative of our own little ‘blindworm,’ bearing also the -family name, and for more justifiable reasons, inasmuch as the eyes -of the Jamaica species really are not easily distinguished. It is -worm-like in aspect, and of about the same size as _Anguis fragilis_, -similarly smooth and polished, and so active that it is difficult to -hold it. _Typhlops lumbricalis_ is its name, the first word signifying -blind, and the second worm-like. It moves backwards and forwards with -equal facility, and is therefore commonly called the ‘two-headed -snake.’ The coloured people are dreadfully afraid of its short blunt -tail, which they think can ‘sting,’ and which terminates in a minute -horny nipple on a shining round plate or scale. Being a burrowing -snake, this hard, protected tail is of great use as a fulcrum; but when -off the ground, taken up by the hand, for instance, the little shining -worm makes still further use of its tail, as its English cousin does, -pressing the tip firmly against the fingers, or whatever surface is -near it, to support itself, and to the terror of those who hold it, and -who forthwith dash it down, though it is wholly powerless to injure. - -In Australia it has some allies, whose tails are remarkably developed -into this useful point. The reptiles being as round as rulers and as -smooth, the difficulty of progression without this aid as a fulcrum -will be evident. Below are three tails, which will suffice to -exemplify their purpose and utility. - -A curious modification is seen in the centre tail, belonging to -_Uropeltis philippinus_, which, as the name implies, terminates in a -round disk or shield. This snake is also one of the smooth cylindrical -forms, ‘admirably adapted to burrowing,’ says Dr. Günther. Its -truncated appearance is as if it were chopped clean in halves. - -[Illustration: Tails of three burrowing snakes.] - -Another is the _Cylindrophis_, from its form. Several of the burrowing -family are remarkable for a similarity of head and tail, obscure -features, inconspicuous eyes, and very small mouth, rendering it -difficult on first sight to decide which is the head and which the -tail. All being feeble, inoffensive, and entirely harmless, the evil -attached to them of having ‘two heads’ is only another proof of the -prejudice and animosity displayed towards every creature in the shape -of a snake, however innocent. These poor little ‘blindworms,’ admirably -organized to dig and burrow and find their food in deep and hidden -places, have their uses. In countries where dangerous ants swarm, we -might well tremble for the consequences, had not nature anticipated -such evils by providing insectivorous reptiles, as well as birds and -ant-eaters, to keep them in check. - -We must not omit one other of the family of burrowing snakes, which -from the very earliest ages has been supposititiously endowed with two -heads. Its name, _Amphisbæna_, or ‘double-walker’ (going both ways), -however, is well merited, because, like _Typhlops_, it can progress -either way, forwards or backwards, with equal facility. This is the one -alluded to by Catesby (p. 174). We can comprehend the advantage of the -retrogressing power to these otherwise unprotected little reptiles, -when they cautiously peep from their narrow burrow in the ground, and -espy one of their many enemies in the shape of a much larger ophidian, -or a carnivorous bird. Quick as thought, back they glide, and are safe. -Living chiefly among the ants, on which they feed, their cuirass of -hard, polished, close-set scales protects them from a bite or sting. -Another beautiful provision of nature is, that the young ones, on being -hatched, find food ready at hand—at mouth, rather—the eggs having -been laid, or the young ones born, in the nest of the ants. - -Of this harmless and useful reptile, Pliny seriously wrote: ‘The -amphisbæna has two heads; that is, it has a second one at its tail, as -though one mouth were too little for the discharge of all its venom!’ - -Even at the present day this belief in ‘two heads,’ or ‘two tails,’ and -‘death at both ends,’ is not wholly eradicated, and not merely among -the lower classes either. - -It only remains to say that when two heads have really appeared—and -there are several such cases on record—they are simply monstrosities, -malformations, as found in other animals occasionally. An example of -this kind may be seen at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. -Another was described by Frank Buckland in _Land and Water_, April -1872. It was sent to him by his friend Dr. Bowerbank of St. Leonard’s. - -A curious jumble of the _Amphisbæna_ and the Cobra, with its elevated -and expanded neck, is found in the _Philosophical Transactions_, vol. -iii. p. 863, for 1665. There had been a correspondence on the subject -of two heads, and a reader was evidently sceptical, for the writer thus -protests that he is telling the truth:— - -‘There are indeed such Serpents in these Parts (Java Naja) which have -an Head on each End of their Body, called _Capra capella_. They are -esteemed Sacred by these People, and fortunate to those in whose House -and Lands they are found; but pernicious to whomsoever doth them Harm.’ - -This credulous gentleman writes from the East, and cannot corroborate -what he has been told by a personal acquaintance with even an -Amphisbæna, which might really deceive a casual observer. But that -the belief prevailed extensively prior to this, we find from a -distinguished physician of his day, F. Hermandez, or Fernandez, who, in -his work, _Animalium Mexicanum_, 1628, represents a creature that would -fill one of these pages, with two heads like a ram with wattles and -other ample appendages, and distinguishes it as _Amphisbæna Europæa_. - -[Illustration: _Amphisbæna Europæa._] - -‘It is not for us to question the Ancients,’ says the much too -modest author, betraying a lurking misgiving as to the reality of -the creature, but nevertheless doing his best to represent it as his -imagination depicts it. It is here much reduced in size, but may be -found on p. 797 of the above very interesting volume. - -Sir Thomas Browne includes this among his ‘Vulgar Errours,’ and traces -it to Nicander, Galen, and other classic writers, but to ‘Ælian -most confidently.’ He discusses the creature with dispassionate -intelligence, and shows us that ‘poets have been more reasonable than -philosophers’ about it.[62] Again, if such a thing there were, it were -not to be obtruded by the name of _Amphisbæna_, or as an animal of one -denomination, with a duplicity of hearts and heads,’ he argues, giving -honour to the head, and therefore that the creature must be dual. - -There are frequently some of the smooth, ruler-like snakes in our -London Reptilium; their very small eyes and mouth, and blunt, shapeless -head, render it difficult to decide at the moment between head and -tail. Any with sheep’s heads we are not likely to see, and those that -have had the malformation of two reptilian heads generally present -something of two necks as well. The writers, however, whom we have -quoted were not thinking of monstrosities, but had profound faith in a -veritable _Amphisbæna Europæa_, which an artist with an unscientific -imagination has handed down to posterity! - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -_OPHIDIAN ACROBATS: CONSTRUCTION AND CONSTRICTION._ - - -BEFORE discussing the most remarkable of all ophidian caudal -appendages, the _Crotalus_ rattle, and the many speculations regarding -it, we will enumerate some other acrobatic achievements of which snakes -are capable; as, in accounting for these, some interesting facts -appertaining to their anatomical structure can be described. - -A humorous journalist has said, ‘There is apparently nothing that a -snake can _not_ do, except swallow a porcupine.’[63] Presuming that -he alludes to physical feats, he is not far from wrong. For all that, -the Western pioneers of America tell us of yet one more thing that -these reptiles cannot accomplish, and that is, cross over a rope -of horse-hair. Having by accident discovered that they turn aside -from this, some Western settlers, when camping out, have effectually -entrenched themselves within a circle of horse-hair rope as a barrier -to rattlesnakes while sleeping. - -Let us try to account for this. - -Many of my readers have seen the cast-off coat of a snake. Those who -have not can have the pleasure of examining one or several the next -time they go to the Zoological Gardens, where the obliging keeper -will cheerfully exhibit them. Others at a distance may not enjoy this -facility, and for these the accompanying diagrams may be a slight -compensation. - -[Illustration: Portion of slough of a rattlesnake (exact size). - -Ventral scales of the same, and a section.] - -The whole cuticle or epidermis of a serpent is composed of these -overlapping scales, of which the above illustrations are only -fragments. Thus when we speak of their _scales_, we do not mean -distinct and separable laminæ, like the scales of some fishes, each -of which may be scraped or plucked off, and which overlie each other -like the feathers of birds. The covering of a snake is one entire -piece, loose-fitting, and so arranged as to lie in those scale-like -folds which accommodate themselves to every movement of the body. The -ventral or under scales are, in fact, a regular kilting, as may be seen -by the section; and the upper ones correspond somewhat with what our -lady friends call the shell or the leaf pattern in knitting work. The -outer or exposed folds are stronger, thicker, and more hardened than -the inner parts, just as the knitter ‘throws up’ her pattern with a -coarser wool or larger needles, and knits the less conspicuous parts in -a softer material. The naked space of thinner skin between these scales -being very considerable, one can therefore easily understand how, -when a snake would attempt to pass over a horse-hair rope, the sharp, -prickly hairs, standing out _chevaux-de-frise_ fashion, would insinuate -themselves unpleasantly in those softer and more vulnerable interstices -which become exposed by the sinuations of the body. Probably, if we -knew it, or had an opportunity of observing, we should ascertain that -snakes do not crawl over furze bushes, or thistles, or the prickly pear -(_opuntia_), or any similar vegetation of tropical climates, and for -the same reason. The close-scaled burrowing snakes, with their hard -and strong cuirass all round them, might have nothing to fear from a -furze bush; but this is mere speculation. That fine, sharp spines or -prickles, and therefore a horse-hair rope, would incommode the tender -intermediate epidermal folds of other snakes, we can well suppose. Had -they sense enough to _leap_ the obstacle, this they could easily do, -after the manner of ‘leaping’ already described; but the ‘leap’ is only -an instinctive action used in pursuit or escape; and it may be equally -instinctive to turn aside from uncomfortable obstacles, whether prickly -pears or horse-hair ropes. - -Mr. Ruskin, in his highly-entertaining lecture on ‘Snakes,’ at the -London Institution, March 1880 (a lecture which, by the way, was -artistic, poetic, figurative, imaginative—‘Snakes’ from a Ruskin, but -not a zoological, point of view), remarked ‘that no scientific book -tells us why the reptile _is_ a “serpent,” _i.e._ serpentine in its -motions, and why it cannot go straight.’ Now, may not the fact that -snakes have acquired these ever-varying sinuations arise from their -sensitiveness to the slightest, and what would be to other creatures -almost impalpable, obstructions in their path?—mere inequalities which -in their lazy nature it is easier, they know not why, to circumvent -than to surmount; because they _can_ go straight, and _do_ go straight -when the way is plain. - -Rymer Jones, in his _Organization of the Animal Kingdom_, thinks that -their sense of touch from the nature of their integument must be -extremely imperfect; they being ‘deprived of any limbs which can be -regarded as tactile organs,’ p. 753. But close observation leads one -to agree rather with a much older writer, Roget, who, in his _Animal -Physiology_, intimates that the peculiar conformation of serpents must -be exceedingly favourable to the acquisition of correct perceptions of -touch, and that these perceptions which lead to a perfect acquaintance -with the tangible properties of surrounding bodies must contribute much -to the sagacity of snakes;—that their whole body is a hand, conferring -some of the advantages of that instrument. - -That this latter faculty is strictly and marvellously the case, we -shall presently see, owing to the flexibility of the spine, and its -capability of grasping and twining round objects of almost any shape, -and of taking, as Roget says, ‘their exact measure.’ For this grasping -power is not confined to the constricting snakes only. In all snakes -a great flexibility is abundantly provided for in the construction -of ‘these lithe and elegant beings,’ as Rymer Jones in unprejudiced -language calls them (p. 724 of the book above quoted); ‘the spinal -column admits the utmost pliancy of motion in any required direction.’ - -Though snakes have no limbs externally, ‘the work of hands, feet, and -fins is performed by a modification of the vertebral column.’[64] -‘Except flying, there is no limit to their locomotion,’ said Professor -Huxley in _his_ lecture on ‘Snakes,’ a few weeks previously to that of -Ruskin, and under the same roof. To both these lectures we shall again -refer, as the reader will feel sure that all coming from such sources -must add value to the present writer’s arguments. - -As ‘flying,’ the swift motions of many snakes have been described by -ancient writers, as, for example, the ‘flying serpents’ of Scripture, -though these are by many supposed to be the _Dracunculi_, the earliest -known of human parasites. The astonishing movements of serpents were, -however, in superstitious ages ascribed to supernatural agency. Says -Pliny: ‘The Jaculus darts from trees, flies through the air as if -it were hurled from an engine.’ The ‘wisest of men’ admitted that -the actions of serpents were beyond his comprehension; ‘the way of a -serpent on a rock’ was ‘too wonderful’ for him. - -Even in intermediate ages, when travellers and naturalists began to -confront fiction with fact, even in the days of Buffon and Lacepède, -a serpent was regarded as a living allegory rather than a zoological -reality by many intelligent, albeit unscientific persons. Of such -was Chateaubriand, whose contemplation of the serpent partook of -religious awe. ‘Everything is mysterious, secret, astonishing in this -incomprehensible reptile. His movements differ from those of all -other animals. It is impossible to say where his locomotive principle -lies, for he has neither fins, nor feet, nor wings; and yet he flits -like a shadow, he vanishes as if by magic, he reappears, and is gone -again like a light azure vapour on the gleams of a sabre in the dark. -Now he curls himself into a circle, and projects a tongue of fire; -now standing erect upon the extremity of his tail he moves as if by -enchantment. He rolls himself into a ball, rises and falls like a -spiral line, gives to his rings the undulations of a wave, twines round -the branches of trees, glides under the grass of the meadow, or skims -along the surface of the water,’ and so forth.[65] - -Excepting the ‘tongue of fire,’ the whole of this poetic description is -so far true and unexaggerated, that Chateaubriand has not attributed -to the reptile one action of which it is not capable, and which, to -the untutored mind, might well seem supernatural. Roget, Schlegel, -Huxley, and others tell us the same things in the language of science. -To quote them all is impossible; the reader will be content with one -scientific assurance of ophidian capabilities, not less poetic than -Chateaubriand’s. - -Professor Owen, in describing the bony structure of the Ophidia, -and in allusion to the scriptural text—‘Upon thy belly shalt thou -go’—affirms that so far from the reptiles being degraded from a higher -type, their whole organization demonstrates how exquisitely their parts -are adapted to their necessities, and thus proceeds: ‘They can outclimb -the monkey, outswim the fish, outleap the jerboa, and suddenly loosing -the coils of their crouching spiral, they can spring into the air and -seize the bird upon its wing.’ - -The active snakes can always ‘leap’ their own length, whether upwards -to seize a bird, or horizontally, and, as in the case of the Jamaica -boa (described p. 186), can leap much farther from a similar impetus -when the direction is _downwards_. Indeed, they can let themselves fall -from a certain elevation with an additional impetus to progress, as a -boy first runs in order to leap a ditch. - -‘With neither hands nor talons, they can out-wrestle the athlete, -and crush their prey in the embrace of their ponderous, overlapping -folds.... Instead of licking up its food as it glides along, the -serpent uplifts its crushed prey, and presents it grasped in its -death-like coil, as in a hand, to its gaping mouth.’[66] - -A similarly graphic account is given by Rymer Jones, p. 718 of his -work,[67] that will be read with interest by those who wish to pursue -the study scientifically. - -In watching the larger constricting snakes while feeding, you see -how _dexterously_ they manage.—(One may use this word here, because -those above quoted, ‘as in a hand,’ are literally, scientifically -true; therefore we may suppose fingers as well as a hand, and say how -dexterously the creatures bring their coils to their aid.) - -They have quickly strangled and begun to eat, say an opossum or -a turkey buzzard, when a part of the prey not swallowed offers -some impediment to the expanded jaws; the wings or legs may be -inconveniently extended, or have become wedged between some immoveable -obstacles—a log, a narrow space, or under a portion of themselves. -Their mouth, the only apparent grasping agent, is already occupied, and -a strain sufficiently powerful, while the jaws are thus retaining the -prey, would be painful to the feeder, might even drag back the food, -to the injury of the engaged teeth. How does the reptile proceed in -this emergency? With the lightness and deftness of enormous strength, -it applies two folds of its body, two loops of its own coils, and with -them drags forth, lifts up, or otherwise adjusts its prey in a more -convenient position—in fact, ‘presents it as in a hand’ to its own -mouth. - -A very remarkable instance of a constricting snake thus using its -coils is related by Dr. Elliott Coues, of the United States army, -late surgeon and naturalist to the United States Northern Boundary -Commission. He witnessed one of those frequent combats between the -Racer and the Rattlesnake, in which the former—and in far less time -than it takes to read one line of this page—threw two folds or coils -round his adversary, one coil of the anterior portion of his own body -round one part, and a second coil of the posterior portion of his own -body round another part, and then, by a sudden extension of himself, -tore the rattlesnake in halves. And this was done with greater ease -and swiftness than we could snap a thread which we must first secure -round the fingers of our two hands. As if indeed possessed of two -hands, the constrictor snapped his foe in twain. This is Lawson’s -‘Whipster,’ p. 182. - -The coiling of the constricting snakes is like lightning; you cannot -follow the movements. In this case death must have been instantaneous, -and indeed it is doubtful whether any beast or bird of prey puts his -victim to a more speedy and less torturing death than the constrictors -when following their own instincts. - -Repairing to the Zoological Gardens in the hope of witnessing the -wonderful adaptation of coils to manual uses, after reading what -Roget and Owen had affirmed, one soon had a favourable opportunity -in watching a python. It was, I think, in June 1874, and the poor -python had a ruptured side. In spite of which—as my zoological notes -record—‘it helped by the folds of its body to get the wings of the -duck down flat and close, so as to swallow it more easily. With reason -does Roget say, “Its whole body is a hand,” for it used its loops to -hold and to push and to flatten in a manner truly intelligent.’ - -Such was my first entry and observation. Subsequently, and indeed -almost on every feeding day, the same kind of thing was to be seen at -the Gardens. Many such examples are recorded in my notebook; but of -these one or two later notes will suffice to illustrate the subject. - -[Illustration: ‘Totsey,’ a python born in the Gardens, June 30, 1877, -taking her supper, Sept. 24, 1880.] - -A young python was hanging from a branch, more than half its body -curved as in the accompanying sketch, remaining motionless and -quiescent, watching some sparrows which the keeper had just put into -the cage. The birds, eyeing certain insects among the gravel, seemed -all unconscious of the pair of glistening eyes looking down upon them. -Suddenly a movement, a flicker, like the flash of a whip, and the snake -had changed its position. Too quick for us to follow the motion, but in -that flash of time it now hung like a pendulum, with a sparrow almost -hidden in its coils. The snake had precisely measured its distance, -reached down, and recoiled with the swiftness of an elastic spring. -After a few minutes, _feeling_ that its prey was dead, it prepared to -swallow it, holding it encircled in a portion of its body, while the -head was free to commence the usual examination. Still hanging there, -it held and devoured the bird. - -On another occasion, one of the larger pythons caught a guinea-pig -in the same manner. This also was so quick in its movements that one -scarcely knew what had happened until the snake was seen to have -changed its position, some of the anterior coils had embraced a -something, and a quadruped was missing. This snake also still hung -while eating its meal, the whole process occupying less than ten -minutes. In both these cases we saw the prehensile tail in its natural -use, while the rest of the body was free for action. - -One of the most remarkable cases of what we may call independent -constricting powers, that is, two or more parts of the reptile being -engaged at the same time, was in some very hungry, or very greedy, or -very sagacious little constrictors, the ‘four-rayed snakes,’ _Elaphis -quater-radiatus_. - -They are slender for their length, which may be from three to five -feet, of an inconspicuous colour, but with two black lines on each -side, running the whole length of their body; hence their name, -‘four-lined,’ or ‘four-rayed.’ In the present instance, there were in -the same cage three of these, also one young royal python, one small -common boa, and one ‘thick-necked tree boa’ (_Epicratis cenchris_), all -constrictors. The day was close and warm for April, and the snakes, -reviving from their winter torpor, seemed particularly active and -lively. Probably they had not fed much of late, and thought now was -their opportunity, for the keeper no sooner threw the birds—finches, -and plenty of them for all—into the cage, than there was a general -scuffle. Each of the six snakes seized its bird and entwined it, -then on the part of the reptiles all was comparatively still. The -rest of the poor little birds, fluttering hither and thither, were, -however, not disregarded, for although each snake was constricting its -captive, several of them captured another bird by pressing it beneath -them, and holding it down with a disengaged part of themselves. One -of the four-rayed snakes felt its held-down victim struggling, and -instantaneously a second coil was thrown round it. Then another caught -a second bird in its mouth, for its head and neck were not occupied -with the bird already held, and in order to have coils at its disposal, -slipped down its first captive, or rather passed itself onwards to -constrict the second, the earlier coils not changing in form in the -slightest degree, any more than a ring passed down a cord would change -its form. The next moment I saw one of those two hungry ones with -three birds under its control. It had already begun to eat the first, -a second was coiled about eight inches behind, and a good deal of -the posterior portion of the reptile was still disengaged when a bird -passed across its tail, and instantly that was captured. All this was -done by a sense of feeling only, as the snakes did not once turn their -heads. Two of these ‘four-rayed’ snakes were so close together, so -rapid in their movements, so excited and eager for their prey, that -which of them first began his bird, and which one caught the third, it -is impossible to affirm confidently. - -Whenever either of them was in the same position for one quiet minute, -a few hurried strokes of the pencil fixed them in my notebook, and of -the hasty though faithful sketches thus made, I present three to the -reader on the opposite page. - -April 1st, 1881.—After this date nothing more was to be seen! -Henceforth visitors were to be excluded, and the reptiles were to be -fed _after sunset_. - -Now, however painfully and sympathetically we may regard those poor -little birds so unceremoniously seized, crushed, and devoured, we can -but reverently, and almost with awe, admire the astonishing facility -with which these limbless, toolless reptiles provide themselves -with food. With still deeper awe and reverence we shall admire when -we examine their anatomical structure, and see by what marvellous -development it has been adapted to their necessities. - -We feel sadly for the finches, it is true; because finches are often -our pets, and are sweet songsters. Were a toad or a rat thus treated, -we should care less, perhaps; because there is as much repugnance -towards toads and ‘vermin,’ as towards snakes. - -[Illustration: First bird caught and a second held down. - -First bird dead, the second coiled, and a third bird caught. - -First bird half eaten, two others in coils. - -_April 1st, 1881._] - -But if the finches did not become the prey of snakes, they would become -the victims of bird-catchers and milliners; and if they escaped these -wanton spoilers, they would fall victims to birds of prey, as much -larger birds fall victims to our own need of food. - -Reptiles also have existence and requirements, and an organization -adapted to such requirements. This should be their claim upon our -tolerance; and if they do not win our admiration, we cannot deny them -the right to live, the right to feed according to their instincts, -and to secure their natural food in their own way, which—begging the -reader to pardon this feeble moralizing—we find to be a very wonderful -way. - -Though the term ‘reptile’ is applied to a whole tribe of crawling -creatures, whether four-legged or limbless, that are covered with -scales, horny plates, or a skin more or less hardened, imbricated, or -rugose (viz. crocodiles, lizards, frogs, toads, serpents, and their -congeners), snakes are more truly reptiles, being limbless, from -_repo_, to creep. Hence serpents (from _serpo_, to creep, and its -derivatives serpentine, serpentize, etc., from _serpens_, winding) -have been separated from the rest. The true serpents, therefore, are -those without feet, and which move only close to the ground, by the -sinuations of their body. - -We have seen that the constricting snakes use this body as a substitute -for hands, literally _managing_ with it; but though they are externally -legless, and _apodal_ (without feet), the truth is that few creatures, -none perhaps, not even millipedes, are more liberally furnished with -legs and feet than serpents. One curious exception to general rules is, -that while other creatures have the same number of feet as legs, that -is, one foot to each leg, a snake has only one foot to each pair of -legs! - -Many of my observant readers have already discovered for themselves -where and what these numerous legs and feet are. In the early days of -my ophidian studies, which then consisted chiefly of observations, I -noticed the action of limbs beneath the skin of the pythons as they -moved about, and more particularly when they were climbing up the glass -in front of their cages, and as in the case of the glottis, I thought -I had made a grand discovery; and so I had, as far as myself was -concerned. - -Deductions from personal observation, which in the history of many -sciences have again and again been claimed as original discoveries by -rival thinkers or experimentalists, no doubt _were_ original on the -part of each. - -Probably, also, many other persons have noticed this leg-like action -of the ribs, but who, not being specially interested in snakeology, -have never troubled themselves to ascertain ‘further particulars,’ or -cared whether any one else had observed this or not. But it _is_ a very -evident and unmistakeable action, and one quite worth studying on your -next visit to the Reptilium. - -Books on ophiology tell us that Sir Joseph Banks was the first to -observe this limb-like action of the ribs. Sir Everard—then Mr.—Home, -F.R.S, and the most distinguished anatomist of his time, was, however, -the first to publish a scientific description of the fact; his account -and the illustrations accompanying it having been subsequently adopted -by most ophiologists. - -In vol. cii. of the _Philosophical Transactions_ of 1812, p. 163, is a -paper which was read before the Royal Society in February of that year, -by Everard Home, Esq., F.R.S. It is entitled, ‘Observations to show -that the Progressive Motion of Snakes is partly performed by the Ribs.’ - -We give his introductory words, not only because the ‘discovery’ was -a great event in the history of ophiology, but as showing that to see -and examine a foreign snake was at that time a rare if not a novel -occurrence. He tells us that on a former occasion in 1804, he had -described the anterior ribs of a cobra, those which form the ‘hood.’ At -that time he was ‘not in possession of the bodies of snakes,’ so that -he could compare their structure, but had _since_ found out a good deal -more about their anatomy, and then he proceeds: ‘A Coluber of unusual -size lately brought to London to be exhibited, was shown to Sir Joseph -Banks. The animal was lively and moved along the carpet briskly; while -it was doing so, Sir Joseph thought he saw the ribs come forward in -succession, like the feet of a caterpillar. This remark he immediately -communicated to me, and gave me an opportunity of seeing the snake -and making my own observations. The fact was already established, and -I could feel the ribs with my fingers as they were brought forward. -I placed my hand under the snake, and the ribs were felt distinctly -upon the palm as the animal passed over it. This becomes the more -interesting discovery as it constitutes a new species of progressive -motion, and one widely different from those already known.’ - -The ‘unusually large Coluber’ was probably a python. Had a previous -opportunity presented itself to this scientific and thoughtful -observer, Sir Joseph Banks might not have been the one to carry off -the palm in this discovery. Home had already described the peculiarity -of the cobra’s anterior ribs (chap. xviii.), and, as already suggested, -it is scarcely possible to watch one of those larger constrictors -_without_ perceiving the mode of progression. We shall see in the -course of this book that snake observers have arrived at the same -conclusions on several points, while wholly ignorant of what others had -said or decided regarding the same. - -In the previous chapter the number of vertebræ forming the spinal -column of three or four snakes was given, but this number varies -greatly, not only in snakes but in species. In some species there are -above 400 vertebræ or joints in a snake’s spine. But here is a puzzle -that baffles the student. ‘Every one knows,’ says Schlegel, ‘that their -number differs’ (speaking of the vertebræ), ‘not only according to the -species, but also in individuals, so that sometimes we find in serpents -of the same species a difference of thirty or forty vertebræ more or -less.’[68] - -Taking this literally according to the text, one might expect to find -one ring-snake in a family of ten measuring two feet, while his brother -measured two yards, and a third four feet, and so on, as if each had a -different number of vertebræ. - -‘The same species,’ that is, two anacondas or two cobras! ‘A -mistranslation,’ one naturally decided, and proceeded to consult the -original. But no. The translator had faithfully and unquestioningly -followed the original French; but the fact was so irreconcilable that I -sought Dr. Günther’s kind assistance in comprehending the passage. - -‘Evidently an oversight. Manifestly impossible,’ that learned authority -at once decided. (As Schlegel stands high as a scientific ophiologist, -the misprint is pointed out for the benefit of future students.) - -Thus lengths, _as to the number of vertebræ_, vary in species of the -same genus, but _not_ in ‘individuals of the same species.’ And this -alone is sufficiently perplexing. - -For example, we read in one work that a rattlesnake has 194 vertebræ, -and in another that ‘it,’ viz. ‘a rattlesnake,’ has 207 vertebræ. Both -equally correct, because two distinct species are described. Again, -Dr. Carpenter, in his _Animal Physiology_ (edition of 1872), gives a -table of the vertebræ of various animals, in which ‘a python’ has 422 -joints, while Owen gives ‘a python’ 291 joints, each learned anatomist -having examined a different species. By these facts we comprehend what -Schlegel intended to say. - -The little constrictors caught their finches with five feet of body -at their disposal. An anaconda, with five yards of body to work with, -might with equal ease coil three opossums. - -‘The skeleton of a snake exhibits the greatest possible simplicity -to which a vertebrate animal can be reduced,’ says Roget. It is -‘merely a lengthened spinal column.’ It is ‘simple’ in the same way -that botanists call a stem simple when it has no branches, or bracts, -or leaves, to interrupt its uniformity. For this reason, having no -limbs, and therefore none of those bones which in quadrupeds connect -the limbs to the trunk, the spine is, in unscientific language, alike -all the way down; ‘_un corps tout en tronc_.’ And because those two -first joints of the spine which have no ribs attached to them are in -form precisely like the other joints, physiologists tell us that a -snake has ‘no neck.’ By way of simplifying matters we just now called -those two joints an invariable neck. But in the way of _cervical_ or -neck vertebræ, however, we must bear in mind that a true anatomical -neck, in the eyes of science, a snake has not. Some of the four-legged -reptiles have a true neck, that is, they have cervical vertebræ which -differ from dorsal, lumbar, etc. vertebræ, as we ourselves and mammals -in general have; because four-legged reptiles have a breast-bone and -limbs to support, and their neck varies in length. For example, a -tortoise has nine cervical or neck joints, a monitor lizard six, and a -salamander only one. - -But so also do the necks of mammals vary very greatly _in length_, -while all, without exception, are formed of seven joints, _only seven -vertebræ_; a man, a whale, a giraffe, and a mouse possess each seven -cervical vertebræ, different in form from the rest of the joints of the -spinal column. We might say that in appearance a whale has no neck, -but its seven neck joints are flat and close as seven cards or seven -pennies, while those of the giraffe are extraordinarily prolonged; and -in ourselves—well, of course, the reader will admit the perfection -of symmetry in our own necks, and the seven joints, therefore, are -precisely of the proper size. - -While the spine of a snake is ‘simple’ in respect of its joints being -all formed on the same plan, it is the reverse of simple in its -wonderfully complex structure. Professor Huxley, in his delightful -lecture, said that ‘the most beautiful piece of anatomy he knew was -the vertebra of a snake.’ Professor Owen thus anatomically describes -it: ‘The vertebræ of serpents articulate with each other by eight -joints, in addition to those of the cup and ball on the centrum; and -interlock by parts reciprocally receiving and entering one another, -like the joints called tenon and mortice in carpentry’ (_Anatomy of the -Vertebrates_, p. 54). - -[Illustration: Front and back view of a vertebra.] - -Bearing in mind that each of these highly complicated joints supports -a pair of moveable ribs, and that the ends of these ribs are connected -by muscles with the large stiff scutes or scales crossing the under -surface of the body (see illustrations, p. 193), which move with the -ribs, one foot-like scale to each pair, we comprehend how snakes exceed -millipedes in the number of their _limbs_, if not true legs, and how -they excel the insect also in variety of movement. Those ‘ball and -socket’ joints admit of free lateral flexion, and every variety of -curvature—‘_the utmost pliancy of motion_,’ to repeat the words of -Rymer Jones; and also of that surprisingly independent motion which -enables the constrictors to surpass even the _Bimana_ (except practised -experts) in doing _several things at once_. - -Thoughtful persons who can contemplate this wondrous organization with -due reverence, and witness it in activity—as we admiringly observe the -works of a watch in motion—will forget to censure those who supply -food to this piece of animated mechanism, and even pardon a hungry -little snake for so expertly securing three birds at once. - -Think of 300 back-bones and 300 pairs of legs, all requiring wholesome -exercise. Some snakes have 300 pairs of ribs—each pair capable of -independent motion, and articulated with that complex spine; and each -pair moving together, and carrying along with them a foot in the shape -of a broad ventral scale. ‘This scutum by its posterior edge lays hold -of the ground,’ says Sir Everard Home, ‘and becomes a fixed point -whence to set out anew.’ - -The hold which the ventral scales have of the ground obviously renders -it easier for the reptiles to pass over a rough than a smooth surface; -what are obstacles to other creatures are facilities to them. But they -appear to be never at a loss. On a boarded room, or even a marble -floor, they will manage progression of some sort,—many by the pressure -of the tail to push themselves forward, and others with an action that -can be compared only with swimming. With the same rapid, undulating -motion as swimming, the active snakes skim through the grass, or over -soft herbage, on which they seem to make no impression. Their swift -sinuations are almost invisible to the eye. You only know that a snake -_was_ there, and now has vanished. The ‘Rat’ snake of Ceylon (_Ptyas -mucosus_) (see frontispiece) and the ‘Pilot’ snakes of America are -among the best known of these swift-flitting or gliding creatures. - -Rats are fleet little quadrupeds, but their enemies, the Rat snakes -of India, are more than their match. Sir Emerson Tennant, in his -_History of Ceylon_, describes an encounter with one. _Ptyas mucosus_ -caught a rat, and both captor and captive were promptly covered with -a glass shade to be watched. With an instinct to escape stronger than -hunger, _Ptyas_ relinquished his hold, and manifested uneasiness. Then -the glass shade was raised a trifle, and instantly away ran the rat; -but the snake was after it like a flash, caught it, and glided away -swiftly, with head erect and the rat in its mouth. - -At one of the Davis lectures at the Zoological Gardens, a fine Rat -snake in the Society’s collection was exhibited, and was permitted to -be handled by a favoured few. To hold it _still_ was not possible, -for the creature glided through the hand, and entwined itself about -one as if a dozen snakes had you in possession. It was very tame, and -accustomed to be handled by the keeper, whose especial pet it was; -otherwise _Ptyas_ is a powerful snake, and quite capable of strangling -you should it take a fancy to constrict your neck. On another occasion -this same snake constricted my arm sufficiently to make my fingers -swell; but that was not so much in anger as for safety, because it -did not like to be fettered in its movements, or to be somewhat -unceremoniously examined. A younger and less tame specimen tried to -bite me, and squeezed my fingers blue by constricting them. - -There is no circumventing these ‘lithe and elegant beings.’ They will -get into your pocket, or up your sleeve; and while you think you have -the head safely in your hand, the whole twelve feet of snake will have -glided through, and be making its way to the book shelves, or where you -least expect to see it. - -When frequently handling the young constrictors, one has been able -to _feel_ as well as to observe the action of the ribs. As they pass -through the hand, you feel them expanded, so as to present a flatter -under surface. In _Ptyas_ the back is remarkably keeled when crawling, -a section of his body presenting the form of the middle diagram given -below. - -[Illustration] - -Schlegel describes the forms which the bodies of various snakes assume -in swimming, climbing, clinging, etc. Sometimes they are laterally -compressed, at others flattened. The three figures above are on a much -reduced scale, but give an idea of the sections of three different -snakes, though each snake is capable of several such changes of form. -When snakes climb against the glass of their cages, you may easily -discern the flattening of their bodies. In this action there seems to -be a compressing power, any hold of the scutæ against a polished plane -being, of course, impossible; yet without holding they seem to cling; -and the ribs advance in wave-like intervals just the same, with an -intermediate space at rest until in turn the wave is there and passes -on, while from an anterior portion another wave approaches, and so on. -Yet the _compressure_ strikes one forcibly. There is also the evident -support of the tail in a large python thus crawling to the very top of -his cage. - -Mr. Gosse observed the dilatation and flattening of the body in the -climbing snakes, and that they had no more difficulty in gliding up a -tree or a wall in a straight line than on the ground. In the _Anecdotes -of Serpents_, revised for the Messrs. W. & R. Chambers, of Edinburgh, -in 1875, from the tract by the late John Keast Lord, I also recorded my -observations on this peculiarity. - -Some young Jamaica boas crawled to the top of their cage as soon as -they were born. I saw them the same day; _held_ them, as well as it -was possible to hold threads of quicksilver; _felt_ them, too, for -the exceedingly juvenile constrictors tied up my fingers cleverly. So -did some young boa constrictors, born alive at the Gardens, June 30, -1877. They were from fifteen to twenty inches in length, and had teeth -sufficiently developed to draw blood from Holland’s hand, showing fight -and ingratitude at the same time. They were exceedingly active, and fed -on young mice, which they constricted instinctively. One of them, known -as ‘Totsey,’ subsequently _hung_ for her portrait, as on p. 201. - -In vol. xx. of _Nature_, p. 528, is a very clever paper on the -progression of snakes, by H. F. Hutchinson, who has evidently -observed them closely. He arrives at the conclusion that they have -three different modes, viz. ‘on smooth plane surfaces by means of -their rib-legs;’ ... ‘through high grass by rapid, almost invisible, -sinuous onward movement, like swimming;’ in climbing straight walls -or ascending smooth surfaces by creating a vacuum with the ventral -scales. He reminds us that cobras, kraits, the rat snake, and other -slender and active kinds are constantly found on house roofs, walls, -straight smooth trees, etc., and asks how they got there. He has seen -the ‘abdominal scales creating a vacuum like the pedal scales of house -lizards.’ He put some active little snakes on the ground, where there -was no hold for the scutæ, and they ‘flew about in all directions.’ He -saw that they moved on by these quick, sinuous curves—‘rapid wriggles.’ - -In company with my esteemed friend, Mr. Robert Chambers of Edinburgh, -we made similar experiments by placing some of the smooth-scaled, -active snakes on a boarded floor. Being extremely wild, they displayed -their anger and skill to perfection, and literally _swam_ along, -scarcely touching the floor, and so swiftly that we had difficulty in -pursuing and securing them again. Some very young _Tropidonoti_ when -disturbed flew or ‘swam’ about their cage in the same manner. We also -saw pythons climb up a window-frame, and a corner of the room where no -visible hold could be obtained; and after the example of Sir Everard -Home, we allowed the reptiles to crawl over our hands, when we could -feel the expansion and flattening of the body by the spreading of the -ribs. I incline to agree, therefore, with the writer in _Nature_, that -there is a sort of vacuum created by the ventral scales. Dr. Stradling -observed that on occasions of retreat, some snakes move in such rapid -and ever-varying sinuations as to baffle you completely when you -attempt to lay hold of them; the part you thought to grasp is gone.[69] -Such are the movements of _Pituophis_ and of _Echis_ (p. 151). - -At the risk of being tedious, a few more words must be added on this -subject of progression, because we so constantly see it asserted that -snakes ‘move with difficulty over smooth surfaces.’ Their actions have -not excited sufficient attention and study. Have you ever watched them -moving about in their bath at the Zoological Gardens? The motions of -a python once particularly struck me. The earthenware pan was smooth -polished ware, and with enough water in it to render it smoother, if -that be possible. The reptile was not swimming, for the thicker part -of its body was not even wholly submersed. The pan was too shallow -for that, and too small to permit of any portion of the python being -fully extended. It moved in ever-varying coils and curves, yet with -the greatest ease, its head slightly raised, so that the nostrils and -mouth were out of water. It seemed to be enjoying its bath, as it -actively glided, turned, and curved in that wonderful fashion which -Ruskin described as ‘a bit one way, a bit another, and some of him not -at all.’ There could be no hold for the scutæ in this case, nor could -I detect any action of the ribs as in crawling over a less smooth -surface. The creature seemed to move by its easy sinuations, and with -no more effort than you see in the fish at an aquarium. Perfectly -incomprehensible is this lax and leisurely movement in shallow -water. Even the inert little slow-worm astonishes us by its physical -achievements, which will be duly described in its especial chapter. - -But among the most characteristically active are the small and slender -tree snakes, the _Dryadidæ_ and _Dendrophidæ_, mostly of a brilliant -green. These and the Whip snakes are exceedingly long and slender, -the tails of many of them very gradually diminishing to a fine and -attenuated point. Some of them are closely allied to the lizards, and -skim and dash through the foliage with a scarcely perceptible weight. -These are the true acrobats, full of gracile ease and activity. Many -are over four feet in length, and not much thicker than a pencil. - -They are found in the hot countries of both hemispheres. The Siamese -call some of them ‘sunbeams,’ from their combination of grace and -splendour, and in Brazil some have the brilliant tints of the -humming-birds. These little creatures in your hand feel like soft, -fine, satin cords endowed with life. - -Dr. Wucherer, writing from Brazil, enthusiastically declared that he -was always delighted to find one of them in his garden. He discovered -them coiled in a bird’s nest, their body of two feet long occupying a -space no larger than the hollow of your hand. ‘In an instant they dart -upwards between the branches and over the leaves, which scarcely bend -beneath their weight. A moment more, and you have lost them.’[70] - -Krefft, of Australia, had some of the active snakes, which were -confined in an empty room, but one day could not be found. At last they -were discovered upon the moulding of a door, nine feet from the floor! -They must have climbed up the smooth wood-work in their own mysterious -fashion. - -Ere concluding this chapter, one slight exception to the extremely -‘simple’ spinal column must be named. This is that certain families, -more nearly allied to the lizards, or most far removed from the vipers, -have rudiments of pelvic bones, or those which in bipeds connect the -legs with the trunk. In a few families there is even a pair of these -rudiments externally, though only in the form of a spur or claw, as -seen in the boa constrictor, the pythons, and some of the blindworms, -and usually more developed in the male. - -There is, however, the true skeleton of a claw beneath the skin, -composed of several bones, and presenting somewhat the form of a bird’s -claw, hinting at the common ancestry between snakes and lizards. These -spurs, though mere vestiges of limbs, must still be of some use to the -large constrictors when climbing trees and hanging from the branches. -They are found in the boa, python, eryx, and tortrix, four groups -which approach the lizard characteristics; also in _Boa aquatica_, the -anaconda. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -_FRESH-WATER SNAKES._ - - -THE frequent allusion to water snakes in the preceding chapters seems -to render this a suitable place to describe them more in detail; and -among them are of course the sea snakes, and ‘The Great Sea Serpent’ -must not be omitted. - -In many books on natural history, particularly if herpetology occupy -any space, we find the subject wound up with a chapter on ‘The Sea -Serpent,’ forming a sort of apologetic little addendum, as if the -creature of questionable existence must claim no space in the heart of -the volume, yet is not quite so unimportant as to be omitted altogether. - -On the part of some other authors, a total and summary dismissal of the -‘monster’ is apt to exclude with it any reference to the smaller sea -snakes, whose actual existence is therefore a fact less known than it -should be; and many persons, seeing the doubt cast upon the celebrated -individual whose reputed reappearance on the prorogation of Parliament -has become an annual joke, conclude that all sea snakes are similarly -mythical. - -Admitting it to be a dubious creature, with neither name nor -ancestry in ophidian annals, I must not give it precedence of the -recognised water snakes; but it shall figure in the heart of my book -notwithstanding. - -‘_Fresh-water snakes_’ form the fourth, and ‘_Sea snakes_’ the fifth -of the five groups into which Dr. Günther has separated the ophidian -families; but the gradations between the land and the fresh-water -species, and between the latter and the salt-water snakes or the true -_Hydrophidæ_, are, like all other herpetological features, extremely -close. There are water-loving land snakes and land-frequenting water -snakes, that is, those which are equally at home in both. In the -true water species, however, we find modifications of ordinary rules -which show them to be peculiarly protected and adapted for an aquatic -existence. - -One notable characteristic in all, both salt-water and fresh, is the -position of the nostrils on the top of the snout, and in many these are -protected by a valve which closes at will. As air-breathing animals -they must come to the surface, but the timid, stealthy ophidian -instinct which seeks to hide from observation can be indulged even -in the water, with the nostrils so situated that only a very small -surface of the head need be exposed. Could we examine the interior -of the mouth we should doubtless find some slight variation in the -position of the glottis also. In a foregoing chapter we saw that the -trachea opens exactly opposite to and close behind what Dumeril calls -the ‘arrière-narines;’ ‘leur glotte qui est à deux lèvres et qui -represente un larynx très simple, s’ouvre dans la bouche derrière -le fourreau de la langue ... elle s’élève pour se presenter dilatée -sous les arrière-narines.’[71] The glottis of water snakes must have a -still more upward direction to present itself to those air passages. -Perhaps water snakes do not require to yawn so frequently as is the -habit of their terrestrial relatives; and if they do, it must be a rare -privilege to be able to inspect the process, as one can so frequently -do with the pythons and vipers at home. Our authorities do not give us -much information on this point.[72] - -Their moderately long tapering tail is used as a propelling power. -Exteriorly, too, water snakes have smooth non-imbricated scales, though -exceptions exist in those species which frequent both land and water, -as the _Tropidonoti_, a large family of which our common English ring -snake is a member, and which, as their name denotes, have all keeled -scales, from τρόπις, τρόπιδος, _a keel_. These, also, can elevate -their ribs, and so flatten the body in the water, another assistant in -swimming. - -A marked exception to the smooth-scaled, water-loving snakes is the -African viper, known as the ‘River Jack’ from its partiality to water. -_Vipera rhinosceros_, from the spinous scales which have the appearance -of horns on its nose, is allied to those described in the 18th chapter. -Though not strictly a water snake, it much frequents it, and glides -through it with ease, the more remarkable because, in common with those -other ‘horned vipers’ of Africa, it has a short, insignificant little -tail, which can be of little use as a propelling power. Altogether, -it is one of the ugliest and most ferocious-looking of the whole -serpent tribe, with a thick, heavy body, a dingy, rough exterior, and -strongly-carinated scales. Excepting in colour, and a more horizontal -inclination of its horns, it is not unlike the _V. nasicornis_ of the -coloured illustration, chap. xviii. - -While all the _Homalopsidæ_ or true fresh-water snakes are innocent, -there are many other venomous kinds known as ‘water serpents,’ both -in Africa and America. For example, the ‘water viper,’ or ‘water -moccasin,’ _Cenchris piscivorus_, whose aquatic and fish-eating -propensities were described in the chapter on Tails. This ‘thorn-tail’ -viper has not, however, the nostrils of the true fresh-water snakes or -_Homalopsidæ_. In Australia also are several poisonous species, known -vernacularly as ‘water snakes;’ but strictly speaking, and on the -authority of Günther, the true _Homalopsidæ_ are all non-venomous. - -To describe these more minutely from Günther, Krefft, and Dr. E. -Nicholson, ‘they have a body moderately cylindrical, a tail somewhat -compressed at the root, and more or less prehensile. Many of them have -a distinctly prehensile tail, by which they hold on to projecting -objects;’ and in times of storms and strong currents we can imagine -the importance of this security to them. Their eyes, though prominent, -are small, and thus less exposed to injury; and the nostrils, as -already stated, are on the upper surface of the head, and provided -with a valvule. Another peculiarity is that the last or back tooth of -the maxillary bone is a grooved fang, a transitional tooth between an -ordinary one and a fang; but there is no evidence of any poisonous -saliva connected with it. Indeed, as we may repeat, Dr. Günther -distinctly affirms that all the fresh-water snakes are harmless and -_thoroughly aquatic_, though a few are occasionally found on the -beach. They inhabit rivers and estuaries, feeding on fish, and rarely -coming to land; some of them frequent brackish waters, and even enter -the sea. These latter in their organization approach the true marine -serpents. One Indian example, _Hydrinus_, is semi-pelagic. They are all -viviparous, producing their young in the water; and they belong to the -tropical or semi-tropical regions. In Australia they are found only -in the far north; but in America some so-called ‘water snakes,’ which -spend most of their time in the water, frequent rivers which are frozen -over in winter, during which season they probably undergo hibernation -in holes near the banks. - -Several of the older naturalists describe ‘water snakes’ in words which -leave us no doubt as to the _numbers_, though of their name we cannot -be so certain. Carver in 1796 mentioned some small islands near the -western end of Lake Erie, so infested with snakes that it was dangerous -to land upon them. It is impossible that any place can produce a -greater number of all kinds of snakes, particularly the ‘water snake,’ -than this. He says: ‘The lake is covered near the banks of the islands -with the large pond lily, the leaves of which lie on the surface of the -water so thick as to cover it entirely for many acres together, and -on each of these lay wreaths of water snakes, amounting to myriads, -basking in the sun.’ A sight of the last century this. I have passed -over that part of Lake Erie and through the Detroit river, and remember -the islands and the water-lilies and other attractive objects, but -‘wreaths of water snakes’ were not of these. - -Lawson, too, can assure us of their habitat, but not their name, and -his account is of worth chiefly to verify their swarming numbers. It is -possible that some of those which he describes are now extinct or very -rare. ‘Of water Snakes there are four sorts. The first is of the Horn -Snake’s Colour, though less.’ (This might be the young of the ‘water -moccasin,’ _Cenchris_, or _Trigonoceph. piscivorus_.) ‘The next is a -very long Snake, differing in Colour, and will make nothing to swim -over a River a League wide. They hang upon Birches and other Trees by -the Water Side. I had the Fortune once to have one of them leap into -my Boat as I was going up a narrow River. The Boat was full of Mats, -which I was glad to take out and so get rid of him. They are reckoned -poisonous. A third is much of an English Adder Colour, but always -frequents the Salts, and lies under the drift Seaweed, where they are -in Abundance, and are accounted mischievous when they bite. The last -is of a sooty, black Colour, and frequents Ponds and Ditches. What his -Qualities are, I cannot tell.’ - -Catesby is responsible for having called _Tropidonotus fasciatus_ -‘the brown water viper,’ a stumbling-block to many ever since, much -confusion existing between this and the true ‘water viper,’ the -dangerous moccasin snake. Occasionally they are very dark. They are -rather thick and viperish-looking as well, but are perfectly harmless. - -This is the snake to which almost this book owes its origin, the -specimens at the Zoological Gardens called ‘Moccasins’ tripping me up -at the outset, as my preface sets forth. Holbrooke describes it as -spending most of its time in the water, or about pond and river banks. -It swims rapidly, and hundreds may be seen darting in all directions -through the water. They are very common in the United States, and might -have formed the ‘wreathed myriads’ on Lake Erie formerly. In summer -they roost on the lower branches of trees, overhanging the water, like -_Trigonocephalus piscivorus_, the true ‘water moccasin,’ or ‘cotton -mouth.’ At the time of writing there are examples of both these at -the Gardens, the harmless ‘moccasin,’ a rather handsome snake, and -the venomous one (not there recognised as the well-known moccasin of -the United States), so nearly black that we can account for its being -occasionally called the ‘black water viper.’ - -It is probably _Tropidonotus_ which Parker Gilmore describes as ‘water -vipers.’[73] At Vincennes in Indiana, he says, ‘On the side where some -alder bushes grow in the water, I have seen, on a very warm and bright -day, such numbers of water vipers twined round the limbs and trunks -which margin the pond, that it would be almost impossible to wade a -yard without being within reach of one of them. They certainly have all -the appearance of being venomous; the inhabitants say, however, they -are harmless. They feed principally on fish, frogs, and small birds.’ - -Of American water snakes, the anaconda deserves special mention. Of -it Seba says, ‘Ce serpent habite plus les eaux que les rochers;’ and -in its having the nostrils situated on the top of the head, and in -possessing some other features in common with the _Homalopsidæ_, we -are justified in calling it a water serpent, notwithstanding it is a -true constrictor. ‘Mother of waters,’ the aborigines of South America -call it. It is the _Boa aquatica_ of Neuwied, and _Eunectes murinus_ -of Wagler, the latter name being the one most frequently used by -modern herpetologists. Dumeril adopts it, _l’Eunect murin_, giving the -origin of the generic name, _bon nageur_, from the Greek εὐ, _bien_, -_fort_, and νηϰτής, _nageur_—_qui nage bien_. As to the meaning of the -specific name _murinus_, there can be but little doubt, though some -have attributed it to its mouse-coloured skin or spots. _Le mangeur de -rats_, Bonnat called it; _le rativoro_, Lacepède. Seba, who was one of -the first to describe it, says, ‘Il font guerre aux rats;’ and Bonnat, -on his authority, says, ‘Il se nourrit d’une espèce de rats.’ ‘Serpent -d’Amerique à moucheteur de tortue,’ Seba also describes it, and with -‘jolies écailles magnifiquement madrées de grandes taches, semblable de -celles des tortues; taches semées sans ordres, grands, petits,’ etc. -_Murinus_, therefore, clearly refers to its food, not its colour. - -Dumeril’s description is of more scientific exactness: ‘Pas de -fossettes aux lèvres. On peut aisément reconnaitre les Eunectes seul -entre les boa, ils ont les narines percées à la face supérieure du bout -du museau et directement tournées vers le ciel.’ These, being extremely -small, and with a power to close hermetically, declare its aquatic -habits. Its eyes are prominent, and so placed that the reptile can see -before it, and also below—that is, down into the waters. - -On first sight it might be a matter of wonder that so large a serpent -should condescend to a meal of rats and mice; but to explain this we -must again go back to the early naturalists, when we discover that what -Seba called _le rat d’Amerique_ was a rodent quite worth constricting -for dinner. Under the order _Muridæ_ were included in those days a -number of the larger rodents, such as the Paca, _Mus Braziliensis_; the -Coypu, _Mus coypus_; _Myopotamus_, the Capybara; the Murine opossum, -and several others, aquatic in their habits, and large enough to -attract the ‘Giant of the Waters.’ - -From the vernacular _Matatoro_, or ‘Bull killer,’ also a whole century -of misrepresentations have arisen, the said ‘bull’ being really as -small in proportion as the ‘rats’ and ‘mice’ were large. ‘The deer -swallower’ is another of its local titles, showing that it is a serpent -of varying tastes. Stories are told of this ‘monster’ killing itself -in attempting to gorge large animals with enormously extended horns, -animals not to be found among the Brazilian fauna; and familiar to -most persons are the illustrations of anacondas of untraceable length, -the posterior portion coiled round a branch fifty feet high, and the -anterior coiled round a bull as big as a prize ox. These illustrations -are the offspring of ignorance rather than reality, and though -occasionally _Eunectes_ might come to grief by attacking a somewhat -unmanageable meal, yet its recognised specific, _murinus_ or _murina_, -points more clearly the true nature of its food, viz. rodents of at -most some two feet long. - -No less exaggerated than its appetite is its length. Possibly anacondas -may have attained greater size formerly when there were fewer enemies -than at present, if it be true, as some have affirmed, that serpents -grow all their lives. Thirty feet is the utmost length on record. -Wallace affirms that he has never seen one exceeding twenty feet. Those -individuals at the Zoological Gardens have rarely exceeded this, and -Günther gives twenty-two feet as their average length in the present -day. - -Of those known in South Africa as ‘water snakes,’ one is _Avusamans_ -vernacularly, a black one and common, and another, _Iffulu_, of a -beautiful bright green. Mr. Woodward, whose scientific egg-sucker -has been already mentioned in chap. iii., states that both these are -poisonous, that he never saw the green one out of water, and that -it is unsafe to bathe where they are. On referring to Dr. Andrew -Smith’s _Zoology of South Africa_, I am not able to identify these -with certainty, and do not, therefore, give the above as scientific -information. - -But before concluding this part of the subject, I would add a word or -two on the importance of an accurate description of the snake, as far -as possible, when one is found in some unusual situation; because a -snake being found in the water is no proof that it is a water snake, or -even that it was there by choice. Livingstone, in his _Expedition to -the Zambesi_, p. 150, describes the number of venomous creatures, such -as scorpions, centipedes, etc., that were found on board, ‘having been -brought into the ship with wood.’ ‘Snakes also came sometimes with the -wood, but oftener floated down the river to us, climbing easily by the -chain cable. Some poisonous ones were caught in the cabin. A green one -was there several weeks, hiding in the daytime.’ - -Often in newspapers are stories of ‘sea snakes’ as having appeared -quite out of their geographical range. These on investigation may -reasonably be traced to land snakes which have been carried out by the -tidal rivers. In _Land and Water_ of Jan. 5, 1878, was such a story. -Again, March 31, the following year, a correspondent, ‘J. J. A.,’ on -‘Animal Life in New Caledonia,’ stated that the sea inside the reefs -is sometimes covered with both dead and living creatures carried out -by the violence of the currents after heavy rains. ‘The flooded rivers -rush with great force from the mountains,’ and numbers of reptiles were -among the victims of that force. He saw ‘incredible numbers of snakes,’ -and described the common sea snakes as ‘stupid, fearless things, that -will not get out of your way.... The small sand-islands are literally -alive with them.’ The writer made no pretensions to be a naturalist, or -to state confidently what the snakes were specifically. New Caledonia -would seem to be rather beyond the range of sea snakes proper, and -those ‘incredible numbers’ may have been only land snakes involuntarily -taking a sea bath, or certain species frequenting brackish waters, like -those in South Carolina described by Lawson. - -About the same time an American newspaper contained an account given -by Captain O. A. Pitfield, of the steamship _Mexico_, who stated that -he had ‘passed through a tangled mass of snakes’ off the Tortuga -islands, at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico. The ship was ‘more -than an hour’ in passing them. ‘They were of all sizes, from the -ordinary green water snake of two feet long, to monsters, genuine “sea -serpents,” of fourteen to fifteen feet in length.’ I replied to both -these communications at the time (_Land and Water_, April 5, 1879), -inviting further information, and describing the features by which -true water and true sea snakes could be easily distinguished. Nothing -further appeared on the subject, and I have little doubt but that, in -both cases, the ‘shoals of sea snakes’ were land species that had been -merely carried out to sea by force of rivers. I have since been more -strongly inclined to this opinion on learning from Dr. Stradling that -similar transportations of snakes occur through the force of some of -the South American rivers. ‘Do you know the snakes which belong to the -River Plate proper?’ he asks me by letter. ‘So many are brought down by -floods from Paraguay—even the big constrictors—that it is difficult -to determine from occasional specimens.’ - -I could not, unfortunately, refer to any books that afforded much -information on this subject; for amongst the greatest literary needs -experienced by an ophiologist is some complete and special work on -the South American snakes, corresponding with Günther’s _Reptiles of -British India_, and Krefft’s _Snakes of Australia_. - -Other writers have mentioned the occurrence of boa constrictors and -anacondas far out at sea occasionally, beguiling the unsophisticated -into reporting a veritable ‘sea serpent’ to the _Times_ by the first -homeward-bound mail. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -_THE PELAGIC OR SEA SNAKES._ - - -THE modifications of ordinary forms which are seen in the fresh-water -snakes are still more beautifully developed in the _Hydrophidæ_, or -true marine serpents. The former, being never out of easy reach of -shore, could easily find a safe harbour from violent torrents, in holes -in the banks or among the strong aquatic weeds along the borders of -lakes and rivers; and to be enabled to hold on to these in times of -danger or of repose, they possess a prehensile power of tail. In a -rough and stormy ocean, a much more powerful propeller and rudder would -be necessary for the guidance of the reptile, and to afford resistance -against the denser medium of sea water; therefore the tail of sea -snakes is not only prehensile but strongly compressed, so as to almost -form a vertical fin, answering altogether to that of a fish. This is -their most conspicuous and striking feature, and one that would leave -no doubt in the mind of the observer between the true marine and those -fresh-water species which may by accident drift out to sea by force of -current. - -Another distinguishing feature is the absence of ventral scales in -most of the species. In land snakes we saw how admirably adapted are -the broad, ventral plates for assisting those reptiles over rough -surfaces, as affording hold; but the _Hydrophidæ_ requiring no such aid -in a fluid, those scutæ would be useless; they are therefore, excepting -in one or two species, entirely absent, or but slightly developed, and -the belly is ridged instead, like the keel of a boat. - -[Illustration: Portion of the under side of a sea snake, above and -below the anus, with no distinction in tail scales.] - -The nostrils are small, placed horizontally on the top of the snout, -as in the _Homalopsidæ_, and in most of the sea snakes they are -contiguous. They are, moreover, furnished with a valve, which is under -control of the will, opening to admit air, and closing to exclude water -when diving. For, be it remembered, these marine reptiles breathe -through their nostrils even more entirely than terrestrial snakes, the -latter being better able to indulge their yawning propensities, or to -occasionally respire slightly, and through parted lips and the tongue -chink as well. Sea snakes, on the contrary, not requiring the continual -use of their tongue to feel and explore surroundings, and not using -it below water, are not provided with the little centre chink for its -exsertion; but the middle plate of the upper lip, _i.e._ the ‘rostral -shield’ (see illus. p. 238), is altogether of a different form. Indeed, -the centre plates or shields in both lips are conspicuously modified, -the upper one often inclining downwards in a point which fits into the -lower one shaped to receive it, so that the mouth is firmly closed -to keep out the water. Less required, the tongue is shorter and less -developed, the tips are less hair-like, as only these, if at all, -are exposed to the sea water, and a very small notch on each side of -the pointed rostral shield of some permits the slight egress of these -tips. When out of their natural element, the tongue is brought into -more active service, for then the bewildered reptiles require its -assistance, and it is then seen to be exserted as in land snakes. Their -lungs extend the whole length of the body to the anus, and by retaining -a large supply of air, these animals are enabled to float easily, as -they do for a long while on the surface of the calm tropical seas, not -only while sleeping, as mentioned in the chapter on hibernation, but in -pure enjoyment, and probably in the lazy _postprandial_ condition. - -As has been already stated, the eyes of sea snakes are adapted to -see better through the medium of water than through the brilliant -atmosphere of their native latitudes. They are very small, and soon -blinded by light; consequently, though among the swiftest and most -gracile of serpents in their native element, the movements of the -_Hydrophidæ_ on land are uncertain and ‘maladroit.’ - -Some forty years ago, Dr. Theodore Cantor, F.Z.S., devoted a good deal -of time to the study of the pelagic serpents, and wrote a somewhat -detailed account of them to the Zoological Society. His paper, -published in the _Zoological Society Transactions_, 1842, vol. ii., was -considered the most important that had as yet appeared. He, therefore, -has been one of our first authorities. Subsequently we are indebted to -Günther, Dr. E. Nicholson, Gerard Krefft, and Sir Joseph Fayrer for the -results of their individual observations. In my foregoing descriptions -I have culled from each of these, and as most modern writers on this -subject merely reproduce from the works of Günther, Cantor, and Fayrer, -I will keep chiefly to these in what further has to be said of sea -snakes. - -First, they belong to the tropical seas of the Eastern hemisphere, -and are most numerous in the Indian Ocean, where they abound. The -geographical range of a few is, however, somewhat extensive, viz. from -Madagascar and that part of the African coast to northern Australia, -the Bay of Bengal, and even to the western coasts of Panama; while -others are restricted to certain localities. All are highly venomous. -They are wild and ferocious as well, and therefore peculiarly -dangerous, and are the great dread of fishermen, who carefully avoid -them. Accidents, nevertheless, frequently happen through their being -caught in the nets, when, from their exceeding activity, it is -difficult to disengage them and set them free again. When out of the -water they try to bite at the nearest objects, and being dazzled by the -light, strike wildly, unable to aim correctly. Cantor informs us that -he has known them to turn and strike their own bodies in their rage, -and that he has found difficulty in disengaging their fangs and teeth -from their own flesh. - -Owing to the great danger attending their capture, and also the almost -impossibility of keeping them alive when out of the sea, less is -accurately known of the pelagic than most other snakes. Even if placed -in a large hole in the ground filled with sea water, or a capacious -tank similarly supplied, they die very rapidly. Sir Joseph Fayrer -in his experiments resorted to every means in order to keep them -alive, but informs us that their exceeding delicacy caused their rapid -death in spite of the utmost care. Dr. Vincent Richards, however, has -succeeded in keeping some alive several weeks. - -In length they vary from two to ten feet. Krefft says that the largest -he ever saw was nine feet long. Günther states that they sometimes -attain twelve feet, and sea snakes of even fourteen feet in length have -been occasionally reported, though not perhaps from well authenticated -sources. It is probable that, like all other reptiles, they attain -their greatest proportions in the hottest regions. - -Though purely oceanic, and no more found in fresh water than on dry -ground, yet they come some distance up the rivers as far as brackish -water. When washed on shore by the surf, they are helpless and blind, -and at such times ‘peaceable,’ by reason of their helplessness. -Occasionally they are seen coiled up asleep on the beach, where they -have probably been washed by the tide, and where the next tide will no -doubt release them from their uncongenial bed. Those species which have -a less keeled body and the partially developed ventral scales might -even manage to get back to sea independently of the tide. Even those -without ventral scales contrive to wriggle along in their own fashion. - -Such an occurrence is related by Mr. E. H. Pringle in the _Field_ -newspaper of 3d September 1881. He tracked an _Enhydrina_ fifty feet -along the sands, making its way back to the sea from a salt-water pool, -where it had probably been left by the tide. This species is the one -peculiarly favoured in having tiny orifices for the egress of the -tongue tips on each side of its lobulated snout. - -[Illustration: _Enhydrina._ From Fayrer’s _Thanatophidia_.] - -Its profile, being somewhat remarkable, is here presented to the -reader, who will perhaps detect a certain determination in that very -beak-like snout. This species is found along the Burman coast. Another, -though keeping to its native element, has explored the Pacific to the -very borders of America, and has been seen on the western coast of -Panama. This is _Pelamis bicolor_, of distinct black and yellow, like -a striped satin ribbon. The back is black, and the belly brown or -yellowish, and its rather short, flat tail is spotted with a bluish -colour as well. None of his relatives venture so far from the oriental -islands as _Pelamis_. His presence as far north as New Caledonia has -not, that I am aware of, been authoritatively recorded; we cannot -suggest, therefore, the probability of ‘J. J. A.’s’ sea snakes, ‘stupid -and fearless,’ being ‘incredible numbers’ of the _Pelamis_ family. Dr. -Stradling affirms that they are ‘not unfrequently met with along the -eastern coast of South America, and that one found its way on board the -royal mail steamship _Douro_, and concealed itself under the covering -of the patent lead, having probably climbed up the quarter line as she -lay made fast to the wharf at Santos.’[74] - -Some slight controversy on the possibility of _Pelamis_ ‘climbing’ -followed this statement. But Mr. F. Buckland also recorded one ‘which -crawled up the anchor-chain of a man-of-war, when she was moored in -the mouth of the Ganges. The midshipman of the watch saw something -moving along the chain, and without thinking went to pick it up, when -it turned upon him, and bit him. The poor young midshipman did not live -many hours after the accident’ (_Land and Water_, Nov. 15, 1879). - -In the same issue the writer described one which was caught in the -telegraph wire of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company. One of the -cables was being raised, and when it came to the surface, the snake -was found coiled tightly round it. _Hydrophis_ was here exercising his -prehensile powers, not understanding the reason of the violent motion. -Snakes, as has been already affirmed, are not restricted in their -acrobatic achievements; so that even sea snakes, not naturally either -climbers or crawlers, can do both on an occasion. - -The more interesting question regarding Dr. Stradling’s cable climber -is, was it a true _Pelamis_, or one of the _Hydrophidæ_ at all? If so, -it was more likely to be an entirely distinct species from those of the -oriental seas. Either Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope would be far -too southward for their range, they being essentially tropical. When -Panama comes to be severed by water communication, some enterprising -_Pelamis_ or _Enhydrina_ may find its way through, and get down even to -Santos; but at present, as Dr. Stradling did not _see_ the snake, but -only _heard_ of it, the evidence of the presence of _Hydrophidæ_ on the -eastern coast of South America cannot be fully established. - -[Illustration: Natural size. - -Same magnified. - -Sea snakes’ scales. From the _Thanatophidia_.] - -A further facility to their agile and graceful movements in the water -are their smooth, non-imbricated, or only slightly imbricated scales. -These, though mostly hexagonal, and laid side by side, different from -those of land snakes, yet vary much in size and form; and the head -shields particularly are so abnormal, that, as Günther affirms, you can -tell a sea snake at once by them (see illustrations, chap. xviii.). - -To distinguish a pelagic from a fresh-water snake is, however, far -easier than to distinguish species among themselves. They present great -varieties of form and colour, but the transitions are very gradual, -and the female is generally larger than the male, and sometimes of a -different colour, which adds to the difficulty. - -They are all viviparous, and produce their young in the water, where -the little ones are at once able to take care of themselves, and feed -on small fish or molluscs. The full-grown _Hydrophidæ_ feed on fish -corresponding with their own dimensions, and swallowed head foremost. -Even spiny fish are managed by them, notwithstanding that they have a -smaller jaw than most land snakes. Being killed by the poison of the -bite on being caught, Günther explains, the muscles of the fish are -relaxed, and the prey being commenced at the head, the armature does -not interfere, but folds back flat as the fish is gradually drawn into -the jaws. - -An interesting study to the lover of nature it is to watch the -wonderful movements of these sea reptiles. Swimming and diving with -equal facility, flashing into sight and disappearing again in twos or -scores, or in large shoals, pursuing fish, many of them of bright -colouring, they offer constant amusement to the beholder. Sometimes, -when the sailors are throwing their nets, they disappear beneath the -waves, and are no longer seen for half an hour or more; when presently, -far away from the spot where they vanished so suddenly, up they come to -the surface again, to sport once more, or take in a fresh supply of air. - -Pity they possess such evil qualities to blind us to their beauties, -for they rank among the most venomous of serpents. They belong to the -sub-order of venomous colubrine snakes, or _Ophidia colubriformes -Venenosi_, those which outwardly have the aspect of harmless snakes, -while yet furnished with poison fangs. In the chapter on Dentition, -these distinctions, facilitated by the illustrations, are more fully -explained; here it need only be said that though they have smaller -jaws and shorter fangs than many other venomous snakes of their size, -the virus is plentiful, and so active that the danger from the bite is -great. All the pelagic serpents have also a few simple teeth behind -the fangs; therefore, as Fayrer warns the natives, it does not do to -trust to the _appearance_ of the wound, which, though looking like the -bite of a harmless snake, would demand immediate remedies. A certain -conviction of danger is that the bite being inflicted in salt water, -would leave no doubt as to the nature of the snake. Even a painless -wound it is not safe to trust; and Sir Joseph Fayrer gives several such -warnings among his cases of bite from sea snakes, two of which I will -quote. - -Captain S——, while bathing in a tidal river, felt what he thought was -the pinch of a crab on his leg, but took no notice of it, and after -his bath called on some friends, being to all appearance exceedingly -well. He remained about an hour, playing the concertina to amuse the -children, and declaring himself never in better health. In about two -hours, feeling strange symptoms of suffocation, enlargement of the -tongue, and a rigidity of muscles, he sent for a doctor, but still -having no suspicion of danger. The next morning a native detected -the peculiar symptoms which usually follow the bite of a sea snake; -and Captain S——, then examining the foot which the supposed crab -had nipped, found marks of fangs no bigger than mosquito bites on -the tendon Achilles near the ankle. Immediate steps were taken, and -remedies applied which seemed to promise favourable results for a time; -but in the evening of the third day the victim was seized with spasms, -and died, seventy-one hours after the accident. In this case, owing to -the sound health of the captain, and no local pain ensuing to warn him, -together with the stimulants and remedies applied, and the bite being -where absorption was slow, his death was protracted; otherwise death -often occurs within twenty-four hours from that species of snake.[75] - -The second case was that of a man who was bitten in the finger by a sea -snake, and thinking lightly of it, used no means whatever to arrest the -poison, and was dead in four hours. - -In some cases the victim becomes quickly insensible, when, if no aid is -near, he never wakes to consciousness. Immediate stimulants revive the -patient, and if he can be kept awake, these, with local applications, -_at once applied_, may save his life. ‘Hope itself is a powerful -stimulant,’ adds the learned experimentalist. - -Many other cases are given by Fayrer of bites by sea snakes, some of -which yielded to remedies and others were fatal; but for these the -reader is referred to the _Thanatophidia_. - -Dr. Cantor had previously made many experiments on various dumb -creatures in order to ascertain the virulence of the poison of these -hitherto unstudied reptiles. He found that a fowl died in violent -spasms eight minutes after a bite; and a second fowl, bitten directly -afterwards by the same snake, with its half-exhausted venom, in ten -minutes. Fish died in ten minutes; a tortoise in twenty-eight minutes, -from the bite of another species; and a harmless snake was paralyzed -within half an hour. - -Among the fresh-water snakes, Dr. Günther tells us of one, _Hydrinus_, -which is semi-pelagic, and which indulges in little excursions down the -rivers to exchange greetings with his marine relatives, some of whom, -on their part, occasionally go a certain distance up the rivers. Again, -among the sea snakes is one who rambles for change of air or diversity -of diet over the fields and far away. In him, Dr. Günther describes one -of those many transitions found in every class and order throughout -nature. _Platurus_ is his name; he has the ventral scales of land -snakes to enable him to wander over the salt water marshes which he -loves. His nostrils are on the side of his head instead of on the top, -and his head shields differ from those of all his relatives. His venom -fangs are small, and his tail is not prehensile, presenting the united -characters of fresh and salt water and land snakes. Thus we have links -between sea and land snakes, between fresh water and salt, and between -these latter and fishes, for in many instances the affinities are so -close that naturalists have doubted in which class to place them. -When that remarkable animal, the _Lepidosiren_, which Darwin calls a -living fossil, was first brought from Africa some thirty years ago, -it was found to present so many characteristics in common with both -reptiles and fishes, that it was for some time a mooted question in -which class to place it. In appearance it more resembles the former, -with its four curious filamentary limbs, which Owen considers ‘the -beginnings of organs which attain full functional development in the -higher vertebrates.’ The same high authority has decided that the -only character which absolutely distinguishes fishes from reptiles, -so closely are some of them allied, is whether or not there is an -open passage from the nostrils to the mouth; and the ‘Lepidosiren’ is -now known as ‘the mud-fish of the Gambia,’ the ichthyic characters -predominating. - -Sea snakes were not unknown to the ancients. Aristotle mentions -them (Taylor’s Translation, 1812, Book ii. vol. 6), ‘Of sanguineous -animals, however, there remains the genus of serpents. But they partake -of the nature both of terrestrial and aquatic animals. For most of -them are terrestrial, and not a few are aquatic, and which live in -potable water. There are also marine serpents similar in form to the -terrestrial genus, except that their head more resembles that of a -conger. There are, however, many genera of marine serpents, and they -are an all-various colour; but they are not generated in very deep -places.’ - -These latter words suggest what has not been mentioned as a positive -fact, while yet in part it is corroborated by Cantor, who tells us -that the young sea snakes feed on soft-shelled molluscs; we may argue, -therefore, that the mother snakes come into shallow water to give -birth to their young, where small fish and suitable food may abound. -Aristotle was evidently aware of the distinctions between fresh and -salt water snakes, and gives us the former as frequenting rivers -(‘potable waters’). - -The Greek mariners who frequented the tropical seas knew of the -poisonous snakes with wholesome dread. Sir Emerson Tennant tells us -that the fishermen on the west coast of Ceylon are still in perpetual -fear of them. They say there are some with the head hooded like the -cobra, that coil themselves up like serpents on land, not only biting -with their teeth, but ‘crushing their prey in their coils.’ - -The ‘hood’ part of the story is not borne out by any scientific writer; -and as for the ‘crushing in coils,’ the sailors may possibly mistake -the prehensile actions of holding on—even to a large fish—possibly -for the action of crushing in the way of constricting. In -self-protection, or for safety, venomous serpents do entwine themselves -pretty tightly round an object sometimes. An instance of this was just -now given. But constricting for the purpose of killing is happily -confined to the non-venomous families. It would indeed be terrible if -the ‘giants of the waters’ could both constrict and bite with poison -fang; and of this a word or two will be said in the following chapter. -Admittedly but little has been accurately ascertained about the marine -serpents in comparison with the terrestrial ones. And there really -may be species hitherto unobserved. The great sea serpent question is -not yet satisfactorily settled; and among the lesser kind, the true -pelagians, varieties are frequently occurring. Krefft describes one in -the Australian Museum which, not being like any other that he had seen, -he sets down as a new type. Forty-eight distinct species were described -by Cantor. The whole family comprises seven genera, four of which -belong to the Indian Ocean. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -‘_THE GREAT SEA SERPENT._’ - - -THE question of varieties and of constriction brings us to ‘The Great -Sea Serpent;’ for, putting all the evidence together, if the creature -exist at all he must be a constrictor. - -I do not intend to trouble my readers with the detailed history of this -great unknown, for his literature would more than exceed the limits of -this whole volume. Those who are sufficiently interested in him will -find ample reading in most of the encyclopedias, which again refer -us to various books in which he has figured from his first supposed -appearance in modern times. - -Ever and again, when a new ‘sea monster’ has been reported, the -newspapers take up the theme, and often give a _resumé_ of its history, -from Bishop Pontoppidan’s down to the most recent specimen. References -to the most important of the journalistic authorities usually accompany -the more detailed accounts; but among them an excellent abridgement of -‘sea serpent’ literature, which appeared in the _Illustrated London -News_ of October 1848, is worth studying. Another of interest was in -the _Echo_ of January 15, 1877. In _Silliman’s Journal of Science_, -1835, was also an excellent paper. One of the best digests is that -given by P. H. Gosse, in his _Romance of Natural History_, of the ed. -1860. This author, after weighing all the published evidence both from -ordinary and scientific sources, and presenting it in a well-arranged -and lucid form, sums up as follows:— - -‘In conclusion, I express my own confident persuasion that there exists -some oceanic animal of immense proportions, which has not yet been -received into the category of scientific zoology; and my strong opinion -that it possesses close affinities with the fossil _enaliosauria_ of -the lias.’ - -Having respect for the opinion of so thoughtful a writer, and further -encouraged by the fact that some of our most eminent physiologists have -not thought it beneath them to give their attention to the various -serpentine appearances which from time to time are seen at sea, and -that the majority of them believe in the possibility of an unknown -marine reptile, let us accept this idea as the basis of an endeavour to -lay before my readers another summing up of evidence gathered from the -still more recent writings on ‘The Great Sea Serpent’ of modern times. - -Those who have honoured this book with attentive perusal thus far, -will have become initiated in certain ophidian manners, actions, and -appearances which would enable them at once to identify a snake were -they to have a complete view of one. But to those who are not familiar -with such peculiarities, and possess only a vague idea of the ophidian -form, many a merely elongated outline at sea may be, and has been, -set down as a ‘serpent,’ which on closer inspection, or by the light -of science, has proved something entirely different. Ribbon-fish, -strings of porpoises and other cetaceans, long lines of sea-birds on -the surface of the waves, even logs of drifting wood or bamboo, with -bunches of seaweed doing service as ‘manes’ or ‘fins,’ have in turn, -and by the aid of the imagination, been dubbed ‘the sea serpent’ -again and again. These may be dismissed by the mere mention of a few -such as examples. For instance, in _Nature_, vol. xviii., 1878, Dr. -Dean describes a reported ‘sea serpent,’ which resolved itself into -a flight of birds. E. H. Pringle describes the serpentine appearance -of a bamboo swaying up and down, which at a distance had deceived the -beholders into the idea of the sea serpent; others explained that long -lines of birds or of sea-weeds had again similarly deceived sailors. In -_Land and Water_, Sept. 22, 1877, we read that the crew of the barque -_Aberfoyle_, off the coast of Scotland, thought they really had got -one this time, and approaching the ‘monster,’ lowered and manned a -boat, and seized a harpoon to ‘catch’ the singularly passive creature, -which proved to be a mass of ‘a sort of jelly-fish description,’ -some of which they bottled and corked down air-tight; but, alas! it -‘deliquesced’! - -Again, in _Nature_, Feb. 10, 1881, an imaginary sea serpent seen from -the _City of Baltimore_ (a ship in which the present writer crossed the -Atlantic, though unfortunately not on that voyage) was pronounced to be -a species of whale, the _Zeuglodontia_. - -One more out of scores of similar reports, which go to show that if -some unknown marine animal of a longish form is caught, those who -have anything to do with it immediately label it ‘the sea serpent.’ -In _Land and Water_, Aug. 24, 1878, Mr. Frank Buckland published a -communication from an Australian correspondent, regarding a ‘most -remarkable fish,’ of nearly fifteen feet long, and eight inches in -diameter at the thickest part. It has ‘no scales,’ but ‘a skin like -polished silver,’ is of a tapering form, has a very queer mouth, -a ‘mane’ on the neck, and ‘two feelers under the chin, thirty-two -inches long.’ And this unsnake-like thing was taken to the Mechanics’ -Institute of that town, and unhesitatingly. labelled ‘Sea Serpent!’ Dr. -Buckland suggested that it was a ribbon fish. - -Thus, we may repeat that it is almost impossible for an unscientific -person even to _see_, far less to describe, unfamiliar living forms in -a manner that would prove sound data for zoologists to decide upon. - -In a rather detailed communication to _Land and Water_ on this subject, -by Dr. Andrew Wilson, September 15, 1877, he also reminds us how easily -and frequently we may trace supposed resemblances to animals or faces, -where none can possibly exist; as, for instance, ‘in the gnarled trunks -and branches of trees.’ Much more true resemblances to serpentine -forms are really seen at sea; as, for example, those ‘floating trunks -and roots of trees serving as a nucleus, around which sea-weed has -collected.’ In one instance, as Dr. Wilson relates, some such object, -seen from the deck of a yacht, was so deceptive even to intelligent men -who scrutinized it through the telescope, that the course of the ship -was changed on purpose to inspect it closely. Dr. Wilson regrets the -unfortunate discredit which has been cast upon all sea-serpent stories -through such erroneous observations, causing even the more trustworthy -accounts to be received with almost universal ridicule, and as already -observed in the opening of chap. xiii., almost to the ignoring of the -true sea snakes, which are too often included among the mythical. - -Briefly to enumerate some of those which appear to have recently had -the chiefest claims to attention as really living creatures, otherwise -than flights of birds or shoals of fish, but making due allowance for -unscientific observations, and vague or exaggerated representations, we -find that gigantic marine animals were observed as follows:— - - 1734. Off Greenland. - - 1740. Off Norway; described by Bishop Pontoppidan as 600 feet in - length. - - 1809. Off the Hebrides. - - 1815. Near Boston, U.S. - - 1817. Ditto. - - 1819. Ditto. From 80 to 250 yards in length! - - 1819. One seen for a month off Norway. - - 1822. Ditto; and again 600 feet long. - - 1827. Ditto. - - 1829. Mr. Davidson, surgeon, R.N., described one seen in the Indian - seas as precisely similar to that seen afterwards from the _Dædalus_ - in 1848. He wrote of it during the controversy that passed regarding - the latter. Mr. Gosse regarded his testimony as of much value. - - 1833. One seen by five British officers off Halifax, and described by - P. H. Gosse. - - 1837. Again off Norway. - - 1846. Off Norway, and in the same locality as one seen about one - hundred years previously; also during the hottest part of the summer. - This individual had two ‘fins,’ and ‘the movements were like those of - a snake forty to fifty feet long.’ - - 1848. The one seen from the _Dædalus_. - - 1850. Off Norway. - - 1851. Ditto. - - 1852. One described by Captain Steele, mentioned by Gosse. - - 1857. One described by Captain Harrison, and considered trustworthy - evidence. - - 1875. One seen from the _Pauline_, July 8, in lat. 5° 30´ S., long. - 35° W. Also on July 13, ‘a similar serpent’ seen from the same barque - _Pauline_. - - 1875. September 11. ‘An enormous marine salamander’ in the Straits of - Malacca, seen from the _Nestor_. - - 1877. Large marine animal seen from the royal yacht _Osborne_ off - Sicily. - - 1879. Colonel Leathes, of Herring Fleet Hall, Yarmouth, informs Mr. - F. Buckland of sea serpents seen from the _White Adder_ off Aden, and - again off New Guinea and the Cape. (See _Land and Water_, Sept. 6, - 1879.) - -In the above list we are struck by the fact that the coast of Norway -and the northern seas _during the hottest weather_ are the favourite -playgrounds of these gigantic marine animals, though as for the -‘600’ feet, we must first be assured of Norwegian measurement before -forming any estimate beyond that the creatures were doubtless of great -length. ‘Witnesses of unimpeachable character’ have produced so much -trustworthy evidence as far as Norway is concerned, that no doubt any -longer exists there as to ‘the’ or _a_ ‘marine animal’ of enormous -length. ‘There is scarcely a sailor who has not seen one,’ it has been -broadly stated; and Norwegians wonder that English naturalists are so -sceptical on the subject. - -Of still more marvellous proportions was the one seen off the American -coast in 1819, and which is vaguely described as from 80 to 250 yards! -That outdoes Norway altogether; but then, of course, an American sea -serpent _would_ exceed all others. - -Next to the Norwegian, the American coast was at one time so favoured -by strange marine ‘monsters,’ that they were commonly reported as ‘the -American sea serpent.’ Excepting these northern Atlantic visitants, -others have been observed mostly in the eastern seas, rarely in the -south. - -This has given rise to the question, ‘How is it that they are seen -almost exclusively in the north?’ One reason may be that there are -more persons to see them, and because marine traffic is far greater -in the north than in similar southern latitudes; and another reason -may be, that the rocky coasts of both continents in those latitudes -may afford congenial retreats for mammoth marine reptiles. We have -seen that reptiles exist for a very long period without breathing, -and even without air; as, for instance, those encased in baked mud in -the tropics, and those frozen up or bottled up tight and hermetically -sealed, as the examples given in preceding chapters. - -From long observation of ophidian habits, I venture to offer certain -suggestions in addition to published opinions; and I may remind my -readers that as all reptiles undergo a species of hibernation, we may -reasonably conclude that these huge marine ones form no exception to -the rule. They may lie for months dormant in the deep recesses of the -ocean, and reappear during the long days and hot weather like their -land relatives. It seems strange that so far from this having been -taken into consideration, it has become the fashion to ridicule the -‘reappearance of the great sea serpent’ at the very time when all other -reptiles reappear as a matter of course. Long days are more favourable -for observations, and probably log-books record many other creatures, -whether mammal, bird, or fish, seen during the summer and not in other -seasons, as well as ‘sea serpents.’ Not because this is the slack time -of journalists, therefore, who are supposed to be at their wits’ end -for subjects, but simply because ships coming home at this time bring -reports of their summer observations. - -It is much to be regretted that these reports have come to be -associated with ‘the gigantic gooseberry,’ and such seasonable wonders, -because the door to investigation is thus closed. It is also, to be -regretted that many hoaxes have undeniably been committed to print, -really to fill up newspaper columns, and feed a love of the marvellous. -Professor Owen’s words may well be repeated here, ‘It is far harder to -establish a truth than to kill an untruth.’ - -One more little matter is also to be seriously deplored; and this -is the unscientific habit of calling all these unfamiliar animals -‘monsters,’ a word signifying truly a _monstrosity_, a creature with -two heads, a beast with five or six legs instead of four, or other such -malformations. These are truly monsters, and to use the term otherwise -only creates mistaken impressions. Inadvertently even scientific men -fall into this habit; naturalists and well-known authorities are seen -in print to talk of these sea ‘monsters,’ but who in the same page -denounce exaggerated expressions. - -In _Land and Water_ of September 8, 1877, several of our distinguished -naturalists contributed papers on the evidence of the officers of -the royal yacht _Osborne_, relative to a large marine animal seen -off Sicily on June 3 of that year. Professor Owen also acceded to -an earnest request to add a few words on the subject, and it was -noticeable that more than once in his few pithy lines this eminent -authority delicately hinted at the mistake of calling animals -‘_monsters_’ without just reason for so doing: ‘The phenomena were -not necessarily caused by a _monster_,’ he writes; ‘and the words -... denote rather a cetacean than a _monster_.’ Again, ‘There are no -grounds for calling it a _monster_.’ - -On the occasion referred to, the official reports of the animal seen -were sent to the Admiralty; and the Right Hon. R. A. Cross, then -Secretary of State for the Home Department, requested the opinion of -Mr. Frank Buckland on the matter, the result being a full account given -to the readers of _Land and Water_, to which Mr. F. Buckland was so -popular a contributor. In addition to Owen’s valued opinion, the public -were favoured with able papers by Mr. A. D. Bartlett, of the Zoological -Gardens, Captain David Gray, of the whaling ship _Eclipse_, Mr. Henry -Lee, and Frank Buckland himself. - -From the discrepancies in the records of the four officers, and the -sketches of nothing in nature which accompanied those records, not one -of those able writers ventured an assertion as to what the strange -animal could possibly be. The captain—Commander Pearson—‘saw the -fish through a telescope;’ a ‘seal-shaped head of immense size, large -flappers, and part of a huge body.’ - -Lieutenant Haynes saw ‘a ridge of fins above the surface of the water, -extending about thirty feet, and varying from five to six feet in -height.’ Through the telescope he saw ‘a head, two flappers, and about -_thirty_ feet of an animal’s shoulder; the shoulder was about _fifteen_ -feet across.’ The animal propelled itself by its two ‘fins.’ - -Mr. Douglas M. Forsyth saw ‘a huge monster, having a head about fifteen -to twenty feet in length.’ The part of the body not in the water ‘was -certainly not under forty-five or fifty feet in length.’ - -Mr. Moore, the engineer, observed ‘an uneven ridge of what appeared -to be the fins of a fish above the surface of the water, varying in -height, and as near as he could judge, from seven to eight feet above -the water, and extending about forty feet along the surface.’ - -Though we are not able to say what this strange animal really was, we -can positively affirm what it was _not_. A snake has neither fins, -flippers, flappers, nor ‘shoulders fifteen feet broad;’ therefore -this assuredly was no ‘sea serpent.’ Nor would it be introduced here, -excepting as inviting further comment on its mysterious existence. - -And curious enough it is to remark the persistence with which all these -anomalies are announced as ‘_the_ sea serpent,’ as if the sea produced -but one solitary specimen, which is now the shape of a ‘turtle;’ next -of a ‘frog,’ with ‘one hundred and fifty feet of tail;’ then a creature -with ‘fins’ and a ‘mane,’ ‘flippers’ and ‘flappers’ and ‘ridges of -fins.’ All these appendages are one after the other described, and yet -as belonging to a ‘serpent,’ which has no such appendages. - -A few of the recorders do really describe something more of the true -ophidian, and those who do this, not being familiar with ophidian -manners, are more useful as witnesses than those who at once report a -‘serpent,’ and afterwards proceed unknowingly to disprove their own -words. - -Among the more noteworthy, the following account, copied from the -Liverpool papers at the time, is worth considering:— - - ‘The story of the mate and crew of the barque _Pauline_, of London, - said to have arrived in port from a twenty months’ voyage to Akyab, - about having seen a “sea serpent” while on a voyage in the Indian - seas, was yesterday declared to on oath before Mr. Raffles, the - stipendiary magistrate at the police court. The affidavit was made in - consequence of the doubtfulness with which - -anything about the sea serpent has hitherto been received; and to show -the genuine character of the story, it has been placed judicially on -record. The following is a copy of the declaration, which will be -regarded as unprecedented in its way:— - - -‘“_Borough of Liverpool, in the County Palatine of Lancaster, to wit._ - - ‘“We, the undersigned, captain, officers, and crew of the barque - _Pauline_ (of London), of Liverpool, in the county of Lancaster, in - the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, do solemnly and - sincerely declare that, on July 8, 1875, in lat. 5° 13´ S., long. 35° - W., we observed three large sperm whales, and one of them was gripped - round the body with two turns of what appeared to be a huge serpent. - The head and tail appeared to have a length beyond the coils of about - thirty feet, and its girth eight or nine feet. The serpent whirled its - victim round and round for about fifteen minutes, and then suddenly - dragged the whale to the bottom, head first. - - ‘“GEORGE DREVAR, _Master_. - ‘“HORATIO THOMPSON. - ‘“JOHN HENDERSON LANDELLS. - ‘“OWEN BAKER. - ‘“WILLIAM LEWARN. - - * * * * * - - ‘“Again, on July 13, a similar serpent was seen about two hundred - yards off, shooting itself along the surface, head and neck being out - of the water several feet. This was seen only by the captain and one - ordinary seaman, whose signatures are affixed. - - ‘“GEORGE DREVAR, _Master_. - - * * * * * - - ‘“A few moments after, it was seen elevated some sixty feet - perpendicularly in the air, by the chief officer and the following - able seamen, whose signatures are also affixed:— - - ‘“HORATIO THOMPSON. - ‘“WILLIAM LEWARN. - - * * * * * - - ‘“And we make this solemn declaration, conscientiously believing the - same to be true, and by virtue of the provisions of an Act made and - passed in the sixth year of the reign of his late Majesty, intituled - an Act to repeal an Act of the present session of Parliament, - intituled an Act for the more effectual abolition of oaths and - affirmations, taken and made in various departments of the State, and - to substitute declarations in lieu thereof, and for the more entire - suppression of voluntary and extra-judicial oaths and affidavits, and - to make other provisions for the abolition of unnecessary oaths. - - ‘“GEORGE DREVAR, _Master_. - ‘“WILLIAM LEWARN, _Steward_. - ‘“HORATIO THOMPSON, _Chief Officer_. - ‘“JOHN HENDERSON LANDELLS, _Second Officer_. - ‘“OWEN BAKER. - - ‘“Severally declared and subscribed at Liverpool aforesaid, the tenth - day of January, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-seven, before - T. S. Raffles, J.P. for Liverpool.”’ - -In the above descriptions there is no mention of fins, flippers, or -mane, but simply the manners of a huge constrictor, with the head -and the tail free, and the middle portion of its body engaged in -crushing the prey, a process which may at any time be seen in a captive -constrictor seizing its food. The ‘whirling its victim’ was, no doubt, -in the struggle between the two, the whale using its powerful efforts -to escape, but being overcome at last. Nor in comparison with the size -of the described serpent would a whale be impracticably large. - -Again, in the next one seen, the true serpent motion is unintentionally -exhibited in the ‘shooting itself along the surface, the head and neck -being several feet out of water.’ Snakes continually advance with their -heads elevated; and their rapid, darting movements are well expressed -by ‘shooting.’ - -‘A few minutes after, it was seen elevated some sixty feet -perpendicularly in the air.’ _Sixty feet_ at a guess. Unless some mast, -the precise height of which was known, or some other perpendicular -object were in close proximity, it would be exceedingly difficult to -estimate the height. To an unaccustomed eye even twenty or thirty -feet of snake suddenly darting upright from the waves would be a -startling and bewildering spectacle; yet we know that land snakes raise -themselves in this manner one-third, one-half, or for a moment even -more than that; ‘stand erect,’ some physiologists have stated (see -p. 181); so again, unintentionally, and by those not likely to be -familiar with ophidian capabilities, is a natural action described. - -In several other instances, the animal seen has raised its head many -feet, and ‘let it down suddenly;’ exactly what land snakes do. - -The one seen from on board H.M.S. _Dædalus_ in 1848 is considered one -of the most circumstantially recorded evidences of some really existing -serpentine animal within the memory of many still living. It was much -commented upon in the journals of that year, and claims a passing -mention here. - -Captain M’Quhæ, who commanded the _Dædalus_, in an official report to -the Admiralty, gave the date of the ‘monster’s’ appearance as August -6, 1848, and its exact locality in the afternoon of that day as lat. -24° 44’ S., and long. 9° 22’ E., which would be somewhere between the -Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena. In his own mind the captain had -no doubt whatever as to the nature of the animal, which he simply -reported as an ‘enormous serpent, with head and shoulders kept about -four feet constantly above the surface of the sea; and as nearly as -we could approximate, by comparing it with the length of what our -main-topsail yard would show in the water, there was, at the very -least, sixty feet of the animal _à fleur d’eau_, no portion of which -was, to our perception, used in propelling it through the water, either -by vertical or horizontal undulations. There seemed to be as much as -thirty to forty feet of tail as well.’ The animal passed the ship -‘rapidly, but so close under our lee-quarter, that, had it been a man -of my acquaintance, I should easily have recognised his features with -the naked eye.’ The size of the creature is given as about fifteen -or sixteen inches diameter in the neck ‘behind the head, which was, -without doubt, that of a snake.’ No fins were seen, but ‘something like -the mane of a horse, or rather a bunch of seaweed washing about its -back.’ Its progress was about fifteen miles an hour, and it remained -twenty minutes in sight. - -Lieutenant Drummond, also of the _Dædalus_, reported what he saw, and -from his log-book, while the captain’s was from memory. The lieutenant -thought he saw ‘a back fin ten feet long, and also a tail fin.’ The -head was ‘rather raised, and occasionally dipping, and gave him the -idea of that of a large eel.’ - -Without being an ophiologist, Captain M’Quhæ also unintentionally -describes a creature of ophidian habits and proportions. He -inadvertently says ‘shoulders,’ when, as my readers know, a snake has -anatomically no shoulders, any more than ‘neck.’ But for all that, the -raised head, and the absence of any striking movements in the part -visible, are the manners of a serpent in the water, when propelled -by its tail, which would be out of sight; and the captain simply -describing what he saw, but giving no name, those acquainted with -herpetology would at once decide that he described a long-necked and -slender reptile of some sort, perhaps some enormous saurian, whose feet -were under water, if not a serpent. - -There were many learned discussions concerning this creature, and for -these I refer my reader to the journals and scientific publications of -the time. No one doubted the fact that some strange animal was seen, -but the wisest refrained from giving it a name. Very similar was the -verdict on the more recent object seen from the _Osborne_ in 1877; -but in those thirty intervening years a vast stride had been made in -zoological knowledge; and in the very able papers written on this later -phenomenon, we now find a general disposition to accept the fact that -there _are_ gigantic forms of marine animals existing, that have not as -yet been scientifically described and received into systematic zoology. - -Mr. A. D. Bartlett, in the discussion already alluded to, after -dispassionately reviewing and criticizing the evidence of H.M.’s -officers, thus concludes:— - - ‘When we consider the vast extent of the ocean, its great depth, - the rocky, cavernous nature of the bottom,—of many parts of which - we know really nothing,—who can say what may be hidden for ages, - and may still remain a mystery for generations yet to come; for we - have evidence on land that there exists some of the largest mammals, - probably by thousands, of which only one solitary individual has been - caught or brought to notice. I allude to the Hairy-eared Two-horned - Rhinoceros (_R. lasiotis_), captured in 1868 at Chittagong (where it - was found stranded in the mud), and now known as an inhabitant of the - Zoological Gardens. - - ‘This animal remains unique, and no part or portion was previously - known to exist in any museum at home or abroad. - - ‘(We have here an instance of the existence of a species found on the - continent of India, where for many years collectors and naturalists - have worked and published lists of all the animals met with, and have - hitherto failed to meet with or obtain any knowledge of this great - beast.) - - ‘May I not therefore presume that in the vast and mighty ocean, - animals, perhaps of nocturnal habits (and therefore never, except by - some extraordinary accident, forced into sight), may exist, whose form - may resemble the extinct reptiles whose fossil remains we find in such - abundance. - - ‘As far as I am able to judge from the evidence before me, I have - reason to believe that aquatic reptiles of vast size have been seen - and described by those persons who have endeavoured to explain what - they have witnessed. - - ‘One thing is certain, that many well-known reptiles have the power - of remaining for long periods (months, in fact) at the bottom, under - water or imbedded in soft mud, being so provided with organs of - circulation and respiration that they need not come to the surface - to breathe. The large crocodiles, alligators, and turtles have this - power, and I see no valid reason to doubt but that there may and do - exist in the unknown regions of the ocean, creatures so constructed. - - ‘It may be argued that if such animals still live, they must from - time to time die, and their bodies would float, and their carcases - would be found, or parts of them would wash on shore. To this I say: - however reasonable such arguments may appear, most animals that die - or are killed in the water, sink at first to the bottom, where they - are likely to have the flesh and soft parts devoured by other animals, - such as crustacea, fishes, etc. etc., and sinking in the deep, the - bones, being heavier than the other parts, may soon become imbedded, - and thus concealed from sight.’ - -It was gratifying to me to find my own ideas of hibernation thus -supported, the above allusion to the probability of temporary repose in -marine reptiles being the first I had met with. - -Mr. Henry Lee, in the same issue, reminds us that the existence of -gigantic cuttle-fish was popularly disbelieved until within the past -five or six years, during which period several specimens—some of them -fifty feet in total length—have been taken, and all doubts upon the -subject have been removed. He argues, also, that during the deep-sea -dredgings of H.M. ships _Lightning_, _Porcupine_, and _Challenger_, -many new species of mollusca, supposed to have been extinct ever since -the Chalk epoch, were brought to light, and that there were brought up -by the deep-sea trawlings from great depths _fishes of unknown species, -which could not exist near the surface owing to the distension and -rupture of their air-bladder when removed from the pressure of deep -water_. - -Forcibly suggestive are such facts of still further undiscovered -denizens of the deep! And as to _what_ they are, fish, mammal, or -reptile, or a compound of either two or all three of these, why doubt -_any_ possibility when we know that on land are similarly complicated -organisms which so lately have perplexed our most able physiologists? -Take, for example, that curious anomaly, the mud-fish of the Gambia, -_Lepidosiren_, referred to in the last chapter, and which, to look at, -is as much like a lizard as a fish, with its four singular appendages -where either legs or fins might be. Again, we have that paradox in -nature—bird, reptile, and quadruped combined—in the Australian -_Platypus_, a semi-aquatic animal. ‘These two fresh-water animals -are,’ says Darwin, ‘among the most anomalous forms now found in the -world; and like fossils, they connect, to a certain extent, orders -at present widely sundered in the natural scale.’[76] Other equally -remarkable links between the various groups might be cited to prepare -us for any marine anomalies which may hereafter surprise us. Taking -into consideration, also, that many of our smaller aquatic animals -have their representatives on a huge scale in the ocean, why should -there not be gigantic ophidian forms to correspond with the terrestrial -pythons and anacondas? As in point of size salt-water fishes exceed -those of our rivers, and as the enormous marine mammalia exceed those -on land, we might the rather wonder if there were not _one_ ‘great -sea serpent,’ but many unsuspected species of reptiles, compound -ophiosaurians, or saurophidians, or who shall say what, in those -inaccessible depths. - -‘How is it none have ever been captured?’ it is asked. In reply, Has -any one ever captured a swiftly-retreating land snake escaping pursuit? -Who can overtake or circumvent it when in its tropical vigour? And -how vastly must the powers and swiftness of those immense pelagians -exceed the kinds with which we are familiar! ‘Then, Why have no bones -been found?’ Mr. Bartlett’s reason is one of those assigned, and in -addition I may suggest that the love of locality, so strong in land -reptiles, may also exist in marine ones, which probably retire to the -recesses of their submarine habitats to die. - -‘How is it none have ever been killed?’ Well! A cannon ball on the -instant, and not much less, would be required to ‘kill it on the spot,’ -as some have sagely recommended. - -Mr. Henry Lee, among others, does not regard capture as impossible -and in support of my own speculations—more correctly speaking -_imagination_, perhaps—I give the concluding words of his paper:— - - ‘I therefore think it by no means impossible—first, that there may - be gigantic marine animals unknown to science having their ordinary - _habitat_ in the great depths of the sea, only occasionally coming - to the surface, and perhaps avoiding habitually the light of day; - and, second, that there may still exist, though supposed to have been - long extinct, some of the old sea reptiles whose fossil remains tell - of their magnitude and habits, or others of species unknown even to - palæontologists. - - ‘The evidence is, to my mind, conclusive that enormous animals, with - which zoologists are at present unacquainted, exist in the “great and - wide sea,” and I look forward hopefully to the capture of one or more - of them, and the settlement of this vexed question.’ - -I cannot conclude this chapter without further reference to one -other of our very popular physiologists, Dr. Andrew Wilson. The week -following that in which Owen, Captain Gray, and Messrs. Lee, Buckland, -and Bartlett contributed their opinions to _Land and Water_, September -8, 1877, Dr. Wilson also favoured its readers with two closely written -pages on ‘The Sea Serpent of Science.’ Some of his introductory words -have been already quoted. He then presents the claims to attention -which these various ‘sea monsters’ offer, as reported by thoroughly -trustworthy witnesses, suggesting that the idea of a ‘serpent’ is too -restricted. - -Notwithstanding much already said, the opinion of Dr. Wilson will be -valued by many of my readers, and I therefore give portions in his own -words:— - - ‘As far as I have been able to ascertain, zoologists and other writers - on this subject have never made allowance for the _abnormal and huge - development of ordinary marine animals_. My own convictions on this - matter find in these the most reasonable and likely explanation of the - personality of the sea serpent, and also the reconciliation of such - discrepancies as the various narratives may be shown to evince.... I - think we may build up a most reasonable case both for their existence - and for the explanation of their true nature, by taking into account - the fact that _the term “sea serpent,” as ordinarily employed, must be - extended to include other forms of vertebrate animals which possess - elongated bodies: and that cases of the abnormally large development - of ordinary serpents and of serpent-like animals will reasonably - account for the occurrence of the animals popularly named “sea - serpents.”_ ... - - ‘Whilst to my mind the only feasible explanation of the narrative of - the crew of the _Pauline_ must be founded on the idea that the animals - observed by them were gigantic snakes, the habits of the animals - in attacking the whales evidently point to a close correspondence - with those of terrestrial serpents of large size, such as the boas - and pythons; whilst the fact of the animals being described in the - various narratives as swimming with the head out of the water would - seem to indicate that, like all reptiles, they were air-breathers, - and required to come more or less frequently to the surface for the - purpose of respiration.’ - -Apology is due to so eminent a physiologist for having first given -expression to my own opinion on the _Pauline_ serpent, though in -tardily quoting a high authority I may risk suspicion of plagiarism. -I must be permitted to explain, therefore, that on seeing the subject -ventilated in _Land and Water_ (to which I had for some years been a -contributor on ophidian matters), I also, though uninvited, prepared a -paper on ‘the sea serpent.’ In a letter to the Editors, I even presumed -to criticise part of what had lately appeared, enclosing MS. with yet -more. - -In reply, I was informed that the subject would not be continued or -‘re-opened,’ and my returned MS. is still before me, much of it now -for the first time being presented to the public. To proceed with Dr. -Wilson:— - - ‘The most important feature in my theory, ... and that which really - constitutes the strong point of this explanation, is the probability - of the development of a huge or gigantic size of ordinary marine - serpents.... - - ‘Is there anything more improbable, I ask, in the idea of a gigantic - development of an ordinary marine snake into a veritable giant of its - race; or, for that matter, in the existence of distinct species of - monster sea serpents, than in the production of huge cuttle-fishes, - which, until within the past few years, remained unknown to the - foremost pioneers of science? In the idea of the gigantic developments - of snakes or snake-like animals, be they fishes or reptiles, I hold we - have at least a feasible and rational explanation of the primary fact - of the actual existence of such organisms.’ - -In a most interesting lecture on ‘Zoological Myths,’ delivered at St. -George’s Hall, January 2, 1881, Dr. Andrew Wilson again laid much -stress on the ‘gigantic development of an ordinary marine snake into’ -one of those amazing individuals which, say, at the very least, are -over a hundred feet in length! - -How long would the poison fang of such a reptile be? How many ounces of -venom would its glands contain? Or does the Dr. wish us to understand -that as the vertebræ of a _Hydrophis_ has gradually developed into -the complicated structure of a constrictor, so has the poison-fang -become gradually obsolete? Appalling, indeed, would it be were those -enormous developments armed with poison-fangs! Monarchs of the deep -they truly would be. Happily, venomous serpents are restricted in -their size; but an interesting speculation has been opened in the -above theory of abnormal development, and I trust it may be followed -up by abler reasoners than the present humble writer. In the previous -chapter the distinguishing characteristics of the true marine snakes -were described, and I feel more disposed to agree with Dr. Andrew -Wilson when he says, ‘_or for the matter of that, in the existence of -distinct species of monster sea serpents_,’ than in the development of -a small venomous one into an amazing constrictor. Except the ‘monster.’ -Why should not the gigantic forms be perfect in themselves, with an -inherited anatomical structure? In volume xviii. of _Nature_, 1878, Dr. -Andrew Wilson again discusses the sea serpent, and thus concludes:’ ... -and as a firm believer from the standpoint of zoology that the large -development of the marine ophidians of warmer seas offers the true -explanation of the sea-serpent mystery.’ - -Their physical constitution, then, as well as structure, must have very -much changed to enable them to exist so far from the tropics. - -And still there are the creatures with flippers, and flappers, and fins -to decide upon. And then the gigantic salamander with a hundred and -fifty feet of tail! But these not being ophidians, and certainly not -‘sea serpents,’ must not intrude themselves here. - -In their enormous development alone the supporters of Darwin may justly -exult, for surely in them we shall see ‘the survival of the fittest.’ - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -_RATTLESNAKE HISTORY._ - - -FROM the peculiar rattling appendage, with which this snake is armed, -it has excited the notice of European explorers since the very first -settlement of the American Continent. Whenever a traveller attempted -any printed account of the New World and its products, mention was made -of this ‘viper with the bell.’ - -By and by, in 1762, a live specimen was brought to England, where it -arrested the attention of the members of the Royal Society and the -scientific ‘Chirugions’ of the day. - -From this time the rattlesnake began to be honoured with a literature -of its own—one which equals if not exceeds in interest that of any -other ophidian history handed down to us; for Cleopatra’s asp has its -literature, and the _Cobra capella_, and M’Leod’s boa, and some few -other distinguished ophidians, but none so voluminous and inexhaustible -as the American _Crotalus_ with its sonorous tail. - -And despite the attention of naturalists for above two hundred years, -it is not yet done with. First its rattle, then its fangs, next its -maternal affection and the security offered to its young in ‘its own -bosom,’ then its ‘pit,’ and again its rattle—each and all in turn -have continued to occupy the pen of zoologists as, with the advance of -science, fresh light has been thrown upon ophiology. - -American naturalists have continually something new to tell us about -the _Crotalus_, and not even yet have they decided among themselves of -what precise use that remarkable rattle is, either to its owner or its -auditors. - -The various theories regarding its construction, mode of growth, its -age and supposed uses, will occupy the second part of the present -subject; other rattlesnake features will come in their places, but -first an outline of what the early English writers had to say about it -will not be devoid of interest. - -Natural history as a science was then in its infancy. The Royal Society -of England had as yet no existence; snakes were ‘insects,’ because they -lay eggs; insects were ‘serpents,’ because they creep; and the majority -of all such ‘creeping things’ were ‘venomous,’ of course. - -In those early days of science there was little or no recognition of -species, two, or at most three, different kinds of rattlesnakes being -named. The distinguishing rattle seemed enough to separate them from -all other snakes: they were ‘the vipers with the bell,’ or ‘the vipers -with the sounding tail.’ ‘Vipers’ they were at once decided to be, -conformably with the old idea that vipers, in distinction to every -other kind of snake, produced their young alive. In this respect those -early observers were correct; and from their general characteristics -they are still _vipers_ in the eyes of science: that is, they belong -to the sub-order _Viperina_, though their dentition more than any other -feature separates them from the rest, and we know now that several -non-venomous snakes produce live young as well as the vipers. - -In appearance the rattlesnake is so well known that a minute -description of it is uncalled for. Throughout the whole genera of the -_Crotalidæ_ the viperine character is seen in the broad, angular, -flattish head; the thinner neck, distinct between it and the thicker -body; a short, tapering tail, and a generally repulsive appearance with -an evil expression about it, as if no further warning were required to -announce its deadly qualities. - -Nevertheless, many of the rattlesnakes possess an undeniably handsome -exterior. Their colours are for the most part dark and rich, relieved -with lighter markings and velvety black; often wearing a brilliant -prismatic hue, which still further enriches their tints. And then the -rattle at once announces the name of its owner. - -It is not easy to decide on the writer or traveller from whom we -get the first mention of the rattlesnake, which has an extensive -geographical range on both the American continents. It was undoubtedly -some South American explorer early in the sixteenth century, and long -before any settlement in the New World had been made by the English. - -In a rare old book, the first edition of which was published in London, -1614, viz. ‘_Samvel Purchas. His Pilgrimage in all Ages; being an -account of all the Places discovered since the Creation of the World_,’ -we hear of many Spanish and Portuguese authors who are but little known -in England, and from each and all of whom the indefatigable ‘Pilgrim’ -has culled information. Indeed, the book is a careful compilation -from all the previous writers of any worth, though those only who -mentioned the Brazilian serpents need be here introduced to the reader. -These, in describing some unchanging peculiarities, and in giving us -the vernacular names then common, have been of much use in assisting -subsequent writers to identify certain species. - -Hakluyt, Hernandez, Master Anthony Kniuet, and many others are quoted -by Purchas, but of them all, ‘No man hath written so absolute a -Discourse of Brazil as was taken from a Portugall Frier and sold to -Master Hakluit,’ he tells us; giving at the same time a history of the -persecution and imprisonment of this unfortunate friar, whose unusual -intelligence seems to have rendered him an object of suspicion. Thus do -we who come after benefit by the misfortunes of our predecessors, and -thus has the stolen ‘Discourse’ of the sixteenth century been turned to -account for our edification in the nineteenth. - -In the Portuguese friar’s description of animals, it is not difficult -to separate the true snakes from the ‘Serpentes with foure Legges and -a Taile,’ or to identify the rattlesnakes among them. Says the writer, -‘The Boycininga is a Snake called of the Bell: it is of a great Poison, -but it maketh such a Noise with a Bell it hath in its Tayle that it -catcheth very few: though it be so swift that they call it the flying -Snake. His Length is twelve or thirteen Spannes long. There is another -_Boycininpeba_. This also hath a Bell, but smaller. It is blacke and -very venomous.’ - -These two may be _Crotalus horridus_ and _Crotalus durissus_, the two -commonest; or they may be only one species of a different size, age, -and colouring—a confusion which frequently occurs with even more -recent and more scientific worthies than the good ‘Pilgrim’ Purchas. In -a later edition he says: ‘Other Serpents there are that carrie upon the -Tippe of their Tayle a certaine little roundelle, like a Bell, which -ringeth as they goe.’ - -Marcgrave, in his _Travels in Brazil_, 1648, further helps us to label -the right snake with the long vernaculars by figuring a rattlesnake -and calling it by the same name, only with an additional syllable, -_Boicinininga_, _quem Cascavel_, the latter euphonious Spanish word, -for a little round bell, having widely obtained ever since. - -As soon as the first English colony was settled in North America, the -rattlesnake again comes upon the stage. Captain John Smith, whom we may -call the founder of Virginia (since it was owing to his good judgment, -endurance, and intelligence that the colony did not share the fate of -Sir W. Raleigh’s adventurers), tells us of the ornaments worn by the -Indians, and the favour in which certain _Rattells_ were held by them -as amulets. In his _Generall Historie of Virginia_, 1632, Captain Smith -describes their barbarous adornments,—birds’ claws, serpent skins, -feathers with a ‘rattell’ tied on to them, which ‘Rattells they take -from the Taile of a Snake,’ and regard with superstitious veneration. - -With the spirit of enterprise which marked that era, and the discovery -of new countries and strange creatures, ‘Natural History’ began to be a -recognised science in Europe. Aldrovanus and Gesner had produced their -ponderous tomes, and the authors quoted by Purchas were eagerly read -by Ingenious Chirugions, who in England appear to have taken the lead -in science; while at Florence an assembly of ‘Knowing Physicians’ were -experimentalizing with all the Vipers procurable in Southern Europe, -holding council as to the source of their ‘Mischiefs’ and specific -‘Remedies for their Bitings,’ etc., with just such tests with the -‘Master Teeth’ of both living and dead vipers as have of late again -occupied the attention of living scientists. In 1660 the learned Redi -of Florence published his book on Vipers, and soon after M. Moyse -Charas, a Frenchman, produced a work which would not be a bad textbook -even now. - -And for the Scientific World what greater stimulus could arise than -the foundation of the ROYAL SOCIETY by Charles II., and the channel -for ventilating discoveries and inventions which their published -_Transactions_ afforded? Very early in these do we find that viper -poison was engaging professional attention, and soon did communications -appear from those ‘knowing physicians’ at Florence. A correspondence -sprang up between M.D.’s of England, France, and Italy; and the -details of their experiments proved very inciting to the members of -the Royal Society of London, who with the limited subjects at their -disposal—virtually only our own little English viper—also set -themselves to work to analyze the ‘Poyson Bag.’ - -One enthusiast, Mr. Platt, addressing the Royal Society from Florence, -with an account of some of the experiments then going on, made mention -of the M. Charas who had written such an important work, and ended by -hoping to animate the _virtuosi_ here to ‘do something that may be not -unworthy your knowlege.’[77] - -That the work of M. Moyse Charas was translated into English the -following year, proves that the English _virtuosi_ had really become -‘animated’ in the looked-for direction.[78] - -In the preface of his book we read: ‘If Reflexion be made on the many -Wonders that are found in the Body of this Animal’ (the viper), ‘it -will be easily granted that it cannot be inquir’d into with too much -Exactness: and that it is not a Work that can be finish’t at one or two -Sittings.’ - -This little digression from the rattlesnake is not without its object; -for from this correspondence through the _Philosophical Transactions_ -we may date the birth of ophiological science in England; and the -reader will be able to place himself on that standpoint in order to -reciprocate the kind of interest with which such an entirely strange -and as yet unknown serpent as a rattlesnake was received a short time -afterwards. - -In vol. x. 1676, there is ‘An Account of Virginia, its Situation, -Temperature,’ etc., communicated by Mr. Thomas Glover, ‘an ingenious -Chirugion that hath lived some years in the Country.’ - -This gentleman tells us of the climate and productions of the new -colony, not omitting those of the animal and vegetable kingdoms; -among the various strange creatures which he describes in the crude -language of the time are five or six sorts of snakes, amongst which -‘the Rattlesnake is the most remarkable, being about the bigness of a -Man’s Legg, and for the most part a yard and a half long. He hath a -Rattle at the End of his Tail, wherewith he maketh a Noise when any one -approacheth nigh him: which seemeth to be a peculiar Providence of God -to warn People to avoid the Danger; for this Creature is so venomous -that the Bite of it is of most dangerous Consequence, unless they make -use of the proper Antidote, of which I shall take occasion to speak -somewhat hereafter.’ - -Such accounts, coupled with the interest awakened in the members of -the Royal Society by the Florentine experimentalists, caused the first -arrival of a rattlesnake in England to be a grand era in ophiological -annals; and with its eventful appearance began its scientific history. - -The published records of the _Philosophical Transactions_ again -perpetuate the impressions it created, and also many collateral points -of interest. - -A paper entitled _Vipera Caudisona Americana; or, The Anatomy of a -Rattle-Snake_, was read by Dr. Edward Tyson, of the Royal Medical -College of London, in 1683; who dissected one at the repository of the -Royal Society in Jan. 1682. (The above scientific name is erroneously -attributed to Laurenti, 1768.) - -That nothing of much value to science was previously known about -the reptile we gather from Dr. Tyson’s introductory words. ‘It were -mightily to be wisht that we had the most compleat account of so -_Curious_ an _Animal_. This which we _Dissected_ was sent to Mr. Henry -Loades, a merchant in London, from Virginia, who was pleased not only -to gratify the _Curiosity_ of the Royal Society, in showing it them -alive, but likewise gave it them when dead.’ - -Thus did Mr. Loades unconsciously immortalize himself in the history -of rattlesnakes. Merchants in those days were not F.Z.S.’s; and it is -probable that he thought of nothing beyond ingratiating himself with -the members of a learned Society by presenting them with a ‘serpente’ -dead, whose ‘Bell’ had excited their curiosity when living; and he -little dreamed that the origin and use of this strange _bell_ would not -be determined two hundred years afterwards. - -Says Dr. Tyson: ‘I find the inward parts so conformable to those of a -Viper that I have taken the liberty of placing it in that Classe and -(since it has not that I know of any Latine Name) of giving it that of -_Vipera Caudisona_: for as I am informed by Merchants ‘tis Viviparous, -and the Epithet sufficiently differences it from those that have no -Rattle.’ - -This scholarly anatomist had evidently devoted much careful labour to -the task of hunting up all the literature that could throw any light on -his much-prized specimen. He had no doubt been one of those ‘animated’ -by the Florentine savants, and had made himself acquainted with all -the viperine characters. He had doubtless read all that had already -appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_, and also the narratives -of such _voyageurs_ as Hakluyt, Hernandez, Piso, and Marcgravius. - -Among the useful results of his researches he is able to give us many, -we may say most, of its vernaculars in the countries of the New World -settled by Europeans up to that date; and as in subsequent books of -travel we hear of the rattlesnake frequently under these vernaculars, -until, as of later years, its ordinary English name has been familiar -to all, we have had a good deal to thank him for, were it only this. - -In addition to the authors already named, he gives us Guliemus Piso, -Johnston, Merembergius, and ‘others that have wrot of it, and its -anatomy, under the names of Boigininga or Boiginininga and Boiquira, -which are its Brazile Names. By the Portuguese it is called Casca -vela and Tangador: by the Dutch, Raetel Sclange; by those of Mexico, -Teutlaco-cauehqui or Teuhtlacotl zauhqui, _i.e. Domina Serpentum_: and -from its swift motion on the Rocks like the wind, Hoacoatl.’ - -Minutely and scientifically was that ‘viper with the sounding tail’ -dissected and studied out by Dr. Tyson just two hundred years ago; and -the excellent illustrations with which his description was elucidated -were subsequently used in many first-class physiological works. - -Not even the ‘pit’ escaped the notice of that nice anatomist,—the -‘nasal fosse,’ or ‘sort of second nostril,’ as it was for a long while -called,—and its use conjectured, and which has given to a very large -group of venomous serpents the name of ‘pit vipers,’ the peculiar -orifice not being confined to the American _Crotalus_ alone (see chap. -xxi.). - -‘Between the nostrils and eyes are two other orifices which at first -I took to be Ears,’ he tells us, speaking of this ‘pit,’ ‘but after -found they only led into a Bone that had a pretty large cavity, but -no perforation.’ He had seen that vipers—the European vipers which -he had previously known—had not these orifices. Then he comments on -the great Provision of Nature in furnishing the strong, smooth ‘belly -scales,’ (see illustration, p. 193), and the ‘very long trachea of 20 -inches. _Nature_ is mightily provident in supplying them with _Air_, in -bestowing on them so large a Receptacle for receiving it.’ - -Tyson quotes from the ‘contests between the noble Italian Redi, and -the Frenchman M. Charas,’ as to the source of the poison in vipers, -and makes discoveries for himself, as for instance the mobility of the -jaw in elevating and depressing the fang, the structure of the teeth, -and various other matters which in this book are discussed in their -several chapters, but which were then for the first time scientifically -described in English by Tyson. - -True that a little traditional gossip about the rattle, which he had -gathered from less competent sources, creeps in towards the conclusion -of the paper. While the learned M.D. writes from his own observations -and scientific knowledge, he affords valuable information; and we can -dispense with the hearsay of the day. However, all honour be to Dr. -Tyson of two hundred years ago, who was the first to give us ‘The -Anatomy of the Rattlesnake,’ and its first scientific name. - -As the two American continents became more widely known to Europeans, -and Englishmen were seized with a desire to visit the new colonies, -books of travels and descriptions multiplied too rapidly for even a -passing mention in these pages; though wherever the slightest approach -to natural history was included, the rattlesnake figured conspicuously. -Of those works frequently quoted by naturalists, Seba’s _Rerum -Naturalium Thesauri_ in 1735, of four ponderous volumes, containing -text in both Latin and French, and profusely illustrated, must not be -omitted, though about the _Crotalus_ he has not much new to tell us. -He quotes Tyson and others, and explains that the many nearly similar -names are ‘_selon la difference de prononciation des Bresiliens, -qui la nomme aussi Boiquira_;’ and he thinks all these names ‘_ne -désignent qu’une seule et même vipère_.’ To these various titles of -‘one and the same viper,’ we shall refer again in chap. xxiii. To -the list he adds that the English call it ‘rattlesnake;’ the French, -‘_serpent à sonnettes_;’ and Latin authors, _Anguis crotalophorus_ -(or the rattle-bearing snake). He also gives us another Mexican name, -‘_Ecacoatl, qui signifie le Vent, parce qu’elle rampe avec une extrème -vitesse sur les rochers_.’ - -This extreme activity in the rattlesnake is not in accordance with -our alien experience. Still we hear of it from more than one writer -and in widely separated habitats. The Mexican and Brazilian words may -have alluded to the rapidity of motion in striking its prey, and which -in its swiftness can scarcely be followed. Or it is possible that the -reptile which as a captive in our chilling climate is so slow and -sluggish, may, when stimulated by a tropical sun and under peculiar -excitement, occasionally exhibit a vivacity incredible to us who see it -only in menageries. Regarding other species of viperine snakes, we have -sometimes similar evidence; and there is nothing in the structure of -the _Crotalus_ to contradict it. - -One more of the unpronounceable Mexican names we must inflict on the -reader, to show how this serpent was distinguished among all others -even in length of title. F. Fernandez, or Hernandez, in his _Animalium -Mexicanum_, p. 63, A.D. 1628, calls it Teuchlacotzauhqui, because it -surpasses all others in ‘_l’horrible bruit de sa sonnette_.’ - -As may be supposed, anybody who could see this remarkable snake on its -native soil was ready to tell something about it; and from the time -that Dr. Tyson dissected his specimen and made it better known to the -‘Curious,’ many other communications saw light through the pages of -the _Philosophical Transactions_ during the next few years. - -In experimenting to discover the source of the ‘mischief,’ one skilful -‘Chyrurgeon’ proved that the gall of vipers is not venomous, only -bitter. - -A Mr. John Clayton, in an _Account of the Beasts in Virginia_, 1694, -tells us the rattlesnake’s ‘Tayle is composed of perished Joynts like -a dry Husk. The Old shake and shiver these Rattles with wonderful -Nimbleness; the Snake is a Majestick sort of Creature, and will scarce -meddle with anything unless provoked.’ He also describes the ‘fistulous -Teeth’ and the poison being injected through these ‘into the very mass -of the blood.’ Effective remedies are spoken of, as if not much doubt -of a cure existed. An Indian was bitten in the arm, who ‘clapt a hot -burning coal thereon and singed it stoutly.’ - -In Italy experiments still went on, and a Mr. C. J. Sprengle wrote to -the Royal Society from Milan (1722), that in a room opened at the top -were sixty vipers from all parts of Italy. ‘Whereupon we catch’d some -mice and threw them in, one at a time, among all that number of vipers; -but not one concerned himself about the mice, only one pregnant viper -who interchanged eyes with the mouse, which took a turn or two, giving -now and then a squeak, and then ran with great swiftness into the chops -of the viper, where it gradually sunk down the gullet.’ And from this -sinister proceeding on the part of the viper, Mr. Sprengle argues a -fact generally borne out in zoological collections ever since, namely, -that venomous snakes in captivity will not eat until they become -reconciled. - -And so by degrees these many interesting ophiological facts have been -worked out and established. In 1733, vol. xxxviii., some experiments -made by Sir Hans Sloane are recorded. A dog was made to tread on a -rattlesnake which bit him. In one minute of time the dog was paralytic -in the hinder legs, and was dead in less than three minutes. - -Another subject of subsequent interest and even importance was some -observations made by Sir Hans Sloane on the ‘Charms, Inchantments, or -Fascinations of Snakes,’ in reply to communications by Paul Dudley, -Esq., F.R.S., and Col. Beverley, both of whom believed that the -rattlesnake could bring a bird or a squirrel from a tree into their -mouths by the power of their eye. - -A word on fascination will come in its place, but as a part of -rattlesnake history Sir Hans Sloane may be quoted here. And yet a -reason so long ago suggested by him, who _thoughtfully_ watched a -snake, seems almost entirely to have escaped notice. He thinks ‘the -whole mystery of charming or enchanting any Creature is simply this. -Small Animals or Birds bitten, the poison allows them time to run a -little way (as perhaps a bird to fly up into a tree), where the snakes -watch them with great earnestness, till they fall down, when the snakes -swallow them.’[79] - -Sir Hans Sloane quotes a good deal from the work by Colonel -Beverley,[80] and the observations made by him; particularly one which -the author remarks is a ‘curiosity which he never met with in print,’ -viz. the instinct which displays itself so strongly _after death_ in -the rattlesnake. A man chopped off the head and a few inches of the -neck of a rattlesnake, and then on touching the ‘springing teeth with -a stick, the head gave a sudden champ with its mouth,’ thus displaying -the impulse to bite. He noticed the action of the springing teeth ‘when -they are raised, which I take to be only at the will of the snake to do -mischief.’ Strange to tell, many of the above peculiarities have been -described as ‘new to science’ within forty years. - -But among those who wrote of our American colonies, Lawson must not -be omitted. Describing the ‘Insects of Carolina,’ viz. alligators, -rattlesnakes, water snakes, swamp snakes, frogs, great loach, lizards, -worms, etc., he tells us what was then new about the subject of this -chapter. - -‘The Rattlesnakes are found on all the Main of America that I ever had -any Account of: being so called from the Rattle at the End of their -Tails, which is a Connexion of jointed Coverings of an excrementitious -Matter, betwixt the Substance of a Nail and a Horn, though each Tegment -is very thin. Nature seems to have designed these on purpose to give -Warning of such an approaching Danger as the venomous Bite of these -Snakes is. Some of them grow to a very great Bigness, as six Feet -in Length; their Middle being the Thickness of the Small of a lusty -Man’s Leg. They are of an orange, tawny, and blackish Colour on the -Back, differing (as all Snakes do) in Colour on the Belly; being of an -Ash Colour inclining to Lead. The Male is easily distinguished from -the Female by a black Velvet Spot on his Head; and besides his Head -is smaller-shaped and long. Their Bite is venomous if not speedily -remedied; especially if the Wound be in a Vein, Nerve, Tendon, or -Sinew, when it is very difficult to cure. The Indians are the best -Physicians for the Bite of these, and all other venomous Creatures of -this Country. The Rattle-Snakes are accounted the peaceablest in the -World, for they never attack any One or injure them unless trodden -upon or molested. The most Danger of being bit by these Snakes is for -those that survey Land in Carolina; yet I never heard of any Surveyor -that was killed or hurt by them. I have myself gone over several of -this Sort; yet it pleased God I never came to any Harm. They have the -Power or Art (I know not which to call it) to charm Squirrels, Hares, -Partridges, or any such Thing, in such a Manner that they run directly -into their Mouths. This I have seen,’ and so forth.... ‘Rattle-Snakes -have many small Teeth of which I cannot see they make any Use; for they -swallow every Thing whole; but the Teeth which poison are only four; -two on each side of their Upper-Jaws. These are bent like a Sickle, -and hang loose, as if by a Joint. Towards the setting on of these, -there is in each Tooth a little Hole, wherein you may just get in the -Point of a small Needle. And here it is that the Poison comes out and -follows the Wound made by the Point of their Teeth. They are much more -venomous in the Months of June and July than they are in March, April, -or September. The hotter the Weather the more poisonous. Neither may -we suppose they can renew their Poison as oft as they will; for we -have had a Person bit by one of these who never rightly recovered it, -and very hardly escaped with Life; and a second Person bit in the same -Place by the same Snake and received no more Harm than if bitten with a -Rat. They cast their Skins every Year and commonly abide in the Place -where the old Skin lies. These cast Skins are used for Physick, and -the Rattles are reckoned good to expedite the Birth.’ ... ‘Gall mixed -with Clay and made into Pills are kept for Use and accounted a noble -Remedy.’ ... ‘This Snake has two Nostrils on each Side its Nose. Their -Venom I have Reason to believe effects no Harm any otherwise than when -darted into the Wound by the Serpent’s Teeth.’ - -This description, being an early and excellent illustration of what has -since been termed ‘Practical Natural History,’ is given at length, and -because Lawson has been a good deal quoted by subsequent writers. - -So again is Catesby, who went to Virginia in 1712, staying seven -years ‘to gratify a passionate desire to view animal and vegetable -productions in their native country.’ He was the first to figure and -to describe two distinct species. It is admitted that he did much -for natural history, and his drawings are by far the best that had -as yet appeared. Catesby therefore claims a conspicuous place among -rattlesnake historians. - -By this time, 1731, nine or ten of the American colonies had celebrated -their first centenary, and had made considerable advances towards -civilisation. In the parts visited by Catesby a good deal of the old -English refinement marked the character and manners of the people. But -a little domestic incident in the house where he was staying is related -by him, and affords us an insight of a less attractive character in -plantation life. - -The largest rattlesnake Catesby ever saw was eight feet long, and -weighed eight or nine pounds. ‘This Monster was gliding into the House -of Col. Blake, and had certainly taken up his Abode there undiscovered, -had not the Domestic Animals alarmed the Family with their repeated -Outcries: the Hogs, Dogs, and Poultry united in their Hatred to him, -showing the greatest Consternation by erecting their Bristles and -Feathers, and showing their Wrath and Indignation surrounded him; but -carefully kept their Distance, while he, regardless of their Threats, -glided slowly along.’ - -It was not at all an uncommon occurrence for rattlesnakes to come into -houses at that time, nor indeed has it been long since then in secluded -parts. - -Catesby himself had a narrow escape once, when he occupied a room on -the ground floor, and a rattlesnake was found snugly coiled in his bed. - -Notwithstanding a growing acquaintance with the rattlesnake among the -F.R.S.’s, to the general public it was still almost unknown. - -Even in the middle of the eighteenth century an itinerant exhibitor -could say what he pleased about it to a too credulous public. An -extract from an old newspaper suggests an ancestral Barnum joining -hands with a journalist to make a fortune out of one thus exhibited. -Not so much was expected of journalists in those days; but even now, -so far as snakes are concerned, a vast number of errors creep into -newspapers. - - ‘A BEAUTIFUL RATTLESNAKE ALIVE. - - ‘This exotic Animal is extremely well worthy the Observation of - the Curious: Its Eyes are of great Lustre, even equal to that of a - Diamond, and its Skin so exquisitely mottled and of such surpassing - Beauty as baffles the Art of the most celebrated Painter: It is about - five Feet long, and so sagacious, that it will rattle whenever the - Keeper commands it: There is not the least cause for Fear, though - it were at Liberty in the Room: but that the Ladies may be under no - Apprehension on that Account, it is kept in a Glass-Case. It is very - Active, and is the first ever shown alive in England.’—From _The - General Advertiser_, LONDON, Sat., Jan. 4th, 1752. - -Any ‘sagacity’ displayed in this exhibition was on the part of the -keeper, who had discovered the exceeding timidity of this reptile, and -had observed that it used its rattle whenever alarmed or provoked. -However, the timidity answered very well for obedience, and no doubt -drew many spectators. - -A notable feature in the rattlesnake was its fecundity and prevalence. - -This we gather from all who in the early days of American history -had anything to tell us of the country and its inhabitants. Whether -the subject of their pen were Topography, Indians, or Productions, a -rattlesnake crept in. Collateral evidence of this kind, given with no -motive for exaggeration, nor even as ‘natural history,’ may therefore -be accredited. - -A slaughter of rattlesnakes was as much an annual custom as the -slaughter of hogs. Regularly as a crop of hay came a crop of -rattlesnakes. On account of the oil manufactured from their fat, the -slaughter partook also of a commercial character; but more commonly -it was a war of extinction, like the battles with the Indians. -Usually an annual, frequently a biennial, crusade was undertaken, the -settlers being well acquainted with their habits and retreats. It was -a well-known fact that, towards the close of summer, and on the first -indication of frost, the reptiles returned simultaneously and in vast -numbers to a favourite spot. Not only hundreds but thousands make for -this winter rendezvous year after year. - -Catlin, the Indian historian, tells us that near Wilkesbarre, in -Pennsylvania, his birth-place, was a cavern in the mountains called -Rattlesnake Den; and to this cavern the snakes made an annual -pilgrimage, collecting from vast distances, no matter what obstacles -were in their way. Across rivers and lakes, and up mountain sides, -straight to their Den they would go, and in those unapproachable -caverns lie _en masse_ in a torpid state until aroused by the coming -summer, when they would venture forth again and descend into the -valleys. - -These were the times for the grand _battues_, one of which, an event of -Catlin’s boyhood, is narrated by him. - -One of the first spring days, when the creatures creep out to sun -themselves for only a few hours, retiring again at night, was the time -chosen for the onslaught. The snakes were known to come forth from -Rattlesnake Den on to a certain ledge of rock near their cavern; and a -council of war was held as to the best approach and mode of attack. Ten -years previously a similar war had been waged, when the reptiles had -been almost exterminated; but of late so many accidents had occurred -among the inhabitants through the fast-increasing serpents, that the -farmers agreed to climb to the den and once more reduce their numbers. -The boy Catlin was privileged to be of the party, and he was told -to creep cautiously to an overhanging rock, whence he could see the -reptiles sunning themselves on their ledge below. The rest of the party -stood in readiness, club in hand. At a signal young Catlin fired a -fowling-piece into their midst. There was a knot of them ‘like a huge -mat wound and twisted and interlocked together, with all their heads -like scores of hydras standing up from the mass.’ Into this horrible -cluster he ‘let fly,’ when the party, rushing with their clubs, broke -the spine of hundreds by a single blow to each, while hundreds more -were saving themselves by a quick return to their den. - -While counting the five or six hundred slain, and holding another -council of war on the battle-field, a rattle was heard of one which in -the death-struggle had escaped over a ledge instead of into its cave. -With a forked stick a man approached that misguided reptile and held -down its head, while another brave expert seized it by the neck so -close to its head that it could not turn and bite him. - -It was a very large snake, and young Catlin, inspired by the sudden -thought, exclaimed, ‘Tie a powder-horn to its tail and fasten a slow -fuse to it, and let it go back into its den.’ - -‘George, you are the best hunter in the Valley of Ocquago!’ cried the -man who held the snake; and forthwith the plan was agreed upon. - -The largest powder-horn in the party was filled to the brim from the -other horns, and tied to the snake’s tail by a string of several feet -long; and to the horn was fixed a slow fuse of about a yard in length, -made of wetted, twisted tow, in which gunpowder was rolled. This -accomplished while the reptile was still firmly held, it was then set -free close to the mouth of its den, the whole party speedily escaping -to a safe distance. - -Listening, they heard the horn rattling over the rocky floor as the -snake was carrying it home into the midst of its comrades, when, after -the silence of a minute or so, an explosion like a clap of thunder -shook the ground on which they stood, and blue streams issued forth -between the crevices around the den, and a thick volume from its mouth. - -Rattlesnake Den was thus cleared of its inhabitants for many long years. - -Catlin affirms that the Valley of the Wyoming used to be more infested -with these terrible pests than any other portion of the globe. Every -summer the lives of persons as well as cattle were destroyed by them, -and the ‘happy little valley’ would have been rendered uninhabitable -but for the periodical _battues_.[81] - -Howe in his Histories of Ohio and of Virginia relates many similar -facts. A Mr. Stone, one of the first settlers of the ‘Western Reserve’ -along the shore of Lake Erie, has immortalized himself as a slayer of -rattlesnakes. They were ‘in great plenty along the track,’ and he being -the first to ‘survey’ the land in 1796, had the honour of doing battle -with them. In Trumbull County they abounded. One year, about the first -of May 1799, a large party armed with cudgels proceeded to a sunny -level of rock on which hosts of the reptiles had crept. Approaching -cautiously, step by step, the enemy came upon them suddenly, and then -began to cudgel with all their might. Hot and furious was the fight; -the rattles were ringing as the snakes beat a retreat up the hill, and -the ground was strewed with the slain: four hundred and eighty-six were -that day collected, most of them over five feet in length. - -In another of these spring campaigns eight hundred rattlesnakes were -killed, including a few of their relatives the copper-head, and -hundreds more of harmless snakes of which the slayers ‘took no account.’ - -Holbrooke records that once in New York State two men in three days -killed 1104 rattlesnakes on an eastern slope of Tongue mountain. - -Many hairbreadth escapes during these adventures form the subjects of -exciting stories in the domestic annals of American settlers, but are -becoming more and more histories of the past. In many localities where -formerly rattlesnakes swarmed, they have almost totally disappeared or -have become very rare. Probably with their friends the Indians, they -will in time become wholly extinct. - -New species have, however, been discovered by the explorers of the new -Western States and in Tropical America, where, in the sparsely-settled -districts, they still come into houses as of yore, and where the -rattlesnake campaign is still an annual sport for the venturesome -pioneers. In 1872, two thousand of the species _Crotalus confluentus_ -were killed in the Yellowstone Region. - -One other question in the history of the rattlesnake—‘Does it swallow -its young in times of danger?’ or more correctly speaking, ‘Does -it receive its young into its œsophagus as a place of safety?’—is -considered in chap. xxvii. - -Other discussions of modern times, both in assemblies of zoologists -and through printed correspondence, have been on the rattle, when and -why vibrated, how affected by damp, etc., all claiming a place in -rattlesnake history, but considered elsewhere in this work. A whole -volume might be written on this rattling tail, evolved out of the -scant materials of the sixteenth century into the prolific matter of -the nineteenth. You can scarcely take up one of the many scientific -journals of the United States, in which zoology forms a part, without -finding mention of a rattlesnake. Within a very few years the subject -has been popularized in our own zoological journals also. - -In connection with the venom come of course the cures, concerning -which the experiments of Dr. Weir Mitchell form a notable point in -rattlesnake history. But serpent venom and its remedies, so far as lies -within my province to discuss them, come also in a special chapter. - -In concluding this one, I will roughly enumerate the species of -rattlesnakes now best known. We have seen that formerly only one or -two different kinds were noticed, and the subsequent multiplication -of species is due almost as much to science and to a more careful -observation of the distinguishing features, as to the discovery of -absolutely new ones. - -The frequent Exploring Expeditions fitted out by the United States -Government for Geographical Boundaries, Pacific Railroads, Geological -Surveys, etc., with always a zoologist on their Staff of Scientific -Men, have added much to our knowledge of natural history; and in the -Reports and Bulletins of these may be sifted out information in every -branch of Science. Thus in _Crotalus_ chronicles, our two original -rattlesnakes have increased and are still increasing. In 1831, the -late Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum Natural History Department, -enumerated six genera and eleven species belonging to America. In 1860, -Dr. Weir Mitchell gave about twenty species as belonging to two genera -only, and distinguished by their head scales. - -As this book has no scientific pretensions, and as its aim is rather to -interest a large class of readers than systematically to instruct the -few, I will not attempt a list of genera and species with all their -perplexing names, if indeed a true list of all the now known species -even exist. They are distinguished by the shields or plates on the -head, and by the varying tails. Some have rattles so small as barely to -entitle them to the name of _Crotalus_. - -Then, again, a new name is frequently adopted by the discoverer of -a new feature; and a number of American genera, _minus_ a rattle -altogether, are included among the _Crotalidæ_, an anomaly which will -be presently explained. Here we have to do with only the rattlesnake -proper, viz. the ‘Viper with the Bell,’ _Vipera caudisona_ of Tyson, -and the _Crotalus_ of Linnæus. - -This word _Crotalus_, simply a rattle, from the Greek word _crotalon_, -and the Latin _crotalia_ and _crotalum_, a kind of castanets, is as -suitable as any that could possibly have been assigned to the snake; -and most of the generic names are compounds of it: _Crotalophorus_, -rattle-bearing; _Crotalina_, little rattle; _Crotaloidæ_; -_Urocrotalon_, rattling tail; or simply _Crotalus_. Then the specific -name more especially describes the snake in colour, size, character, -locality, etc., as _Oregonus_, from Oregon; _Kirtlandii_, from Dr. -Kirtland of Ohio, who first described that species; _horridus_, from -the hideous, terrible character of this large snake; _miliarius_, a -very small one; _caudisona_, sounding tail; and so on. - -Their geographical range is from about 45° north, to the Gulf of -Mexico, Texas, and southward; and in South America to about the same -degree of climate and temperature as in the northern latitudes. They -are most virulent in the hottest seasons, the tropical regions, and -according to their size; though, as is the case with other venomous -snakes, a small species in hot weather and with a large store of venom -may be more noxious than the largest in a half-torpid state and with a -small supply of venom. - -There is one known as the ‘Prairie rattlesnake;’ another frequents the -marshy districts of Ohio; another, the swamps of the Southern States -along the coast; a fourth is known as the ‘Western rattlesnake;’ some -of the 20 species described in the United States being more abundant in -the mountainous regions, others near the rivers. - -In the wilder regions of Central and South America they also abound; -but less is known of them where there are no United States Exploring -Expeditions to record them. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -_THE RATTLE._ - - -THIS _Crepitaculum caude_, as an American has called it, has been the -theme of many speculations. Its origin and its use have been discussed -alike by the scientific and the unscientific, nor have they even now -arrived at any very definite conclusions on these two points. There -are theories as to its development, its form and size, its age and its -utility, the caprice witnessed in all of these adding to the romance -of its history; and whether its length increases by a link annually, -or on each occasion of desquamation, have been among the questions -connected with it. If we believe what the American Indians declare, -an additional joint to the rattle grows whenever a human being falls -a victim to that particular snake—a tradition more poetical than -rational. The Indians also think the rattle vibrates more in dry than -in wet weather, and are therefore cautious in traversing the woods -during rainy seasons. This belief has given rise to the idea that the -rattle is affected by damp—a fact which was affirmed so long ago -as 1722.[82] The most reasonable clue to this is, that there may be -less to disturb the reptile at a time when all animated nature is to a -certain extent inclined to retirement and repose; for if the reptile -be disturbed, rain or no rain, the rattle vibrates. In English as well -as in American scientific journals, the subject of the rattle is ever -and again ventilated by physiologists, and new suggestions are thrown -out. In the present chapter I will endeavour to give a sort of digest -of all these theories, venturing to offer in addition the results of my -own observations. Appended is a drawing of the first rattle I ever saw -or had in my possession. It is associated with a delightful visit of -several months to some very dear friends in Iowa, and it recalls more -particularly one lovely September afternoon. We were driving along a -wild country road, where the prairie on either side was radiant with -its floral carpet, and where the Mississippi gleamed like a succession -of lakes between the wooded and picturesque bluffs that formed the -background to the east. - -Suddenly the horses refused to advance, and without any visible reason -to _me_; but the friend who was driving us recognised, in what seemed -to be merely a little dry twig in the middle of the road, nothing less -than a young rattlesnake. - -Now, to see a rattlesnake and to hear its rattle had been the great -ambition of my prairie sojourn, and as my friend threw the reins to his -wife and alighted to deal a death-blow, I entreated him to spare it for -a few minutes only that I might examine and hear the as yet unfamiliar -appendage. - -Alas! the creature had no rattle. ‘It is too young: there is only -the _button_,’ as my friend called the rudimentary promise of one. I -profited by the occasion, however, to have a good though disappointed -look, not unmixed with contempt, at the juvenile Crotalus, being so -very small and unworthy the ceremony. A foot or so in length, it began -to make its escape into the long grass, when by one quick stamp of his -heel our champion disabled it. - -Then, throwing it into a pool of water, he remounted, and the horses -fearlessly proceeded. - -[Illustration: A fully developed rattle of a rather small snake (life -size).] - -A few days after this, to compensate my disappointment, I was presented -with a ‘full-grown rattle’ from a Kentucky snake, and here it is. - -Asking how he knew it was ‘full grown,’ my friend explained that the -links being all of a nearly uniform size, proved that the snake had -also attained a certain growth during the development of that rattle. -This will be more readily comprehended on seeing the next specimen, -which is the rattle of a Mexican snake during early and rapid growth, -and a very perfect one, presenting no flaw or friction; proving that it -has not been subject to very long or very rough usage. - -[Illustration: A very perfect rattle (natural size).] - -In texture this is scarcely so stout as the shaft of a quill, nor so -pale, but almost as transparent. As regards size, the terminal link or -‘button’ may be compared to the nail of a young child, the intermediate -links gradually increasing with the growth of the snake to the nails of -older children, and the largest link to that of a full-grown person. -From the form of this rattle—an accurate copy of the original—we -may infer that it grew rapidly at first, and that the snake was large -during the development of the later links. - -The next, reduced in size, is the rattle of a snake which had attained -full growth, but from which the younger or earlier links with the -terminal ‘button’ are gone. - -[Illustration: Portion of a long rattle, much reduced in size.] - -Extending this specimen by imaginary converging lines, we form an idea -of what its length might have been if perfect, probably about twenty -joints, which is a not unusual number; but we perceive at once that -a rattle, as we happen to see it, is no criterion of its age or its -original form. Rarely is a snake seen with a long rattle perfect and -entire. But whenever it gradually tapers and ends with the pointed -terminal link, we may decide that that rattle has escaped injury from -its earliest development. - -In form it is not unsymmetrical, and in substance it is horny, like -hair, nails, quills, and hardened skin, a sort of dense and corneous -integument, yet less solid than horns and claws. The links, being -only interlocked and yet elastic, can be easily separated, and are -consequently easily injured. An animal treading on the rattle of a -snake would cause a portion at least to be lost; or in being drawn -among roots and entangled vegetation, a rattle might easily get -damaged: the number of links can never, therefore, be an infallible -clue to the age of the reptile. - -Like hair, horns, nails, it is also subject to a caprice in growth, -or to the vigour of the individual; at one time comparatively at a -stand-still, at another growing rapidly; in one season gaining perhaps -several links, in another season none. - -Neither does the number of joints bear any relation to the casting of -the skin, any more than the growth of hair or nails depends on the -healing of a scar. The slough, cast more or less frequently, may leave -the rattle intact, or a new link may appear at such a time. Dr. Cotton, -of Tennessee, had a rattlesnake which shed its skin on an average twice -a year, and he observed a new link to the rattle on each shedding. -On the contrary, a rattlesnake at the London Zoological Gardens, -and in the collection for about ten years, had never a rattle worth -mentioning. Quite a young snake of only 15 inches when brought, it grew -into a fine healthy specimen, fully five feet long, and yet had never -more than what Americans call the button—not quite even that, but -merely an abortive pretence of unhealthy growth, as if one or two links -were consolidated. I watched that rattle for several years with much -interest. Thus it was when my attention was first drawn towards it; -and though it sometimes gave promise of growing, and once did indeed -gain another link, it soon got broken off, and never attained more than -three misshapen joints. - -[Illustration: All there was of it! From life.] - -Though no rattle is ordinarily developed until the snakeling is some -months old, several cases are on record where young snakes have been -born with the ‘button,’ and even with perfectly formed links. Mr. -Benjamin Smith Barton, an American who wrote a good deal about the -Crotalus, communicated to Prof. Zimmermann in 1800 that he had found -in a parent some young ones with three rattles, _i.e._ ‘links,’ each. -Similar and more recent cases are on record. - -[Illustration: Transparent rattle (p. 296), held against the light.] - -In colour a rattle is of a dark brown, or dull rusty black, -occasionally lighter when fresh and uninjured, and then more plainly -displaying its horny texture. In the Mexican rattle (p. 296) the -links were semi-transparent; sufficiently so to enable us to trace -the form of the interior links if held against the light. This -afforded an admirable opportunity to comprehend the structure and -the production of the sound, which is simply and truly a rattling of -these loosely-fitting links as they are partially embraced, each one -by the previous link. That is to say, each new link grows up into -its predecessor, pushing it forward towards the tip of the rattle. -Through this unusually clear rattle you can trace each link passing up -and fitting into the preceding (prior) one, just as so many thimbles -or cups would fit into each other. Only, in the case of thimbles or -cups, there is nothing to keep them in place, and the slightest shake -would detach the whole pile; whereas the lobes or bulging sections of -each link prevent any such detachment in a rattle, except by force or -accident. - -The next is the rattle of a small Oregon snake. This, as is -observable, is old and very much worn; so much so, indeed, that one has -to handle it with care. It is, however, pulled apart intentionally to -show that the links vary in form from those of the tapering specimen. -Any rattle can thus be separated without much effort, as, owing to the -elasticity of the substance, not much resistance presents itself. The -links are just loose enough to produce that sibilant effect, like the -rustling of dry leaves, or of ripe beans in a pod; or still more, like -the seed vessel of our own native plant the Yellow Rattle, _Rhinanthus -Crista galli_, and the American ‘Rattle-Box,’ _Crotalaria sagittalis_. - -[Illustration: Small divided rattle.] - -Yet just so securely fitting it is as to permit of the continual -vibration without loss of links. - -What we _see_, therefore, is only the base or lower lobe of each joint, -the rest running up into the next two or even three bases, as may be -traced in the section here given. - -[Illustration: Section of rattle.] - -In reading about the construction of a rattle, some perplexity may -occur from the various adverbs before, behind, first, last, previous -link, etc., some referring to age, others to place. Descriptions -of the rattle met with in popular physiological works prove the -above perplexities, and verify what is so often demonstrated, viz. -the ‘inability of unscientific persons to read scientific matter -correctly.’ The ‘last’ link means the one last grown, not the end one -of the tail; ‘pushing the preceding one _forward_’ is not towards the -_head_ of the reptile, but literally _outward_ and _backward_ towards -the tip of the tail. ‘Previous’ may mean in time, or the age of the -link, or it may mean position; but a knowledge of the development -assists the comprehension of such passages. - -In the above illustrations it will be seen that not only do rattles -differ in form in various species of snakes, but that the links -themselves differ in form in one and the same rattle. Some of them are -broader than others, some wider, and some more compressed. In all the -above drawings I carefully and faithfully copied the originals. And -in this variability we can only refer again to claws, nails, horns, -feathers, etc., which are seen to differ in the same individual, -according to health, season, or accident. - -Where great numbers of rattlesnakes have been killed in one locality, -as, for instance, during the ‘spring campaigns,’ their tails -have presented on an average from fifteen to twenty links each. -Holbrooke[83] has seen one of twenty-one links. A Crotalus at the -London Reptilium had twenty-five links at one time; then ten of them -got broken off, but still a respectably-sized rattle remained. The -longer the rattle, the greater the risk of injury. Oliver Wendell -Holmes, in his wonderful story _Elsie Venner_, states that a snake -in the locality where the Rocklands ‘Rattlesnake Den’ existed, had -forty joints in its rattle, and was supposed, after Indian traditions, -to have killed forty people. He tells us that the inhabitants of -those parts were remarkable for acute hearing even in old age, from -the practice of keeping their ears open for the sound of the rattle -whenever they were walking through grass or in the woods. And whenever -they heard the rattling of a dry bean-pod, they would exclaim, ‘Lord, -have mercy upon us!’ the sound so strongly resembling that of the -dreaded Crotalus. - -Another American naturalist records a snake with forty-four links -to its rattle, but adds that this occurrence is rare and ‘a great -curiosity.’ So one would imagine, and that the fortunate possessor of -such an ensign must have flourished in smooth places. More favoured -still was a snake mentioned in the vol. of the _Philosophical -Transactions_ just now quoted, and in which Paul Dudley had ‘heard it -attested by a Man of Credit that he had killed a Rattlesnake that had -between 70 and 80 Rattles (_i.e._ links), and with a sprinkling of grey -Hairs, like Bristles, all over its Body.’ As this venerable Crotalus -must have rusticated nearly two hundred years ago, we must accept the -tale or tail with caution. - -The family of the _Crotalidæ_, it will be borne in mind, embraces a -large number of serpents with only a rudimentary rattle; a number with -only the horny spine (see p. 176); and a few with a rattle so small -even when fully developed, that they are received into the family by -courtesy rather than by their ‘sounding tail.’ - -[Illustration] - -A small snake with this pretence of a rattle is dangerous because it is -so indistinctly heard. - -This is also the case with _Crotalus miliarius_, whose rattle is so -feeble as to be scarcely audible a few feet off. - -So much for the size of rattles. Now for the development of them. - -The theory that the rattle is the remains of cast-off cuticle, as some -herpetologists have supposed, may be dismissed at once; for what would -cause such vestiges to harden into a complicated and symmetrical form? - -To Dumeril we owe some of our best conceptions of the growth of the -rattle, which, whether it has or has not been evolved from the mere -horny spine that terminates the tails of so many snakes, has certainly -_now_ an express provision for its production. - -Like hair, claws, or nails, the rattle is horny matter excreted and -hardened. In his _Elementary Lessons in Physiology_, Prof. Huxley -shows us how in the growth of a nail new epidermic cells are added to -the base, constraining it to move forward. ‘The nail, thus constantly -receiving additions from below and from behind, slides forward over -its bed and projects beyond the end of the finger.’ If the reader will -look at his finger nail, and suppose the end bone of the Crotalus spine -to be the ‘bed’ of the nail, he will to a certain extent be able to -comprehend how the rattle grows out; but that the links become detached -in succession is a phenomenon so astonishing and at the same time so -difficult to comprehend, that few naturalists have ventured to state -positively how this occurs. Conjecturally only and diffidently do I, -therefore, presume to offer a supposition; and if my readers will -once more pardon reference to human nails, and lend the aid of their -imagination, they may be able to evolve a true theory out of my crude -idea. - -The young readers of _Aunt Judy’s Magazine_ were also, a few years -ago,[84] invited to lend the aid of their pink little finger nails to -the illustrative development of a supposed rattle; and we will again -imagine the whole tip of a finger to be covered with a round nail-cap, -proceeding from the first joint, and to have grown so from birth. In -growing out, this curious, cup-like nail, being never cut, would become -hollow like a thimble. Pointed or tapering it would of course be, -because, as the baby finger grew, the base or new portion of nail grew -larger with it. We will also suppose that the joint whence the nail -sprang was in constant activity, and so articulated that it _could_ -move with a quick and regular action or vibration; the hollow nail-cap, -having attained a certain size, would become withered, and (as the -constant bending of a piece of card or metal in time divides it) would -be worn, and at length detached at its base. Meanwhile the growth of -nail has not been arrested, but a new cap is forming within. The old, -dry, and withered cap has now nothing to retain it, and would drop off, -on account of its simple, conical form, like a loose-fitting thimble. -But Dumeril explains to us that the terminal bones of the rattlesnake’s -spine present a peculiar form, several of them coalescing. - - ‘Dans les Crotales cette extremité de la queue, au lieu d’être - pointue, se trouve comme tronquée, et, par une bizarrerie que nous - n’expliquons pas, il paraîtrait que les trois dernières pièces de la - colonne vertébrale se seraient soudées entre elles, et comme aplaties - pour composer un seul os triangulaire, avec trois bourrelets latéraux - simulant des restes d’apophyses transverses des vertèbres, ainsi - qu’on les voir souvent dans les trois dernières pièces du coccyx - chez l’homme. Cet os anormale a été disséqué chez un Crotale, on a - reconnu qu’il est recouvert d’une sorte de matière cartilagineuse dans - laquelle aurait été secretée la substance cornée, comme un epiderme - solide, qui conserve en effet extérieurement la forme de la pièce - osseuse, sur laquelle elle a été en quelque sorte moulée et qu’elle - semble destinée ainsi à protéger contre l’exfoliation, comme cela - s’observe dans ceux des animaux ruminants dont la corne revêt les - chevilles osseuse du véritable coronal prolongé en pointe et devenu de - cette façon une arme d’attaque, et surtout de defence.’[85] - -Dumeril also tells us that the peculiar structure of those few terminal -vertebræ, with their knobs or pads (‘_bourrelets_’) upon which the skin -is moulded, tends to a movement lateral rather than up and down,—that -quick action which we perceive when the rattle is being vibrated. -Thus the horny covering takes the form of this bone with its lobes -or bulges, which instead of permitting the supposed cup-like nail to -fall off as in our finger illustration, causes the links as they are -pushed out to hang or cling together; and we can only suppose that the -constant action loosens, and not only loosens when dead or detached, -but loosens, that is to say, enlarges, the link while growing. For if -you examine the spine of a skeleton Crotalus and the rattle that grew -upon that spine, you will perceive that the links are a great deal -larger than the ‘_pièce osseuse sur laquelle elle a été en quelque -sorte moulée_.’ - -There is one other peculiarity observable in a detached rattle, which I -cannot pretend to explain in any way. If you hold one up by its base or -largest link, you will find it invariably hangs in a slight curve and -not perpendicularly. You can straighten it, but you will not be able to -curve it in the opposite direction, proving that it naturally inclines -one way, whether to the right or the left of the animal while living, I -cannot assert. But it is a curious feature, and one that can no doubt -be accounted for by scientific observers. Thus, as in the illustration -below, you can curve a rattle so as to discern the interior links on -one side, but not on the other. I have made the attempt with many -rattles, but always with the same result. The centre fig. below is a -section. - -[Illustration: Natural position when held. - -Straightened by force. - -This fine specimen, natural size, and also the Tapering Rattle, both -from Mexico, were lent to me by J. G. Braden, Esq. of Lewes, and copied -accurately.] - -Not the least important of all the speculations to which the rattling -tail has given rise, is the question, ‘Of what use is it?’ for we know -that nothing exists in vain. Apart from the fact that the American -savages make some medicinal use of the rattle, this elaborated, -curious, and not unsightly instrument has as yet had no special and -determined office assigned to it to the advantage of its possessor, -though theories regarding it are numerous. - -Formerly, when only the dangerous powers of the reptile were -understood, it was sufficient to say of it in a tone of pious -thankfulness, that the Almighty had so armed this serpent as a warning -to its enemies. Some of those early writers introduce the rattlesnake -to us as the most benevolent and disinterested of dumb animals, -conscientiously living up to his duties, obedient to that ‘peculiar -Providence’ which has given him a rattle ‘to warn the inadvertent -intruder of danger.’ ‘He maketh such a noise that he catcheth very -few,’ an evidence of imprudence wholly inconsistent with his inherited -‘wisdom.’ Indeed, between the character given of this ‘superb reptile’ -by Chateaubriand, and the self-sacrificing qualities assigned it by -some other writers, we can only wonder how a hungry rattlesnake ever -managed to survive at all, and how it is that the race is not extinct -long ago. - -That the early and unscientific travellers, speaking from a thankful -experience of having escaped a rattlesnake through _hearing_ where -it was, should seek no further for the utility of the rattle, is not -much to be wondered at. But so lately as 1871 one of our popular -physiologists, whose work is a textbook, has expatiated on this -theme so positively that it is necessary to quote his words on this -‘admirable provision of nature,’ which apparently has elaborated a -unique appendage for the purpose of starving its proprietor! - -‘The intention of this organ is so obvious, that the most obtuse -cannot contemplate it without at once appreciating the beauty of the -contrivance.... It (the snake) announces the place of its concealment, -even when at rest, to caution the inadvertent intruder against too near -an approach.’[86] - -If all the venomous serpents were thus beneficently armed (the cobras -of India especially), the crusade against snakes would be at an end, or -never need have been instituted; for supposing the heedless loiterer to -have been a bird, squirrel, guinea-pig, or any of the lesser mammalia -which form the food of most snakes, these happy creatures would have -had the world to themselves long ago, while vipers had kindly starved -themselves out of all traces. - -‘Every creature of God is good,’ we must repeat and ponder over. Even -a deadly rattlesnake, and every part of that rattlesnake, has its -appointed use. - -The ‘inadvertence’ (in this instance on the part of the writer who thus -expressed himself) has not been without its use as well, for a more -careful attention has been given to the rattle in consequence; and much -controversy has since arisen among some of the ablest herpetologists, -particularly in America, where much that was new and suggestive soon -found its way into the scientific journals. - -Briefly to summarize some of the arguments, I will repeat a few of them -as suggested by some well-known naturalists. In that able periodical, -the _American Naturalist_, vol. vi. 1872, the subject was thoroughly -discussed. Professor Shaler, in a paper on ‘The Rattlesnake and Natural -Selection,’ admitted that whereas he had hitherto thought and taught -that the rattle did more harm than good to its owner, he now knew that -the sound is so similar to that of the stridulating insects upon which -some birds feed, that he had no doubt of its use in attracting these -to the snake. He himself had mistaken the sound for a locust. ‘Does -it invite its enemies or entice its prey?’ he asks. ‘Those snakes -that can best attract birds, are best fed.’ In reply to this, a Mr. -J. W. Beal of Michigan affirmed that he had often mistaken the sound -for grasshoppers; which educed many similar accounts from persons who -had been in danger of treading on a Crotalus through ‘inadvertent -approach,’ supposing that only an insect were there. A child had taken -it for a cicada, some one else for a locust, etc. Any one who is -acquainted with the wild parts of the American Continent, is familiar -with the ceaseless chirps and whizzings of those ubiquitous insects -which are furnished with the stridulating apparatus, and which lead you -almost to expect to see a scissors-grinder behind every tree. These -are all the more deceptive on account of their varying cadences, now -louder, now softer, approaching or receding, just as the sound of the -rattle varies by increased or less rapid vibrations, or according to -its individual size and strength. In a paper read before the Zoological -Society by Mr. A. R. Wallace in 1871, he invited attention to this fact -of the resemblance between the sound of the rattle and the singing of a -cricket, and that its use seemed to be to decoy insectivorous animals. - -Dr. Elliott Coues is also of this opinion, viz. that to an unpractised -ear the sound cannot be distinguished from the crepitation of the large -Western grasshopper. A case has been reported, he tells us, of a bird -observed to be drawn within reach, thinking it was a grasshopper. Dr. -Coues also affirms that the sound has been heard when no perceptible -irritation disturbed the snake.[87] - -Thus we see that the ‘inadvertent intruder,’ so far from being warned -away, is beguiled to his injury, both in the case of human beings not -quick to discriminate sounds, or not having rattlesnakes in their -minds, and with animals in their early experience who perhaps hear one -for the first time. - -Another question is, ‘Does the snake sound its rattles when seeking to -capture prey?’ - -The editor of the _American Naturalist_ in the volume already quoted, -thinks they do not systematically set up a rattling for this purpose; -and as far as observation of snakes in confinement can be of use, this -opinion may be confirmed. Probably a captive snake may have learned -by experience that, hungry or not, it must wait for its periodical -dinner, and that its ‘dinner bell’ avails it nothing. Nevertheless, we -do not find that the snake uses its rattle upon food being placed in -its cage, unless the rat or the guinea-pig come tumbling unexpectedly -or unceremoniously upon the snake, when it would sound its rattle in -alarm; but it waits quietly, silently, rather receding than advancing -towards the destined prey, and then, after cautious observation, -stealthily approaching to give the fatal bite. Mr. Arthur Nicols, -author of _Zoological Notes_, etc., has there discussed this point, -but dismisses it by declaring he has no faith in ‘the dinner-bell -theory.’[88] - -Nor can the rattle be designed to terrify enemies or as a menace, since -the sound would invite the attack of those very animals which the snake -has most cause to fear, namely goats, hogs, and the large carnivorous -birds that devour it. If, besides, it were used as a warning, why have -the young ones, which are more in need of protection, no rattle? - -Darwin, in the sixth edition of his _Origin of Species_, 1872, writes -as follows, p. 162:— - -‘It is admitted that the rattlesnake has a poison-fang for its own -defence and for the destruction of its prey; but some authors suppose -that at the same time it is furnished with a rattle for its own injury, -namely to warn its prey. I would almost as soon believe that the cat -curls the end of its tail when preparing to spring in order to warn -the doomed mouse. It is a much more probable view that the rattlesnake -uses its rattle, the cobra expands its frill, and the puffadder swells -whilst hissing so loudly and harshly, in order to alarm the many birds -and beasts which are known to attack even the most venomous species. -Snakes act on the same principle which makes a hen ruffle her feathers -and expand her wings when a dog approaches her chickens.’ This profound -thinker, then, is one of those who include the rattle among ‘the many -ways by which animals endeavour to frighten away their enemies.’ - -We may reasonably conclude that the _Crotalus_, in common with other -snakes, also with dogs and cats, expresses a variety of feelings with -its sounding tail, fear being the most predominant one. The Indians -recognise its utility as a warning by gratefully abstaining from -killing one that rattles. They superstitiously regard it as protective -to themselves if not to the snake, and they in turn carefully protect -the reptile. Backwoodsmen display little or no fear when they _hear_ -the _Crotalus_, and though they do not spare it, regard it with less -bitter animosity than they display towards its cousin the Copper-head; -because, as a facetious writer has testified of it, ‘it never bites -without provocation, living up to the laws of honour, and by his -rattles giving challenge in an honourable way.’ - -That the sound has a language of its own is known by the fact that -when disturbed and one rattle is sprung, all other rattlesnakes within -hearing take up the chorus. That the sexes also understand each other -through crotaline eloquence is generally believed. In fact, to each -other and to themselves they have, no doubt, as many variations in the -use of their rattles, as any other animal in the expression of its -tail; and probably all the above enumerated examples are at one time or -another its legitimate uses. Those who have most closely observed them -have detected a variety of cadences in one and the same rattle. - -Those also who have carefully watched rattlesnakes under various -circumstances, must perceive that timidity is one of the strongest -features in this reptile. In chap. xxx. I will give examples of this. -Already convinced by observation, I attributed to excessive timidity -the chief agitation of the rattle, when writing on the Ophidia in the -_Dublin University Magazine_, December 1875, and again in _Aunt Judy’s -Magazine_, July 1877. Fear causes some snakes to puff themselves; -others to expand or flatten the body; fear excites the cobra to erect -its anterior ribs and display its ‘hood;’ and, above all, fear causes -most snakes to hiss. Fear is coupled with anger, in these attempts -to do their best towards repelling the offender. Dr. E. Coues, in -speaking of the rattle, supposes it to have possibly ‘resulted in the -course of time from the continual agitation of the caudal extremity -of these _highly nervous and irritable creatures_.’ Dr. Weir Mitchell -has known captive snakes to vibrate the rattle for hours at a time; -and probably, if there were opportunities of becoming more intimately -acquainted with crotaline idiosyncrasies, we should discover some -snakes to be more or less afflicted with temper, nervousness, terror, -or other emotions which induce an animal to express its feelings in its -own way. - -But the most remarkable peculiarity in this snake is that no other -way _is_ in its power: _a rattlesnake never hisses_. Throughout the -numerous arguments, theories, explanations, and suggestions, there is -such an absence of allusion to this fact that we must suppose it to -be very little known. Says Dumeril in describing _les petits étuis -cornés, comparé à celui que feraient plusieurs grelots peu sonorés: -‘Les Crotales diffèrent de tous les autres serpents connus par la -faculté qu’ils ont de produire des sons sourds et rapides, cu plutôt -des bruits continus et prolongés à l’aide d’un organe spécial, qui -supléerait—pour ainsi dire—à la voix, dont ces serpents sont toujours -privés.’_[89] But the sibilations of the rattle are often so like -hissing that they have been compared to the whistling of wind among -the leaves, to the escape of water through a pipe, to the whizzing of -insects, the rattling of seed pods, and many similar sounds, showing at -the same time the character of the noise and its variability. - -Concisely recapitulating what this rattle does, we understand that in -the first place it is a substitute for the voice—so far as hissing can -be called voice; and that what would cause other excessively nervous, -timid, terrified snakes to hiss, causes the rattle to vibrate. It may -attract insectivorous birds; it may alarm other timid creatures; it -may summon its mate; and, as is well known, it has sympathy with its -mate; for a second rattle is almost sure to be sounded, and they have -been observed to sound in pairs or numbers responsively—it may be -to express anger, fear, and for aught we know _pleasure_, in a state -of liberty and enjoyment, feelings expressed by the tail of other -creatures. - -Why it is formed as it is, so wholly different from all other tails; -from what it has been evolved; and how long in evolving,—all these are -problems to be solved by future Darwins and future Evolutionists. - -This chapter, therefore, closes with only feeble speculations after -feeble attempts to explain an inexplicable phenomenon. The simplest and -truest solution seems to be found in those few words, ‘_qui supléerait -à la voix, dont ces serpents sont toujours privés_.’ - -Again, we wonder whether in the non-hissing serpents any peculiarity of -trachea may be observed. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -_THE INTEGUMENT—‘HORNS,’ AND OTHER EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES._ - - -HAVING decided that in animal organization nothing exists without its -especial use; assuming also that the peculiar development of cuticle -forming the rattle is to supply the deficiency of voice, we are next -induced to examine those other appendages in serpents which are also -modifications of the integument, such as the ‘horns’ of the Cerastes, -the tentacles, snout-protuberances, and developments occasionally seen -about the head of snakes, and which have all, no doubt, their uses. - -‘Serpents are naked,’ says Günther—that is, they have no separate -epidermal productions in the way of fur, feathers, hair, or wool, -and all the variations of form in scales are but the folds of the -epidermis.[90] The ‘variations of form’ include, therefore, the -appendages above mentioned. - -The heads of most snakes are covered with non-imbricated plates or -shields. The form and position of these shields are in a great measure -used in classification; ‘are of the greatest value for distinction -of species and genera.’[91] For this reason each and all of the head -shields are specially named. - -Ophiologists differ slightly in distinguishing them as regards -assigning the exact position of some of the shields, which, like all -other ophidian features, vary in closely allied species. As, for -example, while one naturalist may decide that a certain shield is -exactly over the eye, another may consider it somewhat to the right or -the left. - -Günther’s classification being the one now generally adopted, I copy -the names assigned by him, and the diagrams given in his work. - -[Illustration: - -_Fig. 1._ Top of the head of a Colubrine snake. _r_, rostral; _f’_, -anterior frontal; _f_, posterior frontal; _v_, vertical; _s_, -supraciliary; _o_, occipital; _t_, temporal. - -_Fig. 2._ Profile of the same. _t_, temporal; _p_, posterior ocular or -orbital; _a_, anterior ocular or præorbital; _l_, loreal; _n_, nasals; -_uu_, upper labials; **, lower labials. - -_Fig. 3._ Under side of the same. **, lower labials; _cc_, -chin-shields; _m_, mental or median lower labial.] - -It will be observed that some of these shields can be seen both in the -profile and the others as well; as, for instance, the temporal and the -labial or lip shields. The study of them is simplified by the initial -letter of each name being used in reference to them. The names used -also speak for themselves; as _mental_, the chin shield; _nasals_, near -the nostril; _rostral_, the beak shields. - -Ophiologists in deciding species, etc., enumerate those which are more -than a pair as ‘upper labials’ so many, ‘lower labials’ so many. In -some snakes these shields are so large as to cover nearly the entire -head; in others, they are almost inconspicuously small, or absent -altogether, and much varied, as we shall see. - -In the vipers the head is generally covered with small, rigid, -imbricated, or overlapping scales instead of plates, and in some -the scales are so extremely fine and closely arranged as almost -to represent short bristles. This is noticeable in the African -‘nose-horned viper’ (_Vipera nasicornis_), p. 322, where they present a -curiously complicated structure. - -[Illustration: Magnified carinated scale. - -Magnified head-scale of _Vipera nasicornis_, of the -coloured illustration.] - -Too minute to examine except under the magnifying-glass, or to attempt -to illustrate, we can convey only a general idea of these curious viper -scales, which to the touch are spinous, and rough as a coarse brush. -They must form an unpleasant perch for a bird, if it be true that the -latter is enticed by the horns of some vipers to come and peck at them, -as at a worm. These rigid head-scales become gradually larger and more -simple on the body, but are still comparatively small for so large a -serpent. In some few of the viperine snakes, plates are present as -well as the fine scales, though chiefly about the nose and mouth, -exceptions which are now and then found in non-venomous ones also. -The preceding three illustrations are the head shields of a Colubrine -snake, in which a greater uniformity prevails. Below are given four -other types, though even here variations are constantly occurring. - -[Illustration] - -_Fig. a._ One of the Indian _Crotalidæ_. It has two conspicuous -supraciliary shields, two equally conspicuous anterior frontals over -the nostril. The rest are small, and those on the top are absent -altogether. The scales are all finely carinated. - -_Fig. b._ The head of a Colubrine snake in which the same scales appear -as those in Fig. 1 of the preceding page, viz. two orbitals, etc., but -are all much smaller, and do not therefore more than half cover the -head. - -_Fig. c._ The head of a sea snake, which as to design is really pretty, -and, as Günther affirms, so different from land snakes in respect to -head shields, that without any further investigation an ophiologist can -at once distinguish the _hydrophidæ_. - -_Fig. d._ The head of a viper in which only very small supraciliary -and nasal (or anterior frontal) shields are seen. The angular form of -the viperine head is here noteworthy. In some of the Tropical American -viperine species (the _Crotalidæ_) the angular head is so marked as -to be separated into a genus—the _Trigonocephali_, three-cornered -heads. One head is sagittate or arrow-shaped to such an extent that the -serpent is known as the _Fer de lance_, the dreaded _Trigonocephalus -lanceolatus_ of the Antilles. There are _Trigonocephali_ among the -Indian Thanatophidia also. - -One other very remarkable exception must not be omitted—namely, that -in pythons may be seen an angular head, which makes the neck thin and -conspicuous, only in a less degree; and also the absence of large head -shields. In addition to this, many of the pythons have particularly -short and very pointed tails—three singular viperine features in -non-venomous snakes, which can only be inherited from a common ancestry. - -Another caprice is seen in the carinated or keel-shaped body scales, -which are found in venomous and non-venomous, land and water, ground -and tree snakes indifferently; though I think one may be safe in -affirming that none of the true vipers have unkeeled and polished -scales. Nicholson has observed that in several allied species, some -have and some have not the keel, and that those without do as well as -those with. ‘The history of the keel is not known,’ says this author. -In appearance it reminds one of the mid-rib of a leaf or of a feather, -and may probably be an inherited feature in common with birds whose -reptilian ancestry in process of ages had fluttered their scales into -feathers. In fact, in many snakes where no keel is found, there is -some slight indication of a centre line, even if it take the form of -a groove or depression. In the _Tropidonoti_ the keel is so developed -as to distinguish the group; yet many with keels have comparatively -smooth skins. The carinated scales of vipers (from _carina_, a keel) -are sharply defined, like the keel at the prow of a ship, or like the -breast-bone of the swift-flying birds which Mr. Sclater, in one of -his zoological lectures, described as the carinate birds. It is these -sharply-defined, stiff; and dull scales belonging to the vipers which -produce the rustling noise when the snake is agitated, as described in -the little Indian _Echis carinata_ in the chapter on hissing. In the -_Cerastes_ I have witnessed the same agitated convolutions accompanied -by the audible rustling produced by the rough scales. See illus. p. 317. - -What are called ‘horns’ in some of the African vipers are -curiously-modified scales, which, under close examination, present the -appearance of half-curled leaves, sometimes of ears, like those of a -rabbit or a mouse. Being only cuticle, and liable to injury, these -‘horns’ vary in size and colour as well as form. - -[Illustration: The sloughed horns of _Vipera nasicornis_ (exact size).] - -The accompanying figure is from the slough of the _Vipera nasicornis_ -of the coloured illustration. They were not reversed in desquamation, -but came off with a portion of the fine spiny head scales. They were -so dry and shrivelled at the time, that it is hard to conceive how -they could possibly be reversed, the rest of the bristly head-scales -peeling off in pieces. Yet we cannot conclude from this that the horns -are _never reversed_ in sloughing; the individual in question having -undergone long captivity in a close box during her journey from West -Africa, and arriving at the Zoological Gardens in such a miserable -plight that it was difficult to distinguish species or colouring for -many days. In this condition she remained for five weeks, when one fine -Sunday afternoon she presented the Society with forty-six viperlings. - -[Illustration: VIPERA NASICORNIS AND YOUNG ONE. - -AFRICA. - -Mother over five feet long, Viperling 9 inches.] - -Soon after this event she discarded her way-worn and bedraggled -garment, and shone resplendent in gorgeous colouring, as presented to -the reader in the coloured illustration. - -Her portrait was not taken until some weeks afterwards, when the horns -were therefore a little dry and shrivelled again. With the new dress -they presented a well-defined and perfect curve, tapering to a point, -and without any break in their outline. By degrees they became curled -in the manner here represented. Her colours were of a rich prismatic -hue on the sides, where the brilliant tints are so blended that to -paint them is impossible. Only on the back and in the darker markings -can the pattern be fairly represented. Her children all resembled her -in their rich tints, and were so handsome that one almost forgot their -evil propensities. - -Forty of them died within a week. I begged hard for one of the -deceased. The keeper of course had no power in his hands. All were -wanted for scientific experimentalists. Alas, I was no scientist, but -only a woman! The following Sunday, when I was at the Gardens, the -forty-first baby viper had just died. The Superintendent ‘happened -along,’ and was greeted with another appeal from me. He would ‘consider -of it’ and let me know ‘to-morrow.’ ‘Oh, why not _now_?’ pleaded the -reader’s devoted servant. ‘You can’t want forty-one little dead vipers!’ - -Suddenly to the rescue appeared on the scene no less a personage -than Dr. Günther, and to him I urged my request. ‘Well,’ said he in -response to my eagerness, ‘one of Our Council is here, and’—Yes, the -F.Z.S. referred to had, with the Superintendent, just passed the iron -barrier to view the interesting little survivors, and Dr. Günther -followed, while I discreetly remained outside. My suspense was not of -long duration, for soon reappeared the amiable Superintendent daintily -carrying a little paper bag which might have contained bon-bons. -‘Fortunately,’ said he, ‘two of Our Council happen to be here, and so,’ -etc., and I became the happy possessor of the scarcely cold viperling, -here faithfully represented by the side of its mother. Exultantly I -carried it off to a sequestered spot,—thinking chiefly of _you_, dear -readers,—and examined its ‘horns,’ which wore the appearance of an -ornamental top-knot rather than horns. They were like a bow, or two -little ears, or half-unfolded leaves. Its colouring was gorgeous, but -the pattern is too fine and complicated to represent on so small a -scale. The black triangular mark on the head of both mother and child -was like velvet in its density. Nor was this appearance lessened -under the lens; for quickly I ran off with my treasure, and spent -a delightful ‘evening at home’ in studying its ‘points,’ not even -excepting those of tongue and fangs. The former is represented on p. -120, and the latter on p. 360. The other results of my investigations -come under their separate heads in this book. - -Another of the horned serpents, _Vipera cornuta_, has a cluster of -leaf-like scales in three distinct pairs decorating its nose. These in -the individual at the Zoological Gardens were particularly ear-like, -and there was a remarkable peculiarity about them which was not found -in either of the other horned specimens when dead. It was, that when -one horn was moved divergently with the finger, its fellow moved -_without being touched_ to correspond, and when let go _both_ sprang -back to their original position. I at first was merely feeling and -examining them when this singularly sympathetic movement arrested my -attention. Then I tried it with each of the six scales or ‘horns’ -several times, and always with the same result. Whichever one of them -was held back, the opposite one diverged at a corresponding angle. - -[Illustration: - -1. Natural position. - -2. Three held back to their utmost. - -3. Three held back partly.] - -Their natural position is nearly erect, and when one horn—say the -longest to the right in Fig. 1—was pressed or pulled outwards, we -might suppose that in a dead specimen it would drag its fellow that way -also, should any movement at all take place; instead of which, it flew -off in the opposite direction, like two negative or two positive poles -repelling each other. If I pressed the three to the right as much as in -the centre figure, the other three receded similarly to the left. Each -pair acted in concert in this remarkable manner, or each two pairs, or -all three pairs. - -The three sketches are given merely in illustration of a phenomenon -which I cannot attempt to explain or even to comprehend. They -were drawn from memory, and are not therefore offered as exact -representations, though near enough to serve our purpose. The movement -seems to argue some peculiar muscular or nervous connection between -each pair. The serpent had not been long dead; and as no others of -this species have since been at the Gardens, I cannot tell whether -the same sympathetic movement would be seen in the living viper. I -have attentively watched the horns of the other vipers, but never -detected the slightest voluntary action in them. Nor do the horns of -_V. nasicornis_ respond to the touch in the same way. A third of the -horned vipers is the _Cerastes_ of classic times. Illustrators of books -from descriptions only have presented us with this serpent adorned -with horns like a young heifer. They are simply scaly appendages like -the rest, but when perfect do certainly curve backwards and upwards -in a rather bovine fashion. It happened that a _Cerastes_ was brought -to the Gardens just after the six-horned viper had died, affording me -a happy opportunity of examining it. It was of this viper that Pliny -wrote: ‘It moves its little horns, often 4 in number, to attract -birds, the rest of its body lying concealed.’ It is the habit of all -those inhabiting sandy deserts thus to hide themselves, probably to -escape the scorching, drying sunshine, and with perhaps the nose and -upper part of the head exposed for breathing. I have carefully watched -several of the horned vipers for a long while together, but have never -detected the slightest volitional movement in their horns. A bird might -come and peck at them, nevertheless. Another belonging to South Africa -(_Lophophrys_) has a bunch of irregular and much shorter horns standing -erect and apparently unpaired. Incipient horny scales often accompany -the regular pairs, making it difficult to decide exactly which was -Pliny’s of the ‘four horns,’ and which is the _Hexacornis_ of Shaw. -Varieties exist and add to the perplexity; probably also hybrids occur -among these as among non-viperine snakes. - -A curious variety of the nasal appendages appears in the _Langaha_ with -the _crête de coq_; only the crest is on the snout instead of on the -head. - -These spurs are merely modifications of the epidermis like the rest; -but are, no doubt, endowed with peculiar sensitiveness, so that -possibly they act as a sort of herald in the dark, like a cat’s -whiskers. - -[Illustration: Profile of _Langaha_.] - -There are the pointed-nosed Dryophidians also, with scaly -protuberances, and others with variously-elongated snouts terminating -in long, scaly, horn-like appendages, all, no doubt, more or less -sensitive, to enable the owners to feel their way, or ascertain the -nature of their surroundings, especially if they are of nocturnal -habits. - -In some of the tree snakes, notably _Passerita_, there is no appendage, -but the long snout is itself endowed with mobility. This is a nocturnal -snake; a harmless and exceedingly slender, graceful creature. - -[Illustration: Profile of _Passerita_.] - -But of these curious developments or prolongations, one of the Indian -fresh-water snakes presents a remarkable example, almost allying -it to some of the fishes with long tentacular appendages. _Herpeton -tentaculum_ is its name, its pair of tentacles being scaly and -flexible, and in appearance somewhat like the African viper’s horns, -sticking out horizontally from its snout. They are employed under water -as organs of touch, and probably to discern food. - -These are some of the most striking head-appendages; though in the way -of pug-nosed ophidians and curious profiles we might give a whole page -of illustrations. - -In the acrobatic chapter, mention was made of a pair of rudimentary -hind limbs in some of the boas. Externally the derm is condensed into -‘claws’ or ‘hooks.’ In form they are merely long, simple appendages, -which in the largest boas are about as big as a finger. Claws and hooks -they are in the matter of use, being a pair, and they no doubt assist -the climbing snakes in grasping. - -As a condensed form of the tegument, they are included in this chapter; -but as they are truly vestiges of limbs, I will digress a moment to add -a word. - -Says Darwin on rudimentary and atrophied limbs: ‘The disuse of parts -leads to their reduced size: and the result is inherited.’ Some tame -little lizards in my possession—our native species—when crawling -about their cages scratching the sand or pushing their way among the -moss and rubbish, frequently made use of their fore legs only, allowing -the hind legs to drag after them, not because the latter were in any -way injured, but simply because the lizards could do well enough -without them. They were folded back or permitted to lie passively -prone against the tail, while the arms and exquisite little hands were -sufficient for the work required. They reminded one of Darwin’s words, -and though my style of talking to my pets was such as to suit lizard -comprehension solely, I did sometimes warn them in plain English. ‘If -you don’t give your legs sufficient exercise, they will dwindle away by -and by, and your descendants will have no hind legs at all!’ - -After thus moralizing to the unheeding lacertines, it was with secret -gratification that one heard Professor Huxley, in his Lecture on -‘Snakes’ at the London Institution, Dec. 1, 1879, say—as nearly as I -can remember—‘In evolution or a gradual change, the lizard found it -profitable to lose its legs and become a snake; all modifications are -an improvement to the creature, putting it in a better condition.’ In -this ‘better condition,’ therefore, does the slow-worm find itself, -when it glides noiselessly, and almost without stirring a blade of -grass, into its burrow. In other lizards one may sometimes observe -that the _hind_ legs are most used in scratching and pushing the earth -away. Thus, in the constricting snakes—these descendants of some -pre-ophidian lizards—the unused limbs have become obsolete; and the -spine, gaining strength with increased action, has at length become to -the constrictors their hands, feet, arms, and legs, and endowed with -those wondrous capabilities which were described in chap. xii. - -To return to the integument. As one of its developments, the hood of -the cobra may be included in this chapter, the skin here exhibiting -its extensile or expansive construction. It is the longer ribs, about -twenty pairs nearest the head (see p. 33), which really do form -the hood. These anterior ribs, gradually increasing in length and -decreasing again, are not connected with the ventral scales in the -same way as those on which the snake progresses, but can be elevated -or expanded in the manner familiar to the reader; they then support -the extended skin exactly in the way that the ribs of a lined parasol -support the fabric; only while the ribs of the parasol spring from a -common centre, the ribs of the cobra are attached to its vertebræ, -requiring no other agency than the will of the owner. The action of -the ribs as expressive of emotion, in several species of snakes, was -mentioned page 150. In the ‘hooded’ snakes (_naja_), it is seen in an -extreme degree. Facing you, the angry cobra displays these umbra-like -expanded ribs, while the form of the ‘neck’ or vertebral column in the -centre is prominently perceptible. When at rest, they all lie flat one -over the other, like the ribs of a closed parasol. - -In the way of external peculiarities the ‘gular fissure’ may be -mentioned. It is merely a slight groove or crease extending from -the chin longitudinally under the throat for a few inches or more, -according to the size of the snake; a sort of wrinkle (_fosse_) to -admit of expansion during the swallowing of prey. - -Externally snakes have no indication of ears; therefore, in the way of -integument, there is nothing to describe in their organ of hearing. But -the eye covering is a beautiful and wonderful arrangement. - -Snakes have no eyelids, and can therefore never close their eyes, a -fact which has given rise to a vulgar belief that they never sleep. -Their eyes are, however, well developed, particularly in those -snakes which live above ground, and are covered with a transparent -layer of the epidermis, forming a capsule which is moulted with -the cuticle. Physiologists tell us that it is moistened with the -lachrymal fluid. Bright and glistening is the serpent’s eye, except -previous to desquamation, when, from the new skin forming beneath, it -becomes opaque and dull, and the snake is blind for a few days more or -less, according to its health at the time. Rymer Jones considers the -transparent membrane cast with the slough a real eyelid in a framework -of regular scales; Huxley (in the lecture already alluded to) said -snakes’ eyelids are as if our two eyelids were joined. In form and -appearance this moulted cuticle is singularly clear and shapely: on the -outer side, like a miniature watchglass; but within it is a perfect -cup, standing up and out from the surrounding scales like a cup in a -saucer, the rounded base of which is the transparent skin, as here seen. - -[Illustration: Illustration of eye covering.] - -For the process of sloughing or casting the skin, the term -desquamation—literally, an unscaling—is often used; but this word -seems rather to imply an unhealthy action, as if the cuticle peels off -in pieces, than the normal operation, which is to shed it entire. - -It is a matter of surprise—if we are to believe what we read—that -few naturalists seem to have witnessed this process, so as to be able -to describe it from their own observations; but this must be due more -to lack of interest than of opportunity, since the occurrence is very -frequent. Those in the vicinity of Zoological Gardens have no excuse -for not observing it; yet so lately as Oct. 1879, we find a writer in -_Nature_, vol. xx. p. 530, attempting to describe the ‘skin-shedding,’ -with the admission that he has never witnessed the process, nor, he -believes, ‘has any observer’! He thinks snakes shed the skin ‘as if you -turned a narrow hem, or a glove-finger by a knotted thread fastened at -the tip,’ and which of course would draw the tip _inside_ the finger. -The glove tip is to represent the tail of the snake, which, as he -supposes, adhering _at the tip_, is drawn along _inwards_ as the snake -proceeds to crawl out of its own mouth, or its cuticle’s mouth—which -has already become loosened round the lips. This, in the mind of that -writer, satisfactorily accounts for the skin being usually found -reversed! Can he have never seen a silkworm change its skin; or found -the slough of a common caterpillar adhering to its tail; or observed -the appearance of its mouth previous to the moulting? True, a slow-worm -sometimes leaves its slough in a crumpled-up condition, exactly like -the silk-worm’s. This I have seen. On the other hand, the same little -reptile, on another occasion, crawled out of its coat, leaving it -perfect and unreversed through its entire length. Both sloughs have -been preserved. As a more general rule the slough is reversed; but in -the process it folds back and over the body, _outside_ of it, in the -manner of a stocking drawn off from knee-wards, and turning back till -entirely reversed it leaves the foot. This common and apt illustration -is easily understood if we suppose the top of the stocking to be the -mouth of the slough, and the toe its tail. But as the toes might -sometimes slip out of a stocking when nearly off, so does the tail -of a snake sometimes slip out; this portion therefore is often found -_unreversed_. More than a hundred years ago the sloughing of snakes was -understood and described in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1747, vol. xl.; as -also of lizards ‘slipping off their skins as vipers do.’ Some young -vipers changed at six weeks old, and again in two months after that. -‘They always began at the mouth,’ said the writer. The process has been -witnessed and described by many since that, though more by foreign than -by English naturalists. - -Some of the older writers have told us that ‘a snake frequents the spot -where it has cast its skin,’ or, in other words, that it selects that -locality for its nest—a fact as curiously stated as if you related of -a person that he chose for his home the house in which he performed his -toilet. Snakes have a strong affection for locality; and where their -nest is, there, or near it, their garments are naturally renewed. - -Another mooted question has been the precise period of sloughing; -formerly the accepted opinion was that once a year, viz. in the spring, -was the usual habit. This was probably from so many coils of skins -being found at this season. That they do change in the spring may -be established as an almost invariable rule; but not then only. No -precise periods can be given with certainty, because it depends on the -individual, its health and surroundings. The ophidian is a fastidious -creature, and when his garment becomes soiled or uncomfortable he -discards it. Thus after hibernation, when for some months numbers -of snakes have been coiled in masses in a cave or under stones -and rubbish, and they emerge into daylight, aroused by the sun’s -revivifying rays, what more natural than to cast off the old winter -garb for a more comfortable suit? - -Almost invariably, soon after a long journey, and on being established -in a new home, a snake re-attires. We have seen what their travelling -cages are! Closely nailed up, and often in air-tight boxes in which the -poor things are tumbled over and over with as little mercy as ceremony -during removal from one conveyance to another, they arrive—as in the -case of the African viper (coloured illustration)—in such a pitiable -plight that it is next to impossible to identify them. Another almost -invariable rule is sloughing soon after birth—that is, in from a -week to a fortnight; also, during early and rapid growth, the young -snake will change frequently. Most ophiologists fix upon two months -as an average time, taking one snake with another; for while one may -desquamate every few weeks, another may keep his coat unsoiled for six -months. - -Sir Joseph Fayrer made careful notes on this subject. He had one cobra -which changed in rather less than a month—viz. first on Oct. 17th, -next on Nov. 10th, and again on Dec. 7th. A _Liophis_ at the London -Gardens changed every few weeks, and a _Ptyas_—he of the lecture -exhibition (p. 214)—changed almost once a month on an average. - -A curiously beautiful object is the cast-off coat, and well worth -an examination. You discern the exact form of the reptile’s head, -mouth, and nostrils, the exquisitely transparent eye-covering, the -various forms of the overlapping or imbricated folds or ‘scales,’ and -how admirably the broad ventral plates are adapted for locomotion; -particularly noteworthy too is the perfect reversion of this coat of -some feet or some yards in length, turned inside out as you may turn a -sleeve. - -The first time I watched the process was with the celebrated Hamadryad -soon after it was installed as a distinguished inmate at the Zoological -Gardens. The interest attached to this _Ophiophagus_ or snake-eater had -caused me to observe it on all possible occasions; and as the whole -front of its cage was clear glass at that time, the spectator could -easily see all that occurred within. - -Will the reader once more accompany me in imagination to the Gardens, -and see how a snake performs its toilet? I have watched many since -then, and have observed the same proceeding in them all, those in -good health and able to assist themselves; in others it is a literal -desquamation or peeling off of scales or fragments in a dry state. -Encouraged by the very recent statement in a highly scientific journal, -that no one is supposed ever to have witnessed the sloughing of snakes, -I venture to again describe what I saw, having already done so in -the _Dublin University Magazine_ in Dec. 1875, and in _Aunt Judy’s -Magazine_ (Sept. 1874), and elsewhere. - -We stand before the cage of the interesting Hamadryad (_Ophiophagus -elaps_). His name at once tells us that he is fond of trees as well -as of snakes; but, alas! there is no tree in his cage, not even an -old bough on which to exercise his climbing propensities. He is -wonderfully restless to-day, crawling ceaselessly about as if in -search of something. This, however, cannot be his object; for his head -is not raised in observation, but is close to the shingle, as if too -heavy to lift. He seems to be pushing it before him in a very strange -manner, and is evidently suffering discomfort of some sort. All round -his cage he goes, against the edge of the tank, still pushing and -rubbing his head, now under his blanket, or against any projecting -surface, under again, close to the floor, restlessly on and on in these -untiring perambulations; what can be the cause? After a tedious while -‘Ophio’—as his admirers call him—varies his movements, but only to -turn the chin upwards and push his head sideways over the shingle. -Now the other side he pushes along: the action is like that of a cat -rubbing her head against your chair. Now he turns his head completely -over, so that the top of it may come in for its share of rubbing; -and such for a considerable time are his persistent movements, while -we watch him wonderingly, and at length point him out to the keeper -inquiringly. - -‘Going to change,’ said Holland. ‘That’s the way they always do.’ - -To you and me, dear reader, the sight is novel and interesting; so let -us continue to watch, glad that nothing more serious is the matter with -this rare and valuable snake than doffing an old coat. - -And soon we see the skin separating at the lips, where, no doubt, it -has caused irritation and induced that incessant rubbing. Now the -entire upper lip is free, and the loose portion laps back as Ophio -pursues his course. Next we see the skin of the under lip detaching -itself; and that is also reversed, the two portions above and below -the jaw increasing every moment and folding farther and farther back -with the ceaseless friction until they look like a cape or hood round -Ophio’s neck, from which his clean bright head emerges. Hitherto the -process has been tedious, but now the ribs are reached, and they take -part in the work and facilitate matters greatly. The snake has no -longer to rub himself so vigorously, but simply to keep moving; and at -every step, so to speak—that is, with every pair of ribs in succession -beginning at the neck—the large ventral scale belonging to that pair -is shoved off, carrying with it the complete circle of scales. With an -almost imperceptible nudge each pair of ribs eases off a portion, which -continually lengthening as it is vacated, and reversed of course, folds -back more and more, till Ophio looks as if he were crawling out of a -silken tube. As he thus proceeds, now very rapidly, he emerges bright -and beautiful—six inches, a foot, two feet; and all the while each -pair of ribs successively performs its part with that nudging sort of -action, like elbowing off a coat sleeve. If we had begun to count from -the very first pair, and if he had not gone under his blanket during -the process, we could have told the precise number of pairs of ribs -which he has to assist his toilet. He had two yards and a half of old -coat to walk out of, but this he achieves in far less time than it -took him to get his head clear. In his native tree or jungle he would -have found leaves and underbrush to aid the operation; and it would -be a great kindness to snakes in captivity to provide them with wisps -of straw, when sloughing, or some rough rubbish in their cages. Soft -blankets and smooth wood-work do not offer sufficient resistance for -them. - -The constricting snakes are less at a loss. From their pliancy of -motion, and their habits of coiling—from the fact of their ‘whole body -being a hand,’ as we have already seen, they can assist themselves by -their own coils passing through them, and so helping to drag off the -slough. - -Those who have kept snakes tell us that the tame ones will even leave -the slough in the hand, if you hold them during the process, and permit -them to pass gently through the closed fingers. Owen, in his _Anatomy -of the Vertebrates_, mentions as a not unfrequent action, that when the -head is free from the slough the snake brings forward the tail, and -coils it transversely round the head, then pushes itself through the -coil, threading its body through this caudal ring. - -But we have left our captive with still about a foot and a half of -garment to get rid of and this is not much less difficult to accomplish -than the head-gear. He has arrived at the last pair of ribs, and -now, without such agency to free the tail cuticle, he more than ever -needs some opposing obstacle. He has only his blanket, however, to -pass under; and at last, by dragging himself along, the process is -completed, the extreme few inches sliding off unreversed. - -On several subsequent occasions the Hamadryad has left the entire -tail, often _nearly_ all of it, unreversed, as do many other snakes. -Sometimes by a succession of jerks they manage to get rid of this -portion; sometimes a comrade happens to pass over the slough—a great -assistance, as affording resistance. I observed this particularly in -a small constrictor, one of the three that entrapped two or three -sparrows in as many coils at the same moment. In this case the whole -process occupied less than ten minutes. After rubbing its head against -the gravel, and turning it completely over to free itself from -the upper shields, its ribs took chief part as usual, and I noted -particularly that each pair moved in concert, and not alternately. This -little snake went round close under the slanting edge of his bath-pan, -which afforded him some assistance, and by the time he reappeared in -front the whole slough was discarded, excepting a few inches of tail. -These few inches caused some trouble, until his friend the python -happened to pass over it, when with one final jerk the slough was free -and entire from lip to tip. It was the quickest and most complete -sloughing I have ever watched. - -When all was over, the large, beautiful black eyes of this four-striped -or ‘four-rayed’ snake were particularly brilliant, as the little -constrictor looked about and watched observantly, rejoicing in his -newly-found faculty, after the blindness of the preceding days. Often -the snakes are shy, and change at night; the tamer ones, however, -undress when it suits them, affording frequent opportunities for -observation. - -The slough when first discarded is moist and flabby; but it soon dries, -and then in substance is as much like what is called ‘gold-beater’s -skin’ as anything else, though a stronger texture is observable in the -head-shields and the ventral scales. - -The size of the scales does not appear to bear any very regular -correspondence with the size of their owner; for you will notice that -some snakes only three feet in length, have larger scales than others -three yards in length. Some of the immense pythons have smaller scales -than a rattlesnake; and again, snakes of similar dimensions have scales -different both in size and form. As great a variety is seen in the form -and arrangement of scales as of shields. - -Snakes are to a certain extent invalids previous to the shedding of -their skin, temporarily blind, courting retirement, and declining food; -but they recover triumphantly the moment the slough is discarded. -They then appear to rejoice in a new existence, their functions are in -fullest activity, their appetite keen. At this time the poisonous kinds -are most to be dreaded, probably from the venom having accumulated -during the quiescent condition. - -At this time, too, their colours show to the greatest advantage, their -eyes are brightest, and their personal comfort no doubt is enhanced in -every way. - -Before taking leave of the integument, a few words about the markings -or patterns and colouring of serpents may not come amiss. Mr. Ruskin, -in his celebrated lecture on Snakes, exhibited to his delighted -audience a fine anaconda skin, and drew attention to the ‘disorderly -spots, without system,’ with which this snake is marked. _Taches à -tortue_, as it was at first described; and by Dumeril as marked ‘_avec -de grandes taches semées sans ordre_.’ Notwithstanding the irregularity -the skin is handsome. The oval spots of various sizes and at unequal -distances have still a character of their own, as much as the spots of -the leopard or the stripes of the zebra, no two of which are placed -with mathematical precision. Mr. Ruskin had but few kind words to -bestow on ophidian reptiles, but the disorderly patterns of their coats -he greatly disapproved. Moreover, the great artist was inclined to -pronounce a sweeping verdict on the conspicuous ‘ugliness of the whole -_poisonous_ families’ without exception. - -Now unfortunately we have had occasion to lament the good looks of many -venomous kinds which are easily mistaken for harmless snakes. Some -of the American _elapidæ_ are amongst the most beautiful, with their -black, white, and crimson rings. The African viper and her young one -baffle the artist’s palette in their prismatic hues, as do several -other of the horned snakes. Indeed, for rich colourings the venomous -kinds rather carry the day. The _form_, it is true, is often clumsy -and ungraceful in the vipers, but as an exception we have ‘_vipera -elegans_,’ and others of less ugly and slighter forms. - -Since the subject was thus presented to us, I have, however, observed -the markings more closely; and it really is curious as well as -interesting to note how very nearly the various patterns approach to a -perfectly geometrical design, yet failing in the same manner that a bad -workman would fail in imitating the pattern given him to copy. - -[Illustration: Plan of design.] - -To Dr. Stradling I am indebted for a very handsome boa skin from -Brazil. Spread upon the carpet it is like a piece of oilcloth, and at -the first glance I exclaimed, ‘Even Mr. Ruskin could not disapprove of -this.’ But on closer inspection one was obliged to admit ‘disorder’ -throughout. The skin is about ten feet long, and the whole way down the -centre of the back runs a pattern which an accomplished artificer would -thus represent. There is evident intention of two straight lines with -points at equal distances, a very pretty centre of rich brown, picked -out with darker shades and spots of white. Throughout the entire ten -feet of skin most of the points and intermediate centres had a splash -or spot of white, and most of the points were opposite, but no two feet -consecutively could I find with better finished markings than this. - -[Illustration: Exact pattern with the lateral spots.] - -The outer spots also were evidently of triangular intentions, and -for the most part occupying the spaces midway between the points. -These, of lighter tints, also run the whole length of the snake, the -pattern of course diminishing with the size tailwards, but varying in -no other way. The question is not whether the strictly geometrical or -the less perfect design would be the handsomer, or we might give the -preference to the pattern as we find it; but looking closely at any -elaborately-marked snake, it certainly _is_ curious to perceive that -in every case there is this same attempt at something too difficult to -accomplish, as when a novice in fancy-work does her stitches wrong. -The same thing is seen in the snakes of the frontispiece, and the same -is seen again even in this simple pattern, a chain running down the -back of little _Echis carinata_. The spaces are unequal, the black -cross bands imperfect, and the centre spots some round, some oval, some -almost absent. - -[Illustration: Pattern of a snake.] - -May we conclude that this incompleteness is a sign that the design is -not fixed by long inheritance? But if it were so, and presented to us -with geometrical precision, it is doubtful whether we could admire it -equally! - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -_DENTITION._ - - -IN the preceding pages it may have been observed that the adage, ‘There -are no rules without exceptions,’ occurs so frequently in ophidian -physiology that the latter are almost in the majority. Concerning the -teeth especially, the forms of dentition in the various families, the -distinction of species by them, the size and position of poison fangs, -etc., the rules involve so many exceptions that we can perhaps render -the subject less perplexing by dispensing with rules altogether. ‘The -gradations of teeth are very imperceptible,’ said Prof. Huxley in -his lecture at the London Institution. So numerous are their stages -of development that there is really no well-defined gap between the -venomous and the non-venomous species. ‘We do not know for certain -whether the ordinary teeth are poisonous or not,’ Huxley also said. -The recent researches into the nature of salivary secretions will -throw more light on this subject. A large non-venomous snake, like -other normally harmless animals, if biting angrily, with its abundant -salivary glands pouring secretions into its mouth, might inflict a -very ugly wound, especially on a feeble or frightened victim. - -A few rules may, however, safely be offered as ‘without exception,’ and -these I will point out in order to clear the way a little towards a -better comprehension of the exceptional ones. - -All true snakes, poisonous or not, that have teeth at all, have the six -jaws described in the first chapter, viz. the right and left upper jaw, -the right and left lower jaw, and the right and left palate jaw. The -latter are called ‘jaws,’ not anatomically, but merely as answering the -same purpose, being furnished with teeth; each true jaw and the palate -being considered as two or a pair, on account of the independent action -imparted to each by the especial muscles and the elastic tissue which -unites them, where in the higher animals they are consolidated. - -With but one exception (the _egg-eating Oligodon_ or _Anodon_ family) -all other true serpents, whether venomous or not, possess the two rows -of palate teeth. - -All can move or use each of the six jaws, or any two, three, or more of -them independently, as we observed in feeding, some of the six holding -the prey while others move on. Some writers have conveyed the idea -that there is a regular alternation and even rotation of the jaws in -feeding, No. 1, 2, and so on in succession till all the six have moved, -and then No. 1 in its turn again; but observation inclines me rather -to decide that there is no other rule than the feeder’s individual -convenience, according to what its teeth may be grasping, any more than -there is in other creatures that without reflection or intent, and not -strictly in turn, eat now on one side of the mouth and now on the -other (except in the case of some poor mortal with the toothache, when, -having only the two jaws, his distressful efforts are chiefly directed -towards relieving that side of its ordinary duties). Snakes, for aught -we know, may have the toothache: loose teeth they frequently have; they -suffer from gum and mouth affections too, and no doubt can at such -times relieve a whole jaw of its work. - -In all true snakes the teeth are long, conical, and curved: not planted -perpendicularly, but directed backwards; these long, fine, claw-shaped -instruments presenting a formidable obstacle against the retreat of a -creature once seized by them. Their arrangement is a species of trap, -like the wires of a mouse-trap: to enter being easy enough, but to -escape against the spikes being impossible. - -All snakes renew their teeth throughout life. Except fishes, therefore, -no creatures are so abundantly supplied with teeth as are the Ophidia. - -On account of this continual loss and replacement of teeth, the number -is rarely so fixed and determinate as to be characteristic of the -species. Probably no two snakes, not even brothers and sisters of the -same brood, may possess precisely the same number of teeth at a given -age; because they are so easily loosened and lost, that the normal -number might rarely occur in all the members of the same family at the -same time. In the scientific language of Rymer Jones, ‘the facility for -developing new tooth germs is unlimited, and the phenomena of dental -decadence and replacement are manifested in every period of life.’ - -Says Nicholson, ‘The teeth are replaced not merely when accident has -broken off the old ones, but they are all shed at more or less regular -intervals, coinciding with the casting of the epidermis.’ Not on _each -occasion_ of sloughing, as we may, I think, understand this, but, like -the casting of cuticle, contingently, according to the condition of the -individual. Not altogether, either, or at certain periods of life, as -a child loses his first teeth and gets a second crop, or as an adult -cuts his wisdom teeth, but ‘a crop of young teeth work their way into -the intervals of the old teeth, and gradually expel these latter.’ All -the spaces and depressions between the maxillary and palatine rows are -occupied by the matrix of tooth germs. Not a cut can be made in this -part of the palate without the knife turning up a number of young teeth -in every stage of development.[92] - -Independently of this accidental number, the maxillary presents certain -phases which characterize families. For instance, a true viperine snake -has in the upper jaw fangs _only_: non-venomous snakes have a whole row -of from fifteen to twenty-five maxillary teeth, and in intermediate -species their normal numbers vary considerably. Some of the highly -poisonous families, notably the cobras and the sea snakes, have a few -simple teeth in addition to fangs. The length of the jaw, therefore, -diminishes in proportion to the number of teeth it bears. Only the -viperine snakes are limited to the poison fang in the upper jaw; but -fangs, like the simple teeth, are shed, broken, or lost, and renewed -continually. - -Behind the one in use—the functional fang—others in various stages of -development are found—‘a perfect storehouse of new fangs,’ as Mr. F. -Buckland in his facetious style called them; ‘lying one behind another -like a row of pandean pipes.’ In the skeletons of viperine snakes these -may readily be observed. In the living example they are enclosed in a -capsule, hidden by the loose gum sheath, called a gingeval envelope. So -when the functional fang meets with an accident, or falls out in the -order of things, the supplementary fangs in turn supply its place, each -becoming in time firmly fixed to the jaw-bone, and ready to perform the -office of its predecessor. - -Poison fangs succeed each other from behind, _forwards_; the simple -teeth from the inner side, _outwards_. - -Before proceeding further, it may be well to explain that what is -meant by the _true_ snakes in the foregoing rules, are those which do -not possess the lizard features; _Anguis fragilis_, and some of the -burrowing snakes which approach the lizards, not having the palate -teeth. But here again we are tripped up with exceptions, since we are -told that in dentition the boas are allied to the lizards; yet they -have palate teeth. - -The importance of dentition in distinguishing snakes is seen in the -names assigned to them from their teeth alone. In giving a few of these -terms we enable the reader to perceive at once, not only how very -varied are the systems of dentition, but in what way they vary, the -words themselves conveying the description. - -The names here given are without reference to venomous or non-venomous -serpents, but only as belonging to certain families whose teeth present -characteristics sufficiently marked to be named by them. - -From _odous_, _odontos_, a tooth. - - Anodon, Toothless. - Boodon, Ox tooth. - Cynodon, Dog’s tooth. - Deirodon, Neck tooth. - Dinodon, Double tooth. - Glyphodon, Grooved or carved tooth. - Heterodon, Abnormal tooth. - Isodon, Equal toothed. - Lycodon, Wolf’s tooth. - Ogmodon, Furrowed or grooved tooth. - Oligodon, Few toothed. - Rachiodon, Spine toothed. - Sepedon, Noxious tooth, or a tooth causing putridity. - Tomodon, Stump tooth. - Xenodon, Strange tooth. - -In Dumeril’s system very many families, including sometimes several of -the above, are grouped according to their teeth, thus:— - - _Aglyphodontes_, Teeth not carved or notched. - _Holodontes_, Whole or entire teeth. - _Anholodontes_, Without whole or entire teeth. - _Aproterodontes_, Without front teeth. - _Isodontiens_, With even teeth. - _Apistoglyphes_, Grooved at the back, or the back teeth grooved. - _Proteroglyphes_, Grooved in front, or the front teeth grooved. - _Solenoglyphes_, Cut or carved with a canal. - And some others whose names are equally descriptive. - -These various characters, with the exception of _Aproterodontes_, which -refers to the under jaw, have reference to the upper jaw only. It might -be tedious to the reader to enter into a minute description of each of -the above groups: sufficient for our present purpose is it to show that -such varieties exist, and that a simple, even row of teeth, as a family -distinction, is oftener the exception than the rule. Some of the teeth -increase in size posteriorly, others are largest anteriorly; others, -again, are larger towards the middle of the jaw, and decrease at either -end. Some harmless snakes have ‘fangs,’ that is to say, fang-like -teeth, but not connected with any poison gland, and at the back -instead of the front of the jaw. Again, there are some non-venomous -species that have the power of moving these fang-like teeth, raising -or depressing them as vipers move their fangs, and as will be further -described presently. Some grooved teeth convey an acrid saliva, others -are without any modification of saliva, the long teeth being of use in -holding thick-skinned prey. - -Thus we find every gradation both in number and in form until we come -to the true fang, the ‘murderous tooth’ of the terrible cobra, the -_hydrophidæ_, and the _viperidæ_. And noteworthy it is that the fewer -the teeth in the maxillary bone the more terrible are they. Fig. A of -the four illustrations given opposite is the jaw-bone of the Indian -Rat snake, _Ptyas mucosus_, already ‘honourably mentioned’ in these -pages. The illustration being taken from Fayrer’s _Thanatophidia_, -may be received as a faithful representation. This conveys a good -idea of jaws generally in non-venomous snakes of that size, say from -six to ten feet long. In some of the smaller kinds the jaw and palate -teeth are so fine as to be almost imperceptible to the naked eye. To -the touch they feel like points of the finest pins. Draw your finger -along or press it against a row of ‘minikin pins,’ and you will form a -correct idea of these tiny weapons. I have often _felt_ when I could -not _see_ them in the mouth of a small harmless snake. Pass the tip of -your little finger gently along them towards the throat, and they are -almost imperceptible even to the touch; but in withdrawing your finger -_against_ the points, you feel how excessively fine they are. - -The accompanying illustrations are from nature, and exemplify the -various lengths of jaw in four snakes, not differing very greatly in -size. - -[Illustration: Four jaws. From Fayrer’s _Thanatophidia of India_.] - -_Fig. A._ _Ptyas mucosus_, with simple teeth only. That they are not -very regular is probably owing to the stages of growth in those that -have replaced others. - -_Fig. B._ A venomous snake, _Bungarus_, the ‘Krait,’ with a fixed fang -in front and a few simple teeth behind it. - -_Fig. C._ Jaw of the cobra, with a longer fixed fang, and one or two -simple teeth behind it. - -_Fig. D._ The shortest jaw of them all, that of the Indian viper -_Daboia_, in which the maxillary is reduced to a mere wedge of -bone. These, with four or five reserve fangs, are here folded back -‘depressed.’ A few palate teeth are also seen. - -Having given a slight sketch of the various forms of dentition, and -arrived at ‘fangs,’ we may recapitulate, in what Nicholson calls -‘roughly speaking,’ four stages of development in these latter. - -_First_, the ‘fangs’ of the harmless snakes, such as _Lycodon_, -_Xenodon_, _Heterodon_, etc., which have no poison gland, but whose -saliva may be slightly and occasionally injurious. - -_Secondly_, those having a salivary gland secreting poison and a -grooved fang in front of some simple teeth, _Hydrophidæ_. - -_Thirdly_, the maxillary bone shorter, bearing one poison fang with a -perfect canal, and one or two teeth behind it. In some of these there -is a slight mobility. - -_Fourthly_, the maxillary bone so reduced as to be higher than long, -and bearing only a single tooth, viz. a long, curved, and very mobile -fang, _Viperina_. - -These four classes, be it observed, are only designated ‘roughly -speaking.’ Nicholson describes a close gradation in the development of -the poison glands also to correspond with those almost imperceptible -stages. The poison gland is after all only a modified salivary gland. -It lies behind the eye, whence the venom is conveyed by a duct to the -base of the fang, down along it, and sometimes through it, and is -emitted at what we may for the present call the point, into the wound -made by it, something on the principle of an insect’s sting. As when -inserting the sting the pressure forces the poison out of a gland at -its base, so does the pressure of certain muscles act upon the poison -gland when a snake opens its mouth to strike. In some of the most -venomous, viz. the viperine families, the largely developed glands give -that peculiar breadth to the head. There is a hideous, repulsive look -about some of these, that seems to announce their deadly character, -even to those who see one for the first time. The evil expression of -the eye, with its linear pupil; the peculiar curve of the mouth, with -its very wide gape downwards, and then up again, are unmistakeably -treacherous, venomous, vicious. - -Like all other animal secretions, the poison is produced, expended, -and renewed, but not always with equal rapidity; climate, season, and -temperature, as well as the vigour of the reptile, influencing this -secretion. The hotter the weather, the more active the serpent and all -its functions. When the poison gland is full and the snake angry, you -may see the venom exuding from the point of the fang, and by a forcible -expiration the reptile can eject it. I have seen this in the little -_Echis carinata_ and its congener the _Cerastes_. I am not certain -whether the _Cerastes_ hisses or not, but under terror or excitement -it moves itself about in ‘mystic coils’ as Echis does, producing a -similar rustling noise with its scales; but both of them, if angry, -will strike at you with a sound which may be compared with a sneeze or -a spit, at the same time _gnashing_ their mobile fangs and letting you -see that they have plenty of venom at your service. They may almost be -said to ‘spit’ at you, though literally it is the mouth ‘watering with -poison,’ combined with the natural impulse to strike, which produces -this effect. We can, however, by this judge of the force with which the -venom is expelled, which in a large viper must be considerable. - -Travellers have told us that a serpent ‘spouts poison into your eye.’ -If an angry one strike, but miss its aim, the poison is then seen to -fly from its mouth, sometimes to a distance of several feet. Whether a -snake is so good a marksman as to take certain aim with this terrible -projectile, or whether he possess sufficient intelligence to attempt -it, we may doubt. Dr. Andrew Smith tells us that this belief prevails -among the natives of South Africa. - -A bright object always attracts snakes, and some victimized traveller’s -eyes may have been remarkably brilliant, and in consequence smarted -under the accident. Be that as it may, the poison is sometimes so -abundant that you may see it flow from the mouth over the prey. The -glands being excited, just as are the salivary glands of mammals, the -mouth ‘waters’ with poison. In the Hamadryad I have seen it flow, or -more correctly ‘dribble,’ down over the snake it was eating. This -noxious secretion assists digestion in the same way that the ordinary -saliva in the human mouth does. Says Dr. Carpenter, ‘The saliva -prepares food for the business of the stomach; and if the ordinary -operations of mastication and insalivation be neglected, the stomach -has to do the whole work of preparation as well as its own especial -duty of the digestion.’ That the digestive powers of snakes are strong, -we know from the fact that nearly all animal substances are converted -to nutriment in the stomach of a healthy snake. The abundant saliva -must be a powerful agent in the process, because mastication takes no -share in the work. This has become more than mere conjecture, since -recent experiments have shown that snake venom possesses strong peptic -qualities; that, like pancreatic juice, it will even dissolve raw meat -and albuminous substances. Recent experiments have also shown that -the salivary gland is the laboratory in which the poison of venomous -serpents is elaborated; that ordinary saliva is there intensified, -concentrated, and endowed with its toxic properties. - -During the two hundred years that have witnessed the development of -natural history into a science, many and various have been the methods -of zoological and particularly of ophiological classification. A -few of these methods are sketched out in chap. ii. It will be seen -that the character of the teeth had not for a long while much weight -in classifying snakes. According to Schlegel, Klein in 1755 was -the first to separate the venomous from the non-venomous snakes in -classification. But after him Linnæus, then the greatest naturalist of -modern times, distinguished snakes chiefly by the form of the ventral -and sub-caudal plates; so that in the six genera which he established -(_Amphisbæna_, _Cecilia_, _Crotalus_, _Boa_, _Coluber_, and _Anguis_), -rattlesnakes and boas, colubers and vipers, with others of the most -opposite characters, were jumbled up together; and the little burrowing -blindworm and the venomous sea snakes were supposed to be related, -because they neither of them had ventral scales! On account of his -vast researches and great reputation, subsequent naturalists were slow -to entirely overthrow his system and to venture on reforms of their -own, and our cyclopedias are suffering to the present day from the -confusion of the various methods of classification adopted by so many -naturalists, as a few quotations presently will show. Dandin, 1802, -though his work was reckoned by Schlegel the most complete up to his -time, comprehended all the venomous snakes under the head of ‘vipers.’ -Cuvier divided the vipers (with _crochets mobiles_) from those with -fixed fangs; but yet was unsound in many other respects, confounding -the _Elapidæ_ with the _Viperidæ_, although he professed to separate -them. Another confusion arose out of the word _cobra_, Portuguese -for snake, so that wherever the Portuguese settled most snakes were -_Cobras_. In India the English have retained the name _Cobra_ for the -snakes with the hood, which name is now confined to the one group, -_Capella_. - -‘The characters of dentition offer in a great many cases a decisive -method for distinguishing the species,’ says Günther; ‘but as regards -the combination of species into genera and families, it is of no -greater importance than any other external character by itself.... -Still I am always glad to use the dentition as one of the characters of -genera and species whenever possible—namely, whenever it corresponds -with the mode of life, the general habits, and the physiology.’[93] - -Since the publication of Dr. Günther’s work, _The Reptiles of British -India_, 1864, the distinctions of the various types of dentition -seem to have been more clearly comprehended; and as this work is the -accepted authority among English ophiologists, and will best commend -itself to the reader, it shall be our guide in the present attempt to -simplify much complication. - -The five groups of snakes described in chap. ii. are divided into three -sub-orders of Ophidia as follows:—1. _Ophidia colubriformes_ (the -harmless snakes). 2. _Ophidia colubriformes venenosi_ (those which, not -having the viperine aspect just now described, are the more dangerous -from their innocent appearance). 3. _Ophidia viperiformes_ (the -viperine snakes). - -Although apparently named from their form only, it is the teeth which -have chiefly to do with these latter distinctions, as will be seen on -reference to the dotted examples of upper jaws. The first have the six -rows of simple teeth (four above, as seen, and the lower jaw teeth), -in all from 80 to 100 perhaps. The second have the two rows of palate -teeth, the lower jaw teeth, and a _fixed_ fang on each upper jaw, with -one, two, or more simple teeth in addition. The Australian poisonous -serpents are nearly all of this group, the only viperish-looking one, -the ‘Death adder,’ having fixed fangs like the cobras. The sea snakes -and the _Elapidæ_ are included. The third have only four rows of simple -teeth, viz. those of the lower jaws and those of the palate, with a -solitary moveable fang in each upper jaw. - -[Illustration: From Fayrer’s _Thanatophidia_. The four larger dots -represent fangs.] - -Fayrer divides the poisonous snakes of India, again, into four -families, viz. _Elapidæ_ and _Hydrophidæ_, with fixed fangs; and -_Viperidæ_ and _Crotalidæ_, with mobile fangs. - -But without so many perplexing distinctions, I hope to be able to -interest the reader in that wonderful piece of mechanism, the poison -fang, and by the aid of the authorities to represent it in simple -language. - -We have long been accustomed to read that a serpent’s fang is a -‘perforated tooth’ or a ‘hollow tube,’ as if a miniature tusk had a -hole bored through its entire length, the poison entering at the root -and flowing out again at the point. This is not strictly the case. -Fangs in their construction are not absolutely ‘hollow,’ with ivory on -the outside and pulp on the inside, but are as if you had flattened -out an ivory tusk and folded or wrapped it over again, so as to form a -pointed tube. It would then have dentine both on the outer and inner -surface. This involution may be compared with that seen in a long -narrow leaf, in which the larva of an insect has enwrapped itself. The -various degrees of involution are extremely close, as also would be -the forms of leaves and the extent of curling which each caterpillar -had effected. Some fangs are folded so as to leave the—_join_, we -will call it, easily perceptible. Others leave a groove more or -less evident; while in others the fold is so complete as to have -disappeared entirely. Schlegel, in describing the insensible passage -from solid teeth to fangs, affirms that traces of the groove are always -perceptible: ‘_On découvre toujours les traces de la fente qui réunit -les deux orifices pour le venin._’[94] - -[Illustration: Two fangs magnified, showing the slit more or less -complete. _c_, a section. From Fayrer’s _Thanatophidia_.] - -In a mixed collection of thirty odd fangs of various snakes lent to -me by Holland, the keeper, for examination, and sent all together in a -little box, there were few in which I could not discern the join. The -keeper was not sure to which snakes each belonged, excepting one or two -of the largest, which were those of a puff adder. Those of the larger -_Crotalidæ_ I could identify by the peculiar curve. In a functional -fang of the ‘bushmaster’ (_Lachesis mutus_), which I myself took from -its jaw, there is a well-defined line, like a crack, the whole way -down, from the base to the slit; in a rattlesnake fang, also in my -possession, there is a faint appearance of this line or join; and in a -young Crotalus fang it is still there,—only a faint crack, such as you -would contemplate with alarm in your egg-shell china, still there it is. - -It is scarcely necessary to explain that fangs differ in size in -different families, as well as proportionately to the size of the -possessor. In sea snakes they are not much larger than the simple teeth -behind them. In the Cobra they are larger than in the Bungarus; in the -viper they attain their largest size. - -But in one respect all fangs agree, and that is in their delicacy and -fineness. Under the microscope, the stronger the lens the greater the -degree of exquisite polish and sharpness revealed. To handle those -of very young vipers is as difficult as it would be to handle fine -needle-points of similar length. One can compare them with nothing -else, except perhaps the fine thorns of the sweet briar, which are -equally unmanageable, and, as compared with manufactured articles, -equally exquisite. - -Sir Samuel Baker describes the fangs (both functional and -supplementary) of a puff adder which he found. His words, if not -strictly scientific, are so graphic as to convey a true idea of these -terrible weapons. The viper was five feet four inches long, and fifteen -inches in girth in its largest part. The head was two and a half inches -broad. Sir Samuel counted ‘eight teeth’ (fangs), and secured five of -them, the two most prominent being nearly one inch long. ‘The poison -fangs are artfully contrived, by some diabolical freak of nature, as -pointed tubes, through which the poison is injected into the base of -the wound inflicted. The extreme point of the fang is solid, and is so -finely sharpened that beneath a powerful microscope it is perfectly -smooth, although the point of the finest needle is rough!’[95] He -describes the aperture in the fang as like a tiny slit cut in a quill. - -This ‘slit’ is a very important feature in the fang, and is the cause -of much trouble in deciding whether a bitten person has been poisoned -or not. It is in reality a very small space _near_ the point, where the -involution of the fang is incomplete, that is, where it has remained -unjoined. This is to permit the emission of the venom. It is not -close to the point, which, as Sir S. Baker affirms, is solid. Being -solid, it is stronger and sharper, penetrating the skin of the victim -more easily, and making way for the venom which in viperine fangs -then follows and escapes through the slit into the wound. By this we -comprehend how a person may receive a puncture only, or a scratch with -this extreme but solid point, but not deep enough for the poison to -enter. The space between the lines at _a_ in the next illustration -shows where this slit in the fang is found. In the larger fangs it -may be readily discerned with the naked eye: under a magnifying glass -it is distinguishable in all. It is distinct in the fangs of the young -Jararacas now before me, and extends nearly half-way up the fang in -these. - -The examples of fangs here given are all from nature, and as near to -the exact size as it is possible to be in delineating objects of such -exceeding fineness and delicacy. Excepting the _Xenodon’s_ and the baby -viper’s, the others belong to the _Crotalidæ_, whose fangs are mostly -distinguishable by a slight double curve or flange. The viperine fang -is a continuous curve (see _f_), but in the _Crotalus_ the point curves -very slightly back again and downwards. - -For the Brazilian specimens, I am indebted to Dr. Arthur Stradling, who -presented me with the snakes, out of whose jaws I myself procured them. -In this _Lachesis_ there were two fangs _visible_ on one side, and -only one on the other, viz. the functional pair, and one nearly ready -to replace one of these. In addition to the pair were four reserve -fangs hidden under the functional one on the right side. I say ‘under,’ -because anatomically they were _beneath_, though locally _above_ when -the snake was in its natural position. All these five fangs I got from -only one side, and in addition some others too small to represent. -There may be yet more in the membranous capsule, as mine was a sadly -unscientific search for them, and without any very powerful magnifier. -Like Charas, I ‘grovelled’ for them! From a young _Jararaca_ I also got -out the functional and four or five supplementary fangs from one side, -also an exceedingly small and short jaw-bone, leaving the other side -undisturbed. Even the principal fang (_d_) is too fine to represent -faithfully in printer’s ink; the others are to the naked eye and to the -touch almost impalpable. When we reflect on the exquisite sharpness and -finish of these minute weapons, and the fatal injury they are capable -of inflicting, we are filled with awe and amazement at the virulence of -the subtle fluid which oozes through that almost invisible aperture. -The brother of this tiny African viper (_f_), when only a few hours -old, struck a mouse, which was dead in less than one minute. The whole -forty-six of them (p. 321) were born with the ‘murderous teeth’ in -their vicious little jaws. The fang here represented was loose in its -mouth. A pair of perfect functional fangs remained. - -[Illustration: Fangs and some simple teeth from my specimens. - - _a._ Functional fang and four supplementary fangs from _Lachesis - mutus_ (Brazil). - _b._ Rattlesnake fang. - _c._ Fang of young rattlesnake (Brazil). - _d._ Fang of young _Jararaca_ (Brazil). - _e._ Pseudo ‘fang’ of _Xenodon_ (Brazil). - _f._ Loose fang from the mouth of _Vipera nasicornis_, aged one week. - _g._ Portion of palate bone bearing four teeth, from _Lachesis mutus_ - (Brazil). - _h._ Two lower teeth from the same.] - -Picture to yourselves the intensity of that invisible molecule of -venom, which could ooze through an equally invisible aperture in this -last diminutive weapon, and be fatal to life in a minute of time! From -the effects observed on victims, I am inclined to place these large -African vipers amongst the most venomous of all serpents of their size. - -It may be of interest to remark that the fang of the baby viper found -loose in its mouth does not resemble those remaining, either in form -or structure. That it cannot be a jaw tooth is evident from its size. -Jaw and palate teeth there are, but discernible only to the touch, -and under a magnifying glass. The fixed fang from the side on which -I found this loose one, is a trifle shorter, and much finer than its -fellow. In the loose one here given I can hardly discern any involution -at all, but on touching it with the inky point of a fine needle, the -stain shows it be hollow, and clearly so, at its base. In the two fixed -fangs, however, the involution is so incomplete that, minute as they -are, the point of a very fine needle can be drawn all down them without -slipping off. - -One of them, the larger, on being touched with ink, revealed this -open groove or incomplete involution so distinctly that I tried the -other and was convinced at once. The loose one may be a first and -only half-developed fang. They are almost as transparent as glass. I -requested the keeper to look into the mouths of those subsequently -dead, but he found no other loose fangs. Of the remaining forty-five -deceased, let us hope those into whose hands they have fallen will be -able to throw some further light on the development of fangs in very -young vipers. Fayrer tells us that a young cobra is not venomous until -it has cast its first skin, which is usually within a fortnight. White -of Selborne found no trace of fangs in young vipers which he examined -with a lens; but these had not yet been born. The possible cause of -functional development in this little viper’s fangs may be found in -chap. xxiv. of this work. - -Another erroneous impression regarding fangs has been produced by -confusing those that are ‘fixed’ and those that are ‘moveable.’ All -truly are fixed firmly into the jaw; but in the viperine snakes the -very short bone itself is moveable by a volitionary action, so that it -partially ‘rotates,’ and with it the fang. The _Elapidæ_ have fixed or -‘permanently erect’ fangs, and when the mouth is closed these fit into -a depression in the lower jaw. Viperine fangs only can be erected or -depressed at pleasure. It is those which spring into place for use like -a pen-knife half opened, and which when at rest are folded back, like -the knife shut up again. This action has been most lucidly described by -Coues in connection with the _Crotalidæ_, under which head I will quote -from his paper. Schlegel himself is not very clear in his distinctions -between those serpents that have ‘moveable’ fangs and those which have -not, but Cuvier had already described them as _crochets mobiles_. -Indeed, it is since the date of Schlegel’s work that more complete -investigations have revealed closer anatomical distinctions. We -therefore find in some of our highest-class encyclopedias, if not of -recent date, mis-statements regarding fangs which unfortunately have -been quoted in many works. ‘Venomous serpents depress their fangs,’ -says Schlegel’s translator, true to the text, but as if it were common -to all. Describing deglutition, Schlegel says ‘the same in all’ ‘_sans -en excepter les venimeux, qui lors de cet acte redressent leur crochets -et les cachent dans la gaine des gencives, pour ne point les exposer -à des injures_.’[96] This, however, is the case with the _Viperina_ -only. It is common, for the reasons just now assigned, to find the -cobra classed among the vipers, in some popular encyclopedias; and in -one, a valuable and generally trustworthy American edition of 1875, we -read, ‘moveable fangs like the cobra, viper, and rattlesnake.’ A cobra -has _not_ moveable fangs. Another, an excellent English edition, but of -not very recent date, includes _all_ venomous snakes under the head of -‘vipers;’ a third in general terms states that ‘venomous snakes have no -teeth in the upper jaws, excepting the fangs, and that the opening of -the mouth brings these into position;’ whereas it is now known that a -viper can open its mouth and yet keep its fangs depressed and sheathed. -In several other encyclopedias the description of fangs is suited to -vipers only. - -It is not necessary to designate names, as these things will be set -right in the new editions. They are mentioned more with a view to -show that ophiology has advanced with rapid strides of late, rather -than presumptuously to criticise our standard works. Perhaps in -another twenty years my own poor efforts will be exposed as ‘old-time -misconceptions.’ - -The renewal of poison fangs is another subject of interest to -ophiologists: how the next supplementary fang becomes fixed, -_anchylosed_ to the jaw-bone; and how and when the connection with -the poison duct is completed. Mr. Tombes, in a paper read before the -Royal Society in 1875, describes a ‘scaffolding’ of bone thrown out -to meet and grasp the new fang, to ‘interdigitate and fix it in its -place; this soft bone rapidly developing and hardening.’ Sufficiently -marvellous is the functional fang in itself; the insertion of the -venom, a mode of subcutaneous injection invented long before the -doctors thought of it. ‘A most perfect hypodermic syringe,’ Huxley -calls it. Suddenly the hypodermic syringe is removed, say by accident, -by force, or by gradual decay, and all connection with the gland is cut -off; yet within a given period a second, a third, an unlimited number -in turn replace it: the connection is restored and the hypodermic -syringe is ready for action again. How the new one is brought into -relation with the poison duct has afforded much speculation, and -in the American scientific journals, as well as those of Europe, -papers on this subject appear from time to time. Dr. Weir Mitchell of -Philadelphia affirms that when the fang is lost by natural process -it is replaced in a few days: when by violence, several weeks elapse -before the next is firmly fixed.[97] He speaks of the rattlesnake -chiefly. Fayrer gives the periods in several cobra experiments. In one -cobra whose fangs were carefully drawn out on Oct. 7th, new fangs were -‘anchylosed’ to the bone in twenty-four days. In another, thirty-one -days elapsed before the new ones were ready for use; and in two others, -eighteen days. In all of these cases the new fangs were capable of -inflicting deadly injury by the time stated. - -But the perfection of mechanism culminates in the viper fangs; and -reasoning from analogy, the intensity of poison in their glands also. -When at rest, these lie supine along the jaw, but can be ‘erected,’ -_i.e._ sprung down, for use by a special muscle. The two fangs above -the dotted illustration of viperine dentition (p. 355) show both -positions. Nicholson affirms that the Indian viper Daboia can inject -as much poison in half a second as a cobra can in three seconds; ‘that -whereas a cobra’s virus flows in small droplets, the viper’s runs in -a fine stream.’ Though a much smaller snake than the cobra, Daboia’s -fangs are nearly double the size, as may be observed by comparing the -figs. _C_ and _D_ (p. 349). There seems reason to believe also that -this viper (which in its features Fayrer considers a true Indian type) -can inflict injury with more than the pair of functional fangs. ‘In -reference to the connection of the poison fangs with the maxillary -bones,’ says this learned experimentalist, ‘I would note that second -or even third supplementary fangs may be anchylosed with the principal -one to the maxillary bone. I have before me the skull of a Daboia, for -which I am indebted to Mr. Sceva, in which this is the case; and where -there are five well-developed poison fangs on each side, of which on -one side two are anchylosed to the bone.’[98] (Described by Mr. Tombes, -_Phil. Trans._ vol. clxvi. p. 146.) - -This may explain what we so often read in the description of venomous -snakes found with two, three, or more fangs on each side. In my -_Lachesis_ two were distinctly visible before I began to dig for those -hidden in the loose membrane, of which there seemed an abundance, and -I am nearly certain that the second one had its own particular sheath. -The spirit in which the specimen had so long been immersed, as well as -my awkward probings, forbid me to speak with certainty regarding this -second sheath. - -After one of his rattlesnake bites—twenty days after—Dr. Stradling -informed me by letter: ‘My little _durissus_ is shedding its skin; but -when that is over, I shall certainly examine its mouth. Now that my arm -is on the verge of ulceration, I find what I had not noticed before, -that each puncture is _double_—two large ones and a tiny second one, -about 1/12 inch behind each, standing out in black relief against the -scarlet skin.’ - -Neither of these experimentalists stated positively that the reserve -fangs were in connection with the duct, a phenomenon which I believe -is still unexplained. Fayrer removed the functional fangs from an -_Echis carinata_, and observed that there were no others fixed at the -time, though there were others loose in the mucous membrane. _On the -fifth day another pair were anchylosed and ready for use!_ As will be -presently seen, this little viper of sixteen or eighteen inches (almost -too small to recognise near the great python in the frontispiece), -displays corresponding vigour both in the potency of its venom and in -the renewal of its weapons. - -From the foregoing illustrations of numerous pointed teeth, the -question might arise, ‘How are they disposed of when the mouth is -closed? and from the narrow space which is apparent in the flat head -of a snake, and the close fit of the jaws, how do the four or six rows -meet without interfering with each other?’ This difficulty is obviated -by the teeth _not_ closing one upon the other as ours do. Nor are the -palate teeth in the centre, or they would wound the upper part of the -trachea and the tongue sheath, which occupy considerable space. They -close down on each side of these organs. ‘Every relief on one surface -fits into a corresponding depression on the other surface, and accurate -apposition of every part is obtained,’ Nicholson explains to us. ‘The -four upper rows of teeth divide the roof into three parts, and the -lower jaw teeth fit between the upper maxillary and palatine teeth.’ - -There remains yet much more to describe in connection with the poison -fang, which might come in the present chapter; but as the two following -will treat of the _Viperidæ_ and the _Crotalidæ_—the dentition being -the same in both—the viperine fangs shall claim further space under -those heads. These three consecutive chapters, and also chap. xxii. -on some exceptional forms of dentition, must necessarily be somewhat -blended; but I divide them thus in order to present the distinct -families more clearly, and render the subject less tedious to the -reader. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -_VIPERINE FANGS._ - - -THOUGH the ensuing chapter will be devoted more exclusively to the -_Crotalidæ_ or rattlesnakes, it were well to repeat here that the two -families _Viperidæ_ and _Crotalidæ_ comprise the sub-order of Ophidia -‘VIPERINA,’—those that have the isolated, moveable fangs, the term -_isolated_ having reference to the functional fang only. It may appear -incongruous to present the illustration of a viperine jaw with a whole -cluster of fangs, while affirming that there is the one pair only; but -the pair in use are ‘solitary,’ because the jaw bears no simple teeth, -as in those with fixed or permanently erect fangs. - -The first observation of the mobility of the viperine fang and its -peculiar structure is ascribed to Felix Fontana,[99] an eminent -naturalist and Professor of Philosophy at Pisa, in the eighteenth -century. He formed the cabinet of Natural History at Florence, and died -1805, in his 75th year. But the _mobility_ or action of rattlesnake -fangs was known long prior to Fontana, and he probably borrowed the -expression ‘dog-teeth’ from the old Virginia writers who thus called -the fangs. Purchas (1614), quoted in chap. xvi., describes ‘venomous -Serpentes, one ten Spannes long, with great Tuskes, which they hide and -stretch out at pleasure.’[100] And again, in describing ‘foure kinds -of venomous Snakes. The first is greatest, Jararacucu, that is great -Jararaca, and they are ten Spannes long: they have great Tuskes hidden -in the Mouth along their Gummes, and when they bite they stretch them -like a Finger of the Hand; they have their Poyson in their Gummes, -their Teeth crooked, and a Stroake vpon them whereby the Poison -runneth. Others say they have it within the Tooth which is hollow -within. It hath so vehement a Poison that in foure-and-twentie Houres -and lesse it killeth a Man.’[101] - -There can be no doubt but that viperine fangs are here described, those -belonging to the South American _Crotalidæ_, under their vernacular -but then their only names. Dr. Ed. Tyson, who dissected the first -rattlesnake that was handed over to science (p. 275), quite understood -the mobility of the fangs, and of the existence of supplementary teeth, -though not fully comprehending the nature of these latter; which ‘I -could not perceive were fastened to any Bone, but to Muscles or Tendons -there. These Fangs were not to be perceived upon first opening the -Mouth, they lying couched under a strong Membrane or Sheath, but so as -did make a large Riseing there on the Outside of the lesser Teeth of -the Maxilla’ (meaning the reserve fangs), ‘but at Pleasure when alive -they could raise them to do Execution with, not unlike as a Lyon or a -Cat does its Claws.’[102] - -He found seven reserve fangs on each side; and though they were not, as -he tells us, ‘fastened to any bone,’ the illustration represents them -growing in regular order according to size in the jaw. - -In another paper read before the Royal Society in 1726, also anterior -to Fontana, on the ‘Fangs of the Rattlesnake,’ the writer, Captain -Hall, describes the dissection, which was under the direction of Sir -Hans Sloane; and ‘then the Muscles that raise the poisonous Fangs -appear.’ This anatomist also found reserve fangs. ‘Putting by this -Membrane, the fatal Fangs appear, which on first View seemed only one -on each Side, till searching further there appeared four more. The -first and largest is fixed in a Bone;’ four others were loose in the -membrane.[103] - -Several of the old authors quoted in the chapter on Rattlesnake History -of the Seventeenth Century were quite aware of the action of the -‘Springing Teeth,’ ‘Master Teeth,’ or ‘Canine Teeth,’ as the fangs were -variously called; and Lawson, 1707, describes ‘the Teeth which poison -are two on each side of the Upper Jaws. These are bent like a Sickle, -and hang loose as if by a Joint.’ Fontana’s observations were possibly -of greater scientific importance, otherwise it is singular that his -equally thoughtful predecessors, from whom he no doubt culled much -important information, should have been overlooked. - -In these viperine fangs there is an analogy between the vipers and the -lophius, a fish with moveable teeth; only in the fish, as Owen tells -us, the action is not volitional,—the teeth bend back to admit food, -and then by elastic muscles spring up again to retain it. - -The true nature of the reserve fangs was surmised by Mr. John Bartram, -who in 1734 wrote from German Town, in the American colonies, to a -F.R.S., ‘On a Cluster of Small Teeth at the Root of each Fang or Great -Tooth.’[104] He had a rattlesnake, ‘now a Rarity near our Settlements,’ -and dissected it, when he ‘found in the Head what has not been observed -before by any that I can remember; _i.e._ a Cluster of Teeth on each -side of the Upper Jaw at the Root of the Great Fangs through which -the Poison is ejected. In the same Case that the two main Teeth were -sheathed in, lay four others at the Root of each Tooth in a Cluster of -the same Shape and Figure as the great ones, and I am apt to think for -the same Use and Purposes, if by an Accident the main Teeth happen to -be broken. May not these be placed to supply a Defect successively, for -the Support of this Creature?’ - -Mr. Bartram was singularly correct in his diffidently-offered surmises; -nor is it likely that in such a remote district as German Town then -was, he had ready access to foreign publications, or would have claimed -originality had he been cognisant of the work of M. Moyse Charas, -_New Experiments upon Vipers_, translated from the original French -in 1673. Charas, after describing the ‘_Great Teeth_,’ refers to the -‘smaller teeth’ (reserve fangs) ‘that are there in a Nursery, and are, -if we may say so, in expectation to serve instead of the many Teeth, -whether these come to fail of their force, or fall out of themselves.’ -The author, to add weight to conclusions evidently originating from -personal investigations, tells us that he had ‘taken Pains to grovel -with a good deal of Patience in the Gums of innumerable Vipers.’ - -The Italian Redi, even prior to Charas, had also ‘grovelled’ in -the gums of Vipers, and observed the canal or slit in the fang, -‘_si fendono per lo lungo dalla radice alla punta_,’ and that these -canaliculated teeth in the moveable jaws (_ossi mobili_) were for the -conveyance of the venom.[105] - -Thus, one hundred years prior to the work of Fontana, the structure of -the viperine jaw was understood and described by several—we may almost -say many—anatomists, to whom let due honour be rendered for their -individual and independent researches; from all of which Fontana had -doubtless benefited. - -And so from numerous sources we might go on culling and quoting; -_Philosophical Transactions_ of France, Florence, Germany, and America, -as well as of England, showing us that little by little the scientific -workers examine, compare, correspond, till out of their life’s labours -a fact is established that may be printed and learned in six lines, but -which—as is well worth remembering—often represents the brain and -eyes and time of ages of scientists. - -Next to engage attention was the _structure_ of the fang and the -‘involution’ described in the last chapter. A paper on this subject by -Thos. Smith, Esq., F.R.S., was read before the Royal Society in 1818. -Mr. Smith claims to have been the first to observe this involution as -being altogether different from the perforation of the pulp originally -supposed to be the case. He first noticed the slit in a cobra’s fang -(he being in India), and afterwards in a Hydrus (sea snake), and it -led him to further investigations. With a microscope the slit was -perceptible in a rattlesnake fang (which was also observed by the -present writer before reading this account). - -One more paper in the _Philosophical Transactions_ on this subject -must be commended to the interested student. It is the one already -quoted (p. 363), ‘On the Succession of Poison Fangs,’ by Charles -Tombes, M.A., vol. clxvi. p. 470, 1876. In this paper is presented the -result of all the most recent investigations, enriched by still deeper -researches, but of too scientific a character to be introduced in this -simple narrative of the progress of ophiology. We may, however, say -that Mr. Tombes finds the character or function of succession differs -in the vipers from that of the venomous colubrines; and this, as the -construction of their fangs and maxillary jaw differs, is what we might -look for. - -A few more words descriptive of the external aspect of the _Viperidæ_ -may summarize what has already been said of them. Schlegel suggests -that their ‘noxious character is expressed in all their parts.’ -With the exception of brilliant colouring, this may be accepted as -a rule. The broad, flat, angular head, rendering the ‘neck’ thin -and conspicuous, has gained for many of them the generic, sometimes -specific name of _Trigonocephalus_. From their deadly qualities, -_Clotho_, _Severa Atrox_, _Lachesis_, and _Atropos_ are among their -names; while _caudalis_ and _brachyura_ describe the short, thin tail -as opposed to the long and tapering tails of most colubrines. The true -vipers—those that have not the nasal fosse—belong particularly to -Africa, the _Crotalidæ_ proper to America, the chief distinction being -that the _Crotalidæ_ have and the _Viperidæ_ have _not_ the ‘pit’ (see -p. 277), of which more in the next chapter. The rigid, lanceolate -scales covering the head are another viperine characteristic; also -thick, heavy bodies, tapering at each end, and rough, carinated scales. -They inhabit for the most part dry, arid deserts and sandy uncultivated -places of the Old World, Africa being their most congenial habitat. The -coloured viper and young one convey a good idea of their general aspect. - -Ophiologists do not agree in the arrangement of genera and species, -on account of the forms running so much into each other. Gray gives -nine genera and twenty species; Wallace, three genera and twenty-two -species; and Dumeril, six genera and seventeen species. The Death -adder of Australia (p. 172) is a heterogeneous species. Its aspect -is viperine, yet it has not viperine fangs, and does not therefore -belong to this chapter. Schlegel thinks it ought not to be separated -from the true vipers, but Krefft does not state positively that it is -viviparous, so it is altogether anomalous. - -The researches of Dr. Weir Mitchel of Philadelphia have been of great -value to ophiologists. For two whole years he gave the best portion -of his time to the study of rattlesnakes, having a number of them -under constant observation. An exhaustive paper by him was published -in the _Smithsonian Contributions_, Washington, D.C., in 1860, giving -details of experiments with the venom and the treatments adopted. But -of especial interest here are his observations on the fangs and their -volitional action, it having previously been supposed that the mere -opening of the mouth brought the fangs into position, which is not the -case. As the _Crotalus_ can move each side of its mouth independently, -so it can use one or both fangs. ‘When the mouth is opened widely, -it still has perfect control over the fang, raising or depressing it -at will.’ Dr. Mitchel saw that though both fangs were present, both -were not always used. When a viperine snake yawns extensively, as it -so often does, you may sometimes perceive the fangs partially erected -or entirely so, or the ‘vibratile motion’ in them observed by Fayrer. -When the snake is angry, this vibratile action is much like that of -a cat gnashing the teeth; but when only in a yawn, the partial and -unequal erection of one or both fangs has the appearance of being -involuntary. In this I speak from observation. The effect is similar to -that seen about a person’s mouth in trying to suppress a yawn—a sort -of convulsive, nervous twitching. Whatever the cause, you perceive the -fangs moving, but _not_ moving always in accord. - -The shedding or replacement of the fangs is, Dr. Mitchel thinks, a -regular process, as in the teeth of some fishes, though not regular -as to time. Sometimes, but not always, they are shed with the casting -of the cuticle. He ‘cannot suppose that the almost mature secondaries -are awaiting an accident;’ which agrees precisely with the opinions -of Dr. Edward Nicholson and other physiologists quoted in the last -chapter: ‘A crop of young teeth’ (or of fangs) ‘work their way into the -intervals of the old teeth, and gradually expel these latter.’ When -lost by accident or by violence, therefore, the process of replacement -is slower, as we can readily conceive, the ‘secondary’ next in turn not -being as yet ready for duty. - -Though the American scientific journals devoted to zoology are rich -in ophidian literature, there are few available to English students; -and I regret I am unable to ascertain from across the Atlantic the -latest researches and conclusions regarding this and several other -correlative points. To Professor Martin Duncan I am indebted for the -loan of a volume which forms one of the ‘Bulletins’ of the United -States Geological Surveys, containing a valuable ‘Report’ on the -Crotalus by Dr. Elliot Coues, of the United States army, late surgeon -and naturalist to the United States Northern Boundary Commission, 1878. - -It is these frequent Exploring Expeditions of America that have done so -much to enrich science in all its branches; as to them are appointed -efficient geologists, botanists, naturalists, and other scientists, who -send in their ‘Reports’ to Government, to be soon reproduced in the -form of large, handsomely-illustrated volumes. Copies of these (often -consisting of ten to eighteen thick quartos) are presented to the -members of Congress, governors of States, and to many others in office, -also to literary institutions. You may have access to them in almost -every large town in America; and there is no information connected -with the history and natural productions of the nation (including -the aborigines) that cannot be found in their pages. And as our -Transatlantic cousins are always exploring some new territory, and have -still untold square miles of mountain and valley to explore, their -scientific ‘Reports’ in huge quarto tomes can be more easily imagined -than counted. - -This little digression from the viperine fangs is by way of introducing -Dr. Elliot Coues. The volume in question was not forthcoming at the -British Museum, therefore I ventured to trouble Professor Duncan with -some inquiries, which were kindly responded to by the sight of the work -itself. - -There is in Dr. Coues’ paper a good deal of what has been here already -described; but there is also so much that is of additional interest, -that for the benefit of those students who are not within reach of the -British Museum (where, no doubt, the fast arriving quartos will get -catalogued in due time), I will transcribe from the text some of the -passages as relating to viperine fangs generally. - -‘The active instruments are a pair of fangs.’ ... They are ‘somewhat -conical and scythe shaped, with an extremely fine point; the -convexity looks forward, the front downward and backward’ (referring -to the slight double curve in the Crotalus fang as shown in the -illustration, p. 360). They are hollow by folding, ‘till they meet, -converting an exterior surface first into a groove, finally into a -tube.’ ... The fang is ‘moveable, and was formerly supposed to be -hinged in its socket. But it is firmly socketed, and the maxillary -itself moves, which rocks to and fro by a singular contrivance. The -maxillary is a small, stout, triangular bone, moveably articulated -above with a smaller bone, the lachrymal, which is itself hinged upon -the frontal.... This forward impulse of the palatal and pterygoid -is communicated to the maxillary, against which they abut, causing -the latter to rotate upon the lachrymal. In this rocking forward of -the maxillary, the socket of the fang, and with it the tooth itself, -rotates in such a manner that the apex of the tooth describes the arc -of a circle, and finally points downward instead of backward. This -protrusion of the fang is not an automatic motion, consequent upon the -mere opening of the mouth, as formerly supposed, but a volitional act, -as the reverse motion, viz. the folding back of the fang, also is; -so that in simply feeding the fangs are not erected.’ (But I think I -may affirm positively that sometimes the vipers do use their fangs in -feeding. When they open their mouths—or rather the jaws alternately -very wide—I have seen first one and then the other fang occasionally -engaged in the food and again disengaged unsheathed. On other occasions -the fangs have been folded. In some large African vipers, the ‘River -Jack’ and others that were in the Society’s Gardens a few years ago, I -was able to observe this easily.) - -The fang is folded back ‘with an action comparable to the shutting of -the blade of a pocket-knife; ... one set of muscles prepares the fangs -for action, the other set stows them away when not wanted.... The -fangs are further protected by a contrivance for sheathing them, like -a sword in its scabbard. A fold of mucous membrane envelops the tooth -like a hood.... The erection causes the sheath to slip, like the finger -of a glove, and gather in folds round its base.... It can be examined -without dissection.’ (And with the naked eye in a large viper, even -during life, you may sometimes perceive this sheath or hood half off.) -‘Each developing fang is enclosed in a separate capsule,’ says Dr. -Mitchel, which is just what I thought I saw in ‘grovelling’ up the poor -Bushmaster’s reserve fangs. There was an immense deal of loose skin to -remove, which under skilful manipulation would doubtless have presented -the form of sheaths of various sizes. At last I came to a great deep -cavity as big as a bean or a hazel nut, and this I left neat and -uninjured for some one else to explore. It might have been the poison -gland! The young Jararaca’s mouth is too small to reveal its mysteries. - -But now we come to the most amazing of all the wondrous detail of -this living hypodermic syringe. Those who have seen a viper or a -rattlesnake strike its prey, are cognisant of the lightning-like -rapidity of the action. So swift is it that often a spectator is not -sure whether the snake touched the victim or not. A flicker, a flash, -and the bite has been given. Dr. Mitchel, describing the singular -inactivity of rattlesnakes in confinement, points out the striking -contrast between this repose and the perilous rapidity of their -stroke. Now let us look at the amount of business transacted in that -flash of time. Says Dr. Elliot Coues: ‘The train of action is first -reaching the object; secondly, the blow; thirdly, the penetration; -fourthly, the injection; and fifthly, the enlargement of the wound -(the latter by dragging upon it the whole weight of the body by the -contraction of certain muscles, which cause the fangs to be buried -deeper and thus enlarge the puncture); and all these five actions -accomplished in that instantaneous stroke!’ This is what Fayrer means -when explaining that ‘the real bite is when the snake seizes, retains -its hold, and thoroughly imbeds its fangs.’ ‘Sometimes the lower teeth -and the palatine become entangled (and sometimes a fang is left in the -wound).... The force of ejection may be seen when a serpent striking -violently misses its aim, and the stream has been seen to spirt five -or six feet. A blow given in anger is always accompanied by the spirt -of venom, even if the fangs fail to engage.’ ... Another curious piece -of mechanism, and one not previously described that I am aware of, is -a provision for the fangs when they fail to bite. ‘A serpent always -snaps his jaws together, and thoroughly _closes them_ when he strikes; -therefore, if the fangs failed to engage, they would penetrate the -lower jaw. But there is a certain movement among the loose bones of the -skull (perhaps not yet thoroughly made out), the result of which is -to spread the points of the fangs apart, so that they clear the inner -sides of the under jaw, instead of injuring them.’ Coues here describes -rattlesnakes particularly, but no doubt the same extends throughout the -viperines.... ‘In a large snake the entire gland may be an inch long -and one-fourth as wide, having the capacity of ten or fifteen drops -of fluid. There is no special reservoir for the venom other than the -central cavity of the gland. Formerly there was thought to be such a -storehouse; but when the tooth is folded back, certain muscles press -or compress the canal to prevent a wasteful flow: in other words, the -communication is shut off!’ - -In this wonderful exhibition of the ivory hypodermic syringe there -has not, I trust, been so much repetition as to render the subject -tedious. Presented in such graphic language and from such a source, it -must attract almost every intelligent reader, while the viperine fang -is absolutely acting before his eyes. On this subject, then, no more -need be said; though on the Crotalus family generally some interesting -matter still remains to be told. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -_THE CROTALIDÆ._ - - -IN the several chapters in which the rattlesnake has been introduced, -the reader has seen that for about 250 years it has been an object of -interest and of study among naturalists, and that first one and then -another has made fresh examinations of its various parts, giving to the -world new items of information as the results of such observations. - -And can there remain anything further to find out about it? we may -ask in surprise. Yes, there is. There yet remains to comprehend and -decide upon one feature which thus far has defeated conjecture and -investigation—the ‘pit’ (p. 277). Possibly among the indefatigable -observers in the land of rattlesnakes, recent labours may have been -rewarded by some new evidence of the utility of this peculiar orifice, -and already their zoological journals may have enlightened ophiologists -on its functions. At the present moment I am not aware of such -information; and time will not permit of further delay to enable me to -send a message of inquiry across the great deep. - -Hitherto the pit has certainly plagued not only zoologists, but all -classifiers of the Ophidia; because serpents that have this facial -depression embrace so many widely differing genera, some of them -resembling in all other respects the true vipers, and others the -rattlesnakes, so that they have come to be distinguished as the ‘pit -vipers.’ - -One of our most able biologists, A. R. Wallace, in his _Geographical -Distribution of Animals_,[106] informs us that ‘the _Crotalidæ_, -including the deadly rattlesnakes, abound most in the oriental regions’ -(though not a single rattlesnake is found there, or in the Old World at -all). Let us seek for the reason of this apparent incongruity, and how -it is that a large number of serpents which have no rattle come to be -placed among those which have an instrument specially constructed to -produce a rattling sound. - -Not to weary the reader by attempting to describe the various systems -of classification adopted by the many herpetologists who were the -contemporaries and immediate successors of Linnæus, we will rather -invite his imagination to picture the geographical history of our -globe during that age. Travels, explorations, the establishment of -new colonies, and the settlement of new territories marked the era; -and, as a sequence, new and hitherto unknown fauna were continually -brought home to Europe. We have seen, too, how natural history had been -growing into a science, and how travellers and zoologists stimulated -each other by their researches and writings. To recall a few of the -names with whom reptiles are associated, and to remind the reader that -one arranged them according to their scales, another their form, a -fourth their teeth, a fifth their habits, and so on, and that even -at the present day the classification of them is far from complete, -the present writer will be absolved from attempting anything beyond -generalization. - -Studying snakes towards the end of the last century, were Laurenti, -Buffon, Bonnat, Lacepède, Klein, Seba, etc. - -In the early part of the present century were Latreille, Shaw, -Daudin, Oppel, Merrem, Wagler, Neuwied, Cuvier, and many others till -we come to Gray, Fitzinger, and Dumeril, 1844. This last author, in -his introduction to _Les serpents solenoglyphes, dit Thanatophides_, -including the most deadly snakes, devotes several pages to the subject -of the ‘pit,’ and why it had especially occupied the attention of -those herpetologists who were endeavouring to improve the previously -imperfect systems. Wagler in 1824 assigned the name _Bothrops_ (from -βὀθρος, any hole, or pit, or hollow dug) to vipers with the pit that -had only scales and no plates or shields on their head, separating -these from the rattlesnakes and from those that have shields (see -illus. p. 318). This nomenclature of Wagler’s did not commend itself to -other herpetologists, and Fitzinger, in his _Systema Reptilium_, 1843, -extending the group, retained the name for one of the five families -into which he divided all the venomous snakes. Fitzinger’s fifth -family, the _Bothrophides_, included some of the Indian pit vipers; but -as some of these latter have shields on their head, they could not be -admitted into Wagler’s group with scales only. As the present object is -to demonstrate some of the perplexities of naturalists, and to arrive -at the reason why so many snakes without the _crotalon_ are called -_Crotalidæ_, we will quote Dumeril’s reasons, inviting the reader to -picture to himself the interest with which new examples were brought -home for investigation, and the obstacles presenting themselves to -herpetologists, who find one feature claiming alliance to this snake, -while another feature points an alliance to an entirely opposite one. - -So Dumeril shows us why some of the herpetologists wished to admit -_every species that has the nasal fosse_ under the generic name -_Bothrophidæ_, and others would have limited the term to a few, because -the name does not suit them all equally well. ‘_Beaucoup d’autres -serpents presentent aussi des enfoncements creusés sur la tête et sur -le bord des lèvres._’ These depressions, called by Professor Owen -‘secreting follicles,’ may be easily distinguished on the upper lip -of some of the larger constrictors. In the Reticulated python you can -count these pits like deep dimples round the mouth. In the Diamond -snake (_Morelia spilotes_) they are remarkably deep along the lower lip. - -Of those ‘follicles’ in the _Crotalidæ_ Dumeril writes: ‘_Les fossettes -paraissent devoir être des organes particuliers dont l’usage ou la -fonction n’est pas connu il est vraix, mais qui semble avoir quelque -importance par leur position constante entre les orifices réels des -narines et les yeux, at leur structure anatomique assez compliquée. -À cause de la grande analogie qu’ils ont tous avec les serpents à -sonnettes, nous avons preféré appeler ceux-ci les crotaliens._’[107] - -The above words are under the head of ‘_Les Crotaliens_,’ a name -retained, he had already explained why. ‘_Les solenoglyphes qui ont les -narines doubles en apparence seront pour nous les Crotaliens quoique -cette dénomination puisse, à tort, porter à croire que ces espèces -font du bruit avec leur queue: elle indique seulement leur rapports -avec les crotales établis d’après la présence des fausses narines -ou fossettes dont nous venons de parler. On nomme quelquefois ces -Ophidiens Bothrops._’[108] ... ‘_Comme ce caractère conviendrait à tous -les Crotaliens parcequ’ils ont tous des fossettes dites lacrymales, ce -nom (Bothrops) deviant par conséquent trop général._’[109] - -In retaining _Bothrops_ as a generic distinction, a large number of -non-venomous and constricting serpents must have been included, which -probably induced Wagler’s opposers to say of him that he ‘created a -system in which the venomous and non-venomous were huddled together -pell mell.’ - -Thus we see that on account of the nasal fosse the Indian crotaline -snakes could not be true vipers; they could not be exclusively -_Bothrophidæ_, for the reasons given above, and they certainly are not -rattlesnakes; but for want of a better name they are ‘_Crotalidæ_,’ as -they have (minus the rattle) more features in common with rattlesnakes -than with any others. - -In the slough of a rattlesnake you may see the form of this pit. It is -lined with scales, and reversed in sloughing, perfectly shaped as a -tiny glove finger. - -When Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., etc., edited a short-lived little magazine -in 1831 called the _Zoological Miscellany_, the whole of the known -_Crotalidæ_ consisted of ten genera and thirty species, of which -sixteen species belonged to Asia and its adjacent islands, one to South -Africa, and the rest to America. When he published his catalogue of -snakes belonging to the British Museum in 1849, he enumerated eleven -genera and thirty-seven species. Wallace, 1876, gives eleven genera and -forty species, the eastern examples of which belong to India, Siam, -Java, Borneo, Tartary, Thibet, Japan, and Formosa. Still more recently -some belonging to the Western States of America have, I believe, been -added by Cope or Coues, the latter informing us that up to the date of -his paper, 1878, eighteen species and upwards of the rattlesnake proper -had been described in the United States, nearly all in the west and -south-west. So, as those vast deserts are being explored, new species -are continually discovered. - -Of the Indian species of _Crotalidæ_, those minus a rattle, Fayrer -says that they are chiefly in Malaya and Indo-China. Many of them, -the _Trimeresuri_, are arboreal, and like the foliage in colour. They -have the viperine aspect, but are ‘less formidable than their American -congeners,’ being of much smaller dimensions. Only one, _Halys_, has -anything approaching to a rudimentary rattle, a tail ending in a spine. -Of the _Trimeresuri_, the tree species, Fayrer affirms that few deaths -are ascribed to them. Some attain to above three feet in length. He -thinks a feeble person might die of their bite. They are of a sluggish -habit, and lie quietly hidden among the leaves of low bushes and ferns. -They will even suffer themselves to be moved without attempting to -bite, but one that was pressed to the ground with a stick struck so -hard as to break both its fangs. They feed chiefly on insects. Their -habits are crepuscular if not nocturnal, and Fayrer does not state -positively that they or any of the Indian _Crotalidæ_ are viviparous. - -Of the principal American _Crotalidæ_ that are not true rattlesnakes, -the ‘Bushmaster’ (_Lachesis mutus_) stands first. This is undoubtedly -the largest venomous serpent known. In length it equals the Hamadryad; -and in thickness, the large African vipers. On looking closely at the -illustration of this reptile’s tail (p. 176), it will be seen that -in addition to the spine which terminates it, there are several rows -of fine, elaborated scales, which under the microscope appear almost -as curiously pointed as those on the head of _Vipera nasicornis_. -Dumeril thus describes the tail: ‘_Ponctuée, et précédée de dix ou -douze rangées d’écailles épineuses, un peu courbées en crochets à -la pointe._’ This is the snake called _Crotalus muet_, or ‘dumb -rattlesnake,’ by Linnæus, and which is supposed to simulate the sound -of the rattle by vibrating this point against the leaves; but many -other snakes do this whether their tail is pointed or not, as we saw -in chap. xi. Any small thing, such as a twig rustling among dead -leaves, would produce the same sound. The near approach of _Lachesis_ -to _Crotalus horridus_ of the same habitat is, however, seen in this -rudimentary rattle, the agitation of which may similarly be attributed -to the timidity of these ‘highly nervous and irritable creatures,’ to -repeat Coues’ words; for deadly as they are, timidity strongly displays -itself. Watching the venomous snakes when their food is dropped into -their cages, their excessive caution, amounting to cowardice, is -remarkable, and this with the rattlesnakes especially. One will fix -its eyes on the rat which is running about, and shrink back terrified -if it approach too closely. Then if the quadruped is a moment quiet, -the snake appears to be considering whether it will be advisable to -attack it or not. Stealthily and slowly it approaches its head, but on -the slightest movement of the little animal, recedes in alarm, and is -some time before it makes a second venture. I have seen a rattlesnake -thus timidly advancing and recoiling three or four times before it -has the courage to give the fatal stroke. Even after the bite it -watches its victim with a steadiness in which terror is the strongest -expression; and when the rat has remained motionless for a time, and -the rattlesnake ventures near to investigate and make sure it is -dead, one faint gasp or dying struggle will cause the reptile to dart -back in excessive alarm, and wait again some minutes before venturing -near. After long and patient observations, I am still doubtful whether -stupidity or timidity predominates in viperine natures. - -Of the other well-known and formidable American _Crotalidæ_ is the -‘_Fer de lance_’ (_Trigonocephalus lanceolatus_) of the Antilles -and Central America. This has also a pointed tail. The Jararaca of -Gray (_Craspedocephalus Braziliensis_) is another, but without the -point. Of the true rattlesnakes, Dumeril gave five genera in 1844, -viz. _Crotalophorus_, _Crotalus_, _Caudisona_, _Urocrotalon_, and -_Urosophus_. - -From the two species originally known, we see how they have gradually -multiplied as the country has been more thoroughly explored. In 1860, -Dr. Weir Mitchel affirmed that twenty species had been then described; -probably the most recent ‘Reports’ or Bulletins will tell us of yet -others. And these latter are exclusive of the non-rattle-bearing -_Crotalidæ_. - -Dr. Mitchel’s experiments were with the northern species, chiefly -_Cro. durissus_; and as a relief from this wearisome classification, -some of his observations will be welcome. One very noteworthy result -is that the Crotalus does occasionally produce a sound independently -of the rattle. Not a prolonged hiss, or by any means so loud as the -innocent snakes, but merely ‘the expiration of air from the lungs just -before striking.’ I have never observed or heard this in our London -rattlesnakes, but it no doubt is of the same character and degree of -sound as that produced by the _Cerastes_ and the little _Echis_, and -which more resembled a short, feeble, spitting sound. Still, as we are -informed by Dumeril that rattlesnakes are ‘deprived of voice,’ it is -interesting to know that, on the authority of Dr. Weir Mitchel, some -slight sound, though not a regular hiss, does sometimes accompany the -action of striking. - -An inquiry has lately met the eye in one of our scientific journals -as to whether a rattlesnake drinks. Dr. Mitchel clears away all -doubts on that subject by impressing upon those who keep these -creatures the importance of giving them plenty of water, particularly -when changing the skin. Deprived of it, the cuticle comes off -unhealthily—_desquamates_, in fact, in bits. At the casting of the -cuticle, or previous to the process, they will not only drink, he tells -us, but lie for hours in the water. When they were disinclined to eat, -and had fasted long enough to endanger their health, he fed them by -force with milk and insects, and the way he managed was to get their -mouths open and insert a tunnel a safe distance down their throat. -While held in this position, a repast consisting of insects and milk -was pushed down the tube of the tunnel in sufficient quantities. The -most surprising circumstance in connection with this style of feeding, -and also with the process adopted by Dr. Shortt of Madras in filling -his cobras ‘as full as they could hold’ with sour milk, is that these -fastidious and frightened reptiles did not disgorge the diet. Both -experimentalists, however, found it answer, reminding us of some -advice given to the keeper at the London Ophidarium in the case of the -Hamadryad, which, having no snakes to dine off one winter, elected to -fast. To force frogs or fish down its throat was suggested; but no one -could be found brave enough to undertake the task, and happily ‘Ophio’ -survived till a relay of ring snakes arrived. - -Both Mitchel and Coues corroborate what has been observed by others -regarding the increased virulence of the bite when moulting; but both -are of opinion that this is owing to an accumulation of venom, as the -snakes have not been feeding or expending their store for some days. -Even while not feeding, their venom is secreted all the same, and they -survive many months, even a whole year and more, without food. Dumeril -mentions one that lived twenty-five months without feeding. - -A startling and almost horrifying demonstration of what physiologists -would perhaps attribute to nervous or to muscular irritability is -described by Dr. Mitchel, namely, an action that had been begun in -life, carried out in a headless snake. On p. 281 was described the -astonishment of Colonel Beverley, who observed the severed head of a -rattlesnake attempting to bite. ‘Then the head gave a sudden champ.’ -Long after a snake is dead the tongue will be exserted as in life; -and in other actions they, as it were, carry out their intentions -though deprived of vitality. ‘The headless trunk will strike,’ says Dr. -Mitchel, and continue to do this when touched or irritated as if it -still had its head and its fangs to strike with! - -Mr. George Catlin in his _Life among the Indians_ relates a -circumstance of this kind which may well be introduced here, as -illustrative of this amazing fact—a rattlesnake coiling and springing -after it is decapitated. His party were going down a river, and had -just landed to explore a little, when he saw a large Crotalus, and -seizing his gun fired at its head. At the same moment it leaped and -sprang towards him, apparently striking him on the breast, Mr. Catlin -being on the point of leaping back into the boat. He thought he had -fired and missed his aim, and was a dead man, nevertheless much -wondering at having missed his mark. Meantime, an Indian, seeing a spot -of blood on the front of Mr. Catlin’s linen smock, exclaimed, ‘You are -bitten!’ and without ceremony the smock and flannel shirt were torn -open, and a spot of blood on his breast was exposed to view. Promptly -the blood was washed off, and the Indian on his knees had his mouth -at the wound preparing to suck out the poison. Quickly looking up, -however, he rose to his feet, and with a smile of exultation said, -‘There’s no harm! You’ll find the snake without its head.’ - -Stepping ashore again, and pushing aside the long grass, there, sure -enough, was the headless rattlesnake, coiled up where it had fallen, -and with its headless trunk erect, ready for another spring. Mr. Catlin -had _not_ missed fire, but the creature so near the spring, was so -ready at the instant with its aim made, that it leapt and struck Mr. -Catlin probably on the very spot where it would have bitten him had the -sportsman missed his mark. The bleeding trunk had printed its stroke -with blood, driving the stain through the dress to the skin. ‘How -curious it is,’ Mr. Catlin remarks at the conclusion of his narrative, -‘that if you cut off the head of a rattlesnake, its body will live -for hours, and jump at you if you touch it with a stick, when if you -break his spine near the tail, with even a feeble blow, it is dead in a -minute. This we proved on several occasions.’ - -Mr. Catlin also helps to confirm what has been already stated in these -pages, viz. the certainty of the mate being within hearing of the -rattle, and responding when one of them sounds an alarm; also that -‘they can track each other and never lose company, though when met are -not always seen together, so that if we kill one over-night and leave -its dead body, the other will be found by its side in the morning.’ - -A near relative of the rattlesnake is the ‘copper-head,’ -_Trigonocephalus contortrix_ of the United States, known also as the -‘Red adder,’ and the ‘Dumb rattlesnake.’ It is the _Boa contortrix_ of -Linnæus, who, as we explained above, and also in chap. ii., divided the -Ophidia into only three or four families, calling an immense number, -both venomous and harmless, ‘boas.’ - -This member of the _Crotalidæ_ is said to be as venomous as the -rattlesnake, and is much more dreaded, because it has no rattle to give -warning of its proximity. When a bitten person survives, the effects -of its bite are said to be felt annually, as in the case of the -rattlesnake, and the injured limb ‘turns the colour of the snake.’ In -regard to this latter symptom, said to show itself in the case of so -many snakes, the bitten limb assumes all manner of horrible tints in -most cases, and it does not require a great stretch of imagination to -detect colours resembling the also many-tinted aggressors. Still there -may be more in this than we at present know of. - -In the cranberry swamps and tamarack marshes in the northern districts -of Ohio formerly were found immense numbers of a small and very -dark brown rattlesnake known as the _Massasauga_. It is seen lying -in clusters like small twigs on dry leaves, and still is found in -considerable numbers in some remote districts. The illustration of the -small rattle (p. 302) was sent me from that neighbourhood, and is, I -believe, from a true ‘Massasauga.’ This is the one (as I think I am -safe in stating) that was first (1810) described by Dr. Kirtland, a -distinguished naturalist of Ohio, and after him named _Crotalophorus -Kirtlandi_. Its range is confined to the swampy districts of Northern -Ohio and Southern Michigan. Its rattle being scarcely audible, -this little snake gets frequently trodden upon, and persons are as -frequently bitten; but Dr. Kirtland stated that he had never known any -one to die of its bite, which is scarcely worse than the sting of a -hornet. It is a link between the last-named snake, the ‘copper-head,’ -and the rattlesnake, having head-shields like the former, and tail of -the latter. These small species no doubt help to add to the confusion -of evidence regarding the virulence of rattlesnake bites, one person -affirming that they are deadly, and another, that recovery is common. -The degree of venom between the smallest and the largest of the -_Crotalidæ_ can no more be compared than can the constriction of -the little slow-worm round your fingers with the constriction of the -anaconda. - -A word in conclusion about the rattlesnake’s enemies; and of these hogs -come first, next to man. Wild hogs, peccaries, and deer in their native -haunts, and doubtless an immense number of snake-eating birds, devour -young rattlesnakes. Deer strike them with their hoofs, jumping on them -with wonderful adroitness, so as to pin them down with all four feet. -Pigs in the west derive no small part of their subsistence from snakes; -and, as is now a well-known fact, the introduction of hogs has done -more than anything else—not even excepting the annual _battue_—to -diminish the number of rattlesnakes. The venom being ‘innocuous to -hogs,’ is a fact only partially stated. A thin hog, bitten on a vein, -might die as speedily as any other victim. It is because the venom -fails to penetrate the fat, or, as Dr. Coues more ably expresses it, -‘the fluid fails to enter the circulation through the layer of adipose -tissue.’ Pigs are not invariably exempt, any more than is the mongoose, -from the cobra’s bite. In both cases adroitness assists the animals to -evade the strike, and in the latter case the thick fur of the mongoose -is as great a protection to it as the fat is to the hog. - -Dr. Coues mentions a danger not often anticipated in dealing with -rattlesnakes when you wish to examine them. This is their habit of -twining themselves around the arm, or wherever they can get hold. -‘Grasp it fearlessly at the back of the neck,’ he says; ‘but even then -a large one can constrict enough to paralyze both arms.’ A man who was -thus trammelled had to be relieved by a bystander. We are not always -prepared for constricting rattlesnakes! - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -_THE XENODONS._ - -_AND MY ‘DISCOVERY.’_ - - -THOUGH there are only about eight species that have a legitimate -right to this patronymic, there are—as my readers have seen in chap. -xix.—great numbers of ‘strange-toothed’ snakes that have a zoological, -or rather a dentitional right to it. The present chapter, however, -will comprise only a few of those most nearly allied to the recognised -_Xenodons_, which with _Heterodon_ must occupy some pages. - -The _Xenodons_ have an especial interest, not only on account of their -remarkable dentition, but their vernacular names, which in Brazil, -where these snakes are common, have led to much and frequent confusion. -This can be remedied only after considerable lapse of time, for the -confusion has unfortunately been disseminated in print, and the -vernaculars, confused by local prejudices, still obtain. The incident -of my own first acquaintance with a _Xenodon_ will in part explain the -kind of puzzle which prevails; and a little personal gossip about this -may, I trust, be tolerated. - -A snake mentioned by a number of writers and travellers as the -_Jararaca_ had plagued me long and terribly, from the contradictory -accounts of it. What _is_ this Jararaca? And is it the same as the -_Iarraracca_ or the _Ibiracua_ or the _Iraracuassa_ or the _Shiraraca_, -or several other nearly similar names which appear in books about -Brazil. Had one gone straight to Gray or Dumeril, the recognised and -scientific name for it could have been ascertained at once; but we do -not so readily find out which _are_ the right books to pounce upon, -nor had I in those days learnt the necessity of trusting to scientific -works only for the unravelling of travellers’ tales; but I hunted in -dictionaries and encyclopedias and travels and those old authors again, -but with no better success. - -In Wallace’s _Travels in the Amazon_ we read: ‘Hanging up under -the eaves of our shed was a dried head of a snake which had been -killed a short time before. It was a _Jaráraca_, a species of -_Craspedocephalus_, and must have been of formidable size, for its -poison fangs, four in number, were nearly an inch long.... The bite of -such would be certain death.’ - -With this picture of a large Brazilian serpent, drawn by such an -authority as Wallace, one read in Ogilvy’s dictionary: ‘_Jararaca_. -A species of serpent in America, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in -length; having prominent veins on the head, and of a dusky, brownish -colour, variegated with red and black spots.’ - -Then Webster—evidently from the same source: ‘A species of serpent -in America,’—word for word the same as far as the black spots—‘very -poisonous. Native name in Surinam.’ And in a newer edition, Webster, in -addition, gives its scientific name, _Bothrops Jararaca_; and that it -is ‘a native to (_sic_) Brazil.’ - -‘Oh! if a _Bothrops_, then it is one of the _Crotalidæ_,’ was -the decision arrived at. Kingsley, in his _At Last_, mentions a -‘mangrove snake, much dreaded by being so like the deadly Cascobel, -viz. _Trigonocephalus jararaca_.’ Thus with our puzzle we combine a -_Bothrops_ with the ‘pit;’ a _Trigonocephalus_ with the worst of the -viperine heads; and according to Wallace, a _Craspedocephalus_, which, -at a guess, must be that it has something rough about the head to -entitle it to this specific. - -Few of the encyclopedias described it individually, or threw more light -upon it. Worcester’s dictionary states that the Jararaca is ‘a species -of venomous American serpent seldom exceeding eighteen inches;’ and -gives Wright as an authority. Spix and Martin[110] in their list of -venomous snakes describe _Jararacucu_, called also _Shiraraca_, as a -_Bothrops_; and also a _Jararaca mirim_, a small one. Marcgravius[111] -figures a _Iararaca_, a small snake of a bright red with black spots. - -And now for our old friend the Pilgrim Purchas. ‘Of snakes that have -Poison, _Iararaca_ is a Name that comprehendeth foure kinds. The first -is the greatest _J_. There are other smaller _Jararacas_, about half a -Yard long. They have certaine Veines in their Head like the Vipers.’ - -Have those ‘prominent veins anything to do with its name -_Craspedocephalus_’? But how about its being only eighteen inches? -This was the pursuit of snakes under difficulties, the clearing away -of which was accomplished only by slow degrees, as one book after -another offered new contradictions with still other varieties of -spelling. Without doubt this perplexing reptile was viperine, rough, -angular-headed, crotaline, and probably hideous; but as for colouring -there were many doubts about that. - -After several years’ familiarity with the _name_ of this puzzling -‘Jararaca,’ and curiosity increasing at a corresponding ratio, the -reader can imagine the effect produced by unexpectedly seeing at the -London Zoological Gardens one day in September 1880 a new label to -one of the cages in the Ophidarium thus inscribed, ‘CRASPEDOCEPHALUS -BRAZILIENSIS. THE JARRARACCA. Presented by Dr. Stradling.’ - -A live Jararaca at last! Now we shall know all about it. - -But how is this? The serpent before me was not a viper, not -rough-headed, not a _Bothrops_, because it had only one pair -of nostrils. It had smooth, polished scales, large, beautiful, -round eyes, with no ‘red spots’ and not a spice of venom or of -viperishness about it. And I stood staring and wondering, and—I must -confess—_disappointed_ at this meek-looking, smallish snake being a -representative of the terrible, ‘formidable’ picture that had been -conjured up. ‘I don’t believe that’s a _Jararaca_!’ were my inward -conclusions. ‘I am _sure_ it isn’t! It _can’t_ be. It does not agree -in any way.’ Then came the keeper to the cage, to tell me of this -new and valuable addition; but I only repeated aloud my already firm -convictions. - -‘Here’s the gentleman who brought it from Brazil, and he ought to -know,’ returned the keeper in justifiable argument as he motioned -with his hand towards a stranger by his side. The name of Dr. Arthur -Stradling, a Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society, was -already known to me. Though personally unacquainted, he had, indeed, -through the columns of _Land and Water_, replied to some communications -of my own. This informal introduction, therefore, led easily to the -exchange of a few words about this contradictory ‘Jararaca,’ the -name by which—as he assured me—the snake was known in Brazil. He -had not, he said, examined the mouth of this snake during the voyage -home, knowing its deadly character; and had simply accepted it as the -‘Jarraracca,’ according to its Brazilian vernacular. I ventured to -point out the non-viperine aspect of the so-called ‘deadly’ reptile -before us, and suggested that if it were indeed venomous it could only -be an elaps, also that there were probably several that were known by -this name. This led to a correspondence, both by letter and through the -columns of _Land and Water_ (Oct. 1880), on the subject of vernacular -names; but as these belong more especially to the ensuing chapter, I -need only say here that Dr. Stradling returned to Brazil determined -to investigate this confusion of names, and I thus gained a valuable -ally in my endeavours to identify some of the perplexing vernaculars of -Brazil with the scientific descriptions. - -On a subsequent voyage, Dr. Stradling obtained three more of these -so-called Jararacas, and described them by letter, and subsequently in -_Land and Water_. - -Echoing my own perplexities, he asks, ‘_Is_ there such a snake as the -_Jarraracca_? When I got three more living specimens of the same this -last voyage in Pernambuco, I began to have my doubts, for I could not -reconcile them with the description at all. One died, which fact I did -not, by ill luck, discover till it was worthless; but I observed, as -I thought, a well-developed fang. A few days later a good opportunity -presented itself for picking up one of the survivors and examining its -mouth; then to my surprise I found that the supposed fang was really -a large curved tooth, situated quite out of the natural position of a -fang, but symmetric with one on the opposite side. Then I looked at -the other one, and finally let both bite me, which settled the matter. -I set it down as _Xenodon_ (a harmless snake), and was gratified to -find on reaching home that Dr. Günther had pronounced my specimen -at the Gardens’ (the one brought the previous September) ‘_Xenodon -rhabdocephalus_, the long-headed snake, on its death. But I don’t find -any mention of this extraordinary isolated tooth anywhere, though I -have a vague idea that Dr. Wucherer, who has perhaps been the most -earnest student of the Brazilian Thanatophidia, spoke of it in a -communication to the Society some years ago. The real “Jarraracca” -is still veiled in mystery.’ I also was ‘gratified’ to find the -Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society so generously justifying -my doubts about the supposed _Jararaca_, both in his letter to me and -in a paper to _Land and Water_, 2d April 1881. - -This was the first time I had ever heard of a _Xenodon_, a name which -Dr. Günther was then so good as to explain meant ‘strange tooth;’ -and he drew a little diagram of the jaw with five simple teeth -curving back, and then a long, fang-like back tooth. Strange indeed! -_Heterodon_ I knew possessed a large, fang-like tooth, which had caused -it to be called ugly names. Now here is more heterodox dentition. - -Dr. Wucherer’s account of the _Xenodon_ was discovered in the -_Zoological Society Proceedings_ for 1861. He also had been a -C.M.Z.S.[112] in the same region, and his report of the curious -_Xenodon rhabdocephalus_ is that it is very voracious, feeding chiefly -on frogs, but will swallow his friend too, should the latter have hold -of one on which he has set his heart. It flattens itself remarkably, -and thus gets through a very narrow chink. It is a fresh-water snake, -called _Cobra d’aqua_ in Brazil, also _Surucucu_ (from its evil -reputation). But Dr. Wucherer says not a word of those fang-like teeth. - -Meanwhile Dr. Stradling had most kindly sent me the magnificent -specimen of ‘_Curucucu_’ (_Lachesis mutus_), in spirits; and this, -together with the investigation of certain other vernaculars, made -the _Xenodon_ of only secondary interest in our correspondence until -exactly six months afterwards, when, on landing, June 1881, he wrote -that he was sending a _Heterodon_ and another _Xenodon_ to the Gardens. - -‘Where are the new snakes?’ I asked the keeper, hurrying to the -Reptilium early next day. - -‘What new snakes, ma’am? There are none fresh since you were last here.’ - -‘Ah, well, they are coming! Most _interesting_ kinds. I shall wait for -them.’ - -Sure enough, ere long a boy was seen approaching from the office with a -‘box of snakes.’ He also brought the news that the Doctor was expected -‘directly.’ - -Consigned to their cage, how I hovered about those ‘strange-toothed’ -Colubers that long midsummer day! How I wished they would bring their -heads close to the glass and yawn the widest of yawns, and how I waited -for the ophiological dentist to come and exhibit their ‘fangs!’ for the -donor of these valuable acquisitions had been devoting himself to the -discovery of antitoxics, and was supposed to be snake-proof, and to do -what he pleased with both venomous and non-venomous kinds. But the long -midsummer day waxed on, and I gazed at the _Xenodon_ till I knew every -mark of his leaf-like pattern; and the day began to wane, and my hopes -of seeing the wonderful teeth began to wane also. And I felt I had a -sort of claim upon this _Xenodon_, the ‘Jarraracca’ about which we had -corresponded. - -I had relied so much on having the pseudo-fangs scientifically -displayed to me, that when the visitors were departing and the keeper -was at liberty, I told him about these strange teeth which I was so -anxious to see, and at last persuaded him to open _Xenodon’s_ mouth for -me, and to hold it open (which operation the keepers understand very -well) while I made the dental examination myself. - -After all there was nothing in the shape of a fang to be seen! - -‘Posterior tooth long, compressed’! ‘Last tooth very long, compressed, -ensiform’! and so on, said the authorities; but nothing of the kind -was here! I could see to its very throat, and the rows of tiny palate -teeth and the four rows of jaw teeth, all exceedingly small, but never -a fang. So I stared and wondered, and then in my bewildered amazement -and vexation I passed my little finger along the jaws and _felt_ the -upper teeth. - -This practical investigation no doubt greatly offended the imprisoned -patient, for suddenly down came a pair of regular fangs—they _looked_ -like fangs;—and as my finger pressed the jaw on one or on the other -side, I saw these fang-like teeth move, vibrate, exactly like the -viperine fangs. When my finger was removed, up they went, folded back -in their sheath in true viperine fashion. My finger got a slight prick, -for they were exceedingly sharp; but knowing there was no venom in -them, that did not concern me, and in a few minutes the sensation was -gone. But how was it that Dr. Stradling had made no mention of this -extraordinary viperine mobility of the fangs? And what kind of jaw -must a snake have to move its back teeth in this manner! For we saw in -the previous chapters that the mobility of the fangs is in proportion -to the diminishing length of the maxillary bone, that the excessive -mobility of the viperine fang is owing to the greatly reduced size -of that bone, that a slight mobility is observable where the jaw is -somewhat less reduced, and so on; but here is a harmless Coluber with -a jaw long enough to hold five or six fixed, simple teeth, and then an -extremely mobile long one at the back. Can the jaw be divided in the -middle? Thus I marvelled. - -‘Now let us look at Heterodon.’ - -But that pretty little snake positively refused to open its mouth; so, -fearing to alarm it, or cause it to disgorge its last meal, I did not -encourage its forcible detention. - -Not to lose a moment, I then and there pencilled a note to Dr. -Stradling, begging him to tell me if he had observed anything unusual -in _Xenodon’s_ ‘fangs.’ That I had examined them and seen what appeared -very extraordinary; but before describing it, was desirous of having my -observations confirmed by him. - -But the Dr. had been unexpectedly appointed to another ship, which -would sail immediately. Many weeks must, therefore, elapse before his -reply could reach me. - -That day there was but one direction to which my ophidian compass -directed my steps, viz. the British Museum; and several days were spent -there hunting every possible book to find any mention of _Xenodon’s_ -moveable teeth, but in vain. Surely a feature so exceptional would have -been described had it been observed. Pardon, kind reader, these many -words about ‘so small an affair;’ but you who are naturalists know -the peculiar charm of finding ‘something new,’ producing, as Charles -Kingsley described, ‘emotions not unmixed with awe,’ that among the -happy memories of study or of travel ‘stand out as beacon points.’ It -was my great ambition to add ‘something new’ to science. But here was -I with a secret ‘discovery,’ and not knowing what to do with it. And -‘if anything should happen’ to _Xenodon_ meanwhile! Then the keeper -would be reprimanded. Plainly, courtesy demanded that the secretary -of the London Zoological Society should receive an explanation of my -infringement of rules; therefore, in a letter to him, I described -_Xenodon’s_ whole history. I also wrote a detailed account of _Xenodon_ -to a friend who edited a zoological publication, under the delusion -that I should be invited to contribute a full, true, and particular -account of these wonderful teeth to half the zoological journals of -Europe! ‘First observed by C. C. H.!’ But no! - -Weeks of wondering suspense passed by. Then everybody went ‘out -of town.’ On meeting Dr. Günther one day at the British Museum, I -told him what I had seen. ‘The teeth or the jaw moves?’ he asked -catechetically. That I could not explain, as it was precisely what one -wished to ascertain. ‘You must dissect that snake,’ he said, adding -that he had had no time to examine it yet. All this was duly reported -to my Brazilian correspondent, who with a generous impulse promised -to send me ‘the very first _Xenodon_’ he got. Alas! as I told him, -it was useless to give it to _me_, who could neither kill nor cut -up snakes. He did not inform me whether he, also, had observed any -mobility in the ‘fangs;’ so I could not yet flatter myself that I had -‘added to science’ in any way. Professor Halford, when in England, -had dissected the head of the dead specimen at the Zoological Gardens -(the supposed _Jarraracca_) for poison glands, but of course found -none; and I trusted to some scientific friend ‘happening by’ who would -further examine its maxillary bone and report to me; but ophiological -anatomists do not present themselves every day. Dr. Stradling was -absent; so unless other enthusiasts proceed to an examination before -this page meets the public eye, there will still remain these -‘strange-toothed’ maxillaries inviting dissection. - -Dr. Stradling, however, after a while informed me that he had _not_ -observed the mobility of the fangs, nor had he seen any mention of such -anywhere excepting in my paper to _Land and Water_ (July 9, 1881). -He thought those pseudo-fangs ‘of considerable importance in bearing -on the experiments that were then being carried on in Brazil with -permanganate of potash, and particularly should a non-ophiologist be -the experimenter.’ A snake is brought as a ‘Jararaca,’ a name applied -by the authorities to one of the very deadly viperine snakes. This -snake—the so-called ‘Jararaca’—bears an evil character. It has -also very suspicious-looking ‘fangs.’ It bites an animal which is -put under treatment, and though requiring no treatment whatever, a -supposed ‘antidote’ might get all the credit of a ‘cure.’ He did not -for a moment infer that such had been the case in Brazil with those -scientific experimentalists, but only what might be in consequence -of the confusion in names. And the correspondence on this subject -that appeared in the papers during the latter part of October 1881 -certainly did betray some confusion between the various _Jararacas_ and -_Jararacucus_ that had inflicted bites. - -Dr. Stradling had also looked in the mouth of the dead specimen of -_Xenodon rhabdocephalus_, and he informed me that one of the ‘fangs’ -came out in his hand. ‘It did not break off,’ he wrote; ‘and its -articulation with the bone, if any, must be loose and ligamentous.’ I -must not presume to offer any opinion about its ‘articulation,’ except -that its being ‘loose’ might be only in consequence of a new tooth -pushing it out, or that it was about to fall out of itself. My readers -will unite in thanking Dr. Stradling for considerately forwarding me -this ‘fang,’ which so conveniently detached itself in time to be added -to the rest of the illustrations, fig. _e_, presented on p. 360. It -will be observed that it is a stouter and less symmetrical tooth than -the true fangs; but it was very large in proportion to the simple -teeth in the same jaw and on the palate, and which are not bigger than -the palate teeth seen behind the recumbent fangs of _Daboia_, p. 349. - -Of these true _Xenodons_ there are eight species; but the -strange-toothed group includes _Tomodon_, _Heterodon_, _Simotes_, -_Liophis_, and several others that have large posterior teeth, some of -which are grooved, others not, but all without a poison gland. - -Searching page after page about _Xenodon_, something one day suddenly -caught my eye that had hitherto escaped notice. In his _Odontography_, -Owen, describing the South African snakes _Bucephali_, says: ‘Their -long grooved fangs are firmly fixed to the maxillary bone, _or are -slightly moveable_ according to their period of growth; they are -concealed by a sheath of thick, soft gum, containing loose, recumbent, -grooved teeth ready to succeed those in place.’ - -‘So, then, a mobile tooth was already known to science.’ Of _Bucephali -viridis_, Dr. Andrew Smith describes the ‘posterior or _mobile_ and -grooved teeth of the maxilla.’ He says: ‘Some are placed for immediate -use, the rest are recumbent between those and the inner portion of the -spongy sheath which envelops them; anterior teeth fixed.’ He considered -these back teeth not poisonous, but only for holding or preventing the -escape of food. ‘They may convey an acrid saliva.’ Still we are not -informed _how_ the teeth move.[113] - -These snakes—the Bucephali—like the far-famed horse of Alexander -the Great, owe their name to their large, ox-shaped head. They are -the ‘Boomslange’ or tree snake of the Dutch settlers, and are by some -ophiologists included among the _Dendrophidæ_, or true tree snakes, -as they live in trees; but Dr. Andrew Smith considers that their teeth -sufficiently separate them from these. - -That there is something exceedingly interesting to study out in the -_Xenodon_ family cannot be doubted. ‘The transition begun in the -Bucephali,’ says Owen,[114] ‘is completed in the poisonous serpents,’ -but where the virulent character of the saliva begins it is hard to say. - -Despairing of any distinct comprehension of a jaw-bone which permits of -moveable back teeth, the last resource was to hunt up a skeleton. At -the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons none was to be found; but -through the kindness of the officials at the British Museum, one was at -length unearthed from the subterranean labyrinths of untold treasures -there. It was the skull of _X. gigas_, the largest of the family, and -a splendid specimen for examination. There were two large posterior -fangs on each side. On one side were two or three more large reserve -fangs—a cluster of them. All were recumbent. They were all much larger -than that of _X. rhabdocephalus_, those in reserve varying in size -relatively to their development and position. In this specimen there -were also two double rows of palate teeth, and an abundant but most -disorderly row of simple teeth in the lower jaw, with some reserve ones -packed closely on the inner side below the row in use. They exactly -illustrated the words of Nicholson and others, ‘the crop of young teeth -everywhere working their way into the intervals of the old ones.’ - -In the skulls of _Liophis meremii_ and _Liophis cobella_, of which Dr. -Wucherer says, ‘Dentition similar to Xenodon,’ the former had teeth -gradually increasing a trifle posteriorly, but nothing like fangs. _L. -cobella_ had a very long jaw of fifteen or sixteen teeth, but no fangs. - -On a second occasion I made a dental examination of the living -_Xenodon_ in order to be fully convinced of the nature of its back -teeth, and in both instances the fangs were depressed until the snake -was provoked into displaying them. It exhibited no spitefulness or -attempt to bite, and in both cases folded back its fangs the moment my -finger was removed, as if glad that the ceremony was over. - -_Heterodon d’Orbignyi_, being a small and delicate snake, was not again -enticed to exhibit its jaws; but my forbearance was otherwise rewarded. -One day it was dining off a rather large frog, and its mouth, close -to the glass, was stretched open to its fullest extent. The frog had -disappeared so far as to be within the mouth, wedging it wide open; and -I then saw a fang well erected and in use, _moving_, being detached, -in fact, from the food. It appeared to be somewhat nearer to the front -than _Xenodon’s_ fangs, with perhaps only three or four simple teeth -before it. But that it was a sheathed fang and _mobile_ I have no doubt -whatever, having seen it very distinctly. I told Tyrrell at the time -that _Heterodon’s_ fangs were also moveable; but now for the first -time I impart this new secret to the public. _Xenodon_ also greedily -seizes upon inconveniently large frogs, but it has never displayed its -fangs to me while feeding, as the pretty little _Heterodon_ did. One -more singular thing did this little _Heterodon_, and that was to assist -itself by coiling its body round an unmanageable frog one day. It -did not regularly constrict it in order to kill it; but _when caught_ -in the mouth, it helped itself to restrain the straggling limbs by a -few coils. Dr. Wucherer affirms that he had never seen its congeners -_Liophis_ or _Xenodon_ squeeze or coil themselves round their prey, but -_Heterodon d’Orbignyi_ certainly does. - -Another peculiarity of the American _Heterodons_ is that of flattening -their heads and the upper part of the body when angry or molested. It -is this, together with their pseudo-fangs, that have procured them the -name of ‘spread-head,’ ‘spreading-adder’, ‘puffing-adder’ or ‘blowing -viper’,—because at the same time they hiss violently,—or simply ‘the -adder,’ and ‘_blausser_,’ or the blower. - -There are several species of them, all, with the exception of _H. -d’Orbignyi_, having undeniably ugly, viperish-looking heads, ‘_Anguis -capitæ viperino_,’ or ‘_Serpent à la tête de vipère_.’ The snout -terminates in a large, conspicuous, recurved scale which gives them a -pug-nosed or rather a hog-nosed appearance. Catesby, who was the first -to describe the ‘hog-nosed snake,’ said ‘it hath a visage terrible and -ugly.’ In _H. niger_ and _H. platirhinos_ this is most apparent. They -belong mostly to the New World, both north and south. One in Virginia -is called, from its bright markings, the ‘calico snake,’ the word -calico in America being applied chiefly to coloured prints used for -dresses. Another is called ‘the mountain moccasin,’ the latter name in -the United States being applied to venomous kinds. - -In the flattening of the head and body, _Xenodon_ and _Heterodon_ -approach the cobras; in the strange dentition they approach the vipers; -in their true nature they are harmless colubers: thus do we see the -wonderful links or gradations between opposite families, which have -been such a perplexity to the early naturalist. - -The _Heterodons_ have the reputation of ‘feigning death’ when annoyed. -This peculiarity has been commented on by many who have experimented -upon the snake for this purpose. Holbrooke observed it in _H. -platirhinos_, and came to the conclusion that it was done at will. -‘It will deceive its tormentor by feigning death, remaining flat and -motionless.’ It otherwise ‘flattens the head and upper part of the -neck, which it lifts and waves, hissing loudly.’ This is the true cobra -manner. He often worried it and tried to make it bite, when it only -projected its head in that menacing way, but with closed mouth. On -the contrary, other experimentalists describe it with widely expanded -jaws when thus annoyed. In an excellent American magazine, _Science -News_, the _Heterodons_ formed the subject of several papers a few -years ago. To my friend, Mr. J. E. Harting, I am indebted for some -numbers of _Science News_, in which _Heterodons’_ performances are -fully described. One, on being intercepted in its retreat, ‘threw its -head back with widely expanded jaws; but instead of striking, it turned -completely over on its back, remaining stiff and motionless, with jaws -fixed in rigid expansion, feigning death.’ Reptilian intellect was, -however, insufficient to carry out the feint, inasmuch as its full -muscular power was exercised to maintain its position. ‘On concealing -myself,’ continues the narrator, ‘it cautiously righted itself and made -off; but only to repeat the _ruse_ when again caught.’[115] Dr. J. -Schneck, in the March number for the same year, describes a similar -action on his worrying them with a switch, when, after making futile -efforts to attack, they would seem to bite themselves (which they -really never do), and then turn on their backs as if dead. After a -few moments of quiet they would turn over and beat a hasty retreat. -Several other writers in _Science News_ confirm Holbrooke’s experience, -that ‘under no provocation can it be induced to bite.’ Those we have -seen at the Gardens verify this; exhibiting an extremely inoffensive -nature, though no death-feigning or summersault performances. And I -am more inclined to attribute the rigidity to a sort of paralyzed -terror than to any pretence of being dead. The same thing is observed -in some insects. If you blow on them or alarm them, they will flatten -themselves against whatever they may be crawling on, and cling close -and stiff as if dead, but presently escape. Some other snakes, also, -as well as the _Heterodons_, keep rigidly still as if paralyzed when -molested, previous to attempting any escape, though I do not remember -any others that turn over on their backs in so singular a fashion. - -A few more words about the _Deirodon_ with its still stranger teeth -must come in the next chapter. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -_OPHIDIAN NOMENCLATURE AND VERNACULARS._ - - -IN a lecture on ‘Chameleons’ at the Zoological Gardens, Professor -St. George Mivart described in his peculiarly lucid, facile manner, -some of the features possessed in common by totally different -zoological families, and facetiously added, ‘It is tiresome how a -single species will come and interfere with our nice definitions in -classification.’[116] I will devote a chapter to the confusion arising -from some such mixed features. - -In the classification of the Ophidia these tiresome complications -present themselves more, perhaps, than in any other creatures. We -have seen how snakes of entirely opposite families may possess one -single feature in common and differ in other generic respects; as, for -instance, in the moveable but innocuous fang of the _Xenodons_; in -those ‘pits’ or depressions in the face; the viperine form of head; -the position and number of head-shields; the sub-caudal plates, and so -on; and in such resemblances I am strongly inclined to suspect that -there are other interfering causes than a common ancestry, though this, -no doubt, has much to do with it. - -‘What is to prevent our having one fixed name, and keeping to it?’ -exclaim the sorely-puzzled amateur naturalists. And well they may, on -seeing in some works on ophiology a list of synonyms sometimes filling -several pages. - -By way of illustration let us take the little spine-toothed snake -described among the egg-eaters in chap. iii. This snake was known -to be _edentulus_ by Linnæus, who nevertheless gave it the generic -name of _Coluber_, because it has two rows of sub-caudal plates; and -the specific _scaber_, because it has roughly-carinated scales—both -names equally applicable to a score of other snakes, and not at -all describing its unique dentition. This latter was first made a -distinguishing feature by Jourdan, 1833, who assigned it the generic -name of _Rachiodon_, spine-toothed. Lacepède called it simply _La -rude_; Wagler, _Dasypeltis_, thick or rough-scaled, the integument -rather than the dentition still receiving prior attention by the -majority of observers. - -Dr. Andrew Smith in 1829 more closely watched its habits, and -considered that its peculiar dentition was sufficient to separate it -from the _Oligodon_ (few-toothed) family, under the new generic name -of _Anodon_, with the specific _typus_ to mark it as a distinct type. -Afterwards he found that the word _Anodon_ had been already adopted -by naturalists for a shell-fish, and he contented himself therefore -with Wagler’s name _Dasypeltis_, adding _inornatus_ for its specific, -otherwise _D. scaber_. It is a small, slender snake, rarely exceeding -2-1/2 feet in length, and of an inconspicuous brownish colour. That it -is an extremely slender little snake is evident from the portion of -spine copied from the skeleton in the museum of R. C. S., and given in -the chapter on egg-eating snakes. Jourdan’s name _Rachiodon_, though -the best that had hitherto been assigned to the spine-toothed tree -snake, was yet rather vague, as the teeth might be anywhere along the -spinal column; and Professor Owen still further improved upon this -name by calling it _Deirodon_, neck-toothed; for though, as already -stated, a snake has no true ‘neck,’ the word _Deirodon_ designates the -position of those gular teeth; and for convenience, everybody speaks -of a snake’s ‘neck’ in allusion to the part immediately behind the -head. So the little egg-eating tree snake is equally well entitled -to the generic names of _Oligodon_, few teeth; _Rachiodon_, spine -teeth; _Anodon_, toothless (as far as true teeth are concerned); and -_Deirodon_, neck-toothed. In habits it differs entirely from the -_Oligodontidæ_ family, which are ground snakes. The Deirodons are -frequently found concealed under the loose bark of dead trees; and Dr. -A. Smith observed three species all having a like organization, which -induced him to conclude that all feed alike on birds’ eggs. - -As very few snakes have such an exceptionally distinguishing -organization as the _Deirodon_, few are so happy as to escape with -only half a score of titles. Many species that have been longer known -have had their names similarly improved upon by fifty naturalists, -and are still undergoing renomination as new observers discover closer -alliances with one or another family. This is particularly the case in -America, where a nomenclature entirely differing from our own is often -adopted. It will probably be the same in Australia as the science of -ophiology advances and as native naturalists increase. Says Krefft, -in allusion to these commingling features and many synonyms: ‘It is -difficult for even the scholar to master the vexatious question of -snake classification.’ Add to the scientific names an equal number -of vernacular ones, and we encounter a list sufficient to dismay the -merely lukewarm student at the very outset. - -Let me here suggest the utility of first getting at the _meaning_ -of scientific terms as an immense assistance towards fixing them in -the memory. In the construction of generic and specific names some -peculiarity is, or should be, described. This I have endeavoured to -keep before the reader throughout this volume; and by first looking -at the _meaning_ of the word, it is at once simplified, while that -peculiar feature for which it is named is also grasped. Occasionally a -name baffles us, it is true, and one fails to see cause or reason in -it; but this is an exception. Other names without apparent reason are -from persons, as, for instance, when a Mr. Smith thinks to immortalize -himself by calling a snake _Coluber smithii_. Probably the next -observer would find this too general to be of much use, and discover -some peculiarity more worthy of a specific. - -Not long ago, when Lacerda was experimenting with our distinguished -ophidian, the ‘Curucucu’ (_Bothrops_ or _Lachesis rhombeata_), it -was variously introduced to the public through the daily press, -as the _Bothraps rhambeata_, the _Hachesis rhambeata_, and the -_Lachesis rhambeata_. It is doubtful whether many of the ‘general -public’ imagined these three names to represent the same snake, or -whether—except possibly from the last generic one—they could form -any idea of the reptile therefrom. Of the many papers that fell under -one’s notice, _Land and Water_ alone on this occasion spelt the words -correctly. As yet there is no journal devoted to the Reptilia, and the -study is evidently not attractive. Nor do we expect all naturalists to -be ophiologists; but those of the editors who were zoologists might -have hazarded a guess and made sense of the generic _Lachesis_, seeing -that a deadly, fateful serpent was intended. Some of the scientific -‘weeklies’ having started the wrong names, unscientific ‘dailies’ -deferentially transcribed them. The errors were chiefly traceable -to caligraphy, and are mentioned here to exemplify the advantage -of seeking a meaning in scientific appellations, the meanings of -some names being so obvious that in spite of a wrong letter you may -frequently decide upon them. - -This fateful _Lachesis_ of South America has been as perplexingly -described by unscientific travellers as the _Jararaca_, and as hard to -identify. It has been a stumbling-block and a snare ever since the time -of Waterton, who thus wrote of it:[117]—‘Unrivalled in the display of -every lovely colour of the rainbow, and unmatched in the effects of his -deadly poison, the _counacouchi_ glides undaunted on, sole monarch of -these forests. He sometimes grows to the length of fourteen feet. He is -commonly known by the name of _Bushmaster_. Man and beast fly before -him,’ etc. Waterton ‘wandered’ between the years 1812-1824, making -several journeys to South America, primarily with the view to ascertain -the composition and effects of the Wourali poison, and on this subject -his information was of value. But his descriptions of serpents partook -of the prejudices of that date, and were more picturesque than -zoological. What he saw and wrote of possessed the charm of novelty in -those days, and Sir Joseph Banks addressed a letter to him expressing -‘abundant thanks for the very instructive lesson you have favoured us -with, which far excels in real utility anything I have yet seen.’ - -Endorsed by such an authority, what wonder that fourteen feet of -radiantly splendid ‘Bushmaster’ should figure in the encyclopedias -of the day, and be copied by book-makers and magazine contributors -for years and years—even to the recent date of 1874! Hartwig, -1873,[118] gives Waterton’s ‘rainbow hues’ nearly word for word, with -the addition of one of the scientific names, _Lachesis rhombeata_. -Kingston, 1874,[119] aided by his imagination, improves on Waterton. -The _Curucucu_, or _Couanacouchi_, ‘sometimes fourteen feet, is the -largest known poisonous snake. It is remarkable for the glowing -radiance of its fearful beauty, displaying all the prismatic colours. -It mounts trees with the greatest ease,’ etc. (It lies half concealed -_under_ the trees among dead leaves.) Another writer of _Travels round -the World_ (meaning the British Museum Reading-room) contents himself -with simply a ‘rainbow-coloured’ Bushmaster; so now in imagination -we add indigo, blue, green, etc., to the ‘fearful beauty.’ Meanwhile -other writers on Brazil introduce it as the Surucuru, Sorococo, -Couroucoucou, Souroucoucou, Surukuku, and similar names, varied only -by a transposition of letters and the addition of accents. Tschudi -mentions it under its scientific name, _Lachesis rhombeata_, the -‘Flammon’ in Peru.[120] Sulivan,[121] who, like Waterton, rambled in -South America, tells us ‘the Couni Couchi or Bushmaster is the most -dreaded of all the South America serpents; and, as his name implies, he -roams absolute master of the forest. They do not fly from man, but will -even pursue and attack him. They are fat, clumsy-looking animals, about -four’ (not fourteen) ‘feet long, and nearly as thick as a man’s arm. -They strike with immense force.’ A man had been bitten in the thigh and -died, and ‘the wound was as if two four-inch nails had been driven into -the flesh. So long are the fangs, and so deep the wounds, that there -is no hope of being cured.’ P. H. Gosse quotes Sulivan regarding the -enormous fangs, both of these latter writers judiciously omitting the -‘rainbow’ colouring. - -Most snakes, even the dingiest, occasionally display an iridescence -which is certainly beautiful; and Waterton may have seen his -Counicouchi when the sun lighted up the recently-renewed epidermis and -showed him off in unusual brilliance; only, unfortunately, the copyists -have imagined the greens and crimsons and blues of the rainbow, and -rendered it a tedious business to poor patient plodders to arrive at -the truth. In the _Encyclopædia Metropolitana_, 1845, we find another -clue to identification. ‘_Trigonocephalus mutus_, a native of the -Brazils and Guiana, and from six to seven feet long, is known to the -Brazilians as _Surukuku_, and is probably the _Boschmeester_ of the -Dutch and the _Cœnicoussi_ of the native inhabitants.’ - -Many writers of travels give the vernacular names only, while the -more scientific who do give generic and specific names, may each give -a different one and perhaps omit the vernaculars; and in none of the -authorities does one discover the name ‘Bushmaster’ at all; while as to -colour and the true size we can be sure of nothing. - -Presenting these complications to Dr. Stradling, whose kindly proffered -co-operation I had gladly accepted, he wrote: ‘The vulgar names are -often _local_ in a limited area, so that the same snake may be known -by half-a-dozen different synonyms in as many different provinces—not -only that, but these names are often applied to other snakes; and -thus, while some species are blended together, many imaginary ones are -created.’ - -This in part explains the varieties of spelling seen above; the two -names _couanacouchi_ and _curucoocu_ being applied to one snake by -different tribes of the native races extending over a rather wide area. - -Further confirmation of these indiscriminate terms we find in three -other writers, viz.:—First, Dr. Dalton:[122] ‘The boa constrictor -is known as “Bushmaster” by the colonists. “Camoudi” is a name -indiscriminately applied to all large snakes. There is the land -Camoudi, and the water Camoudi, while the Kunikusi or Courracouchi -of the Indians is _Crotalus mutus_, which is termed “Bushmaster” in -the forests.’ Secondly, H. W. Bates[123] says: ‘The natives called -_Trigonocephalus atrox_ the Jararaca.’ Thirdly, Dr. Otho Wucherer[124] -affirms that a ‘venomous tree snake (_Craspedocephalus bilineatus_) -is called _Surucucu patyoba_, from the palm on which it is found, and -another tree snake is _Suru. Uricana_, from another palm in which it -resides; while _the_ Surucucu (_Lachesis mutus_) lives in holes in -the ground. It is about ten feet long.’ This latter is called _Suru. -bico di jacca_, from the resemblance of its strongly-keeled scales to -the prominences on the ‘jack fruit;’ _Xenodon rhabdocephalus_ is also -_surucucu_, while the true ‘Jararaca’ is _Craspedocephalus atrox_. - -Here are contradictory _Curucucus_ and _Jararacas_ in plenty, all -impressing upon us the importance of comparing evidence if we wish to -arrive at a truth. - -‘Why spend so much time about a mere name?’ Well, as in the solution -of a problem, you desire to ‘get it right.’ Besides, you ask, ‘Why so -many names to one snake?’ and in sifting out this _Curucucu_ and the -_Jararaca_, we discover reasons for the many synonyms. - -A. R. Wallace once more presents a clue:[125] ‘At Säo Gabriel I saw -on the rocks asleep one of the most deadly serpents in South America, -the “Surucurú” (_Lachesis mutus_). It is very handsomely marked with -rich amber brown, and armed with terrific poison fangs, two on each -side.’ Here we are enabled to associate a scientific and a vernacular -name with a ‘handsome,’ though not a ‘rainbow-coloured’ serpent. Sir -J. Fayrer describes the _Ophiophagus_ as the largest known venomous -serpent ‘_except_ the Bushmaster, which is said to attain fourteen -feet.’ - -By this time, in addition to the ever-varying vernaculars, we learn of -Waterton’s ‘Bushmaster’ as _Lachesis mutus_; _L. rhombeatus_; _Crotalus -mutus_; _Trigonocephalus mutus_. - -It will be observed that the word _Trigonocephalus_ is used as a -generic name by some naturalists, and as a specific by others; and it -may with reason be applied to most of the American thanatophidia which -are not _elapidæ_. It therefore, at least, enables us to ascertain -that the snake of doubtful identity has this viperine characteristic -of the angular head; and as there is only one very small true viper at -present known in the New World, we may further decide that not being -an _Elaps_, our puzzler is a _Bothrops_ with the _doubles narines_, -and therefore equally meriting either of the descriptives _atropos_, -_atrox_, _furia_, _megæra_, _clotho_, _cophias_, and other such fearful -appellatives freely used to designate the deadly qualities of the worst -class of serpents. In reply to a communication of mine to _Land and -Water_, of 2d October 1880, Dr. Stradling[126] entered more fully into -this question of vernaculars, and what he says of Brazil we find to be -the case everywhere:— - - ‘Whatever meaning the colloquial titles have is generally grounded on - some popular error.’ - -This we saw in the case of _Xenodon_ and _Heterodon_, both called all -sorts of bad names on account of their supposed fangs. - - ‘In Brazil, _Jeboia_ and _Cascavel_ are the universal names for the - boa and rattlesnake; every snake with red in its markings is a coral - snake (“corral,” from the Spanish word for a ring), every one found - in or near the water would be a _Cobra de agua_, and every other is a - Jarraracca or a Curucucu. - - ‘I believe every country has a pet bugbear among serpents. - “Fer-de-lance” is the cry in St. Lucia when a snake rustles away in - the bush or inflicts a bite unseen, “Bushmaster” in Demerara, “Toboba” - in Nicaragua, “Vaia” in Mexico, “Vivera de la cruz” in the River - Plate. Over and over again have I had snakes of widely different - species sent to me, each guaranteed to be a genuine Jarraracca, until - I began to doubt whether the Jarraracca had any existence at all. I - believe that the one I sent to the Zoological Gardens the other day - is the real thing—_Craspedocephalus Brasiliensis_—at last’ (the - _Xenodon_ after all!) ‘and I think I have sifted the Curucucu down by - elimination till I can fix the term on _Trigonocephalus atrox_. - - * * * * * - - ‘I fear we shall never get a decent classification till some competent - observer studies them on their native soil; the excellence of the - books on Indian reptiles is doubtless due to this. We want a man in - authority to settle the very vernacular for us—one who can say, “This - and no other shall be the Jarraracca, this the Bushmaster,” etc., for - it is undoubtedly a great advantage to have a well-defined native or - local synonym. The marvel is that the present classification should be - so good as it is. Look at the difficulties. When people see a snake - they rush at it, smash it with sticks or stones, pick up what is left - of it and put it in a bottle of cauha, cachasse, rum, or other coarse - spirit, label it with a wrong name, and send it home. And these are - the materials an ophiologist has to build on.’[127] - -Krefft, speaking of the confusion of vernaculars in Australia, also -says: ‘To make a work on ophiology useful to all, _co-operation is -necessary_; and as a good, sound English name is prefixed to every -species, it is to be hoped that such name will, if possible, be -retained.’ He is referring more particularly to the ‘Diamond snake,’ -which on the mainland is the harmless _Python molurus_, and in Tasmania -the venomous _Hoplocephalus superbus_, with very broad scales. -Therefore he ‘hopes that Tasmanian friends will accept the designation -“Broad-scaled snake” in lieu of “Diamond” for their poisonous species.’ -In the accounts sent to England, the indiscriminate use of such -prefixes as the _black_ snake, the _brown_ snake, causes infinite -perplexity, and not unfrequently furnishes argumentative articles -to the journals. ‘Carpet’ snake is another vernacular applied to a -harmless species in Australia, and to the extremely venomous little -_Echis_ of India. Then every country has its ‘Deaf adder’ which is -neither an ‘adder’ nor ‘deaf.’ And the ‘moccasin’ of the United States -is a still existing stumbling-block. - -Another great confusion in classification has been in consequence of -some of the earlier naturalists representing young snakes, or those of -varying colours, as distinct species. It is very common for a young -snake to differ in colour from the parent, and also common for those -of the same brood to differ from each other. Of _Coluber canis_ Dr. A. -Smith says scarcely any two are marked and coloured alike. In a brood -of the broad-scaled Tasmanian snake, _H. superbus_, there were upwards -of thirty young ones, some of which Krefft describes as banded, and of -a light colour, the rest being black. Our English slow-worm varies from -dead black to nearly white, or flesh colour, one of the latter being an -inmate of the Gardens at the time of writing, March 1882. The English -viper also varies in colour, and we have heard of a perfectly yellow -ring snake. - -In England we have so few snakes, viz. the ring snake, the coronella, -and one viper, and these three so distinct, that we are not likely to -be perplexed with many varieties; but in tropical or semi-tropical -regions, where closely-allied species abound, it may be suspected that -_hybrids_ not unfrequently create confusion as well as a multiplication -of supposed ‘species’ not likely to cease. In our small London -collection, hybrids have been produced at least twice within a few -years; and we fear that the habit of hibernating in mixed multitudes -leads to some immorality among the Ophidia. It is like the overcrowded -dwellings of the poor, and the ‘free-lovers’ of America; and perhaps to -ophidian unions between congeners occasionally may be traced not a few -of the varieties which so curiously and closely blend different species -and are a plague to classifiers. This is mere speculation. - -The Indian vernaculars are as abundant and perplexing as those of -Brazil. Of the cobras, Sir J. Fayrer says there are many varieties -which the natives consider different species. ‘The snake charmers -are poor naturalists, and disseminate many false notions as well -as dangerous ones about the cobras.’ In the _Thanatophidia_ nine -or ten varieties are figured, all of the one single species (_Naja -tripudians_), though all bear different vernaculars. The two chief -distinctions in the markings are the spots on the back of the ‘neck,’ -which, when the hood is distended, are easily distinguished. One with -a single ocellus is the _Keautiah_, known as ‘Kala samp,’ ‘Nag samp,’ -etc., being chiefly of the field or jungle. The other with the double -ocellus is the ‘spectacled cobra,’ and essentially of the town. This is -the ‘Gokurrah’ of the natives, and the favourite of the snake charmers. -Being common all over a country which boasts of thirty-six written -languages, the reader can imagine the number of vernaculars bestowed -upon the _Cobra capella_. - -The _ophiophagus_ is almost equally favoured, as this snake also varies -in colour, particularly in the young ones, which Fayrer affirms might -easily be mistaken for a different species. Probably wherever snakes -abound, the vernaculars are correspondingly numerous. - -‘And after all which _is_ the Curucucu, and which _is_ the Jararaca?’ -Being the proud possessor of both, I may describe them from nature; -but conflicting opinions as to their identity still exist, because -there are features in common among congeneric species, and what one -author may decide is the _Curucucu_ another will call the _Jararaca_. -Dumeril, Gray, Günther, and other modern ophiologists have, however, so -far simplified difficulties, as to recognise only one of each in our -zoological collections, notwithstanding the liberal use of both terms -in Brazil. - -_Our_ _Curucucu_, then, _Lachesis_ or _Crotalus mutus_, has the flat, -viperine head, covered with fine scales. The only plates are the -upper and lower labials, one over the eye, and a pair of rather large -ones under the chin. The ‘pit’ is very distinct, showing it to be a -_Bothrops_ and one of the _Crotalidæ_. The body colour is of a pale -maize, approaching umber towards the back, and lighter on the belly, -with a chain of rich chocolate-brown, jagged, rhomboid spots, edged -with darker tints, along the back. It is undeniably handsome, and in -life no doubt was iridescent, but alas for the ‘rainbow splendours,’ -they have vanished! In length it is about nine feet, and in girth as -big as one’s arm in the largest part. Its tail tapers suddenly. One -sees in the strongly-keeled scales the ‘prominences’ alluded to by -Dr. Wucherer; and as the fangs are represented life-size on p. 360, -the reader can judge for himself about the ‘four-inch nails.’ Mine -is probably a nearly full-grown serpent, therefore an average-size -specimen, and much the same as the one brought to the Gardens in the -summer of 1881, which lingered a pitiable object for six or eight -months, eating nothing, and gradually wasting. - -The _Jararaca_ is a slighter snake, and in colour of an olive tint with -darker markings, not unlike Xenodon’s jagged leaf pattern along the -back. Its right to the name of _Craspedocephalus_ (_craspedo_, derived -from a Greek word signifying an edge or border) is recognised by a -peculiar ridge round its flat, angular, and almost lance-shaped head. -It is also a _Trigonocephalus_ and a _Bothrops_. My specimen being only -half-grown is about three feet long, and the thickness of your little -finger. ‘Is there not great confusion in the application of the terms -_craspedoceph._ and _trigonoceph._?’ wrote Dr. Stradling, on sending me -these much-prized specimens. Yes, there certainly is; but by this time -the reader sees the reason for this, and also for the many appellatives -which they derive from the Fates and the Furies. Not to weary the -reader with further lists of names, I will refer him to Gray’s -_Catalogue of the British Museum Snakes_, p. 5, for _the_ accepted -_Jararaca_ of the authorities, and to Dumeril, tome vii. pt. ii. p. -1509, for the same; both authors giving the numerous synonyms, and the -latter the reasons for many of them. The student will there see how -Wagler is supposed to have described young snakes as different species; -and if further investigation be invited, a good deal of entertainment -may be had from Wagler himself and his folio volume,[128] _Serpentum -Braziliensis_, with its wonderful coloured illustrations. Then for -the _Curucucu_, the _Lachesis mutus_ of modern ophiologists, see p. -13 of Gray, and p. 1486, tome vii. pt. ii. of Dumeril et Bibron. From -these authors we may go back to Marcgrave, 1648, for the ‘_Cvrvcvcv -Braziliensibus_, fifteen palms long, truculent and much to be feared.’ -Marcgrave’s book is embellished with marvellous pictures which are not -likely to enlighten us much; but through him we are enabled to identify -some of his serpents with the vernaculars, for, like the Pilgrim -Purchas, the vernaculars were all he had to guide him. - -Authorities recognise six or seven species of _Craspedocephalus_, -presumably all having the easily distinguishable edge like a thin cord -round their heads, and which doubtless were the ‘prominent Veines’ -described by Purchas in the Brazilian species, now generally recognised -as ‘_the_ Jararaca.’ I will invite my readers to ‘co-operate’ and -call no harmless little snakes by this name, which originally implied -something terrible. - -‘And what is the outcome of all this etymological jumble?’ - -‘Well, we at least learn that as in English the words snake, adder, -serpent, have a somewhat general signification, so have some of the -Brazilian vernaculars. But I cannot help thinking that many of these -names had more of natural history in them than we are apt to suspect, -though no doubt the original meaning has become much corrupted during -three hundred years’ colonization. The native races knew quite well -that some snakes were dangerous and some harmless, which is more than -can be said for the present occupiers of South America, who think all -venomous as a matter of a course. - -The differences in spelling the same word may guide us in the -pronunciation of it; as, for example, the _c_ sometimes as _k_, in -Camoudi, or Kamoodi, and as _s_ in Curucoocu or Sooroocoocoo. In these -latter words we also find the _u_ identical with _oo_, as in the Hindû -or Hindoo words. Again, the _j_ is as _i_ in _Jararaca_ or _Iararacca_, -or more probably a sound with which we are unfamiliar, as the word is -sometimes _Shiraraca_. The frequent transposition of syllables hints -at a meaning which may be worth seeking by a philologist, should he be -also an ophiophilist. Some local information on these points I much -hoped to obtain; but alas! (_for this chapter_) the trips to Brazil of -my excellent ally came to an end! Independently of which, the native -dialects could only be studied in the far interior, where, here and -there, some tribes may still be found in their pristine simplicity, -though it is very doubtful whether their dialects to-day are those -from which the first European settlers obtained their _Curucucus_ and -_Jararacas_. - -The repetition of syllables in these strange dialects seems to point -at some intention. Can those frequently occurring _raras_ and _cucus_ -represent degrees? For instance, we are told that the Jarrara_cucu_ -is ‘the largest of the Jarraracas.’ And we are quite sure that the -_Cucu_rijuba, ‘which killeth by winding certain turnes of his tayle,’ -is the boa constrictor; and that the _Cururiubù_, ‘which keepeth -alwaies in the water,’ is the anaconda, these syllables evidently -representing bulk or something formidable: as we have them abounding -in _curucucu_, the most formidable of all serpents. Then _Ibibo_ might -imply beauty or gay colouring. A snake, _Ibiboco_, with red and black -rings, ‘the fairest but of foulest venom,’ is undoubtedly _Elaps -lemniscatus_; while Ibiboboca, ‘_ainsi nommé par sa grande beauté_,’ is -‘_harmlesse_.’ _Peba_ as a termination may imply danger; as there is -the Jararac_peba_, ‘most venomous,’ and a ‘very venomous’ rattlesnake, -Boicininin_peba_. The curious repetition of _in_ in _Boycininga_, -rattlesnake (p. 272), seems to hint at the length of its rattle and -the degree of crepitation it produces, especially as we find the -substitution of _g_ for _c_ in some of these words, and the soft _gi_ -rapidly repeated is not unlike the true sound. - -There is a long and slender tree snake ‘that eateth eggs, and goeth -faster on the trees than any man can runne on the ground, with -a motion not unlike swimming.’ Its correspondingly long name is -_Guiaranpiaquana_! Vain indeed would be any speculation as to what that -may mean. Vain also, and I fear tedious, may all this guess-work be to -discover meaning and poetry in what may probably be dead languages. -Who shall say how many thousand years ago these singular repetitions -conveyed to the savage mind (but _was_ it savage?) an idea of the -creatures around them? - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -_DO SNAKES INCUBATE THEIR EGGS?_ - - -WE come now to treat of facts no less interesting than surprising in -ophidian biographies. Already we have recounted almost marvellous -powers possessed by this class of animals—functions which are -volitionary, such as the management of their trachea, the voluntary -folding back or unfolding of certain teeth, the practical adaptation of -their ribs and coils to what we may almost call manual work, and now, -most astonishing of all, the voluntary deposition or retention of ova, -even of young. - -‘Snakes are either oviparous or viviparous,’ is what we are accustomed -to read, followed by the explanation that the former are those which -lay eggs, and the latter those which produce their young alive. To -these two chief distinctions, the more recent one of ovoviviparous -has been added, to describe some intermediate cases where the egg is -ruptured in parturition, so that again a fully-formed young one is -born. For broad distinctions the three terms do well enough, though -many exceptions exist. The grand distinction of ‘_viper_’ as applied -to those snakes which produce live young, was adopted when snakes were -first observed and described by classic writers. - -‘Vipers alone are viviparous,’ wrote Aristotle. ‘Sometimes the little -vipers eat through their mother and come forth. The viper brings forth -one at a time in one day, but she brings forth more than twenty little -vipers. Other serpents produce their eggs externally, and these eggs -are connected with each other like the necklaces of women. But when -they bring forth, they deposit their eggs in the earth, _and there -incubate them_. These eggs they disclose the following year.’ We do not -quote the above as all fact, but rather to show how very much there has -been to _unlearn_ since Aristotle was accepted as an authority. The -shadow of truth and the mention of a possible fact as an invariable -rule are dangerous mistakes, for, as we have already shown, where a -snake is concerned, one can rarely feel safe in asserting anything as -positive. It is not impossible that, owing to disease or accident, -some gravid viper may have been so wounded as to enable her young to -make their début through her ruptured side. Such an occurrence has -been seen in our own time. Aristotle or his authority may even have -witnessed such an accident, and recorded it under the supposition that -it was normal. In whatever way the error may have originated, it is -only one out of many that are propagated even to the present day by the -uninformed. - -At the moment of writing, we read in one of our first-class ‘dailies,’ -alluding to a brood of young vipers lately born at the Zoological -Gardens: ‘The young viper comes into the world in the shape of an -egg, and its first business is to push through the filmy membrane -which envelops it in its imprisoned form.’ This is contrary to our -accepted ideas, though partially true in this instance. The word -viper is generally supposed to be derived from the Latin _vipera_, a -contraction of _vivipara_, to produce alive. The above words therefore -are inapplicable as a rule. - -So far as was known in Aristotle’s time, only certain venomous species -common in the countries with which classic writers were best acquainted -did produce live young, and they were mostly what are still known as -‘vipers,’ a term restricted to these and explained as being derived -from such signification. - -Opportunities of study and of observation afforded in menageries and -zoological gardens at the present day have caused the term _viper_ as -relating to gestation to be discarded, or many non-venomous snakes must -be included, thus overthrowing all our notions of vipers. As was shown -in the preceding chapters, the name is now associated with dentition. - -German and French ophiologists affirm that the three distinctions of -_oviparous_, _viviparous_, and _ovoviviparous_ are founded on no other -ground than the greater or less development of the fœtus at the time of -deposition. - -The nature of the egg-covering or ‘shell’ has also to do with this. In -eggs which take a longer time to mature or to ‘hatch,’ the external -covering is thicker and more leathery; in those which are hatched -either before or on deposition, the shell is thinner, more membranous. -Always, however, there is a calcareous element in the shell, and the -eggs are generally, _but not invariably_, linked together. - -Heat and moisture are essential to the hatching of eggs. When at -liberty the snake selects some spot among decaying leaves, or in a -manure heap where decomposition produces sufficient warmth. In the -tropics, where the sun’s rays alone suffice, a soft moist bed is more -easily found, and here it is that immense broods are produced. - -The period of gestation can scarcely be pronounced upon with certainty. -It depends not only on the size of the snake, but on the degree of -warmth that can be enjoyed as an assistant to mature the eggs. Schlegel -mentions three or four months from copulation to the laying of eggs in -the species indigenous to France. But as other circumstances combine to -cause variations in these periods, it is very unsafe to fix upon the -precise time of gestation. - -Says Rymer Jones, ‘Reptiles do not sit (_sic_) upon their eggs, hence -the latter have only a membranous envelope. In many of the reptiles -which lay eggs, especially the _Colubri_ (colubrine snakes), the -young one is already formed and considerably advanced in the egg at -the moment when the mother lays it; and it is the same with those -species which may at pleasure be rendered viviparous by retarding their -laying.’[129] The latter words are traced to Cuvier, and prove that -this most remarkable power has long been recognised. - -In the first few words of the above, Jones spoke of reptiles generally -from toads to turtles; with the latter, soft eggs would certainly fare -badly did they attempt to incubate them. Still the term ‘reptiles’ is -misleading, because, as is now well known, some snakes do incubate, -and some lizards are suspected of doing the same. Even our common ring -snake has been found coiled upon her eggs. - -Serpents are allied to birds in producing young from eggs, but in -reptiles the eggs differ from those of birds in undergoing a sort of -incubation from the very first; so that at whatever period a snake’s -egg is examined, whether it has been laid or not, the embryo will -be found more or less advanced. Sometimes in an egg just deposited, -a perfectly formed fœtus will be found. ‘Serpents are _always_ -oviparous,’ says Schlegel; ‘and it is a mistake to suppose that all -venomous snakes produce live young, and all non-venomous kinds lay -eggs. Neither has the diversity of generation any relation to the -organization of the animal itself. _Coronella lævis_ produces living -young, but other _coronellas_ lay eggs. In 1862, when very little was -known of the _Coronella lævis_, Mr. Frank Buckland had one in a cage in -London, which to the surprise of most persons produced live young ones. -This may have been solely owing to her captivity and her retention -of eggs till hatched. Some boas lay eggs, others are viviparous. In -the latter case the young are enclosed in a thin membrane, which they -tear or break at the moment of birth. In those that are a long while -hatching, the tunic is of a thick, coriaceous texture, not easily -ruptured. Thus, to sum up with one other authority, Der Hœven: ‘In many -serpents and lizards the development begins in the body of the parent -before the egg is laid, and in some the membrane of the egg is broken -by the young one before birth.’ - -This latter condition has been considered viperine, but even in a -viper the young have been produced in a membrane. This was the case -with _Vipera nasicornis_ at the London Zoological Gardens, on Sunday, -November 6th, 1881, that gave birth to forty-six viperlings. Some of -them had no vestige of membrane clinging about them; others had, but -burst it immediately and began to crawl; while yet others did not burst -their ‘shell’ at all,—if indeed so filmy and thin a membrane could -be called a shell,—but died within it. When the membrane burst, it -was seen to collapse and shrivel up into nothing, as children’s air -balls do when they are torn; but the texture of these balls is strong -in comparison with the extreme tenuity of the viperine egg tunic. Yet -it was strong enough to contain a young one, as in the case of those -unbroken. There is no means of ascertaining the precise length of time -this viper had been in captivity; but as her young ones had all such -fully-developed fangs, and the precocity to strike and kill a mouse as -soon as born, this was probably another case of postponed deposition. -On a previous occasion, September 1875, a family of young vipers born -at the Ophidarium were ‘_some quite clean and others with the remains -of the egg covering about them_.’ The quotation from my notebook refers -to the Daboia of India, ‘Russell’s viper’ (_Vipera elegans_). Still -these may be exceptional and possibly abnormal cases, but are examples -worth noting, and another proof of the many exceptions to what we are -accustomed to believe invariable rules. - -White, in his _History of Selborne_, mentions the capture of a viper -in which he found fifteen young, the shortest being seven inches. They -were active, spiteful, and menacing, and yet ‘had no manner of fangs -that we could find, even with the help of our glasses.’ - -Mr. Frank Buckland tells of a man who cut open a string of snake’s -eggs, and the young, thus prematurely introduced into the world, -‘showed fight.’ - -Of historical ophidians which have figured in many pages, first comes -chronologically the Paris python, that in 1841 laid fifteen eggs and -incubated them. She has already been alluded to in chap. iv., but -claims further mention presently. - -A python in the Amsterdam collection next hatched twenty-two eggs. - -In 1862 a python at the London Gardens laid above a hundred -eggs,—‘more than a bushel,’ according to the keeper,—and settled -herself to hatch them. Much interest attaches itself to this lady’s -history; but first to complete our list chronologically, the following -harmless species in the London collection have within the last ten -years produced live young, being examples of that ‘diversity of -generation’ of which Schlegel speaks. - -August 1872, the ‘seven-banded snake’ (_Trop. leberis_) had five young -and some eggs at the same time. - -June 1873, a _Coluber natrix_ had seven young ones. (I cannot affirm -positively that these were born alive; I think not, from an especial -entry in my notebook concerning them; but the records of the Zoological -Society in which I have sought for confirmation do not announce them as -‘hatched.’) - -August 1873, a yellow Jamaica boa (_Chilobothrus inornatus_) gave birth -to fourteen young ones, ten of which survived. They crawled up to the -top of their cage as soon as they saw daylight, and showed signs of -fight. One little aggressor struck at me when I held it, and tried -to bite me through my glove,—an impertinence which was permitted in -order to test its powers. It constricted my fingers as tightly as if -a strong cord were wound round them, and when not thus occupied it -wriggled and twisted itself about in such energetic contortions that -I could scarcely hold it. The activity and daring of the whole fry -proved their perfect development. On another occasion the same species -produced eight, and on a third occasion thirty-three young ones, but of -these dates I am not quite sure. In some cases a few eggs were produced -at the same time, but they were hard and bad and of the consistency -of soap. The manners and actions of the three equally well-developed -families were similar. They were always on the defensive, and able to -fight their own battles. When the keeper put his hand into the cage, -they seized upon it and held on with their teeth so tightly that on -raising it they hung wriggling and undulating like a living, waving -tassel. - -Another boa from Panama, on 30th June 1877, had twenty young, which -displayed ability to take care of themselves forthwith by leaving -the marks of their teeth on Holland’s fingers. These twenty were all -produced during the night, or before the arrival of the keeper the next -morning, and were lively and spiteful, biting any one who attempted -to touch them, and sharply enough to draw blood. Mr. E. W. Searle, -who described them in _Land and Water_ at the time, July 1877, said: -‘This is probably the first recorded instance of the breeding of boa -constrictors in captivity.’ He seemed also to infer that this proved -the boa to be viviparous instead of oviparous, as ‘had been always -understood.’ Having already known of cases of abnormal, and also of -postponed production of eggs or of young, I ventured at the time to -cite such cases in _Land and Water_, July 7, 1877, adding: ‘We must not -too hastily conclude that because one boa constrictor produced a family -of lively young ones, this species is invariably viviparous.’ Also in -the _Field_, July 14, 1877, I suggested that ‘the circumstance might be -received rather as a further example of snakes breeding under abnormal -conditions,’—opinions further confirmed by subsequent observations. - -The little fry were supplied with young mice, which they constricted -as if they had served an apprenticeship; but the mother left them -entirely to themselves, and betrayed no other unusual feelings than to -hiss when disturbed. When they were seven weeks old, they in one night -ate twenty-four mice and a few young rats between them. They all cast -their first coat before they were a week old. The mother had been in -the Gardens about eight years. All but one of this fine family were -alive in the following November, and two are still living at the time -of going to press, viz. ‘Totsey’ (illus. p. 201) and one brother. - -The dates of these few following cases are a little uncertain, also -exactly how many survived of those that were born. - -A ‘seven-banded’ snake (_Trop. leberis_) had six. - -A ‘chicken snake’ (_Col. eximius_). - -A ‘moccasin snake’ (_Tropidonotus fasciatus_) had nine young ones. -This species has sometimes produced young and eggs at the same time. - -A ‘garter snake’ (_Tropidonotus ordinatus_). - -A boa constrictor had eight pretty little active snakelings that at -two days old pretended to constrict my fingers, and forcibly enough to -prove their powers. - -On two occasions at the Gardens within the time specified, hybrids have -been born between _Epicratis angulifer_ and _Chilobothrus inornatus_, -and I can but think that occurrences of this nature must happen among -snakes in their wild state occasionally, which may throw some light on -the perplexities of classifiers. - -In August 1878, three were born alive; and in recording the event the -Secretary to the Zoological Society, P. Lutley Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., -F.R.S., etc., writes that there can be no question as to the pairing -of these two snakes, both in the same cage, and as there was no male -_Epicratis_ in the collection. Three were alive and six bad eggs were -produced. - -In September 1879, two more hybrids were born between the same pair; -who, at any rate, remained constant to each other. - -Of the venomous serpents that have fallen under my own notice at -the Zoological Gardens, the little Indian viper (_Echis carinata_) -had three young ones in July 1875. Only two survived a few weeks. -They changed their coat at an early day, but ate nothing; nor did -the mother, who soon died. One may mention here that the vipers in -collections rarely do survive long after giving birth to young. This -may be only owing to an unhealthy condition in captivity, but merits -inquiry. - -Four common adders (_Vipera berus_) and several broods of the Daboia -have also been produced. - -The African viper of the coloured illustration is another example, as -having afforded opportunities for observation. - -In point of numbers we find the families varying from three or four -to upwards of a hundred. When the parent is in health, the young -are produced easily and rapidly. _Vipera nasicornis_ deposited her -forty-six children within about three hours. A Java snake (though -not in our London Ophidarium) produced twenty-four young ones in -twenty minutes. Anaconda, in April 1877, on the contrary, exhibited -considerable protraction, extruding bad eggs at irregular intervals for -many days. She will form the subject of the next chapter. - -Incubation, or the hatching of eggs by the maternal warmth, seems not -to have been suspected by ophiologists until a comparatively recent -date; but by the non-scientific, the barbarian and the untutored -natives of hot countries, who see, but dream not that in future ages -what they saw and incidentally spoke of would be of weight to the -enlightened of as yet unexisting nations,—by such the fact was known -long ere its worth _as a fact_ was recognised. Yet, as has been already -seen in these pages, evidence given without intent and purpose often -is of scientific importance. Aristotle spoke of incubation; but with -classic writers the difficulty of sifting fact from fable may cause the -whole to be rejected. - -We owe to Zoological Societies and menageries the confirmation of -the _couvaison_ of at least one species of serpents. Subsequently we -are told, ‘The python only incubates,’ this snake being generally -mentioned as the one exception; and only within a very few years has -maternal affection been accredited to any others. Mr. P. H. Gosse was -informed by the negroes in Jamaica of the habits of the yellow boa. Sir -Joseph Fayrer was informed by the jugglers that ‘over and over again -they had dug cobras out of their holes _sitting on their eggs_.’ Dr. E. -Nicholson was informed ‘on trustworthy authority that the Hamadryad has -been found coiled upon a nest of evidently artificial construction.’ He -thinks snakes always watch over their eggs, and frequent the locality -where they have deposited them. The keeper at the Gardens confirms -this by his own observations. ‘They do care for their eggs in their -own way,’ he assured me, and display unusual irritability and wildness -at such times.[130] In menageries, however, their habits are always -more or less artificial; they cannot seek spots for themselves, or -exercise maternal instinct beyond doing the best they can under the -circumstances. Anything in the way of extra indulgences, such as soft -rubbish, moss, or sand, is duly appreciated when eggs are about to be -deposited, and we find maternal ophidians resort at once to this. - -In a footnote, vol. xvi. p. 65 of the _Annales des sciences -naturelles_, we read:—‘_Il parait que l’incubation des serpents -est un fait si connu dans l’Inde, qu’il entre même dans leur contes -populaires. M. Roulin m’a fait remarquer dans le second voyage de -Sindbad le marin_ (_nouvelle traduction Anglaise des ‘Mille et une -nuits’ par W. Lane_, tom. iii. p. 20) _le passage suivant: Alors je -regardai dans la caverne, et vis, au fond, un enorme serpent endormi -sur ses œufs_.’ - -Here again, by accident, an ophidian habit known in the 8th century has -been revealed to the scientific of the 19th century. - -In the 17th century, when the Royal Society was founded and scientific -information of all descriptions was welcome in their published -_Transactions_, the subject of serpent brooding appeared in those -pages. In vol. i. p. 138, a few terse words exactly express what modern -ophiologists have of late years verified. ‘Several have taken notice -that there is a difference between the brooding of Snakes and Vipers; -those laying their Eggs in Dung-hills by whose warmth they are hatched, -but these (Vipers) brooding their Eggs within their Bellies, and -bringing forth live Vipers. To which may be added,—That some affirm to -have seen Snakes lye upon their Eggs as Hens sit upon theirs.’ This was -published in 1665. - -The truth of ophidian incubation in at least one species was finally -established at the _Musée d’Histoire_ at Paris in 1841, when _Python -bivittatus_ or _Python à deux-raies_—named from two black lines -diverging from the mouth—incubated her fifteen eggs. This celebrated -serpent has enriched zoological annals in several points of interest. -She assisted to confirm the question of whether snakes drink, and, as -will be seen, whether they will take dead food. In connection with -the present subject, the observations made by M. Dumeril during her -incubation in the months of May and June 1841 are of such interest -that I will translate from a paper read at the _Academy of Sciences_ -in Paris, by M. Valenciennes, 19th July 1841, and published in the -_Annales des sciences naturelles_, tom. xvi. 2^{me} série, p. 65. It -will be remembered that M. Dumeril (to whom we are indebted for the -most complete work on _Erpétologie générale_ that graces the shelves of -our Great National Library) was at that time Professeur d’Erpétologie -au Musée de Paris, and specially charged with the management of that -part of the menagerie. - -M. Valenciennes began his paper by reminding his audience that the -temperature of birds rises in various degrees during the period of -incubation, proposing the questions, ‘Do reptiles not offer a similar -phenomenon?’ ‘Do they never brood on their eggs?’ As far as was known -of native reptiles, the answer would be in the negative. However, M. -Lamarrepiquot, in his travels in Chandernagor and the isle of Bourbon, -seems to show that a large serpent of India, and some other species, -_se plaçait sur ses œufs et les echauffait en developpant pendant ce -temps une chaleur notable_. Many eminent naturalists doubted this, -until it was confirmed in the Paris python, in which was an example of -prolonged and uninterrupted incubation for the space of fifty-six days. - -M. Valenciennes proceeded to describe that she was in a cage with -others, and that a temperature higher than the outside air was -maintained. During January and February she coupled several times, -and in February ate six or seven pounds of raw beef that was tied on -to a live rabbit of middling size. Food offered her afterwards, for -three weeks in succession, she refused; but, as described in chap. -iv., she drank no less than five times during her brooding. Sloughing -occurred on the 4th April. Generally gentle and quiet, she became -excited on the 5th May, and tried to bite any one who approached her. -Her condition being evident, she had been left alone and undisturbed -in her cage; and at six o’clock on the morning of the 6th of May, laid -an egg, fourteen others being deposited by half-past nine A.M. The -eggs were soft at first, of an oval form, and an ashy-grey colour, -but afterwards became rounder and of a clear white. They were all -separate. She collected them in a cone-shaped pile, and rolled herself -round them, so as to completely hide every one, her head being at the -summit of the cone. For fifty-six days she kept perfectly motionless, -excepting when manifesting impatience if any one attempted to touch -her eggs. Notwithstanding this want of trustfulness on the part of the -interesting invalid, M. Dumeril achieved some important experiments -regarding her temperature. - -Reptiles are ‘obedient to the surrounding temperature,’ we may repeat, -but in the present instance there was warmth in her perceptible to -the touch (_une chaleur notable_). The temperature of the cage was -20° (Reaumur?), that under the woollen coverlet where she reposed -was 21°; but in her coils, where M. Dumeril inserted one of the best -thermometers that could be procured, she was 41°, and always of a -higher temperature by some 20°. Placing the thermometer either upon -her or between the folds of her body, only a slight variation was -perceptible, but it was invariably higher than the surrounding air. - -On the 2nd of July one of the shells split (_la coque s’est -fendillée_), and the head of a little python appeared. During that -day the little creature only twisted about within its shell, now its -head, now its tail being visible outside, and withdrawn again. The next -day the wee snake made its debut altogether, and began to crawl about -(_s’est mise à ramper_). It lost no time in exploring to the remotest -corners of its blanket, and by degrees showed itself to the world. -During the next four days eight were similarly hatched, the seven -remaining eggs, at various stages of development, having apparently -been crushed by superincumbent weight. - -The mother, on the 3rd of July, ate six more pounds of beef, after her -fast of nearly five months; but with the posterior part of her body -still folded over the eggs. She then quitted them, and displayed no -further care, having covered them for so long a time, and even defended -them with such assiduity. From ten to fourteen days after being -hatched, the young ones all changed their coats, and then ate some -little sparrows, throwing themselves upon them, and constricting them -like grown-up pythons. - -M. Valenciennes drew attention to the circumstance that only in hot -countries do serpents incubate their eggs, _i.e._ only the serpents -indigenous to hot countries. In temperate ones, where the average -warmth is insufficient, they resort to artificial heat; as, for -instance, manure heaps, or decaying vegetation. - -Thus was this important question settled, and the hatching of the young -brood in Paris became a chronological era in ophidian annals. - -When therefore, in January 1862, twenty-one years afterwards, a python -_seba_ in our own Gardens laid upwards of a hundred eggs, immense -interest and curiosity were excited among the zoologists of the day, -for here at home in London was a grand opportunity for observing the -one only snake which at that time was supposed to exhibit any sort of -maternal instinct. Plenty of damp moss had been supplied to her, the -temperature maintained in the cage being supposed sufficient for her -well-being. She pushed the moss into a kind of nest, and when the ‘long -string of eggs’ were deposited, she arranged them in a nearly level -mass, and then coiled herself over and around them so as to hide and -cover them as much as possible. Sometimes she changed her position a -little, and re-arranged her eggs, and in various ways rendered herself -worthy of record. - -Ophiologists had scientific facts to verify: this opportunity must -not be neglected for ascertaining whether so cold a nature, and in -midwinter, could produce sufficient warmth by lying there day after -day upon her bushel of eggs. So thermometers were ever and anon thrust -between her coils, or held close to her; first here, then there, after -the example of M. Dumeril in Paris. Other disturbances in the way of -cleaning out the cage and supplying her companion in captivity with -food and water were angrily resented by the poor patient, who had no -chance of the tranquillity that she would have sought for herself in -her native tropics. Besides which, the chances against hatching were -far greater in her case than in the Paris and Amsterdam pythons. The -former saved only eight out of her fifteen, and here we had, in round -numbers, one hundred, more than she could successfully cover at one -time. Moreover, a most untoward accident happened one night by the tank -overflowing among her eggs, necessitating a complete disturbance of -them. What wonder, then, that she was irritable and even savage during -the whole time of her incubation! One egg, examined fifteen days after -it was laid, contained a living embryo, so there were hopes of some -at least maturing. For more than seven weeks she remained patiently -brooding, when all hope of hatching any of the eggs had vanished, and -it became necessary to take them from her. This was done by degrees, -and the task was no easy one. The keeper watched his opportunity to -raise the sliding door at the back of the cage, make a snatch at those -nearest him, and shut down the slide with celerity, or the exasperated -mother would have seized him. He nearly got his arm broken more than -once by the despatch he was compelled to use. Sometimes, so quick was -she, that in thrusting down the slide she was nearly jammed by it. -Holland protected himself by holding up a corner of the rug so as to -hide himself when he had occasion to open the slide door; yet one day -she ‘jumped’ at him, seizing the rug, and with a toss of her head -jerking it back with such violence that a shower of the gravel came -hailing upon the glass in front of the cage, to the consternation and -alarm of the spectators gathered there, and who at the moment imagined -the glass was broken, and that the infuriated reptile would be among -them. But they were behind her; it was only towards the keeper that her -fury was directed: he had taken away the last of her eggs. When, then, -he shut down the slide, she kept her angry eyes fixed upon it for a -long while. Presently she sought in her empty nest, upon which, so long -as any eggs had remained to her, she had re-settled herself after each -irruption. At last she took to her bath, in which she remained for a -long while. - -After the scenes witnessed during those seven weeks, no one could doubt -the existence of maternal affection; and this was worth proving, as -some authors would have persuaded us that snakes, and particularly the -non-venomous ones, manifest total indifference regarding their eggs. -The other important fact, an increased temperature, was also again -observable, proving that a serpent can really hatch her eggs by the -warmth of her own body. - -Last summer, 1881, another python laid about twenty eggs at the London -Ophidarium, but, alas! neither were any of that brood hatched. For -future broods, now that the fact of a raised temperature has been -proved, the next scientific triumph will be to develop the young ones, -dispensing with thermometers, and substituting perfect tranquillity, -with every possible aid and comfort to the mother. - -That snakes under these peculiar circumstances do appreciate little -‘delicate attentions,’ ample proof has been afforded in the Jamaica -‘yellow boa’ (_Chilobothrus inornatus_), the species which on several -occasions has produced broods in London, and the one in which Mr. P. -H. Gosse verified the marvellous instinct of withholding its eggs when -circumstances were not propitious for their deposition. This is one of -the ‘Colubri’ alluded to by T. Rymer Jones, ‘which may at pleasure be -rendered’ (_i.e._ render themselves) ‘viviparous by retarding their -laying.’ - -But when Gosse published his work on Jamaica (1851), he did not appear -to be aware of what Jones and Cuvier had said on this subject, but -stated the result of his own observations. He had become convinced that -this species of snake forms a sort of nest, and incubates its eggs; -when subsequently, one that he had in captivity produced living young, -he was staggered. ‘Is it possible,’ he wrote, ‘that a serpent normally -oviparous, might retain the eggs within the oviduct until the birth of -her young, when circumstances were not propitious?’ - -‘Is it possible,’ again asks an American naturalist, so lately as -1879,—‘can it be true that _Heterodon platyrhinos_ and _Tropidonotus -sipedon_’ (both harmless) ‘are sometimes viviparous and sometimes -ovoviviparous?’ This writer, F. W. Cragin, had been told that the two -above species were ovoviviparous (a word of no value as a definition), -and he writes in the _American Naturalist_, vol. xiii. p. 710, that out -of twenty-two eggs of Heterodon, ploughed up out of the sand in Long -Island, one he put into alcohol to preserve it as found, and the others -were hatched on the fourth day, showing that sometimes at least it is -oviparous, as supposed are some of the _Eutænias_. - -Mr. Gosse describes one Jamaica boa in confinement, that was ill -and inactive, refusing food. It was unusually vicious, and bit hard -enough to draw blood, the effect of the fine teeth being like a severe -cat-scratch. It rendered itself further offensive when disturbed, by -emitting an insufferable odour, and at length gave birth to living -young. - -That this snake when at liberty lays eggs, he had seen, and in a nest -of artificial construction. One that he knew of was excavated in a -bank. The snake was seen issuing from a narrow passage just large -enough to admit it. Dry, crumbled earth had been discharged at the -entrance of the passage, where it lay in a heap. The bank being dug -into, the passage was found to lead to a cavity lined with soft -rubbish, leaves, etc., which must have been carried there. Mr. Gosse -does not pretend to affirm positively that the snake constructed that -secluded nest for itself. It might have done so, pushing out the mould -by the lateral undulations of its body, as the burrowing snakes do, -and carrying back the soft trash in its mouth or, if it only chose a -nest formed by some other animal, this proved maternal care. There -were eggs in the nest, the shell being like ‘white kid.’ ‘On snipping -one, a clear glaire exuded, in which was a large, whitish vitellus, -stained with blood vessels, and containing a young snake seven inches -long, but immature.’ One fœtus writhed. The fœtus being formed and -capable of motion, proved, Mr. Gosse thought, that the eggs had been -some time laid. Incubation is a characteristic of that family, the -author affirms. Of the various cases he knew, one female boa brought -forth eleven snakes. In another snake that was killed, ten or twelve -fully-formed young ones were found. - -One of these ‘yellow boas’ in a private collection displayed unusual -restlessness and uneasiness, crawling about its cage as if in search -of something. Those who had the care of it suspected that she was with -eggs, and supplied her with fine sand. This appeased her somewhat, and -after twirling herself around to form it into a kind of nest, she laid -some eggs. One of the same kind at the Gardens accepted gratefully some -soft cotton wool which a lady brought for her and her young progeny, -all of whom nestled themselves in it contentedly and speedily. - -Two other noteworthy cases have to be recorded, but they shall form the -subject of the ensuing chapters. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -_ANACONDA AND ANGUIS FRAGILIS._ - - -MAXIMUS and MINIMUS. Yet by right of its name _Anguis_, our little -slow-worm—truly a lizard—claims a place in these pages; by right -of form also, and by right of promise; and still further, because on -the authority of some of our eminent physiologists there is in the -dentition of some of the boas an affinity with lizards; and inasmuch -as this little limbless lizard affords a good example of those whose -ancestry, as Huxley tells us, found it profitable to do without their -legs and become snakes, she shall be introduced in company with the -largest of all her ophidian cousins. - -Anaconda also, in having vestiges of hind limbs, affords in these -another example of what Darwin calls atrophied organs, remnants of what -were once, no doubt, a pair of very excellent saurian legs. - -Illustrious naturalists who were authorities in their day—as, for -instance, Linnæus and Cuvier—included slow-worms with serpents, the -links between them being so close. They have also been included among -the burrowing snakes, many of which have no better right to the name -of _Anguis_. With the advance of herpetology more minute distinctions -of classification occur, and anatomy now proves in the ‘brittle snake’ -a stronger relationship to lizards than to serpents. It has eyelids, -like the lizards; no palate teeth, non-extensible jaw-bones, and more -consolidated head-bones; so that you never see the facial distortion -in these lizard-snakes when feeding, that is so striking in the true -ophidians. It has scales alike all round, and also a distinct neck and -a vestige of sternum and pelvic bones whence formerly two pairs of legs -proceeded. From an evolutionary point of view, therefore, it is even in -advance of Anaconda, which has still its ‘spurs’ to get rid of. - -Space need not here be occupied in a recapitulation of other features -and the manners and habits of _Anguis fragilis_ beyond what the subject -in hand demands; and in connection with this our two anguine heroines -will be found to display one other striking feature in common. For the -rest, in Bell’s _British Reptiles_ it is treated at length. In Wood’s -_Natural History_, also, there is a long and minute account of the -slow-worm, including details of a most interesting character, as being -gathered from personal observations. - -Anaconda, however, claims historical priority. - -As a water snake it has already been partially described (p. 228), and -some of its synonyms were given in explanation of its scientific name -_Eunectes_, to trace its right to be included among the water snakes, -and _murinus_, to show the nature of its food. Being a native of -tropical America—which embraces many extensive countries and includes -numerous tribes of the aboriginal inhabitants—this serpent is also -known under numerous vernaculars, puzzling enough to the reader of -travels who does not at first sight realize that the book in which he -now reads of the _Matatoro_ describes one region, and the volume in -which he has read of the _Sucariuba_ or of the _Jacumama_ describes -another, and that these are one and the same snake. The spelling and -pronunciation of even the same word among adjacent tribes add to the -perplexity. Among other of Anaconda’s familiar vernaculars, which we -meet with in all South American books of travel, are _Aboma_, _Cucuriù_ -or _Cucuriubù_, _El trago venado_, _Camoudi_ or _Kamoudi_, _Sucurujù_, -and others. The name by which it is now generally known, _Anaconda_, or -_Anacondo_, was fixed by Cuvier in 1817. - -Very exaggerated ideas as to its size have obtained, probably traceable -to Waterton, who tells us the Spaniards of the Oroonoque positively -affirm that he grows to the length of from seventy to eighty feet; and -that as his name _Matatoro_ implies, he will eat the largest bull. -Before yielding full faith to such stories, we must ascertain whether -that ‘bull’ corresponded in dimensions with our Durham prize ox, or the -miniature bovines of the Himalayas. Hartwig improves upon Anaconda’s -dinner capacities in telling us that the ‘Hideous Reptile will engulph -a horse and its rider, or a whole ox’ (prize ox, no doubt) ‘as far as -its horns.’ - -Turn we to science and to ocular proof of what Anaconda really is—for -there are and have been living examples in our zoological collections, -and whatever she may have been ‘formerly,’ her modern dimensions rarely -exceed thirty feet. - -In the present case her interest lies in her maternal aspect, for -it is the one that was brought to London in 1877 of which we now -speak, and who astonished the ophiological public by giving birth to -fully-developed young ones in April of that year. - -In _Land and Water_ of the preceding February, Mr. Frank Buckland -described the arrival of this snake at Liverpool in a box, which with -its occupant weighed over 2 cwt., and of the necessary examination -‘he’ (the snake) was obliged to undergo by Mr. Bartlette previous to -purchase. Being at length conveyed to the Zoological Gardens, ‘he’ was -reported as being thin and as having no inclination to feed, but glad -to remain in ‘his’ bath almost continuously. - -It was brought from the vicinity of the Amazons, and must have been -cramped up for many months in this close prison. No wonder it turned at -once into its native element, although the small tank restricted its -movements almost as much as its travelling box. The poor thing was seen -to be suffering discomfort, presumably from its long journey and close -confinement; and one day, when endeavouring to extend itself and move -more at ease in the narrow space between the tank and the front glass, -it forced out the entire frame by the power of its coils. Fortunately -the huge python and two other Anacondas in the same cage at the time -were in a torpid condition; or had those four powerful snakes been -lively or spiteful, and all at liberty at this crisis, grave results -might have accrued. Aid being at hand, the loosened frame was promptly -re-adjusted; but this practical illustration of Anaconda’s powers was a -useful lesson to snake keepers. - -The peculiar condition of this snake not being suspected, not even -her sex, the appearance of two fully-developed though dead young ones -on April 2d was an important event in the Ophidarium, and one to be -forthwith chronicled in the _Zoological Society’s Proceedings_. The -secretary, at the ensuing meeting, exhibited the two young Anacondas, -and afforded some interesting details concerning the mother. During -the next few days four more young ones were born, but all dead; and -during several weeks, others in a high state of decomposition were -produced. ‘She might have had a hundred!’ said the keeper, who felt -fully persuaded that she had voluntarily ‘kept them back.’ Four were -well developed; one was partly coiled in the ruptured shell, which was -of a tough, coriaceous texture, white, and as thick as orange peel. - -Occurrences of this nature send us to our book-shelves. The python and -some of the boas had laid eggs, and Anaconda might have been expected -to do the same, as we read in the papers that wrote ‘leaders’ on the -event. But suddenly we all discover (‘_we_’ second and third rate -naturalists, who regard the biological professors at a respectful -distance, and aspire only to a printed half column in a similarly -aspiring journal),—we all discover that Cuvier had long ago pointed -out that _l’Eunect murin_ is viviparous (like the regular water -snakes), and that Schlegel had subsequently confirmed the fact from -personal observation. Thus we learn as we go. - -Those born dead in London offered no exception, therefore, to the rule, -but were rather to be regarded as one of those cases in which the -mother, under circumstances unpropitious for the production of her -progeny, retards the deposition of her eggs or her young. - -Let us picture to ourselves the condition of this poor Anaconda. Just -at the very time when instinct would have guided her to the spot most -favourable for the coming brood, she is transferred from her native -lagoons, and crowded into a dark close box just large enough to contain -her. Though without water for many months, this ‘good swimmer’ arrives -alive, a proof of her astonishing powers of endurance; but she has now -no morass, no lagoon or refreshing river in which to invigorate herself -and aid her natural functions, and the young ones die unborn. The poor -mother soon showed evidence of disease and suffering, and was after a -time mercifully put to death. - -There was no possibility of ascertaining the period of gestation in -her case, but there was every reason to regard it as one of postponed -functions, and another illustration of that astonishing capability -described by ophiologists of snakes which ‘may at pleasure,’ _i.e._ at -will, retard the laying of eggs or birth of young! - -The prejudice against snakes has been so strong, that there are persons -who would even exclude them from zoological collections. Should these -pages fall under the eye of such persons, they must admit that the -Ophidia in captivity present grand opportunities towards the attainment -of scientific knowledge. These important results far outweigh the less -pleasing spectacles. - - * * * * * - -And now for our little _Anguis fragilis_, with all her wrong names and -the wrong impressions produced thereby, which, with some particulars -of her behaviour in captivity, shall form the subject of the next -chapter. Here she will, I think, be accepted among those examples of -abnormal incubation which belong to the present one. - -Searching for the lovely little _Drosera_ and its attendant exquisite -mosses on ‘The Common’ at Bournemouth (the one close to the town), on -the look-out for lizards also, I saw what at first sight appeared to -be an extremely long, black slug, lying on a smooth little patch of -grass in the sunshine. Approaching to inspect this shining nondescript, -I at once recognised a slow-worm. Being not only entirely and deeply -black, but unusually short and proportionately thicker than any I had -ever seen, the familiar ‘worm’ had not at first sight been identified. -Its short, blunt tail had evidently lost an inch or two; and its bulk -suggested a speedy increase of family. Already I had four others and -a green lizard, the male _Lacerta agilis_, which I had also captured. -The date of ‘Blackie’s’ capture was August 26, 1879; the precise time -being important, because, as just now stated, the period of gestation -depends much on the degree of external warmth that can be had to assist -in maturing the embryo; and, as many of my readers will recollect, very -little sunshine had we that summer. Chilly rains and cloudy weather -marked the season; and to this I attributed the fact that at the end of -August the slow-worm was still enceinte, when, as Bell informs us, its -ordinary time to produce young is June or July. - -Taking her up, ‘Blackie’ struggled and kicked, if such a remnant -of tail can be said to ‘kick’ (the action being very similar), and -displayed activity enough to show that she could be quick enough when -occasion required it. Knowing her shy, burrowing instincts, I at once -laid her on the mosses which filled my little basket, and down she -retreated, there remaining without further trouble. - -Deposited in a box with the others, she acted similarly, remaining -hidden under the sand and moss, and never showing herself on the -surface, as the rest did whenever a hopeful gleam of sunshine tempted -them. Just the tip of her little black, shining nose was sometimes -visible, as if she were getting a breath of fresh air on the sly. - -One of the other slow-worms—already several weeks in my -possession—had appeared to be in a similar condition, and was much -wilder than the rest, effecting escape and circumventing me in a -variety of ways, while her companions were comparatively tame and -contented. The green lizard, also, had to be well watched, being -exceedingly active, darting away like a flash whenever the cover of the -box was removed for an instant. Their cage was necessarily and cruelly -small, in anticipation of a journey to London, and that I might have -them in my own keeping while on the move, which I expected to be for -some weeks. It was covered with a net secured by a strong elastic; but -they could easily reach the top, and managed most cleverly to push up -this net, and so get out. The way in which one of them called ‘Lizzie’ -achieved this, is described in the ensuing chapter. Here we must keep -to our subject. - -The box was generally close to an open window, in order to catch any -chance ray of sunshine; but the truant propensities of the inmates -necessitated a frequent investigation, and a raking up of the moss -and sand with which they were supplied, much too often for Blackie’s -peace of mind. She continued wild and alarmed, defeating search by -quick movements below. The ever active lizard, too, had frequently to -be hunted out; for whether he had retreated below, or had gone off -altogether, could not be ascertained unless the box and its inmates -were turned out bodily to count heads—a species of roll-call not -tending to tranquillize the unquiet pair. These trifles are mentioned -to show the sort of life the poor little captives led for many weeks. -They were raked over or turned out literally topsy-turvy every few -hours. Only at night had they any peace; for being well disposed -reptiles, who kept regular hours and retired early to rest, but _not_ -rising betimes in the morning, they could be safely left uncovered -until and unless sunshine enticed them upwards. - -All ate and drank regularly but Blackie, who, so far as I was able to -ascertain, was a total abstainer. - -Thus, in their incommodious box, they lived until the middle of -October, when (after making visits on the way, and secretly harbouring -my ‘snakes’ like stolen booty) I arrived in London. At that time the -sun seemed trying to atone for its summer deficiencies, and whenever -any of its grateful warmth could be obtained through the London -atmosphere the lizards were deposited in a window, but Blackie remained -always below. Suddenly she also grew refractory. She got out of the -box, and had frequent falls from the table to the floor. So had the -other restless one, necessitating still more frequent roll-calls, and -bringing troublous times on themselves. I had observed in a former pet, -that when the season of hibernation was approaching, _Anguis fragilis_ -had exhibited an errant disposition, and I had attributed it to a -natural instinct to seek a winter retreat; but in the present case only -these two tried to get away, and in both there appeared to be a similar -motive. - -On one occasion, late in October, Blackie could not be found for -several days, and was even given up for lost, when, on removing a -number of books that, when unpacked, had been temporarily stacked -against the wall, there lay the little black slow-worm in so narrow a -space between a quarto volume and the wall that it seemed impossible -she could have got there. Strange to tell, the poor little thing no -longer struggled to get away, but seemed even glad to be lifted and -fondled and restored to her moss. - -On the 2nd November, some frosty days having arrived, and no more -worms and flies being procurable, I thought it time to put them away -for their winter sleep, having been so instructed by Mr. Green, the -taxidermist at Bournemouth, of whom I had purchased several. So, having -dismissed all idea of an increase in their numbers, I prepared a large -deep jar and furnished it with soft hay, moss, and sand, enough for -them to burrow into, intending to consign it and them to an attic. - -The first thing on the morning of the cold foggy 3rd of November -1879, I went as usual to examine the box and its inmates—as yet in -my sitting-room. Lifting the moss to count heads, I saw what on the -first glance in that half daylight seemed to be a small tender snail, -apparently injured in some way, and crawling extended in a wonderfully -thin line from its shell. What presented a snail to my thoughts was -because a few days previously—insects being now no more, and other -food hard to procure—my maid had brought in some small snails as an -offering for the ‘snakes.’ These having been declined, I wondered to -see one in the box, but turned away faint-hearted from the unpleasant -duty of removing a half-crushed snail, as I took it to be. - -After being fortified with a hot breakfast, daylight being now -brighter, I began with dainty fingers to remove the moss. Judge of -my amazement to find three of the loveliest little tiny scraps of -life, wriggling, twisting, diving, and defiantly—let me rather say -intelligently, or instinctively—using their tongues like grown-up -slow-worms. They were Blackie’s children. Not a doubt about it! Three -were free from the shell, one of which was still connected with it by -an inch or more of the umbilical cord; and within the shell—a mere -membrane—was some yellow yoke and a good deal of glaire, so that the -membrane still retained the rounded form. Possibly I had ruptured -this egg in disturbing the moss. There was another egg quite perfect, -and within that could be discerned the little creature curled up, and -presenting those convolutions which in the half light had looked so -like a small snail shell. On tenderly taking up this perfect egg, the -wee reptile within threw itself into such an agitation that it burst -its prison house, and emerged prematurely into the cold, rough world. A -yolk as big as a hemp seed and much of the glaire remained behind. It -was a precisely similar case to that of a young Typhlops in Jamaica, -described by Gosse, where the reptile ‘crawled nimbly out of a ruptured -egg, but remained attached to the vitellus.’ In the present instance -the umbilical slit was ominously gaping, showing that the poor little -creature was not nearly ready to battle with life. In the other that -was not yet wholly detached, the slit was less, and in the two which -had hatched themselves (no doubt during the night) it was nearly closed. - -During the day six more were born, and four of the six in the -membranous shell. _Anguis fragilis_ is always considered to be -viviparous; but so are vipers, and here in three distinct cases under -public observation the young have been produced in a membranous -covering. - -The activity of these tiny creatures was marvellous. If meddled with, -they seemed as if agitated by a galvanic battery. Their whole length -vibrated with nervous irritability. In colour they were black beneath -and a silvery white above, with a spot of black on the head, and a -fine, thread-like line of black all down their back. The head was the -largest part, the body tapering gradually to the tail. They were in -length about 2-1/2 inches. Very bright black eyes had they, and manners -like the adults, pressing their head against the hand, or wherever -they were, with the instinct to burrow and hide. Their silvery aspect, -together with their mobile susceptibility, was truly mercurial. To hold -or retain them was simply impossible; as well try to restrain a stream -of quicksilver. In a fury of agitation they would leap and turn over -and twist themselves away like eels. Flaccid and tender and apparently -boneless, the difficulty of taking up and restraining such shreds of -vitality was no less difficult than interesting. The wee, half-matured -fury that rushed impetuously into the world spent itself in restless -efforts to dive into the earth. It grew gradually more feeble, and died -the third day. Altogether there were eight or more. Three were hatched -before I saw them, the rest were produced in the membranous ‘shell,’ -and in all the shells the remains of the yolk were seen. A remarkable -feature was that these remains of egg all vanished in a manner that -wholly baffled my investigations. The yellow yolk was too palpable to -become absorbed in the moss and sand; it could not have escaped notice. -With the greatest care I searched and examined every spray of moss, -every blade of grass, over and over again, but could discern no trace; -neither the skin nor any slimy glaire, nor one tinge of yolk, nor any -globulous collections of moisture whatever. Blackie did not eat them; -for she remained at the bottom of the box while the cares of maternity -were upon her, never moving. There was no possible doubt about her -being the mother of the brood. Her companions in captivity came to the -surface as usual during an hour or two of sunshine, and then retired -underground. - -In removing the moss that first day to look for Blackie, I saw by an -enlargement at the lower part of the body that her family was still -increasing; and if such a creature _can_ appeal, the look with which -she feebly raised her head as if to entreat not to be disturbed, was -one not to be disregarded. So I left her unmolested the whole day, and -indeed until she began to show herself and move about like the rest, -coming up if enticed by sunshine, and retiring early below, as they all -did daily. - -I communicated this interesting event to Mr. Frank Buckland at the -time, and to the editor of a zoological journal, inviting both to -inspect the interesting family. I also sent a short account of the -November brood to _Land and Water_. Mr. Buckland was, I believe, absent -from town; and my MS. (now before me) was returned from _Land and -Water_ for ‘want of space.’ - -Evidently the November brood were after all but sorry little -slow-worms, beneath the notice of scientific eyes, and unduly endowed -with imaginary importance in the estimation of their enthusiastic -guardian! - -In my careful examination of the contents of the cage next day, in -order to ascertain the chance of yet other silvery shreds of life, -I observed a little dry, globular substance, which had a somewhat -suspicious look. It was firm to the touch, and on breaking it, showed -a veiny sort of conglomerate appearance, as of layers or convolutions. -Several of these hard, dry masses I afterwards found, all on being -broken presenting a similar appearance. Then it suddenly occurred to -me that they must be dried-up eggs of the other slow-worm, and that -she must have deposited them some time previously. The surface of sand -was easily accounted for by the frequent turning over and stirring up -of the soft rubbish in the cage. At first thinking only of Blackie, -and being satisfied that these singular little masses contained no -life, I threw them away; when, too late, resolving to keep some and -investigate their nature, only one more could be found; but this one -was preserved in spirits of wine, together with two or three of the -tiny slow-worms. The female that conjecturally laid them had frequently -got out of the box and sustained many falls to the floor; which, even -had other circumstances been propitious, might sufficiently account -for the destruction of embryo life. But in addition to accidents were -the extremely cold and sunless summer and the ten weeks of disturbed -and comfortless existence; and then the green lizard was for ever -scrambling about and scratching the earth in all directions. He alone -was enough to make a conglomerate of the unmatured eggs. - -The remaining one of the supposed eggs was put aside with other -specimens, and almost forgotten till the present time. Looking at it -now after it has been two years in the spirits of wine, I find the -sandy surface washed off and deposited as sediment, and in a partly -torn and ruptured membrane behold a perfect little _Anguis fragilis_ -quite as big as those others which were hatched. Whether this happens -to be a more perfect embryo than those that were hardened, or whether -it has grown softer and more distinguishable through being in liquid, -it is impossible to say, except that here it is. There were, then, -_two broods_, as had been anticipated, and in both cases eight or -nine. The precise date of the hard eggs is not clear; probably they -were produced first. The warmth of the room at length did for Blackie -what the sun had failed to do; and even then her young ones were not -fully matured. The other one, through many vicissitudes, in common -with her big cousin Anaconda, produced bad eggs. Truly are not these -two—or say only one—is not Blackie’s case a verification of what the -author of _British Reptiles_ affirmed of these slow-worms: ‘There is -no doubt that the duration of the period of gestation must depend on -the temperature to which the animal is exposed,’ even if this be not -another instance of retarded deposition. - -A word more, in conclusion, about the tiny progeny. - -To the touch having no more bone or substance than an earth-worm of -the same size, their ability to burrow seemed marvellous. When placed -in the sunshine—such as there was of it—they basked in apparent -satisfaction, retiring betimes and working themselves underground to -the depth of four or five inches. Often two or more were missing, -when every scrap of earth and moss had to be spread on a newspaper -and minutely separated to search for them. Indeed, I have never felt -certain whether the family originally consisted of eight, nine, or -ten, having a strong suspicion that their grown-up relatives or the -lizard had supposed them to be worms placed there for their express -delectation. And when, one day, the number was reduced to six, and the -green lizard looked unusually plump and impudent, the young fry were -quickly transferred to a separate home, a glass bowl, through which -they could be watched without molestation, and up which they could not -possibly crawl. The smallest of worms (the weather being warm again) -and a cockle-shell of water, the softest of sand and the prettiest of -mosses, ministered to their comfort; but though they grew very slightly -and their colour became more defined, I do not think they partook of -food or water during the whole six weeks that they were thus watched -and cared for. One from the first day was always livelier than the -rest. It was one of those that had been hatched first or possibly -born alive, being perfect, and with the navel closed when I had first -discovered it. Through the glass we could see them deep down in the -earth, and so close to the side that they could nearly always be easily -counted. Not at all sociable were the little ones, one here, another -there, as if getting as far apart as their home permitted. In the -evening, if placed on the table near the lamp, they seemed to mistake -that for sunlight, and would come up and ramble restlessly about on the -surface for several hours. Their vitality was amazing. - -One evening when showing them to a friend and permitting their antics -upon the table, one of them was suddenly and mysteriously missing. We -had carefully guarded the edge of the table; indeed, they were well in -the centre of it, and it seemed impossible for them to fall off. We -searched the carpet, notwithstanding, and with most careful scrutiny; -and finally deciding that the truant must have been replaced with some -moss unobserved, gave up the search. - -Next morning, on entering the room, my maid thus greeted me: ‘Lor’, -Ma’am! if I didn’t find one of your little snakes down on the carpet -close to your chair, and for all the world I as near as possible -tramped on it. I put it in along with the others, and it worked its way -down in no time!’ - -Imagine that poor little shred of life passing the night in frantic -efforts to burrow into the carpet and retire below according to custom! -Whenever held or touched, their first impulse was to conceal themselves -beneath, and they would dive and butt with impetuous agitation in their -endeavours to push themselves out of sight. - -The event in the family had caused me to postpone the hibernating -arrangements; so as long as the others ate (a thaw enabling us to dig -up worms again) and courted daylight, I kept them in the warm room. But -as will be remembered, very severe frost set in that winter (1879-80), -and no more worms could be dug up. While hibernating, no pangs of -hunger could assail them; and though it cost me an effort to consign -those beautiful wee things to the cold and gloom of a temporary tomb, -yet it seemed the kindest thing to do under the circumstances; so, in -company with their unsympathizing mother and cousins, they were stowed -away in moss and darkness, but in a box instead of the jar. Well!—that -is all! My ignorance and its sad results were alluded to on p. 165. I -can only hope the poor little victims died insensible to their cruel -fate. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -‘_LIZZIE._’ - - -THIS tame slow-worm was promised a chapter to herself in my book, and I -trust my readers will not tire of her doings, but vouchsafe their kind -attention to an exhibition of still other feats in which the little -_Anguis fragilis_ vies with the Great Anaconda. - -In her maternal aspect we have done with her. The heroine of the -present chapter was for a much longer time in my possession than -‘Blackie’ and those other poor victims, and therefore tamer. When -my friends exclaimed, ‘Why on earth do you call that little snake -“Lizzie”?’ the simple reply was: ‘Because she is not a snake, but a -lizard.’ In what respects the slow-worm is a lizard my readers already -know; I will therefore describe what I hope may prove of zoological -interest. Already ‘Lizzie’ has ingratiated herself with the readers of -_Aunt Judy’s Magazine_,[131] as also with her personal acquaintance for -her gentle and innocent manners. - -First let us briefly review her many wrong names, ‘blindworm,’ -‘slow-worm,’ ‘deaf-adder,’ ‘brittle-snake,’ and endeavour to account -for them. Of her name ‘snake’ (_Anguis_), from its external aspect, -enough has already been said. The ‘brittleness’ shared in common with -several of her foreign relatives, known as ‘glass snakes,’ proceeds -from a power of contracting the muscles into rigidity when molested: -that is, when, on finding themselves in a helpless condition, -slow-worms grasp firmly whatever they can attach themselves to. In -fact, this little snake only displays constricting powers as far as it -is able; for it really does constrict the fingers which detain it, with -a force as great for its size as its cousin Anaconda uses in killing -its prey. Were the giant constrictors to entwine us with proportionate -power, they would gain the day. In the case of _Anguis fragilis_, _we_ -are the masters; and were we to attempt violently to unwind one from -our fingers, it would break ‘in halves’ in its resistance, or rather -in its redoubled efforts to cling the tighter and so save itself. May -it not in this respect, also, claim kinship with its giant rivals, and -show their common ancestry? On pp. 183 and 187 reference was made to -the ‘blindworm’ in connection with other ‘brittle’ snakes, and in the -use of their pointed tails. Our native ‘blindworm,’ in not having the -hard point at the end, has escaped the imputation of trying to ‘sting’ -with that imaginary weapon, although it uses its tail with equal -and similar force, and for the same purpose. In handling the little -reptile, you will feel it pressing the tip of its tail against whatever -part comes in contact with it, as a hold, a fulcrum, and motive power. - -[Illustration: Lizzie; never at a loss.] - -Upon a smooth surface it would be entirely helpless without this -assistant to progression, its scales being too even and polished to -afford hold of any kind. You will see it sweeping its long tail this -way and that, in search of some hold or obstacle against which to -push itself forward; and failing this, the point is pressed close to -the table or floor as may be. When in any unaccustomed position, as, -for instance, when held in the hand, you will see the tail instantly -twining itself about the fingers for safety, the creature trusting -itself entirely to its aid, and being helpless when its movements are -fettered in any way. If not strictly prehensile in the way of affording -support, as the tail of a true boa does, that of _Anguis fragilis_ is -not far removed from it. Hold one that is accustomed to be handled -and in good health, and permit it to hang by the mere tip, as in the -accompanying illustration. So far from falling, the little creature -will at once draw itself upwards and backwards with perfect facility, -till it feels itself equally balanced, when the tail will be sent in -search of hold; it will cling quickly round a finger, and then _Anguis_ -feels itself safe once more. My tame slow-worms accomplished this with -perfect ease whenever so suspended. - -Others, unaccustomed to such a position, or in a not very robust -condition, must be treated cautiously under this experiment, and not -permitted to fall; but in every case the tail will be seen to be a -very important agent to the reptile. It is longer in the male than in -the female slow-worm—more than half the entire length in the former, -and less than half in the latter. The males are, therefore, longer on -the whole, though the body itself is longest in the female. Regard -should be had to this, when, roughly speaking, they are said to ‘break -themselves in _halves_;’ because it is not the body which breaks, but -only the tail, or a portion of it, in common with other lizards. - -The power of the tail in this reptile was again seen when its home was -a bell-glass, such as is used for gold-fish. The one in which my first -family of slow-worms dwelt, was almost as high as their own length, -so that I considered them sufficiently secure without any cover to -it. But after a little while they effected an exit. _How_, was at -first a mystery, until I saw them perseveringly raising themselves in -a perpendicular direction against the side. Many a slip and many a -trial had they, but they rarely desisted until success crowned their -efforts. When their head had once gained the edge of the glass, they -easily drew themselves up and over it, and let themselves down on the -outside, as you would draw a cord over the edge. The perfect smoothness -of the glass, the nice balance required, and the gradual lowering of -themselves, rendered this proceeding still more astonishing; for as -the glass was on a stand there was a considerable distance between -the edge and the table. A slow-worm’s progression is truly marvellous. -In this little creature one can detect no action of the ribs; they are -too fine and too close. Its scaly armour, moreover, is smooth and firm; -and as for ventral scutæ to ‘afford hold,’ it has none. Yet with ease -it draws itself over that polished rim, as it draws itself up and over -your finger, when suspended by the mere tip of its tail. - -Soon the slow-worms accomplished this feat so knowingly that it became -necessary to cover them over, which was done with gauze having a strong -elastic cord hemmed into it. They practised their climbing powers all -the same, and though not able to get over the edge, tried and pushed -hard enough to stretch the gauze considerably; so that, unless well -pulled down, it lay only loosely and bagging over the top. - -Judge, then, of my amazement one day to find Lizzie _outside_ the -glass, resting contentedly in the loose fold round the edge above the -elastic. The little creature had absolutely got over the edge, but the -tightness of the elastic baffling the outside descent, there it lay. - -In _Nature_, vol. xx. p. 529, Mr. Hutchinson describes and illustrates -an exactly similar feat accomplished by a ‘little snake’ nine inches -long. It was put in a glass jar ten inches high, having also for a -cover a bit of coarse muslin secured by an elastic band. The reptile -was missing, the muslin and the band were intact, when, after a -mysterious surprise and search, the little snake was found under the -rim of the jar _inside_ the muslin. The writer does not say what snake -it was, but he afterwards observed it ‘ascending easily,’ standing -on the tip of its tail, and supporting itself against the side of the -jar by the abdominal scales creating a vacuum, ‘like the pedal scales -of a common house lizard;’ it was not a slow-worm, therefore. He felt -quite satisfied about this adaptation of the scutæ, a mode which, in -describing the larger snakes climbing up their glass cages, I called -‘compressure,’ p. 215. Mr. Hutchinson does not tell us, either, how -much earth or rubbish covered the floor of the jar, though there must -have been an inch or more, to enable a snake of nine inches to raise -its head over a ledge ten inches high. Lizzie not having ventral scales -to help her, used her tail only as a support, then nicely maintaining -the perpendicular. Many times she failed in achieving success, but she -did achieve it, and grew so enterprising in consequence that I shall -now confine my story to her. At first she lived in a box, the top of -which she could easily look over, and she was occasionally permitted -to get out and ramble among some ferns on the same table. Sometimes -this box was also covered with a muslin, having elastic hemmed into it, -and she soon discovered that this with persevering attempts could be -raised. The use of the tail was here remarkable. With it she maintained -her ‘stand,’ so to speak, while with her head and the forepart of her -body she tried to loosen the net; using persistent and powerful efforts -to lift it, by repeatedly tossing back her head. She acted in every -way as if determined not to be baffled, and with an apparent intention -or reflection that was, without doubt, the result of experience. In -higher creatures this application of force to produce a certain result -would be pronounced ‘intelligence.’ In the little slow-worm there was -undeniably a perception of cause and effect. On one occasion when she -had got her tail on the edge of the box, and her whole length in the -stretched muslin along the top, she so far succeeded with the forcible -action of the head that she worked the very strong and tight elastic -up, but not at all to her own satisfaction; for it instantly contracted -under her, bagging her most effectually. She was caught in a trap of -her own construction. - -Seeing her so wonderfully energetic, and by no means ‘slow,’ either in -action or intelligence, the next thing was to ascertain whether Lizzie -was ‘deaf’ in addition to her other pseudo-failings; but by the various -tests used to exercise her aural faculties, I am inclined to think her -powers of hearing served her almost better than those of sight. When -permitted to ramble among the plants and over the table, the _sound_ -much more than the _sight_ of her box and its contents attracted her. -Never averse to go home and retreat into her moss, the rustling of this -or the scraping and rubbing the sides of the box—any _noise_ with it -with which she was familiar, would cause her to turn towards it, when -the sight of it alone failed to entice her. After a time she turned -her head, if even from across the room I made a sudden and sharp noise -to attract her attention,—such as the tapping of a spoon against a -cup, or the peculiar talk I indulged in for educational purposes. She -undoubtedly became familiar with certain sounds, which were repeated -till she did look round. Not—as I am bound to confess—that it was a -strikingly intelligent look! rather the contrary, I fear: still, as the -object was to test her powers of hearing, the result was satisfactory. -The origin of this reputed deafness is difficult to conjecture. In -the way of external ears, those of the slow-worm are less distinct -than those of lizards generally, but more so than in snakes, which -have no visible aural apertures; whereas in the slow-worms they can be -discerned if sought for, though they are very small and indistinct. - -Not much less perplexing is the supposititious ‘blindness’ of -the slow-worm. This must have had its origin in days long before -‘gentle-folk’ took rural walks for the purpose of observing natural -objects; long before Shakspeare’s time, and when slow-worms were far -more numerous than now. Probably those who saw most of them were the -peasantry, and that in winter time, when, in their out-door work, they -would discover a number hibernating. A score or two of slow-worms in -company with a few snakes and adders brought to light in turning up -stones or earth, would attract the rustics, when a stray one in summer -time would pass unnoticed or, at any rate, unexamined. Though the -larger reptiles would be equally torpid, their eyes would show all the -same, while the slow-worm’s eyes would be so tightly closed that their -place could hardly be found. Thus they were presumably ‘blind.’ This -is mere conjecture in seeking a reason, but ‘blind worms’ they were in -England long before the _typhlops_ (p. 187) of the tropics was known, -and long before any other ‘naturalist’ than Topsell and his like wrote -upon ‘Serpentes’ and the _Amphisbæna Europæa_. - -[Illustration: Lizzie in a knot.] - -Topsell, by the way, whom we quoted on the subject of tongues, thought -he knew all about slow-worms, and gave them credit for a length and -power of tail far exceeding those of the present day. ‘They have been -seen to suck a Cow, for then they twist their Tailes about the Cowe’s -Legges. The Slow-worm biteth mortallie, and the Cow dyeth!’ Consistent -this with the ‘Blind-worm’s sting’ of the poet of that day. Of the six -or seven that have been in my keeping at one time or another, not one -has, under any provocation, attempted to bite me. They were handled -continually, twirled about, and tied into knots (with gentle treatment, -of course), but not one of them ever broke itself in ‘halves’ or opened -its mouth with malice intent. Lizzie sometimes in winding about my -fingers got herself into very pretty knots, and in such tied-up fashion -when placed on the table she would remain motionless for a time, and -then begin to move away. Curious was the effect at this juncture. The -knot was not loosened at all; but as the little reptile began to move, -the knot passed downwards, and she crawled out of it, while its form -remained the same to the very end of the tail. It was similar to what -we saw when the little four-rayed snakes constricted their birds; -the form of their coils altering no more than would a slide passed -along a rope. Neither did such a knot disturb Lizzie. She appeared -quite unconscious of it, and simply crawled out of it. Perhaps any -‘brittleness’ discoverable may have been from rough handling, as one -can easily suppose a too abrupt untwining of the reptile when clinging -round the fingers would so alarm it that it would cling the tighter. -A gentleman assured me that he had seen one break in ‘halves,’ and -the two portions lying on the table. Not being a scientific observer, -he could not describe the appearance of the fractured part, except -that they seemed to contract; and this is what I have observed in the -tail of lizards when accidentally abridged. The owners do not appear, -however, to concern themselves about it. - -The name ‘worm’ given to this little reptile is merely as a creeping -thing, a ‘worm of the earth,’ in common with many other small crawling -creatures which are not earth-_worms_. Its quality of ‘slowness’ is -only another name for caution. Quick and active it can be; but in -retreating down among the moss or hay, or whatever you provide in its -cage, then you see the perfection of slowness. Not a blade stirs, not a -sound is heard, and one may repeat here that the manner of progression -in _Anguis fragilis_ is not the least of all the ophidian wonders we -have witnessed. In the earth it can burrow itself to the depth of -several feet. In soft rubbish it simply vanishes slowly; its hard, -polished scales permitting it, as it were, to slide down into and among -the hay with that gently gliding motion which enables us to perceive -how very well it does manage without the ancestral limbs. - -One other name it has, ‘adder,’ which, perhaps from association with -the true adder or viper, has gained it its evil character of being -venomous. - -But this word ‘adder,’ like ‘worm,’ was formerly used for many creeping -things, and is derived from old Saxon and Danish words _atter_, -_eddre_, _ætter_, etc., and the German _natter_, which has a similar -signification, any low-lying or crawling creature. Even in this -nineteenth century the ‘slow-worm’ still bears an evil character in -some rural districts, and in Wales more particularly. - -A few weeks ago, a Welsh lady, hearing me speak of my tame slow-worms, -asked if I were not afraid to handle them. - -‘Why?’ one naturally asked. - -‘Because they are so poisonous,’ she replied. - -I explained that this erroneous idea had probably originated in the -little creature being sometimes called an ‘adder,’ and so forth. - -My friend did not take the explanation kindly, but rather resented the -possibility of her being mistaken. ‘They are so very common in Wales,’ -she said, ‘and I am sure they are venomous there.’ - -Another lady of the company, subsequently speaking of this, remarked, -‘I should certainly be inclined to believe what Miss F. says about them -(the slow-worms), because she lives so much in the country and is such -an observer.’ - -This speaker was a lady of really superior intellectual attainments; -but she had never attempted to overcome a strong prejudice against -anything in the shape of a snake. She would not _permit_ herself to be -convinced that any of them were either harmless, clean, or beautiful; -but, like the monks who would not look through Galileo’s telescope, for -fear of seeing what it was heresy to believe, my friend preferred to -hug her prejudices! - -One little bit more of gossip in taking leave of Lizzie. The party -were young gentlemen, all of them of studious and intellectual tastes -and good position. ‘How _could_ I endure to touch those horrible slimy -snakes?’ one of them exclaimed, on hearing a lady inquire about my -pets. I assured him they were as clean and dry as the ruler on the -table. The young gentlemen exchanged dubious glances, and nearly all of -them attributed to my undue partiality the assurance that they were not -‘slimy.’ ‘I always thought they were,—didn’t _you_?’ they said to each -other. - -A word must be added on the subject of skin-shedding in the slow-worms, -various processes having been described; as that it is ‘always shed in -pieces,’ ‘always splits on the head first,’ etc. As no two of my pets -doffed their coats at regular periods, or precisely in the same manner, -I judged that, as in snakes, the sloughing depended principally on -the health of the individual, or the temperature. They all invariably -began at the lips, rubbing their heads till the skin separated round -the mouth exactly as snakes do, and then crawled out of it. In one -case the skin was shed _unreversed_ throughout the entire length. This -was pushed off and left behind in a crumpled form, but in picking it -up it extended uninjured to its original length, perfect from mouth -to tail. Others were reversed as far as the tail, which slipped out -‘like a sword out of its scabbard,’ as described by Mr. Bell; others -were reversed throughout the length. Sometimes they were in pieces, and -this was, I think, attributable to insufficient moisture. One did not -change after August; others changed several times during the summer; so -that there appears to be the same sort of caprice, or more probably of -unascertained causes for variable processes, in casting the cuticle as -in snakes. - -‘Lizzie’s’ bibulous propensities were mentioned p. 89. In vain was she -tempted with milk, but water appeared to be almost more necessary than -food; at least, after being deprived of both, she took that first and -eagerly. - -So much has been said of the burrowing habits of the slow-worms, that -I must mention a remarkable exception. Never did I see mine _ascend_, -except when attempting to escape; nor, when placed among the plants on -a flower-stand, did they ever _raise_ their head, but would work their -way downwards, clinging and holding on by their tail till they reached -the floor. Always _down_ was their instinct, even down the stairs on -several occasions; never up. But since the completion of this chapter, -some slow-worms have been deposited at the Zoological Gardens that -evince a climbing tendency; and this strikes me as being so novel a -feat that I add a line. The little creatures—one of which is of a pale -flesh-colour, almost white—live in a cage with some tree frogs, behind -the door on entering the Reptilium. Here they are, May 1882, often seen -lodged in the branches of the shrub, and reposing there at ease, as if -in quiet enjoyment. The ‘white’ one I first observed in the tree, and -subsequently others. So frequently may they be seen reposing in this -way among the leaves, that to climb seems to have become a confirmed -habit or taste; and in concluding the history of _Anguis fragilis_, I -record this singular diversity of habit as one other strong feature in -common with the giant Anaconda. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -_DO SNAKES AFFORD A REFUGE TO THEIR YOUNG?_ - - -THE question, ‘Do vipers swallow their young in times of danger?’ is -one less easy to solve to the satisfaction of the unbelievers than -some of the preceding inquiries, because the proof demanded is an -almost unattainable one. ‘Bring me a viper with its mouth tied up, -and all her young ones in her _throat_, and then I will believe you,’ -say the sceptics. Now, in the first place, a man does not go hedging -and ditching, or to reap corn, nor does a gentleman go to his field -sports, or for a country stroll, ready provided with a cord and a bag -and an assistant for the express purpose of capturing maternal vipers, -who at sight of him receive all their little ones into their mouths; -and, in the second place, if he did so, making it the one business of -his walk to seek for and entrap such vipers, he might spend a great -many summers in the search before his trouble was rewarded. Even were -he so fortunate, it is doubtful whether he would be believed by all -persons; for viper-swallowing, like ‘the Great Sea Serpent,’ has been -a subject so contemptuously dismissed that investigation is arrested, -and few in England would now risk their reputation by committing their -names to print in connection with it. It is much to be regretted that -this has of late years been the case with several English publications -whose columns should be open to a fair examination of evidence on -all zoological questions. The influence of such journals, therefore, -checks progress; for until prejudice is got rid of, there can be no -advancement in any science. - -As is well known, the late Mr. Frank Buckland was to the last sceptical -on this question. His specialty was not ophiology; but the mass of -readers do not stop to inquire about this; and he, being a popular -writer as well as a popular character, was accredited by thousands who -quoted him, while themselves no naturalists, nor in any position to -form an independent opinion. Some contemporary journals unfortunately -display the same prejudices, even at the time of writing, causing -zoological publications, which should embrace every branch of biology, -to be devoted almost exclusively to the specialties of an editor. - -Happily this scepticism is not universal. In the American publications -devoted to zoology, information in every branch is welcomed as worthy -of consideration; and though truth has often to be sifted out from a -very gigantic pile of rubbish, still it is worth the search; and we -can but feel that the rapid advance of our Transatlantic relatives in -every branch of science is due, in a great measure, to the dismissal of -prejudice and to the encouragement of every new idea. - -So far as snakes are concerned, their field is wide, it is true. In -England our observations are limited to our one viper, whereas America -is the land of snakes, no less than are India and Australia; and while -our native viper is growing rarer every year, the opportunities for -observation in the Western World are wherever a new settlement is -planted. - -Thus, when, in February 1873, Professor G. Browne Goode, of Middletown -University, Connecticut, invited, through the columns of the _American -Agriculturist_, all the authentic information that could be procured on -the question, ‘Do snakes swallow their young?’ he received, as he tells -us, no less than 120 testimonies from as many persons in various parts -of the United States that single season. - -The area in which information was collected included twenty-four States -and counties, ‘almost all the evidence being valuable.’ - -Professor Goode was intending to bring the subject before the _American -Association for the Advancement of Science_, to convene at Portland, -Maine, the following August; and he spent the summer in collecting -information. - -At that session of 1873, in the Biological Section of the Association, -‘A Science Convention on Snakes’ was held, and a paper was read -by Professor G. Browne Goode, the subject offered for discussion -being—‘_Do snakes offer a temporary refuge for their young in their -throats, whence they emerge when the danger is past?_’ On this occasion -the chair was occupied by Mr. F. W. Putnam, one of the editors of the -_American Naturalist_, and secretary to the Association. Professor -Joseph Lovering was the new President on Professor Lawrence Smith’s -retiring; and among those who took part in the discussion were several -eminent naturalists New York and other journals published reports of -the Convention at the time; and the entire paper by Professor Goode was -given to the world in the Annual Reports of the _American Association_. - -From these I will condense the principal matter, quoting also from a -paper on the same subject written by F. W. Putnam in vol. ii. of the -_American Naturalist_ for 1869. Indeed, the two accounts are so blended -that I can only recommend both to the perusal of the interested reader, -Professor Goode having reproduced much from Putnam’s paper in the -_American Naturalist_, which, as he informs us, was the first that led -him to take an interest in the subject. - -He began by reminding his audience that it had long been a popular -belief that the young of certain snakes seek a temporary protection -from danger by gliding down the open throat of the mother, though it -had been of late doubted by so many naturalists as to be classed among -the superstitions; but that now a summing up of the evidence would show -conclusively that the popular idea is sustained by facts. - -The traditions of the North American Indians show that the belief has -prevailed with them from prehistoric times. In England also, as he -reminded us, as early as the sixteenth century, allusions to it are -found in Spencer’s _Faerie Queene_, 1590, Canto I. vv. 14, 15, 22, 25. -From this a word or two only need be quoted regarding the - - ‘Half serpent, half woman,’ - -with - - ‘One thousand young ones sucking upon her poison dugs,’ - -when she is disturbed in her dark cave: - - ‘Soon as that uncouth light upon them shone, - Into her mouth they crept, and suddaine all were gone.’ - -Again, in Sir Thomas Browne’s _Pseudoxia_, or ‘Vulgar Errours, -published in 1672, we find: ‘For the young ones will upon any fright, -for protection run into the belly of the Dam. For then the old one -receives them into her mouth, which way, the fright being passed, they -will returne againe; which is a peculiar way of refuge.’ - -He quotes from the _Humorous Lieutenant_ of Beaumont and Fletcher the -words, ‘This is the old viper, and all the young ones creep every night -into her belly.’ - -The Professor also mentioned the American traveller, Mr. Jonathan -Carver, who, towards the end of the last century, recorded that he had -seen a large brood of young rattlesnakes retire for safety into the -throat of the parent, which he killed, when no less than seventy young -ones made their escape. Practical experience demands, How had he time -to reckon up these active, wriggling, tangled fugitives? Nevertheless -his story found favour and has been subsequently recited as probable. -Chateaubriand believed the fact, and glowingly expatiates on the -‘Superb Reptile which presents to man a pattern of tenderness.’ ... -‘When her offspring are pursued, she receives them into her mouth: -dissatisfied with every other place of concealment, she hides them -within herself, concluding that no asylum can be safer for her progeny -than the bosom of a mother. A perfect example of sublime love, she -refuses to survive the loss of her young, for it is impossible to -deprive her of them without tearing out her entrails.’ Elsewhere, with -less of admiration for the exemplary _crotalus_, Chateaubriand says, -‘By a singular faculty the female can introduce into her body the -little monsters to which she has given birth.’ - -One of the early writers who witnessed this offer of refuge was M. de -Beauvoir, who saw a disturbed rattlesnake open her jaws to receive five -young ones. This amazed spectator retired to quietly watch the result, -when, after the lapse of some minutes, the mother snake recovered -confidence, and she again opened her mouth and ‘discharged’ her little -family. Professor Palisot de Beauvoir was an eminent French naturalist -of the beginning of this century, and the author of _Observations sur -les serpents_, published in _Daudin’s Histoire naturelle_, Paris, -1803. He was accepted as an authority on many other points of natural -history; and it is not improbable that he influenced Cuvier’s belief in -the ophidian maternal refuge. - -It certainly does seem incredible that an occurrence so unprecedented -should have been conceived of in the first instance without some ocular -demonstration of it. - -Another American traveller, whose testimony Professor Goode considered -of worth, was St. John Dunn Hunter,[132] who saw young ones rush into -the rattlesnake’s mouth, and reappear when ‘the parent gave a sort of -contractile motion of the throat as a sign that danger was past.’ - -Coming down to our own times, Professor Goode mentioned Dr. Edward -Palmer, of the Smithsonian Institute of Washington, a well-known -traveller and collector, who in Paraguay saw seven young _crotali_ -run into their mother’s mouth. After the snake was killed, they all -ran out. The parent and her brood are now in the National Museum at -Washington, D.C. Similar occurrences were witnessed by Professor -Sydney J. Smith, of Yale College; the Rev. Chauncey Loomis, M.D., -of Middletown University; Dr. D. L. Phares; Mr. Thomas Meham of -Philadelphia; a member of the Convention then present; and other -‘gentlemen whose statements as naturalists were not to be doubted.’ -‘Due weight should be given to the wide distribution of the witnesses -and the remarkable concurrence of their statements,’ said the speaker. - -Professors Wyman and Gill, and other physiologists then present, showed -that there is no physical reason why young snakes should not remain -for a time in the body of the mother. The gastric juice acts slowly -on living tissues, and as for respiration, it is almost impossible to -smother reptiles. ‘Snakes can live for a long time immersed in water, -and even in bottles hermetically sealed, and why not in a place of -refuge?’ argued Mr. Putnam. Instances were given of frogs escaping -from the stomach of snakes; also of other snakes swallowed by a larger -species returning to the light of day. - -As a habit, if the swallowing ‘is not protective there is no parallel; -if protective, a similar habit is seen in some fishes of the South -American waters, of the genera _Arius_, _Bagrus_, and _Geophagus_, -where the males carry the eggs for safety in their mouths and gill -openings.’ Mr. Putnam instanced the Pipe-fish (_Syngnathus Peckianus_), -whose young when in an aquarium have been seen to go in and out of the -pouch of the male fish; and that a belief prevails among some sailors -that young sharks which suddenly disappear have gone into the mouth of -the mother. Some South American fishes carry their eggs in their mouth, -and why should there not exist an equally motherly regard on the part -of snakes? - -Mr. F. W. Putnam, secretary to the Association, had made himself -acquainted with all the English ‘viper-swallowing’ literature of -any importance up to the date of his paper on the subject in the -_American Naturalist_, 1869. Previous to that date, _Science Gossip_, -the _Field_, the _Zoologist_, and other English journals had devoted -more space to the subject than subsequently; and from these Mr. -Putnam cited many records from intelligent observers, in proof ‘that -snakes _do afford refuge to their young_.’ Of especial importance, -as corroborative evidence, were the statements and anatomical -investigations of Dr. Edwardes Crispe, F.Z.S., etc., who had for a long -while been studying the physiological possibility of such a retreat. -On the question, Would not the young snakes be rapidly digested in the -stomach of the parent? this anatomist showed that they would not come -in contact with the gastric juice at all, and that there is ample room -in the expansile œsophagus to receive them. He had made experiments -with various snakes by filling the stomach with water, in order to -ascertain its capacity in bulk. In 1855, Dr. E. Crispe had read a paper -on this subject at one of the meetings of the Zoological Society, and -again in 1862, when his previous opinions had become confirmed. He -had ‘positive evidence enabling him to state with certainty that the -English viper and some other venomous snakes do swallow their young at -an early period.’ - -Towards the end of the last century, Gilbert White, in his _History of -Selborne_, refers to the prevalent theory, and the instances recorded -by him are by the earlier editors of his works regarded rather as -evidence than the contrary. In the edition of 1851, the editor Jesse, -himself a naturalist, took pains to ascertain facts concerning vipers, -and he believed in the evidence given him. He had found vipers in their -mother’s ‘stomach’ (he does not say oviduct) ‘of a much larger size -(seven inches) than they would be when first excluded.’ - -(In the later editions of the _History of Selborne_, it is much to be -regretted that doubts are again thrown on the subject; and this in face -of the opinions of men of eminence, who had written from observation, -and had physiologically shown the possibility of such a refuge.) - -Mr. Putnam also quoted Mr. M. C. Cooke, the author of _Our Reptiles_, -and at that time editor of _Science Gossip_. Here is a herpetologist -well able to form an unbiassed opinion, and who in his work says on -this question: ‘Men of science and repute, clergymen, naturalists, in -common with those who make no profession of learning, have combined in -this belief. Add to these, gentlemen whose statements in other branches -of natural history would not be doubted.’ Among them were Henry -Doubleday, Esq. of Epping, a well-known entomologist; the Rev. H. Bond, -of South Pellerton, Somerset; T. H. Gurney, of Calton Hall, Norwich, -a well-known ornithologist; and several others of similar scientific -standing. - -Curiously, no one appears to doubt a similar maternal instinct as -displayed in our little native lizard, _Zootica vivipara_! Mr. -Doubleday related the case of one being accidentally trodden upon, -when three young ones ran out of her mouth. It was immediately killed -and opened, and two others that had been too much injured by the foot -to make their escape were still within the parent. At the time when -a controversy on the viper question was going on, Mr. Edward Newman -edited the _Zoologist_, and he himself related a most confirmatory case -of this viviparous lizard. A gentleman who was collecting, caught one -with two young ones; all three were consigned to his pocket _vasculum_. -On reaching home the two young ones had disappeared, and the mother -looked in such goodly condition that he thought she must have made a -meal of her offspring. Next morning, behold! there were the two little -ones and their devoted parent all safe and sound. She had sheltered -them within her body! And, as Mr. Newman added, ‘the narrators are of -that class who do know what to observe and how to observe it.’ - -In May 1865 a clergyman in Norfolk communicated to _Science Gossip_ -that he had seen six or seven young vipers run helter-skelter down -their mother’s throat. He killed the parent and ‘out came the little -ones.’ In July another correspondent of the same paper saw several -young vipers vanish in a like manner, adding, ‘By the way the mother -opened her mouth to receive them, he would say they were accustomed to -that sort of thing.’ Mr. J. H. Gurney recorded that a viper with young -ones was disturbed, when two of the latter ran into her open mouth, the -second one after getting half in wriggling out again. The viper was -cut open to seek a reason for this, when a recently swallowed mouse -was found stopping up the way. The first had managed to get into safe -quarters, but the second could not pass. - -In Oct. 1866 the question was revived by Mr. Thomas Rider, who wrote -to the _Field_ newspaper that on September 21st he had seen a number of -little vipers about three inches long run down their mother’s throat. -His account was followed by a number of letters from various persons, -who very lamely tried to convince him that his eyes had deceived him; -that what he had seen was the wriggling tongue, and a good deal more -of such feeble talk, which Mr. Rider took in gentlemanly good-humour. -He further described that at first he clearly saw the young ones _at -a distance_ from the parent; that, the latter being killed, the young -were found _within_ her; that in carrying her, two of them had _fallen -out of her mouth_; that he felt quite sure that what he stated was -correct. His description was so graphic and evidently truthful that -the distinguished naturalist Thomas Bell wrote also to the _Field_ to -express his great satisfaction at so authentic an account, confirming -his own previous impressions. ‘I did not doubt the fact before,’ he -said, in the _Field_ of October 27th, 1866, ‘but such an attestation as -this from such an authority’ (an educated country gentleman) ‘must be -considered as settling the question.’ - -For the next few weeks in the Natural History columns of the _Field_ -a number of letters from various persons appeared, the majority -taking up the cudgels to resent the insult offered to Mr. Rider and -the eminent herpetologist Thomas Bell, F.L.S., F.R.S., and one of the -Council of the Zoological Society; and to quote still other cases of -viper-swallowing. ‘Only a purblind, stupid person,’ wrote one of them, -‘could possibly mistake young vipers for a tongue.’ - -J. Scott Hayward, Esq. of Folkington, Sussex, wrote that three of his -men while haymaking found a viper, and one of them crushed its head -with his boot. A young viper ‘scrabbled’ about his boot after its -mother. They then cut off the viper’s head, and seven young vipers -crawled out at the neck. The other had been too late, but was evidently -trying to follow the rest. There was no possibility of mistaking -seven little vipers for one hair-like tongue in this case; but a man -‘convinced against his will,’ etc., and therefore the editor again -abruptly closed the subject. - -Of the hundred or more instances occurring in America, and now -presented to the assembly, those considered of especial interest -were published in the Reports of the Association; and after some -further discussion Professor Gill said that he considered the evidence -sufficient to finally decide the matter. ‘Since many important facts in -biology are accepted on the statements of one single observer, these -testimonies are claimed to be sufficient to set the matter for ever at -rest.’ - -This was the conclusion arrived at by the members of the American -‘Science Convention on Snakes,’ in 1873. - -Of the witnesses introduced on that occasion, Professor Goode dismissed -those who had only _found_ the young snakes within the parent, but had -not _seen_ them enter. ‘Let us not trust to untrained observations,’ -he said; those whose testimony was accepted being, in addition to the -well-known men already mentioned—‘an intelligent class of farmers, -planters, and business men, intelligent readers of an agricultural -magazine.’ ... ‘The well-attested cases included many non-venomous -species, the habit probably extending to _all those which are known -as oviparous_, as well as the _Crotalidæ_. The examples embraced the -garter snake, _Eutania sirtalis_ and _E. saurita_; the water snake, -_Tropidonotus sipedon_; the rattlesnake, _Caudisona horridus_; the -copper-head and moccasin, _Ancistrodon contortrix_ and _piscivorus_; -the “_Massasauga_,” _Crotalus tergiminus_; the English viper, _Pelias -berus_; and the mountain black snake, _Coluber Alleghaniensis_. -Probably all the _Crotalidæ_ might be included. It remains to be shown -whether the habit extends to the egg-laying snakes, but as yet no -proof had occurred. The Professors then present invited still further -observations and reports, affirming that the breeding habits of more -than twenty-five of the North American genera were entirely unknown.’ - -The following are a few of the cases recorded. - -A ‘water moccasin’ (probably _Ancistrodon piscivorus_) had been seen -for several days unwelcomely close to a southern residence. A gentleman -wishing to entice her away from the water so as the better to kill her, -had a rabbit placed near, which by and by she seized and had nearly -swallowed, when those on the watch made a noise to alarm her. She -quickly disgorged it, gave a shrill whistling noise, and five young -snakes ran from under a log down her throat. The men cut off her head -and found the five young which tried to get away. - -‘A farmer who was mowing saw a number of little snakes and a large -one. He went a short distance to fetch a fork to kill them, and on his -return found only the large one left. He struck it on the back, and -seven ran out of her mouth.’ - -‘Another farmer saw a “striped snake,” and noticed a number of young -ones near to her head. He alarmed them, and the young ones rushed in -at her open mouth. He stepped back and watched to see what next would -happen, when presently some of them came out. He killed the mother, and -all the rest ran out.’ - -A gentleman in Ohio saw a water snake on a bank. He got a pole, and -with one stroke of it wounded her, but not so much as to disable her. -She instantly made for the water, swam about her own length, when -she ‘wheeled round’ with difficulty, and placing her under jaw just -above the level of the water, opened her mouth wide, when some ten -or twelve young snakes ran or swam down her throat; after which she -went in search of a hiding-place. She was, however, killed and opened, -and ‘about twenty’ living young snakes were found within her, ‘two or -three of which were seven or eight inches long.’ Out of the 120 cases -recorded, sixty-seven of the witnesses saw and described the actions -so distinctly as to leave no doubt in the minds of their hearers; and -of these, twenty-two heard the parents’ signal ‘whistle,’ or hiss, or -click, or rattles, according to the species observed. - -A man Charles Smith was ploughing near Chicago, when his plough caught -and turned over a large flat stone (‘rock,’ as they call it there), -exposing a very large rattlesnake and her young ones. The mother -rattled the alarm, and all the young ones ran down her throat. Smith -killed the old one, and immediately the young ones began to crawl back -from her mouth and were killed by him. Thirteen of them were five or -six inches long. - -Some of the witnesses, after killing the snake into which they had seen -the young ones retire, saw them shaken out again by dogs which had -seized the mother. A few of the observers went on several successive -days to watch a certain snake that was known to have a nest close by; -and on each occasion when alarmed, the young ran into the parent’s -mouth. - -Mr. Putnam also mentioned a ‘striped snake’ (which he had considered -ovoviviparous) bringing forth live young ones at the end of August; she -‘having been a long while in confinement.’ (This was no doubt a case of -retarded functions.) - -In vol. iii. of the _American Naturalist_, 1870, an interesting record -of the ‘blowing snake’ (_Heterodon platyrhinos_) appears. One of -these snakes had been wounded in her side, and over one hundred young -ones from 6 to 8 inches long came forth from the wound. They were -all active, all blowing and flattening their bodies like thoroughly -wide-awake _Heterodons_. Sixty-three of them being uninjured died in -alcohol, thirteen were much lacerated, as was the mother, and the rest -escaped. Says the narrator, ‘We _know_ that this snake is oviparous. -Had she swallowed them, or can she be also ovoviviparous?’ (Well, she -might be either or both as occasion demanded!) This is one of those -examples which might have given rise to the supposition handed down by -Aristotle, and explained p. 431. - -One hundred snakelings from 6 to 8 inches long seems almost incredible -from the space they would occupy. Yet in bulk they would not be more -than one large snake which the mother could easily swallow. The -accommodating ribs render such habits more feasible than at first sight -would appear. _Heterodon platyrhinos_ is a wonderfully prolific snake. -In the _Zoological Society Proceedings_, vol. vi. 1869, S. S. Ruthven -states that he has observed it to bring forth over one hundred _live_ -young at a time. - -One more example shall be added, of what Professor Goode considered a -remarkable instance of hereditary instinct. In a hay-field was found -a nest of eggs, one of which was cut open, when a small but perfectly -formed ‘milk adder’ within immediately assumed a menacing attitude -and ‘brandished’ its tongue. Some of the other eggs were then torn -open, the young in which acted in a similar manner. Then the old snake -appeared, and after endeavours to encourage this unexpected family, -put her head on a level with the ground and opened her mouth, when the -young ones vanished down her throat. - -It is worthy of notice that in many of the above cases the mother -snake made a signal noise, that the young ones understood this -signal, and that she opened her mouth in a manner which they readily -comprehended. ‘This concurrence of testimony is not to be disregarded,’ -says Professor Goode. And the reader will admit the force of these -evidences. Those witnesses, dispersed over thousands of square miles, -had entered into no compact to make their accounts agree; nor did one -spectator in Kansas know what another in New Jersey was looking at or -writing about. - -After such a weight of evidence, and in face of the decision arrived -at by the American Convention, it is greatly to be lamented that -the _Field_, so far from advancing like our American friends, now -retrogrades on this question. So lately as October 1881, when another -case was cited of the maternal refuge, the Editor closes his columns -against investigation; and refuses to be convinced unless he were to -see ‘the young vipers at the Zoological Gardens obligingly run in -and out of their mothers’ mouths,’ which is a performance we are -never likely to witness. For, in the first place, the young are often -produced in mid-day, in the presence of the crowd of visitors. Thus, -from their birth accustomed to publicity, they have not the motive as -when in their native haunts they are suddenly alarmed at the first -sight of an apparition in human form. And in the second place, the -young are generally removed at once into a separate cage, and they lose -all knowledge of their mother. Both mother and progeny are familiar -with humanity; and the former is much more likely at the sight of the -keeper to open her mouth for a mouse than to invite her children to -enter therein. - -In the foregoing portions of this volume I have been able frequently -to bring personal observations to verify what books have taught me. -With the present subject this cannot be the case. I have neither seen a -viper in the act of giving refuge to her young ones by receiving them -into her mouth, nor have I ever had the circumstance described to me -by any one who has witnessed the proceeding. This is not surprising, -seeing that my studies have been prosecuted almost entirely in London. -For any information obtained at the Gardens I am indebted solely to the -keepers, whose opportunities of observation when aided by intelligence -and experience merit the confidence of the inquirer. - -So astonishing a phase of ophidian habits—let us say only _reputed -habits_—was, however, to me one to excite very special interest, as -well as to induce inquiry and a possible solution of the mystery; and -towards this solution the facts related in chap. xxiv. and xxv. appear -to me to come foremost in our aid. All snakes that are ovoviviparous, -was the decision arrived at by the American ophiologists; or -_viviparous_, for we have seen that the two words have but little value -as a distinction. I would venture so far as to render it thus:— - -_In snakes which are either viviparous, or in which from some cause or -other extrusion has been so postponed that the young are conscious of -existence before birth._ Conscious also when born that they had been -safer in that pre-natal condition than now when assailed on all sides -by dangers hitherto unknown. This idea—and probably an untenable, -unphysiological, and foolish idea, which science might laugh to scorn -in an instant—still the idea did flash into my mind one day in the -summer of 1873, when Holland, announcing a brood of young ring snakes -which had just been hatched at the Gardens, and describing their baby -terrors, said, ‘It is funny to see how they all try to wriggle back -into their shells again.’ - -‘Then those little Colubers had been conscious of security before they -were hatched,’ I reflected, ‘and conscious when they did emerge into -activity that the shell had been a safe refuge to them.’ (This was -prior to the American Convention, of which I knew nothing until long -afterwards.) - -Consciousness of locality must, I think, have a good deal to do with -the maternal refuge; and that snakes possess this consciousness in a -strong degree has been already shown in their habit of returning to -the same spot to hibernate year after year: and not only for winter -quarters; but a strong love of locality and a memory of home are -observed wherever snakes abound. ‘They remain in a hole or a crevice -of the wall for years,’ Fayrer affirms. In his _Prairie Folk_, -Parker Gilmore tells of a family of ‘Puff adders’ (by which probably -_Heterodon platyrhinos_ is meant) that had taken up their abode under -the boards of a porch for several years and could not be routed out. -Nicholson, also, in his _Indian Snakes_, informs us that when he was -stationed at Kamptee in 1868, a cobra and a pair of _Bungarus acutus_ -lived in his bungalow for a long while. He could not find where -the cobra lived, but the Bungari made themselves at home in a hole -of the wall under his dressing-table. He never saw either of these -interlopers, but identified them by the skins which they ‘periodically -cast;’ taking advantage of his absence, no doubt, or of his nocturnal -somnolence, to perform their toilet under his looking-glass! - -The often recounted tale of an Indian who had a tame rattlesnake -that went away every spring, and returned regularly each autumn to -a certain tub which it had appropriated for its home, is only an -example of affection for locality; but by those who were not cognisant -of this habit, the story has been produced with a strong flavour -of the marvellous, and the Indian who knew by the season when to -expect his creeping friend, was not slow to attribute the regular -return to especial regard for his own person. That _crotalus_ coming -alone so regularly, was probably a lone widow or widower; because -we also know that the _pair_ of snakes are usually seen together, -and that they follow each other with strong conjugal affection. This -is not irrelevant to the present subject; because the _affection_ -of ophidians, whether conjugal or maternal, is what we are now -considering. The quality was well known in classic ages, though it -has been denied them in modern times. Many writers on snakes, while -affirming that they ‘exhibit no phase of affection,’ describe their -constantly going in pairs; or the fact that they become ‘vicious if -their retreat is cut off.’ ‘In their peregrinations male and female -are always in company,’ says Catlin; ‘and when only one is seen, the -other is sure to be within hearing.’ When a female has been killed and -left on the spot, the male always comes. The Indians profit by this -knowledge of conjugal devotion to lie in wait and kill the mate. They -place the dead one near the hole of their retreat, and watch the egress -of the survivor, which is sure to come and inspect its dead companion. - -Sir Emerson Tennant observed a decided affection between the sexes of -the cobra. In his _History of Ceylon_ he gives several proofs, as for -instance a cobra being killed in a bath, and the next day the mate -being found there. In Baird’s Report of one of the Pacific exploring -expeditions, a good deal is said about the Bull snake (_Pituophis_), -which follows its mate by the scent. Once a fine individual having been -captured and placed in a barrel near the tent, a large one of the same -species was shortly afterwards found close by, and in a direct line -from where its mate was caught. - -So much for conjugal affection. As regards maternal devotion, we -certainly had a proof in the pythons remaining week after week on -their eggs. True, they took no notice of the little ones when hatched, -because they were well able to take care of themselves. The mothers -had fulfilled their duties beforehand. Snakes which are vicious at no -other time, menace those who approach their nests or cut off their -retreat. This is a fact universally recognised, alike in Africa, India, -Australia, and America: wherever a traveller, a hunter, or a resident -incidentally mentions snake habits, he confirms this home affection. - -‘Snakes, if aggressive at no other time, are always spiteful when they -have young,’ says Fayrer. And an anecdote is related of a man who -stumbled on a nest of young Hamadryads, and was pursued a long distance -by the angry mother. Terror added wings to his flight, as she came -fast upon him. In despair he plunged into a river and swam across, -but on reaching the opposite bank, up reared the furious Hamadryad, -its dilated eyes glistening with rage, ready to bury its fangs in his -trembling body. Escape now seemed hopeless, and as a last resource he -tore off his turban and threw that at the enemy. With characteristic -stupidity the snake plunged its fangs into this, biting it furiously. -After wreaking its vengeance upon the turban, it glided back to its -nest and its young ones and so the man escaped. - -_Apropos_ of Indian snakes, Nicholson, though a practical ophiologist, -never heard of snakes swallowing their young in India. This may be -because so large a proportion of them are egg-laying, and because the -only two vipers, _Daboia_ and _Echis_, are nocturnal, very shy, and -not so frequent. Most of the other members of the Indian _viperine_ -snakes, the _Crotalidæ_, are tree snakes, which, like the sea snakes, -are more likely to be dispersed and separated from their progeny, -and to take refuge in flight. They are, besides, less frequent, shy, -nocturnal, or crepuscular; and belong more to Malay and Hindoo China, -than to the localities in which observations are more feasible. Fayrer -does not even state positively that they are viviparous. At the same -time Nicholson will ‘say nothing certain about the young going down -the throat, but sees no reason why not.’ ‘They can do without air for -half an hour or so, and a snake’s throat is sufficiently capacious to -allow a frog to croak _de profundis clamavi_ when he is two feet from -daylight.’ - -Among unprejudiced observers there are still some who are inclined -to attribute to optical delusion the sudden disappearance of young -snakes; arguing from their astonishing rapidity of motion, and the -almost inappreciable space into which they can creep and hide in their -mother’s coils. Mr. Arthur Nicols, in his interesting papers on Snakes, -published in _The Country_ newspaper, in 1878-79, describes a case of -this kind from personal observation when in Australia. He disturbed a -snake with a number of young around her, the latter quickly vanishing. -He discharged his gun, and the old snake was almost cut to pieces with -shot. Approaching, he found all the young ones hidden beneath and about -her, and when he stirred them up they persisted in hiding among the -shattered coils, returning thither to the last. - -Mr. Nicols states only that it was a poisonous snake, not giving the -specific name. She had probably incubated her eggs, and the young had -remembered the shelter of their mother’s coils. That it was a display -of filial refuge is, however, undeniable. - -A similar occurrence is related in the _Field_ of November 10th, 1866, -by a Mr. Brittain, as an argument against the swallowing process. -He had seen young vipers run to their mother for protection, and so -completely out of sight that only on disturbing them they were found to -have secreted themselves in her coils. These may have been at a more -advanced age, and had ceased to enter the mouth. - -It is remarkable that hitherto, excepting in _Pelias berus_, we hear -of this maternal display as peculiar to America only. Whether a more -intimate acquaintance with the snakes of other countries will reveal -new instances in the course of time, we cannot conjecture. It is -to be wished that observations on this head may be published, and -investigations encouraged; or in the minds of the million, the maternal -œsophagal refuge will still be classed among the fables. - -Taking it for granted, then, in deference to the American ‘Convention,’ -that snakes do offer refuge to their young, it is curious to speculate -as to how the habit originated and became a confirmed one. Maternal -instincts have, without doubt, been strong from the first; and we must -suppose that similar dangers to those which induce a snake now to -summon her young ones had also been the cause of postponed functions in -the mother, and that hers were precocious little reptiles before they -ever saw light. - -Because we cannot assume that in a state of _security_ an oviparous -snake would ‘retard its laying’ and become ovoviviparous or viviparous; -nor that a viper would intentionally retain her young until their fangs -were developed (see p. 360), so that they should be able to take care -of themselves; or a rattlesnake till its young had rattles as well as -fangs (see p. 299), these being the principal species which do shelter -their young. And the habit must have had a beginning; there must have -been some training, some development of instinct, to lead up to what we -now see, viz. a snake deliberately giving a signal, lowering her head -to the level of the ground or water, opening wide her mouth to receive -her young, and giving them a second sign when they might safely venture -forth again. - -This is the state of things supposed to exist at the present time; -and it would seem to be an organized habit, perfected in process of -ages, and one in which the mother’s instinct, and a _consciousness of -harbouring active young ones before introducing them to surrounding -dangers_, must have had a considerable share. - -In concluding this speculative chapter, I can only humbly beg to -‘second the motion’ put to the learned assembly at Portland, Maine, -in 1873, to the effect that the subject will receive the attention of -ophiologists in all the snake countries of the world. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -_SERPENT WORSHIP, ‘CHARMING,’ ETC._ - - -IN the preceding pages it has been my endeavour to resolve some of the -superstitious myths into zoological facts, and to explain by the light -of science those peculiar features and manners of the Ophidia which -from the earliest traditions of the human race have been regarded as -supernatural. - -In reviewing the general organization of these reptiles, their -marvellous powers and habits, can we wonder at the impressions they -have created in untutored minds? Let us picture to ourselves our -earliest ancestors with their dawning intellect contemplating the -instantaneous coil of a constrictor; or the almost invisible action -in a flash of time with which the death-dealing stroke of the poison -fang is effected. From a source which was incomprehensible, like the -burning, scathing fluid from the skies, came a ‘sting,’ an agony, -death! Awe-struck and filled with sacred terror were the beholders, as -before them lay the paralyzed, tortured victim. Can we wonder that the -slender, gliding ‘worm’ which inflicted this mortal injury should have -been regarded as an evil spirit, a devil, and invested with maleficence? - -Add to the two great death-dealing powers of the serpent -race—constriction and venom—those other peculiarities which have -here been faithfully recorded, the seeming renewal of life after the -annual sleep, a mystery enhanced by the restored brilliancy and beauty -of the reptile on its change of cuticle; let us picture to ourselves -those wondering savages now watching the limbless creature as it glides -into sight and is gone again, or as with fixed and glittering eyes it -flickers that mysterious little tongue; let us imagine them crowding -near to behold a serpent feeding, or to witness the still more amazing -spectacle of a brood of young ones vanishing down their mother’s -throat. There is enough of the mysterious in an ophidian to excite the -awe and wonder of even a nineteenth-century beholder, taking each one -of these surprising doings singly; but considering that any one serpent -may be endowed with nearly all of these phenomenal powers, let us -imagine the effect produced by them in the savage mind. To worship such -an incomprehensible creature was only consistent with all we know of -the influences which first awakened faith in a supernatural Being. - -Consequently we find that in every country where a serpent was known, -it plays its part in the mythology and religion of that country. We may -examine the antiquities of any nation which has left a monument of its -history and beliefs, and a serpent will be represented. Scarcely an -Egyptian sculpture (in its entirety) can be found in which the serpent -does not appear. The same may be said of the Hindoo monuments, their -temples, buildings, and sculptured caves; also of Mexican, Japanese, -Chinese, and other ancient mythologies. - -Singularly, too, no other object in nature—no birds or flowers -or beautiful things—have been so universally adopted in personal -ornaments as the serpent idea. And in times of remote antiquity—as -relics prove—personal adornments, bracelets, coronets, and rings in -the form of serpents were as much in favour as at the present day. We -may, indeed, affirm that the modern bracelet is but a reproduction or -a restoration of those of antiquity, dating as far back as artificers -in metals can be traced. Rough and rude representations of still -earlier times are extant. And where the human race in its savage state -had no knowledge of art, the reptile itself, or such relics of it as -could be preserved, were adopted as personal decorations. Thus were -the American Indians found by the early colonists, with their belts of -snake skins, with the rattles of the Crotalus strung in their ears, -and with necklaces and chains of snake bones and ‘rattels.’ Mackeney, -Catlin, Schoolcraft, and other historians of the American Indians -relate numerous instances in proof of the universal veneration and -superstition with which the serpent is regarded by those savages. If -they kill a rattlesnake, it is immediately skinned and distributed -in small pieces among the tribe for their medicine bags, while the -captor is pompously decorated with the skin. If on a journey they -meet a rattlesnake in their direct path, this is taken to be a sign -that they must go no farther. Some of the Indian traditions bear a -remarkable resemblance to the prophetic symbols of the Hebrew faith. -‘If thou bruise its head, it shall bruise thy heel.’ This in their eyes -is regarded as ‘destiny,’ and they will on no account kill one that -lies in their path, lest it should cause the death of the destroyer’s -relatives. The Indians are also supposed to possess the art of -snake-taming to an extraordinary degree. We are assured by more than -one writer that they also pet rattlesnakes, investing them with divine -attributes, and sheltering them during the winter; though in this case -the ‘tameness’ may be partially due to the inertness resulting from the -season of the year. On returning spring they permit their _Penates_ to -issue forth again. - -The ancient temples of Mexico were richly embellished with carvings -of serpents. One of them represents a serpent idol of not less than -seventy feet long, in the act of swallowing a human being. Also, there -is the ‘God of the Air,’ a feathered rattlesnake; and an edifice -known as the ‘Wall of Serpents,’ from the numerous reptilian forms -crowded upon it. But it is not necessary to enumerate antiquities, -with most of which the reader must be already acquainted, the object -here being rather to endeavour to account for those other attributes -which have grown out of serpent worship, such as ‘fascinating,’ taming, -‘charming,’ ‘dancing to music,’ etc. - -Not that serpent worship is extinct by any means. In India it is still -so strong as to amount to a fatality; for the high annual death-rate -from snake bites there is not half so much because the natives can’t -be cured, as because they _won’t_ be cured of what they regard as a -just punishment from their deity. This we shall have occasion to show -further on. That serpent superstitions are still rampant among the -low-caste Hindoos, is borne out by all modern writers on the native -faiths or customs. A. K. Forbes in his _Hindoo Annals_, or _Râs Mala_, -tells us that cobras are looked upon as guardian angels. One cobra -‘guarded’ a cave in which treasures were deposited; another cobra -‘guarded’ a garden; and very good guards we should say they were, as -few persons would venture too near to such an ‘angel.’ One of the -supposed ‘Divinities’ is the _Poorwug Dev_, or spirit personified by -a snake, which is not allowed to be killed or injured; and if it bite -a person, that individual is supposed to be justly punished for some -fault. Fatalism forbids any attempt to cure that unhappy victim, and he -swells the annual death-rate. Due honours are paid to these ‘guardian -angels’ found in most hamlets. Periodical festivals are held to them: -their retreats are then garlanded with flowers, and, as already -stated, eggs and milk are placed as propitiatory offerings. One of the -Bengalese traditions is, that a male infant auspiciously shaded by a -cobra will come to the throne. - -And is the reptile which brings such distinction and honour into a -family to be ruthlessly destroyed? ‘No Hindoo will willingly kill a -cobra,’ Colonel Meadows Taylor tells us, in his _People of India_. -Should one be killed accidentally within the precincts of a guarded -village, a piece of copper money is put into its mouth, and the body is -burned with offerings to avert the anticipated evil. The _najas_, or -hooded snakes, from their habit of erecting themselves on the approach -of persons, are those especially regarded as guardians. It was the same -in Egypt. In the _najas_ are also supposed to dwell the spirits of -highly-favoured persons, or those whose lives had been of remarkable -purity and goodness,—another motive for their being protected. It is -still the same in many parts of Africa, where the natives think ill -luck follows the death of a python. - -In works where medical statistics are given, such as Fayrer’s -_Thanatophidia_, we learn the fatal results of these superstitions. -When the natives find a cobra in their houses, as is not unfrequently -the case, says Fayrer, ‘they will conciliate it, feed and protect it, -as though to injure it were to invoke misfortune on the house and -family. Even should the death of some relative, bitten by accident, -occur, the serpent is not killed, but caught and deferentially deported -to the field or jungle, where it is set free.’ No one can peruse the -above without seeing how largely the percentage of deaths is traceable -to native superstition. Fayrer also shows us the fatal consequences of -the confidence placed in the snake ‘charmers,’ who are considered to be -especially favoured by their deities, and endowed with curative powers. -Much interesting reading, apart from medical science, will be found in -the _Thanatophidia_ on the Hindoo faith in the _müntras_ or spells and -incantations used by the charmers in cases of snake-bite. Out of some -ninety such cases selected by Fayrer from returns sent in by medical -officers in the Bengal Presidency, nearly half proved that either no -remedies at all were tried, or that recourse was had to native nostrums -or _müntras_. Briefly to enumerate a few of the reports: ‘Boy bitten -by _keautiah_, charms and incantations; died in half an hour.’ ‘Man -keeping a krait (Bungarus) for “Poojah” (worship) was bitten, and -died in seven hours, notwithstanding native nostrums.’ A woman bitten -died in three hours ‘_in spite of incantations_’! ‘A man bitten while -asleep had “_leaves to smell_,” but nevertheless died in three hours!’ -‘Woman bitten at night, got up and had _müntras_ (chantings) to expel -the poison. She died four hours after the bite notwithstanding; and -her infant at the breast died two hours after partaking the maternal -nutriment.’ And many similar cases. What wonder, then, with this -miserable fatalism prevailing over that vast and densely-populated -country, that death by snake-bites should amount to many thousands -annually? One more case must be recorded to show how deeply rooted the -faith. A tall, strong young man was bitten in the hand, while sleeping -out of doors. No medicine was given, but _incantations_ were muttered -over him. In an hour he was a corpse: yet the village where this -happened continues to do Poojah (adoration) to the cause of the evil. -By far the largest percentage of deaths is attributable to the cobra, -though this is not a proof that its numbers predominate so much above -other snakes, as of the religious veneration in which it is everywhere -held. It is found all over the peninsula, even as high as 8000 feet on -the sunny slopes of the Himalayas. The names of castes, _Nâg_, _Nâgo_, -_Nâgojee_, _Nâgowa_, etc., found among all classes of Hindoos, have -all reference to the _Nâg_ or _Nâja_ deities, says Colonel Meadows -Taylor. To this author, as well as to Forbes, Ferguson,[133] Fayrer, -and Miss Frere,[134] the reader is referred in verification of the -above. If further to pursue the subject of snake worship, _The Serpent -Myths of Ancient Egypt_, by W. R. Cooper, 1873; _The Serpent Symbol_, -by Squires, 1851; _Sun and Serpent Worship_, by J. S. Phené; and -_The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, by H. H. -Bancroft, are some of the many books that afford interesting matter. -These latter, however, allude more particularly to ancient nations. -Among many living and semi-barbarous tribes serpent superstitions -exist, though, perhaps, more strongly in West Africa than elsewhere, -excepting India at the present time. In Africa, not the venomous so -much as the large constricting snakes are the objects of care and -veneration. In _Dahomey and the Dahomeans_, F. E. Forbes relates some -amusing instances of the sacred devotion of the Fetish women, or -guardians and slaves of the python deities at Whydah. A Fetish house -or temple devoted to the snakes was built round a large cotton-tree, -and in this a number of pythons were permitted to roam about at their -pleasure. When they ventured beyond the precincts, their Fetish -attendants went in search of them, and by gentle persuasions (probably -in the form of poultry or other dietetic arguments) induced them to go -home: while all who met them bowed down and kissed the dust of their -path. Morning and evening the devotees prostrated themselves before the -sacred abode of these ophidian deities, either to worship the invisible -god _Seh_, or his representatives in serpentine form. - -From frequent and gentle handling, snakes thus protected naturally grow -tame. The Fetish attendants become skilled in managing their reptile -gods, and are not slow in investing themselves with especial powers for -their office. And to this may the origin of the so-called ‘charmers’ be -traced; for ‘snake charming,’ like snake worship, dates back to the -very earliest ages. With a more intimate knowledge of the reptilian -class which modern zoology has brought about, comes happily a clearer -insight into the tricks of the snakemen, jugglers, and charmers of -Egypt and the East. Snake-taming to-day is not confined to _Saadees_ -and _Samp Wallahs_; it is not even confined to non-venomous snakes, -of which pythons have always proved very amenable pets. Mr. Mann’s -tame pythons (see ‘Introduction’) were popular performers at the time -they were introduced in Chancery, and his pet constrictor, ‘Cleo,’ was -honoured with an obituary notice from the pen of Mr. Frank Buckland, -in _Land and Water_, after she died ‘of grief,’ as was said, at the -illness of her master.[135] The amiable ‘Cleo’ (or Cleopatra) was the -‘constant companion’ of Mr. and Mrs. Mann for several years, and they -soon learned her wishes when she ‘asked’ for either food, drink, or -fresh air. ‘A short time before her death she contracted a friendship -for a young kitten,’ was always ‘fond of children,’ who displayed no -fear of that sociable ophidian. But she was shy of strangers; and this -I myself realized on paying my respects to her; for not until she was -fully convinced that I had no evil intentions, and not without much -coaxing and persuasion on the part of her guardians, could Cleo be -induced to approach me. - -Several of the constricting snakes at the Zoological Gardens of even -larger size than Cleo are exceedingly tame, permitting themselves -to be handled. One of them, a temporary inmate during the winter of -1881-82, was introduced to the public by Dr. Stradling through the -columns of _Land and Water_, April 3, 1880, as ‘Totsey,’ together -with her brother ‘Snap,’ the latter named ‘from a trifling infirmity -of temper when young.’ These two were the offspring of the Panama boa -who gave birth to 20 live young at the Gardens, June 30, 1877. Of -these twenty, Mr. Sclater notified, at one of the Zoological Society’s -meetings in the following November, that all but one were still alive. -Of the two which became the property of Dr. Stradling and were tamed -by him, he wrote, ‘Any one can handle them with impunity;’ and that -they recognised him among others in the dark, permitting him only to -touch them at such a time. ‘Lolo’ and ‘Menina’ are the pretty names of -two other tame constrictors belonging to this ophiophilist, and whose -amiable and interesting manners were recorded in the above journal. Of -‘Totsey’ the Dr. writes, ‘She is the most gentle and affectionate snake -I ever had.’ As this same Miss Ophidia happened to be an inmate at the -Gardens in January 1882, when the pair of illustrations (p. 205) were -in preparation, she adorns that page; though in truth it was one of her -brothers or sisters, then rather smaller, that really did hang thus on -the branch as I sketched it at the time, September 24, 1880. - -That some of the most venomous serpents are also capable of being -tamed we have many proofs. They use their fangs in self-defence, -actuated by fear or hunger; and where no fear exists, a serpent -would not deliberately crawl about, expending its precious and only -protective power, _venom_, on any object it met with. Would a cobra or -a crotalus in its native woods approach any living thing it saw and -indiscriminately strike it with its poison fangs? No. Its primary -impulse would be to escape. It strikes only under provocation or -hunger. Therefore if a venomous snake in captivity become so familiar -with your presence as to cease to fear you, it would also abstain -from biting you. Not that one would recommend Jararacas or cobras for -pets, notwithstanding the assurance of some residents in India that -the latter are capital guards to a dwelling, and in some are even -encouraged instead of dogs, as the less liable to bite of the two! Miss -Frere, in her interesting reminiscences of India, _Old Deccan Days_, -gives instances of children playing with the cobra without injury. -She mentions a Brahman boy who could without any other music than his -own voice attract and handle with impunity any venomous serpents that -might be within hearing. They would come out of a thicket or a dry -stone wall—their favourite refuge. Such instances are sufficiently -rare to be regarded as miraculous, adds the authoress, still they do -occur. ‘How much is due to gentleness of touch and fearlessness, how -much to any personal peculiarity which pleases the senses of the snake, -it is difficult to say.’ The boy above alluded to was believed to be -the incarnation of some divinity, and the magistrate took note of his -proceedings. - -But at last, through some inadvertency, he got bitten; when he -died, notwithstanding the divinity he was supposed to enshrine, -notwithstanding the spells and _müntras_ which might be pronounced over -him. - -The cobra is supposed to have originally had seven heads, as we see -represented on Hindoo temples. The ‘hood’ is believed to be the remains -of these seven heads; and the _Gokurrah_, whose pattern of the double -ocellus had gained it the name of the ‘spectacled cobra,’ is held -in the highest esteem of all from the two spots being considered the -footprints of the god _Krishna_. These are the especial favourites of -the professional snake charmers. - -When it is borne in mind that snakes have been tamed by persons of -only slight experience, we can easily comprehend that with a life’s -practice, and with inherited facilities, the Oriental jugglers must -acquire peculiar expertness in dealing with their ‘charmed’ specimens. -Originally, no doubt, the office of the professed snake tamer was -connected with the sacred rites of serpent-worshipping communities, but -has now greatly degenerated into the trade of jugglers and tricksters. -That some of these do acquire extraordinary skill in dealing with their -dangerous captives cannot be denied. Profound faith is placed in their -performances by the natives, who attribute to them supernatural agency. -From being close observers of reptile character, they know how far to -venture on familiarities. They thoroughly understand the movements -of the sluggish and timid serpents with which they are toying; and -while keeping up a perpetual gabble to divert the attention of the -spectators, aggravated by the tum-tumming and so-called ‘music’ to -which the snakes are supposed to ‘dance,’ they themselves keep just -beyond striking reach, and provoke the snake to follow the waving -motion of their hands. The true object or impulse of the snake is to -bite the irritating cause, the pretended motive is ‘dancing.’ To follow -the movement of the object which provokes them is instinctive, music -or not; and without any din and cackle and jargon, the cobras would do -this all the same. Long practice and an intimate acquaintance have -given the jugglers confidence and dexterity, while on the part of the -snake fear is the chief characteristic. Even the tamest cobra is only -watching the opportunity to escape, and the moment the juggler ceases -his performance, down it drops, and makes for its basket. Should -the performance not be ended, the snakes are called to attention by -being sharply pulled back by their tail, when up they rise with hood -expanded, and with just enough of power and spirit left in them to -recommence the ‘dance,’ more truly to make one more futile attempt to -strike their tyrannical masters. It is only a repetition of the same -kind of ‘obedience’ and ‘intelligence’ that was accredited to that -first rattlesnake ever exhibited in England. - -That showman (introduced p. 285) had become well acquainted with -crotalus idiosyncracies, and knew how to turn them to account before an -ignorant crowd. - -Those who have to deal with venomous serpents tell us, that with -caution and expertness they are not difficult to handle; and this -is verified by all who describe the performances of Oriental -snake-charmers. Not only cobras with fangs extracted, or mouths sewn -up, or composition ‘cerastes’ with artificial horns fastened on to the -heads of harmless snakes, but those with perfect fangs and well-filled -poison glands, are handled with equal facility. By pressing down the -snake’s head gently with a stick and then seizing it firmly close -behind the head, so close that it has no power to turn it, you fetter -its movements. Or to snatch up a venomous snake by its tail and quickly -support it festooned on a stick which you draw gently towards the -head, and then secure that as above, is another method adopted; or, -again, to seize the tail and pass the hand swiftly along the body -till the head is reached, and _then_ grasp the neck. These are among -the various ways of handling poisonous serpents, according to the -purposes required of them. Every movement must be carefully watched, -however, and the head not released until the entire snake is free to be -returned straight into its cage. Even wild and vicious cobras are thus -fearlessly dealt with by experts; and those which are in process of -taming are put through a daily training. They are made comfortable in a -basket, conciliated with food and milk, soothed by softly stroking them -with a brush and by kind and gentle handling. - -I once stood by and looked on while the keeper unpacked a box of -cobras. He took each one out by its tail, and dropped it into another -box with such expedition that the fearful reptile had not time to turn -and bite him. Not that he ventured to lower his hand into the midst -of the writhing angry tangle of snakes, but first, at a respectful -distance (the writer still more deferentially contemplating the -transfer from afar), he, with a long-handled hook, contrived to draw -out a snake tail first, and getting the tip over the edge of the box, -this he seized, thus, one after the other, shifting eight of the dozen -cobras. Both boxes had lids, of course—glass slides, which were -cautiously but quickly drawn aside, and as sharply closed again.[136] -These deadly reptiles, after being some weeks, perhaps months, in -a small close box, were not, as may be supposed, in a very lively -condition, but sufficiently so to erect themselves and hiss like a -flock of geese, striking at the lid and the glass, and doing their -best to alarm the manipulator, and also to suspend the breath of my -awe-struck self. Calmly and safely, however, Holland concluded his task. - -By pressing down the head with a stick, or seizing it quickly by the -tail, American Indians similarly manage the rattlesnakes. Not they -alone, however, are skilled in taming these deadly reptiles. Here, at -home in England, domesticated _Crotali_ are not unknown. Dr. Stradling -thinks they may be rendered as harmless as non-venomous kinds, by a -gradual training; and has succeeded in so far taming one that he felt -safe in offering it as a gift to even an unskilled non-charmer. ‘I have -a very _nice_ tame rattlesnake between four and five feet long, in good -condition and feeding well, which I shall be delighted to send you,’ -he wrote me, August 1881. ‘It has got so tame that you might handle it -without fear at any time you wished to investigate any part of it.’ It -is perhaps superfluous to add that this amiable and exemplary reptile -was gratefully declined. - -The reader’s devoted servant had not undergone a course of -prophylactics as the Doctor had. He is both an expert and to a certain -extent venom-proof at the same time; but for all that the snake was, as -he affirmed, tame enough to be handled with impunity by those who might -have sufficient courage to venture. That interesting and accommodating -rattlesnake is no more, but was even more honoured in death than in -life. A true martyr to science, it was sacrificed that its friend and -teacher might prosecute his experiments, and also swallow some of -the contents of its poison gland, in order to convince two or three -challenging sceptics that he could do this with impunity.[137] - -As in all other trades, there are various grades among the Oriental -snake-tamers. The legitimate ‘charmer’ of India—the _Samp -Wallah_—prides himself on being a descendant of the prophet, and the -secret of his art is cherished as an heirloom in his family. This -also is the case in Arabia and Egypt, where the astonishing feats -which, without any doubt, are performed by professional ‘snake men,’ -are attributed to special and secret powers, jealously guarded from -age to age. It may be possible that, like the Psylli of old, they may -have recourse to some drug which renders their person repugnant to the -serpent, and thus provides immunity from a bite. Not yet altogether -discarded, either, is the ancient belief that in the body of the -viper itself is found a specific for its poison. Since the days of -Æsculapius, decoctions of vipers and recipes enough to form an Ophidian -cookery-book and pharmacopeia combined, have found favour not only -among the ‘faculty’ of classic days, but among all our ancestral dames. -We are told that vipers abound in volatile salts that are cures for -many ills. Certain it is that ‘viper wine,’ viper broth, viperine -salts, the powder of dried vipers, preparations from the dejecta, -the oil, and even the slough have all enjoyed a high reputation, -and I believe are—_some_ of these at any rate—still in vogue in -secluded districts where the refinements of medical science have not -yet replaced them. It is remarkable, too, that for skin affections -their virtues chiefly commend themselves. The ancient belief that to -devour vipers proved a specific for their bite, has to the present -day prevailed among the snake-charmers of Egypt, who—whether or not -from this practice—are said so to assimilate their bodies that the -venom does not harm them. The Bushmen of South Africa, it is asserted, -swallow poison to render themselves proof against its effects; and -history records many other tribes who have had such confidence in their -own and an inherited immunity, that they hesitated not in exposing -their infants to deadly serpents. The Persian word _Bezoar_, a popular -drug, means counter-poison; in allusion to the immunity from poison -which persons who feed on venomous snakes are believed to enjoy. - -Though much discredit has been thrown on these so-called ‘immunities,’ -and though it is so very difficult to know what to believe where a -serpent is concerned, the possibility does appear to be borne out by -some authentic writers of our own time. The late John Keast Lord, when -in Egypt, had frequent opportunities of observing the tricks of the -jugglers; and not only he, but, as he assures us, many intelligent and -educated Europeans, fully believed that some secret power was practised -by the ‘high-caste’ charmers, who really did exhibit astonishing feats -with their snakes. Of these, the habit of devouring the reptiles alive -can here admit only of bare allusion.[138] - -In _Dahomey and the Dahomeans_, F. E. Forbes tells of the natives -walking fearlessly bare legged in the grass where snakes abound, and -that on one occasion on alluding to the danger, a boy said to him: ‘No -fear; if my father is bitten, he knows of an herb that will cure him.’ - -Another recent authority whom we are bound to respect is Schliemann. In -his work _Troy and its Remains_, published in 1875, he writes (p. 117): -‘We still find poisonous snakes among the stones as far down as from -thirty-three to thirty-six feet, and I have hitherto been astonished -to see my workmen take hold of the reptiles with their hands and play -with them: nay, yesterday I saw one of the men bitten twice by a viper, -without seeming to trouble himself about it. When I expressed my -horror, he laughed, and said that he and all his comrades knew there -were a great many snakes in this hill, and they had therefore all -drunk a decoction of the snake-weed, which grows in the district, and -which renders the bite harmless. Of course I ordered a decoction to be -brought to me, so that I also may be safe from these bites. I should, -however, like to know whether this decoction would be a safeguard -against the fatal effects of the bite of the hooded cobra, of which -in India I have seen a man die within half an hour. If it were so, it -would be a good speculation to cultivate snake-weed in India.’ - -A correspondent in _Land and Water_, signed ‘R. C.,’ quoting -Schliemann, inquired the name of this snake-weed, but without eliciting -information. Most of the countries in which snakes abound would seem to -rejoice in ‘snake-weeds’ and ‘snake-roots.’ ‘It has pleased nature that -there should be nothing without its antidote,’ said Pliny; and though -‘the faculty’ tell us that no antidote for snake venom has as yet been -discovered, it nevertheless appears to be certain that the Arabs, the -Nubians, Egyptians, and other nations seek to procure immunity from -snake-bite by the use of certain plants, of which the _Aristolochias_ -seem to be most frequent. The juice or a decoction is drunk, the root -chewed, and an infusion used for washing the skin. The South American -Indians are said to be able thus to protect themselves; and we have -the high authority of Humboldt in support of the theory that the -famous _huaco_, and other poisonous plants with which they inoculate -themselves, may impart an odour to their bodies which is repugnant to -the snakes. - -It would be well to obtain definite information as to what the -‘snake-weed’ of Schliemann was, _botanically_. It is also important to -ascertain the species of ‘viper’ that is there so abundant; then there -would be a basis for investigation. The testimony of a traveller like -Schliemann is not to be disregarded. Besides him, Livingstone, P. H. -Gosse, and others have affirmed the same thing, viz. the existence of -antidotal plants, but which, in the hands of science, seem never to -disclose their virtues! - -As a part of the present subject comes a serpent’s supposed love of -‘music,’ and on this head again the evidence is contradictory. Setting -aside the idea of ‘music,’ in the way of melody or harmony, we may -be able to arrive at a clue to the undeniable fact that snakes do -exhibit some consciousness of _noise_. ‘Music,’ properly so called, -is certainly very far removed from the gourd-rapping and tum-tumming -of the Oriental jugglers; yet the snakes display a consciousness of -these uncouth sounds. Mr. Mann affirmed that Cleo and his other pet -boas manifested undoubted feeling—let us call it consciousness—when -the piano was being played. Dr. Arthur Stradling, on the contrary, -tells us that his own snakes ‘are almost always within hearing of a -piano, and never show the slightest emotion at the sound.’[139] His -observations, I believe, refer chiefly to his life at sea, where his -cabin did duty as concert-room, menagerie, and all else combined, and -where, apart from piano, there would be ceaseless noise and jarring; -or even if on shore, the ‘always’ would rather support my own theory -or speculation as to any feasible solution of the fact that serpents -are affected by _noise_, not ‘music.’ And my idea is, that it is the -jarring or vibration _through solids_, and not the mere sound, that -thus affects the snakes. Since first venturing to express this idea -in the _Dublin University Magazine_, Jan. 1876, I have continued to -observe the effect on snakes of what we may call _disturbing noises_. -At the Gardens, where they become accustomed to noises of all kinds, -it is less easy to arouse them; but when the place is unusually quiet, -the experiment may be tried. The ‘snake men’ of the East, whose trade -is to hunt out snakes by means of sound, effect this by _rapping_ on -the wall or ceiling, or by making loud, clucking noises with their -tongue as much as by their so-called ‘music;’ and Pliny,—if we may -cite Pliny to suit our purpose and discard him otherwise,—or whoever -_he_ quotes, affirms that snakes are more easily aroused by the _sound_ -of footsteps than by the sight of the approaching person. A custom is -prevalent in Ceylon, we are told, of using a jingling stick in the dark -to strike the ground in order to frighten snakes out of the path. The -jingling ‘music’ here is disturbing, not alluring, but as regards the -knocking it proves sensitiveness to vibration conveyed by the ground. -The American Indians are _experts_ in the way of ascertaining sounds -as conveyed by the ground. They throw themselves prone upon the earth, -pressing their ear close to it, and are able to decide with great -accuracy the direction, the distance, and the nature of a far-off -sound. May we not conclude, then, that the perception of sound to a -serpent is through solids, a feeling more than a hearing of noises? -The creature, always prone to the ground or other solids, and with an -internal aural apparatus, must be peculiarly sensitive to vibrations -thus conveyed. - -‘Lizzie,’ the heroine of chap. xxvi., was proved to be sensitive to -disturbing noises, and her ophidian relatives are probably similarly -affected. As to _tune_, any sharp sound will answer; and as to time, it -is not the ‘music,’ but, as we have already hinted, the waving hand or -knee, or bright colours used by the _charmers_, to which the movements -of the serpents respond. This also is a subject quite worth scientific -investigation. - -A word in conclusion about the ‘fascination of the serpent’s eye,’ a -fable of so remote a date that it is as hard as any to eradicate. Even -scientific observers admit that there is a _something_ that attracts -the eyes of birds or small mammals such as squirrels, timid creatures -which often stare fixedly at ourselves as much as at a snake. Dr. A. -Smith says: ‘Whatever may be said in ridicule of fascination, it is -nevertheless true that birds and even quadrupeds are, under certain -circumstances, unable to retire from the presence of their enemies, and -what is even more extraordinary, unable to resist the propensity to -advance from a situation of actual safety into one of danger.[140] He -has seen birds collect round the African tree snakes, particularly the -Boomslange (described p. 407), and fly to and fro, shrieking, until -one of them almost touches its lips.’ Exactly so. We are not _told_ as -much, but every one who knows anything of snake life will feel quite -sure that those tree snakes were making good use of their delicate -tongues in order to ascertain all they could about those enticing -shriekers; and that the birds were equally desirous of knowing what -dainty in the shape of worm or flitting creature that tongue might be. -In the case of the rattlesnake the ‘fascinated’ birds are probably -enticed by the insect they think they _hear_, as well as that they -think they _see_, in the supposed worm wriggling so temptingly and -vanishing so strangely. The snake remains rigidly still the while, the -only moving thing being that investigating tongue. - -My observations at the Zoological Gardens first led me to this -conclusion. On the feeding days several years ago, when watching to -detect the ‘fascination’ one had been led to expect, I noticed that -the birds—even the sparrows and finches—were attracted by the tongue -of the snake, and would stop when hopping about the cage and look -intently and curiously on the vibrating tongue. Some would venture on a -closer inspection, and remain gazing, or would even peck at it, until a -movement of the snake told them that the motionless object from which -that wriggling thing protruded was a living animal. Then they might hop -away indifferently, happily unconscious that what they had perched on -as a branch or a log was animated with a hungering after themselves. - -Any further ‘spell,’ or ‘fascination,’ or attraction might be -attributed to a soporific or paralytic rather than a pleasurable -influence; and arising from the noxious breath of a venomous serpent, -or the fixity of its eyes, never blinking. Horses, dogs, and other -animals have an intuitive perception of the vicinity of a snake, and -refuse to advance; is it therefore reasonable to conclude that the -lesser animals are not similarly affected? It is serpent nature to -wait motionless for its prey. Any creature coming unexpectedly upon -that rigid object, with its fixed, glittering eyes, would, actuated -by mingled alarm and curiosity, stop to make itself acquainted with -the extraordinary sight, the only life or motion in which would be -the tongue suddenly and silently appearing and disappearing. A bird -might be beguiled within striking distance, or might stop spell-bound. -We ourselves are sometimes impelled to approach an unaccountable yet -terrifying object. Fear has also a paralyzing effect, and we remain -motionless, breathless, with eyes as fixed as a serpent’s. - -Observation of nature and an inquiry into causes will often present -very commonplace reasons for what appears to savour of the marvellous. -A snake has just made a meal of some fledgelings. The mother bird has -witnessed her offspring vanishing by degrees, and she frantically -hovers over the reptile, fluttering to and fro, and probably uttering -cries of distress or of enticement, in the hope of her young ones’ -return. Birds have been observed thus endeavouring to rescue a -half-swallowed fledgeling. The naturalist at once comprehends the -reason; the poet thinks the birds are ‘fascinated.’ - -I am not aware that any other ophiologist than Dr. Stradling, in -discussing the ‘fascination’ idea, has attributed to the tongue of a -snake an allurement in the shape of a prospective meal. In one of his -papers to _Land and Water_ (April 2, 1881) he described a hen that had -been put into the cage for his anaconda’s dinner, making ‘a determined -dab at the snake’s tongue, sometimes two or three dabs in quick -succession,’ every time the quivering black line caught her eye. ‘Now -why does she do that?’ he asks. ‘Certainly from no animosity towards -the snake, in whose presence she has not the slightest consciousness -of danger, as she was otherwise engaged in pecking up the maize that -was in the cage. My own idea is that she mistakes the tongue for a -wriggling worm,’ adds the observer in almost the very words I had used -more than six years previously,[141] long before we had exchanged a -word on the subject or were even acquainted. He further described in -the same issue of _Land and Water_, and also in the _Field_ (June 3, -1882), how a scarlet _tanager_ in Costa Rica had been attracted out -of a tree down close to a snake by its quivering tongue, the only -moving thing about it. Dr. Stradling had seen a frog similarly snapping -at the tongue of a snake, and thinks that one of the chief uses of -the mysterious little organ is to attract insectivorous animals. My -own observations prove the tongue to be a _successful_ lure, which -may go a good way towards explaining ‘fascination;’ but whether an -_intentional_ lure, any more than an intentional intimidation, as -discussed in chap. v., I hesitate to affirm. - -‘Fascination,’ then, may be sometimes imputed to curiosity, sometimes -to an anticipated morsel. It may partake of fear, or it may be an -involuntary approach; it may be the struggles of a poisoned creature -unable to get away, or the maternal anxieties of a bird or small mammal -whose offspring has fallen a victim to the snake. Divesting it of -all poetry or magic, it will admit of several matter-of-fact, albeit -sometimes tragic explanations. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -_THE VENOMS AND THEIR REMEDIES._ - - -ON a subject which has baffled research in all ages, viz. the endeavour -to discover an antidote for snake venom, it scarcely becomes me to -speak. Yet, as in the foregoing chapters, I may at least venture to lay -before my readers some general account of the various remedies used in -snake regions, and, for the benefit of residents in those countries, -describe the most approved means of treating the bites of venomous -serpents. Information of this kind will not, I trust, be wholly useless. - -First, it may be as well to impressively repeat what has been already -constantly affirmed by all our scientific experimentalists on snake -venoms, that ‘as yet _no antidote to them has been found_.’ Remedies -there are in abundance; and it is just as great an error to believe -that all snake venom is incurable—_i.e._ that a bitten person must -necessarily die—as that there are countless ‘antidotes,’ as persons -broadly and loosely call the various means of cure. - -At the time when Professor Halford’s treatment by subcutaneous -injections of ammonia were so popularly discussed, you might read week -after week of ‘Halford’s newly-discovered antidote for snake-bites.’ -Professor Halford, so far from claiming the discovery of an ‘antidote,’ -emphatically explained that ammonia thus used was ‘only a mode of -treatment.’ ‘It must never be forgotten,’ he said, ‘that ammonia cannot -_destroy_ the venom;’ by which we comprehend what the scientific mean -by an ‘antidote,’ something that effectually _destroys, neutralizes, -and annihilates_ the poison. Sir Joseph Fayrer, after long and -elaborate experiments with the Indian thanatophidia, prescribes various -remedies and modes of treatment, ‘but do not confuse these with -_antidotes_!’ he urges.[142] ‘To conceive of an _antidote_ to snake -poison in the true sense of the term,’ he explains, ‘one must imagine -a substance so subtle as to follow, overtake, and neutralize the -venom in the blood, or that shall have the power of counteracting and -neutralizing the deadly influence it has exerted on the vital forces. -Such a substance has still to be found, and our present experience of -the action of drugs does not lead to hopeful anticipation that we shall -find it.’ - -Notwithstanding these confident assertions, we are continually -reading of ‘an infallible cure for snake-bite, never known to fail;’ -‘another antidote to snake-bite;’ or that ‘at length an antidote -has been discovered,’ which on investigation may be something tried -long ago, and occasionally with success, or it may be a plant or a -chemical preparation which under certain circumstances effects a cure, -but none of which will stand the above definition of _antidote_. -Each new attempt is announced as ‘an antidote’ nevertheless. Dr. -Arthur Stradling was severely hauled over the coals for ‘boasting -of an antidote,’ when it accidentally transpired that he had been -experimenting on himself ‘with a view to discovering, _not an -antidote_, but a prophylactic against the venom,’ to use his own -words.[143] - -More recently still permanganate of potash has been announced as -an antidote; and no doubt in some cases it has proved a successful -_remedy_, as occasionally, but not invariably, other treatments have -been. There still, however, appears to be the same lack of substantial -evidence with regard to its being an ‘infallible antidote’ in the -chemical acceptation of the term; and indeed as venoms themselves -vary, a remedy that might prove effectual in one case might fail in -another. Dr. Stradling, than whom perhaps few are more competent -to offer opinions on the subject (he having for five or six years -subjected himself to experiments and carefully noted the effects on -his own person, as others have noted the effects on animals and birds -bitten), says that you might as well hunt through the pharmacopeia for -a drug that will be a specific in every kind of fever, or ‘to look for -a general antidote to opium, strychnine, bella donna, arsenic, and -mercury poisoning,’ as to expect to find one antidote for every kind of -snake venom. ‘When we know how many different venoms there are, we may -look for an antidote to each,’ he has explained. - -Years ago the venoms were classed under the heads of _Viperine_, -_Echidnine_, _Crotaline_, etc.; but Dr. Stradling states that he has -found very different venoms in _Crotalus horridus_ and _Crotalus -durissus_, and that he prepared himself differently for each species -of snake with which he experimented, having in five different species -found five distinct and separate venoms. The bite of one snake more -rapidly affects the blood, that of another the nerves; while the local -and the constitutional symptoms also vary; but ‘all are attended -more or less with rigors, delirium, syncope, convulsions, paralysis, -and coma.’ Many of the so-called cures have not been cures at all, -because, as was afterwards found, the snakes that inflicted the bites -were not venomous. This we can understand from the indiscriminate use -of such vernaculars as ‘adder,’ ‘jararaca,’ ‘cobra,’ as explained -in previous chapters. Or, if undoubtedly a bite has been given by -an undoubtedly venomous kind, it does not follow that a full charge -of venom accompanied the bite. The glands may have been previously -exhausted, the snake may have been feeble, or it might not have -expended its poison. For among other marvels we are led to believe that -vipers, perhaps also the _elapidæ_, have a control over their store -of venom, and do not involuntarily expend it, that is, when _forced_ -to bite. ‘Great doubt exists as to the efficacy of forced bites,’ -says Nicholson. Dr. Weir Mitchel came to the same conclusion in his -rattlesnake experiments, viz. that a snake ‘is able voluntarily to -control the shedding of its poison when inflicting a wound or grasping -an object with its jaws.’ This accounts for many bites not having -proved fatal, and for reputed antidotes having effected ‘cures.’ Nor, -when we come to think of it, does this control of the venom appear -so extraordinary after all. The poison gland is a modification of -ordinary salivary glands; and, if we may have recourse to a not very -elegant comparison, a person or an animal can simulate the _action_ of -biting or of spitting without ejecting saliva. Again, as Dr. Stradling -expresses it, ‘snake virus is a natural secretion provided for the -distinct physiological purpose of enabling the reptile to secure its -prey.’[144] Fayrer also explains that some snakes, naturally sluggish, -‘bite reluctantly;’ but, if irritated and made angry, then ‘with great -force and determination.’ In the one instance a bitten person might -recover, in the second case die, because here the snake ‘thoroughly -imbedded its fangs’ (p. 379). - -It is often asked, ‘Which is the most poisonous snake?’—a question -as difficult to answer as, ‘Which is the most poisonous plant?’ Dr. -Günther’s opinion is that the degree of danger depends less on the -_species_ which inflicts the wound, than on the bulk of the snake, the -quantity of its venom, the season or temperature, and the place of the -wound. Quantity for quantity, the virus of one snake is more active or -more powerful than another, and different in its effects; but then the -lesser discharge of poison directly into a vein might be more serious -than a full discharge in a part where absorption is slow. Also exactly -the same quantity, minim for minim, would more seriously affect a -warm than a cold blooded animal, more seriously affect a feeble and -timid person or animal than the brave and vigorous. Yet, as there is -a notable gradation in the development of the poison apparatus, the -perfection of which culminates in the viper, it seems not unreasonable -to decide that as a rule a viper is more virulent than an elaps of the -same size—let us say _bulk_, because the viperine snakes are short and -thick and the _elapidæ_ long and slight. Each snake is supplied with -venom adequate to its own requirements, that is, enough to kill the -prey on which it subsists, a large viper with a larger supply for a -larger animal; and a small elaps with enough to kill its little bird -or mouse. There may be exceptions; as, for instance, in the _Callophis -intestinalis_, whose glands are abnormally developed, though it is not -a large snake; still accidents or experiments rather go to prove that -a viper is more noxious than an elaps under similar conditions. Fayrer -proved the virulence of _Echis carinata_, the little Indian 18-inch -viper’s poison, by diluting a quarter of a drop of its venom in ten -drops of water and injecting it into the leg of a fowl, which died in -ten minutes; while the same proportions of cobra venom killed a fowl in -thirty minutes. Nicholson affirms that the Russell’s viper can eject -as much poison in half a second as a cobra can in three seconds. But -if the viper be in a torpid condition, it might eject little or none. -A strong Daboia bit a feeble bull, which died; but two feeble Daboias -bit a strong bull, which recovered. These latter vipers were moulting, -and their functions were inactive—the bites feeble, perhaps. In fact, -the conditions are so many and great, that after all it is hazardous -to form any definite conclusion. Some notes of the effects on bitten -animals, taken at the Zoological Gardens while the snakes were being -fed, shall be faithfully recorded in the ensuing chapter. - -With regard to the many drugs used in various countries for the cure of -snake-bite, it is curious to note that, as a rule, they are procured -from the most deadly plants. As ‘like cures like,’ so poison cures -poison. Most of them are powerful stimulants, in which lies their -chief virtue. Among them are _aristolochia_, _opium_, _ipecacuanha_, -_senega-root_, _guaco_ or _huaco_, _asclepias_, _liatris_, _euphorbia_, -_polygala_, _ophiorrhiza_, etc. A long list might be written. It is -noteworthy, too, that the natives of the countries in which these -plants are variously found, have strong faith in them, and indeed -use them with more or less of success. The early writers on America -entertained no sort of doubt as to the efficacy of the plants or -preparations used by the Indians. Purchas, in 1626, after describing -the ‘_Ibiracua_, which causeth by his biting the Bloud to issue thorow -all Parts of the Bodie, Eyes, Mouth, Nose, Eares,’ etc., says: ‘But -the Indians are acquainted with a certaine Herbe that will heal their -Woundes.’ Lawson, Berkeley, and Catesby tell us the Indians were -never without a remedy, which they carried about with them, but the -preparation of which differed in each tribe. Border Americans of the -present day, also, are never at a loss when snake-bitten, though the -most popular of modern remedies is whisky. (Not that this offers any -exception to the rule, that poison kills poison; the comic philosophy -being that whisky, as the stronger poison of the two, ‘goes in for -first innings, so to speak.’) - -Some of the poisonous antidotal plants in South America are used in the -preparation of the celebrated _wourali_ or _curare_, with which the -Indians poison their arrows. Snake-venom and pounded fangs are also -constituents of this, which is why the effect in the blood—as has been -shown in experiments—is similar to that of snake-bite. Some of the -tribes are said to acquire immunity from the most virulent snakes by -swallowing the potent herbs of their region. Inoculation with deadly -vegetable juices is another of their remedies; and Tschudi informs us -that after this inoculation, snake-bites are harmless for some time, -but that the process has to be repeated. Sullivan has not much faith -in the process; nor has Dr. Stradling. But there is one undeniable -fact connected with the poisonous snakes of most countries, viz. that -death by them is comparatively rare; and only in India do we hear of -thousands dying annually. Dr. Carpenter, Humboldt, and, I believe, -other writers of equal weight, have suggested that the poisonous plants -used by native tribes, both internally and externally, may impart to -the person an odour which is repugnant to snakes; and if this be the -case, how would it be to institute compulsory inoculation among the -low-caste Hindoos, who are the chief sufferers in India? Or, could -not a few pariah dogs there be inoculated with the juice of some of -the native plants, such as the ‘earth gall’ of Malay (_Ophiorrhiza -mungos_), as the Indians of the Orinoco protect themselves with the -_Vejuco de huaco_? Should the process succeed with valueless animals, -it might afterwards be attempted in human beings. Perhaps already it -has been attempted, and it would be gratifying could I flatter myself -that it was through my suggestions of several years ago. Or I may be -only betraying my own ignorance of surgery and of the pharmacopeia in -suggesting it at all. - -There are many popular vegetable ‘antidotes’ of the log cabin and the -rough border-clearings of America, but the ‘faculty’ form no high -estimate of them. Dr. Weir Mitchel tested some twenty or thirty plants -which owe their reputation to Indian traditions, but without success. -‘In the hands of science they failed.’ But then is there not always -some delay before the patient can reach the hands of science? It is -the prompt treatment, and having the remedies always ready, that may -ensure success among the natives. Probably many a bitten person, if -alone in the desert, dies, and there are none to record his death. -Nevertheless we have good reason for believing that the natives do -learn how to manage deadly snakes or to avoid them. In South Africa -it is very rare to hear of a person dying of snake-bite; and the -natives go bare-footed there as much as in India. Some of the deadliest -serpents also are found in Africa. In Australia, where there is a -still larger majority of poisonous snakes (more than two-thirds of the -whole number), and also bare-footed natives, deaths are comparatively -infrequent. Krefft gives us a list which may be of interest to the -residents there, viz. the proportions of the venomous to the harmless -species of snakes:— - - Venomous. Harmless. - - New South Wales, 21 out of 30 - - Victoria, 8 ” 12 - - South Australia, 13 ” 15 - - West Australia, 11 ” 15 - - Queensland, 28 ” 42 - -Whereas in India, including Ceylon, the venomous families are five -to the thirty-five innocuous ones. In India alone Günther describes -twenty families of snakes, out of which four only are venomous. When, -therefore, we read the annual statistics of India, and the enormous -death-rate, which suggest resolutions towards the extermination of -snakes, we may again hint that education must join hands with science -in order to find remedies. Europeans are seldom bitten; you might count -the numbers on your fingers in as many years. Dr. Edward Nicholson -has shown that while in twelve years (1860-1871 inclusive) only four -British soldiers died from snake-bite, thirty-eight died from the bite -of mad dogs; and he thinks it would be more beneficial to the community -to kill off some of the hordes of these dangerous animals which infest -the country during the summer months. Moreover, that ‘_in comparison -with preventible diseases and a percentage of the entire population, -snake-bites are sensational trifles_.’ He thinks the savage crusade -against snakes worse than useless, and argues that it would be better -to seek remedies for diseases that harm more Europeans in a week than -snakes do in a century. Others tell us that the number of deaths is -greatly exaggerated, and that many by violence or through fatalism and -barbarities are set down to snakes. - -But to return to remedies, one would suppose that drugs or plants which -kill venomous snakes would be also cures for their bites. It is an old -belief that vipers contain in themselves an ‘antidote’ to their venom, -and hence the number of popular medicines prepared from their bodies. -Conversely, some of the deadly poisons of the pharmacopeia are death to -snakes. _Aristolochia_ produces powerful effects on the African vipers; -the white ash (_Fraxinius Americanus_) is an equally rapid poison -to the rattlesnake, as Prof. Silliman proved. It is said that these -reptiles are never found in the vicinity of this tree. It was the white -ash which Oliver Wendell Holmes introduced into his story of ‘Elsie -Venner,’ as being destructive to _crotalus_ life, and the novelist -wrote from his experience of its effects. Similar cases have been -recorded in the _Philosophical Transactions_. Pennyroyal, says Charas, -was held to the nose of a viper, ‘who by turning and wriggling laboured -hard to avoid it; and in half an hour’s time was killed by it. This -was in July, at which season these creatures are computed to be in the -greatest vigour of their poison’ (1657). - -Another drug which is poison to a venomous snake is _tobacco_, within -the reach of most persons. This, among native remedies, has always been -in favour, and we have heard of its efficacy ever since ‘the weed’ -was known to Europeans. Various species of tobacco and its allies -are indigenous to most tropical countries, and probably were in use -for both man and snake-bites long before civilised nations took such -comfort in smoking. In classic ages it was believed that human saliva -was fatal to vipers, and it is even affirmed that the Hottentots often -kill a puff adder by merely spitting upon it. One must infer from this -that their saliva is saturated with some drug which they chew; and -from classic authors we might discover that the practice of chewing -tobacco, opium, or other drugs obnoxious to snakes, was in use from -very early ages. Those classic authors who tell us that human saliva is -fatal to snakes had not studied snake nature enough to assign a reason -for this, though in all probability a reason did exist. ‘Man carries -more poison in his mouth than a snake,’ said an old Virginian writer, -alluding to _nicotine_. ‘He can poison a rattlesnake more quickly than -it can him.’ Nicholson states that it also rapidly affects a cobra, and -he recommends it, should you wish to destroy the snake uninjured: ‘You -have,’ he says, ‘but to blow into its mouth a drop or two of the oil -from a dirty tobacco-pipe.’ - -Two young men chopping wood together in Virginia espied a rattlesnake. -With a forked stick one of them held its head close to the ground, -keeping its body constrained with his foot, while his comrade took -from his own mouth a quid of tobacco, which he forced into that of the -snake. The reptile was then released, and had not crawled a couple of -yards before it was convulsed, swelling and dying within a short time. -Leaves of tobacco as a plaister, or chopped tobacco as a poultice, -are applied to a bite by the American backwoodsmen, after the custom -of the Indians; or finely chopped tobacco, mixed with moist gunpowder -and some pulverized sulphur, formed into a plaister, and laid on the -wound, and then set fire to. Tschudi, in his _Travels in Peru_, p. 434, -saw this remedy successfully applied by an Indian to his wife’s bitten -foot. A nausea-exciting drug was swallowed at the same time. With the -copper-head snake (_Ancistrodon contortrix_) it is equally efficacious. -These and rattlesnakes are said to be never found in tobacco fields. - -Strychnine appears to have a similar effect to tobacco on snakes. -Fayrer found cobras extremely susceptible to the influence of -strychnine. An almost impalpable quantity caused a cobra to ‘twist -itself up in a rigid series of coils and die.’ - -A good many experiments have been tried by a subcutaneous injection -of strychnine into dogs and other animals, immediately after being -bitten, but without sufficient success to warrant the adoption of it -as an infallible remedy. In some of the cases, indeed, the deaths from -tetanus suggest the question, ‘Did the cats and dogs die from venom, -or from strychnine?’ As virulent poisons are administered in virulent -cases, how would it be to _swallow_ strychnine in chemically-prepared -doses? - -Carbolic acid is another drug which produces powerful effects, causing -the reptile to ‘double itself up in numerous folds, remaining as stiff -as if cast in metal.’ Creosote, also, snakes hate, Fayrer tells us, and -recommends that these two drugs may at least be of use in driving them -away from dwellings, as many of them have an objectionably domestic -disposition. A few drops of carbolic acid poured on the floor of their -cages kill venomous snakes in a very short time. A large _Bungarus_ -died in ten minutes in this way. - -Dr. Weir Mitchel approves of carbolic acid so far as to recommend -every backwoodsman to supply himself with a little of it, which is -easily portable and manageable in capillary tubes. In several of his -experiments with _crotalus_ venom, carbolic acid applied to the wound -was attended with success. But it must be _done at once_. The whole -secret of cures—when cures can be effected at all—lies in promptness. -It is celerity on the part of the Indians which ensures their success. -In an instant, if his comrade be bitten, the savage is on his knees, -sucking the wound, grasping the limb firmly, or strapping it tightly -above and below the bite, knowing quite well the importance of checking -the circulation. He has his ‘poison pills,’ and tobacco in his pouch. -He explodes gunpowder on the wound and loses not an instant. Nor does -the victim lose heart. He submits with courage and confidence, and -in these lie another element of success. Many cases are on record -of persons being at death’s door through fear alone, when bitten by -a harmless snake, but recovering on being assured that there was no -danger. And other cases are well known where bitten persons have died -of fright and the depressing influences surrounding the accident, when -they might possibly have recovered. - -And assuredly the remedies are generally so severe as to be in -themselves sufficiently terrifying. ‘No time for reflection;’ ‘no -mercy must be shown,’ declares Sir Joseph Fayrer, in describing the -incredible rapidity with which the venom inoculates the blood ‘in a -moment of time.’ Where a deep wound has been inflicted by a highly -venomous snake on a small animal, death has been known to occur in a -few seconds, especially if the bite were on a large vein or an artery. -Therefore if the bite be on a limb, to tie a ligature is the first -thing to be done. A thong of leather, a tape, a string, a cord, a -garment torn in shreds, anything that can be caught up, must at once -be tied round the limb. Every instant of delay increases the danger. -Incredible force must be used to tighten the ligature, which even with -a tourniquet or a stick to twist the cord to the utmost is scarcely -sufficient to completely stop the circulation in the fleshy part of -a limb. So tight as to cut into the flesh is frequently necessary. -In the case of a dog whose hind leg had been bitten, such amazing -force was required, in one of Fayrer’s experiments, that with the -strength of a pair of hands it was almost impossible to tighten the -ligature sufficiently to effect complete strangulation. In another of -his experiments a chicken had a ligature tightened round its thigh -‘with the greatest amount of tension that a man’s hand could exert.’ -The poor chicken (already half dead with terror and pain, as one must -conjecture) was then bitten below the ligature by a cobra, but in spite -of the thorough strangulation of the limb, the fowl showed signs of -poison in twenty-three minutes, and in three-quarters of an hour was -dead. These two among other cases are cited to show that the mere -tying of a tape or a pocket handkerchief round a bitten limb is of very -little use, provided it is not drawn tight enough to almost cut into -the flesh. Yet this is only the first step; for if assistants are at -hand, let them tie a second or even a third such ligature above and -below the bite when possible, while whoever is best able to operate -must scarify the wound by cutting it across deeply, or by immediately -cupping, letting it bleed freely; ‘better still,’ says Sir Joseph, ‘cut -it out deeply and quickly.’ In the case of a finger or a toe, ‘amputate -instantly; for if once the venom is absorbed into the system, there -is but the slenderest chance of life.’ If the wound be in a fleshy -part, force a red-hot iron to the very bottom of it, and burn it out -to the depth of half an inch, or when excised fill it with gunpowder -and explode that, or force a live coal into it, or burn it out with -carbolic or nitric acid! Agonizing though the remedies be, they are -inevitable, should the bite be inflicted by one of the larger and -deadlier snakes in a part where absorption is rapid. ‘Do not relax the -ligament till the part be cold and livid,’ adds Fayrer. - -Nor, when we look at the effects of a bite, can we wonder at the -severity of the remedies. - -‘Vomiting black fluid,’ ‘bleeding at every orifice of the body,’ are -among the horrible sufferings at the time; an injured constitution and -hideous sores likely to break out afresh periodically in various parts, -may be some of the after consequences should the patient recover. - -As the effect of the bite is depressing, the system must be kept up -with strong stimulants. Food is of little use, because the functions -are too feeble to digest it. But great faith is placed in stimulants. -Hence the popularity of ammonia, which is quickly diffusible. The -venom exhausts the vital forces; therefore, excepting in the local -surgical treatment, all the best remedies are volatile and alcoholic -stimulants. Ammonia in the form of _eau de luce_ has long been -approved, both taken internally and rubbed into the wound. Professor -Halford’s plan of subcutaneously injecting it has been very successful -in some cases of Australian snake-bites, and the popularity of this -mode has been seen in the large number of hypodermic syringes purchased -by persons in the bush. But the use of these requires surgical skill; -and awkward attempts by the laity have produced wounds which have been -prejudicial to the originator; for though it is said that some attempts -of this kind were made by Fontana about one hundred years ago, Halford -could not have been aware of that, since he claims to be the first who -ventured to throw ammonia directly into the blood. ‘Previously to my -experiments in 1868,’ he says, ‘it had never been thought possible to -throw ten or twenty minims of the strongest liquid ammonia directly -into the veins without killing the man on the spot.’[145] He first -tried it on animals, and finding it successful, at length ventured -this ‘mode of treatment’ with human beings; since which other doctors -in Australia have also practised it. Still he does not claim for it -infallibility, though giving some cases in which the action of ammonia -on the blood and on the heart’s action produced rapid recovery in -persons apparently dying. - -Any technical explanation must not be attempted by me; but those who -are interested in this subject will find Prof. Halford’s own accounts -in the _Medical Times_ for 1873 and ensuing years, also in his paper -‘On the Condition of the Blood from Snake-bite,’ 1867. - -In India similar kinds of experiments were not attended with success; -leading to the conclusion that the Indian snakes were more deadly -than those in Australia. Climate, latitude, season, and many other -circumstances affect the virulence of snakes, as we may here repeat. -The ‘Brown’ or ‘Tiger snake’ (_Hoplocephalus curtus_), the ‘Black -snake’ (_Pseudechis porphyriacus_), _Hoplocephalus superbus_, and some -other of the larger venomous kinds _within the tropics_ are thought to -be equal in virulence to the Indian ones of the same bulk in the same -season. Many of them erect themselves and distend their necks like the -_najas_. - -And now for a few words about the most popular and perhaps most -attainable of all remedies—alcohol! No wonder the backwoodsman resorts -to this, which without any chopping off of fingers or toes, or personal -pyrotechnics, or other local tortures, deadens his sensibilities, -renders him unconscious of suffering, and sends him into a happy -obliviousness of danger. It is not a refined mode of treatment, nor one -that presents many opportunities of exhibiting professional skill; and -it is no doubt somewhat derogatory to admit that to become dead drunk -is an effective victory against snake venom! Other old and inelegant -remedies we hear of as practised by the Bushmen of South Africa, -and savage tribes elsewhere, but revolting in the hands of refined -practitioners. Deference to science and loyalty to the profession -demand some more elaborate means. Yet the efficacy of whisky or brandy -is admitted by all, and the pioneer who has not a doctor within miles -of him has his demijohn of whisky at hand. - -During a sojourn in Iowa some years ago, when wild and uncleared lands -formed the ‘streets’ of the town in which I was staying—Lyons on the -Mississippi river, and as lovely a spot as artists and botanists can -wish to revel in—it was by no means an infrequent occurrence to hear -of rattlesnake bites. ‘What was done to the man?’ ‘Is he alive?’ were -questions naturally asked. - -‘He drank a quart of raw whisky, and got dead drunk.’ - -Generally a quart had the desired effect—that is, of causing -intoxication. Persons unused to intoxicants might be affected by a less -quantity, but so violent is the combat between venom and whisky that a -large dose must be swallowed before any effects at all are produced. In -the southern and hotter States it was similarly used. Indeed, a planter -himself told me that Sambo would sometimes prick his hand or foot with -a thorn, and crying out ‘Rattlesnake!’ fall into well-assumed agonies, -in his preference for a spirituous somniferousness to cotton-picking. -But when the fraud was detected and less enticing remedies were -adopted, rattlesnake or copper-head bites became less frequent. I -heard of a man in Nevada, George Terhune, a teamster (I give his name, -having every reason to believe the truth of the story), who was bitten -in the hand by a rattlesnake while stooping to reach some water out -of a spring. The man was alone and far away from human habitations. -It was an instinctive and momentary business to first kill the snake -then rushing to his waggon, he drew the bung from a keg of whisky and -took a large draught of the contents. After swallowing as much as -he could, he took some tobacco from his pocket, saturated that with -whisky, and applied this poultice to his hand. He then proceeded with -his team, drinking whisky at intervals until he reached a dwelling, -when he removed the poultice and found that the wound had turned green. -Applying another of the same kind, he resumed his journey and his -potent doses, reaching his destination next day ‘as sober as a judge,’ -having imbibed enough ‘fire-water’ to intoxicate a dozen men with no -_crotalus_ venom in their veins. The quantity sometimes swallowed under -such circumstances is utterly incredible. - -Professor Halford describes a case of snake-bite near Melbourne, -in which two bottles of brandy were drunk without any symptoms of -intoxication; and another of a girl of fourteen, who, when bitten by -an Australian snake, drank three bottles without being intoxicated! -She recovered. ‘Alcohol has powerful attractions for oxygen,’ writes -Professor Halford, on the theory that the venom has produced foreign -cells in the blood, ‘so that if alcohol engage the oxygen absorbed by -the poison, the cells perish and recovery ensues.’ Others among the -ablest experimentalists similarly recognise the efficacy of alcohol. -Dr. Shortt of Madras says: ‘Bring the patient under the influence -of intoxication as speedily as possible. Make him drunk, and keep -him drunk, until the virus is overcome.’ Dr. Weir Mitchel found that -delicate women and young children under the influence of snake poison -could take ‘quarts of brandy without injury, and almost without -effect.’ One man brought to him—a man of temperate habits—took -one quart of brandy and half a pint of whisky, which ‘only slightly -intoxicated him for about four hours.’ Another man bitten in the throat -was cured at the end of twenty-four hours, during which time he had -had two quarts of whisky in one night, and renewed as the pulse fell, -besides red pepper and other stimulants.[146] - -In South Africa, too, the alcoholic remedies seem to be successfully -adopted, so far as we may judge by occasional reports of them which -find their way into print. In the _Field_ of January 14th, 1882, a -Mr. Walter Nightingale records that a boy of fifteen, bitten by a -puff adder, drank two bottles of brandy before it had any effect; -and a little girl two years old, bitten in the hand by a ‘horned -viper’ (which might have been a _Lophophrys_ or _Vipera nasicornis_), -had administered to her brandy and milk in occasional doses without -any visible effects, until a whole bottle of brandy had been thus -swallowed! The child recovered; and the force of the argument seemed to -rest on the astounding quantity of strong spirit that could be taken -to overcome the venom without producing intoxication. Under ordinary -circumstances, a wine-glassful of brandy would have made either of -those children tipsy, yet the infant of two years did not reel under -a whole bottleful, and the boy of fifteen under two bottles full—a -quantity that would have killed many outright. - -Yet whisky is not an ‘antidote’ chemically, any more than is ammonia, -or tobacco, or artificial respiration, which latter has been tried -with success by Drs. Vincent Richards and Lauder Bruton. So rapidly -destructive to every vital function is snake venom, that anything that -will keep life going until the poison is eliminated is desirable; and -what would themselves be poisons in other cases here act only as -counterfoils. ‘A septic of astounding virulence,’ Weir Mitchel has -proved _crotalus_ venom to be; and the scientific experimentalists on -the Oriental thanatophidia confirm his words as regard the _najas_ and -vipers of their own regions. A subtle, malignant, mysterious fluid, to -which all animal life succumbs. Even vegetables are affected by it, as -Mitchel proved. Inoculated with it, they looked dead next day as if -scathed by lightning. So those old writers on Virginian serpents might -not have been so far wrong after all, so far as the injurious effect -of venom on a young tree; only they made a slight mistake in supposing -that the ‘thorny tail’ inflicted the mischief (p. 174). - -It is not within the compass of this work to attempt to describe -in detail the many remedies which from time to time have enjoyed a -short-lived popularity; such as ‘snake stones,’ the ‘Tangore pill,’ -and other preparations. Conventions have within the last twenty -years been held in India, in Australia, in America, and London; and -Commissioners from among our most distinguished M.D.’s have been -appointed to investigate all the reputed ‘antidotes’ and popular -remedies that could be got together. The names of Dr. Ewart, Dr. Lauder -Bruton, and Dr. Vincent Richards of the Indian Medical Department, -as associated with artificial respiration, must be familiar to many. -Dr. Shortt, of Madras, claims originality in the use of potash, _liq. -potassæ_, which both by the mouth and by injection has been attended -with success. He has recorded several cures by _liq. pot._, ‘not as -miraculous, but as rational.’ He affirms that it has the property of -neutralizing the venom, and that brandy expedites it by carrying it -rapidly through the system. Potash or soda plentifully applied to the -wound is a popular remedy also among the border pioneers of America, -who, on the theory that venom is of an acid nature, make frequent use -of alkalis. The child of a gentleman whom I knew in Virginia was bitten -on the foot by a rattlesnake; his whole body quickly exhibited the -symptoms of the poison. But the father was so confident of the success -of his own domestic treatment that he did not even send for a doctor. -‘_Saleratus_’ (used in cookery) was bound upon the bitten spot, and the -child was dosed with apple brandy until stupefied. Next day he was well. - -From all the ‘recoveries’ above quoted, it may be said that the bites -could not have been very deep, or that the snakes could not have been -very virulent; and in the many hundreds of experiments tried in India -and elsewhere, the doctors have arrived at similar conclusions. _A full -charge of venom injected directly into the veins, should no remedy be -attempted, is almost certain to be fatal._ Within half an hour a man -might die from a vigorous _crotalus_, _fer de lance_, or large _elaps_. - -It is important to impress this on the reader, lest from the cures -above cited, I appear to argue that snake-bite is not so serious an -affair after all. Notwithstanding that the South American Indians, in -the midst of the most deadly of the _Crotalidæ_, do fly confidently to -their _guaco_ and their traditional remedies, they know so well when -there is no chance of recovery that they attempt no cures whatever. -Travellers tell us they lay themselves down to die when bitten by -certain snakes; probably they know that, from the position of the bite, -or the accidental lack of essential remedies, there is no hope for -them. They are said to resign hope when bitten by the little Peruvian -viper (_Echis ocellata_), in the very heart of the tropics, and as -deadly as the little _echis_ of India. In every case the symptoms point -to the exhaustion of the nerve centres, and the rapid decomposition of -the blood. - -The venom appears to be an indestructible fluid. Toxically it remains -unaltered whether boiled or frozen, or mixed with the strongest -corrosives. Diluted in water, alcohol, or blood, it is still equally -injurious. The blood of an animal killed by a bite, if injected into -the veins of another animal, kills that one also; and the blood of -the second one killed is similarly fatal to a third, and the third -to the fourth, and so on through a series of animals. Also so small -a quantity is fatal where no remedies are attempted, that a venomous -serpent can kill six or eight animals one after another; each one, -bitten in succession, succumbing more slowly, it is true, but still -dying at last. Fayrer found that no less than nine creatures could -thus be affected by one cobra. A dog, a pigeon, and seven fowls were -bitten one after the other: the dog, first bitten and receiving the -largest injection of venom, died in thirty-three minutes; a fowl, next -bitten, in three minutes; the third, in ten minutes; the fourth bitten, -in eleven; the fifth, in seventeen minutes; but the ninth bitten, a -fowl, when the poison gland was exhausted, recovered after a time. And -the same effect is seen in much larger animals than fowls. Fayrer also -tells of four men bitten in succession by one cobra, only the last one -bitten receiving treatment, and recovering-slowly after many days. The -facts prove the fatal confidence placed in snake-charmers, if further -proofs be needed. The four men, on payment of money, were to be taught -the ‘spells,’ _müntras_, etc., and, as they hoped, to be endowed with -curative powers. The professional ‘snake men’ bullied them into playing -with a cobra and irritating it, with the promise that no harm should -follow, even if they were bitten, which one of them very soon was, -falling senseless immediately, and dying within an hour. Not warned by -the utter failure of ‘charms’ to restore their comrade, the other three -permitted themselves to be bitten. The strongest charge of venom having -been expended in the first bite, the man next bitten did not fail so -rapidly, the third still more slowly, but both died the next day. When -the fourth was bitten, the police were informed of what was going on, -and they carried him off to the hospital, and the charmers to prison. -Thus is the death-rate swelled. - -Though the venom may be swallowed with impunity by a thoroughly healthy -person, there is always danger of its being absorbed through the -delicate membranes of the throat and stomach. In cases of sore throat, -injured gums or lips, or internal maladies, the risk would be great, -of course. Animals killed by the venom are constantly eaten, Fayrer -states; and that the hungry natives eagerly carried off the fowls -upon which he had experimented. Since those celebrated experiments -at Florence by the ‘Florentine Philosopher,’ Redi, and those other -‘Knowing Physicians’ above two hundred years ago, the venom has been -swallowed by many. The great point of discussion then was to ascertain -the source of the ‘Mischiefs;’ whether they arose in the gall or the -‘Juyce of the Bag at the root of the Master Teeth;’ and Redi tasted -both the Gall and the ‘Spittle from the Bag’ in order to test this -great question, and found ‘the Gall sharp and the Spittle flat.’ As the -learned physicians of the nineteenth century have been again trying -effects, so did those ‘Knowing Physicians’ work out similar problems -in 1670, no doubt suggesting many things that have subsequently been -solved and perfected. One Francini was hard to convince that only a -tooth and not a demoniacal spirit inflicted the injury; whereupon, -to convince that unbeliever, they thrust a thorn and a pin into the -breast of a fowl, which betrayed no ill effects; but a splinter of wood -covered with ‘Spittle from the Bag’ killed a pigeon as quickly as the -‘Master Tooth.’ They showed, also, that a dissevered head was able to -bite, and its ‘Biting is as dangerous as when the Viper is entire.’ -They proved other things, too numerous to recount; and particularly, -that venom was not injurious in a healthy stomach, the question from -which we have strayed to Florence. - -Lately we have been led to think that it is something more than -harmless. Through the researches of Professors Selmi, Lacerda, Gautier, -and others, we learn that from the powerful peptic properties of -the venom it may become a valuable medicine. I think I am correct -in stating that a Dr. C. Hering of Philadelphia, when practising in -British Guiana some forty years ago, introduced the venom of our -celebrated Curucucu (_Lachesis mutus_) into medicine; and that since -then, serpent venoms have held an important place in the Homœopathic -Pharmacopeia. Already we have hinted at the digestive properties of -venom to the serpents themselves, that neither masticate nor take -exercise otherwise to promote digestion; and there are those among -us who, not lacking energy so much as time, and whose busy brains -permit them but little leisure for either exercise or the unhurried -meal, may be glad by and by to resort to a poison pill to cure the -‘dyspepsia’ they thus bring upon themselves. Our American cousins will -hail with joy such a discovery. Perhaps even now they are anticipating -a prize medal at the next Great International Exhibition, for a -newly-invented ‘Extract of Bushmaster’ as the infallible remedy. -_American Bothropine_.—‘One drop of this extract in a wine-glassful of -water taken immediately after dinner ensures that meal being swallowed -in three minutes with impunity.’ Would not this deserve a gold medal in -these days when one man tries to do the work of three? - -Drs. Lacerda and Netto of Brazil have proved that crotaline venom acts -as a solvent on hard-boiled egg and other albuminous substances,—that -it can, as it were, digest living tissues; and Dr. Stradling thinks -that this solvent or disintegrating power will in some measure -account for the intense local severity of a venomous snake-bite, ‘so -disproportionately wide-spread to the tiny punctures made by the -needle-like tooth.’ - -The excision of the fang does not check the function of the poison -gland any more than the extraction of a tooth will check the salivary -secretions in a human mouth, because (as was described in the chapter -on ‘Dentition’) there are other fangs coming forward and requiring -similar supplies. - -One great value in experimental snake-bites by subcutaneous injection -is knowing which specific venom, or how much of it, produces certain -effects. But there is this to be said with regard to the creatures -operated upon, that the restraint, terror, and pain necessarily -inflicted before the venom is injected, must do a great deal towards -rendering that victim predisposed to succumb under ever so small a -dose; and in some cases 6, 8, or 10 drops of venom have been injected. -If terror and timidity act so strongly on a nervous human subject, -they must act similarly on such feeble, frightened creatures as fowls, -rabbits, and guinea-pigs, that are held, strapped down, and tortured by -ligaments and lancets. - -Human beings may take courage in reflecting that in some of the -experiments under which animals have died, _in spite of immediate -remedies_, a far larger dose of venom has been injected than could -possibly pass through the fang in one normal bite. The virulence of the -venom in ever so minute a quantity has been proved sadly enough; yet -the possibility and hope of recovery are also evident. - -‘As prevention is better than cure,’ those who run risk in the tropics -can guard against bites by wearing thick coverings to their feet and -ankles in the way of gaiters, leather boots; and denser materials for -clothing, in preference to those which the finely-pointed fangs can -easily penetrate. The cloth or leather may then receive the principal -charge of venom. Silk as a lining is good, and has the advantage of -coolness. Anything rather than bare feet. Then supplies of ammonia, -tobacco, carbolic acid, and strong tape are easily portable, and -plenty of good whisky, if the bearer can courageously _keep it for -emergencies_. - -The mongoose of classic reputation must have a passing mention; -though it is now pretty well understood that this little animal -owes its safety to its own bravery and adroitness, more than to any -supposititious herb to which it flies. Not but what instinct may -induce it to eat of the plants nature provides to animals as to men, -and as a cat eats grass when nature dictates a necessity for physic. -The mongoose has been known to die of snake-bite like other bitten -animals, though it certainly succumbs more slowly than many. Vitality -is stronger in some animals than in others. A rat is hard to kill; -and a cat will resist the poison as long as a dog of three times its -size. Then if mongooses feed on venomous snakes, they may enjoy in -themselves a sort of protective or prophylactic security. Their long -fur is also protective, leaving but few vulnerable points; and their -strong vitality enables them to escape and probably overcome the bite -if slight, or to hide away and die unseen. - -The question of immunity from bites suggests yet one other point on -which some uncertainty exists, viz. Do snakes die of their own bites? -Dr. E. Nicholson only shall be quoted here, because I shall be able -to introduce some cases from personal observation in the ensuing -chapter, concluding this with just one foreign example which may be -relied upon. ‘According to my experience,’ says Nicholson, ‘the poison -of venomous snakes affects not only harmless ones, but also venomous -snakes of other genera.’ My own opinion is that they can kill not only -other snakes, but even themselves if the charge of venom be strong -enough. What has occasionally been seen in print of ‘snakes committing -suicide,’ is, I think, only from an instinct in the serpent to strike -at what injured it _where_ injured. It feels a sudden pain and turns -to avenge the injury, striking itself on the spot where the pain -directs. A case was recorded in a paper of a cobra having been struck -by a bullet, and instantly twisting round to bite itself on the spot, -and presently dying; and this was called ‘snake suicide.’ It died in -part perhaps from the bullet, and partly from its own venom, which -injected in anger would be powerful. Several similar cases have come to -my notice, where snakes have thus attacked themselves when the instinct -has been evidently to strike the _cause of pain_. - -In vol. xxii. of _Nature_, p. 40, the case recorded by Mr. S. H. Wintle -from Tasmania will, I think, bear this explanation. He pinned a ‘black -snake’ (probably _Pseudechis porphyriacus_) to the ground with a forked -stick by the middle of the body; instantly coiling round the stick, the -angry snake turned and buried its fangs in itself, making the part wet -with viscid slime. Hardly had it done this than the coils relaxed; a -perceptible quiver ran through its body; in a few moments more it lay -extended and motionless, open mouthed and gasping, and in three minutes -was dead. Mr. Wintle examined the snake after death, and found the body -‘bloodless,’ as though the poison had destroyed the colouring matter. -He tried the blood on a mouse, which died in five minutes; and on a -lizard, which died in fourteen minutes. - -If the saliva of an angrily-excited human being or a dog be more -injurious at one time than another, how much more so that of a venomous -serpent. The flow would be greater, the character more noxious. It -seems therefore a mere question of power or virulence, the greater over -the less. In some cases one serpent might kill another, in other cases -not. - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -_NOTES FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS._ - - -ARRANGING the following examples, not so much in chronological sequence -as in elucidation of special facts, I will first give some cases of -venomous serpents killing themselves and each other. My notes began -in 1872, after the interest so strongly awakened in Cheyne Walk, -Chelsea, when those tame snakes were fed to gratify our curiosity (see -Introduction). - -Holland was then the keeper at the Reptile House of the London -Zoological Society’s Gardens, and had occupied this place upwards of -twenty years, gathering much experience and knowledge of reptilian -habits. Incidents known to him, when not witnessed by myself, may -therefore be received as trustworthy. - -On Sunday, July 20th, 1873, a ‘River Jack’ (_Vipera rhinoceros_), from -West Africa, really did kill itself, though the act can scarcely be -called intentional ‘suicide.’ It was from dashing its head against -its cage either in anger or pain. Holland was of opinion that it had -been severely bitten by one of the others of the same kind in the -cage at the time; for he had known snakes to die from bites in this -way, sometimes from their own bites. On one occasion three Puff adders -(_Vipera arietans_) all died through quarrelling and biting each other. -One of the three survived ten days, the others dying sooner. - -One day in April 1873 or 1874, on going to the Gardens, I was informed -that a water viper (_Cenchris piscivorus_) had been found in the tank -in its cage, presenting a very unusual appearance, and enormously -swelled. On going his rounds that morning, the keeper observed it, and -touching it with his iron rod, he discovered that it was quite dead. -He said these vipers frequently quarrel, biting each other and causing -this great inflation of the body, as if blown out by wind. The vitality -of this species is very strong. From such bites the inflation is -sometimes only temporary, and they recover, but not always. One of them -lived a long while with a broken back. It was endeavouring to escape -by the sliding door, which was raised while the keeper was making some -arrangements. The movements of the reptile were so swift that Holland -was obliged to suddenly drop the slide; and though he succeeded in -partly pushing back the snake, it got caught and was jammed under it, -completely dislocating its spine. But it did not appear to suffer very -much, he said, and entirely recovered from the injury. - -Some ‘viperine snakes’ (named from their aspect, but not really -venomous) not only bit each other, but killed and swallowed each other. - -Several cases of cobras injuring each other and themselves are on -record at the Gardens. On one occasion a cobra got loose, and, as may -be supposed, created considerable terror. While being caught, it turned -and bit itself, burying its fangs in its own flesh. I could not learn -exactly the spot where it wounded itself; but it was no doubt where the -hooked rod, or the snake tongs, had been offendingly applied. - -A couple of cobras were presented by Sir Joseph Fayrer. One of them -bit the other repeatedly, and in so many places that it was ‘torn -to pieces,’ in the language of the keeper. ‘The body was all over -sores.’ Notwithstanding this, it was several weeks dying. This painful -spectacle did not fall under my own observation, happily, but there is -no reason to doubt the occurrence. - -Next to the rattlesnakes few are more nervously timid than cobras; -only, while the former displays fear by a shrinking retreat, a cobra -is aggressive, inasmuch as it raises itself with a threatening aspect -and distended hood. It is on account of their extreme timidity that the -cobras’ cages are screened with painted glass at the lower part, or -the reptiles, in aiming at offending spectators, would be continually -dashing their heads against the front, to their own detriment. In this -manner snakes wound themselves very seriously, producing various mouth -diseases. - -Before writing another word of what, as a student, I have witnessed at -the Gardens, I must here affirm that any distressful occurrences are -not related to gratify a morbid curiosity in those who read only to be -amused, but to enable other students to acquire a better insight into -ophidian habits and physiology, and as a duty which I have set myself -to accomplish—a duty which has cost much moral courage to carry -out, and which demands, as I now discover, an equal amount of moral -courage to commit to writing. A good deal is painful, if not revolting; -therefore I would commend the perusal of this chapter only to those -who, as naturalists, wish to be informed on these subjects. - -‘Lip fungus,’ gum boils, canker, and abscesses are among the -mouth diseases to which snakes in confinement are subject, and -for these, very delicate surgical operations have sometimes to be -performed,—‘very delicate’ often, by reason of the dangerous character -of the patient, and in consideration for the operator as much as for -the sufferer. The keepers have sometimes to lance the gums, sometimes -to wash the sores! One very venomous patient was so covered with sores -that the keeper’s only resource was to throw the lotion all over the -reptile. - -‘Why not let the odious serpent die, or kill it at once?’ some will -exclaim. Well, in the first place, many snakes cost large sums of -money to purchase; secondly, humanity as well as economy demands that -their sufferings should be allayed wherever possible. And in return, -they frequently reward such care by recovering and entertaining the -visitors, climbing with renewed vigour about their cages. - -On the other hand, so tenacious of life are some snakes, that they -might survive as disgusting objects a long while—not in a state to -be exhibited at all, but only to be an additional care and trouble to -those whose duty it is to attend to them. One very astonishing instance -of tenacity of life must be introduced. It was in a rattlesnake which -would not feed, and must have greatly suffered in some way, whether -physically or from nervous terror cannot be determined; but the -reptile struck its head so repeatedly against the side of its cage, -that, in the keeper’s words, ‘it completely smashed it.’ At last it -died, its head one mass of putrid sores; and in that state it had -sustained life for many months. It had eaten nothing for ten months. - -It must be owing to the excessive and nervous timidity of snakes, that -some of them reject food for so long a time during the first months of -their captivity. I think for even more than two years snakes have been -known to fast, and to recover their appetite afterwards. So strong a -disinclination for food do cobras show, when first brought that it is -of no use whatever to put mice into their cages. Now and then, if no -one is near them, they will partake of a mouse or a sparrow, but never -until they become somewhat reconciled to their surroundings. - -Almost equally alarmed and irreconciled was the Hamadryad, which is -closely allied to the cobras. When first brought to the Gardens in -the spring of 1875, he did little else than suspiciously watch for -some weeks. With his head elevated in front of the glass, and his hood -expanded, he made a dash whenever any one approached or stopped to -look at him, and ate nothing for many days. Within a year these fears -gradually subsided, and he became so tame as to watch for the keeper -instead of for supposed enemies, raising himself to the roof of his -cage, and remaining close to the little trapdoor at the top, awaiting -the snake which, as he had already learned, made its appearance through -there for dinner. Much caution is requisite in feeding him; for though -he does not now display spite or anger, once let his head find egress -through that little trapdoor when raised, he, one of the most venomous -snakes in existence, would be through in a moment, creating a stampede -indeed among the visitors, to say nothing of danger both to them and to -himself. He well recognised a change of guardianship when poor Holland -was compelled from ill-health to resign his place; and not even yet, -in spite of the kindest treatment, will he trust his present keeper -as he trusted Holland. During the interregnum and frequent change of -attendants, his nerves were tried in a manner that he has been slow to -recover. - -The Hamadryad’s appointed diet is one ring snake per week; but ‘Ophi,’ -as we now call him, is occasionally required—and with no sacrifice of -his principles either—to eat an extra snake to satisfy the curiosity -of some distinguished visitor. Sometimes, too, colubers are plentiful, -and two small ones are not too much for his ten or twelve feet of -appetite. This splendid serpent has rewarded care by remaining in -perfect health, and growing several feet. He was between eight and -nine feet long when he came, and is now not far short of twelve, and -proportionately larger in circumference. Sometimes during winter, -when ring snakes are scarce, ‘Ophio’ is compelled to fast; for, as -related p. 62, he is not to be tempted with other food. During the -first year of his residence in the Gardens, the supply was good, and -he ate no less than eighty-two fellow-creatures before the winter was -well over. Towards spring, however, the supply ran short, and only two -more remained for him. He had now fasted two entire weeks, and looked -hungry and eager. The keeper offered him a guinea-pig, at which he -took great offence, spreading his hood and hissing angrily for a long -while. Eggs he declined, also a lizard and a rat, in great disgust. In -India the Ophiophagi are said to feed on lizards and fish occasionally, -but _our_ Ophiophagus preferred to fast. At last one of the two ring -snakes was produced, and Ophio was to be regaled. It was the 31st of -March 1876, and he had been a denizen of the Gardens just one year. My -notebook informs me that it was a lovely, soft spring day, and that -Ophio was quite lively. He had rejected frogs on his own account, but -in the uncertainty of more ring snakes arriving, he was now decoyed -into eating half a dozen. Holland contrived that the snake destined for -his dinner should answer the purpose of a feast, and had allowed it to -eat as many frogs as it chose. Like the poor wretch who, doomed to the -gallows, is permitted to fare sumptuously the last morning of his life, -the ring snake ate three frogs, by which the Ophiophagus was to derive -chief benefit; he, all unconscious of the cause of his victim’s unusual -plumpness, swallowing him speedily. - -Soon after this Ophio doffed his winter coat entire, and having again -fasted for ten days, was at once rewarded by the last remaining ring -snake in a similarly plethoric condition, namely, with three more frogs -inside him. Now and then during the winter months the scarcity of -ring snakes has compelled the sacrifice of some far rarer colubers to -Ophio’s cannibal tastes. And yet each year we hear of hundreds of ring -snakes being ruthlessly killed in country districts, while at great -cost and trouble others are purchased or brought from the Continent for -the Hamadryad’s sustenance. Lord Lilford, one of the Ophidarium’s best -patrons, sometimes sends presents of game in the shape of ring snakes -to the Hamadryad. - -While watching this snake-eater over his dinner, one is struck with the -remarkable tenacity of life exhibited in the victim, or the slow action -of the venom if poisoned in the first grasp. The Ophiophagus seizes it -anywhere, that is, at whichever part happens to come first, and then, -after holding it quietly for a time, works his jaws up to the head -in the usual hand-over-hand, or ‘jaw-after-jaw’ fashion, invariably -swallowing the snake head first. On one occasion when I watched -attentively, Ophio, having seized a ring snake by the middle, held it -doggedly still for one quarter of an hour, while the lesser snake did -its very best to work its way out of the jaws, and also to fetter his -captor by twirling itself over his head and coiling round his neck. -This continued while Ophio, with his head and neck raised, remained -motionless, and after the quarter of an hour commenced to work his -jaws up towards the head of the ring snake, which, as more and more of -its own body was free for action, twirled itself about, and at length -coiled its tail round the bit of branch nailed into the cage. - -Persistently, like a sailor making his vessel fast to the windlass, the -ring snake lashed as much of himself as was free round the branch a -foot off, and so pulled and pulled till he looked in danger of severing -himself in two. Meanwhile Ophio, slowly but surely advancing, caused -its head and neck to disappear, grasping tightly with his venomous -jaws, as if he would say, ‘We’ll see who is master.’ It was a close -tussle, so firmly did the little coluber retain his hold on the ‘tree;’ -but as the upper part of him was gradually drawn into those unrelaxing -jaws, he by degrees gave way, and by and by was gone. - -Not far short of an hour was occupied in this meal, during which the -victim showed no signs of being poisoned, nor were his coils round the -stump relaxed in the slightest degree, till Ophio reached the tail. The -ring snake is not a constrictor, yet he thus tied himself round the -tree by the coils of his tail. - -One more singular case of tenacity of life must be recorded. A ring -snake had been caught in the usual way, and the usual struggle ensued -between captor and captive. Coluber, with its head tightly gripped in -the jaws of his enemy, had still all the rest of himself at liberty -and in full activity, and after wriggling a violent protest, he coiled -what was left of himself so closely round the neck of his persecutor -that the latter made little or no progress with his dinner for a time. -He seemed to be deliberating how to proceed next, and asking, ‘What is -the meaning of this?’ then shook his head, lowered it to the shingle, -and tried to rub off the coils. The only result thus achieved was that -the extreme end of coluber’s tail was loosened for a moment, but only -to coil afresh round Ophio’s jaws, which nevertheless slowly and surely -advanced. - -For nearly an hour the progress was very slow; but when the ring snake -was all swallowed except a few inches of tail, these became so tight a -muzzle that Ophio in turn was the victim. Shaking his head and vainly -endeavouring to free his jaws of this muzzle, a minute or two elapsed, -during which he seemed to suffer some discomfort, when suddenly his -mouth opened widely, and out crawled Natrix, apparently none the worse -for this temporary entombment. He had turned round when two or three -feet from daylight, and come back to see the world once more. But it so -happened that Ophio closed his jaws in time over the few inches of tail -which still remained between them. Nor did he once relax his grasp of -this, but quickly and patiently began to work his way up to the head -and recommence his meal, and this time with better success. An hour -and a quarter I watched, nor was any evidence of poison seen, so as to -reduce the powers of the bitten snake for bitten it must have been in -those prolonged and forcible grasps. - -In these conflicts one could but observe a dogged stupidity on the part -of the venomous snake, who, had he but brought coils to his aid, might -have simplified matters so easily. The little Heterodons and even the -Lacertines often assist themselves with coils in managing their prey, -though not themselves constrictors but the venomous ones have not the -slightest notion of helping themselves in this way, as if confident -that in time their venom would do its work. In self-protection, -however, we have seen that a rattlesnake can coil, p.394. - -This Ophiophagus has caused to vanish, on an average, not far short -of a hundred snakes per annum since his arrival in England, say seven -hundred in all. In his native haunts, actively moving and climbing -amidst plenty of other snakes, one might multiply the consumption by -at least three, and give to the Hamadryads the credit of assisting -Government in exterminating snakes to the extent of 300 each per annum. -These snakes, therefore, should be much prized by the Government -snake-exterminators, and in reward for services rendered, have their -own lives spared. They are not very common, nor very obtrusive; and we -do not hear of so many deaths laid to their charge as to cobras and -Bungari. So long as you do not molest their nests or their young, they -get out of your way; but for all that, they might be turned to very -good account as snake consumers. - -So might some in Australia and in South America, and elsewhere; for -although this especial Hamadryad usurps the name of ‘Snake-eater,’ -there are Ophiophagi in many parts of the world. They are chiefly -_Elapidæ_. Probably on account of the small head and slender form of -these snakes, a fellow-creature is more convenient to swallow than an -animal all joints and elbows, and fur-covered. Many snakes are also -involuntarily or rather unintentionally cannibals, as in the case of -the Tropidonoti, when two seize the same frog, or the python swallowing -Geoptyas (p. 38). In such cases the swallower does not first seize his -comrade with the intention of devouring him; but both having hold on -a meal which neither chooses to relinquish, it is a mere question of -which one first reaches the jaws of the other, and which pair of jaws -happens to be most widely extended. A case is recorded in _Nature_, -March 8th, 1877, of a Mr. L. Heiligbrodt in Texas capturing an -unusually thick ‘Water moccasin’ (_Ancistrodon pugnax_), and on opening -it finding a large ‘Copper-head’ (_Ancistrodon contortrix_), recently -swallowed. - -This was ‘the only case on record,’ for it is very unusual for the -_Crotalidæ_ to eat each other; and very probably, in this instance, the -cause was a mutual meal. ‘Moccasins’ (_Tropidonoti_) at the Gardens -sometimes have such a hard grip on each other as to fetch blood. I -once saw two of these rearing themselves high in their scuffle for -the unhappy frog of which both had equal hold. The keeper was obliged -to administer corporeal reproof, which caused one of them to let go, -when the other swallowed the frog almost at one gulp, as you might -swallow an oyster. Nor do they invariably turn the frog round to -swallow it head first. This is done if the frog is likely to escape. -These so-called ‘moccasins’ are of a very pugnacious disposition. One -of them once startled me by dashing at me through the glass, with -such violence that I thought the glass would have been broken. I was -doing nothing whatever to alarm it, and I knew the snakes quite well. -But in that angry mood its aspect seemed so changed, that I asked the -keeper if that were a new snake and a venomous one, which it certainly -resembled at the moment. I may here mention that Professor Brown Goode -(who presided over the ‘American Science Convention on Snakes’) once -caught a _Tropidonotus fasciatus_ in Florida, which was so like the -‘dreaded moccasin’ (_Ancistrodon piscivorus_), that not until he had -examined the mouth and found it was harmless could he identify it. -These _Tropidonoti_ have been known to take raw meat occasionally; so -has the Xenodon, and so has a rattlesnake at the Gardens. Indeed, of -one of these the keeper said, ‘It will eat any dead thing;’ and he -found it convenient sometimes to give it a rat or a guinea-pig which a -neighbouring snake had killed by poisoning, but not eaten. The Crotalus -in such cases imbibed some foreign venom with his dinner. One Crotalus -at the Gardens would eat only rats, others prefer guinea-pigs. - -‘Look at that rat!’ exclaimed a lady to her friend, when the keeper -gave the rattlesnake a good-sized guinea-pig. - -‘I think it must be a rabbit; it is too big for a rat,’ returned the -friend. - -Before they could decide this zoological question, it lay dead. The -rattlesnake struck it and left it. It gave one gasp, fell over, and -in half a minute was dead. Another day a guinea-pig was six minutes -dying, but on this occasion the rattlesnake had expended some of its -venom in angrily striking the iron rod with which the keeper was moving -something in the cage. When the guinea-pig seemed to be dead, the -Crotalus, after eyeing and smelling it all over, that is, investigating -it with its tongue as if to be assured, was about to take it, when the -little animal had one slight spasm more, and the snake darted back its -head and rapidly retreated. Watching them as I have done for years, -I am still undecided whether excessive timidity or their low order -of intelligence is paramount in the rattlesnakes. They are so slow -and sluggish of movement, that those accustomed to them hold them in -tolerable contempt. I have seen Holland watch his opportunity, open -the cage, and put his hand in to snatch away a guinea-pig to give to -another snake if the Crotalus did not want it. - -‘They always coil before striking,’ is often said. They certainly take -time to think about an attack and to make ready by having plenty of -coils—slack rope, as it were—at their command, in order to reach -their aim, the ‘always coiling’ not truly meaning that they wind -themselves round and round as a sailor coils a rope, with their head -in the middle. The ‘coiling’ has been thus described by persons with -‘unscientific imaginations;’ but having its head in the centre of such -a coil, the snake would _not_ easily reach its object. Often the coils -are like those of ‘Totsey’ when taking her choice of a bird, having -loose folds near the head, which is always _forward_ in readiness for -the attack. - -Excellent opportunities of observing the relative venoms present -themselves in zoological collections—not only the degrees of poison -seen in the different serpents, but the effects produced by one serpent -at different times. Of those species when in full vigour there is no -doubt but that the South American rattlesnake (_Crotalus horridus_) is -one of the most virulent. Sometimes this species will strike at a young -rabbit or a guinea-pig, and death is almost instantaneous. One such -instance was observed when a rattlesnake struck a guinea-pig on the -head, the little animal falling as if shot, and in such a flash of time -that Holland examined it to ascertain the cause, and ‘its brains had -turned quite green directly.’ - -‘A new rattlesnake’ was introduced in the autumn of 1873. Not new to -science, but this, I regret to find, is all that my notebook records -in heading some observations made September 26th of that year, ‘a very -warm day’ for the season. A guinea-pig was put into the cage, when -the snake (I _think_ it was _Crotalus durissus_) approached its head -closely and stealthily till quite near to the little animal, shrinking -back at the slightest movement on the part of the guinea-pig, which sat -staring and blinking in a corner. Each time the snake recoiled, even -at a blink, it kept its eyes fixed in alarm on the piggy, who stupidly -returned the gaze, not knowing what to make of the snake or of the -people so close to him. By and by the snake, regaining courage, again -ventured nearer, and again when nearly close started back at a slight -movement of the guinea-pig. Three times a similar approach was made -before the snake ventured to strike, betraying its extreme caution and -timidity. As soon as struck, the guinea-pig was convulsed, and falling -on its side was dead in three minutes. - -Rats do not succumb to the poison nearly so quickly as rabbits, -guinea-pigs, and birds. - -Another guinea-pig struck by a rattlesnake immediately fell over on its -side, and died, panting hard, in _about_ three minutes. One could not -discern the precise moment of its last gasp; but in this case there -were no convulsive jerkings of the limbs. - -The rattlesnakes always strike and then recede quickly, keeping a -stealthy watch over their prey until it is perfectly still, often -much longer. Puff adders and some others of the African vipers, -on the contrary, retain their hold after biting. Cobras sometimes -strike and retain their hold, and sometimes let the prey go and wait -for it to die. On a small creature the effect of Puff-adder venom -is instantaneous; and a remarkable difference is observable between -the effect on a timid victim and on a rat. One of these adders ate a -sparrow alive August 20, 1874, that is, struck and held it, swallowing -it so quickly that it had not time to die. A sparrow is, however, a -very small prey for so large a serpent. Another Puff adder, about to -cast its coat, bit a guinea-pig, which was rapidly convulsed, as with -spasms, accompanied by sharp jerkings of the limbs for nearly five -minutes, when it became motionless. In this case the charge of venom -might be feeble. In September of that year a Puff adder (I think the -same as the last named) bit a rat, which at first ran about trying -to escape, going close to the viper, as if unconscious of an enemy, -and apparently unharmed during the first minute. Then it became aware -of pain, and began to lash its tail, whisking it round and round in -a frantic manner. Then one of its hind legs kicked out, probably the -bitten limb, jerking violently for a time, and the rat lay helpless -thus for about two minutes. In four minutes from the bite it gasped, -and continued to gasp harder and harder for nearly three minutes more. -It then bled at the mouth. The Puff adder then bit it again, when, -after two or three more minutes, it leaped violently in convulsions -from the effect of the second bite. The convulsions became gradually -less; but fully twenty minutes elapsed, in spite of a double charge of -venom, before the rat was dead. In all similar cases I noticed that -rats were very tenacious of life. A guinea-pig has been killed in five -seconds from the bite of a Puff adder. - -On the same day, a ‘nose-horned viper’ (_Vipera nasicornis_) struck a -rabbit, which immediately ran and started spasmodically, panting as if -astonished and wondering what had hurt him. Then he leaped into the -well at the back of the cage, but in that short moment was too feeble -to crawl back again. He attempted to run, but sank quickly. Being out -of sight, it was impossible to state the exact moment in which it died, -but the whole was in less than two minutes. These vipers are no doubt -intensely virulent. Another day one of them with a bad swelled face -from abscess bit a guinea-pig, which in thirty seconds fell over on its -side. It squeaked convulsively the moment it was bitten, and several -times afterwards. It lay motionless for half a minute, appearing to be -dead, but gave one slight start afterwards, and was perfectly still -before three minutes expired. - -In stating these periods of time decisively, it is by the watch. When I -did not keep my watch in hand, I do not state the time so positively. - -Between those larger African vipers, when all are in full vigour, there -would appear to be not much difference in power of bite. A ‘River Jack’ -(_Vipera rhinoceros_) struck a guinea-pig, holding it in his mouth till -dead, which was in less than two minutes. Poor little piggy struggled -convulsively the first few moments as if in pain; then only gasped as -if labouring to breathe, but soon was insensible. - -The poison of _Cenchris piscivorus_, though a much slighter snake, -seems as potent as that of the rattlesnake. One of these struck -a guinea-pig—the action being so swift that some of us who were -attentively observing were not sure that the animal had been bitten -at all, except from the instantaneous effects, the guinea-pig leaping -frantically and dashing itself about for a few seconds; then it sank -gasping heavily, and kicking convulsively, until in a few minutes -life was extinct. Some of the creatures live ten minutes, others not -ten seconds. I was glad to observe that in most cases insensibility -rapidly overcame them. And without exception, it was observable that -of the two—the snake or the destined food—the first named was by far -the most alarmed, or ‘charmed.’ In the actions of the little creatures -thrown into the cages, there was a fearless, unsuspicious freedom, when -once they had recovered the surprise of finding themselves suddenly -there instead of in a dark box. Rabbits hop about and over the snakes, -and then sit up and clean themselves. Birds plume themselves and look -about to see what they can pick up, perching upon the snake as if it -were a log of wood. Rats run hither and thither to find something to -eat, and then wash _their_ faces. Many of the little animals run over -the snakes, quite unconscious of their being live enemies, or force -their noses under them, to the evident alarm and discomfort of the -Ophidian, should he be disinclined to move. Sometimes, if faint and -languid, and huddled together in a corner, it is because they—the -victims—are oppressed with the closeness of the cage and the vitiated -air, but quite apart from any ‘spell’ or magnetic influence. They may -stare at the serpent that is staring at them, and as they stare in -alarm at the people, but they have never seen a python, a puff adder, -or a rattlesnake before in their lives, and have not the slightest idea -that they are going to be eaten by one. And for this reason you so -often see the startled and surprised look the moment of being struck. -Thus far they have been unconscious of danger; and when a shock does -come, it is incomprehensible, because instinct does not guide them -under the circumstances. - -On account of the excessive timidity of cobras, it is seldom that they -can be observed when feeding, which is frequently in the night, or -‘when no one is looking,’ to repeat the keeper’s words; but the little -Indian viper (_Echis carinata_) should not be omitted in these notes, -because there is difference of opinion regarding its virulence. Being -one of the smallest vipers, only from sixteen to eighteen inches in -length, one would argue extraordinary power from effects seen. A friend -who had resided in India expressed great astonishment on hearing it -said that a cobra was supposed to be more deadly than this one, known -as the ‘carpet viper’ or the ‘whip snake,’ which, he said, could kill -a man in a half-hour, and that he had seen men thus die. ‘If a cobra -bite you, you have at least four or five hours to live,’ he said; -‘but half an hour for the whip snake, and you are a dead man.’ The -individual brought to the Gardens in 1875 died the day after it gave -birth to three young ones. While alive it ate nothing, and, as it was -then thought, because it had not its natural food, Dr. Günther having -discovered nothing but _scolopendræ_ in the specimens which he had -examined. Now it would be interesting to discover whether, as Aristotle -affirmed, the bites of all venomous animals are more pernicious if -they have devoured each other, or if snakes have devoured scorpions, -and whether the toxic powers of the little Echis are aggravated by the -venomous food it evidently prefers at home. ‘In India is a certain -little serpent for the bite of which alone the natives have no remedy,’ -said Aristotle; and one can scarcely err in deciding this to be the -Echis, being not only the smallest venomous snake there, but the only -viper, except Russell’s viper, a much larger snake. - -Only twice could I observe the toxic effects of the _Echis carinata_ at -present (1882) in the collection; both cases being in hot weather. It -has so far conformed to circumstances in England, as to consent to dine -on small white mice, failing scorpions. In the first case it struck -the mouse savagely as soon as it was dropped into the cage, and the -mouse died in less than two minutes. Echis approached it stealthily -and timidly, but having at last got courage to seize it, ate it very -quickly; and as the snake moved and dragged it, the mouse appeared -to be quite stiff in that short time. On the second occasion, it bit -a mouse on the leg, and it was five minutes dying. At first only the -leg was paralyzed; then a spasm followed, and the mouse fell over and -lay extended flat and still as if dead; but presently a spasmodic -convulsion followed. It again appeared to be dead, and the little viper -approached; but on a very slight spasm receded swiftly, not once taking -its eyes off the mouse, which was dying slowly. The viper was at least -five minutes swallowing this, and as if it did not much care about it. -One must argue, therefore, that the charge of venom had been scantily -expended, as the difference between this and the previous victim was -remarkable. Echis poison has been seen to take instantaneous effect. -The small _Vipera atropos_ from the South African mountains is also -astoundingly virulent. One in the collection in 1881 struck a mouse as -soon as it arrived, and death occurred in fifty seconds by the watch. -A large store of poison must have accumulated during its journey and -since its previous meal. - -One more African snake must be mentioned before I conclude the painful -duty of describing the inevitable—though happily short—sufferings -inflicted by venomous serpents. - -Three young _Najas_, the well-known _Ring Halsschlange_ of South -Africa, were brought in the spring of, I think, 1877. They were very -black and very shy, and for a long while one could see nothing more -of them than three little heads in a row peeping out from under -their blanket, and watching with their large round black eyes, but -vanishing like a shot at your approach. ‘They cut away the moment you -go near them,’ said the keeper. When they did give us an opportunity -of looking at them, we found that one was quite black, and another -was speckled with white; they erected their heads and distended their -necks defiantly. Their eyes had a white rim round them, and were bright -and undeniably beautiful, even though belonging to a venomous snake. -Whether because they were young and inexperienced, or naturally stupid, -I could not decide but of all the snakes none ever went so awkwardly -to work in feeding, or put their victims to such unnecessary torture, -as did these ridiculous little _Najas_. The feeding observations were -made in August, when they had grown considerably, and had become -accustomed to their home. They seemed to bite the prey anywhere without -much effect, sometimes retaining it in their mouth, and at other times -beginning at once to eat it. One frog was ten minutes from the time -it was struck until it was swallowed, and for no reason beyond the -feeder’s awkwardness. The little snake began at a hind leg, and not -being able to get the frog into its mouth, put it down and began again -at the side, but with no better result, the legs being in the way. Then -he gave it up and let the frog go, and presently his comrade struck -the half-dead thing and took five minutes to eat it. One might decide -from this that frogs were not their natural food; but with very young -sparrows the same mismanagement was observable. The bird was awkwardly -bitten on the tip of the wing, and the snake held it helplessly for -a quarter of an hour while the bird was struggling violently. Not -getting good hold, the snake put it down and began again, so that the -poor little sparrow was twenty minutes in being swallowed, gasping to -the last, and evidently only very feebly poisoned. One of the Najas bit -his companion, and held on for about ten minutes, and for no reason -whatever that one could discern. In no other venomous snakes have I -seen such prolonged suffering caused by such stupidity or bungling -as in those young African ‘Ring Hals.’ Their fangs are, however, -exceedingly short, as I found on examining a dead one, and this may -account for the slow effect of them. - -Three other heads were often seen in a row peeping out, but belonging -to harmless ‘glass snakes,’ and there was intelligence in their looks; -for they recognised the keeper, and advanced to the glass whenever he -passed, asking for their dinner as plainly as little snakes could ask. -A _Heterodon_ exhibited equal intelligence when it was dinner-time, -and sprang at the glass when he saw the keeper coming. Some of the -pythons display intelligence too, on feeding days, but of quite an -epicure form. One day in May 1876, on remarking that the pythons were -disinclined to eat, Holland said ‘they were waiting for young ducks,’ -only elderly birds being in their cage at the time. Even in summer they -don’t eat the old ducks so eagerly, because the large, hard quills -annoy them. A bunch of these quills passes undigested. Hair or feathers -in a desiccated mass pass through the snakes, and occasionally, when -they are not in health, digestible but undigested substances too, also -the beaks of the ducks. - -Vegetable substances have been found in snakes, from which it has been -argued that they sometimes eat vegetables. But it rather argues that -they don’t digest vegetables, which have probably been swallowed in the -stomach of a rabbit or some other herbivorous animal that they have -caught. - -An indifference to food was noticeable in the snakes in ungenial -weather. One cold, raw, foggy day in October 1873, a python caught -a duck and partially coiled it, but so feebly that the bird, after -passively submitting for a time, at last disengaged her feet and walked -away to shake herself, and then turn and stare as if to discover what -possibly had kept her there. - -A similar disinclination to exert themselves was seen that same chilly -day in the largest cage, where were three large pythons. One of them -having killed a duck, could not get a satisfactory hold of its head, -and let go repeatedly. Another held a duck, but not to crush it or -hurt it; for it, like the one above named, only gazed deliberately -around, and as if asking the meaning of its detention. A third duck -was put into the den for the third python, who, however, only lazily -stared at it and made no attempt to seize it; while the bird gazed in -astonishment at the one in the embrace of the other snake, as if to -inquire, ‘What are you doing there?’ Presently this duck also got away, -and was again caught and only partially coiled. The python seemed too -large and fat to constrict so small a thing as a duck. It was like -tying up a pill-box with a rope. Some of the spectators expressed -satisfaction that the duck was not more tightly coiled, and hoped it -would succeed in getting away (the duck was not worth two shillings, -the python could not be bought for twenty pounds), and were far more -horrified when a vigorous constrictor caught and killed its prey in -one flash, as when an extended watch-spring flies back to its original -position. But a half-constricted creature does suffer, and happily -this does not often occur, the chilly weather that day diminishing -ophidian energy considerably. A gentleman, disappointed because they -did not eat, and wishing to assign some reason for such unaccountable -abstinence, remarked to his friend, ‘I have an idea they sting -themselves.’ - -Watching these gigantic ophidians on one of those half-wintry days, -it happened that two of them were lazily gliding, partially hidden by -their blanket, and with neither heads nor tails visible, so that the -two bodies seemed as only one snake. Two youths stood watching and -vainly endeavouring to calculate the numbers of feet or of yards which -were entwined and entwisted in those moving coils. Portions and loops -of two other pythons in the same cage were visible beyond the rug, but -only one head of all the four snakes was to be seen; and to distinguish -to which of the gliding, shining curves that head belonged, was -impossible. ‘It seems to me that snake’s such a length that he doesn’t -know the other part belongs to him,’ remarked one boy to his friend. - -‘I don’t think he knows where it is,’ returned the other boy -sympathetically. - -Not a little are the keepers sometimes tried in replying to the -inquiries of visitors desirous of improving their minds. Let me repeat -one or two conversations overheard on those Fridays. - -‘Is that duck put in there for the snake to eat?’ asked a respectably -dressed man of the keeper on one of those autumnal days, when a duck -sat pluming itself as if settling itself for the evening. - -‘Yes, sir,’ replied the keeper. - -‘Will he swallow it whole?’ - -‘Yes, sir.’ - -‘Choke him! I should think?’ - -‘No, sir; no—it won’t choke him.’ - -The man studied the duck, and studied the size of the python’s head -and throat for some time. The duck apparently going to rest, but not -quite reconciled at so many persons intruding upon her, the man looked -disappointed, and again began: - -‘Now is that duck charmed, sitting there?’ - -‘I should think, sir, she was not at all charmed with the prospect,’ -sedately replied Holland. - -‘Does that duck _know_ it’s going to be eaten?’ then inquired the man -after fresh scrutiny. - -‘No, sir,’ returned the keeper with the utmost gravity. - -‘That snake don’t seem to be hungry,’ then said the disappointed -observer. - -‘No, sir. He’ll eat well enough next Friday. He’s going to change his -skin.’ - -‘Oh!’ said the man to a boy by his side, satisfied, though still rather -puzzled, ‘that snake’s going to change his skin next Friday.’ - -Though there are always on an average fifty snakes in the Reptile -House, and on an average each casts its coat three times a year, the -visitors are for the most part much mystified about this phenomenon. -A snake that had just completed a new toilet had a portion of the old -slough still adhering to its tail, when a boy drew attention to it, -saying, ‘Papa, that snake is all ragged and torn on its tail.’ - -‘Yes, my dear, it is casting its tail.’ Papa must have been reading -Aristotle, who wrote: ‘Tails, also, of serpents and lizards when cut -off are reproduced.’ With regard to the reproduction of their eyes, -Aristotle spake more cautiously. ‘It is reported that the eyes of -serpents, if dug out, will be reproduced.’ But, on the contrary, the -eyes of snakes are easily injured, and _not_ easily healed; snakes are -therefore frequently seen partially blind. As need scarcely be said, -only lizards ‘reproduce’ a tail that has been accidentally abridged; -and the repair is after all only a boneless one. The truncated member -gradually heals, and by and by a short point is again formed, but can -always be recognised as a repaired, and not the original, tail; and -as far as I have been able to observe, viz. for three or four months, -no bone was reproduced. Probably also a snake’s tail might heal in -the same way, and to a casual observer appear quite perfect; but the -anatomical structure in either case would not, I imagine, be restored. - -That boy was not far wrong when he said he thought the python did not -know which was its own tail. At all events, it is not endowed with much -external sensation, as one might judge by the way in which the rats and -guinea-pigs take liberties with it. This must be owing to the thickness -of the cuticle, because, as we have seen in the constricting snakes, -there is keen muscular sensibility in the tail. I may cite an instance -of each case. One day a young rabbit caught hold of a small python -with its teeth and held firmly on. The reptile was moving across the -cage, and did not appear to feel any hindrance. Indeed, being much the -stronger of the two, the persistent bunny was compelled to hop along at -the same pace, still holding on by its teeth. But presently, from the -position of the snake, the rabbit was obliged to let go, when it next -caught hold of the tip of the python’s tail, and again holding tight, -hopped after the retreating reptile as if enjoying the joke. In this -case I do not think the snake was conscious of the insult, as perhaps -the rabbit had hold of the skin only. - -On the other occasion a guinea-pig was biting a coiled and passive -constrictor, _Python sebœ_. The snake wished to be quiet, but piggy -got among its coils and worried it, hopping over it and biting its -tail. The python on this, moving only the end of its tail, pushed away -the guinea-pig, which soon returned to the attack. The snake again -gave the little animal a caudal hint that his fidgeting was annoying; -but as the guinea-pig did not take the hint, and still nibbled and -teased the snake, the latter with two coils of the tail put an end -to the annoyance, not once turning its head, but just tucking up its -persecutor in the end of its tail as you might tuck up a parcel under -your arm. The python was not hungry, and took no more notice of the -offender, though thus effectually punishing the offence with the last -two feet of its practical tail. Could we suppose such a quality as -muscular intelligence, we might think the tails of those constricting -snakes were surely endowed with it. As in other instances already -described in chaps. xi. and xii., the eyes took no part in directing -the movements of the snake; the whole nine or ten feet of the animal -remaining passively coiled, while only the extremity of the tail -exerted itself. When reptiles are in a partially torpid condition, -their sensations are slow; when hibernating, they are reduced to a -minimum. At such times, the creatures being half dead, they may be -maimed or injured without any apparent effect. Rats have been known to -attack and nibble snakes under these circumstances, and even to eat -bits out of them, the snakes being at the time unconscious of injury, -though possibly dying from the after effects. - -A good deal of very interesting matter might be added on the economics -of the reptilian _ménage_, the mode of ventilating and warming it, the -cost of its larder, and the best means of preserving the health of the -inmates. There are, besides, some incidental experiences not devoid -of sensationalism in connection with snake guardianship, but my own -herpetological experience does not extend beyond the keeping of pet -lizards, including blindworms. I may add a word, however, in reply to -some often-heard lamentations of disappointed spectators who object to -the coverlets, after sometimes waiting in vain to see the snakes emerge -from beneath them. - -‘Those horrid blankets! Why not give the snakes moss or hay in their -cages? or turf and sand and dead leaves? Much more natural for them -than those woollen rugs.’ - -I, too, may have echoed such plaints until a better comprehension of -ophidian nature showed the wisdom of what is certainly a somewhat -disappointing arrangement. And those who have honoured these pages -with a patient perusal, and discovered the nervous timidity and -sensitiveness of these reptiles, their proneness to reject or to -disgorge their food, to injure themselves or each other when molested, -not to mention the danger of meddling with the venomous kinds and -the easy escape of the swifter snakes, will admit the importance of -providing them with such retreat and shelter as can be most speedily -arranged, and which will secure the least annoyance to the terrified -serpents while the keepers are doing their best to preserve order and -cleanliness. - -The allusion to lizards tempts me to add a word or two on the -exceptional species which has lately become an inmate of our Zoological -Gardens. There are certain features in it so much in common with -viperine snakes, that I may be pardoned for dragging a lizard into -these pages. I allude to the Heloderm (_Heloderma horridum_) from -Mexico, presented to the Zoological Society in July 1882 by Sir John -Lubbock. Its advent was an event in reptilian annals; and being -surrounded by a halo of curiosity, it claims a passing notice. We have -been at some pains to exonerate saurians from the evil character which -our ancestors were apt to give them; but suddenly—and to the surprise -of even some herpetological authorities—there comes a lizard that with -one grip of his jaws caused a frog to fall dead in a moment, and a -guinea-pig in three minutes, the symptoms appearing to be the same as -those produced by deadly snakes. The Heloderm is ‘said’ to be furnished -with poison glands in both jaws! But until a dead specimen has been -further examined and described, the signification of ‘poison gland’ -must be restricted. Its teeth—many and strong—are grooved with a deep -furrow; its salivary glands are largely developed; and under excitement -a thick, acrid secretion flows abundantly from its jaws. Yet so far as -present observations enable us to form an opinion, the reptile does -not use these formidable teeth to secure its prey, or even in feeding. -It did not devour the victims of its bite, nor has it since killed any -creature for the express purpose of eating it. Up to the date at which -I write (Oct. 1882), eggs have formed its chief diet, varied by an -occasional dead mouse. Now it certainly does not require deeply-grooved -teeth and venomous saliva to bite raw eggs and dead mice. Nor does -the noxious secretion flow continuously from its gums in repose, but -abundantly so when irritated. - -Though a stranger in England, this lizard was known more than two -hundred years ago. Hernandez, in his _Nova Animalium Mexicanum_, -published at Rome in 1651, described its bite as ‘hurtful, but not -deadly;’ and that it was ‘more dreadful in appearance than reality.’ -Its Mexican name, _Acaltetepon_, is (or was then) applied to all large -and suspicious-looking lizards. _Scorpione_ is its modern name. As -_Heloderma horridum_ was awarded plenty of space in the journals at -the time of its arrival, full accounts of it will be found elsewhere; -it is introduced here merely as one of the venomous reptiles that form -the chief subjects of this chapter, and to trace its analogy with them. -In its slow, stealthy movements there is the same striking contrast -between the Heloderm and most other lizards, that there is between the -deadly vipers and the active colubrine snakes; and the inquiry suggests -itself, Can the venom elaborated in their system so act upon themselves -as to produce this habitual lethargy? Drowsiness and coma are almost -invariable effects of snake venom in the blood, and why is it that the -deadly serpents are so constitutionally different from others? The -Heloderm has a round, heavy tail, of no service to it in swimming, -and short, weak fingers, ill suited to climbing; and it passes its -lethargic existence on the sandy plains of Mexico, manifesting in its -actions, or rather in its inactivity and stealthiness, a conscious -timidity and cowardice. Motionless for hours, with an impulse to -retreat if molested, but attempting to bite if angered, its noxious -saliva would seem to be rather protective than aggressive. It may have -formidable enemies at home; and by all we see of it here, it does not -use its teeth as a means of obtaining food. In this respect, therefore, -it is an exception to deadly serpents, and cannot take its venom into -its stomach as they do. And, again, the remarkable development of its -tongue suggests a peculiarity of food. In lapping the egg, the action -of it is apparently perfected by practice; the tongue is twisted, -extended, twined under, then over, now used as a shovel, a scoop, or a -broom, as occasion requires. It is the very reverse of what I noticed -in some other lizards feebly lapping up an egg (see p. 71), for in a -most expeditious manner does Heloderm cause its raw eggs to disappear. - -A word _à propos_ of its name _horridum_, supposed by many to refer -to its objectionable qualities. Unfortunately the word ‘horrid’ has -almost entirely lost its original signification and become mere slang -in English. But when Wiegmann assigned it the name of _Heloderma -horridum_ in 1829, ‘horrid’ was understood according to its original -meaning, from _horridus_, rough, rugged, etc.; and as this reptile has -a remarkable skin, dotted over with little prominences, like knobs -or warts (hence its generic name, _Heloderma_, warty skin), there -can be but little doubt as to the intention of _horridum_. In a -communication to _Knowledge_ (Sept. 29), I ventured to call this the -‘Warty-skinned Lizard,’ in consequence of the confused accounts of it -which have appeared in print. There are several other warty-skinned or -‘tuberculous lizards.’ The specific _horridus_, as applied to the South -American Crotalus, also signified its terrible or dreadful character, -and not the ‘horrid’ which spectators apply indiscriminately to snakes -and their blankets. - -With the rapid advance of ophiology comes the splendid new home for -snakes which will shortly grace our Zoological Gardens; and in taking -leave of my readers, I cannot offer them a kinder wish than that their -visits there to _observe_ the snakes will be productive to them of as -much pleasure as has been mine to describe them. - - - - -INDEX. - - -LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. - - Am., American; Ass., Association; Br., British; co., cobra; Con., - Convention; cons., constrictor; cro., crotalus; cy., cyclopædia; - C.M.Z.S., Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society; F.Z., Fellow - of the Zoological Society; hist., history; nat., natural; N.Y., New - York; py., python; Soc., Society; s., snake; ss., snakes; ser., - serpent; v., viper; vs., vipers; U.S., United States; z., zoological; - Z.G., Zoological Gardens; Trans., Transactions; Proc., Proceedings. - - - A - - ‘=Aberfoyle=’ (the barque), sea-ser. seen from, 249. - - =Abnormal= development, of teeth, 67; - of sea-sers., 265, _et seq._; - of hair, 302; - two heads, 189. - - =Abnormal=, health in captivity, 84, 440, 450, 457, 565; - gestation, 437, 439, _et seq._, 459, 466, 505. - - =Academy= of Sciences, Paris, 444. - - _Acaltetepon_, the, 590. - - ‘=Account=, of the Beasts in Virginia’, 280; - of the rattlesnake, 275. - - =Acrobats=, 181, 196, 198, 214, _et seq._, 219, 239, 472, _et seq._ - - =Adaptation=, of organization, 70, 135; - of habits to temperature, 159, _et seq._ (_see_ hibernation); - of coils, 200, 204; - of ribs in progression, 207; - of form, 215. - - =Adaptive= development, of head bones, 31, 34; - of spine bones, 70; - of windpipe, 132; - of salivary glands, 342, 350, 537, 557; - of teeth, 348, 350, 364, 408. - - =Adipose= tissue, 394. - - =Admiralty=, the, report of a sea-ser. to, 255, 259. - - =Advance= of Ophiology, 3, 21, 75, 81, 191, 273, 353, 363, 372, 443, - 485, 515, _et seq._ - - =Ælian=, an error traced to, 191. - - =Æsculapius=, his remedies, 522. - - =Africa=, range of sea-s., 236. - - =Air-bladder=, the, 262. - - =Air-breathers=, 44, 146, 222, 265. - - =Air-tube=, 132, 135, 137, _et seq._ (_see_ glottis, respiration). - - ‘=Albert= Nyanza’, the, 358. - - =Alceste=, Voyage of the, 111, _et seq._ - - =Alcohol= a popular remedy, 548, _et seq._ - - =Aldrovandus=, 102; - his work, 272. - - =Alexander= the Great, 407 (_see Bucephalus_). - - =Alligators=, 43, 261. - - =Amazon=, the Jararaca, 421; - Wallace’s ‘Travels in’, _ib._; - anaconda from, 455. - - ‘=American= Agriculturist’, the, 485. - - =American= Ass. for the Advancement of Science, 485, _et seq._, 572; - secretary to, 490. - - =American= colonies, the, 284. - - ‘=American= Naturalist’, the, 93, 151, 308, 310, 450, 485, _et seq._, - 490; - editor of, 485 (_see_ Putnam). - - =American= sea-ser., 252. - - =Ammonia= an approved remedy, 533, 547. - - _Amphibia_, the, 46. - - =Amsterdam=, py. at, 437. - - =Anatomy=, of head, 30; - of jaws, 31, 34; - of the spine, 209; - of the rattlesnake, 275. - - ‘=Anatomy= of the Vertebrates’, 67, 119, 131, 143, 147, 180, 184, 196, - _et seq._, 212, 336 (_see_ Owen). - - ‘=Anecdotes= of Serpents’, 216, 523. - - ‘=Animal= Biography’, 134. - - =Animal= kingdom, 51. - - ‘=Animal= Physiology’, 147, 210 (_see_ Carpenter). - - ‘=Animal= Physiology’ (Roget’s), 120, 195 (_see_ Roget). - - ‘=Animal= World’, the, 169. - - ‘=Animalium= Mexicanum’, 190, 590. - - ‘=Annales= des Sciences Naturelle’, 78, 91, 442, 444. - - =Antennæ= of insects, 118, 120, 126, _et seq._ - - =Antidotes=, 275; - Fayrer’s definition of, 533; - various reputed ones, _ib._, 534, 539, 547, _et seq._ - - =Apodal=, ss. are, 206. - - =Appendages=, mythical, 101; - caudal, 172, _et seq._; - epidermal, 315; - ‘horns’, 320; - crest, 325; - tentacular, 326; - as ‘claws’, _ib._ (_see_ rattle, epidermis). - - =Aquatic= ss., 53, 145, 150, 174, 221, 225, _et seq._, 233, _et seq._, - 401, 423, 453, 495, 496. - - =Arabs= chew herbs, 525. - - _Archeopteryx_, 44. - - =Aristotle=, his name for reptiles, 45; - bite of s., 96; - marine ss., 244; - vs., 432, _et seq._ - - _Arius_, the, 489. - - =Armadillo=, 413. - - =Association=, Am., 485, _et seq._ - - =Association=, Br., 42. - - =Atlantic=, the, 249; - sea-ss. in, 238; - sea-ser., 252. - - =Atrophied= limbs, 326. - - _Atter_, _ætter_, 479. - - ‘=Aunt= Judy’s Magazine’, 21, 72, 303, 312, 333, 470. - - =Aural=: powers of _anguis fragilis_, 476; - apparatus of ground ss., 527. - - =Australia=, s.-hunting in, 167; - sea-s., 236, 246. - - ‘=Australia=, Snakes of’ (_see_ Krefft). - - _Axolotl_, 44. - - - B - - =Bacon=, Lord, quoted, 49, 57; - a poor naturalist, 99. - - _Bagrus_, the, 489. - - =Baird= of U.S. on the bull-s., 502. - - =Baker=, Owen, a sea-ser. seen by, 257, _et seq._ - - =Baker=, Sir Samuel: v. fangs, 357. - - =Balance= of Nature, 17, 57. - - =Balfour’s= ‘British India’, 74, 76, 86. - - =Balfour’s= ‘Cyclopædia of India’, 86. - - =Bancroft=, H. H., ser.-worship, 514. - - =Banks=, Sir Joseph, action of ribs, 207; - letter to Waterton, 418. - - =Bard= of Avon, the, 97. - - =Bartlett=, Mr. A. D., on the sea-ser., 255, 261, _et seq._; - presenting a v., 322; - buying an anaconda, 455. - - =Barton=, Benjamin Smith, on the _Cro._, 299. - - =Bartram= (Mr., of U.S.): a ‘roaring’ s., 155; - ‘cluster of teeth’, 371. - - =Bates= (H. W.): a cannibal s., 39; - _Jararaca_, 421. - - _Batrachia_, the, 51. - - _Battues_ of ss., 286, _et seq._, 289. - - =Beal= (J. W., of U.S.): sound of the rattle, 309. - - =Beaufort=, Duke of (A.D. 1709), 173. - - =Beaumont= and Fletcher, quotation from, 487. - - =Beauvoir=, Palisot de, his testimony, 488. - - =Bell=, Prof. Thomas, 4; - food of ring-s., 74; - his tame s., 76; - his ‘British Reptiles’, _ib._; - a trustworthy herpetologist, 78; - ss. drink, _ib._, 91; - editor ‘Zoological Journal’, 140; - on _anguis fragilis_, 453; - gestation of _anguis fragilis_, 466; - sloughing of _anguis fragilis_, 481; - the maternal refuge, 493. - - =Bellowing= s., 155, _et seq._ - - =Ben= Jonson, 99. - - =Bengal=, Bay of, range of sea-ss., 236. - - =Berkeley=; rattlesnake remedies, 538. - - =Beverley=, Colonel: a stinging tail, 174; - his ‘History of Virginia’, 281; - a severed head biting, 390. - - =Bezoar=, 523. - - =Bibron=, 80 (_see_ Duméril). - - =Bingley=, a boa feeding, 134. - - ‘=Blackie=’, 458, _et seq._ - - =Bladder=, the swim-, 145. - - =Blake= (Colonel, of Virginia), a rattlesnake, 284. - - =Blanket=, swallowed, 35; - disappointing, 588. - - =Blowing=: the, vi. 152; - as ‘puffing’, 148; - like a bull, 155. - - =Bluets=, 65. - - =Bond=, Rev. H., his testimony, 491. - - =Bones=: of the head, 30; - intermaxillary, 31; - of spine, 178, 198, 213; - in _Deirodon_, 67; - of tail, 183; - of ‘claw’, 220 (_see_ jaw, vertebræ, tails, etc.). - - =Bonnat=, 228, 383. - - =Borneo=, _Crotalidæ_ in, 386. - - =Boston=, U.S., sea-ser. off, 251. - - =Buffon=, 197; - his era, 383. - - =Bourbon=, Isle of, py. incubating in, 444. - - =Bournemouth=, lizards at, 164; - a capture, 458. - - =Bourrelets=, of the rattle, 304. - - =Bowerbank=, a two-headed s., 190. - - =Braden=, J. G., Esq.: specimens of rattle, 306. - - =Brazil=, tree s. in, 219; - ‘Discourse’ of, 271; - names of _Crotalidæ_, 277; - specimens from, 339, 360; - _Jararaca_ in, 396; - ‘Travels’ in, 397; - experiments in, 406; - vernaculars of, 419, 423, _et seq._ - - =Breathing=: irregular, 142, _et seq._; - sometimes partial, 144; - suspension of, 145, 161, 168, 253; - as ‘puffing’, 149, 155 (_see_ hibernation, respiration). - - =Bridgewater= Treatise, 120. - - =British= Ass., 42. - - =British= Guiana, Hist. of, 420. - - =British= India (_see_ Günther, Fayrer, Balfour, Nicholson, etc.). - - =British= Museum, 19, 131, 291, 377, 405, 418; - Dr. Günther’s catalogue of ss. at, 354. - - ‘=British= Reptiles’ (Bell’s), 76, 140, 453 (_see_ Bell). - - =Brittain=, Mr., evidence of, 504. - - =Broderip=, Dr. J., a naturalist, 113; - his works, _ib._; - on the larynx, 135; - quoted by Gosse, 112; - observations by, 134, _et seq._ - - =Browne=, Sir Thomas: ‘Vulgar Errours’, 171; - a two-headed s., 191; - the maternal refuge, 487. - - =Bruton=, Dr. Lauder, 552. - - =Buckland=, Frank: his visit to Chelsea, 13; - a ‘flannel sausage’, 36; - the Coronella, 83, 435; - a waggish s., 104; - a mistake of, 115; - sensitiveness of tail, 183; - a sea-s., 238; - a ribbon fish, 250; - sea-ser., 255, _et seq._, 264; - two-headed s., 189; - reserve fangs, 346; - s. eggs, 437; - anaconda, 455; - invited, 464; - obituary notice of ‘Cleo’, 515. - - =Bull=-frog, 156. - - =Bullen=, George, Esq., of Br. Museum, 19. - - =Bulletin=, U.S., Zoological ‘Reports’, 291, 309, 388. - - =Burman= coast, sea-ss. range, 238. - - =Burrowing= ss., 46, 53, 188, 459, 468. - - - C - - =Caledonia=, New, sea-ss. at, 238. - - =Cannibalism=, 37, 182, 199, 401, 562; - sometimes unintentional, 38, 572; - common among the _Elapidæ_, 567, 571. - - =Cañons=, ss. in, 162. - - =Cantor=, Dr. Theodore, sea-ss. drinking, 82; - quotes Schlegel, 90; - tongue of sea-ss., 125; - sea-ss. asleep, 169; - on pelagic sers., 235; - their poison, 243; - their food, 245; - number of species, 246. - - =Cape=, the, sea ser. at, 252, 259. - - _Capybara_, the, 229. - - =Carbolic= acid, kills ss., 544; - a remedy for the venom, _ib._ - - =Carinate= scales, 319 (_see_ ‘keel’). - - ‘=Carolina=, History of’ (_see_ Lawson). - - ‘=Carolina=, Natural History of’ (_see_ Catesby). - - =Carpenter=, Dr., F.R.S., etc., links and transitions in nature, 44; - his opinion of Bacon, 99; - lungs of ss., 143; - hibernation, 165; - length of spine, 210; - insalivation of food, 352; - vegetable protectives, 539. - - =Carver=, Jonathan, a ‘blowing’ s., 153; - large swarms of ss., 225; - the maternal refuge, 487. - - =Catesby=, Mark: an egg robber, 63; - the ‘blowing v.’, 152; - ‘Horn ss.’, 174, 189; - ‘water vs.’, 226; - rattle-ss., 284; - ‘hog-nosed’ ss., 410; - Indian remedies, 538. - - =Catlin=, George, rattlesnake _battues_, 287; - an alarm, 391; - conjugal ss., 502; - Indian superstitions, 509. - - =Cats=, their whiskers as feelers, 124; - tenacious of life, 559; - resist venom, _ib._ - - =Caudal=, eloquence, 155, 179, 311, 587; - appendages, 170, _et seq._ 174 (_see_ tail, rattle, etc.). - - =Caverns=, the retreat of ss., 287, 443. - - =Caves=, sacred, 509; - abode of ss., 124, 162, 166, 288. - - =Centipedes=, legs of, 212. - - ‘=Ceylon=, History of’ (_see_ Tennant). - - =Chalk= epoch, 262. - - ‘=Challenger=’, voyage of the, 262. - - =Chambers=: ‘Anecdotes of Serpents’, 216, 523; - editor of the ‘Journal’, 23; - observations at the Z.G., 217; - the ‘Miscellany’, 523. - - =Chancery=, ss. in, 13, 515. - - =Chandernagor=, travels in, 444. - - =Charas=, Moyse: his work, 273; - he ‘grovels’ for fangs, 359, 372; - experiments on vs., 371; - a ‘nursery’ of fangs, _ib._; - knew of the mobility of fangs, 372. - - =Charming=, Sir H. Sloane on, 281; - its origin, 515, _et seq._, 578, 585 (_see_ fascination). - - =Charms=, 281; - in s. relics, etc., 509, _et seq._ - - =Chase=, a, with a s., 214. - - =Chased= by a s., 185. - - =Chateaubriand’s= descriptions of ss., 153, 175, 197, 307; - the maternal asylum, 487. - - _Chelonia_, 51. - - =Chelsea=, tame ss. at, 13, 27, 515, 525. - - =Chicago=, observations at, 496. - - _Chimaphila_, 65. - - =Chinese= mythologies, 509. - - =Chittagong=, rare beast from, 261. - - _Chordæ vocales_, 147. - - =Circulation= of blood, 56; - checked by cold, 161; - renewed by warmth, _ib._; - moisture essential to it, 162 (_see_ hibernation, respiration, - etc.). - - ‘=City= of Baltimore’, the, sea sers. seen from, 249. - - =Clarke’s= translation of Der Hoeven’s ‘Handbook of Zoology’, 118. - - =Classification=, 50; - at present defective, 51; - five principal groups of ss., 53; - by dentition unsatisfactory, 354, _et seq._; - difficulties occurring in, 413, 421; - Krefft on, 423 (_see_ nomenclature). - - =Clayton=, Mr. J., the ‘tayle’ of rattlesnakes, 280. - - =Climbing=, 180, _et seq._, 196, 214, _et seq._, 230; - of sea-ss., 238; - of Anguis fragilis, 475, 482. - - =Cockburn= _versus_ Mann, 13. - - =Coiling=, the, 48; - in constriction, 29, 203; - of tail, 182, 587; - in convolutions, 185; - for a spring, 198; - to substitute hands, 199, _et seq._, 206; - swiftness of, 200; - flexibility of, 218; - of the sea-ser., 257; - of _Heterodon_, 409, 570; - in repose, 447, 587; - of ‘Lizzie’, 472, 478; - of _Natrix_, 569; - of the _Lacertines_, 571 (_see_ constriction); - before striking, 573. - - =Cold=; ss. affected by, 143, 159, 165, 584, _et seq._ - - =Cold-blooded=, 56; - why so, 142, 146, 159 (_see_ hibernation, etc.). - - =Colours= of ss., 10; - under excitement, 153, 572; - of tree ss., 219, 386; - of rattlesnakes, 270, 285; - of African vs., 321, 338, _et seq._; - of ‘Bushmaster’, 417, _et seq._, 426; - variable in young ss., 424; - in other ss., _ib._; - after moulting, 508 (_see_ sloughing). - - =Combats= between ss., 37, 199, 563. - - =Congress= (U.S.), Government Commissions, 199, 376. - - =Constriction=, 29, 199, 203, 214, 245; - of young boas, 216, 439, 446; - sometimes feeble, 583. - - =Constrictors=, 14, 35, 38, 135, 141, 182, 198, _et seq._, 213, - _et seq._, 258, 336, 438, 446, 454, 583. - - =Convention=, a, of ss., 104; - U.S. on ss., 485, 505, 552, 572. - - =Cooke=, M. C., ‘Our Reptiles’, 491; - editor ‘Science Gossip’, _ib._; - a herpetologist, _ib._ - - =Cooper=, W. R., ‘Serpent Myths’, 514. - - =Cope=, Professor, of U.S., 386. - - =Cotton=, Dr., of Tennessee, his rattlesnake, 298. - - =Coues=, Dr. Elliott, of U.S., a combat, 199; - sound of the rattle, 309; - development of rattle, 312; - action of fangs, 362; - cro. fang, 376, _et seq._; - species of cro., 386; - virulence of bite, 390; - pigs not exempt, 394. - - =Council= of Z. Soc., 78, 322. - - =Cows= sucked by ss., 84, 478. - - _Coypu_, 229. - - =Cragin=, Mr. F. W., on _Heterodon_, 450. - - =Cranberry= swamps, the _Massasauga_, 393. - - _Crepitaculum caude_, the, 294. - - =Crispe=, Dr. Edwards, F.Z.S., on the œsophagus, 490; - the maternal refuge, _ib._ - - _Crocodilia_, the, 51, 261. - - _Crotalina_, 292. - - _Crotalum_, 292. - - _Crotchets mobiles_, 353, 362. - - =Cruden=, s. poison, 102. - - =Cruelty=, 17, 169, 206, 321, 469. - - ‘=Curiosities= of Natural History’ (_see_ Buckland). - - =Cuvier=; his classification, 46; - his ‘boa’, 47; - he distinguished fangs, _ib._; - his era, 90, 383; - quoted by Darwin, 176; - his ‘vs.’, 353; - incubation, 434, 456. - - ‘=Cyclopædia= of Anatomy’, 118 - - ‘=Cyclopædia= of India’, 86. - - ‘=Cyclopædia=, the Penny’, 113, 120. - - - D - - =Dahomey=, - ser. deities at, 514; - natives fearless of vs., 523. - - =Dalton=, the ‘Bushmaster’, 420. - - =Danish= vernaculars, 479. - - =Darwin=; complex organisms, 44; - _cro. mutus_, 176; - a living fossil, 244; - the _Platypus_, 263; - survival of the fittest, 267; - on the rattle, 311; - atrophied limbs, 326, 452. - - =Daudin=, 353, 383, 488. - - =Davidson=, Mr. (R. N.), a sea-ser., 251. - - =Davis=’ Lectures at the Z. G., 24, 51, 214, 413 (_see_ Flower, - Huxley, Mivart). - - =Dean=, Dr., a sea-ser. seen by, 249. - - ‘=Deccan= Days’, 517 (_see_ Frere, Miss). - - =Deer= kill rattlesnakes, 394. - - =Deglutition=; manner of, 30, 111, _et seq._, 132; - facilitated by saliva, 35, 109, 113; - in drinking, 92, _et seq._; - Schlegel on, 362; - watched at the Z. G., 581, _et seq._ - - =De Kay=; ‘Zoology of N.Y.’, 85. - - =Demerara=, ‘Bushmaster’ there, 423. - - =Dentition=, 34; - of _Deirodon_, 67, _et seq._; - of sea-ss., 241; - of sea-ser., 266; - various forms of, 342, _et seq._; - distinguishing names in, 347; - illus. of, 349, 355, 356, 360; - not used in classification, 353; - Cuvier’s distinctions, 353; - Günther on, 354; - dentition of _Zamenis_, 137; - of _Xenodons_, 400, 404, 408; - of _Liophis_, 408 (_see_ fangs). - - =Der Hoeven=, on the tongue, 118; - on gestation, 435. - - =Dermis=, _see_ epidermis, sloughing, etc. - - =Desquamation=, 329 (_see_ sloughing). - - =Development=; of poison glands, 535; - of fangs, 356 (_see_ fangs, etc.). - - =Digestion=; - power of, 36, 69, 352; - assisted by salivary secretions, 352, 557. - - _Dinornis_, 43. - - _Dinotherium_, 43. - - ‘=Discourse= of Brazil’, 271. - - =Disgorging=, 38; - to facilitate escape, 36, 39, 61; - compulsory, 36, 38; - from terror, 61. - - =Dissection=; - of a rattlesnake, 275, _et seq._; - of _Xenodon_, 405. - - =Dog-teeth=, 347, 369, 370 (_see_ fang). - - =Doubleday=, H., Esq., important evidence, 491. - - _Drachen_, 48. - - _Dracon_, _ib._ - - _Dracunculi_, 196. - - =Dragon=, 48, 101. - - =Drevar=, George, a sea-ser. seen by, 257. - - =Drink=, Do ss.? 76, _et seq._ - - =Drinking=; 76, _et seq._; - frequently, 79, _et seq._, 83; - die without, 89; - milk, 76, 85, 88, _et seq._; - lured by milk, 76, 87; - two methods of, 80; - by suction, _ib._, 92; - by lapping, 89, 93 (_see_ milk). - - _Drosera_, 458. - - =Drummond=, Lieutenant (R.N.), sea-ser. seen by, 260. - - ‘=Dublin= University Magazine’, 21, 312, 333. - - =Du Chaillu=: ‘whistling’ ss., 154; - his _Wild Life_, 186. - - =Dudley=, Paul: on the cro., 281; - a long rattle, 302. - - =Duméril=: much quoted, 3; - Professor _d’Erpétologie_, 78; - py. drinking, 80; - on Schlegel, 90; - the tongue, 122, _et seq._; - glottis, 136, 157, 222; - _la languette_, _ib._, 138; - hissing, ‘_soufflement_’, 147, _et seq._, 157; - quotes Linnæus, 161; - absorption of heat, 164; - physical feats of ss., 181; - anaconda, 228; - its spots, 338; - the rattle, 303; - cro. does not hiss, 313; - system of dentition, 347; - species of vs., 374; - _les fossettes_, 384; - tail of _Lachesis_, 387; - species of cro., 388; - the _Jararaca_, 427; - _Python bivitatus_, 444, _et seq._ - - =Duncan=, Professor Martin, 376, _et seq._ - - - E - - =Echidnine=, 534. - - =Edentata=, 413. - - =Edentulous=, 67, 414. - - =Effeldt=, Rudolph; observations of the tongue, 124. - - =Egg=: producers, ‘insects’, 43; - covering, 432, 433, 435, _et seq._ (_see_ incubation, oviparous, - ovoviviparous, etc.). - - =Eggs= of ss., 78, 431; - produced by pys., 437, 442, _et seq._, 446, 449; - by boas, 449, _et seq._; - by anaconda, 456; - by _anguis fragilis_, 462, _et seq._; - by other ss., 431, 433, 435, 437, 440, _et seq._ - - =Eggs=; of birds food of ss., 59, 63, 66, 430; - swallowed whole, 60, _et seq._; - sometimes disgorged, 62, 69; - passed entire, 61, 69; - ‘sucked’, 70; - food of lizards, 71, 591. - - ‘=Egypt=, History of’, 96; - sculptures of, 508; - jugglers in, 523; - ser. deities in, 172, 511; - myths of, 514; - charmers, 515, 523; - antidotes in, 525. - - =Electric= fluid, 161. - - ‘=Elementary= Lessons in Physiology’, 121, 303 (_see_ Huxley). - - ‘=Elsie= Venner’, 301. - - =Elwes=, Mr. A. T., artist, 25, 516; - a witness, 185. - - =Emblems=, 101, _et seq._, 172, 272, 509, _et seq._, 518. - - =Embryo=, 435, 448, 451, 462, 466. - - =Emmons=’ ‘Nat. Hist. of N.Y.’, 85. - - =Emotions=; - feeble, 56, 159, 161; - expressed by the tail, 177, 179, _et seq._, 183; - by the ribs, 150, 328. - - =Encyclopædias=, as books of reference, 90; - perplexing, _ib._, 418; - errors in, 362, 418. - - ‘=Encyclopædia= of Anatomy;’ the tongue, 118; - incubation, 434. - - ‘=Encyclopædia= Metropolitana;’ the ‘Bushmaster’, 420. - - =Endurance=, powers of, 124, 166, 168, 321, 457, 489. - - =Epidermis=; expansile, 30; - scales of, 46, 193, 316; - illustrated, 316; - magnified, 317; - head-shields, 318; - carinated, 319; - ‘horns’, 320, 323; - developments of, 325, _et seq._; - casting or sloughing, 329, _et seq._; - the process watched, 333, 481; - health affected by, 329, 337; - patterns of skin, 338, _et seq._, 517; - illustrated, 339, 340. - - =Epiglottis=, 132 (_see_ glottis). - - =Erie=, Lake, U.S., swarms of water ss., 226; - and of rattlesnakes, 289. - - ‘=Erpétologie= Générale’ (Suites de Buffon), 80, 122, 136, 147, 157, - 161, 164, 181, 223, 305, 313, 384, _et seq._, 427, 444 (_see_ - Duméril). - - ‘=Essai= sur la Physionomie des Serpents’, 35, 77, 182; - translation of, 3, 209, 356, 363 (_see_ Schlegel). - - =Essequibo=, rambles in, 419. - - =Estivation=, 162. - - =Evolution=, 70, 132, 314, 327; - in fangs, 342, 350, 364. - - =Ewart=, Dr., his experiments, 552. - - =Expansion=: of the throat, 31; - of jaws, _ib._; - of the skin, 30; - of the ribs, 150, 328. - - ‘=Expedition= to the Zambesi’, 230. - - =Expedition=; U.S. Explorations, 162, 291, 376. - - =Experiments=; on vs., 273, 281, 321; - on the fangs, 369, _et seq._, 377, _et seq._; - in s. venom, 534, 535, _et seq._; - in antidotes, 537, _et seq._ - - =Explorations=, U.S., 162, 291, 309. - - =Eye= of ss., 285, 328, _et seq._, 337, 350; - watching, 581, _et seq._; - easily injured, 586. - - =Eye= covering, 328, _et seq._ - - - F - - =Fabulous=; animals, 101; - tongues, 102, 103; - ideas of reptiles, 511. - - ‘=Fairie= Queen’, the, 486. - - =Fangs=; Cuvier’s distinction, 47, 353; - of sea-ss., 241, 266; - early experiments with, 274, 281; - mobility of early, described, 278, 283, 369, _et seq._; - a means of defence, 311, 516; - functional pair, 345, 364, _et seq._; - construction of, 356; - the ‘slit’, involution, 356, 358, 372; - illus. of, 356; - diversities of, 357; - succession of, 346, 350, 363, 372, _et seq._; - action of, 370; - specially described, 377, _et seq._; - a hypodermic syringe, 364, 379; - control of, 375; - fixed and moveable, 362; - reserve or supplementary, 366; - shedding of, _ib._, 376; - exquisite finish, 358; - illus., 349, 355, 356, 360; - fangs of young vs., 360, 361; - of young cos., 361; - of _Xenodons_, 403, 408; - of _Heterodon d’Orbignyi_, 409; - of _Bucephalus_, 407; - of _Ring Hals_, 582. - - =Fascination=, Sir Hans Sloane on, 281; - investigated, 527, _et seq._; - conclusions, 531. - - =Fat=; abundant in ss., 165; - absorbed during hibernation, _ib._; - an article of commerce, 286; - a remedy, 522, 541; - protective to pigs, 394. - - =Fatalists= in India, 22, 511, 513, 540, 555. - - =Fayrer=, his _Thanatophidia_, 5, 19; - ss. eat eggs, 62, 63; - swallow them whole, _ib._; - drink milk, 87; - _Echis carinata_, 150; - prehensile tails, 177; - sea-ss., 236; - _Enhydrina_, 238; - illus. of scales, 240; - bite of sea-ss., 241, _et seq._; - sloughing of co., 332; - illus. of dentition, 349, 355, 356; - fangs of young cos., 361; - renewal of fangs, 364; - in vipers, 365; - vibratile fangs, 375; - the _Crotalidæ_, 386; - ‘Bushmaster’, 422; - vernaculars of India, 425; - cos. incubating, 442; - maternal affection, 503; - Hindû superstitions, 512; - what an antidote is, 533; - virulence of _Echis_ venom, 537; - of co. venom, 554, _et seq._; - effect of strychnine, 543; - carbolic acid and creosote, 544; - how to deal with the bites, 545, _et seq._; - gift of cos. to the Z. Soc., 563. - - =Fear=; a strong feature in ss., 387, 412, 471, 517, 565, 574, 578, - _et seq._; - paralyzing effect of, 529; - causes a bitten victim to succumb, 536, 544, 558. - - - =Feeding=; mode of, 28, _et seq._, 133, 199, _et seq._, 528 (_see_ - Friday, notes from the Z.G.). - - =Feeling=; expressed by tail, 155, 158 (_see_ tail); - by the tongue, 126 (_see_ tongue); - by sound, 526; - vibration, _ib._ - - =Feigning= death, 411, 412. - - =Ferguson=, ‘Tree and Serpent Worship’, 513. - - =Fernandez=, ‘Animalium Mexicanum’, 190, 279, 590. - - =Festivals= to snake deities, 63, 74, 511. - - =Fetish= customs and superstitions, 514. - - =Fiction=; ss. of, 41, 50, 101; - tongues of, 94, 97, 102. - - =Fish=; lizard, 44; - experiments with, 243; - ribbon, 250; - supposed sea-sers., 251, 255, _et seq._; - living at great depths, 262; - carrying their eggs, 489. - - =Fissure=, the gular, 328. - - =Fistulous= teeth, 280. - - =Fitzinger=, 383. - - =Flappers=, 255, _et seq._, 267. - - =Flattening=; of head, 410; - of body, 215, 216, 217, 411. - - =Floods=, ss. carried down by, 230, 231, _et seq._ - - =Florence=; Redi on vs., 273; - experiments at, _ib._, 275; - Fontana at, 368, 370, 372; - ‘knowing physicians’ at, 273, 556; - the ‘Florentine philosopher’, Redi, 555. - - =Flower=, Prof., on Armadillos, 413. - - =Follicles=, secreting, 384. - - =Fontana=, Felix, structure of fangs, 368; - prior observations, 370; - earlier experiments, 274. - - =Food=; often declined, 62, 83, 460, 566, 567; - sometimes disgorged (_see_ disgorged, feeding, constriction, Z.G., - etc.). - - =Forbes=, Alexander K., co. guardians, 511. - - =Forbes=, F. E., ‘The Dahomeans’, Fetish deities, 514; - natives fearless of vipers, 523. - - =Forms=; sectional, of ss., 215; - of scales, 337 (_see_ epidermis, scales, etc.). - - =Forsyth=, Mr. D. M., saw a ‘monster’, 255. - - =Fosse=; the gular, 328; - nasal, 385, _et seq._ (pit.). - - =Fossil= forms, 42, 44; - anomalous, 263; - living ones, 244. - - =Fraxinius= Americanus kills rattlesnakes, 541. - - =French=, early naturalists, 4, 273, 383. - - =Frere=, Miss, ‘Old Deccan Days’, 513, 517. - - =Fresh=-water ss., 55, 224, _et seq._ - - =Friar=, a, of Brazil, 271 (_see_ Purchas). - - =Friar=, a, of Portugal, 271. - - =Friday=, feeding-day at the Z.G., 38, 94, 138, 585, _et seq._ (_see_ - Z.G.). - - =Frogs=; food of ss., 28, _et seq._; - gigantic, at sea, 256; - sometimes reappear, 489; - _de profundis_, 504. - - =Functions= retarded, 431, 434, _et seq._, 497. - - - G - - =Galileo=, 480. - - =Gall= a remedy for bites, 284. - - =Gambia=, _Lepidosiren_ of, 244. - - =Ganges=, sea-ss. climbing, 239. - - =Gape= of ss. wide, 31, 378. - - =Gardens=, Zoological, of London, 10, 16, etc. (_see_ Z.G.). - - =Garnett=, Richard, Esq., of the Br. M., 25. - - =Gastric= juice, 489. - - =Gatty=, Mrs. Alfred, 21. - - =Gautier=, Prof., his experiments, 556. - - ‘=Generall= Historie of Virginia’ (John Smith, 1632), Indian beliefs, - 272. - - ‘=Geographical= Distribution of Animals’, A. R. Wallace, 382. - - _Geophagus_, the, 489. - - =Gesner=, his ‘Historia Animalium’, 102, 272. - - =Gestation=; period of uncertain, 431, 434, 457, _et seq._; - depends on temperature, 458, 466. - - =Gigantic=; worms, 45; - gooseberry, 254; - developments, 251, 261, 266. - - =Gilmore=, Parker, water vs., 227; - ‘puff adders’, 501. - - =Gill=, Prof., on the maternal refuge, 489. - - =Gills= retained through life, 44, 244. - - =Glands=, salivary, 35, 109, _et seq._, 113, 350, 352, 536, 556, 560; - of the _Heloderm_, 590. - - =Glottis=; position of, 133, 136; - sheath of, 137; - of water ss., 223; - how far extended, 140. - - _Glyphodon_, 347. - - =Goode=, Prof. Browne, on the maternal refuge, 485, _et seq._, 498, - 572. - - =Gosse=, Philip H., 5, 9; - in Jamaica, 63, 187; - how ss. drink, 90; - quotes M’Leod, 112; - the tongue, 120; - ss.’ power of springing, 186; - on the sea-ser.], 248; - the ‘Bushmaster’, 419; - _Chilobothrus_, 449, _et seq._; - vegetable antidotes, 525. - - =Gossip=, 94, 105, 321, 480, 585. - - =Gradations=; in teeth, 342, 348; - in fangs, 350, 360; - in length of jaw, _ib._; - in glands, _ib._; - in venomous secretions, 408. - - =Grasshopper=, a ‘reptile’, 43. - - =Gray=, Dr. E., 5; - quotes Schlegel, 90; - on the tongue, 118; - species of _cro._[, 291; - ed. of ‘Zoological Miscellany’, 385; - his work, 383, 427; - _Jararaca_, _ib._ - - =Gray=, Captain David, on the sea-ser., 255, 264. - - =Green=, Joseph H., muscles of the larynx, 141. - - =Green=, Mr., collector at Bournemouth, 461. - - =Greenland=, sea-ser. off, 251. - - =Grooved=; scales, 320; - teeth, 225, 347, 356, _et seq._; - of _Heloderm_, 590; - fangs, 348, 361. - - =Grosvenor= Gallery, 117. - - =Ground=-snakes, 53, 54, 187, _et seq._, 458, 479. - - =Grovelling= for fangs, 359, 372, 378. - - =Gular=; teeth, 67, _et seq._; - illus. of, 68; - fissure, 328. - - =Gullet=; of _Deirodon_, 67, _et seq._; - position of, 133, 415. - - =Gunpowder= used for bites, 543, 544, 546. - - =Günther=, Dr. Albert, F.R.S., etc., of the Br. M., 5, 24; - deglutition, 30; - Br. M. collection of snakes, 50; - his five groups, 53; - ss. require water, 89; - Schlegel an authority, 90; - abundant saliva, 109; - on the tongue, 118; - vibrating tails, 177; - burrowing forms, 188; - a mistake of Schlegel, 209; - fresh-water ss., 222, 224; - sea-ss., 235, 237, 240; - a semi-pelagic s., 243; - the epidermis, 315; - names of head-shields, 316; - illus. _ib._, 318; - a friend in need, 322; - on dentition, 354; - the _Xenodon_, 400; - a poser, 405; - on the venom, 536. - - =Gurney=, Mr. T. H., 491; - the maternal refuge, 492. - - - H - - =Hakluyt’s= voyages, 99, 271, 276. - - =Halford=, Prof.: a vain search, 405; - disclaims an ‘antidote’, 533; - his experiments, 547; - explanations, _ib._; - ‘On the Condition of Blood from Snake-bite’, 548; - approves of stimulants, 547, 550. - - =Halifax=, sea ser. off, 251. - - =Hall=, Captain, dissection of rattlesnake, 370. - - =Hardwicke’s= ‘Science Gossip’, ed. of, 491; - evidence, 492. - - =Harrison=, Captain, R.N., describes a marine animal, 251. - - =Harting=, J. E., F.Z.S., etc., 411. - - =Hartwig=, Geo., ‘Tropical World’, 418. - - =Haynes=, Lieutenant, R.N., describes a gigantic anomaly, 255. - - =Hayward=, S., Esq., viper-swallowing evidence, 493. - - =Hayward’s Heath=; hibernating ss. found, 166. - - =Head=; expansile, 30; - double, 189, _et seq._; - shields of, 315, _et seq._; - illus., 316-18; - forms, 318, 319; - generic characters of, 319, 383, _et seq._, 427; - appendages of, 320 (_see_ horns, etc.). - - =Hebrides=, sea-ser. off, 251. - - =Hellmann=, 5; - on the tongue, 120. - - _Heloderm_, the, 590, _et seq._ - - =Hernandez=, 271; - double-headed s., 190 (_see_ Fernandez), 279, 591. - - =Herpetology=, confusion in, 45; - derivation of, 47. - - =Hibernation=; character of, 159; - convenience of, 160; - analogy in vegetation, 161; - renewal of vitality after, 162; - when partial, 163; - when fatal, 165; - fat absorbed during, 165; - in communities, 166; - seasons of, 168; - of sea-ss., 169; - of slow-worms, 461, 468. - - =Hindû=; superstitions, 22, 425, 509, 511, _et seq._, 517, 555; - eggs sacred offerings of, 74, 86; - vernaculars, 425; - transliteration, 429. - - =Hissing=, 148; - prolonged, 149; - exceptions in, 150, 313; - variations in, 147, 153, _et seq._, 158. - - ‘=Histoire= Naturelles’ (Daudin), 488. - - ‘=Historiæ= Rerum’, etc. (Marcgravius), 397. - - ‘=History= of British Guiana’ (Dalton), 420. - - ‘=History= of Egypt’ (F. Holt Yates), 96. - - ‘=History= of Selborne’, 490. - - ‘=History= of Virginia’ (Col. Beverley, 1722), 174, 281. - - =Holbrooke=, Dr. J. E., of the U.S.A., ss. like milk, 86; - on the Bull s., 155; - ‘thorn tail s.’, 175; - _battues_ of rattlesnakes, 289; - length of the rattle, 301; - on _Heterodon_, 412. - - =Holland=, Mr., keeper at the Reptilium; ss. drink often, 91; - ss. don’t ‘lick’, 110; - ss. sloughing, 334; - bitten, 438; - in danger, 448 (_see_ Z.G.). - - =Holmes=, Oliver Wendell, ‘Elsie Venner’, a tradition, 301. - - _Holodontes_, 347. - - =Home=, Sir Everard; action of ribs, 207; - the scutæ, 213, 217. - - =Hood=, the, of co., 31, 327, 517. - - =Horns=; of vs., 315; - sloughed, 320; - peculiar action of, 323 (_see_ epidermis). - - ‘=Horrid=’, 592; - original signification of, _ib._ - - =Howe=, ‘History of Ohio’, 191; - _battues_ of ss., 289. - - =H.R.H.= the Prince of Wales, 22; - co. performances in India, 87. - - =Humboldt=, antitoxic plants, 539. - - =Hunter=, St. Jno. Dunn, rattlesnake testimony, 488. - - =Hutchinson=, Mr. H. F., progression of ss., 216. - - =Huxley=, Prof., F.R.S., etc., prehistoric man, 42; - smell and taste, 121; - locomotion of ss., 196; - a beautiful bit of anatomy, 211; - growth of nails, 303; - on evolution, 327; - ‘eyelids’ of ss., 329; - teeth, 342; - perfection of fang, 364; - a hypodermic syringe, _ib._ - - =Hybrids= born at the Gardens, 425, 440. - - =Hypodermic syringe=, 364, _et seq._ - - - I - - =Ichthyic=, 244. - - =Ichthyosauria=, 44. - - =Illustrations=; often misleading, 12, 102, 116, 190, 229, 324. - - =Illustrators=, responsibility of, 12, 25, etc. - - =Imbricated= scales, 317, _et seq._ - - =Immunity= from venom, 523, 524, 538, _et seq._, 559. - - =Inadvertent= intruder, an, 309. - - ‘=Inchantments=’, 281. - - =Incubation= of py., 79, 442, _et seq._, 434; - early known, 441, 443; - mentioned by Aristotle, 441; - of Jamaica boa, 449, _et seq._ - - =India=; Prince of Wales in, 22, 87; - superstitions of, 22, 511, _et seq._, 517, 555. - - =Indian= Ocean; range of sea-ss., 236; - sea-ser. seen in, 256. - - ‘=Indian= snakes’ (_see_ Nicholson). - - =Indian= vernaculars, 425. - - =Indians=, N. Am., their traditions, 272, 294, 486, 509; - quick of hearing, 527; - good physicians, 282; - prompt in danger, 391, 544. - - =Ingenious= chirurgeons, 268, 272; - taking the lead in science, 273, 274. - - =Insalivation= of food, 352 (_see_ glands). - - ‘=Insects=’, what they were, 43. - - =Insensibility= produced by venom, 577, 590. - - =Institution=, London, Lectures at (_see_ Huxley, Ruskin). - - =Integument=; expansion of, 30; - modifications in, 315, 320, _et seq._; - hood of co., 327; - sloughing, 329; - patterns and colouring, 338, _et seq._ (_see_ epidermis). - - =Intermaxillary=, 31. - - =Intoxication= counteracted by venom, 548, _et seq._ - - =Iowa=, the first rattle, 295; - the whiskey cure, 549. - - =Ipecacuanha=, an approved medicine, 537. - - =Irritability=; of rattlesnakes, 312; - of young ss., 437, 438; - of young slow-worms, 463. - - _Isodon_, 347. - - _Isodontiens_, 347. - - =Italian=, a noble, 278 (_see_ Redi). - - - J - - ‘=J. J. A.=’, shoals of sea ss., 238. - - =Jamaica=, blind worms in, 187 (_see_ Gosse). - - =Japan=, Indian _Crotalidæ_, 386. - - =Jardin= des Plantes, Paris, 165. - - =Java=, Indian _Crotalidæ_, 386. - - =Java= Naja, a double-headed s., 190. - - =Jaws=, the; six, 32; - sometimes seven, _ib._; - action of, 34; - how articulated, 30, _et seq._; - widely extensible, 37, 139, 141, 409, 569; - adjustment of, 59, 72, 139; - independent action of, 32, 343; - all furnished with teeth, _ib._; - illus. of, 349, 355. - - =Jesse=, 77; - important evidence, 491. - - =Johnson= ‘wrot on Brazile’, 277. - - =Jones=, Rymer, bulk of ss.’ tongue, 118; - sense of touch, 195, _et seq._, 198; - pliancy of the spine, 196, 212; - on the rattle, 307; - an inadvertence, 308; - ss.’ eyelids, 329; - incubation, 434, 449. - - =Jourdan=, 414. - - ‘=Joynts=’; of the rattle, 280; - of the jaw, 370. - - ‘=Juyce= of the bag’, 556 (_see_ salivary, etc.). - - - K - - =Kamptee=, snakes at home, 501. - - =Kansas=, observations in, 498. - - =Keel=-shaped scales, 319; - developed in the _Tropidonoti_, 320; - derivation, 223, 320; - elaborated in viperine, 317, 320, 374, 421, 426; - illus. of, 176, 193, 317. - - =Keeper= at the Z.G. in danger, 39, 589 (_see_ Holland, Tyrrell, - Z.G.). - - =Kentucky=, rattle from, 296. - - =Killing= prey, three ways of, 29 (_see_ Z.G.). - - =Kingdom=, animal, 51; - links in, 44, 413. - - =Kingsley=, the _Cascobel_, 397; - charm of a discovery, 404. - - =Kingston=, a ‘fearful beauty’, 418. - - =Kirtland=, Jared, of Ohio, on increase of ss., 57; - describes the _Massasauga_, 292, 393; - cro. named from him, _ib._ - - =Klein=, 353. - - =Kniuet=, Master Anthony, on Brazil, 271. - - ‘=Knowing= Physicians’, experiments, 273, 556. - - =Krefft=, Gerard: ‘drumming’ ss., 154; - hibernating, 162; - s. hunting, 167; - death adder, 172; - climbing ss., 219; - the _Homalopsidæ_, 224; - sea-ss., 235; - their length, 237, 246; - on classification, 416, 423. - - =Krishna=, Hindû god, 518. - - - L - - =Lacépède=, 383; - _le rativoro_, 228; - _la rude_, 414. - - =Lacerda=, experiments, 416, 557. - - _Lacerta agilis_, 458. - - =Laidley= worm, the, 117. - - =Lamarrepiquot=, M., incubation, 444. - - =Landells=, J. H., sea ser. seen by, 257. - - =Lapping=, 80, 82, 92, 122; - of lizards, 71, 591; - of _anguis fragilis_, 89. - - ‘=Larkes=’, how caught, 50. - - =Larynx=, the, 132, 133, 135, 222. - - ‘=Last= Rambles among the Indians’ (Catlin), 289. - - =Latreille=, 161, 383. - - =Laurenti=, 383. - - =Lawson=, 4; - his ‘insects’, 43, 282; - his ‘reptiles’, 43; - an egg merchant, 63, 182; - milk-drinkers, 86; - ‘blowing’ vs., 152; - ‘thorn tail’ or ‘horn’ s., 172, 173; - dedication of his work, 173; - water-ss., 226; - the poison teeth, 370. - - =Leaping=, 183, 198. - - =Leathes=, Col., a sea-ser., 252. - - ‘=Leaves= from the Notebook of a Naturalist’ (W. J. Broderip), 140; - boa feeding, 113. - - =Lectures=, the ‘Davis’, 24, 51, 214, 413; - Lond. Inst., 41, 195, 196, 211, 327, 329, 342, 364; - St. George’s Hall, 50, 266. - - =Lee=, H., Esq., on the sea ser., 262, _et seq._ - - ‘=Leisure= Hour’, the, on snakes, 115, _et seq._; - illus., 116. - - =Lenz=, H. O., 5, 25; - s. drinking, 81, 83, 120, _et seq._; - on the tongue, 123, _et seq._ - - _Lepidosiren_, the, 44, 263; - ichthyic characters of, 244. - - ‘=Letters= from Alabama’ (P. H. Gosse), 9. - - =Lewarn=, W., sea-ser. seen by, 257. - - =Licking=, 83, 110, _et seq._, 117. - - ‘=Life= among the Indians’ (_see_ Catlin), 391. - - ‘=Life= in the South’ (Catherine C. Hopley), 6, 64, 156. - - ‘=Lightning=’, H.M.S., voyages of, 262. - - =Lilford=, Lord, an ophiophilist, 20, 567. - - =Lincolnshire=, ‘larkes’ in, 50. - - =Linnæus=, his systems, 46; - his ‘_colubers_’, 47; - out of date, 90; - temperature of ss., 161; - his successors, 382; - dumb rattlesnake, 387; - _Coluber scaber_, 414; - slow-worms, 452. - - =Liverpool=, statements at, 256. - - =Livingstone=, egg-eating ss., 66; - ss. come to drink, 82; - a bleating s., 154; - ss. on board, 230. - - =Lizards=, 71, 453, 458; - _Zootica_ sheltering her young, 491; - the _Heloderm_, 589. - - ‘=Lizzie=’, very thirsty, 89, 481; - her achievements, 459, 471, _et seq._; - her wrong names, 471, _et seq._; - illus., 472; - in a knot, 478; - two libels, 480; - climbing, 482. - - =Loades=, Mr. Henry (1682), his gift to the R. Soc., 275. - - =Lockwood=, Mr., of U.S., pine s. drinking, 93; - mystic coils, 151; - ‘blowing’ s., 155. - - ‘=Lolo=’, a tame snake, 516. - - =Loomis=, Rev. Chauncey, Convention on Snakes, 489. - - =Lord=, John Keast, 216; - Egyptian jugglers, 523. - - =Lovering=, Prof. Jno., President of the Am. Ass., 485. - - =Lubbock=, Sir Jno., gift of a _Heloderm_ to Z. Soc., 589. - - =Lubrication=, 35, 92, 108, _et seq._ - - =Lubricity=, 49, _et seq._ - - _Lycodon_, 347. - - - M - - =Maçeio=, a cannibal s. at, 39. - - =Mackeney= on the Am. Indians, 509. - - =M’Leod=, his book, 111; - boa feeding, _ib._, _et seq._ - - =M’Quhæ=, Capt. of H.M.S. Dædalus, official report of a sea-ser., 259. - - =Madagascar=, range of sea-ss., 236. - - =Madras=, experiments of Dr. Shortt, 390, 550, 552. - - =Maine=, U.S.A., Am. Ass. held at Portland (_see_ Convention on - Snakes). - - =Malacca=, marine salamander off, 251. - - =Malay=, Indian _Crotalidæ_, 386; - antitoxic plants, 539. - - =Mammals=, necks of, 211. - - =Mann=, Mr., pet snakes, 13, 92, 515, 525. - - =Marcgravius=, 272, 276, 397. - - =Marine= fauna, 233 (_see_ sea-ss., sea-ser.). - - ‘=Master= teeth’, 273, 370, 556. - - =Maternal=; instincts, 290, 431, _et seq._, 442, 447, 464, 488, - _et seq._; - affection of ss. witnessed, 442, 448, 450, 491, _et seq._, 502, 504. - - =Maternal= refuge, 483; - an old belief, 486; - physiologically possible, 489; - examination of evidence, 492; - speculations on, 505. - - =Maunder’s= ‘Treasury of Natural History’, 111. - - =Maxillary= bone (_see_ jaws, dentition, etc.). - - =Maximus= and Minimus, 452, _et seq._ - - =Mechanism=, ‘curious’, 380 (_see_ spine, fangs). - - =Medical= College of London, 275. - - ‘=Medical= Times’, 87, 547. - - =Meham=, member of Am. Con., 489. - - ‘=Memoirs= of Captivity among the Indians’, 488. - - ‘=Menina=’, tame boa, 516. - - =Merembergius= on Brazil, 277. - - =Merrem=, herpetologist, 383. - - =Mexican=; vernaculars, 277, _et seq._, 423, 590; - rattle, 296; - illus. of, 306. - - =Mexico=, Gulf of, shoals of ss., 231; - ancient temples in, 510; - _Heloderm_ from, 590. - - =Michigan=, Mr. Beal on the rattle, 309; - the _Massasauga_ there, 393. - - =Milan=, experiments at, 280. - - =Milk=, drinkers of, 76, 86; - saved by, 87. - - =Mischief=; by the tongue, 94, _et seq._; - by the tail, 171, _et seq._, 187; - by stings, _ib._; - of delay in a bite, 544, 545. - - ‘=Mischiefs=’, source of, 273, 280, 556. - - =Missionary= Travels (Livingstone), 154, _et seq._ - - =Mississippi=, the, 295, 549. - - =Mitchell=, Dr. Weir, of U.S., 5; - his experiments, 291; - vibration of rattle, 312; - replacement of fangs, 364, 375; - capsules of, 378; - rapidity of stroke, 379; - number of species, 388; - expiration, 389; - virulence of bite, 390; - the headless trunk, 391. - - =Mivart=, Prof., F.R.S., orders of reptiles, 51, 52; - on classification, 413. - - =Moisture=; essential to ss., 162, 166, 224; - to the hatching of eggs, 434, 457. - - =Monsters=, 249, 254, 267. - - =Monstrosities=, 189, _et seq._, 254, 256, 517. - - =Moore=, Mr., his testimony, 255. - - =Mouth= of ss. (_see_ jaws, teeth, etc.). - - =Movements=, 151, 181, 195, 218, _et seq._ (_see_ coiling, - constriction, swimming). - - =Mucous= secretions abundant, 36 (_see_ lubrication, salivation). - - =Müntras=, Hindû belief in, 512, 555. - - _Muridæ_, the, 229. - - _Mus coypus_, 229. - - =Muscles=: of the larynx, 141; - of the tail, 180, 182, 183, 587; - in the slow-worm, 472; - of the ribs, 212, 215; - irritability of, 183, 471. - - =Muscular= powers of ss., 38, 181, 199, 202, 204. - - =Musée= d’Histoire, 443, 444. - - =Museum=, Br. (_see_ Br. M.). - - =Museum=; - of Paris, 78, 165; - Australian, 246; - of the R.C.S., 24, 408; - of Washington, 488. - - =Music=, ss.’ love of, 525, _et seq._ - - _Myopotamus_, the, 229. - - =Mythology=, ancient serpent symbols, 508. - - - N - - =Nâg=, =Nâgo=, Nâgowa, caste names of India, 513. - - =National= Library, our, 444. - - _Natter_, 479. - - =Natural= History, development of, 272; - at Florence, 368; - in England, 3, 45, 49, 99, 261, 273, 363, 372, etc. - - ‘=Natural= History of New York’, 85. - - ‘=Natural= History of Carolina’ (_see_ Catesby). - - ‘=Natural= History of Reptiles’ (Gosse), 90. - - ‘=Naturalist= in Jamaica’ (Gosse), 186. - - ‘=Naturalist’s= Notes from South Africa’, 70. - - ‘=Naturalist= on the Amazon’ (Bates), 421. - - ‘=Naturall= Historie of Serpentes’, 101. - - =Neck=: vertebræ of, 211; - snakes have none, _ib._ - - =Neck=-toothed ss., 67, _et seq._ - - =Netto=, Dr., experiments with venom, 557. - - =Neuwied=, 228. - - =Nevada=, incident in, 549. - - =New= Caledonia, sea ss., 231, 238. - - ‘=New= Experiments on Vipers’ (1673), 273, 371. - - =New= Jersey, Lockwood on the pine s., 93. - - =New= York State, _battues_ of rattlesnakes, 289. - - =Newman=, Ed., editor of ‘Zoologist’, 3, 492; - maternal affection of _Zootica vivipara_, 491. - - =Newspapers= quoted: American, 231, 248, 486; - Country, the, 310, 504; - Dailies, the, 13, 417; - ‘Echo’, 247; - ‘Field’, the, 20, 61, 83, 164, 237, _et seq._, 439, 490, 493, 498, - 504, 522, 530; - ‘Illus. Lond. News’, 247; - ‘Knowledge’, 592; - ‘Land and Water’, 20, 231, 239, 249, _et seq._, 254, 261, 399, _et - seq._, 405, 417, 422, _et seq._, 439, 455, 465, 516, 524, 526, - 530; - Liverpool, 256; - ‘London General Advertiser’ (1752), 285; - ‘Medical Times’, 87, 547; - ‘Modern Thought’, 18; - ‘Nature’, 217, 249, 267, 329, 474, 536; - ‘Times’, the, 232, 520; - Weeklies, 417. - - =Nicander=, his two-headed s., 190. - - =Nicholson=, Dr. Ed., of Madras: ‘Indian Snakes’, 5; - ss. drinking, 89; - sea-ss., 235; - replacement of teeth, 344, 375; - four stages of development in, 349; - on the maternal refuge, 504; - the Russell’s v., 537; - important statistics, 541; - efficacy of tobacco, 542; - self-inflicted bites, 559. - - =Nicols=, Arthur, Esq., F.G.S. (‘Zoological Notes’), on the tongue, - 125; - rattle, 310; - instance of maternal refuge, 504. - - =Nicotine= fatal to ss., 542, _et seq._ - - =Nightingale=, Mr. W., a cure by alcohol, 551. - - =Nocturnal=, most ss. are, 2, 56, 386, 503. - - =Noise=, not ‘music’, 526, _et seq._ - - =Nomenclature=, perplexing, 10, 43, 277, 396, _et seq._; - why so, 413, 419, 421, _et seq._, 423 (_see_ classification, - vernaculars). - - =Norfolk=, important evidence from, 491. - - ‘=North=-American Herpetology’, 86, 175, 301 (_see_ Holbrooke). - - =Norway=, sea-sers. frequent, 251. - - =Nostrils=, ss. breathe through, 139, 143; - opposite the glottis, _ib._; - higher in water ss., 223; - vertical in anaconda, 228; - and in sea-ss., 234; - double in the _Crotalidæ_ (_see_ ‘pit’). - - ‘=Nova= Animalium Mexicanum’, 590 (_see_ Hernandez). - - ‘=Novum= Organum’ (Lord Bacon), 99. - - =Nubians= use antitoxics, 525. - - - O - - =Obsolete= teachings, 49, 99, 174, 191, 478, etc. - - =Ocquago=, rattlesnake den, 289. - - ‘=Odontography=’, 32, 67, 408 (_see_ Owen). - - =Œsophagus=, 67; - gular teeth there, 69. - - _Ogmodon_, grooved tooth, 347. - - =Ohio=; Dr. Kirtland’s observations in, 57, 292, 393; - _battues_ of s., 289; - evidence of the maternal refuge, 496. - - =Oil=; abundant in ss., 165, 286; - of vs., a remedy for their bite, 522, 541. - - _Oldenlandia_, 65. - - _Oligodon_, few toothed, 347. - - _Ophidarium_, the, 16, 61, 163. - - _Ophidia_; divisions of, 46, 51, _et seq._; - groups of, 53; - all carnivorous, 56; - and oviparous, _ib._; - prejudices regarding, 3, 97, 103, 189, _et seq._; - well supplied with teeth, 344; - sub-orders of, 354; - complications in classification, 413. - - =Ophidiana=, s. gossip, 1, 26. - - _Ophidion_, 49; - _Ophiodes_, _ib._ - - =Ophiology=; - meaning of, 47; - advance of, 3, 47, 75. - - =Ophis=, the seeing, 48. - - =Oppel=, herpetologist, 383. - - ‘=Organization= of the Animal Kingdom’ (_see_ Jones). - - ‘=Origin= of Species’, 263, 311 (_see_ Darwin). - - ‘=Osborne=’, the (Royal yacht), marine animal seen from, 252, 254, - 261. - - =Oviparous=, 56, 431, 433, 497 (_see_ gestation, incubation, etc.). - - =Ovoviviparous=, 431, _et seq._, 505; - exceptional cases, 434, _et seq._, 449, 462, 505. - - =Owen=, Professor, F.R.S., etc., 22; - on the jaws, 32; - the _Deirodon_, 66, _et seq._; - the tongue, 119; - the glottis, 131; - lung of ss. 142, _et seq._; - _chordæ vocales_, 147; - prehensile tails, 180; - saltatory motion, 184; - exquisite organization of the spinal column, 196, 336; - ss. are acrobats, 198; - spine of py., 210; - ichthyic characters of the _Lepidosiren_, 244; - the sea-ser., 254; - the _Bucephali_, 408. - - - P - - _Paca_, the, 229. - - =Pacific=, sea-ss. in, 238. - - =Palæontology=, 42, 44. - - =Palate=, armed with teeth, 30, 34, 343, 402; - illus., 355; - two jaws, 343. - - =Palmer=, Dr. E., of the Smithsonian Institute, U.S., important - evidence, 488. - - =Panama=, sea-ss. at, 236, 238; - boa from, 438. - - =Paradox=, the, 263. - - =Paraguay=, ss. washed down from, 232; - observations in, 488. - - =Pauline= (the barque): sea-ser. testimony, 251, 256, _et seq._ - - =Pearson= (Commander of Royal yacht _Osborne_): report of a gigantic - marine animal, 255. - - =Pelagic= serpents, 82, 235, 240 (_see_ Cantor). - - =Penny= Cyclopædia, 113. - - =Penny= Magazine, 141. - - =Pepys= quoted, 49. - - =Pernambuco=, _Xenodons_ from, 400. - - =Persia=, ‘Travels in’ (Sir R. Ker Porter), 113. - - =Peru=, ‘Travels in’, 419 (_see_ Tschudi). - - =Phares=, Dr. D. L., Science Convention on Snakes, 489. - - =Pharmacopœia=, the homœopathic, 556. - - =Pharynx=, 30, 132, 147. - - =Phené=, _Sun and Serpent Worship_, 514. - - =Philosophical= Transactions: first tropical s., 117; - Dr. Tyson on the larynx, 135; - two-headed s., 190; - a porcupine swallowed, 192; - Sir E. Home on progression, 208; - stimulating influence, 273; - anatomy of a rattlesnake, 275; - _Vipera Caudisona_, 276, _et seq._; - Sir Hans Sloane’s experiments, 281; - early observations, 295; - a venerable cro., 302; - sloughing of reptiles, 331; - mobility of fangs, 370; - reserve fangs, 371; - succession of fangs, 373; - how they become fixed, 363; - brooding of eggs, 443. - - =Philosophical= Society, 117. - - =Physicians=, ‘knowing’ ones at Florence, 273. - - ‘=Physionomie= des Serpents’ (_see_ Schlegel). - - ‘=Pilgrimage=’, the, of Purchas, 276. - - =Pipe=-fish, the, 489. - - ‘=Pit=’, the, of cro.: first observed by Tyson, 277; - its use still undetermined, 381; - a plague to classifiers, 382, _et seq._; - ‘secreting follicles’ of Owen, 384; - ‘_fossettes lacrymales_’ of Duméril, 385; - _Bothrophidæ_ named from them, 383; - the _Crotalidæ_ of modern ophiologists, 385. - - =Pitfield= (Captain O. A.): shoals of ss. seen by, 231. - - =Plate=, River, ss. washed down, 232; - vernaculars of, 423. - - =Platt=, Mr., a Florentine enthusiast, 273. - - _Platypus_, the, 263. - - =Pliny=, 84, 96, 168, 189, 196. - - =Poison=, renewed, 351; - ‘spouted’, _ib._ - - =Poisonous=; tongue, 97, _et seq._; - teeth (_see_ fangs). - - =Pontoppidan=: Bishop, sea-ser. history, 247, 251. - - =Poojah=, 512, 513. - - =Porcupine=; swallowed, 192; - H.M.S., 262. - - =Porter=, Sir R. Ker, sensationalism, 112; - his travels, 113. - - =Portland=, U.S., Convention on Snakes, 485, 506. - - =Portuguese=: the, as colonists, 4, 354; - a friar of, on Brazil, 271; - name for snake, 354. - - ‘=Prairie= Farms’, 227 (_see_ Gilmore). - - =Prehensile= tails, 180, 202, 224; - of sea-ss., 233; - of anaconda and _anguis fragilis_, 472. - - =Prey=, how caught, 27, 198, 203 (_see_ Notes from the Z.G.); - bulk of, 29, 34, 409, 585; - shifted in the mouth, 29; - held by coils, 199, 410. - - =Prince= of Wales in India, 87. - - =Pringle=, Mr. E. H., sea-ss. on shore, 237; - a supposed sea-ser., 249. - - =Progression=, 54, 213; - by the ribs, 208; - like swimming, 217, 430 (_see_ movements, acrobats). - - =Psalms=, the, 103. - - =Pseudo=-fangs, 403, _et seq._ - - =Pseudoxia=, or ‘Vulgar Errours’, 171, 191. - - =Psylli=, the, 522. - - _Pterosauria_, 44. - - =Puffing=, 148, _et seq._ - - =Pulmonary= bag, the, 142. - - =Purchas=, 271, 369, 397, 428. - - =Putnam=, F. W., of U.S., editor of the ‘American Naturalist’, 485; - secretary to the Am. Ass., 485; - on the maternal refuge, 486, _et seq._, 497. - - - Q - - =Queensland=, species of ss. in, 540. - - =Questions= yet undecided: the use of the rattle, 294; - the ‘pit’, _doubles narines_, or _fosses lacrymales_, 381; - ‘sleeping’ of ss., 169; - origin of the maternal refuge, 505; - nature of gigantic marine animals, 267. - - - R - - =Raleigh=, Sir W., 99. - - ‘=Rambles= and Scrambles’ (Sullivan), 419. - - =Rattells=, Indian charms, 272. - - =Rattles=, their use, 294, 307; - speculations regarding, 308, 311, _et seq._; - their age, 296, _et seq._, 302; - form and colour, 296, 299, _et seq._; - structure, 303, 305, _et seq._; - Duméril’s conclusions, 313. - - =Rattlesnake= dens, 289, 301. - - =Redi=: _Osservazione intorno alle Vipere_, 372; - knew of the mobility of fangs, _ib._ - - =Règne= animal, Cuvier, 47. - - ‘=Relations= of the World’, by the Pilgrim Purchas, 270, 369. - - =Repose=; after food, 40, 64; - of sea-ss., 235; - as quiescence, 421, 587; - periodical (_see_ hibernation). - - =Reptiles=; how divided, 51; - definition of the name, 206. - - ‘=Reptiles= of British India’, by Dr. A. Günther, F.R.S., of the - Br. M. (_see_ Günther). - - ‘=Reptiles=, Natural History of’ (_see_ Gosse). - - ‘=Rerum= Naturalium Thesauri’ (Seba), 278. - - ‘=Rervm= Natvralivm Braziliæ’ (Marcgravius), 397. - - =Respiration=; sometimes partial, 144; - cessation of, 145; - weak, 146; - when feeding, 132, 141; - in sea-ss., 132 (_see_ glottis, hibernation, etc.). - - =Ribbon= fish, 249, 250. - - =Ribs=; action of, 207; - number of, 213; - expansion of, 36, 39 (_see_ emotions, feeding, etc.); - articulation of, 36, 212; - in progression, 207, 215. - - ‘=Ricerche= fisiche sopra il veleno della Vipere’ (by Felix Fontana, - 1761), 368. - - =Richards=, Dr. Vincent, experiments in artificial respiration, 552. - - =Rocky= Mountains, cañons haunts of ss., 162. - - =Roget=, P. M., quotes Hellmann, 120; - perception of touch in ss., 195; - the spinal column, 210. - - ‘=Romance= of Natural History’ (Gosse), 248. - - =R.C.S.=, Museum of, 24, 68, 408, 415. - - =Royal= Family, the, 20. - - =Royal= herpetologists, _ib._ - - =Ruskin=, Prof., lecture on ss., 41; - classical names of, 48; - movements, 195, 218. - - =Russell=, Lord Arthur, a herpetologist, 20; - a friend of the Ophidia, _ib._ - - =Ruthven=, S. S., Esq., of U.S., a large brood of ss., 497. - - - S - - ‘=S.=’ Captain, bitten by a sea-s., 241. - - =Saades= and Samp Wallahs, the, 515, 522. - - =Salamanders=, 164. - - =Saleratus= an Am. remedy, 553. - - =Saliva=, abundant, 35, 109, 112, 352. - - =Salivary= apparatus: of ss. complicated, 35, 109, 350, _et seq._; - an aid to digestion, 352. - - =Salivation= of prey, 36, 110. - - =Saltatory= actions of ss., 184, 186, 448. - - =Santos=, _pelamis bicolor_ there, 238. - - =Sao= Gabrielle, observations by Wallace, 421. - - _Sauria_, the, 51; - saurians, 71, 327, 331, 590. - - _Saurophidians_, 44. - - =Scales=; illus. of, 46, 176, 193, 234, 240, 316, _et seq._; - ss. classified by, 46, 316; - size of, 337; - head shields, 316; - ventral, 176, 213 (_see_ epidermis). - - =Sceva=, Mr., 365 (_see_ Fayrer). - - ‘=Schlangen= und Schlangen Feind’ (H. O. Lenz), 81. - - =Schlegel=, Herman: his work, 3; - salivary glands, 35; - an authority, 90; - doubts snakes drinking, 77; - power of tail, 182; - vertebræ, 209; - fangs, 362; - involution of, 356; - action of, 363; - translation of his works, 3, 209. - - =Schliemann=, Dr., vegetable antidotes, 524. - - =Schneck=, Dr. J., of U.S., on Heterodon, 412. - - =Science= Gossip, 490, _et seq._ - - =Science= News, 411. - - =Sclater=, P. Lutley, Esq., F.R.S., Sec. to the Z. Soc., Lond.: the - carinate birds, 320; - a communication to, 404; - the brood of boas, 516. - - _Scorpione_, the, 590. - - =Scutæ=, overlapping, 194 (_see_ scales, epidermis). - - =Sea=-ss., 233, _et seq._ (_see_ Pelagic). - - =Sea=-sers. hard to identify, 248, _et seq._; - gigantic marine forms seen, 251; - most frequent in the North Atlantic, 252; - probable hibernation of, 253; - not necessarily ‘monsters’, 254; - official reports of, 255, _et seq._; - Mr. Bartlett on, 261; - speculations, 264, _et seq._; - existence still doubtful, 267. - - =Searle=, Mr. E. W., on the brood of young boas, 439. - - =Seba=, a crowing s., 154; - on the anaconda, 228, _et seq._; - vernaculars of the rattlesnake, 278. - - =Seh=, Fetish god, 514. - - =Sensations=, complex, 121; - in ss. dull, 56, 161, _et seq._ - - =Septic=, a, s. venom is, 552. - - =Serpent=: of Cuvier, 47; - of mythology, 48, 102, 508; - ‘sting’ of, 49; - Lord Bacon on, _ib._; - the name defined, 206; - myths of, 514; - worship of, 2, 513, _et seq._; - symbol, _ib._ - - ‘=Serpentes=’, of Topsell, 43, 101; - of Purchas, 369. - - =Serpentine= movements, 195. - - ‘=Serpentum= Braziliensis’ (Wagler), 383, 427. - - =Shakspeare=, his popularity, 97; - not a naturalist, _ib._; - contemporary literature, 99; - quotations from, 100. - - =Shaler=, Prof., U.S., on natural selection, 308. - - =Shell=-breaker, ‘Sunkerchor’, 63. - - =Shields=, 316 (_see_ scales, epidermis). - - =Shortt=, Dr., of Madras, gives milk to snakes, 87; - approves of alcoholic remedies, 550; - claims originality with _liquor potassæ_, 552. - - =Silliman’s= Journal of Science, 248. - - =Skeleton=, of cobra, 31; - of jaws, 349. - - =Skin=, shedding of (_see_ integument, epidermis). - - =Sleeping= after meals, 40; - with open eyes, 64, 169, 421. - - =Sloane=, Sir Hans: ‘Inchantments’, etc., 281; - experiments, 370. - - =Sloughing= of lizards, 331, 481 (_see_ epidermis). - - =Smith=, Dr. Andrew: egg-eaters, 66, _et seq._; - his work, 230; - the _Bucephali_, 407, _et seq._ - - =Smith=, a Mr., _Coluber smithii_, 416. - - =Smith=, Captain John, the rattells, 272. - - =Smith=, Prof. Lawrence, Pres. of the Am. Ass. (_see_ Convention on - Snakes), 485. - - =Smith=, Sydney J., Esq., U.S., testimony, 438. - - =Smithsonian= Contributions, 364. - - =Smithsonian= Institution, Washington D.C., 488. - - ‘=Snakes= of Australia’ (Krefft), 154, 172. - - =Snakes=, Lectures on (_see_ Huxley, Ruskin). - - =Snakes=: a home for, 61, 592; - groups of, 53; - their place in nature, 56; - length of life, 56; - their uses, 57; - cruel packing of, 169; - powers of (_see_ constriction, deglutition, dentition, fangs, - glottis, hibernation, progression, respiration, teeth, etc.); - by name: - - =ABOMA=, 454; - _acanthophis_, 172; - _adder_, 49, 172, 392, 410, 424, 471; - _aglyphodontes_, 347; - _amphisbœna_, 44, 91, 174, 189, 190, 353; - _anaconda_, 112, 210, 228, 232, 441, 454, _et seq._; - _ancistrodon_, 11, 495, 571, 572; - _anguis_ 48, 54, 89, 93, 171, 183, 187, 279, 346, 353, 410, 452, - _et seq._, 471; - _anholodontes_, 347; - _anodon_, 66, 343, 347, 414; - _apistoglyphes_, 347; - _aproterodontes_, 347; - asp, 268; - _atropos_, _atrox_, 374, 422; - _avusamans_, 230. - - =BLACK= s., 6, 63, as ‘_racer_’, 180, 182, 199; - ‘=Blackie=’, 458, _et seq._; - _blauser_, 152, _et seq._; - _blindworm_, 44 (_see_ _anguis_); - _boa_, 35, 47, 111, 134, 157, 183, 220, 228, 353, 435, 584, - _et seq._; - _boiginininga_, _boiguira_, 277; - _boicinininpeba_, _boycininga_, 430; - _boodon_, 347; - _boomslange_, 407; - _boschmeester_, 420; - _bothrops_, 383, 385, 416, 422, 426, _et seq._; - _brachyura_, 177, 374; - _broad-scaled_ s.,423; - _Bucephalus_, 407; - _bull_ s., 155, _et seq._; - ‘_bull-killer_’, 229; - _bungarus_, 349, 357, 501; - _bushmaster_, 176, 387, 422, _et seq._ - - ‘=CALICO=’ s., 410; - _callophis_, 537; - _camoudi_, 420, 429, 454; - _Cape adder_, 149; - _capra capella_, 190; - _carpet_ s., 10, 424; - _cascavel_, 272, 277, 423; - _cascobel_, 397; - _caudalis_, 374; - _caudisona_, 275, 388; - _cecilia_, 353; - _cenchris_, 175, 176, 224, 226, 562, 577; - _cerastes_, 168, 315, 320, 324, 351, 389; - _chicken_ s., 439; - _chilobothrus_, 63, 93, 186, 437, 440, _et seq._, 449, _et seq._; - ‘=Cleo=’, =Cleopatra=, 15, 515, 525; - _clotho_, 148, 374, 422; - _clothonia_, 85; - _cobra_, 13, 33, 60, 87, 181, 190, 268, 327, 349, 354, 363, 390, - 401, 423, 442, 502, 511, 517, 537, 543, 560, 578; - _cœnicoussi_, 420; - _coluber_, 27, 47, 48, 52, 63, 74, 85, 91, 139, 180, 208, 353, - 414, 437, 442, 495, 500, 567; - _colubri_, 434, 449; - _colubrines_, 178, 316, 318; - _constrictor_, 14, 39, 111, 135, 141, 178, 183, 198, _et seq._, - 202, 213, 232, 247, 258, 267, 327, 438, 584; - _cophias_, 422; - _copper-head_, 176, 289, 392, 571; - _coral_, 10; - _coronella_, 83, 424, 435; - _corral_, 423; - _counacouchi_, _counicouchi_, 417; - _couroucoucou_, 419, 429; - _courracouchi_, 421; - _craspedocephalus_, 388, 396, _a seq._, 421, 423, 427; - _crebo_, _cribo_, 177; - _crotalidæ_, 176, 270, 302, 318, 355, 357, 359, 362, 368, 381, - _et seq._, 397, 494, 503; - _crotalus_, 162, 269, _et seq._, 353, 375, 387, 421, 426, 495, - 501, 519, 534, 541, 544, 553, 573, 574; - _crotalophorus_, 292, 388, 393; - _cucurijuba_, _curucucu_, 429; - _cucuriù_, _cucuriubù_, 454; - _curucucu_, 428; - _cylindrophis_,188; - _cynodon_, 347. - - =DABOIA=, 349, 365, 407, 436; - _dasypeltis_, 414; - _deaf adder_, 424; - _death adder_, 172, 180; - _deer-swallower_, 229; - _deirodon_, 67, 72, 412, 415; - _dendrophidæ_, 218, 408; - _diamond_ s., 384, 423; - _domina serpentum_, 277; - _dryadidæ_, 218; - _dryophidians_, 325; - _dumb rattlesnake_, 392; - _durissus_, 366. - - =ECACOATL=, 279; - _echis_, 150, 320, 351, 366, 389, 424, 440, 537, 554, 580; - _elaphis_, 20, 185, 202, _et seq._, 336; - _elapidæ_, 39, 186, 338, 353, 355, 362, 422, 430, 535, 548, 567; - _el trago venado_, 454; - _enhydrina_, 237; - _epicratis_, 147, 203, 440; - _eryx_, 220; - _eunectes_, 456 (see _anaconda_); - _eutania_, 495. - - =FER-DE-LANCE=, 319, 388, 423; - _flammon_, 419; - _four-rayed_ s. (see _elaphis_); - _furia_, 422. - - =GARTER= s., 162, 440; - _geoptyas_, 38; - _glyphodon_, 347; - _gokurrah_, 425; - _guiarranpiaquana_, 430; - great sea-ser., 221, 247, _et seq._; - _green mamba_, 154. - - =HALYS=, 386; - _hamadryad_, 181, 333, 352, 387, 390, 442, 503, 567; - _herpetum_, 326; - _heterodon_, 152, 347, 350, 395, 401, 403, _et seq._, 407, 409, - 422; - _hexacornis_, 325; - _hoacoatl_, 277; - _holodontes_, 347; - _homalopsidæ_, 224, 228, 234; - _hoop_ s., 184; - _hopplocephalus_, 184, 423, _et seq._; - _horn_ s., _horned_ v., 224; - _horse-shoe_ s., 137; - _hydrinus_, 225, 243; - _hydrophidæ_, 169, 222, 232, 318, 348, 350, 355. - - =IARARACA=, _iararacuassa_, 396, 429, 535; - _ibibo_, _ibiboco_, _ibiboboca_, 429, 430; - _ibiracua_, 396, 538; - _iffulu_, 230; - _isodon_, 347; - _isodontiens_, 347. - - =JACULUS=, 196; - _jacumama_, 454; - _Jamaica_ boa, 92, 119 (see _chilobothrus_); - _jararaca_, 10, 119, 359, 369, 402, 417, 421, 426, _et seq._; - _jarraracca_, _jararacussu_, 396, _et seq._, 400, 406, 423, 429; - _jararacucu_, 369; - _jararacpeba_, 430, _et seq._; - _jeboia_, 423. - - =KALA-SAMP=, 425; - _kamoudi_, 429; - _keautiah_, 425; - king-snake, 177; - _krait_, 349; - _kunikusi_, 421. - - =LACERTINES=, 14, 138, 570; - _lachesis_, 176, 357, 359, 365, 374, 387, 401, 416, 417, - _et seq._, 421, _et seq._, 426, _et seq._, 556; - _langaha_, 325; - _liophis_, 332, 407, 410; - ‘Lizzie’, 89, 470, _et seq._; - _lophophrys_, 325; - _lycodon_, 347, 350. - - =MAMBA=, 154; - _mangeur de rats_, 228; - _matatoro_, 229, 454; - _massasauga_, 393; - _megæra_, 422; - _mocassin_, 7, 10, 227, 410, 424, 439, 571 (see _Tropidontus_); - _morelia_, 384. - - =NAG SAMP=, 425; - _naja_, 154, 328, 425 (see _cobra_), 580; - _nasicornis_, 224, 317, _et seq._; - _natrix_, 52, 138 (_see_ ring-s., _Tropidontus_). - - =OGMODON=, 347; - _oligodon_, 66, 343, 347, 414; - _ophiophagus_, 62, 181, 333, 390, 422, 425, 442, 565 (_see_ Elaps, - Hamadryad). - - =PASSERITA=, 325; - _pelagic_ ss., 233, 235, _et seq._; - _pelamis_, 238, _et seq._; - _pelias_, 495, 505; - _pilot_-s., 155, 182, 213; - _pine_-s., 93, 155; - _pit_-vs., 176 (see _crotalidæ_); - _pituophis_, 151, 156, 217; - _platurus_, 243; - _prickly_-s., 175; - _proteroglyphes_, 347; - _psamophis_, 152; - _pseudechis_, 548, 560; - _ptyas_, 85, 213, 332, 348, 349 (_see_ rats.); - _puffadder_, 13, 177, 358, 562; - _python_, 78, _et seq._, 178, 202, 443, 446, 449, 514, _et seq._, - 516, 583, _et seq._ - - =RACER=, 6, 63, _et seq._, 86, 155, 169, 177, 180, 182, 199; - _rachiodon_, 347, 414; - _raetel-schlange_, 277; - rat-s., 38, 177, 214 (see _Ptyas_); - _rat-tail_ s., 177; - _rativoro_, 228; - rattle-s., 116, 138, 165, 177, 193, 199, 210, 268, _et seq._, - 272, 274, 289, 307, 353, 360, 370, _et seq._, 390, 394, 487, - 496, 501, 509, 521, 541, 549, 563, _et seq._ (see _crotalus_); - red adder, 392; - ring-s., 27, _et seq._, 52, 74, 76, 83, 95, 167, 442, 566, - _et seq._; - _river_-s., 223; - _river Jack_, 137, 150, 223; - _rudis_, _la rude_, 414; - _Russell’s_ v., 436 (see _Daboia_). - - =SCHLANGE=, 49; - sea-ser., 248, _et seq._; - _serpente_, 49; - _sea-snakes_, 222, 231, 318 (see _Pelagic_); - _sepedon_, 347 - _serpentes à sonnettes_, 279; - _seven-banded_ s., 437, 439; - _shiraraca_, 396, _et seq._, 429; - _simotes_, 407; - _slow_-worm, 167, 327, 330, 424, 458, _et seq._ (_see_ ‘Lizzie’); - _solenoglyphes_, 347, 383; - _sorococo_, 419; - _spilotes_, 155, 177; - _sucariuba_, 454; - _surucurù_, 421; - _surukuku_, 419; - _surucujù_, 454. - - =TANGADOR=, 277; - _teuchlacotzauhqui_, 279; - _teutlacocauehqui_, 277; - _thanatophides_, 383; - _thorn-tail_, 172, 173, 175, _et seq._, 224; - _toboba_, 423; - _tomodon_, 347, 350, 407; - _tortrix_, 220; - ‘=Totsey=’, 201, 216, 439, 516; - _trigonocephalus_, 172, 175, 176, 177, 226, 227, 319, 373, 388, - 392, 397, 421, 422, 427; - _trimuresuri_, 177, 181, 386; - _tropidontus_, 37, 52, 89, 95, 127, 217, 223, 226, 227, 437, 439, - 440, 450, 495, _et seq._, 571, _et seq._; - _two-headed_ s., 187, 190; - _typhlops_, 187, 189. - - =URICANA=, 421; - _urocrotalon_, 292, 388; - _uropeltis_, 188; - _uropsophus_, 388. - - =VAIA=, 423; - _viperidæ_, 348, 353, 355, 368; - v. _atropos_, 149; - v. _aquatica_, 174; - v. _arietans_, 148; - v. _caudisona_, 135, 275, 292, 370, _et seq._; - v. _elegans_, 339, 436; - _vipera_, 223, 433; - _vipers_, 13, 137, 168, 224, 274, 318, 324, 363, _et seq._, 371, - _et seq._, 424, 432; - v. _berus_, 441, 495; - v. _caudalis_, 177; - v. _cornuta_, 322; - v. _nasicornis_, 224, 317, 320, 324, 360, 387, 436, 441; - v. _rhinosceros_, 137, 150, 223; - _vivera de la cruz_, 423. - - =WATER MOCASIN=, 224, 227; - _water rattle-s._, 174; - _water-ss._, 225; - _water-v._, 172, 224; - _whip-s._, 10, 219. - - =XENODON=, 155, 347, 359, 395, 401, _et seq._, 407, 413, 421, - _et seq._ - - =YELLOW BOA=, 63 (see _Chilobothrus_). - - =ZAMENIS=, 137. - - =Sound=, ss. affected by, 525, _et seq._ - - =Specimens=, badly-prepared, 45, 117. - - =Spencer=, Edmund, ‘Fairie Queen’, 486. - - =Spine=, pliancy of, 212; - joints of, 213; - peculiar processes, 68; - illus., 68 (_see_ adaptation, anatomy, vertebræ, etc.). - - ‘=Spittle= from the Bag’ (1670), 556; - tasted and tested, _ib._ - - =Spix= and Martin; ‘Travels in Brazil’, 397; - the _jararacas_, _ib._ 427. - - =Sprengle=, Mr. C. J., letter to the R. Soc. (1722), 280; - experiments with vipers, _ib._ - - ‘=Springing= teeth’, 282, 370. - - =Squires=, 514. - - ‘=Sting=:’ of a snake, 9, 95, _et seq._, 105; - of the tail, 170, _et seq._; - the word defined, 49. - - =Stradling=, Arthur, Esq., M.D., C.M.Z.S. etc., cannibalism, 39; - tongues of ss., 127; - effect of warmth, 164; - the ‘Cribo’, 178; - sensitiveness of tail, 183; - ‘Totsey’, 216, 439, 516; - illus. of, 201; - movements of ss., 217; - carried down by floods, 232; - sea-ss. in the Atlantic, 238; - can they climb? 239; - valuable specimens, 339, 359; - _crotalus_ bite, 366; - a gift to the Z. Gardens, 398; - C.M.Z.S., 399; - investigations, 400; - pseudo-fangs, 405, _et seq._; - vernaculars, 422, _et seq._; - confusion in names, 427; - ring s. incubating, 442; - an ‘affectionate’ snake, 516; - an eligible offer, 521; - ss. insensible to music, 526; - ‘fascination’, 530; - antidotes, 534; - venoms differ chemically, _ib._; - fangs protective, 536; - disintegrating power of venom, 557. - - =Stridulating= apparatus, 309. - - =Styng=, 49. - - =Sucking=; of eggs doubted, 73; - of cows and women impossible, 84, _et seq._; - by suction, 90; - the process watched, 92. - - ‘=Suites= de Buffon’, 80 (_see_ Duméril). - - =Sullivan=, ‘Rambles in Essequibo’, 419. - - ‘=Sun= and Serpent Worship’ (J. S. Phené), 514. - - =Swallowing= (_see_ deglutition): vipers, their young? 483, _et seq._ - - =Swim=-bladder, the, 145. - - =Swimming=, action of, 145, 175, 213, 217 (_see_ water-ss., sea-ss., - etc.). - - Synonyms, 48; - a plague to students, 396, _et seq._, 417, _et seq._; - a stumbling-block to writers, 395, _et seq._, 418, _et seq._; - the derivations useful, 416, 422, 427. - - - T - - =Tail=; horny tip, 155, 172, _et seq._; - ‘stinging’, 170, _et seq._; - ‘mischievous’, 171, 173; - feelings expressed by, 155, 176, 179, 180, 587; - prehensile, 180, 202, 224, 233, 245, 472; - length varies, 177, 178; - sensitiveness, 183; - of burrowing ss., 188, _et seq._, 472, _et seq._; - a propeller, 213, 223, 233, 472; - power of, 183, 587; - a fulcrum, 187, 473; - of _Lachesis_, 387; - of _Xenodon_, 155; - of tree-ss., 218, 386; - of water-ss., 223; - of sea-ss., 233; - of rattlesnakes (_see_ rattle); - sloughs, 336; - how discarded, 337; - illus., 176, 188, 296, _et seq._ - - =Tasmania=; - broad-scaled ss., 423. - - =Taste=; dull, 34, 59; - assisted by the tongue, 72, 86, 528; - Huxley on, 121. - - =Taxidermy=, formerly bad, 45, 117. - - ‘=Tayle=’, the, 271, 280. - - =Taylor=, Colonel Meadows, Indian castes, 513. - - =Teeth=; as holders, 29; - six rows, 32, 343; - claw-shaped, 34, 344; - for grasping, 34; - replacement of, 344; - gradations in, 342; - specialties, 347; - illus., 349, 355; - exceeding fineness of, 137, 348, 360; - sometimes absent, 66, _et seq._ (_see_ dentition, fangs). - - =Telegraph= cable, the, sea-s. caught in, 239. - - =Templer=, Mr., catching a ‘Larke’, 50. - - =Tennant=, Sir Emerson; sea-ss. near Ceylon, 245; - affection of cobras, 502. - - =Texas=; cannibal ss. observed, 571. - - ‘=Thanatophidia=, the’ (_see_ Fayrer). - - =Todd=, ‘Cyclopædia of Anatomy’, 118, 434. - - =Tombes=, Charles, Esq., M.A., ‘On the Succession of Poison Fangs’, - 363, 365, 373. - - =Tongue=; sensitiveness, 72; - use in drinking, 80; - ‘a sting’, 95, 106, _et seq._; - not a brush, 108; - a feeler, 109, 112, 121; - position of, 125; - activity, 126; - colour, 127, _et seq._; - Shakspeare on, 97, _et seq._; - of journalists, 103; - of sea-ss., 125, 234. - - =Topsell=; his ‘Serpentes’, 43, 477; - his Natural History’, 101. - - =Torpor=, period of, 162; - variable, 163 (_see_ hibernation, respiration). - - =Torquata=, the collar, 52. - - =Tortoise=; an ‘insect’, 43; - vulgarly ‘turtle’, _ib._ - - =Tortugas=, sea-ss. off, 231. - - =Trachea=, 133 (_see_ windpipe, glottis). - - =Traill=, Dr. Thos. Stewart, translator of Schlegel’s work, 3. - - =Transactions=; of the Royal Society (_see_ Phil. Trans.); - of the Z. Soc., 82, 235, 440, 516, 592. - - ‘=Travels= in the Amazon’, 158, 396, 421. - - ‘=Travels= in Brazil’ (Spix and Martin), 397. - - ‘=Travels= in Peru’ (Tschudi), 419. - - ‘=Travels= Round the World’ (Kingston), 418. - - =Tree= ss., 53, 54, 67, 181, 218, 386, 430. - - ‘=Tropical= World’ (Hartwig), 418. - - =Tropidos=, the keel, 223. - - =Tschudi=, the _Flammon_ of Peru, 419. - - =Tyrrell=, keeper at the Reptilium, a witness, 185; - an assistant, 402 (_see_ Zoo. Gardens). - - =Tyson=, Dr. Edward; dissection of _Vipera caudisona_, 275; - on the larynx, 135; - on the ‘pit’, 277; - volitionary action of fangs, 370 (_see_ Phil. Trans. 1683). - - - U - - =United= States of America; - Association for the Advancement of Science, 485; - Science Convention on Snakes, 485, _et seq._; - Exploring Expeditions, 162, 291, 293, 309, 376; - official Reports to Congress, 162, 291; - Dr. Elliott Coues, 199, 309, 376, 394; - herpetologists of, quoted, De Kay, 85; - Emmons, _ib._; - Holbrooke, 86, _et seq._; - Dr. Weir Mitchel, 535, _et seq._; - F. W. Putnam, and the members of the Con., 485; - ophiological experiments (_see_ Coues, Mitchel, Putnam, etc.). - - - V - - =Valenciennes=; on the py., 78, _et seq._, 444, _et seq._ - - =Vallée= gave drink to the py., 79. - - =Valley= of Wyoming infested with ss., 289. - - =Veleno=, _il della vipera_ (Fontana, 1767), 368. - - =Venner=, Elsie, 301. - - =Venom=; varies in ss., 534; - intensity of, 360, 537, 533; - remedies for, 552, _et seq._; - modes of treatment, 545, _et seq._ (_see_ Fayrer, Mitchell, etc. - etc.). - - =Vernaculars=, 277, 279, 397, 419, 429; - Stradling on, 423. - - =Vertebræ=; of _Deirodon_, 67; - number of joints, 209, 210; - articulation, 212; - capabilities of, 196, 202, _et seq._, 212, 587; - distinctions in, 211 (_see_ spine, constriction). - - =Vestiges= of limbs, 54; - in anaconda, 220, 453; - in form of ‘claws’, 219, _et seq._; - Darwin on, 326; - Huxley on, 327. - - =Vibratile=; action of fangs, 278, 375, 403, 409; - of tail, 155, 180, _et seq._, 587. - - =Vibration= through solids affects ss., 526. - - =Virginia=, 5; - ‘Generall Historie of’, 272; - ‘Account of’, 274; - ‘History of’ (Beverley), 281, (Howe), 289; - old writers on, 369; - adventures in, 6, 64. - - =Viviparous=, 431; - not peculiar to vs., 433 (_see_ incubation, gestation). - - =Voice=, 146, _et seq._ (_see_ breathing, etc.). - - ‘=Voyage= of the _Alceste_’, Captain M’Leod, 111. - - - W - - =Wagler=; _eunectes_, 228; - a herpetologist, 383; - not trustworthy, 427. - - =Wales=, H. R. H. the Prince of, 22, 87. - - =Wales=; - numbers of ss. in, 167; - a ‘venomous’ worm in, 480. - - =Wallaby= hunters, 167. - - =Wallace=, A. R., F.R.S., etc.; a half-strangled boa, 157; - the _crotalidæ_, 382, 386; - sound of rattle, 309; - the _Jararaca_, 396; - the _Surucurù_, 421. - - ‘=Wanderings=’ (_see_ Waterton). - - =Washington=, D. C., Smithsonian Contributions, 374. - - =Water= ss., 174, 221, _et seq._ - - =Waterton=, Charles, Esq.; the _Counacouchi_, 417; - high colouring, _ib._; - a stumbling-block, 419. - - =Webster=, Noah; - a doubtful snake, 396. - - ‘=Western= World’, the (Kingston), 418. - - =Whisky=; a popular remedy, 548; - enormous doses, 549; - approved by Halford, 550; - Mitchell, _ib._; - Shortt, _ib._; - generally efficacious, 549, _et seq._ - - =White=, Gilbert; believed the maternal affection of vipers, 490. - - =Whydah=, py. deities at, 514. - - ‘=Wild= Life’ (Du Chaillu), 186. - - =Wilson=, Dr. Andrew; reptiles not highly organized, 18; - unscientific observers, 50; - imaginary sea-ser., 250; - abnormal developments, 265. - - =Wind=-pipe, the, 130; - with a volitionary action, 131; - Owen on, _ib._; - formation of, 133; - length, 134; - Tyson on, 135; - Duméril, _ib._; - observations, 137, _et seq._; - muscles of, 141 (_see_ glottis). - - =Wood= (‘Natural History’); the slow-worm, 453. - - =Woodward=, the Messrs., ‘South Africa’, 70, _et seq._ - - =Worcester=; a doubtful s., 397. - - =Worms=, gigantic, 45; - the Laidley, 117; - occasionally ‘venomous’, 480. - - =Wright=; a doubtful snake, 397. - - ‘=Wrongly=-named’, 470 (_see_ ‘Lizzie’). - - =Wucherer=, Dr., on _Xenodon_, 155, 401, 409; - tree ss. 219; - C.M.Z.S., 401; - the _Surucucus_, 421. - - =Wyman=, Professor, U.S., gastric juice of ss., 489. - - - Y - - =Yarmouth=, sea-sers. at, 252. - - =Yates=, F. H., Esq., ‘History of Egypt’, how ss. insert venom, 96. - - =Yawning=; after meals, 30, 36; - quite a business, 37; - position of jaws when, 37, 136; - opportunities for inspection, 136, 139. - - - Z - - =Zambesi=, Expedition to the (Livingstone), 230. - - _Zeuglodontia_, the, imaginary sea-ser., 249. - - =Zimmermann=, Professor (1800) incipient rattles, 299. - - =Zoological= Gardens, 10; - Royal ophiophilists, 20; - a boon, 23; - blanket swallowed, 35; - cannibals, 39; - the ‘moccasins’, 10, 227, 572; - lectures at, 24; - eggs for food, 62; - the tanks, 92, 145; - snakes drinking, 92; - actions of snakes in water, 145, 218; - gossip, 94, 105, 585; - old coats, 193; - a means of instruction, 105, 110, 441; - What can it be? 129; - the air tube, 138; - hibernation, 163; - observations, 127, 333, 528, 561, _et seq._; - baby vipers, 321, 432, 499; - acrobatic performances, 200, _et seq._, 214; - seizing the opportunity, 203; - length of anaconda, 230; - Mr. Bartlett of, 255, 322; - interrupted studies, 138; - snakes born there, 321, 436, _et seq._, 499, 500; - important additions, 398, 402, 455, 520; - a newly-hatched brood, 500; - a sudden thought, _ib._; - ‘Totsey’, 201, 216, 439, 516; - slow-worms climbing, 482; - fascination, 528, 578; - tame ss., 515; - casting the cuticle, 333, _et seq._; - _Heterodons_, 411; - the _Xenodons_, 402, _et seq._; - notes from the Z.G., 562, _et seq._; - the _Ophiophagus_, 565, _et seq._; - a Government agent, 570; - relative poisons, 575, _et seq._; - ‘coiling’, 573; - dinner time, 582; - the blankets, 588; - the keepers’ risks, 564, 588; - the Heloderm, 589, _et seq._; - ‘horrid’, 591; - the new Reptilium, 592. - - ‘=Zoological= Journal’ (1826), edited by Bell; Broderip on - lubrication, 113, 134; - his observations confirmed by Bell, 140. - - ‘=Zoological= Miscellany’, the (J. E. Gray, ed.), _Crotalidæ_, 385. - - =Zoological= myths, 50, 266. - - ‘=Zoological= Notes’ (Arthur Nicols, Esq.), 125, 310, 504. - - =Zoological= Proceedings, 140, 155, 401, 421, 456, 497, 516. - - =Zoological= Society, 24; - Cantor, 82, 235; - A. R. Wallace, 309; - Dr. Edwardes Crispe, 490. - - =Zoological= Society; - Council of, Professor Bell, 78, 493; - a fortuitous arrival, 322; - Sec. of, 440. - - =Zoological= Society, C.M. of, 399, 401. - - =Zoological= Transactions, 82, 235, 440, 516. - - _Zoologist_, the, 3, 70, 73, 442, 490, 492. - - =Zoology=; - a progressive science, 3; - assisted by observations (_see_ Convention, Florence, Phil. Trans., - Z. G., etc.). - - ‘=Zoology=’, Carpenter’s, 44. - - ‘=Zoology= of New York’ (De Kay), 85. - - ‘=Zoology= of South Africa’, Andrew Smith, M.D., F.Z.S., 66, 68, 177, - 230, 407. - - =Zurich=, Gesner, Professor at, 102. - - -THE END. - - - MORRISON AND GIBB, EDINBURGH, - PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Aunt Jenny’s American Pets._ By Catherine C. Hopley. London, 1872. - -[2] ‘Snakes and their Food,’ _Modern Thought_, Jan. 1881, in reply to a -paper in _Time_ of the previous September. - -[3] _Odontography._ By Richard Owen. London. - -[4] _Essai sur la Physionomie des Serpents._ Par Herman Schlegel. -Paris, 1837. - -[5] _Règne Animal_, p. 108. Paris. - -[6] January 1882. - -[7] I have ventured to coin this word for the cages and buildings -likely to be required in parks and gardens for pet snakes, so notably -growing in popularity. - -[8] _Thanatophidia of India_, 1st ed. 1872. - -[9] _Ib._ 2d ed. p. 6. 1874. - -[10] _Zoology of South Africa_, by Dr. A. Smith. 1849. - -[11] _Odontography_, by Richard Owen, 1840, and _Anatomy of the -Vertebrates_, 1866. - -[12] _Natural History Notes from South Africa_, by R. B. and J. D. S. -Woodward. Lond. 1874. - -[13] See _Aunt Judy’s Magazine_, Aug. 1874, London,—‘The Deirodon, or -neck-toothed snake.’ - -[14] _British Reptiles_, by Thomas Bell, F.L.S., etc. 1849. - -[15] _Physiognomie des serpents_, p. 97. Par H. Schlegel. Amsterdam, -1837. - -[16] _Annales des sciences naturelles_, 2d Series, tome xvi. Paris, -1841. - -[17] _Erpétologie genéral_, par MM. Dumeril et Bibron, tome i. p. 136. -Paris, 1844. - -[18] _Schlangen und Schlangen fiend_, par II. O. Lenz. Gotha, 1832. - -[19] _Sea Snakes: Pelagic Serpents_, by Dr. Theo. E. Cantor. London, -1842. Zoological Society’s _Transactions_, 1841. - -[20] See _Field_ newspaper, September and October 1862. London. - -[21] _Zoology of New York_, by J. E. De Kay. Albany, 1844. - -[22] _Natural History of New York._ 5 vols. New York, 1842. - -[23] _North American Herpetology._ Phil., U. S., 1842. - -[24] _History of Carolina_, by Jno. Lawson, 1709. - -[25] Balfour’s _British India_; also the _Cyclopedia of India_. - -[26] See _Medical Times_, 1872, p. 730. - -[27] _Reptiles of British India_, by Dr. A. Günther, F.R.S. London, -1864. - -[28] _Indian Snakes_, by E. Nicholson, Madras Army. Madras, 1870. - -[29] _Natural History of Reptiles_, by P. H. Gosse. 1850. - -[30] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 1859, see art. ‘Reptilia,’ p. 47. - -[31] _Ibid._ p. 47. - -[32] Author of _Zoological Researches_, and _Leaves from the Notebook -of a Naturalist_. - -[33] In the ‘Laidley Worm,’ exhibited at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1881, -the artist must have copied one of these. - -[34] _Elementary Lessons in Physiology._ London, 1875. - -[35] Tome i. p. 126 of _Erpétologie générale_. - -[36] _Ibid._ p. 135. - -[37] Tome vi. p. 100 of _Erpétologie générale_. - -[38] _Philosophical Transactions_, vol. xiii. p. 25. 1684. - -[39] _Erpétologie générale_, tome vi. p. 177 _et seq._ - -[40] _Erpétologie générale_, tome i. p. 180. - -[41] _American Naturalist_, vol. ix. - -[42] _Missionary Travels in South Africa_, by David Livingstone. - -[43] _Snakes of Australia_, by Gerard Krefft. - -[44] _Life in the South_, vol. i. p. 260. By Catherine C. Hopley. Lond. -1862. - -[45] Dumeril et Bibron’s _Erpétologie générale_, tome vi. p. 186. - -[46] _Travels in the Amazons_, p. 47. By A. R. Wallace. London, 1853. - -[47] _Erpétologie générale_, tome vi. p. 184. - -[48] _Ibid._ tome i. p. 180. - -[49] Dumeril et Bibron, tome vi. p. 184. - -[50] _Pseudoxia; or, Vulgar Errours_, Book iii. p. 207. By Sir Thomas -Browne. - -[51] _Snakes of Australia_, by Gerard Krefft. - -[52] _The Natural History of Carolina_, by Mark Catesby. London, 1731. - -[53] The vipers in the London Gardens labelled _Cenchris piscivorus_ -have _not_ the thorny tail, nor are they fish eaters. Nor can the -spectator form any idea of their swimming capacities, their dark, -narrow tank barely enabling them to extend themselves full length. -Herpetologists differ in assigning the above name, and in deciding -which is really the ‘Thorn-tail’ or ‘Horn snake’ of Lawson and Catesby. -Those at the Zoological Gardens, notwithstanding their specific name, -are never regaled on fish. - -[54] _Reptiles of British India._ - -[55] Dr. A. Stradling affirms that these two snakes do not invariably -molest each other. He had the Rat-tail (_Fer de lance_) and two -_Cribos_ with others in one cage, living on peaceful terms. - -[56] _Erpélogie générale_, tome i. p. 47. - -[57] _Essai sur la physiognomie des serpents_, par Herman Schlegel. -Amsterdam, 1837. - -[58] _Curiosities of Natural History_, by F. Buckland. - -[59] _Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, p. 260. - -[60] Since the above was in type, I have on several occasions observed -vertical coils in constricting snakes. Twice a python constricted an -animal in _distinct vertical coils_. I drew the attention of Keeper -Tyrrell to this, and we were both convinced that no lateral coils -whatever were used. On another occasion, while Mr. Elwes was studying -the action of _Elaphis quater-radiatus_ for the illustration, p. 205, -its coils were entirely vertical, _not_ lateral. - -[61] _A Naturalist in Jamaica_, by P. H. Gosse. - -[62] _Pseudoxia_, Book iii. chap. xx. p. 155. - -[63] Since this was in type, I find that not even a porcupine is safe -from a hungry snake. In vol. xliii. of the _Philosophical Transactions_ -(1744), p. 271, is a letter from a gentleman in India, who states that -on an island near Bombay a dead snake was found with the quills of a -porcupine ‘sticking out of its Belly.’ The snake had ‘sucked it in Head -foremost, while the Quills were flatted down. Afterwards they rose and -ran through the Snake’s Belly, and so killed it.’ The pressure of the -jaws had ‘flatted’ the quills, but not killed the animal, which, when -in its expansile tomb, had, though vainly, erected its natural armour. - -[64] Owen’s _Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, p. 261. - -[65] _Genius of Christianity._ - -[66] _Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, vol. iii. p. 260 _et seq._ - -[67] _Organization of the Animal Kingdom._ - -[68] _Essay on the Physiology of Serpents._ Translated from the -original by Thomas Stewart Trail, M.D., F.R.S.E., etc. Edin. 1843. - -[69] ‘On the Movements of Snakes in Flight,’ by Dr. Arthur Stradling, -C.M.Z.S., _Nature_, Feb. 1882. - -[70] Letter to Sir Emerson Tennant. - -[71] Dumeril et Bibron, _Erpétologie générale_, tome i. p. 179. - -[72] Since this has been in type, there has been brought to the Gardens -an Indian ‘River snake’ (_Tropidonotus quincunciatus_), affording me -an opportunity to observe that there is a notable modification of the -glottis, as also of the nostrils. Not a true water snake, but one of -the intermediate families, so do we find the nostrils somewhat higher -than those of land snakes, while yet not quite on the top of the snout -as in sea snakes; the glottis has a corresponding upward direction -to meet them, and is a more elongated, longitudinal slit than those -furnished with the _petite languette_.—June 1882. - -[73] _Prairie Farms and Prairie Folk_, vol. ii. pp. 83, 84. - -[74] See _Field_ newspaper, June 25, 1881. - -[75] _Thanatophidia of India_, 1st ed. - -[76] _Origin of Species_, 6th ed. 1872, p. 83. - -[77] See _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1672. - -[78] _New Experiments upon Vipers, with Exquisite Remedies that may -be drawn from them: as well as Cure for their Bitings, as for that of -other Maladies._ By M. Charas, now rendered English, 1673. - -[79] _Philosophical Transactions_, vol. xxxviii. p. 321. 1733. - -[80] _History of Virginia_, 1722. - -[81] _Last Rambles among the Indians_, by Geo. Catlin. London, 1865. - -[82] See _Philosophical Transactions_, vol. xxxii. A paper on the -Crotalus, by Paul Dudley, Esq. - -[83] _North American Herpetology_, vol. iii. p. 15. By J. E. Holbrooke. -1842. - -[84] ‘The History of a Rattle,’ by Catherine C. Hopley, _Aunt Judy’s -Magazine_, July 1877. - -[85] _Erpétologie générale_, tome vii. part. ii, p. 1457, par MM. -Dumeril et Bibron. Paris. - -[86] _Organization of the Animal Kingdom_, p. 732. By T. Rymer Jones. - -[87] From the Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey by Dr. Elliot -Coues, Appointed Surgeon and Naturalist to the Expedition, 1878. - -[88] _The Country_ newspaper, August 1878 _et seq._ - -[89] _Erpétologie générale_, tome vii. p. 1456. - -[90] _Reptiles of British India_, by Dr. Albert Günther, F.R.S. - -[91] _Reptiles of British India_, by Dr. Albert Günther, F.R.S. - -[92] _Indian Snakes_, by Ed. Nicholson, M.D. Madras, 1870. - -[93] Introduction to the _Catalogue of the Snakes in the British -Museum_, 1858. - -[94] _Physiognomie des serpents_, par H. Schlegel. Amsterdam, 1837. - -[95] _The Albert Nyanza, or Great Basin of the Nile_, by Sir Sam. -Baker. London, 1866. - -[96] _Essai sur la physiognomie des serpents_, par Herman Schlegel. -Amsterdam, 1837. - -[97] _Smithsonian Contributions._ Washington, 1860. - -[98] _Thanatophidia of India_, 2d ed. p. 72. - -[99] _Ricerche fisiche sopra il vel no della vipera._ Lucca, 1767. - -[100] _The Relations of the World, and the Religions observed in all -Ages and in all Places discouered since the Creation_, Book I. 1st ed. -p. 842. London, 1614. - -[101] _Ib._ 4th ed. p. 1393. 1625. - -[102] Paper on the ‘Vipera Caudisona,’ by Ed. Tyson, M.D., -_Philosophical Transactions_, vol. xiii. p. 25. 1683. - -[103] _Philosophical Transactions_, vol. xxxiv. p. 309. 1726. - -[104] _Philosophical Transactions_, vol. xxxviii. 1733-34. - -[105] _Osservazione intorno alle Vipere_, by Francesco Redi. Florence, -1664. - -[106] Ed. of 1876. - -[107] _Erpétologie générale_, tome 7, p. 1451. - -[108] _Erpétologie générale_, tome 7, p. 1367. - -[109] _Ibid._ p. 1503. - -[110] _Travels in Brazil._ London, 1824. - -[111] _Historiæ Rervm Natvralivm Braziliæ._ Antwerp. - -[112] Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society. - -[113] _Zoology of South Africa._ - -[114] _Odontography_, vol. i. p. 225. - -[115] _Science News_, Feb. 15, 1879. - -[116] _Davis Lecture_, July 28th, 1881. Since the above was written, -Professor Flower on ‘Armadillos,’ at the opening lecture of the -‘Davis Series,’ June 8th, 1882, further corroborated the difficulties -presented in these mixed characters, which have caused zoologists to -place the armadillo among the _Edentata_, ant-eaters, sloths, etc., -notwithstanding it is permanently supplied with teeth. - -[117] _Wanderings in South America_, by Charles Waterton. London, 1825. - -[118] _The Tropical World._ London, 1873. - -[119] _The Western World._ London, 1874. - -[120] _Travels in Peru._ London, 1847. - -[121] _Rambles and Scrambles in Essequibo._ London, 1852. - -[122] _History of British Guiana_, vol. ii. p. 370. By G. Dalton, M.D. -Lond. 1855. - -[123] _The Naturalist on the Amazons_, by H. W. Bates. Lond. 1873. - -[124] _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_, Jan. and Nov. 1861. - -[125] _Travels in the Amazon._ Lond. 1855. - -[126] _Thanatophidia_, p. 8. - -[127] _Land and Water_, October 16, 1880. - -[128] By J. B. von Spix, _Publié par Jean Wagler_. Monarchu, 1826. - -[129] Article ‘Reptilia’ in Todd’s _Encyclopædia of Anatomy_, vol. iv. -pt. i. p. 264. - -[130] Since this was written, Dr. Stradling informed me that a very -tame ring snake in his Reptilium laid some eggs and coiled herself upon -them zealously for some days. A remarkable proof of her care for them -was seen in her trying to bite when disturbed. He had never before -known _Coluber natrix_ to display this anger. In the _Zoologist_ of -September 1882, the Doctor contributed a long and important account of -this incubation with its attendant features. - -[131] ‘Wrongly named; or, Poor Little Lizzie,’ by Catherine C. Hopley. -June 1880. - -[132] _Memoirs of Captivity among the Indians._ London, 1823. - -[133] _Tree and Serpent Worship_, 2d ed., by J. Ferguson. London, 1873. - -[134] _Old Deccan Days._ London, 1870. - -[135] See _Land and Water_, June 10th, 1876. - -[136] _Times_, 1st July 1875, paper by C. C. H. _Ibid._ 7th July. - -[137] Some interesting correspondence on this subject appeared in the -_Field_ during August and September 1881. - -[138] _Anecdotes of Serpents_, by the late J. K. Lord. Messrs. -Chambers’s _Miscellany of Tracts_, Edinburgh, 1870. - -[139] _Land and Water_, April 3d, 1880. - -[140] _Zoology of South Africa._ - -[141] Papers on the Ophidians in the _Dublin University Magazine_, -January 1876 et seq. - -[142] _Thanatophidia of India._ - -[143] _Land and Water_, September 11, 1880. - -[144] _Nature_, July 6, 1882: ‘Hydrophobia and Snake-Bite,’ by Dr. A. -Stradling. - -[145] _Medical Times_, 1873, vol. ii. p. 90. - -[146] _Smithsonian Contributions._ Washington, D.C., 1860. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - -—Obvious errors were corrected. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SNAKES*** - - -******* This file should be named 53153-0.txt or 53153-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/3/1/5/53153 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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