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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..495fe04 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53499 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53499) diff --git a/old/53499-0.txt b/old/53499-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 45e53d0..0000000 --- a/old/53499-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1619 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Martin Luther, by Carl E. Koppenhaver - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Martin Luther - -Author: Carl E. Koppenhaver - -Release Date: November 11, 2016 [EBook #53499] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARTIN LUTHER *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - MARTIN - LUTHER - - - CARL E. KOPPENHAVER - - [Illustration: Publisher’s Logo] - - Muhlenberg Press Philadelphia - - - Copyright, 1953, by - Muhlenberg Press - - _Third Printing_ - Printed in U.S.A. _UB736_ - - - - - CONTENTS - - - THE MINER’S SON 5 - Eisleben to Erfurt - Into the Cloister - Monk and Priest - THE PROFESSOR 11 - Dr. Luther - The Awakening - COLLISION WITH ROME 15 - The Question of Indulgences - The Ninety-five Theses - Rome Moves to Attack - THE BREACH WIDENS 21 - Pushed into the Arena - The Shadow of Hus - For Such a Time as This - LUTHER EXPLAINS HIMSELF 25 - The Christian Nobility - The Babylonian Captivity - Christian Liberty - The Papal Bull - THE MONK STANDS FIRM 33 - The Diet of Worms - Answer Without Horns - Neither Right nor Safe - DRASTIC CHANGES 37 - Wartburg to Wittenberg - From Freedom to License - Pigtails on the Pillow - The Cloister Becomes a Home - A CHURCH REBORN 45 - The National Conscience - The Augsburg Confession - Back to Eisleben - CHRONOLOGY 49 - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE MINER’S SON - - - Eisleben to Erfurt - -The Turk was slashing his way up the valley of the Danube into the heart -of Europe. God sat far off, not as a loving father but as a vengeful -law-court judge inflicting all sorts of misery on mankind. In the forest -lurked witches and demons seeking to drag the unwary to destruction. - -Into such a world threatened by the sword, ruled by fear, and plagued by -superstition, Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483, in Eisleben, -Germany. Within such a world he became a man disdainful of bodily harm, -convinced of God’s love and mercy, endowed with abundant common sense—a -Christian worthy of study and emulation. Although his station of birth -was lowly, greatness sought him out, and the whole world has felt the -impact of his life. - -The Luther child was baptized in the Church of St. Peter the morning -after his birth and was named Martin for the saint of the day. His -parents, Hans and Margarethe Luther, were simple, industrious folk. They -had moved recently from the farming community of Möhra, home of the -Luther family, to Eisleben where Hans hoped to make his fortune in the -copper mines. - -When Martin was about six months old the family moved to near-by -Mansfeld. The first years there were hard and it was with difficulty -that Hans scraped together money to send his son to school. By the time -Martin was thirteen, however, his father was able to send him to a -school conducted by the Brothers of the Common Life at Magdeburg. As was -the custom, he earned his board by singing and begging from door to door -with one of the school choirs. - -He stayed in Magdeburg for only a year and then was sent to the parish -school of St. George in Eisenach. While again earning his keep by -singing and begging, he became acquainted with Frau Ursula Cotta, a -woman of culture and refinement, who took the promising young scholar -into her home. - -Hans Luther had been working diligently and by the time his son was -seventeen the family budget permitted his entrance to the University of -Erfurt. Martin worked diligently too, and at the end of four years had -passed not only his bachelor’s but his master’s examinations. - - - Into the Cloister - -Obedient to his father’s wishes, Martin Luther on May 20, 1505, began -his post-graduate studies at Erfurt, preparatory to entering the field -of law. But after studying for only a few weeks he suddenly rejected the -whole idea and applied for admission at the town’s Augustinian -monastery. - -Hans Luther was terribly angry and Martin’s university friends were -astounded. Why had he taken such a step? Many factors contributed, but -in the final analysis his decision to become a monk can be summed up in -the words “religious experience.” - -His parents were God-fearing people whose piety undoubtedly had an early -influence on him. He shared fear of the horrors of hell, purgatory, and -the last judgment which was common to people at the close of the middle -ages. In the university library he had found a complete Bible and was -tremendously impressed with his own ignorance of its contents. He -attended church and daily chapel devotions regularly all through school. -His introspective nature made him starkly aware of his sins and -shortcomings. Life as a monk was held to be the best way to forgiveness -and heaven. - -Several grim incidents increased his anxiety. While on a holiday from -the university he accidentally severed an artery in his leg with his -student sword. He almost bled to death and in distress prayed to the -Virgin Mary for help. The death of a number of students during a plague -moved him profoundly. While returning to Erfurt, following a visit to -Mansfeld, he was caught in a heavy thunderstorm and a bolt of lightning -struck so close that he was knocked to the ground. Overcome by panic he -invoked St. Anna for aid and vowed “Help me, and I will become a monk.” -Fifteen days later, on July 17, friends accompanied him to the gate of -the “Black Cloister,” monastery of the Order of Augustinian Hermits in -Erfurt. - -That this decision came later in life than usually was the case, and -that his impressionable years had been spent not within the confines of -a monastery but in the unrestricted atmosphere of a great university, -later proved valuable to him and to the Protestant Church. - - - Monk and Priest - -Luther was not received immediately into the monastery but had to remain -for several months in the monastic hostelry examining himself and being -examined. In September, 1505, all parties being satisfied, his head was -shaved and he was invested with the black Augustinian habit and cowl, -and formally received as a novice. - -He scrubbed the floors, begged in the streets, and engaged in various -ascetic and spiritual exercises. When his probationary year was ended -Luther took the vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity and was -received into the order of the Augustinian monks. His sincere piety and -scholarship so impressed his superiors that he was urged to prepare for -the priesthood, and, on April 4, 1507, was ordained to that office. - -The petty employments of the monastery did not consume all of Luther’s -energy and he devoted himself strenuously to studying the scholastic -theology available at that time. However, long hours with books did -little to ease his mind and give him the peace of conscience he sought -within the cloister walls. The books taught him to rely on his own -efforts to procure favor with God, and he was too honest to believe that -his penitence was deep enough and his fastings worthy enough to -compensate for his sins. - -Although his heart was not at rest, Luther continued to perform his -priestly duties and undertake any new tasks assigned to him. In the fall -of 1508 he was appointed to the chair of moral philosophy which had been -entrusted to the Augustinians by the faculty at the newly established -University of Wittenberg. Desiring to teach theology rather than logic -and ethics, he availed himself of this opportunity to study for a -bachelor’s degree which would permit him to lecture on certain books of -the Bible. He had virtually completed his studies when he was called -back to Erfurt in October, 1509. There he lectured in the monastery for -about a year, and in November, 1510, was sent in company with another -monk on a mission to Rome. - -In the Holy City he visited as many shrines and churches as possible. -His high opinion of the papal court was lowered by his observations of -its reckless luxury and scandal, but his confidence in the church -remained unshaken. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE PROFESSOR - - - Dr. Luther - -Luther returned to Erfurt from Rome, and in the summer of 1511 was sent -as one of three new professors to Wittenberg. Here he came under the -influence of John von Staupitz, vicar of the Augustinian order, who -showed warm sympathy and understanding toward the earnest young priest. - -As yet Luther had been unable to convince himself of God’s love, mercy, -and forgiveness. His quest carried him along the path of good works, but -he never could feel that he had done enough to save himself. He tried -the path of confession but concluded there was more wrong with men than -could be cleansed by enumerating a list of particular offenses. - -Luther’s problems of faith did not mount up through clearly defined -stages to a sudden soul-free climax. Rather he passed through a series -of crises. Staupitz did much to comfort him in some of these grave -periods. He encouraged the zealous monk to trust in the God who loved -and sent his Son to redeem man, rather than try to appease God through -his own works. - -Staupitz’ theology was quite different from Luther’s. It admitted man’s -weakness and called him to completely submerge himself in God. There was -no striving, no assertion of self. Eventually the individual found peace -in a blissful atmosphere surrounded entirely by God. Luther’s efforts -were virtually the opposite. His every act was replete with -self-assertion directed toward winning merit. He tried the mystical way -of Staupitz but could never completely lose himself in the essence of a -God whom he conceived to be an angry judge. - -Luther’s troubled spirit did not lower him in the vicar’s estimation -and, perhaps to get his mind off it, Staupitz advised him to study for a -doctor’s degree and assume the chair of Bible at the university. It was -good medicine, for thus the distressed monk came to closer grips with -the source book of his faith. So far, writings about the Bible, rather -than the book itself, had been his main diet. He studied for the degree -and preached in the monastery’s rickety chapel until October 18-19, -1512, when he became Martin Luther, doctor of sacred scripture, -professor of Bible at Wittenberg University. - - - The Awakening - -Since May, 1512, Luther had been subprior and regent in the school -connected with the Black Cloister at Wittenberg. In May, 1515, he became -district vicar for Thuringia and Meissen, having eleven monasteries -under his care. Meanwhile he was discharging his duties as professor in -the university. - -Frequently the solution to great problems comes quite undramatically as -one goes about the daily tasks. Luther’s awakening to a God who makes -man righteous in order to save him came in such a way. He knew the -teaching that the righteous shall be saved by faith. But who, he asked -himself, is righteous? - -As he studied and taught, and looked after his wards in the monasteries, -he gradually discovered he had been misled by the medieval concept that -grace could be earned. This, he found, was contrary to the New -Testament. Grace can’t be earned. God gives it. Man, therefore, does not -make himself righteous. It is God who makes man righteous. He makes man -righteous as a free gift (grace) so that he can be saved. Out of this -came the doctrine of “justification by faith.” - -At this point Luther still felt that he was in total agreement with the -teachings of the Roman Church. In a humble way he believed that he had -discovered for himself what always had been—that he had just been slow -in catching on. Deeper study, however, made it clear to him that there -was a great difference between his own and the theology of the middle -ages. He became convinced that man can contribute nothing toward his -salvation, but that God, recognizing man’s unrighteousness, had redeemed -him and restored him through the sacrifice of his Son, Jesus Christ. -This indeed was not the work of an implacable judge, but of a loving -Father. - -Luther now found himself rejecting most of the medieval writers and -teachers. He went back to the Bible, to Christ, and the apostles. -Convinced of the truth, he no longer was restrained by contradictory -views. His beliefs were contrary to many of the teachings of the church, -and while he didn’t plan it that way they brought him into open revolt. -The matter of indulgences opened the battle. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -COLLISION WITH ROME - - - The Question of Indulgences - -The Roman Church taught that forgiveness of sins could be secured only -through the sacrament of penance. This required contrition of heart, -confession to a priest, and satisfaction by good works. Release from the -penalty of eternal punishment was guaranteed by the absolution -pronounced by the priest. If not enough works of penance were done -before death, however, the remainder had to be atoned for in the -torments of purgatory for an indefinite period. - -Gradually a custom developed which permitted one to purchase indulgences -to offset purgatorial punishment. It was at this point that Luther’s -theology conflicted with the church’s practice. Grace was God’s gift, -but indulgences implied that man can earn grace. - -In 1515 the sale of indulgences was being pressed in the archbishopric -of Mainz which had been purchased recently by Albert of Brandenburg. -Because of the vast revenues the office controlled, it was a profitable -investment to become a bishop in those days. Although not old enough to -be a bishop, Albert already had procured two other sees before -negotiating for the purchase of Mainz. Pope Leo X was willing to -overlook these irregularities in exchange for ten thousand ducats which -he needed to complete the Church of St. Peter in Rome. - -Albert borrowed the money from the Fuggers banking concern in Augsburg. -Then the pope granted him the privilege of selling indulgences so that -he could settle his account at the bank and at the same time raise -additional sums for St. Peter’s. - -John Tetzel, a Dominican prior who had displayed shrewd aptitude in -selling indulgences, conducted the campaign. He didn’t enter Luther’s -parish because Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, had an indulgence -traffic of his own in the form of a large collection of relics gathered -for veneration in the Castle Church, Wittenberg. However, some of -Luther’s people crossed the border and bought indulgences from Tetzel. -Luther saw the fundamental danger of the traffic when these folk -countered his preaching on repentance of heart and life by showing him -indulgences remitting their sins. On October 31 Luther tacked a placard -on the door of the Castle Church. The sound of his hammer reached to -Rome. - - - The Ninety-five Theses - -The theses which Luther posted on the church door were not a declaration -of revolt. They were, after the custom of the day, an invitation to -theologians of Wittenberg and vicinity to debate on the indulgence -situation. So that all participants could be prepared, he posted the -ninety-five propositions he intended to defend in the debate. - -The points for argument did not call for abandonment of indulgences but -merely advocated the elimination of evils in the system. Luther -maintained, in his theses, that repentance should be a lifelong -experience and should manifest itself in a continuing effort to overcome -sinful desires. Indulgences, he said, are simply remissions of penalties -which the church has imposed. They have no effect on the souls of the -departed and they don’t remit sin; only God can do that. - -Luther believed he was being a loyal defender of the Roman Church by -attempting to correct these abuses, and correspondence revealed that he -thought the pope was unaware of what was going on. To his surprise the -theses released a great flood of favorable public opinion and were -applauded as a courageous and unrelenting attack. Within two weeks they -were distributed in German as well as Latin throughout Germany. - -There had been a growing dislike of the indulgence system and of the -pope’s interference in what, to the Germans, were strictly their own -national affairs. The theses now became a rallying point not only for -those who opposed Rome’s continuous exploitation of German finances but -also for those who resented the dominating attitude of a foreign power. -Even though they attacked one of his own pet institutions, the Elector -Frederick stood by his daring young monk. - -As the Augustinians rallied around Luther, the Dominicans upheld the -cause of Brother Tetzel. He was granted a doctor’s degree largely to -enable him to publish some theses of his own. - -When the Tetzel writings came off press and were distributed, students -at Wittenberg collected a large quantity and held a public bonfire. -Luther, still a loyal son of the monastic system, was greatly displeased -by their sophomoric act. - - - Rome Moves to Attack - -Luther sent a copy of his theses to Albert of Brandenburg who forwarded -them to Rome where Pope Leo X reportedly brushed the incident off as a -row between rival monastic orders. Later the Dominicans charged Luther -with heresy and formal proceedings were begun. On August 7, 1518, Luther -received notice to appear in Rome for trial within sixty days. - -By no means a coward, Luther was nonetheless unwilling to be the victim -of a mock-trial in the territory of the enemy. He asked Elector -Frederick to have the trial transferred to German soil where he might at -least have the benefit of impartial judges. - -On second thought the pope decided not to wait sixty days and ordered -the elector to arrest Luther at once and turn him over to Cardinal -Cajetan for delivery in Rome. Although Frederick was not sympathetic to -heresy he was determined that the man who had brought so much attention -to his university at Wittenberg should have fair play. He prevailed upon -the pope to have Cardinal Cajetan give Luther a personal hearing in -Augsburg where he would be attending a diet or parliament. - -In a benign manner the cardinal offered to help Luther out of all his -difficulty if he would simply submit to the pope’s authority and retract -his errors. Luther of course refused and tried to defend his positions. -A fruitless and oft-times heated controversy ensued and at the end of -three days Cajetan told Luther to leave his presence and not return -until he was ready to recant. - -The cardinal was quite upset by the Augsburg incident and wrote Elector -Frederick a letter calling upon him to turn the heretical monk over to -the Roman authorities. Frederick’s reply indicated his increasing -resistance to papal dictatorship. He asked for a free trial and a -statement of Luther’s errors in writing. - -The pope’s chamberlain, Carl von Miltitz, was dispatched to Germany in -an attempt to rectify Cajetan’s blundering. He correctly estimated that -much of the populace was on Luther’s side and the time for forcibly -suppressing him was past. Resorting to diplomacy he persuaded Luther to -have his case submitted to a German bishop and to refrain from further -attack in the meantime. Luther agreed, but only on the condition that -his opponents would remain silent too. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE BREACH WIDENS - - - Pushed into the Arena - -Even while Luther was meeting with Miltitz circumstances were shaping up -which drove him to break silence. He had stated his willingness to -recant if someone proved his error. An ambitious professor at the -University of Ingolstadt, John Eck, with an enviable reputation as a -disputant, saw in this his opportunity to win renown and also favor with -Rome. - -Andrew Carlstadt of the Wittenberg faculty had espoused the cause of -Luther publicly and had been engaged in an extended debate with Eck -through the medium of pamphlets. Now a public debate between the two was -arranged for Leipzig. In preparation Eck drew up a series of twelve -theses, directed not so much at his differences with Carlstadt as with -the theology of Luther. The champion of Roman orthodoxy clearly was -baiting Luther into the arena. - -After months of wrangling about procedures and proper invitations, and -with much pomp and pageantry, the debate got under way on June 27, 1519. -Several hundred Wittenberg students were there—a sixteenth-century sort -of college cheering section. During the ensuing eighteen days of debate -they frequently became embroiled with the Leipzig University students -who sided with Eck. Carlstadt and Eck matched wits for four days over -the relation between grace and free will. The erudition and cleverness -of Eck gave him a decided advantage over the Wittenberg scholar, but -spectator interest was being reserved for July 4 when Luther would take -the field. - -For another four days Eck and Luther discussed the divine right of the -pope with the Ingolstadter insisting that the divine plan of government -was a monarchy with the pope at its head. Luther agreed that the church -was a monarchy but that Christ was its head. The passage in St. Matthew -concerning the rock upon which Christ would build his church was quoted -by Eck with the interpretation that Peter was the “rock” and since he -also was the first pope it was clear that papal supremacy had been -established by Christ. - -Luther declared the passage should be considered along with Peter’s -previous statement, “Thou art the Christ....” This confession, he said, -is the “rock” on which Christ built his church. - - - The Shadow of Hus - -The crisis at Leipzig was reached when Eck backed into a dialectical -corner and had to resort to foul tactics. How discredit Luther? Perhaps -if he made him synonymous with heresy.... - -Craftily Eck pointed out the similarity between Luther’s arguments and -those of the Bohemian reformer, John Hus, whom the Council of Constance -had condemned to the stake a century before. Luther denounced the -insinuation and declared the Bohemian heresy irrelevant to the debate. - -It was inevitable in opposing the Roman Church’s contention to primacy -that Luther would use arguments similar to those of previous reformers. -The condemnation of Hus as a heretic did not necessarily make all of his -views heretical. In fact, Luther insisted, some of Hus’s articles were -genuinely Christian and evangelical. - -The spectators and visiting theologians were stunned, and perhaps Luther -shocked even himself. Clearly his remark would be interpreted to mean -that the general councils—the highest earthly authority—were not beyond -fault. This was heresy. - -Luther had long been aware of the need for reform in the church. As his -ideas developed it became apparent that the pope was not above human -weakness. The church militant needed an earthly head, and for the sake -of good order it was necessary that he be obeyed. But that didn’t make -him infallible. After all, he was human. - -Now this same reasoning had pushed from Luther’s lips the admission that -councils could err also. Unwittingly Eck had contributed what probably -was the greatest outcome of the debate—Luther’s growing conviction that -even general councils could be unreliable. Henceforth he would take his -stand on the unassailable Word of God as revealed in the Scriptures. - -Results of the debate were weighed by judges at the University of Paris -who condemned Luther and his views as heretical. When Philip -Melanchthon, a Wittenberg associate and close friend of Luther, -questioned the opinion on the basis of Scripture, the Parisians looked -down their noses at the upstart, informing him they were chief among the -few to whom interpretation of Scripture could be entrusted. - - - For Such a Time as This - -Luther was frankly disappointed with the outcome of the debate. He had -hoped his opinions would be accepted and reformation of the church -effected. - -The controversy did much, however, to crystallize his own views: The -pope did not have absolute authority; a council can err in its -decisions; the Bible is above popes and councils in authority; the -Church of Christ is not limited to the Roman fellowship alone but is the -community of believers throughout the world. - -Gradually Luther realized these views differed so fundamentally from -those of Rome that there was small chance of healing the breach. The -notion that he might become a martyr recurred frequently but it didn’t -cause him to relinquish his zeal. In fact he received inspiration from -it and kept three presses rolling at full speed to turn out tracts, -sermons, and commentaries. - -In addition to the Leipzig debate, the summer of 1519 brought forth -another event which was significant in Luther’s life. Maximilian, the -Holy Roman Emperor, died in January and the election of a successor was -of utmost concern to the rulers and populace of Europe. Consequently, -there was rejoicing in Germany on June 28 when the electors named -Charles of Spain in preference to Francis of France. Charles was a -Hapsburg and the Germans confidently expected he would unite them into a -strong, independent nation. However, the new emperor favored his Spanish -mother more than his German father and treated his fatherland like an -outlying province of Spain. - -Wide distribution of the Ninety-five Theses and other writings, as well -as prominence resulting from the Leipzig encounter, had fixed the eyes -of many Germans upon Luther. When Charles failed to step into the role -of national figure they switched their enthusiasm to Luther. Few -understood his ideas on Christianity but they believed he could lead -them to political, intellectual, and economic freedom. Scholars, -princes, knights, and commoners gathered about the Wittenberg professor -who had demonstrated his fearlessness in the face of tyranny. Gradually -Luther sensed his mission as leader in a mighty movement. History called -it the Reformation. - - - - - LUTHER EXPLAINS HIMSELF - - - The Christian Nobility - -Luther’s attempts to interest the pope in reform had proved futile. He -was likewise unsuccessful in having a general council convened to -consider his propositions. Now, in the first of three great treatises, -he called upon the secular rulers to concern themselves with the state -of the church. - -Appearing in August, 1520, the “Open Letter to the Christian Nobility of -the German Nation” flatly attacked corruption among the clergy and -prodded the laity into doing something about it. Since all Christians -are priests before God, Luther held it was incumbent upon them and -particularly upon Christian rulers to feel responsible for the conduct -of the church within their domains. As Christians they should abhor vice -and wickedness regardless of whether it flourished on the main street or -in the monastery. - -No one, said the open letter, has been able to reform the Romanists -because they have erected three walls of defense, “_First_, when pressed -by the temporal power, they have made decrees and said that the temporal -power has no jurisdiction over them. _Second_, when the attempt is made -to reprove them out of the Scriptures, they raise the objection that the -interpretation of the Scriptures belongs to no one except the pope. -_Third_, if threatened with a council, they answer with the fable that -no one can call a council but the pope.” - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -Luther demolished the first wall by showing that everyone is equal -before God. Those holding the title of priest or bishop are not superior -to other Christians nor do they differ except in vocation, by which also -a cobbler differs from a blacksmith. The title of “priest” is conferred -by laymen who themselves are priests in the sight of God. Thus the -holder of a church title is not beyond the reach of temporal government. - -He breached the second wall by pointing out that every enlightened -Christian—layman or priest—has the right to seek God’s message for him -in the Scriptures. The third wall tumbled through Luther’s insistence -that every man, as a priest, shares responsibility for right management -in the church. - - - The Babylonian Captivity - -Before his letter to the nobility was off press, Luther was writing his -second treatise, “The Babylonian Captivity of the Church.” The first had -been primarily for lay people while the second was for theologians. It -aimed directly at freeing the Christian fellowship in Europe from the -“captivity” of the Roman sacramental system. - -The Roman Church taught that it alone could dispense the saving grace -associated with the sacraments, and that the sacramental acts could be -performed only by ordained priests. Anyone who denied that the church -controlled the flow of grace from God was striking Catholicism in its -most vital spot. Without its sacramental system Rome could no longer -bind its subjects. This was the front at which Luther aimed his heaviest -artillery. - -He reiterated his views on the priesthood of believers. Priests should -be servants of the people who comprise the church, rather than servants -of a papal hierarchy. They cannot interfere with grace. It is God’s free -gift to the individual believer. - -In the course of his treatise Luther also asserted that there are only -two sacraments—baptism and the Lord’s Supper—rather than seven as taught -in Roman Catholicism. A sacrament, he held, had to be instituted by -Christ, contain a divine promise of the forgiveness of sins, and make -use of an earthly element (water, bread, wine). Confirmation, -ordination, marriage, penance, and extreme unction were rejected as -sacraments because they lacked some of the prescribed characteristics. - -The mass had been seen as a repetition of Christ’s incarnation and -crucifixion at the hands of a priest before the altar. By this sacrifice -man tried to earn grace. Now it became the Lord’s Supper—a communion of -the believing Christian with his Saviour. Both the bread and the wine -should be received by the communicant, Luther insisted. While Christ is -really present in the elements, the bread does not become flesh nor the -wine blood through a magical act called transubstantiation. Moreover, -Christ is not sacrificed anew whenever the mass is celebrated. His -sacrifice on the cross was for all time. Through that sacrifice a man’s -sins are remitted if he has faith. - - - Christian Liberty - -Miltitz, the papal nuncio who previously had failed to reconcile Luther -and the pope, tried again in October, 1520. He had Luther agree to write -a letter to Leo X assuring him that there was nothing personal in his -attacks on the papacy. - -In the letter, Luther cautioned Leo against listening to those of his -advisers who would make him a demigod, who put him above councils, who -make him the final authority in interpreting Scripture, “for through -them Satan already has made much headway.” He also assured Leo that he -was an obedient servant of the church and that he was not inveighing -against him personally. - -Accompanying the letter was a copy of Luther’s latest pamphlet, “A -Treatise on Christian Liberty.” It expresses calm Christian reflection -quite different from the theological conflicts which were carried -forward in his other treatises. At the outset it poses two propositions -which seem to be a paradox: “A Christian man is a perfectly free lord of -all, subject to none,” and “A Christian man is a perfectly dutiful -servant of all, subject to all.” - -The first proposition acknowledges man as a sinner, but one who has been -liberated and restored to a right relationship with God through -justifying grace. In justifying man, God has freed him from the -consequence of his sins because of Christ’s atonement. - -This freedom affects a man’s whole life. Not only is he free from the -consequences of sin, but he is no longer shackled by his own hates, -passions, and wilful desires. Because this freedom is based on his own -personal relationship with God, no one can interfere. He is “subject to -none.” - -The second proposition indicates that the free man’s life takes a -different direction. Originally he was concerned with himself, but now -the reborn person, in gratitude for his own freedom, serves his -neighbor. His motive is not merely humanitarian, but stems out of a -sincere desire to help others become free too. Love permits him to do no -less than become the servant of all. - -The treatise and letter would have scant effect on Pope Leo. Five months -previously he had signed a bull excommunicating Luther. - - - The Papal Bull - -A chronological listing of events can be misleading—for instance those -concerning the papal bull. It was signed by Leo on June 15, 1520. It -reached Luther officially on October 10. He immediately wrote a fiery -epistle denouncing it and Eck, whose style and invective he recognized. -Aware that the bull was being circulated and that his literature was -being burned, he nevertheless sat down in November and wrote a friendly -letter to the pope accompanying it with his treatise on Christian -liberty. - -On the surface this would indicate insincerity, but events shaped up to -prove he was being consistent. Although he knew he had personal enemies, -he never lost sight of the fact that he was fighting a system rather -than individuals. The pope, for him, was merely a figurehead, in this -instance the symbol of an intolerable autocracy in an area where -individual freedom before God was essential. - -The papal bull credited Luther with forty-one errors, called for the -burning of his books, charged heresy, gave him sixty days to submit, and -warned everyone against sheltering him in his excommunication. -Distribution of the bull was in the hands of Eck and papal legate Jerome -Aleander. They succeeded in posting copies of the bull and burning books -in several cities, but largely their efforts were unsuccessful due to -strenuous opposition by the German people. - -On December 10, probably in reprisal for a book-burning at Cologne, -Melanchthon posted a notice on the Wittenberg University bulletin board -inviting students and faculty to a bonfire outside the Elster gate of -the city. Books on scholastic theology, and especially those works of -canon law on which the pope and the Roman hierarchy based their claims -to power, were tossed into the flames. Then Luther stepped forward -quietly and with a prayer on his lips added the booklet containing the -papal bull to the fire. He and the professors withdrew but the students -made a holiday of the affair, parading and singing throughout the town -and burning books of Luther’s opponents. - -Significantly, the bonfire marked the end of the sixty-day period of -grace. From now on no one was to communicate with Luther or provide him -with the necessities of life. In the eyes of Rome he was an outlaw. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE MONK STANDS FIRM - - - The Diet of Worms - -Overtones of intrigue and statecraft are dominant in the prelude to the -imperial assembly at Worms. The church at Rome had given its decision. -Would the secular authorities now take action and turn him over to the -papal authorities? - -Charles, at his coronation as emperor, had subscribed to the imperial -constitution which said no German should be taken outside his country -for trial, and also that no one should be outlawed without a hearing. -Frederick the Wise, Luther’s elector, took no action against him, using -these same reasons as an excuse. Aleander, the papal representative, -wanted the case settled arbitrarily by the emperor since he was well -aware of the support Luther would receive at a public hearing. The man -had been condemned by the church, he argued, and as good churchmen the -rulers should simply apprehend the Wittenberg monk without a further -examination of his views. - -For the first three months of 1521 the diet devoted itself chiefly to -transacting state business. During this period Emperor Charles changed -his mind several times about inviting the Wittenberg monk for a hearing. -Finally, on March 6, against his will, he offered Luther a safe-conduct -to Worms. - -In a two-wheeled cart Luther and a few companions set out from -Wittenberg on April 2. Cities along the way welcomed him and invited him -to preach, but no reception equaled the one on his arrival at Worms. -When the party was sighted from the cathedral tower at 10 A. M., on -April 16, a group of horsemen dashed out to act as an escort through the -city gate. Two thousand spectators thronged the streets so that Luther -was barely able to reach his lodging in the house of the Knights of St. -John. - -He was summoned to appear at four o’clock the following afternoon, and -because of the crowds in the streets was conducted through gardens and -alleys to the episcopal palace where the diet was meeting. When the door -of the assembly hall was opened, Luther was ushered through a company of -princes, nobles, and ecclesiastics to the foot of a canopied chair. On -it sat Charles, the twenty-one-year-old emperor. Near by was a table -loaded with books. - - - Answer Without Horns - -After the opening courtesies had been dispatched the presiding officer, -an official of the archbishop of Trier, pointed to the books, asked -Luther if he was the author, and if he was ready to retract what he had -written. - -Luther had been instructed to speak only in answer to direct questions -and was not to seek a discussion. However, this double question could -not be answered yes or no. He paused and his legal adviser asked that -the titles be read. Luther then acknowledged that the books were his. - -Again the question, “Will you retract...?” - -The monk believed his writing was an accurate interpretation of God’s -Word. In his mind was Christ’s admonition to the disciples “whosoever -shall deny me before men, him will I also deny before my Father....” -Since salvation was involved he asked time to think over the answer. The -diet agreed that he should return at four the next afternoon. - -After a night of prayer Luther again appeared before the impressive -assembly. This time a larger hall had been chosen because of the -tremendous crowd. Again the formalities, and again the question, but -this time phrased a bit differently. “Do you defend all of your books or -are you willing to recall some things?” This was the opening Luther had -been seeking and he quickly shaped his strategy to take advantage of it. -They were forcing him to make a speech since a categorical answer was -impossible. - -The books were in three classes, Luther explained. The first was purely -devotional and had been commended even by his enemies. The second was -against the papacy. If he recanted these he would open the door to -further tyranny and impiety. The third class inveighed against -individuals, and in these he admitted he had used caustic and -intemperate language. Still the facts had to stand unless refuted by the -Scriptures, in which case he would be first to cast his books into the -fires. - -Obviously the diet could not at this moment disprove his works by the -Bible. There was a consultation. The interrogator turned to Luther. -“Give us a direct answer—one without horns. Will you or will you not -recant your errors?” - - - Neither Right nor Safe - -The Spanish guards were mentally stacking faggots around the lonely -little figure in the middle of the room. Princes, nobles, and the Holy -Roman Emperor leaned forward to catch his words. - -“Since Your Majesty and Your Lordships want a direct reply, I will -answer without horns or teeth,” he began quietly. - -The spectators looked at each other significantly, then back to the -earnest friar. Confidence was returning and his voice carried plainly to -all corners of the room. - -“Unless convinced by the testimony of Scripture or right reason—for I -trust neither the pope nor councils inasmuch as they have often erred -and contradicted one another—I am bound in conscience, held captive by -the Word of God in the Scriptures I have quoted. I neither can nor will -recant anything, for it is neither right nor safe to act against -conscience. God help me! Amen.” - -There was silence for an instant. Then pandemonium broke loose. The -interrogator tried to restore order but the emperor walked out and the -meeting adjourned. Luther was escorted back to his rooms by the admiring -populace. Nobles who had been on the fringe now openly praised the -courageous preacher and vowed their support. During the night warning -notices were surreptitiously posted on the doors of his enemies. - -Charles summoned the electors and princes the following day to decide -what should be done. His own impulse to condemn Luther right away was -restrained because he needed the good will of the Germans in other -measures coming before the diet. A plan was evolved whereby a select -group of theologians would call on Luther and try to effect a -reconciliation through persuasion. The discussion always bogged down -when Luther insisted he must be persuaded on the basis of Scripture. - -Having received a twenty-one-day safe-conduct Luther set out for -Wittenberg on April 26. The diet closed officially on May 25, and the -next day, following a rump session of prejudiced nobles, the emperor -signed the Edict of Worms. According to it, Luther was the devil himself -in a monk’s habit. He was to be seized on sight and turned over to the -emperor—an outlaw of the church and the state. - - - - - DRASTIC CHANGES - - - Wartburg to Wittenberg - -Fortunately for Luther there was more than noisy adulation among the -people. A few sober minds knew how relentless the papal wolves would be -in tracking him down after the safe-conduct expired, and so a -“kidnapping” and removal to a safe place was planned. - -Luther made a detour along the road to Wittenberg in order to visit -relatives at Möhra. For months the outside world knew only that he had -been captured near there in the Thuringian forest by a band of knights. -Many lamented him as dead, but gradually the flow of thorny letters to -his adversaries and the new treatises rolling from the press allayed -their fears. - -By a circuitous route Luther had been conveyed to the Wartburg, an -ancient fortress-castle near Eisenach. He arrived on May 4 and, with the -exception of short trips into the forest and to near-by villages, did -not leave for seven months. To outward appearances he was Junker George, -a carefree, bearded knight with sword swinging impressively at his side. -The secret was well kept and at the outset even the elector, who -authorized the masquerade, did not know Luther’s whereabouts. - -Luther chafed at his forced inactivity, and, ever the monk, fell to -contemplation and examination of himself. Could past generations and -earlier scholars have been so completely out of step with the gospel? -Could a mere friar be right against them all? Might he not be in error -and drag many others to eternal damnation? - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -Hard work helped take his mind off his problems. During his stay in the -Wartburg, in addition to correspondence and pamphlets, he authored a -work on confession, expositions on several Psalms, a commentary on the -Magnificat, had a volume of sermons on the Epistles and Gospels well -underway, and had translated the entire New Testament into German. - -Prayer and study restored his conviction. To doubt, or even to remain -silent was like going against conscience—neither right nor safe. With -conviction came a sense of divine commission. When events called him -back into the world again he went courageously and with determination. -He was a revolutionary, but a conservative one. That quality is what -took him back to Wittenberg. - - - From Freedom to License - -So often a new movement suffers from overenthusiasm. The Reformation was -no exception in this respect. Zealots took the usual shortcut from -bondage to freedom by way of turmoil instead of restrained orderly -procedure. - -In parts of Germany the old ways were thrown off hastily. Organs, -paintings, and statues were thrown from the churches, vestments were -discarded, bread and wine were both administered to the laity, priests -married, nuns took husbands, monastic vows were renounced, various forms -of the mass were discontinued, priests and worshipers who persisted in -the traditional forms were attacked. - -Rumors of violent acts reached the Wartburg. Luther, still in the guise -of Junker George, made a hurried trip to Wittenberg early in December, -1521. Matters there had not yet reached the unrestrained stage which -they later assumed. Nevertheless he cautioned the people in a “warning -against riot and rebellion,” written on his return to the Wartburg. - -In it he reasoned that reform is not so much a matter of externals as of -faith. Breaking up the furniture in a church does not change the heart -of a man. Vandalism is by no means a sign of repentance and trust in -God—in fact it approaches the old form of seeking favor through works. -Giving wine as well as bread in the Lord’s Supper is not as important as -the spiritual attitude of the communicant. - -Finally the tumult in Wittenberg reached the point where he had to step -in, so—in the face of the imperial ban—he returned on March 6, 1522. -Insisting that no drastic change should be made until, through -re-education, those affected requested it as a matter of faith, he -restored order in the university city in a remarkably short time. - -The peasants meanwhile took the shortcut to freedom, too, in a series of -bloody uprisings. Chafing under their bondage to the nobles, they -adapted Luther’s “free lord of all” statement to their own demands for -social reform. Luther preached the Christian duty of submission to -lawful authority, but the peasants ravaged and plundered until finally -defeated in 1525. It was a dark hour in the Reformation. - - - Pigtails on the Pillow - -Wittenberg, June 14—Katherine von Bora, 26, late of the Cistercian -nunnery at Nimbschen, and Martin Luther, 42, professor of Bible at the -local university, were married last night at a simple ceremony in the -Black Cloister. Dr. John Bugenhagen officiated. In attendance were -Artist Lucas Cranach and Mrs. Cranach; Dr. Justus Jonas, prior of Castle -Church; and John Apel, professor of law at the university.... - -If there had been newspapers in 1525, Luther’s wedding might have been -announced to the public in this way. However, newspapers weren’t to -appear until much later, and the lack of publicity gave gossips and -slanderers choice opportunity to vilify the former monk and nun. The -malicious stories were partly offset by a public ceremony, complete with -a special service in the town church, a wedding dinner in the cloister, -and a dance at the town hall on June 27. - -The wedding was a direct result of Luther’s reform teachings. He -disliked the monastic system because men and women sought merit before -God through restraints and vows rather than depending upon grace. -Celibacy, he had written earlier, is not founded on Scripture but -marriage is. These teachings found their way into many cloisters and -convents, among them the one at Nimbschen where Katherine von Bora, at -the age of sixteen, had been received into the Cistercian Order. - -She and eleven other nuns sought Luther’s assistance in effecting a plan -of escape. Although he had no idea of what it would involve for him -personally, he arranged for them to be smuggled out of the convent in -empty fish barrels on the day before Easter in 1523. The plan succeeded -and some of the nuns came to Wittenberg where they found homes, -husbands, or new positions. Two years later Kathie was the only one not -permanently cared for despite Luther’s several attempts at matchmaking. -Then the spunky miss hinted rather boldly that the Reformer himself -would be an acceptable husband and he resolved to take the course which -he had urged on so many others. - -It was strange for one accustomed to solitude. “Formerly at the table I -was alone,” he wrote, “now I am with someone. When I awaken I see a pair -of pigtails on the pillow which were not there before.” - - - The Cloister Becomes a Home - -Marriage probably extended Luther’s life for a number of years. -Previously he and his dog enjoyed an irregular sort of existence in the -Black Cloister. Dishes were covered with dust, the bed hadn’t been made -in over a year, his clothes were in disorder. Sometimes Luther forgot -his meals altogether and at other times stuffed himself. - -The vigor with which his industrious wife established order can be -imagined by his reference to her as “my lord Kathie.” She was an -efficient housekeeper and thrifty manager of what little they possessed -at the outset. Neither had any money. Luther refused pay for his -writing, although the publishers grew rich, nor did he receive any tax -revenues from the cloister since he had laid aside his cowl. - -Things improved when the elector gave Luther the cloister for a home, -and adjacent to it a vegetable garden with a small brew house where -Kathie prepared the family beverage. His small salary as professor was -augmented somewhat when they took in boarding students attending the -university. - -The Luthers had six children. Two of them died in childhood, but -otherwise the family enjoyed a merry, wholesome life. The house was -always full of visitors—some of them more or less permanent—including -traveling dignitaries, numerous aunts and relatives, monks and nuns -seeking a permanent residence, and four orphaned children from among -their kinsfolk. Because it was large and suitable, the cloister -sometimes was used as a hospital, and it was not unusual for the -“family” to number as many as twenty-five. Guests who stayed for any -length of time were expected to take part in household duties, -participate in daily prayers, catechetical study, and family devotions. -Music, singing, chess, and outdoor bowling were forms of recreation. -Through Kathie’s economy, improvements were made in the Luther house. An -orchard, hop garden, and finally a farm were purchased. - -When Luther worried about his children’s future he overcame it with -faith. A pious training is most important, he wrote. It is good to leave -an inheritance, but preparing children to manage wisely is more -important. We parents are fools if we don’t train them to fear God, to -control themselves, and to live honorably. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -A CHURCH REBORN - - - The National Conscience - -The people at Wittenberg and in other cities of influence were gradually -learning to think of the church as separate from the Roman hierarchy. -Now there was need for reorganization. A steady supply of ministers was -essential and arrangements had to be made for their training and -support. A bond of some sort was necessary to establish unity of -endeavor, and mission work was imperative in areas where conviction had -lapsed into indifference. - -Luther didn’t care for organizational work. The thought that the new -church might degenerate into a system of laws and regulations haunted -him. Although his revised order of worship was finding its way into use -he felt that still more urgent matters demanded attention. Proper -instruction of young and old was essential and to accomplish it there -had to be some sort of oversight. - -The bishops had neglected instruction of the laymen and the princes were -loath to reinstitute it. Luther, therefore, laid the task directly upon -the congregations and in some cases the city councils to select -competent men as pastors, establish pastoral districts, and set up -schools. To advise and assist in this work, visitation committees -comprising learned laymen and theologians traveled throughout Saxony -beginning in 1527. The visitation was carried on in other areas of -Germany too, and in this way the groundwork for future organization -began. - -In the meantime two distinct factions had developed among the princes of -Germany. One espoused the Roman cause, the other the Reformation. From -1525 to 1529 a series of diets and assemblies was held. The rival -princes concerned themselves largely with attempts at, and opposition -to, the invoking of the ban against Luther, his works, and his cohorts -which had been executed at Worms. At Speyer in 1529 the Catholic -princes, with the emperor’s backing, tried to force a resolution -preventing the spread of Luther’s teachings in any new areas, but the -Reformation princes protested. Matters concerning salvation were of an -individual nature and could not be legislated. Conscience bound them to -oppose the resolution. Principles which the Wittenberg monk had declared -only eight years before were becoming the national mind. - - - The Augsburg Confession - -Sparks of the Reformation had caught fire elsewhere in Europe developing -into Reformed, Mennonite, Anabaptist, and other denominations. A major -purpose of the diet called by Emperor Charles at Augsburg in 1530 was to -harmonize these various groups and attempt a final reconciliation with -Rome. To this end each body was to define its teaching in a statement or -confession, but not all were represented at the diet and only three were -actually submitted. - -As usual the papists were laying for the Lutherans. They had prejudiced -the emperor against a fair hearing and were reserving their best -ammunition for the Saxon “heretics,” fully confident that a Lutheran -defeat would speedily bring the downfall of the others. - -Still under imperial ban, Luther could not attend the diet but stayed at -a castle in Coburg from which he advised Melanchthon and others -appearing before the emperor. The confession, a series of twenty-eight -articles setting forth the Lutheran position, was read on June 25. The -first twenty-one present fundamental doctrines of the Scriptures -regarding God, Original Sin, the Son of God, Justification, the Church, -the Sacraments, Civil Affairs, the Freedom of Will, the Cause of Sin, -Good Works, and the Worship of Saints; while the last seven treat of -Roman abuses which contradict the Word of God. - -The emperor commissioned the Roman theologians to prepare a refutation. -On the basis of it he rejected the Lutheran confession, ordered church -property restored to Roman bishops, and forbade witnessing and the -printing or sale of Lutheran writings. - -Dejected by their failure to reform the church, the Lutherans went home -in the fall of 1530 unaware that their confession would become a basic -creed of the largest Protestant body in the world. - -Threatened with coercion by the Romanists in Germany, they joined with -other Protestants in 1531 to form the League of Schmalkalden. War was -averted when the emperor enlisted both groups to meet the Turkish -invasion of Austria, and armed conflict over religious principles was -delayed until the summer of 1546. Luther didn’t see it. A few months -earlier he went to stand before the Judge he had learned to love instead -of fear. - - - Back to Eisleben - -The circuit of Luther’s life was completed in Eisleben, his birthplace, -where he had gone to mediate between the princes of Mansfeld. He died -early on the morning of February 18, 1546, after fervently committing -himself to God’s keeping and reaffirming the doctrines he had preached. - -Luther’s lifetime was marked with concern—concern first about himself -and God. It wasn’t selfish; a man has to find his treasure before he can -share it. Luther had searched through lonely tormented hours in a -monastery; he brushed aside centuries of proud speculation until he -found the truth. It was written in a book, the record of God’s -revelation of himself to man—the Bible. From it he learned that God is -love instead of wrath; that no one, pope or king, can stand between man -and that love, or gain it for another; that one can’t even win it for -himself. It is God’s free gift. - -Then his concern was for others. This treasure was too priceless to -keep; he had to give it away. He preached it, though all the forces of -evil railed against him. He printed it, though emperors ordered him to -stop the press. He sang it and helped the church to sing—in tones so -soft they lull a child to sleep; in battlecries resounding from the -ramparts of his mighty-fortress God. - -“The devil prefers blockheads,” he said, therefore, “the school must be -the next thing to the church.” Concern led him to teach. Professor was -the only job he held—but that for all his life. He hated those who -arrogantly claimed sole right to knowledge. So that each might know the -truth himself, and in that truth be free, he translated the sacred -Scriptures. Matthew to Revelation first, and then the Old Testament were -translated, not in high-sounding phrase or platitude, but in majestic -simplicity—the words of Hans and Hilda. The lords and ladies would -understand it that way too. - -The principles of faith which Luther proclaimed, brought fame and the -promise of power. But the words addressed to the nobles at Worms recount -the humility of his service: “I seek nothing beyond reforming the church -in conformity with the Scriptures. I reserve nothing but to bear witness -to the Word of God alone.” - - - - - CHRONOLOGY - - - 1483 November 10 Martin Luther born at Eisleben - 1484 Family moves to Mansfeld - 1497 Luther goes to Magdeburg school - 1498 Luther goes to Eisenach school - 1501 Enters University of Erfurt - 1505 Receives master of arts degree - July 2 Vows to become a monk - July 17 Enters Augustinian cloister at Erfurt - 1507 April 4 Ordained to priesthood - 1508 Teaches at Wittenberg - 1509 Lectures at University of Erfurt - 1510 November Begins journey to Rome - 1511 Returns to Wittenberg as professor - 1512 October 18-19 Receives doctor of sacred scripture - degree - 1517 October 31 Posts ninety-five theses - 1518 August Pope wants Luther brought to Rome - 1519 July 4-14 Luther debates with Eck at Leipzig - 1520 June 15 Papal bull signed - October 10 Luther receives bull - December 10 Luther burns bull - 1521 January 27 Diet of Worms begins - April 16 Arrives at Worms - April 17 Makes first statement - April 18 Luther will not recant - April 26 Leaves Worms - May 4 Arrives at the Wartburg - May 26 Banned by Edict of Worms - 1522 March 6 Returns to Wittenberg - 1525 June 13 Marries Katherine von Bora - 1527 Composition of “A Mighty Fortress” - 1530 June 25 Augsburg Confession read - 1534 Publishes complete Bible in German - 1546 February 18 Luther dies at Eisleben - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Corrected a few palpable typographical errors. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Martin Luther, by Carl E. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/53499-0.zip b/old/53499-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a6cf800..0000000 --- a/old/53499-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/53499-8.txt b/old/53499-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3be4aae..0000000 --- a/old/53499-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1619 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Martin Luther, by Carl E. Koppenhaver - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Martin Luther - -Author: Carl E. Koppenhaver - -Release Date: November 11, 2016 [EBook #53499] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARTIN LUTHER *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - MARTIN - LUTHER - - - CARL E. KOPPENHAVER - - [Illustration: Publisher's Logo] - - Muhlenberg Press Philadelphia - - - Copyright, 1953, by - Muhlenberg Press - - _Third Printing_ - Printed in U.S.A. _UB736_ - - - - - CONTENTS - - - THE MINER'S SON 5 - Eisleben to Erfurt - Into the Cloister - Monk and Priest - THE PROFESSOR 11 - Dr. Luther - The Awakening - COLLISION WITH ROME 15 - The Question of Indulgences - The Ninety-five Theses - Rome Moves to Attack - THE BREACH WIDENS 21 - Pushed into the Arena - The Shadow of Hus - For Such a Time as This - LUTHER EXPLAINS HIMSELF 25 - The Christian Nobility - The Babylonian Captivity - Christian Liberty - The Papal Bull - THE MONK STANDS FIRM 33 - The Diet of Worms - Answer Without Horns - Neither Right nor Safe - DRASTIC CHANGES 37 - Wartburg to Wittenberg - From Freedom to License - Pigtails on the Pillow - The Cloister Becomes a Home - A CHURCH REBORN 45 - The National Conscience - The Augsburg Confession - Back to Eisleben - CHRONOLOGY 49 - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE MINER'S SON - - - Eisleben to Erfurt - -The Turk was slashing his way up the valley of the Danube into the heart -of Europe. God sat far off, not as a loving father but as a vengeful -law-court judge inflicting all sorts of misery on mankind. In the forest -lurked witches and demons seeking to drag the unwary to destruction. - -Into such a world threatened by the sword, ruled by fear, and plagued by -superstition, Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483, in Eisleben, -Germany. Within such a world he became a man disdainful of bodily harm, -convinced of God's love and mercy, endowed with abundant common sense--a -Christian worthy of study and emulation. Although his station of birth -was lowly, greatness sought him out, and the whole world has felt the -impact of his life. - -The Luther child was baptized in the Church of St. Peter the morning -after his birth and was named Martin for the saint of the day. His -parents, Hans and Margarethe Luther, were simple, industrious folk. They -had moved recently from the farming community of Mhra, home of the -Luther family, to Eisleben where Hans hoped to make his fortune in the -copper mines. - -When Martin was about six months old the family moved to near-by -Mansfeld. The first years there were hard and it was with difficulty -that Hans scraped together money to send his son to school. By the time -Martin was thirteen, however, his father was able to send him to a -school conducted by the Brothers of the Common Life at Magdeburg. As was -the custom, he earned his board by singing and begging from door to door -with one of the school choirs. - -He stayed in Magdeburg for only a year and then was sent to the parish -school of St. George in Eisenach. While again earning his keep by -singing and begging, he became acquainted with Frau Ursula Cotta, a -woman of culture and refinement, who took the promising young scholar -into her home. - -Hans Luther had been working diligently and by the time his son was -seventeen the family budget permitted his entrance to the University of -Erfurt. Martin worked diligently too, and at the end of four years had -passed not only his bachelor's but his master's examinations. - - - Into the Cloister - -Obedient to his father's wishes, Martin Luther on May 20, 1505, began -his post-graduate studies at Erfurt, preparatory to entering the field -of law. But after studying for only a few weeks he suddenly rejected the -whole idea and applied for admission at the town's Augustinian -monastery. - -Hans Luther was terribly angry and Martin's university friends were -astounded. Why had he taken such a step? Many factors contributed, but -in the final analysis his decision to become a monk can be summed up in -the words "religious experience." - -His parents were God-fearing people whose piety undoubtedly had an early -influence on him. He shared fear of the horrors of hell, purgatory, and -the last judgment which was common to people at the close of the middle -ages. In the university library he had found a complete Bible and was -tremendously impressed with his own ignorance of its contents. He -attended church and daily chapel devotions regularly all through school. -His introspective nature made him starkly aware of his sins and -shortcomings. Life as a monk was held to be the best way to forgiveness -and heaven. - -Several grim incidents increased his anxiety. While on a holiday from -the university he accidentally severed an artery in his leg with his -student sword. He almost bled to death and in distress prayed to the -Virgin Mary for help. The death of a number of students during a plague -moved him profoundly. While returning to Erfurt, following a visit to -Mansfeld, he was caught in a heavy thunderstorm and a bolt of lightning -struck so close that he was knocked to the ground. Overcome by panic he -invoked St. Anna for aid and vowed "Help me, and I will become a monk." -Fifteen days later, on July 17, friends accompanied him to the gate of -the "Black Cloister," monastery of the Order of Augustinian Hermits in -Erfurt. - -That this decision came later in life than usually was the case, and -that his impressionable years had been spent not within the confines of -a monastery but in the unrestricted atmosphere of a great university, -later proved valuable to him and to the Protestant Church. - - - Monk and Priest - -Luther was not received immediately into the monastery but had to remain -for several months in the monastic hostelry examining himself and being -examined. In September, 1505, all parties being satisfied, his head was -shaved and he was invested with the black Augustinian habit and cowl, -and formally received as a novice. - -He scrubbed the floors, begged in the streets, and engaged in various -ascetic and spiritual exercises. When his probationary year was ended -Luther took the vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity and was -received into the order of the Augustinian monks. His sincere piety and -scholarship so impressed his superiors that he was urged to prepare for -the priesthood, and, on April 4, 1507, was ordained to that office. - -The petty employments of the monastery did not consume all of Luther's -energy and he devoted himself strenuously to studying the scholastic -theology available at that time. However, long hours with books did -little to ease his mind and give him the peace of conscience he sought -within the cloister walls. The books taught him to rely on his own -efforts to procure favor with God, and he was too honest to believe that -his penitence was deep enough and his fastings worthy enough to -compensate for his sins. - -Although his heart was not at rest, Luther continued to perform his -priestly duties and undertake any new tasks assigned to him. In the fall -of 1508 he was appointed to the chair of moral philosophy which had been -entrusted to the Augustinians by the faculty at the newly established -University of Wittenberg. Desiring to teach theology rather than logic -and ethics, he availed himself of this opportunity to study for a -bachelor's degree which would permit him to lecture on certain books of -the Bible. He had virtually completed his studies when he was called -back to Erfurt in October, 1509. There he lectured in the monastery for -about a year, and in November, 1510, was sent in company with another -monk on a mission to Rome. - -In the Holy City he visited as many shrines and churches as possible. -His high opinion of the papal court was lowered by his observations of -its reckless luxury and scandal, but his confidence in the church -remained unshaken. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE PROFESSOR - - - Dr. Luther - -Luther returned to Erfurt from Rome, and in the summer of 1511 was sent -as one of three new professors to Wittenberg. Here he came under the -influence of John von Staupitz, vicar of the Augustinian order, who -showed warm sympathy and understanding toward the earnest young priest. - -As yet Luther had been unable to convince himself of God's love, mercy, -and forgiveness. His quest carried him along the path of good works, but -he never could feel that he had done enough to save himself. He tried -the path of confession but concluded there was more wrong with men than -could be cleansed by enumerating a list of particular offenses. - -Luther's problems of faith did not mount up through clearly defined -stages to a sudden soul-free climax. Rather he passed through a series -of crises. Staupitz did much to comfort him in some of these grave -periods. He encouraged the zealous monk to trust in the God who loved -and sent his Son to redeem man, rather than try to appease God through -his own works. - -Staupitz' theology was quite different from Luther's. It admitted man's -weakness and called him to completely submerge himself in God. There was -no striving, no assertion of self. Eventually the individual found peace -in a blissful atmosphere surrounded entirely by God. Luther's efforts -were virtually the opposite. His every act was replete with -self-assertion directed toward winning merit. He tried the mystical way -of Staupitz but could never completely lose himself in the essence of a -God whom he conceived to be an angry judge. - -Luther's troubled spirit did not lower him in the vicar's estimation -and, perhaps to get his mind off it, Staupitz advised him to study for a -doctor's degree and assume the chair of Bible at the university. It was -good medicine, for thus the distressed monk came to closer grips with -the source book of his faith. So far, writings about the Bible, rather -than the book itself, had been his main diet. He studied for the degree -and preached in the monastery's rickety chapel until October 18-19, -1512, when he became Martin Luther, doctor of sacred scripture, -professor of Bible at Wittenberg University. - - - The Awakening - -Since May, 1512, Luther had been subprior and regent in the school -connected with the Black Cloister at Wittenberg. In May, 1515, he became -district vicar for Thuringia and Meissen, having eleven monasteries -under his care. Meanwhile he was discharging his duties as professor in -the university. - -Frequently the solution to great problems comes quite undramatically as -one goes about the daily tasks. Luther's awakening to a God who makes -man righteous in order to save him came in such a way. He knew the -teaching that the righteous shall be saved by faith. But who, he asked -himself, is righteous? - -As he studied and taught, and looked after his wards in the monasteries, -he gradually discovered he had been misled by the medieval concept that -grace could be earned. This, he found, was contrary to the New -Testament. Grace can't be earned. God gives it. Man, therefore, does not -make himself righteous. It is God who makes man righteous. He makes man -righteous as a free gift (grace) so that he can be saved. Out of this -came the doctrine of "justification by faith." - -At this point Luther still felt that he was in total agreement with the -teachings of the Roman Church. In a humble way he believed that he had -discovered for himself what always had been--that he had just been slow -in catching on. Deeper study, however, made it clear to him that there -was a great difference between his own and the theology of the middle -ages. He became convinced that man can contribute nothing toward his -salvation, but that God, recognizing man's unrighteousness, had redeemed -him and restored him through the sacrifice of his Son, Jesus Christ. -This indeed was not the work of an implacable judge, but of a loving -Father. - -Luther now found himself rejecting most of the medieval writers and -teachers. He went back to the Bible, to Christ, and the apostles. -Convinced of the truth, he no longer was restrained by contradictory -views. His beliefs were contrary to many of the teachings of the church, -and while he didn't plan it that way they brought him into open revolt. -The matter of indulgences opened the battle. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -COLLISION WITH ROME - - - The Question of Indulgences - -The Roman Church taught that forgiveness of sins could be secured only -through the sacrament of penance. This required contrition of heart, -confession to a priest, and satisfaction by good works. Release from the -penalty of eternal punishment was guaranteed by the absolution -pronounced by the priest. If not enough works of penance were done -before death, however, the remainder had to be atoned for in the -torments of purgatory for an indefinite period. - -Gradually a custom developed which permitted one to purchase indulgences -to offset purgatorial punishment. It was at this point that Luther's -theology conflicted with the church's practice. Grace was God's gift, -but indulgences implied that man can earn grace. - -In 1515 the sale of indulgences was being pressed in the archbishopric -of Mainz which had been purchased recently by Albert of Brandenburg. -Because of the vast revenues the office controlled, it was a profitable -investment to become a bishop in those days. Although not old enough to -be a bishop, Albert already had procured two other sees before -negotiating for the purchase of Mainz. Pope Leo X was willing to -overlook these irregularities in exchange for ten thousand ducats which -he needed to complete the Church of St. Peter in Rome. - -Albert borrowed the money from the Fuggers banking concern in Augsburg. -Then the pope granted him the privilege of selling indulgences so that -he could settle his account at the bank and at the same time raise -additional sums for St. Peter's. - -John Tetzel, a Dominican prior who had displayed shrewd aptitude in -selling indulgences, conducted the campaign. He didn't enter Luther's -parish because Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, had an indulgence -traffic of his own in the form of a large collection of relics gathered -for veneration in the Castle Church, Wittenberg. However, some of -Luther's people crossed the border and bought indulgences from Tetzel. -Luther saw the fundamental danger of the traffic when these folk -countered his preaching on repentance of heart and life by showing him -indulgences remitting their sins. On October 31 Luther tacked a placard -on the door of the Castle Church. The sound of his hammer reached to -Rome. - - - The Ninety-five Theses - -The theses which Luther posted on the church door were not a declaration -of revolt. They were, after the custom of the day, an invitation to -theologians of Wittenberg and vicinity to debate on the indulgence -situation. So that all participants could be prepared, he posted the -ninety-five propositions he intended to defend in the debate. - -The points for argument did not call for abandonment of indulgences but -merely advocated the elimination of evils in the system. Luther -maintained, in his theses, that repentance should be a lifelong -experience and should manifest itself in a continuing effort to overcome -sinful desires. Indulgences, he said, are simply remissions of penalties -which the church has imposed. They have no effect on the souls of the -departed and they don't remit sin; only God can do that. - -Luther believed he was being a loyal defender of the Roman Church by -attempting to correct these abuses, and correspondence revealed that he -thought the pope was unaware of what was going on. To his surprise the -theses released a great flood of favorable public opinion and were -applauded as a courageous and unrelenting attack. Within two weeks they -were distributed in German as well as Latin throughout Germany. - -There had been a growing dislike of the indulgence system and of the -pope's interference in what, to the Germans, were strictly their own -national affairs. The theses now became a rallying point not only for -those who opposed Rome's continuous exploitation of German finances but -also for those who resented the dominating attitude of a foreign power. -Even though they attacked one of his own pet institutions, the Elector -Frederick stood by his daring young monk. - -As the Augustinians rallied around Luther, the Dominicans upheld the -cause of Brother Tetzel. He was granted a doctor's degree largely to -enable him to publish some theses of his own. - -When the Tetzel writings came off press and were distributed, students -at Wittenberg collected a large quantity and held a public bonfire. -Luther, still a loyal son of the monastic system, was greatly displeased -by their sophomoric act. - - - Rome Moves to Attack - -Luther sent a copy of his theses to Albert of Brandenburg who forwarded -them to Rome where Pope Leo X reportedly brushed the incident off as a -row between rival monastic orders. Later the Dominicans charged Luther -with heresy and formal proceedings were begun. On August 7, 1518, Luther -received notice to appear in Rome for trial within sixty days. - -By no means a coward, Luther was nonetheless unwilling to be the victim -of a mock-trial in the territory of the enemy. He asked Elector -Frederick to have the trial transferred to German soil where he might at -least have the benefit of impartial judges. - -On second thought the pope decided not to wait sixty days and ordered -the elector to arrest Luther at once and turn him over to Cardinal -Cajetan for delivery in Rome. Although Frederick was not sympathetic to -heresy he was determined that the man who had brought so much attention -to his university at Wittenberg should have fair play. He prevailed upon -the pope to have Cardinal Cajetan give Luther a personal hearing in -Augsburg where he would be attending a diet or parliament. - -In a benign manner the cardinal offered to help Luther out of all his -difficulty if he would simply submit to the pope's authority and retract -his errors. Luther of course refused and tried to defend his positions. -A fruitless and oft-times heated controversy ensued and at the end of -three days Cajetan told Luther to leave his presence and not return -until he was ready to recant. - -The cardinal was quite upset by the Augsburg incident and wrote Elector -Frederick a letter calling upon him to turn the heretical monk over to -the Roman authorities. Frederick's reply indicated his increasing -resistance to papal dictatorship. He asked for a free trial and a -statement of Luther's errors in writing. - -The pope's chamberlain, Carl von Miltitz, was dispatched to Germany in -an attempt to rectify Cajetan's blundering. He correctly estimated that -much of the populace was on Luther's side and the time for forcibly -suppressing him was past. Resorting to diplomacy he persuaded Luther to -have his case submitted to a German bishop and to refrain from further -attack in the meantime. Luther agreed, but only on the condition that -his opponents would remain silent too. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE BREACH WIDENS - - - Pushed into the Arena - -Even while Luther was meeting with Miltitz circumstances were shaping up -which drove him to break silence. He had stated his willingness to -recant if someone proved his error. An ambitious professor at the -University of Ingolstadt, John Eck, with an enviable reputation as a -disputant, saw in this his opportunity to win renown and also favor with -Rome. - -Andrew Carlstadt of the Wittenberg faculty had espoused the cause of -Luther publicly and had been engaged in an extended debate with Eck -through the medium of pamphlets. Now a public debate between the two was -arranged for Leipzig. In preparation Eck drew up a series of twelve -theses, directed not so much at his differences with Carlstadt as with -the theology of Luther. The champion of Roman orthodoxy clearly was -baiting Luther into the arena. - -After months of wrangling about procedures and proper invitations, and -with much pomp and pageantry, the debate got under way on June 27, 1519. -Several hundred Wittenberg students were there--a sixteenth-century sort -of college cheering section. During the ensuing eighteen days of debate -they frequently became embroiled with the Leipzig University students -who sided with Eck. Carlstadt and Eck matched wits for four days over -the relation between grace and free will. The erudition and cleverness -of Eck gave him a decided advantage over the Wittenberg scholar, but -spectator interest was being reserved for July 4 when Luther would take -the field. - -For another four days Eck and Luther discussed the divine right of the -pope with the Ingolstadter insisting that the divine plan of government -was a monarchy with the pope at its head. Luther agreed that the church -was a monarchy but that Christ was its head. The passage in St. Matthew -concerning the rock upon which Christ would build his church was quoted -by Eck with the interpretation that Peter was the "rock" and since he -also was the first pope it was clear that papal supremacy had been -established by Christ. - -Luther declared the passage should be considered along with Peter's -previous statement, "Thou art the Christ...." This confession, he said, -is the "rock" on which Christ built his church. - - - The Shadow of Hus - -The crisis at Leipzig was reached when Eck backed into a dialectical -corner and had to resort to foul tactics. How discredit Luther? Perhaps -if he made him synonymous with heresy.... - -Craftily Eck pointed out the similarity between Luther's arguments and -those of the Bohemian reformer, John Hus, whom the Council of Constance -had condemned to the stake a century before. Luther denounced the -insinuation and declared the Bohemian heresy irrelevant to the debate. - -It was inevitable in opposing the Roman Church's contention to primacy -that Luther would use arguments similar to those of previous reformers. -The condemnation of Hus as a heretic did not necessarily make all of his -views heretical. In fact, Luther insisted, some of Hus's articles were -genuinely Christian and evangelical. - -The spectators and visiting theologians were stunned, and perhaps Luther -shocked even himself. Clearly his remark would be interpreted to mean -that the general councils--the highest earthly authority--were not -beyond fault. This was heresy. - -Luther had long been aware of the need for reform in the church. As his -ideas developed it became apparent that the pope was not above human -weakness. The church militant needed an earthly head, and for the sake -of good order it was necessary that he be obeyed. But that didn't make -him infallible. After all, he was human. - -Now this same reasoning had pushed from Luther's lips the admission that -councils could err also. Unwittingly Eck had contributed what probably -was the greatest outcome of the debate--Luther's growing conviction that -even general councils could be unreliable. Henceforth he would take his -stand on the unassailable Word of God as revealed in the Scriptures. - -Results of the debate were weighed by judges at the University of Paris -who condemned Luther and his views as heretical. When Philip -Melanchthon, a Wittenberg associate and close friend of Luther, -questioned the opinion on the basis of Scripture, the Parisians looked -down their noses at the upstart, informing him they were chief among the -few to whom interpretation of Scripture could be entrusted. - - - For Such a Time as This - -Luther was frankly disappointed with the outcome of the debate. He had -hoped his opinions would be accepted and reformation of the church -effected. - -The controversy did much, however, to crystallize his own views: The -pope did not have absolute authority; a council can err in its -decisions; the Bible is above popes and councils in authority; the -Church of Christ is not limited to the Roman fellowship alone but is the -community of believers throughout the world. - -Gradually Luther realized these views differed so fundamentally from -those of Rome that there was small chance of healing the breach. The -notion that he might become a martyr recurred frequently but it didn't -cause him to relinquish his zeal. In fact he received inspiration from -it and kept three presses rolling at full speed to turn out tracts, -sermons, and commentaries. - -In addition to the Leipzig debate, the summer of 1519 brought forth -another event which was significant in Luther's life. Maximilian, the -Holy Roman Emperor, died in January and the election of a successor was -of utmost concern to the rulers and populace of Europe. Consequently, -there was rejoicing in Germany on June 28 when the electors named -Charles of Spain in preference to Francis of France. Charles was a -Hapsburg and the Germans confidently expected he would unite them into a -strong, independent nation. However, the new emperor favored his Spanish -mother more than his German father and treated his fatherland like an -outlying province of Spain. - -Wide distribution of the Ninety-five Theses and other writings, as well -as prominence resulting from the Leipzig encounter, had fixed the eyes -of many Germans upon Luther. When Charles failed to step into the role -of national figure they switched their enthusiasm to Luther. Few -understood his ideas on Christianity but they believed he could lead -them to political, intellectual, and economic freedom. Scholars, -princes, knights, and commoners gathered about the Wittenberg professor -who had demonstrated his fearlessness in the face of tyranny. Gradually -Luther sensed his mission as leader in a mighty movement. History called -it the Reformation. - - - - - LUTHER EXPLAINS HIMSELF - - - The Christian Nobility - -Luther's attempts to interest the pope in reform had proved futile. He -was likewise unsuccessful in having a general council convened to -consider his propositions. Now, in the first of three great treatises, -he called upon the secular rulers to concern themselves with the state -of the church. - -Appearing in August, 1520, the "Open Letter to the Christian Nobility of -the German Nation" flatly attacked corruption among the clergy and -prodded the laity into doing something about it. Since all Christians -are priests before God, Luther held it was incumbent upon them and -particularly upon Christian rulers to feel responsible for the conduct -of the church within their domains. As Christians they should abhor vice -and wickedness regardless of whether it flourished on the main street or -in the monastery. - -No one, said the open letter, has been able to reform the Romanists -because they have erected three walls of defense, "_First_, when pressed -by the temporal power, they have made decrees and said that the temporal -power has no jurisdiction over them. _Second_, when the attempt is made -to reprove them out of the Scriptures, they raise the objection that the -interpretation of the Scriptures belongs to no one except the pope. -_Third_, if threatened with a council, they answer with the fable that -no one can call a council but the pope." - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -Luther demolished the first wall by showing that everyone is equal -before God. Those holding the title of priest or bishop are not superior -to other Christians nor do they differ except in vocation, by which also -a cobbler differs from a blacksmith. The title of "priest" is conferred -by laymen who themselves are priests in the sight of God. Thus the -holder of a church title is not beyond the reach of temporal government. - -He breached the second wall by pointing out that every enlightened -Christian--layman or priest--has the right to seek God's message for him -in the Scriptures. The third wall tumbled through Luther's insistence -that every man, as a priest, shares responsibility for right management -in the church. - - - The Babylonian Captivity - -Before his letter to the nobility was off press, Luther was writing his -second treatise, "The Babylonian Captivity of the Church." The first had -been primarily for lay people while the second was for theologians. It -aimed directly at freeing the Christian fellowship in Europe from the -"captivity" of the Roman sacramental system. - -The Roman Church taught that it alone could dispense the saving grace -associated with the sacraments, and that the sacramental acts could be -performed only by ordained priests. Anyone who denied that the church -controlled the flow of grace from God was striking Catholicism in its -most vital spot. Without its sacramental system Rome could no longer -bind its subjects. This was the front at which Luther aimed his heaviest -artillery. - -He reiterated his views on the priesthood of believers. Priests should -be servants of the people who comprise the church, rather than servants -of a papal hierarchy. They cannot interfere with grace. It is God's free -gift to the individual believer. - -In the course of his treatise Luther also asserted that there are only -two sacraments--baptism and the Lord's Supper--rather than seven as -taught in Roman Catholicism. A sacrament, he held, had to be instituted -by Christ, contain a divine promise of the forgiveness of sins, and make -use of an earthly element (water, bread, wine). Confirmation, -ordination, marriage, penance, and extreme unction were rejected as -sacraments because they lacked some of the prescribed characteristics. - -The mass had been seen as a repetition of Christ's incarnation and -crucifixion at the hands of a priest before the altar. By this sacrifice -man tried to earn grace. Now it became the Lord's Supper--a communion of -the believing Christian with his Saviour. Both the bread and the wine -should be received by the communicant, Luther insisted. While Christ is -really present in the elements, the bread does not become flesh nor the -wine blood through a magical act called transubstantiation. Moreover, -Christ is not sacrificed anew whenever the mass is celebrated. His -sacrifice on the cross was for all time. Through that sacrifice a man's -sins are remitted if he has faith. - - - Christian Liberty - -Miltitz, the papal nuncio who previously had failed to reconcile Luther -and the pope, tried again in October, 1520. He had Luther agree to write -a letter to Leo X assuring him that there was nothing personal in his -attacks on the papacy. - -In the letter, Luther cautioned Leo against listening to those of his -advisers who would make him a demigod, who put him above councils, who -make him the final authority in interpreting Scripture, "for through -them Satan already has made much headway." He also assured Leo that he -was an obedient servant of the church and that he was not inveighing -against him personally. - -Accompanying the letter was a copy of Luther's latest pamphlet, "A -Treatise on Christian Liberty." It expresses calm Christian reflection -quite different from the theological conflicts which were carried -forward in his other treatises. At the outset it poses two propositions -which seem to be a paradox: "A Christian man is a perfectly free lord of -all, subject to none," and "A Christian man is a perfectly dutiful -servant of all, subject to all." - -The first proposition acknowledges man as a sinner, but one who has been -liberated and restored to a right relationship with God through -justifying grace. In justifying man, God has freed him from the -consequence of his sins because of Christ's atonement. - -This freedom affects a man's whole life. Not only is he free from the -consequences of sin, but he is no longer shackled by his own hates, -passions, and wilful desires. Because this freedom is based on his own -personal relationship with God, no one can interfere. He is "subject to -none." - -The second proposition indicates that the free man's life takes a -different direction. Originally he was concerned with himself, but now -the reborn person, in gratitude for his own freedom, serves his -neighbor. His motive is not merely humanitarian, but stems out of a -sincere desire to help others become free too. Love permits him to do no -less than become the servant of all. - -The treatise and letter would have scant effect on Pope Leo. Five months -previously he had signed a bull excommunicating Luther. - - - The Papal Bull - -A chronological listing of events can be misleading--for instance those -concerning the papal bull. It was signed by Leo on June 15, 1520. It -reached Luther officially on October 10. He immediately wrote a fiery -epistle denouncing it and Eck, whose style and invective he recognized. -Aware that the bull was being circulated and that his literature was -being burned, he nevertheless sat down in November and wrote a friendly -letter to the pope accompanying it with his treatise on Christian -liberty. - -On the surface this would indicate insincerity, but events shaped up to -prove he was being consistent. Although he knew he had personal enemies, -he never lost sight of the fact that he was fighting a system rather -than individuals. The pope, for him, was merely a figurehead, in this -instance the symbol of an intolerable autocracy in an area where -individual freedom before God was essential. - -The papal bull credited Luther with forty-one errors, called for the -burning of his books, charged heresy, gave him sixty days to submit, and -warned everyone against sheltering him in his excommunication. -Distribution of the bull was in the hands of Eck and papal legate Jerome -Aleander. They succeeded in posting copies of the bull and burning books -in several cities, but largely their efforts were unsuccessful due to -strenuous opposition by the German people. - -On December 10, probably in reprisal for a book-burning at Cologne, -Melanchthon posted a notice on the Wittenberg University bulletin board -inviting students and faculty to a bonfire outside the Elster gate of -the city. Books on scholastic theology, and especially those works of -canon law on which the pope and the Roman hierarchy based their claims -to power, were tossed into the flames. Then Luther stepped forward -quietly and with a prayer on his lips added the booklet containing the -papal bull to the fire. He and the professors withdrew but the students -made a holiday of the affair, parading and singing throughout the town -and burning books of Luther's opponents. - -Significantly, the bonfire marked the end of the sixty-day period of -grace. From now on no one was to communicate with Luther or provide him -with the necessities of life. In the eyes of Rome he was an outlaw. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -THE MONK STANDS FIRM - - - The Diet of Worms - -Overtones of intrigue and statecraft are dominant in the prelude to the -imperial assembly at Worms. The church at Rome had given its decision. -Would the secular authorities now take action and turn him over to the -papal authorities? - -Charles, at his coronation as emperor, had subscribed to the imperial -constitution which said no German should be taken outside his country -for trial, and also that no one should be outlawed without a hearing. -Frederick the Wise, Luther's elector, took no action against him, using -these same reasons as an excuse. Aleander, the papal representative, -wanted the case settled arbitrarily by the emperor since he was well -aware of the support Luther would receive at a public hearing. The man -had been condemned by the church, he argued, and as good churchmen the -rulers should simply apprehend the Wittenberg monk without a further -examination of his views. - -For the first three months of 1521 the diet devoted itself chiefly to -transacting state business. During this period Emperor Charles changed -his mind several times about inviting the Wittenberg monk for a hearing. -Finally, on March 6, against his will, he offered Luther a safe-conduct -to Worms. - -In a two-wheeled cart Luther and a few companions set out from -Wittenberg on April 2. Cities along the way welcomed him and invited him -to preach, but no reception equaled the one on his arrival at Worms. -When the party was sighted from the cathedral tower at 10 A. M., on -April 16, a group of horsemen dashed out to act as an escort through the -city gate. Two thousand spectators thronged the streets so that Luther -was barely able to reach his lodging in the house of the Knights of St. -John. - -He was summoned to appear at four o'clock the following afternoon, and -because of the crowds in the streets was conducted through gardens and -alleys to the episcopal palace where the diet was meeting. When the door -of the assembly hall was opened, Luther was ushered through a company of -princes, nobles, and ecclesiastics to the foot of a canopied chair. On -it sat Charles, the twenty-one-year-old emperor. Near by was a table -loaded with books. - - - Answer Without Horns - -After the opening courtesies had been dispatched the presiding officer, -an official of the archbishop of Trier, pointed to the books, asked -Luther if he was the author, and if he was ready to retract what he had -written. - -Luther had been instructed to speak only in answer to direct questions -and was not to seek a discussion. However, this double question could -not be answered yes or no. He paused and his legal adviser asked that -the titles be read. Luther then acknowledged that the books were his. - -Again the question, "Will you retract...?" - -The monk believed his writing was an accurate interpretation of God's -Word. In his mind was Christ's admonition to the disciples "whosoever -shall deny me before men, him will I also deny before my Father...." -Since salvation was involved he asked time to think over the answer. The -diet agreed that he should return at four the next afternoon. - -After a night of prayer Luther again appeared before the impressive -assembly. This time a larger hall had been chosen because of the -tremendous crowd. Again the formalities, and again the question, but -this time phrased a bit differently. "Do you defend all of your books or -are you willing to recall some things?" This was the opening Luther had -been seeking and he quickly shaped his strategy to take advantage of it. -They were forcing him to make a speech since a categorical answer was -impossible. - -The books were in three classes, Luther explained. The first was purely -devotional and had been commended even by his enemies. The second was -against the papacy. If he recanted these he would open the door to -further tyranny and impiety. The third class inveighed against -individuals, and in these he admitted he had used caustic and -intemperate language. Still the facts had to stand unless refuted by the -Scriptures, in which case he would be first to cast his books into the -fires. - -Obviously the diet could not at this moment disprove his works by the -Bible. There was a consultation. The interrogator turned to Luther. -"Give us a direct answer--one without horns. Will you or will you not -recant your errors?" - - - Neither Right nor Safe - -The Spanish guards were mentally stacking faggots around the lonely -little figure in the middle of the room. Princes, nobles, and the Holy -Roman Emperor leaned forward to catch his words. - -"Since Your Majesty and Your Lordships want a direct reply, I will -answer without horns or teeth," he began quietly. - -The spectators looked at each other significantly, then back to the -earnest friar. Confidence was returning and his voice carried plainly to -all corners of the room. - -"Unless convinced by the testimony of Scripture or right reason--for I -trust neither the pope nor councils inasmuch as they have often erred -and contradicted one another--I am bound in conscience, held captive by -the Word of God in the Scriptures I have quoted. I neither can nor will -recant anything, for it is neither right nor safe to act against -conscience. God help me! Amen." - -There was silence for an instant. Then pandemonium broke loose. The -interrogator tried to restore order but the emperor walked out and the -meeting adjourned. Luther was escorted back to his rooms by the admiring -populace. Nobles who had been on the fringe now openly praised the -courageous preacher and vowed their support. During the night warning -notices were surreptitiously posted on the doors of his enemies. - -Charles summoned the electors and princes the following day to decide -what should be done. His own impulse to condemn Luther right away was -restrained because he needed the good will of the Germans in other -measures coming before the diet. A plan was evolved whereby a select -group of theologians would call on Luther and try to effect a -reconciliation through persuasion. The discussion always bogged down -when Luther insisted he must be persuaded on the basis of Scripture. - -Having received a twenty-one-day safe-conduct Luther set out for -Wittenberg on April 26. The diet closed officially on May 25, and the -next day, following a rump session of prejudiced nobles, the emperor -signed the Edict of Worms. According to it, Luther was the devil himself -in a monk's habit. He was to be seized on sight and turned over to the -emperor--an outlaw of the church and the state. - - - - - DRASTIC CHANGES - - - Wartburg to Wittenberg - -Fortunately for Luther there was more than noisy adulation among the -people. A few sober minds knew how relentless the papal wolves would be -in tracking him down after the safe-conduct expired, and so a -"kidnapping" and removal to a safe place was planned. - -Luther made a detour along the road to Wittenberg in order to visit -relatives at Mhra. For months the outside world knew only that he had -been captured near there in the Thuringian forest by a band of knights. -Many lamented him as dead, but gradually the flow of thorny letters to -his adversaries and the new treatises rolling from the press allayed -their fears. - -By a circuitous route Luther had been conveyed to the Wartburg, an -ancient fortress-castle near Eisenach. He arrived on May 4 and, with the -exception of short trips into the forest and to near-by villages, did -not leave for seven months. To outward appearances he was Junker George, -a carefree, bearded knight with sword swinging impressively at his side. -The secret was well kept and at the outset even the elector, who -authorized the masquerade, did not know Luther's whereabouts. - -Luther chafed at his forced inactivity, and, ever the monk, fell to -contemplation and examination of himself. Could past generations and -earlier scholars have been so completely out of step with the gospel? -Could a mere friar be right against them all? Might he not be in error -and drag many others to eternal damnation? - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - -Hard work helped take his mind off his problems. During his stay in the -Wartburg, in addition to correspondence and pamphlets, he authored a -work on confession, expositions on several Psalms, a commentary on the -Magnificat, had a volume of sermons on the Epistles and Gospels well -underway, and had translated the entire New Testament into German. - -Prayer and study restored his conviction. To doubt, or even to remain -silent was like going against conscience--neither right nor safe. With -conviction came a sense of divine commission. When events called him -back into the world again he went courageously and with determination. -He was a revolutionary, but a conservative one. That quality is what -took him back to Wittenberg. - - - From Freedom to License - -So often a new movement suffers from overenthusiasm. The Reformation was -no exception in this respect. Zealots took the usual shortcut from -bondage to freedom by way of turmoil instead of restrained orderly -procedure. - -In parts of Germany the old ways were thrown off hastily. Organs, -paintings, and statues were thrown from the churches, vestments were -discarded, bread and wine were both administered to the laity, priests -married, nuns took husbands, monastic vows were renounced, various forms -of the mass were discontinued, priests and worshipers who persisted in -the traditional forms were attacked. - -Rumors of violent acts reached the Wartburg. Luther, still in the guise -of Junker George, made a hurried trip to Wittenberg early in December, -1521. Matters there had not yet reached the unrestrained stage which -they later assumed. Nevertheless he cautioned the people in a "warning -against riot and rebellion," written on his return to the Wartburg. - -In it he reasoned that reform is not so much a matter of externals as of -faith. Breaking up the furniture in a church does not change the heart -of a man. Vandalism is by no means a sign of repentance and trust in -God--in fact it approaches the old form of seeking favor through works. -Giving wine as well as bread in the Lord's Supper is not as important as -the spiritual attitude of the communicant. - -Finally the tumult in Wittenberg reached the point where he had to step -in, so--in the face of the imperial ban--he returned on March 6, 1522. -Insisting that no drastic change should be made until, through -re-education, those affected requested it as a matter of faith, he -restored order in the university city in a remarkably short time. - -The peasants meanwhile took the shortcut to freedom, too, in a series of -bloody uprisings. Chafing under their bondage to the nobles, they -adapted Luther's "free lord of all" statement to their own demands for -social reform. Luther preached the Christian duty of submission to -lawful authority, but the peasants ravaged and plundered until finally -defeated in 1525. It was a dark hour in the Reformation. - - - Pigtails on the Pillow - -Wittenberg, June 14--Katherine von Bora, 26, late of the Cistercian -nunnery at Nimbschen, and Martin Luther, 42, professor of Bible at the -local university, were married last night at a simple ceremony in the -Black Cloister. Dr. John Bugenhagen officiated. In attendance were -Artist Lucas Cranach and Mrs. Cranach; Dr. Justus Jonas, prior of Castle -Church; and John Apel, professor of law at the university.... - -If there had been newspapers in 1525, Luther's wedding might have been -announced to the public in this way. However, newspapers weren't to -appear until much later, and the lack of publicity gave gossips and -slanderers choice opportunity to vilify the former monk and nun. The -malicious stories were partly offset by a public ceremony, complete with -a special service in the town church, a wedding dinner in the cloister, -and a dance at the town hall on June 27. - -The wedding was a direct result of Luther's reform teachings. He -disliked the monastic system because men and women sought merit before -God through restraints and vows rather than depending upon grace. -Celibacy, he had written earlier, is not founded on Scripture but -marriage is. These teachings found their way into many cloisters and -convents, among them the one at Nimbschen where Katherine von Bora, at -the age of sixteen, had been received into the Cistercian Order. - -She and eleven other nuns sought Luther's assistance in effecting a plan -of escape. Although he had no idea of what it would involve for him -personally, he arranged for them to be smuggled out of the convent in -empty fish barrels on the day before Easter in 1523. The plan succeeded -and some of the nuns came to Wittenberg where they found homes, -husbands, or new positions. Two years later Kathie was the only one not -permanently cared for despite Luther's several attempts at matchmaking. -Then the spunky miss hinted rather boldly that the Reformer himself -would be an acceptable husband and he resolved to take the course which -he had urged on so many others. - -It was strange for one accustomed to solitude. "Formerly at the table I -was alone," he wrote, "now I am with someone. When I awaken I see a pair -of pigtails on the pillow which were not there before." - - - The Cloister Becomes a Home - -Marriage probably extended Luther's life for a number of years. -Previously he and his dog enjoyed an irregular sort of existence in the -Black Cloister. Dishes were covered with dust, the bed hadn't been made -in over a year, his clothes were in disorder. Sometimes Luther forgot -his meals altogether and at other times stuffed himself. - -The vigor with which his industrious wife established order can be -imagined by his reference to her as "my lord Kathie." She was an -efficient housekeeper and thrifty manager of what little they possessed -at the outset. Neither had any money. Luther refused pay for his -writing, although the publishers grew rich, nor did he receive any tax -revenues from the cloister since he had laid aside his cowl. - -Things improved when the elector gave Luther the cloister for a home, -and adjacent to it a vegetable garden with a small brew house where -Kathie prepared the family beverage. His small salary as professor was -augmented somewhat when they took in boarding students attending the -university. - -The Luthers had six children. Two of them died in childhood, but -otherwise the family enjoyed a merry, wholesome life. The house was -always full of visitors--some of them more or less permanent--including -traveling dignitaries, numerous aunts and relatives, monks and nuns -seeking a permanent residence, and four orphaned children from among -their kinsfolk. Because it was large and suitable, the cloister -sometimes was used as a hospital, and it was not unusual for the -"family" to number as many as twenty-five. Guests who stayed for any -length of time were expected to take part in household duties, -participate in daily prayers, catechetical study, and family devotions. -Music, singing, chess, and outdoor bowling were forms of recreation. -Through Kathie's economy, improvements were made in the Luther house. An -orchard, hop garden, and finally a farm were purchased. - -When Luther worried about his children's future he overcame it with -faith. A pious training is most important, he wrote. It is good to leave -an inheritance, but preparing children to manage wisely is more -important. We parents are fools if we don't train them to fear God, to -control themselves, and to live honorably. - - [Illustration: (uncaptioned)] - - - - -A CHURCH REBORN - - - The National Conscience - -The people at Wittenberg and in other cities of influence were gradually -learning to think of the church as separate from the Roman hierarchy. -Now there was need for reorganization. A steady supply of ministers was -essential and arrangements had to be made for their training and -support. A bond of some sort was necessary to establish unity of -endeavor, and mission work was imperative in areas where conviction had -lapsed into indifference. - -Luther didn't care for organizational work. The thought that the new -church might degenerate into a system of laws and regulations haunted -him. Although his revised order of worship was finding its way into use -he felt that still more urgent matters demanded attention. Proper -instruction of young and old was essential and to accomplish it there -had to be some sort of oversight. - -The bishops had neglected instruction of the laymen and the princes were -loath to reinstitute it. Luther, therefore, laid the task directly upon -the congregations and in some cases the city councils to select -competent men as pastors, establish pastoral districts, and set up -schools. To advise and assist in this work, visitation committees -comprising learned laymen and theologians traveled throughout Saxony -beginning in 1527. The visitation was carried on in other areas of -Germany too, and in this way the groundwork for future organization -began. - -In the meantime two distinct factions had developed among the princes of -Germany. One espoused the Roman cause, the other the Reformation. From -1525 to 1529 a series of diets and assemblies was held. The rival -princes concerned themselves largely with attempts at, and opposition -to, the invoking of the ban against Luther, his works, and his cohorts -which had been executed at Worms. At Speyer in 1529 the Catholic -princes, with the emperor's backing, tried to force a resolution -preventing the spread of Luther's teachings in any new areas, but the -Reformation princes protested. Matters concerning salvation were of an -individual nature and could not be legislated. Conscience bound them to -oppose the resolution. Principles which the Wittenberg monk had declared -only eight years before were becoming the national mind. - - - The Augsburg Confession - -Sparks of the Reformation had caught fire elsewhere in Europe developing -into Reformed, Mennonite, Anabaptist, and other denominations. A major -purpose of the diet called by Emperor Charles at Augsburg in 1530 was to -harmonize these various groups and attempt a final reconciliation with -Rome. To this end each body was to define its teaching in a statement or -confession, but not all were represented at the diet and only three were -actually submitted. - -As usual the papists were laying for the Lutherans. They had prejudiced -the emperor against a fair hearing and were reserving their best -ammunition for the Saxon "heretics," fully confident that a Lutheran -defeat would speedily bring the downfall of the others. - -Still under imperial ban, Luther could not attend the diet but stayed at -a castle in Coburg from which he advised Melanchthon and others -appearing before the emperor. The confession, a series of twenty-eight -articles setting forth the Lutheran position, was read on June 25. The -first twenty-one present fundamental doctrines of the Scriptures -regarding God, Original Sin, the Son of God, Justification, the Church, -the Sacraments, Civil Affairs, the Freedom of Will, the Cause of Sin, -Good Works, and the Worship of Saints; while the last seven treat of -Roman abuses which contradict the Word of God. - -The emperor commissioned the Roman theologians to prepare a refutation. -On the basis of it he rejected the Lutheran confession, ordered church -property restored to Roman bishops, and forbade witnessing and the -printing or sale of Lutheran writings. - -Dejected by their failure to reform the church, the Lutherans went home -in the fall of 1530 unaware that their confession would become a basic -creed of the largest Protestant body in the world. - -Threatened with coercion by the Romanists in Germany, they joined with -other Protestants in 1531 to form the League of Schmalkalden. War was -averted when the emperor enlisted both groups to meet the Turkish -invasion of Austria, and armed conflict over religious principles was -delayed until the summer of 1546. Luther didn't see it. A few months -earlier he went to stand before the Judge he had learned to love instead -of fear. - - - Back to Eisleben - -The circuit of Luther's life was completed in Eisleben, his birthplace, -where he had gone to mediate between the princes of Mansfeld. He died -early on the morning of February 18, 1546, after fervently committing -himself to God's keeping and reaffirming the doctrines he had preached. - -Luther's lifetime was marked with concern--concern first about himself -and God. It wasn't selfish; a man has to find his treasure before he can -share it. Luther had searched through lonely tormented hours in a -monastery; he brushed aside centuries of proud speculation until he -found the truth. It was written in a book, the record of God's -revelation of himself to man--the Bible. From it he learned that God is -love instead of wrath; that no one, pope or king, can stand between man -and that love, or gain it for another; that one can't even win it for -himself. It is God's free gift. - -Then his concern was for others. This treasure was too priceless to -keep; he had to give it away. He preached it, though all the forces of -evil railed against him. He printed it, though emperors ordered him to -stop the press. He sang it and helped the church to sing--in tones so -soft they lull a child to sleep; in battlecries resounding from the -ramparts of his mighty-fortress God. - -"The devil prefers blockheads," he said, therefore, "the school must be -the next thing to the church." Concern led him to teach. Professor was -the only job he held--but that for all his life. He hated those who -arrogantly claimed sole right to knowledge. So that each might know the -truth himself, and in that truth be free, he translated the sacred -Scriptures. Matthew to Revelation first, and then the Old Testament were -translated, not in high-sounding phrase or platitude, but in majestic -simplicity--the words of Hans and Hilda. The lords and ladies would -understand it that way too. - -The principles of faith which Luther proclaimed, brought fame and the -promise of power. But the words addressed to the nobles at Worms recount -the humility of his service: "I seek nothing beyond reforming the church -in conformity with the Scriptures. I reserve nothing but to bear witness -to the Word of God alone." - - - - - CHRONOLOGY - - - 1483 November 10 Martin Luther born at Eisleben - 1484 Family moves to Mansfeld - 1497 Luther goes to Magdeburg school - 1498 Luther goes to Eisenach school - 1501 Enters University of Erfurt - 1505 Receives master of arts degree - July 2 Vows to become a monk - July 17 Enters Augustinian cloister at Erfurt - 1507 April 4 Ordained to priesthood - 1508 Teaches at Wittenberg - 1509 Lectures at University of Erfurt - 1510 November Begins journey to Rome - 1511 Returns to Wittenberg as professor - 1512 October 18-19 Receives doctor of sacred scripture - degree - 1517 October 31 Posts ninety-five theses - 1518 August Pope wants Luther brought to Rome - 1519 July 4-14 Luther debates with Eck at Leipzig - 1520 June 15 Papal bull signed - October 10 Luther receives bull - December 10 Luther burns bull - 1521 January 27 Diet of Worms begins - April 16 Arrives at Worms - April 17 Makes first statement - April 18 Luther will not recant - April 26 Leaves Worms - May 4 Arrives at the Wartburg - May 26 Banned by Edict of Worms - 1522 March 6 Returns to Wittenberg - 1525 June 13 Marries Katherine von Bora - 1527 Composition of "A Mighty Fortress" - 1530 June 25 Augsburg Confession read - 1534 Publishes complete Bible in German - 1546 February 18 Luther dies at Eisleben - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---Corrected a few palpable typographical errors. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Martin Luther, by Carl E. 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max-width:35em; margin-right:auto; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -div.sidenote { max-width:50%; float:left; clear:left; - - margin-bottom:1em; font-weight:bold; font-size:90%; } - - -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Martin Luther, by Carl E. Koppenhaver - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Martin Luther - -Author: Carl E. Koppenhaver - -Release Date: November 11, 2016 [EBook #53499] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARTIN LUTHER *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Martin Luther" width="500" height="746" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1>MARTIN -<br />LUTHER</h1> -<p class="center"><b>CARL E. KOPPENHAVER</b></p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="Publisher’s Logo" width="160" height="187" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><b>Muhlenberg Press</b> <span class="hst"><b>Philadelphia</b></span></p> -</div> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="sc">Copyright, 1953, by -<br />Muhlenberg Press</span></p> -<p class="center"><i>Third Printing</i> -<br />Printed in U.S.A. <span class="hst"><i>UB736</i></span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1">THE MINER’S SON</a> 5</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c2">Eisleben to Erfurt</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c3">Into the Cloister</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c4">Monk and Priest</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c5">THE PROFESSOR</a> 11</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c6">Dr. Luther</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c7">The Awakening</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c8">COLLISION WITH ROME</a> 15</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c9">The Question of Indulgences</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c10">The Ninety-five Theses</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c11">Rome Moves to Attack</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c12">THE BREACH WIDENS</a> 21</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c13">Pushed into the Arena</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c14">The Shadow of Hus</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c15">For Such a Time as This</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c16">LUTHER EXPLAINS HIMSELF</a> 25</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c17">The Christian Nobility</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c18">The Babylonian Captivity</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c19">Christian Liberty</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c20">The Papal Bull</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c21">THE MONK STANDS FIRM</a> 33</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c22">The Diet of Worms</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c23">Answer Without Horns</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c24">Neither Right nor Safe</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c25">DRASTIC CHANGES</a> 37</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c26">Wartburg to Wittenberg</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c27">From Freedom to License</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c28">Pigtails on the Pillow</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c29">The Cloister Becomes a Home</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c30">A CHURCH REBORN</a> 45</dt> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c31">The National Conscience</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c32">The Augsburg Confession</a></dd> -<dd class="ddt"><a href="#c33">Back to Eisleben</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c34">CHRONOLOGY</a> 49</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="773" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<h2 id="c1">THE MINER’S SON</h2> -<h3 id="c2">Eisleben to Erfurt</h3> -<p>The Turk was slashing his way up the valley of the Danube -into the heart of Europe. God sat far off, not as a loving father -but as a vengeful law-court judge inflicting all sorts of misery -on mankind. In the forest lurked witches and demons seeking -to drag the unwary to destruction.</p> -<p>Into such a world threatened by the sword, ruled by fear, -and plagued by superstition, Martin Luther was born on -November 10, 1483, in Eisleben, Germany. Within such a -world he became a man disdainful of bodily harm, convinced -of God’s love and mercy, endowed with abundant common -sense—a Christian worthy of study and emulation. Although -his station of birth was lowly, greatness sought him out, and -the whole world has felt the impact of his life.</p> -<p>The Luther child was baptized in the Church of St. Peter -the morning after his birth and was named Martin for the -saint of the day. His parents, Hans and Margarethe Luther, -were simple, industrious folk. They had moved recently from -the farming community of Möhra, home of the Luther family, -to Eisleben where Hans hoped to make his fortune in the -copper mines.</p> -<p>When Martin was about six months old the family moved -to near-by Mansfeld. The first years there were hard and it -was with difficulty that Hans scraped together money to send -his son to school. By the time Martin was thirteen, however, -his father was able to send him to a school conducted by the -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -Brothers of the Common Life at Magdeburg. As was the custom, -he earned his board by singing and begging from door -to door with one of the school choirs.</p> -<p>He stayed in Magdeburg for only a year and then was sent -to the parish school of St. George in Eisenach. While again -earning his keep by singing and begging, he became acquainted -with Frau Ursula Cotta, a woman of culture and refinement, -who took the promising young scholar into her home.</p> -<p>Hans Luther had been working diligently and by the time -his son was seventeen the family budget permitted his entrance -to the University of Erfurt. Martin worked diligently -too, and at the end of four years had passed not only his bachelor’s -but his master’s examinations.</p> -<h3 id="c3">Into the Cloister</h3> -<p>Obedient to his father’s wishes, Martin Luther on May 20, -1505, began his post-graduate studies at Erfurt, preparatory -to entering the field of law. But after studying for only a few -weeks he suddenly rejected the whole idea and applied for -admission at the town’s Augustinian monastery.</p> -<p>Hans Luther was terribly angry and Martin’s university -friends were astounded. Why had he taken such a step? Many -factors contributed, but in the final analysis his decision to -become a monk can be summed up in the words “religious -experience.”</p> -<p>His parents were God-fearing people whose piety undoubtedly -had an early influence on him. He shared fear of the -horrors of hell, purgatory, and the last judgment which was -common to people at the close of the middle ages. In the -university library he had found a complete Bible and was -tremendously impressed with his own ignorance of its contents. -He attended church and daily chapel devotions regularly -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -all through school. His introspective nature made him -starkly aware of his sins and shortcomings. Life as a monk -was held to be the best way to forgiveness and heaven.</p> -<p>Several grim incidents increased his anxiety. While on a -holiday from the university he accidentally severed an artery -in his leg with his student sword. He almost bled to death -and in distress prayed to the Virgin Mary for help. The death -of a number of students during a plague moved him profoundly. -While returning to Erfurt, following a visit to Mansfeld, -he was caught in a heavy thunderstorm and a bolt of -lightning struck so close that he was knocked to the ground. -Overcome by panic he invoked St. Anna for aid and vowed -“Help me, and I will become a monk.” Fifteen days later, -on July 17, friends accompanied him to the gate of the “Black -Cloister,” monastery of the Order of Augustinian Hermits in -Erfurt.</p> -<p>That this decision came later in life than usually was the -case, and that his impressionable years had been spent not -within the confines of a monastery but in the unrestricted -atmosphere of a great university, later proved valuable to him -and to the Protestant Church.</p> -<h3 id="c4">Monk and Priest</h3> -<p>Luther was not received immediately into the monastery -but had to remain for several months in the monastic hostelry -examining himself and being examined. In September, 1505, -all parties being satisfied, his head was shaved and he was -invested with the black Augustinian habit and cowl, and -formally received as a novice.</p> -<p>He scrubbed the floors, begged in the streets, and engaged -in various ascetic and spiritual exercises. When his probationary -year was ended Luther took the vows of obedience, -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -poverty, and chastity and was received into the order of the -Augustinian monks. His sincere piety and scholarship so -impressed his superiors that he was urged to prepare for the -priesthood, and, on April 4, 1507, was ordained to that office.</p> -<p>The petty employments of the monastery did not consume -all of Luther’s energy and he devoted himself strenuously to -studying the scholastic theology available at that time. However, -long hours with books did little to ease his mind and -give him the peace of conscience he sought within the cloister -walls. The books taught him to rely on his own efforts to -procure favor with God, and he was too honest to believe -that his penitence was deep enough and his fastings worthy -enough to compensate for his sins.</p> -<p>Although his heart was not at rest, Luther continued to -perform his priestly duties and undertake any new tasks -assigned to him. In the fall of 1508 he was appointed to the -chair of moral philosophy which had been entrusted to the -Augustinians by the faculty at the newly established University -of Wittenberg. Desiring to teach theology rather than -logic and ethics, he availed himself of this opportunity to study -for a bachelor’s degree which would permit him to lecture -on certain books of the Bible. He had virtually completed his -studies when he was called back to Erfurt in October, 1509. -There he lectured in the monastery for about a year, and in -November, 1510, was sent in company with another monk on -a mission to Rome.</p> -<p>In the Holy City he visited as many shrines and churches -as possible. His high opinion of the papal court was lowered -by his observations of its reckless luxury and scandal, but his -confidence in the church remained unshaken.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="787" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<h2 id="c5">THE PROFESSOR</h2> -<h3 id="c6">Dr. Luther</h3> -<p>Luther returned to Erfurt from Rome, and in the summer -of 1511 was sent as one of three new professors to Wittenberg. -Here he came under the influence of John von Staupitz, -vicar of the Augustinian order, who showed warm sympathy -and understanding toward the earnest young priest.</p> -<p>As yet Luther had been unable to convince himself of God’s -love, mercy, and forgiveness. His quest carried him along the -path of good works, but he never could feel that he had done -enough to save himself. He tried the path of confession but -concluded there was more wrong with men than could be -cleansed by enumerating a list of particular offenses.</p> -<p>Luther’s problems of faith did not mount up through -clearly defined stages to a sudden soul-free climax. Rather he -passed through a series of crises. Staupitz did much to comfort -him in some of these grave periods. He encouraged the -zealous monk to trust in the God who loved and sent his Son -to redeem man, rather than try to appease God through his -own works.</p> -<p>Staupitz’ theology was quite different from Luther’s. It admitted -man’s weakness and called him to completely submerge -himself in God. There was no striving, no assertion of self. -Eventually the individual found peace in a blissful atmosphere -surrounded entirely by God. Luther’s efforts were virtually -the opposite. His every act was replete with self-assertion -directed toward winning merit. He tried the mystical way of -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -Staupitz but could never completely lose himself in the essence -of a God whom he conceived to be an angry judge.</p> -<p>Luther’s troubled spirit did not lower him in the vicar’s -estimation and, perhaps to get his mind off it, Staupitz advised -him to study for a doctor’s degree and assume the chair of -Bible at the university. It was good medicine, for thus the -distressed monk came to closer grips with the source book of -his faith. So far, writings about the Bible, rather than the -book itself, had been his main diet. He studied for the degree -and preached in the monastery’s rickety chapel until October -18-19, 1512, when he became Martin Luther, doctor of sacred -scripture, professor of Bible at Wittenberg University.</p> -<h3 id="c7">The Awakening</h3> -<p>Since May, 1512, Luther had been subprior and regent in -the school connected with the Black Cloister at Wittenberg. -In May, 1515, he became district vicar for Thuringia and -Meissen, having eleven monasteries under his care. Meanwhile -he was discharging his duties as professor in the university.</p> -<p>Frequently the solution to great problems comes quite -undramatically as one goes about the daily tasks. Luther’s -awakening to a God who makes man righteous in order -to save him came in such a way. He knew the teaching that -the righteous shall be saved by faith. But who, he asked himself, -is righteous?</p> -<p>As he studied and taught, and looked after his wards in the -monasteries, he gradually discovered he had been misled by -the medieval concept that grace could be earned. This, he -found, was contrary to the New Testament. Grace can’t be -earned. God gives it. Man, therefore, does not make himself -righteous. It is God who makes man righteous. He makes man -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -righteous as a free gift (grace) so that he can be saved. Out -of this came the doctrine of “justification by faith.”</p> -<p>At this point Luther still felt that he was in total agreement -with the teachings of the Roman Church. In a humble way -he believed that he had discovered for himself what always -had been—that he had just been slow in catching on. Deeper -study, however, made it clear to him that there was a great -difference between his own and the theology of the middle -ages. He became convinced that man can contribute nothing -toward his salvation, but that God, recognizing man’s unrighteousness, -had redeemed him and restored him through the -sacrifice of his Son, Jesus Christ. This indeed was not the -work of an implacable judge, but of a loving Father.</p> -<p>Luther now found himself rejecting most of the medieval -writers and teachers. He went back to the Bible, to Christ, -and the apostles. Convinced of the truth, he no longer was -restrained by contradictory views. His beliefs were contrary -to many of the teachings of the church, and while he didn’t -plan it that way they brought him into open revolt. The matter -of indulgences opened the battle.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="777" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<h2 id="c8">COLLISION WITH ROME</h2> -<h3 id="c9">The Question of Indulgences</h3> -<p>The Roman Church taught that forgiveness of sins could -be secured only through the sacrament of penance. This required -contrition of heart, confession to a priest, and satisfaction -by good works. Release from the penalty of eternal punishment -was guaranteed by the absolution pronounced by the -priest. If not enough works of penance were done before -death, however, the remainder had to be atoned for in the torments -of purgatory for an indefinite period.</p> -<p>Gradually a custom developed which permitted one to purchase -indulgences to offset purgatorial punishment. It was -at this point that Luther’s theology conflicted with the church’s -practice. Grace was God’s gift, but indulgences implied that -man can earn grace.</p> -<p>In 1515 the sale of indulgences was being pressed in the -archbishopric of Mainz which had been purchased recently by -Albert of Brandenburg. Because of the vast revenues the -office controlled, it was a profitable investment to become a -bishop in those days. Although not old enough to be a bishop, -Albert already had procured two other sees before negotiating -for the purchase of Mainz. Pope Leo X was willing to overlook -these irregularities in exchange for ten thousand ducats -which he needed to complete the Church of St. Peter in Rome.</p> -<p>Albert borrowed the money from the Fuggers banking -concern in Augsburg. Then the pope granted him the privilege -of selling indulgences so that he could settle his account -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -at the bank and at the same time raise additional sums for -St. Peter’s.</p> -<p>John Tetzel, a Dominican prior who had displayed shrewd -aptitude in selling indulgences, conducted the campaign. He -didn’t enter Luther’s parish because Frederick the Wise, -elector of Saxony, had an indulgence traffic of his own in -the form of a large collection of relics gathered for veneration -in the Castle Church, Wittenberg. However, some of Luther’s -people crossed the border and bought indulgences from Tetzel. -Luther saw the fundamental danger of the traffic when these -folk countered his preaching on repentance of heart and life -by showing him indulgences remitting their sins. On October -31 Luther tacked a placard on the door of the Castle -Church. The sound of his hammer reached to Rome.</p> -<h3 id="c10">The Ninety-five Theses</h3> -<p>The theses which Luther posted on the church door were -not a declaration of revolt. They were, after the custom of the -day, an invitation to theologians of Wittenberg and vicinity -to debate on the indulgence situation. So that all participants -could be prepared, he posted the ninety-five propositions he -intended to defend in the debate.</p> -<p>The points for argument did not call for abandonment of -indulgences but merely advocated the elimination of evils in -the system. Luther maintained, in his theses, that repentance -should be a lifelong experience and should manifest itself in -a continuing effort to overcome sinful desires. Indulgences, he -said, are simply remissions of penalties which the church has -imposed. They have no effect on the souls of the departed -and they don’t remit sin; only God can do that.</p> -<p>Luther believed he was being a loyal defender of the Roman -Church by attempting to correct these abuses, and correspondence -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -revealed that he thought the pope was unaware of what -was going on. To his surprise the theses released a great flood -of favorable public opinion and were applauded as a courageous -and unrelenting attack. Within two weeks they were -distributed in German as well as Latin throughout Germany.</p> -<p>There had been a growing dislike of the indulgence system -and of the pope’s interference in what, to the Germans, were -strictly their own national affairs. The theses now became a -rallying point not only for those who opposed Rome’s continuous -exploitation of German finances but also for those who -resented the dominating attitude of a foreign power. Even -though they attacked one of his own pet institutions, the -Elector Frederick stood by his daring young monk.</p> -<p>As the Augustinians rallied around Luther, the Dominicans -upheld the cause of Brother Tetzel. He was granted a -doctor’s degree largely to enable him to publish some theses -of his own.</p> -<p>When the Tetzel writings came off press and were distributed, -students at Wittenberg collected a large quantity and -held a public bonfire. Luther, still a loyal son of the monastic -system, was greatly displeased by their sophomoric act.</p> -<h3 id="c11">Rome Moves to Attack</h3> -<p>Luther sent a copy of his theses to Albert of Brandenburg -who forwarded them to Rome where Pope Leo X reportedly -brushed the incident off as a row between rival monastic -orders. Later the Dominicans charged Luther with heresy and -formal proceedings were begun. On August 7, 1518, Luther -received notice to appear in Rome for trial within sixty days.</p> -<p>By no means a coward, Luther was nonetheless unwilling -to be the victim of a mock-trial in the territory of the enemy. -He asked Elector Frederick to have the trial transferred to German -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -soil where he might at least have the benefit of impartial -judges.</p> -<p>On second thought the pope decided not to wait sixty days -and ordered the elector to arrest Luther at once and turn him -over to Cardinal Cajetan for delivery in Rome. Although -Frederick was not sympathetic to heresy he was determined -that the man who had brought so much attention to his university -at Wittenberg should have fair play. He prevailed -upon the pope to have Cardinal Cajetan give Luther a personal -hearing in Augsburg where he would be attending a -diet or parliament.</p> -<p>In a benign manner the cardinal offered to help Luther -out of all his difficulty if he would simply submit to the -pope’s authority and retract his errors. Luther of course refused -and tried to defend his positions. A fruitless and oft-times -heated controversy ensued and at the end of three days -Cajetan told Luther to leave his presence and not return until -he was ready to recant.</p> -<p>The cardinal was quite upset by the Augsburg incident and -wrote Elector Frederick a letter calling upon him to turn the -heretical monk over to the Roman authorities. Frederick’s -reply indicated his increasing resistance to papal dictatorship. -He asked for a free trial and a statement of Luther’s errors in -writing.</p> -<p>The pope’s chamberlain, Carl von Miltitz, was dispatched -to Germany in an attempt to rectify Cajetan’s blundering. He -correctly estimated that much of the populace was on Luther’s -side and the time for forcibly suppressing him was past. Resorting -to diplomacy he persuaded Luther to have his case submitted -to a German bishop and to refrain from further attack -in the meantime. Luther agreed, but only on the condition -that his opponents would remain silent too.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="781" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<h2 id="c12">THE BREACH WIDENS</h2> -<h3 id="c13">Pushed into the Arena</h3> -<p>Even while Luther was meeting with Miltitz circumstances -were shaping up which drove him to break silence. He had -stated his willingness to recant if someone proved his error. -An ambitious professor at the University of Ingolstadt, John -Eck, with an enviable reputation as a disputant, saw in this -his opportunity to win renown and also favor with Rome.</p> -<p>Andrew Carlstadt of the Wittenberg faculty had espoused -the cause of Luther publicly and had been engaged in an extended -debate with Eck through the medium of pamphlets. -Now a public debate between the two was arranged for Leipzig. -In preparation Eck drew up a series of twelve theses, -directed not so much at his differences with Carlstadt as with -the theology of Luther. The champion of Roman orthodoxy -clearly was baiting Luther into the arena.</p> -<p>After months of wrangling about procedures and proper -invitations, and with much pomp and pageantry, the debate -got under way on June 27, 1519. Several hundred Wittenberg -students were there—a sixteenth-century sort of college cheering -section. During the ensuing eighteen days of debate they -frequently became embroiled with the Leipzig University students -who sided with Eck. Carlstadt and Eck matched wits for -four days over the relation between grace and free will. The -erudition and cleverness of Eck gave him a decided advantage -over the Wittenberg scholar, but spectator interest was being -reserved for July 4 when Luther would take the field.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<p>For another four days Eck and Luther discussed the divine -right of the pope with the Ingolstadter insisting that the divine -plan of government was a monarchy with the pope at its head. -Luther agreed that the church was a monarchy but that Christ -was its head. The passage in St. Matthew concerning the rock -upon which Christ would build his church was quoted by -Eck with the interpretation that Peter was the “rock” and -since he also was the first pope it was clear that papal supremacy -had been established by Christ.</p> -<p>Luther declared the passage should be considered along -with Peter’s previous statement, “Thou art the Christ....” -This confession, he said, is the “rock” on which Christ built -his church.</p> -<h3 id="c14">The Shadow of Hus</h3> -<p>The crisis at Leipzig was reached when Eck backed into a -dialectical corner and had to resort to foul tactics. How discredit -Luther? Perhaps if he made him synonymous with -heresy....</p> -<p>Craftily Eck pointed out the similarity between Luther’s -arguments and those of the Bohemian reformer, John Hus, -whom the Council of Constance had condemned to the stake -a century before. Luther denounced the insinuation and declared -the Bohemian heresy irrelevant to the debate.</p> -<p>It was inevitable in opposing the Roman Church’s contention -to primacy that Luther would use arguments similar to -those of previous reformers. The condemnation of Hus as a -heretic did not necessarily make all of his views heretical. In -fact, Luther insisted, some of Hus’s articles were genuinely -Christian and evangelical.</p> -<p>The spectators and visiting theologians were stunned, and -perhaps Luther shocked even himself. Clearly his remark -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span> -would be interpreted to mean that the general councils—the -highest earthly authority—were not beyond fault. This was -heresy.</p> -<p>Luther had long been aware of the need for reform in the -church. As his ideas developed it became apparent that the -pope was not above human weakness. The church militant -needed an earthly head, and for the sake of good order it was -necessary that he be obeyed. But that didn’t make him infallible. -After all, he was human.</p> -<p>Now this same reasoning had pushed from Luther’s lips -the admission that councils could err also. Unwittingly Eck -had contributed what probably was the greatest outcome of -the debate—Luther’s growing conviction that even general -councils could be unreliable. Henceforth he would take -his stand on the unassailable Word of God as revealed in the -Scriptures.</p> -<p>Results of the debate were weighed by judges at the University -of Paris who condemned Luther and his views as heretical. -When Philip Melanchthon, a Wittenberg associate and close -friend of Luther, questioned the opinion on the basis of Scripture, -the Parisians looked down their noses at the upstart, -informing him they were chief among the few to whom -interpretation of Scripture could be entrusted.</p> -<h3 id="c15">For Such a Time as This</h3> -<p>Luther was frankly disappointed with the outcome of the -debate. He had hoped his opinions would be accepted and -reformation of the church effected.</p> -<p>The controversy did much, however, to crystallize his own -views: The pope did not have absolute authority; a council -can err in its decisions; the Bible is above popes and councils -in authority; the Church of Christ is not limited to the Roman -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -fellowship alone but is the community of believers throughout -the world.</p> -<p>Gradually Luther realized these views differed so fundamentally -from those of Rome that there was small chance of -healing the breach. The notion that he might become a -martyr recurred frequently but it didn’t cause him to relinquish -his zeal. In fact he received inspiration from it and kept three -presses rolling at full speed to turn out tracts, sermons, and -commentaries.</p> -<p>In addition to the Leipzig debate, the summer of 1519 -brought forth another event which was significant in Luther’s -life. Maximilian, the Holy Roman Emperor, died in January -and the election of a successor was of utmost concern to the -rulers and populace of Europe. Consequently, there was -rejoicing in Germany on June 28 when the electors named -Charles of Spain in preference to Francis of France. Charles -was a Hapsburg and the Germans confidently expected he -would unite them into a strong, independent nation. However, -the new emperor favored his Spanish mother more than -his German father and treated his fatherland like an outlying -province of Spain.</p> -<p>Wide distribution of the Ninety-five Theses and other writings, -as well as prominence resulting from the Leipzig encounter, -had fixed the eyes of many Germans upon Luther. -When Charles failed to step into the role of national figure -they switched their enthusiasm to Luther. Few understood his -ideas on Christianity but they believed he could lead them to -political, intellectual, and economic freedom. Scholars, princes, -knights, and commoners gathered about the Wittenberg professor -who had demonstrated his fearlessness in the face of -tyranny. Gradually Luther sensed his mission as leader in a -mighty movement. History called it the Reformation.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<h2 id="c16">LUTHER EXPLAINS HIMSELF</h2> -<h3 id="c17">The Christian Nobility</h3> -<p>Luther’s attempts to interest the pope in reform had proved -futile. He was likewise unsuccessful in having a general council -convened to consider his propositions. Now, in the first of -three great treatises, he called upon the secular rulers to concern -themselves with the state of the church.</p> -<p>Appearing in August, 1520, the “Open Letter to the Christian -Nobility of the German Nation” flatly attacked corruption -among the clergy and prodded the laity into doing something -about it. Since all Christians are priests before God, -Luther held it was incumbent upon them and particularly upon -Christian rulers to feel responsible for the conduct of the -church within their domains. As Christians they should abhor -vice and wickedness regardless of whether it flourished on the -main street or in the monastery.</p> -<p>No one, said the open letter, has been able to reform the -Romanists because they have erected three walls of defense, -“<i>First</i>, when pressed by the temporal power, they have made -decrees and said that the temporal power has no jurisdiction -over them. <i>Second</i>, when the attempt is made to reprove them -out of the Scriptures, they raise the objection that the interpretation -of the Scriptures belongs to no one except the pope. -<i>Third</i>, if threatened with a council, they answer with the fable -that no one can call a council but the pope.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="769" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<p>Luther demolished the first wall by showing that everyone -is equal before God. Those holding the title of priest or bishop -are not superior to other Christians nor do they differ except -in vocation, by which also a cobbler differs from a blacksmith. -The title of “priest” is conferred by laymen who themselves -are priests in the sight of God. Thus the holder of a church -title is not beyond the reach of temporal government.</p> -<p>He breached the second wall by pointing out that every -enlightened Christian—layman or priest—has the right to -seek God’s message for him in the Scriptures. The third wall -tumbled through Luther’s insistence that every man, as a -priest, shares responsibility for right management in the -church.</p> -<h3 id="c18">The Babylonian Captivity</h3> -<p>Before his letter to the nobility was off press, Luther was -writing his second treatise, “The Babylonian Captivity of the -Church.” The first had been primarily for lay people while -the second was for theologians. It aimed directly at freeing -the Christian fellowship in Europe from the “captivity” of the -Roman sacramental system.</p> -<p>The Roman Church taught that it alone could dispense the -saving grace associated with the sacraments, and that the -sacramental acts could be performed only by ordained priests. -Anyone who denied that the church controlled the flow of -grace from God was striking Catholicism in its most vital -spot. Without its sacramental system Rome could no longer -bind its subjects. This was the front at which Luther aimed -his heaviest artillery.</p> -<p>He reiterated his views on the priesthood of believers. -Priests should be servants of the people who comprise the -church, rather than servants of a papal hierarchy. They cannot -interfere with grace. It is God’s free gift to the individual -believer.</p> -<p>In the course of his treatise Luther also asserted that there -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -are only two sacraments—baptism and the Lord’s Supper—rather -than seven as taught in Roman Catholicism. A sacrament, -he held, had to be instituted by Christ, contain a divine -promise of the forgiveness of sins, and make use of an earthly -element (water, bread, wine). Confirmation, ordination, marriage, -penance, and extreme unction were rejected as sacraments -because they lacked some of the prescribed characteristics.</p> -<p>The mass had been seen as a repetition of Christ’s incarnation -and crucifixion at the hands of a priest before the altar. -By this sacrifice man tried to earn grace. Now it became the -Lord’s Supper—a communion of the believing Christian with -his Saviour. Both the bread and the wine should be received by -the communicant, Luther insisted. While Christ is really present -in the elements, the bread does not become flesh nor the -wine blood through a magical act called transubstantiation. -Moreover, Christ is not sacrificed anew whenever the mass is -celebrated. His sacrifice on the cross was for all time. Through -that sacrifice a man’s sins are remitted if he has faith.</p> -<h3 id="c19">Christian Liberty</h3> -<p>Miltitz, the papal nuncio who previously had failed to -reconcile Luther and the pope, tried again in October, 1520. -He had Luther agree to write a letter to Leo X assuring him -that there was nothing personal in his attacks on the papacy.</p> -<p>In the letter, Luther cautioned Leo against listening to those -of his advisers who would make him a demigod, who put him -above councils, who make him the final authority in interpreting -Scripture, “for through them Satan already has made -much headway.” He also assured Leo that he was an obedient -servant of the church and that he was not inveighing against -him personally.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<p>Accompanying the letter was a copy of Luther’s latest -pamphlet, “A Treatise on Christian Liberty.” It expresses -calm Christian reflection quite different from the theological -conflicts which were carried forward in his other treatises. -At the outset it poses two propositions which seem to be a -paradox: “A Christian man is a perfectly free lord of all, subject -to none,” and “A Christian man is a perfectly dutiful servant -of all, subject to all.”</p> -<p>The first proposition acknowledges man as a sinner, but one -who has been liberated and restored to a right relationship -with God through justifying grace. In justifying man, God -has freed him from the consequence of his sins because of -Christ’s atonement.</p> -<p>This freedom affects a man’s whole life. Not only is he free -from the consequences of sin, but he is no longer shackled by -his own hates, passions, and wilful desires. Because this freedom -is based on his own personal relationship with God, no -one can interfere. He is “subject to none.”</p> -<p>The second proposition indicates that the free man’s life -takes a different direction. Originally he was concerned with -himself, but now the reborn person, in gratitude for his own -freedom, serves his neighbor. His motive is not merely humanitarian, -but stems out of a sincere desire to help others become -free too. Love permits him to do no less than become the -servant of all.</p> -<p>The treatise and letter would have scant effect on Pope Leo. -Five months previously he had signed a bull excommunicating -Luther.</p> -<h3 id="c20">The Papal Bull</h3> -<p>A chronological listing of events can be misleading—for -instance those concerning the papal bull. It was signed by -Leo on June 15, 1520. It reached Luther officially on October -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -10. He immediately wrote a fiery epistle denouncing it -and Eck, whose style and invective he recognized. Aware that -the bull was being circulated and that his literature was being -burned, he nevertheless sat down in November and wrote a -friendly letter to the pope accompanying it with his treatise on -Christian liberty.</p> -<p>On the surface this would indicate insincerity, but events -shaped up to prove he was being consistent. Although he -knew he had personal enemies, he never lost sight of the fact -that he was fighting a system rather than individuals. The -pope, for him, was merely a figurehead, in this instance the -symbol of an intolerable autocracy in an area where individual -freedom before God was essential.</p> -<p>The papal bull credited Luther with forty-one errors, called -for the burning of his books, charged heresy, gave him sixty -days to submit, and warned everyone against sheltering him -in his excommunication. Distribution of the bull was in the -hands of Eck and papal legate Jerome Aleander. They succeeded -in posting copies of the bull and burning books in several -cities, but largely their efforts were unsuccessful due to -strenuous opposition by the German people.</p> -<p>On December 10, probably in reprisal for a book-burning at -Cologne, Melanchthon posted a notice on the Wittenberg University -bulletin board inviting students and faculty to a bonfire -outside the Elster gate of the city. Books on scholastic theology, -and especially those works of canon law on which the -pope and the Roman hierarchy based their claims to power, -were tossed into the flames. Then Luther stepped forward -quietly and with a prayer on his lips added the booklet containing -the papal bull to the fire. He and the professors withdrew -but the students made a holiday of the affair, parading -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -and singing throughout the town and burning books of -Luther’s opponents.</p> -<p>Significantly, the bonfire marked the end of the sixty-day -period of grace. From now on no one was to communicate -with Luther or provide him with the necessities of life. In -the eyes of Rome he was an outlaw.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="760" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<h2 id="c21">THE MONK STANDS FIRM</h2> -<h3 id="c22">The Diet of Worms</h3> -<p>Overtones of intrigue and statecraft are dominant in the -prelude to the imperial assembly at Worms. The church at -Rome had given its decision. Would the secular authorities -now take action and turn him over to the papal authorities?</p> -<p>Charles, at his coronation as emperor, had subscribed to the -imperial constitution which said no German should be taken -outside his country for trial, and also that no one should be -outlawed without a hearing. Frederick the Wise, Luther’s elector, -took no action against him, using these same reasons as -an excuse. Aleander, the papal representative, wanted the case -settled arbitrarily by the emperor since he was well aware of -the support Luther would receive at a public hearing. The -man had been condemned by the church, he argued, and as -good churchmen the rulers should simply apprehend the Wittenberg -monk without a further examination of his views.</p> -<p>For the first three months of 1521 the diet devoted itself -chiefly to transacting state business. During this period Emperor -Charles changed his mind several times about inviting -the Wittenberg monk for a hearing. Finally, on March 6, -against his will, he offered Luther a safe-conduct to Worms.</p> -<p>In a two-wheeled cart Luther and a few companions set out -from Wittenberg on April 2. Cities along the way welcomed -him and invited him to preach, but no reception equaled the -one on his arrival at Worms. When the party was sighted -from the cathedral tower at 10 <span class="sc">A. M.</span>, on April 16, a group of -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -horsemen dashed out to act as an escort through the city gate. -Two thousand spectators thronged the streets so that Luther -was barely able to reach his lodging in the house of the -Knights of St. John.</p> -<p>He was summoned to appear at four o’clock the following -afternoon, and because of the crowds in the streets was conducted -through gardens and alleys to the episcopal palace where -the diet was meeting. When the door of the assembly hall -was opened, Luther was ushered through a company of princes, -nobles, and ecclesiastics to the foot of a canopied chair. On it -sat Charles, the twenty-one-year-old emperor. Near by was a -table loaded with books.</p> -<h3 id="c23">Answer Without Horns</h3> -<p>After the opening courtesies had been dispatched the presiding -officer, an official of the archbishop of Trier, pointed to -the books, asked Luther if he was the author, and if he was -ready to retract what he had written.</p> -<p>Luther had been instructed to speak only in answer to direct -questions and was not to seek a discussion. However, this -double question could not be answered yes or no. He paused -and his legal adviser asked that the titles be read. Luther then -acknowledged that the books were his.</p> -<p>Again the question, “Will you retract...?”</p> -<p>The monk believed his writing was an accurate interpretation -of God’s Word. In his mind was Christ’s admonition to -the disciples “whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I -also deny before my Father....” Since salvation was involved -he asked time to think over the answer. The diet agreed that -he should return at four the next afternoon.</p> -<p>After a night of prayer Luther again appeared before the -impressive assembly. This time a larger hall had been chosen -<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span> -because of the tremendous crowd. Again the formalities, and -again the question, but this time phrased a bit differently. “Do -you defend all of your books or are you willing to recall some -things?” This was the opening Luther had been seeking and -he quickly shaped his strategy to take advantage of it. They -were forcing him to make a speech since a categorical answer -was impossible.</p> -<p>The books were in three classes, Luther explained. The first -was purely devotional and had been commended even by his -enemies. The second was against the papacy. If he recanted -these he would open the door to further tyranny and impiety. -The third class inveighed against individuals, and in these he -admitted he had used caustic and intemperate language. Still -the facts had to stand unless refuted by the Scriptures, in which -case he would be first to cast his books into the fires.</p> -<p>Obviously the diet could not at this moment disprove his -works by the Bible. There was a consultation. The interrogator -turned to Luther. “Give us a direct answer—one without -horns. Will you or will you not recant your errors?”</p> -<h3 id="c24">Neither Right nor Safe</h3> -<p>The Spanish guards were mentally stacking faggots around -the lonely little figure in the middle of the room. Princes, -nobles, and the Holy Roman Emperor leaned forward to catch -his words.</p> -<p>“Since Your Majesty and Your Lordships want a direct -reply, I will answer without horns or teeth,” he began quietly.</p> -<p>The spectators looked at each other significantly, then back -to the earnest friar. Confidence was returning and his voice -carried plainly to all corners of the room.</p> -<p>“Unless convinced by the testimony of Scripture or right -reason—for I trust neither the pope nor councils inasmuch as -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -they have often erred and contradicted one another—I am -bound in conscience, held captive by the Word of God in the -Scriptures I have quoted. I neither can nor will recant anything, -for it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience. -God help me! Amen.”</p> -<p>There was silence for an instant. Then pandemonium -broke loose. The interrogator tried to restore order but the -emperor walked out and the meeting adjourned. Luther was -escorted back to his rooms by the admiring populace. Nobles -who had been on the fringe now openly praised the courageous -preacher and vowed their support. During the night warning -notices were surreptitiously posted on the doors of his enemies.</p> -<p>Charles summoned the electors and princes the following -day to decide what should be done. His own impulse to condemn -Luther right away was restrained because he needed the -good will of the Germans in other measures coming before -the diet. A plan was evolved whereby a select group of theologians -would call on Luther and try to effect a reconciliation -through persuasion. The discussion always bogged down when -Luther insisted he must be persuaded on the basis of Scripture.</p> -<p>Having received a twenty-one-day safe-conduct Luther set -out for Wittenberg on April 26. The diet closed officially on -May 25, and the next day, following a rump session of prejudiced -nobles, the emperor signed the Edict of Worms. According -to it, Luther was the devil himself in a monk’s habit. He -was to be seized on sight and turned over to the emperor—an -outlaw of the church and the state.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2 id="c25">DRASTIC CHANGES</h2> -<h3 id="c26">Wartburg to Wittenberg</h3> -<p>Fortunately for Luther there was more than noisy adulation -among the people. A few sober minds knew how relentless -the papal wolves would be in tracking him down after the -safe-conduct expired, and so a “kidnapping” and removal to a -safe place was planned.</p> -<p>Luther made a detour along the road to Wittenberg in order -to visit relatives at Möhra. For months the outside world knew -only that he had been captured near there in the Thuringian -forest by a band of knights. Many lamented him as dead, but -gradually the flow of thorny letters to his adversaries and the -new treatises rolling from the press allayed their fears.</p> -<p>By a circuitous route Luther had been conveyed to the Wartburg, -an ancient fortress-castle near Eisenach. He arrived -on May 4 and, with the exception of short trips into the forest -and to near-by villages, did not leave for seven months. To -outward appearances he was Junker George, a carefree, -bearded knight with sword swinging impressively at his side. -The secret was well kept and at the outset even the elector, -who authorized the masquerade, did not know Luther’s whereabouts.</p> -<p>Luther chafed at his forced inactivity, and, ever the monk, -fell to contemplation and examination of himself. Could past -generations and earlier scholars have been so completely out -of step with the gospel? Could a mere friar be right against -them all? Might he not be in error and drag many others to -eternal damnation?</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="764" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<p>Hard work helped take his mind off his problems. During -his stay in the Wartburg, in addition to correspondence and -pamphlets, he authored a work on confession, expositions on -several Psalms, a commentary on the Magnificat, had a volume -of sermons on the Epistles and Gospels well underway, -and had translated the entire New Testament into German.</p> -<p>Prayer and study restored his conviction. To doubt, or even -to remain silent was like going against conscience—neither -right nor safe. With conviction came a sense of divine commission. -When events called him back into the world again -he went courageously and with determination. He was a revolutionary, -but a conservative one. That quality is what took -him back to Wittenberg.</p> -<h3 id="c27">From Freedom to License</h3> -<p>So often a new movement suffers from overenthusiasm. -The Reformation was no exception in this respect. Zealots -took the usual shortcut from bondage to freedom by way of -turmoil instead of restrained orderly procedure.</p> -<p>In parts of Germany the old ways were thrown off hastily. -Organs, paintings, and statues were thrown from the churches, -vestments were discarded, bread and wine were both administered -to the laity, priests married, nuns took husbands, monastic -vows were renounced, various forms of the mass were -discontinued, priests and worshipers who persisted in the traditional -forms were attacked.</p> -<p>Rumors of violent acts reached the Wartburg. Luther, still -in the guise of Junker George, made a hurried trip to Wittenberg -early in December, 1521. Matters there had not yet -reached the unrestrained stage which they later assumed. -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -Nevertheless he cautioned the people in a “warning against -riot and rebellion,” written on his return to the Wartburg.</p> -<p>In it he reasoned that reform is not so much a matter of -externals as of faith. Breaking up the furniture in a church -does not change the heart of a man. Vandalism is by no means -a sign of repentance and trust in God—in fact it approaches -the old form of seeking favor through works. Giving wine as -well as bread in the Lord’s Supper is not as important as the -spiritual attitude of the communicant.</p> -<p>Finally the tumult in Wittenberg reached the point where -he had to step in, so—in the face of the imperial ban—he -returned on March 6, 1522. Insisting that no drastic change -should be made until, through re-education, those affected -requested it as a matter of faith, he restored order in the university -city in a remarkably short time.</p> -<p>The peasants meanwhile took the shortcut to freedom, too, -in a series of bloody uprisings. Chafing under their bondage -to the nobles, they adapted Luther’s “free lord of all” statement -to their own demands for social reform. Luther preached -the Christian duty of submission to lawful authority, but the -peasants ravaged and plundered until finally defeated in 1525. -It was a dark hour in the Reformation.</p> -<h3 id="c28">Pigtails on the Pillow</h3> -<p><span class="sc">Wittenberg</span>, June 14—Katherine von Bora, 26, late of -the Cistercian nunnery at Nimbschen, and Martin Luther, 42, -professor of Bible at the local university, were married last -night at a simple ceremony in the Black Cloister. Dr. John -Bugenhagen officiated. In attendance were Artist Lucas -Cranach and Mrs. Cranach; Dr. Justus Jonas, prior of Castle -Church; and John Apel, professor of law at the university....</p> -<p>If there had been newspapers in 1525, Luther’s wedding -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span> -might have been announced to the public in this way. However, -newspapers weren’t to appear until much later, and the -lack of publicity gave gossips and slanderers choice opportunity -to vilify the former monk and nun. The malicious -stories were partly offset by a public ceremony, complete with -a special service in the town church, a wedding dinner in the -cloister, and a dance at the town hall on June 27.</p> -<p>The wedding was a direct result of Luther’s reform teachings. -He disliked the monastic system because men and -women sought merit before God through restraints and vows -rather than depending upon grace. Celibacy, he had written -earlier, is not founded on Scripture but marriage is. These -teachings found their way into many cloisters and convents, -among them the one at Nimbschen where Katherine von Bora, -at the age of sixteen, had been received into the Cistercian -Order.</p> -<p>She and eleven other nuns sought Luther’s assistance in -effecting a plan of escape. Although he had no idea of what -it would involve for him personally, he arranged for them to -be smuggled out of the convent in empty fish barrels on the -day before Easter in 1523. The plan succeeded and some of -the nuns came to Wittenberg where they found homes, husbands, -or new positions. Two years later Kathie was the only -one not permanently cared for despite Luther’s several attempts -at matchmaking. Then the spunky miss hinted rather boldly -that the Reformer himself would be an acceptable husband -and he resolved to take the course which he had urged on so -many others.</p> -<p>It was strange for one accustomed to solitude. “Formerly at -the table I was alone,” he wrote, “now I am with someone. -When I awaken I see a pair of pigtails on the pillow which -were not there before.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<h3 id="c29">The Cloister Becomes a Home</h3> -<p>Marriage probably extended Luther’s life for a number of -years. Previously he and his dog enjoyed an irregular sort -of existence in the Black Cloister. Dishes were covered with -dust, the bed hadn’t been made in over a year, his clothes were -in disorder. Sometimes Luther forgot his meals altogether and -at other times stuffed himself.</p> -<p>The vigor with which his industrious wife established order -can be imagined by his reference to her as “my lord Kathie.” -She was an efficient housekeeper and thrifty manager of what -little they possessed at the outset. Neither had any money. -Luther refused pay for his writing, although the publishers -grew rich, nor did he receive any tax revenues from the cloister -since he had laid aside his cowl.</p> -<p>Things improved when the elector gave Luther the cloister -for a home, and adjacent to it a vegetable garden with a small -brew house where Kathie prepared the family beverage. His -small salary as professor was augmented somewhat when they -took in boarding students attending the university.</p> -<p>The Luthers had six children. Two of them died in childhood, -but otherwise the family enjoyed a merry, wholesome -life. The house was always full of visitors—some of them -more or less permanent—including traveling dignitaries, numerous -aunts and relatives, monks and nuns seeking a permanent -residence, and four orphaned children from among -their kinsfolk. Because it was large and suitable, the cloister -sometimes was used as a hospital, and it was not unusual for -the “family” to number as many as twenty-five. Guests who -stayed for any length of time were expected to take part in -household duties, participate in daily prayers, catechetical -study, and family devotions. Music, singing, chess, and outdoor -bowling were forms of recreation. Through Kathie’s -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -economy, improvements were made in the Luther house. An -orchard, hop garden, and finally a farm were purchased.</p> -<p>When Luther worried about his children’s future he overcame -it with faith. A pious training is most important, he -wrote. It is good to leave an inheritance, but preparing children -to manage wisely is more important. We parents are -fools if we don’t train them to fear God, to control themselves, -and to live honorably.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="500" height="755" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div> -<h2 id="c30">A CHURCH REBORN</h2> -<h3 id="c31">The National Conscience</h3> -<p>The people at Wittenberg and in other cities of influence -were gradually learning to think of the church as separate -from the Roman hierarchy. Now there was need for reorganization. -A steady supply of ministers was essential and arrangements -had to be made for their training and support. A bond -of some sort was necessary to establish unity of endeavor, and -mission work was imperative in areas where conviction had -lapsed into indifference.</p> -<p>Luther didn’t care for organizational work. The thought -that the new church might degenerate into a system of laws -and regulations haunted him. Although his revised order of -worship was finding its way into use he felt that still more -urgent matters demanded attention. Proper instruction of -young and old was essential and to accomplish it there had to -be some sort of oversight.</p> -<p>The bishops had neglected instruction of the laymen and -the princes were loath to reinstitute it. Luther, therefore, laid -the task directly upon the congregations and in some cases the -city councils to select competent men as pastors, establish pastoral -districts, and set up schools. To advise and assist in this -work, visitation committees comprising learned laymen and -theologians traveled throughout Saxony beginning in 1527. -The visitation was carried on in other areas of Germany too, -and in this way the groundwork for future organization began.</p> -<p>In the meantime two distinct factions had developed among -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span> -the princes of Germany. One espoused the Roman cause, the -other the Reformation. From 1525 to 1529 a series of diets -and assemblies was held. The rival princes concerned themselves -largely with attempts at, and opposition to, the invoking -of the ban against Luther, his works, and his cohorts which -had been executed at Worms. At Speyer in 1529 the Catholic -princes, with the emperor’s backing, tried to force a resolution -preventing the spread of Luther’s teachings in any new areas, -but the Reformation princes protested. Matters concerning -salvation were of an individual nature and could not be legislated. -Conscience bound them to oppose the resolution. -Principles which the Wittenberg monk had declared only eight -years before were becoming the national mind.</p> -<h3 id="c32">The Augsburg Confession</h3> -<p>Sparks of the Reformation had caught fire elsewhere in -Europe developing into Reformed, Mennonite, Anabaptist, -and other denominations. A major purpose of the diet called -by Emperor Charles at Augsburg in 1530 was to harmonize -these various groups and attempt a final reconciliation with -Rome. To this end each body was to define its teaching in a -statement or confession, but not all were represented at the -diet and only three were actually submitted.</p> -<p>As usual the papists were laying for the Lutherans. They -had prejudiced the emperor against a fair hearing and were -reserving their best ammunition for the Saxon “heretics,” fully -confident that a Lutheran defeat would speedily bring the -downfall of the others.</p> -<p>Still under imperial ban, Luther could not attend the diet -but stayed at a castle in Coburg from which he advised Melanchthon -and others appearing before the emperor. The confession, -<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span> -a series of twenty-eight articles setting forth the -Lutheran position, was read on June 25. The first twenty-one -present fundamental doctrines of the Scriptures regarding -God, Original Sin, the Son of God, Justification, the Church, -the Sacraments, Civil Affairs, the Freedom of Will, the Cause -of Sin, Good Works, and the Worship of Saints; while the -last seven treat of Roman abuses which contradict the Word -of God.</p> -<p>The emperor commissioned the Roman theologians to prepare -a refutation. On the basis of it he rejected the Lutheran -confession, ordered church property restored to Roman bishops, -and forbade witnessing and the printing or sale of Lutheran -writings.</p> -<p>Dejected by their failure to reform the church, the Lutherans -went home in the fall of 1530 unaware that their confession -would become a basic creed of the largest Protestant body in -the world.</p> -<p>Threatened with coercion by the Romanists in Germany, -they joined with other Protestants in 1531 to form the League -of Schmalkalden. War was averted when the emperor enlisted -both groups to meet the Turkish invasion of Austria, and -armed conflict over religious principles was delayed until the -summer of 1546. Luther didn’t see it. A few months earlier -he went to stand before the Judge he had learned to love instead -of fear.</p> -<h3 id="c33">Back to Eisleben</h3> -<p>The circuit of Luther’s life was completed in Eisleben, his -birthplace, where he had gone to mediate between the princes -of Mansfeld. He died early on the morning of February 18, -1546, after fervently committing himself to God’s keeping -and reaffirming the doctrines he had preached.</p> -<p>Luther’s lifetime was marked with concern—concern first -<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span> -about himself and God. It wasn’t selfish; a man has to find his -treasure before he can share it. Luther had searched through -lonely tormented hours in a monastery; he brushed aside -centuries of proud speculation until he found the truth. It was -written in a book, the record of God’s revelation of himself -to man—the Bible. From it he learned that God is love instead -of wrath; that no one, pope or king, can stand between -man and that love, or gain it for another; that one can’t even -win it for himself. It is God’s free gift.</p> -<p>Then his concern was for others. This treasure was too -priceless to keep; he had to give it away. He preached it, -though all the forces of evil railed against him. He printed it, -though emperors ordered him to stop the press. He sang it -and helped the church to sing—in tones so soft they lull a -child to sleep; in battlecries resounding from the ramparts of -his mighty-fortress God.</p> -<p>“The devil prefers blockheads,” he said, therefore, “the -school must be the next thing to the church.” Concern led -him to teach. Professor was the only job he held—but that -for all his life. He hated those who arrogantly claimed sole -right to knowledge. So that each might know the truth -himself, and in that truth be free, he translated the sacred -Scriptures. Matthew to Revelation first, and then the Old -Testament were translated, not in high-sounding phrase or -platitude, but in majestic simplicity—the words of Hans and -Hilda. The lords and ladies would understand it that way too.</p> -<p>The principles of faith which Luther proclaimed, brought -fame and the promise of power. But the words addressed to -the nobles at Worms recount the humility of his service: “I -seek nothing beyond reforming the church in conformity with -the Scriptures. I reserve nothing but to bear witness to the -Word of God alone.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div> -<h2 id="c34">CHRONOLOGY</h2> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr><td class="l">1483 </td><td class="l">November 10 </td><td class="l">Martin Luther born at Eisleben</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1484 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Family moves to Mansfeld</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1497 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Luther goes to Magdeburg school</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1498 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Luther goes to Eisenach school</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1501 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Enters University of Erfurt</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1505 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Receives master of arts degree</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">July 2 </td><td class="l">Vows to become a monk</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">July 17 </td><td class="l">Enters Augustinian cloister at Erfurt</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1507 </td><td class="l">April 4 </td><td class="l">Ordained to priesthood</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1508 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Teaches at Wittenberg</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1509 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Lectures at University of Erfurt</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1510 </td><td class="l">November </td><td class="l">Begins journey to Rome</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1511 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Returns to Wittenberg as professor</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1512 </td><td class="l">October 18-19 </td><td class="l">Receives doctor of sacred scripture degree</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1517 </td><td class="l">October 31 </td><td class="l">Posts ninety-five theses</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1518 </td><td class="l">August </td><td class="l">Pope wants Luther brought to Rome</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1519 </td><td class="l">July 4-14 </td><td class="l">Luther debates with Eck at Leipzig</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1520 </td><td class="l">June 15 </td><td class="l">Papal bull signed</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">October 10 </td><td class="l">Luther receives bull</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">December 10 </td><td class="l">Luther burns bull</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1521 </td><td class="l">January 27 </td><td class="l">Diet of Worms begins</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">April 16 </td><td class="l">Arrives at Worms</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">April 17 </td><td class="l">Makes first statement</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">April 18 </td><td class="l">Luther will not recant</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">April 26 </td><td class="l">Leaves Worms</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">May 4 </td><td class="l">Arrives at the Wartburg</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">May 26 </td><td class="l">Banned by Edict of Worms</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1522 </td><td class="l">March 6 </td><td class="l">Returns to Wittenberg</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1525 </td><td class="l">June 13 </td><td class="l">Marries Katherine von Bora</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1527 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Composition of “A Mighty Fortress”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1530 </td><td class="l">June 25 </td><td class="l">Augsburg Confession read</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1534 </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Publishes complete Bible in German</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">1546 </td><td class="l">February 18 </td><td class="l">Luther dies at Eisleben</td></tr> -</table> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>Corrected a few palpable typographical errors.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Martin Luther, by Carl E. 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