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See page 68.] - - - - - A - HISTORICAL ACCOUNT - OF - USEFUL INVENTIONS - AND - SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES: - - BEING A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION AND - ENTERTAINMENT. - - BY GEORGE GRANT, - AUTHOR OF “PANORAMA OF SCIENCE,” “THE HISTORY OF LONDON,” - ETC. ETC. - - LONDON: - PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY. - MDCCCLII. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -It has been demonstrated that the desire of obtaining knowledge is one -of the most natural, and, at the same time, most ennobling attributes -of the human mind. There is at the present time a great number of -inquiring minds among the working classes of this kingdom, and a still -greater number of the young of all classes thirsting for information, -who in entering upon a course of general reading must be greatly at -a loss for many things which are familiarly alluded to in ordinary -conversation, with which everybody is understood to be acquainted, or -would have people to think so, but which, in reality, are only familiar -to persons who have been living for a considerable time in intimate -converse with the world. - -The “Historical Account of Useful Inventions and Discoveries in -Science,” is intended in some measure to supply such information to the -anxious inquirer after knowledge. Of the numerous articles here treated -of, it will be perceived that each has been traced to its origin in -as lucid a style as possible, and in so doing we have endeavoured to -combine instruction with amusement. As a proof of this we need only -refer to the table of Contents. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE. - - Printing 11 - - Stereotype 25 - - Engraving on Wood 27 - - ” ” Copper 28 - - ” ” Steel 30 - - Lithography 32 - - Paper 36 - - Paper Hanging 41 - - Painting 45 - - Statuary 48 - - Drawing 55 - - Architecture 62 - - Chain Bridges 68 - - Clocks 69 - - Watches 74 - - Water Clocks 77 - - Spinning 80 - - Stocking Manufacture 84 - - Coaches 95 - - Saddles, &c. 104 - - Horse-Shoes 107 - - Gunpowder 111 - - Guns 114 - - Astronomy 119 - - Navigation 155 - - Light-Houses 159 - - Electricity 167 - - Electric Telegraph 169 - - Steam-Engines 171 - - Mills 195 - - Saw-Mills 211 - - Forks 214 - - Music 219 - - Sealing-Wax, Seals, &. 228 - - Black Lead Pencils 234 - - Coloured Glass 236 - - Etching on Glass, and Glass-cutting 240 - - Hydrometers 246 - - - - -USEFUL INVENTIONS. - - - - -PRINTING. - - -Among the many arts and sciences cultivated in society, some are -only adapted to supply our natural wants, or assist our infirmities; -some are mere instruments of luxury, calculated to flatter pride, -to gratify vanity, and to satisfy our desires of every description; -whilst others tend at once to secure, to accommodate, delight, and give -consequence to man. Of this latter kind, Printing undoubtedly stands -pre-eminent; and if viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to -possess a very considerable portion not only of the comforts, but the -conveniences and positive utilities of life. The advantages derived -from this invention must be acknowledged by all,--this art has proved -the principal step towards civilization: by it has Christianity been -propagated; and by its powerful means are we made acquainted with all -that is useful in knowledge, in art, and science. It would take the pen -of an inspired writer to enumerate all the blessings which flow from -it. It is a patent engine which possesses a preponderating influence -over the mind of man either for good or evil, according as it is used. - -As we proceed we will have frequent occasion to express our feelings -in grateful eulogium, when considering the benefits resulting to -society from various ingenious inventions and discoveries; but when -we consider the advantages derived from the typographic art, it -appears like a vortex, drawing every other sensation into its deep -interest, and engulphing every consideration, so that we can think of -nothing but printing, and its extensive catalogue of benefits. This -interest is wonderfully increased, whether it be viewed on account of -its ingenuity, the extent of its benefits, or the benevolence of its -objects. In whatever point of view we behold it, whether as a medium -for giving the utmost facility to the despatch of the common concerns -of life; or as affording the eager mind of the philosophic inquirer -the ready means to gratify the inquisitive thirst of his knowledge; -in every species of mental intelligence, the rapid facility which it -affords to the multiplication of those mediums of communication, by -which knowledge is promulgated in every part of the earth. We are at -a loss for a term sufficiently comprehensive to express our sense of -the infinite importance of those advantages which accrue to mankind -from the invention of an art so replete with important consequences, -which we hourly perceive to emanate from typography. We need therefore -scarcely offer an apology for inserting a brief history of this divine -art in our pages. - -The earliest specimens of printing which have been discovered, consist -in the stamped marks on the bricks and tiles used in building the tower -and city of Babel, and which may be dated as far back as two thousand -two hundred years before Christ. A number of these stamped clay -materials of Babel are still preserved in antiquarian repositories. It -is remarkable that they generally differ in shape and appearance, and -that the letters or words, which are in ancient character, seem to have -been stamped by the hand with moveable blocks. In Trinity College, -Cambridge, some curious specimens are preserved, one of which is a -round piece of clay, seven inches in height, and three in thickness -at the end, resembling a barrel, being thickest at the middle. This -interesting relic, this Chaldean book, is entirely covered with lines -of letters and words running from the one end to the other; from its -portable character it may be called a _pocket volume_, and one which -cannot be less than four thousand years old. It is mounted on a marble -pedestal, covered with a glass case, secured by an iron bracket, and -so contrived that the curious inspector may cause it to revolve on its -marble base; but the greatest care is taken of this valuable relic of -antiquity. It appears to have been printed by two moulds, and at the -middle of the circumference a small blank square has been left, in case -as it is supposed, room should be required for a portion of the clay to -escape in the action of compression. - -Next to these extremely ancient stamped bricks, in point of interest -and antiquity, are specimens of the earliest engraving of letters on -stone. We are informed by various historical writers that Cadmus, a -Phœnician, who lived one thousand five hundred years before Christ, at -a period contemporary with Moses, and who was esteemed as the builder -of the city of Thebes, was the first who taught the Greeks the use of -alphabetic symbols, an art he most likely acquired from the Hebrews. -The most ancient specimen of an engraved inscription now known to -be extant, is the Sigean Inscription, so called from having been -disinterred upon a promontory named Sigeum, situate near the ancient -city of Troy, in Phrygia. It is engraved on a pillar of beautifully -white marble, nine feet high, two feet broad, and eight inches thick, -and which, from the inscription, served as the pedestal of the heathen -god Hermocrates. The letters used in this inscription are the capitals -of the Grecian language, though rudely cut, but read from right to -left like the Hebrew. This specimen of engraving must be about three -thousand years old. - -Another not less interesting relic of the earliest age of printing is -found in a Roman signet ring or stamp, approaching in character to that -species of stamp now used by the post-office on letters. This curiosity -is preserved in the British Museum. It is the very earliest specimen we -possess of printing, by means of ink or any similar substance. It is -made of metal, a sort of Roman brass; the ground of which is covered -with a green kind of verdigris rust, with which antique medals are -usually covered. The letters rise flush up to the elevation of the -exterior rim which surrounds it. Its dimensions are, about two inches -long, by one inch broad. At the back of it is a small ring for the -finger, to promote the convenience of holding it. As no person of the -name which is inscribed upon it is mentioned in Roman History, he is -therefore supposed to have been a functionary of some Roman officer, -or private steward, and who, perhaps, used this stamp to save himself -the trouble of writing his name. A stamp somewhat similar, in the -Greek character, is in the possession of the Antiquarian Society, of -Newcastle-upon-Tyne. - -It will be perceived that however curious these relics of antiquity may -be, they do not bear any connection with the art of printing books. The -origin of this invention seems to be quite independent of a preceding -knowledge of impressing by means of stamps. What is, however, worthy -of remark, the art of printing books, though on a rude principle, was -known and in use among the Chinese, at least one thousand four hundred -years before it was invented in Europe. The printing of the Chinese -has never resembled anything of the kind in this country. From the -first it has been conducted without moveable types. Each page has -been, and continues to be, a block or cut stamp, which is thus useful -for only one subject--so that every book must have its own blocks. No -press is used. The paper being thin, when laid on the block receives -the impression by being smoothed over with a brush. There is reason -to infer that the art of printing, as thus practised by the Chinese, -may have originated through a knowledge of the still more ancient -Chaldean mode of printing by blocks on clay. But we may expect, from -the well-known ingenuity of the Chinese, and their (in general,) having -the organ of imitation so fully developed, that they will not much -longer continue this primitive method of printing, as an enterprising -practical printer has emigrated, with an excellent assortment of -presses, types, &c., from Edinburgh, to conduct his business in the -celestial empire. We wish him all success. - -The discovery of the art of printing with moveable types, which took -place in the fifteenth century, in Germany, was considerably aided by a -fashion, which had been some time prevalent, of cutting blocks of wood -into pictures, or representations of scenes illustrative of Scriptural -history, and printing them on paper, simply by the pressure of the -hand, a brush, or cushion behind. - -One of the earliest of these wood-cuts is still extant, and represents -the creation of man, as detailed in the book of Genesis. In the centre -of the picture stands a figure, intended for the Divinity, having the -appearance of an old man with flowing garments, a venerable beard, and -rays proceeding from the head; on the ground, before him, lies a human -being, intended for Adam, fast asleep; and from an opening in his side -is seen proceeding the slender figure of a female, meaning Eve, who is -taken by the hand by God, and is apparently receiving His blessing. -The execution of this, and cuts of a similar nature, is of the rudest -description, and is a striking testimony of the low scale of art at -the time. Pictures of this nature, which were bound up into books, -nevertheless, were the immediate forerunners of the great invention -itself. Books of prints, it will naturally be imagined, would soon be -found imperfect, for want of descriptive text; this, therefore, urged -on the great discovery. The manufacturers of the books, at first, cut -single sentences or words, and stamped them below the pictures; but -this not conveying a sufficient idea of the subject represented, an -anxiety arose to give a lengthened description on the opposite pages. -This it seems was, at length, accomplished; still the sentences were -all cut in a piece, and the notion of having separate letters, so as to -form words at pleasure, was unknown at that period. We will now proceed -to the introduction of the modern art of printing. - -Ever since the typographic art has been introduced into modern -Europe in its present form, the best, and one of the most certain -criterions,--which prove the undoubted sense of our species,--exists -in the multiplicity of claims which have been made by several cities -for the honour of affording the earliest shelter to the infancy of this -art. It really appears to be a question yet undecided, to what city, -individual, or even era, to attribute this beneficial invention. - -However, there is every reason to believe that in this art, as well as -in most others, the improvements which have subsequently taken place, -have benefited the art itself, as much as that has benefited mankind: -therefore, the question of its origin does not appear to us to be of so -much importance. - -Amidst the claims of various individuals, Mr. Bouzer, in his “Origin of -Printing,” says, that this honour ought to be adjudged to one of the -three cities of Haerlem, Mentz, or Strasburg; of which, in his opinion, -the first named city has best established her legitimate right. “But it -appears,” to use his own words, “that all those cities, in a qualified -sense, may claim it, considering the improvements they have made upon -each other.” - -The real and original inventor of the modern art of printing, as at -first used, and from whence the improved practice is descended, was -one Laurentius, of Haerlem; who, however, proceeded no further than to -cut separate wooden letters. There is every reason to believe that, at -first, these wooden forms were made upon the principle of the _forma -literarum_ of the Romans. This Laurentius, it appears, made his first -essay about the year 1430; he died ten years afterwards, having first -printed the “Horarium,” the “Speculum Belgicum,” and two editions of -“Donatus.” - -The individual on whom history most generally places the honour of -being the earliest discoverer of the art of printing by means of -moveable letters, or types, was John Guttenberg, a citizen of Mayence, -or Mentz, who flourished from the year 1436 to 1466, in the reign -of Frederick III. of Germany. The ingenious Guttenburg was born at -Mayence, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and removed to -Strasburg about the year 1424, or, perhaps rather earlier. Here he -became acquainted with the above-named Laurentius, with whom he -proceeded to Haerlem, and continued in the employment of Laurentius -for some time. However, he returned to Strasburg, where, in 1435, he -entered into partnership with Andrew Dritzehan, John Riff, and Andrew -Heelman, citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose to them -some important secrets, by which they would make their fortunes. -The workshop was in the house of Dritzehan, who dying, Guttenberg -immediately sent his servant, Lawrence Beildick, to Nicholas, the -brother of the deceased, and requested that no person might be admitted -into the workshop, lest the secret should be discovered, and the -_forms_ stolen. But they had already disappeared; and this fraud, as -well as the claims of Nicholas Dritzehan, to succeed to his brother’s -share, produced a law-suit among the surviving partners. Five witnesses -were examined; and from the evidence of Guttenburg’s servants, it was -incontrovertibly proved that Guttenberg was the first that practised -the art of printing with moveable types in Strasburg; and that on -the death of Andrew Dritzehan, he had expressly ordered the forms to -be broken up, and the types dispersed, lest any one should discover -his secret. The words given in his order, which were supported by -documentary evidence, were these--“Go, take the component parts of -the press, and pull them to pieces; then, no one will understand what -they mean.” In the same document mention is made of _four forms_, kept -together by _two screws_, or _press spindles_, and of letters and pages -being cut up and destroyed. - -It has been asserted that Guttenberg stole the types from Laurentius, -with which he repaired to Strasburg, and commenced business; but of -this we can find no corroboration. It has also been said that upon this -occasion, Guttenberg stole his own materials, but this is likewise -unauthenticated. - -The result of this law-suit, which occurred in 1439, was a dissolution -of partnership; and Guttenberg, after having exhausted his means in -the effort, proceeded, in 1445, to his native city of Mentz, where he -resumed his typographic labours. - -Being ambitious of making his extraordinary invention known, and of -value to himself, but being at the same time deficient in the means, he -opened his mind to a wealthy goldsmith and worker in precious metals, -named John Fust, or Faust, and prevailed on him to advance large sums -of money, in order to make further and more complete trials of the -art. Guttenberg, being thus associated with Faust, the first regular -printing office was begun, and the business carried on in a style -corresponding to the infancy of the art. After many smaller essays in -trying the capabilities of a press and moveable types, Guttenberg had -the hardihood to attempt an edition of the Bible, which he succeeded -in printing complete between the years 1450 and 1455. This celebrated -Bible, which was the first important specimen of the art of printing, -and which, judging from what it has led to, we should certainly esteem -as the most extraordinary and praiseworthy of human productions, was -executed with cut metal types, on six hundred and thirty-seven leaves; -and, from a copy still in existence in the Royal Library of Berlin, -some appear to have been printed on vellum. The work was printed in the -Latin language. - -The execution of this--the first printed Bible--which has justly -conferred undying honours on the illustrious Guttenberg, was most -unfortunately, the immediate cause of his ruin. The expenses incident -to carrying on a fatiguing and elaborate process of workmanship, for -a period of five years, being much more considerable than what were -originally contemplated by Faust, he instituted a suit against poor -Guttenberg, who, in consequence of the decision against him, was -obliged to pay interest, and also a part of the capital that had been -advanced. This suit was followed by a dissolution of partnership; and -the whole of Guttenberg’s materials fell into the hands of John Faust. - -Besides the above-mentioned Bible, some other specimens of the work of -Guttenberg have been discovered to be in existence. One in particular, -which is worthy of notice, was found some years ago, among a bundle -of old papers, in the archives of Mayence. It is an almanack for the -year 1457, which served as a cover for a register of accounts for that -year. This would most likely be printed towards the close of the year -1456, and may, consequently, be deemed the most ancient specimen of -typographic printing extant, with a certain date. - -Antiquaries and Bibliomaniacs have found considerable difficulty -in ascertaining by what process Guttenberg manufactured types; but -it appears to be the prevalent opinion, that those which he first -used were individually cut by the hand; and being all made as near a -height and thickness as possible, they were thus put together in the -forms. The cutting of these types must have been a tedious, as well as -laborious, occupation. This ingenious man, however, soon discovered -the mode of casting his types, by means of moulds; for without this -great accessory to the art of printing, he conceived it was next to -impossible to carry on his business. The art of type-founding is -therefore given to John Guttenberg, in which it would appear he has had -no competitor for the honour; but, it is but justice to state that the -plan of striking the moulds with punches was a subsequent invention -of Peter Schoeffer, his successor, who became partner with Faust, and -afterwards his son-in-law. - -That Guttenberg was a person of refined taste in the execution of -his works, is sufficiently obvious to every person who has had the -opportunity of seeing any of them. Adopting a very ancient custom -common in the written copies of the Scriptures and the missals of the -church, he used a large ornamental letter at the commencement of books -and chapters, finely embellished, and surrounded with a variety of -figures as in a frame. The initial letter of the first psalm thus forms -a splendid specimen of the art of printing in its early progress. It is -richly ornamented with foliage, flowers, a bird, and a greyhound, and -is still more beautiful from being printed in a pale blue colour, while -the embellishments are red, and of a transparent appearance. - -What became of Guttenberg immediately after the unsuccessful -termination of his law-suit with Faust, is not well known. Like the -illustrious discoverer of the great Western Continent, he seems to have -retired almost broken-hearted from the service of an ungrateful world, -and to have spent most of the remainder of his days in obscurity. It -is ascertained, however, that, in 1465, he received an annual pension -from the Elector Adolphus, but that he only enjoyed this trifling -compensation for his extraordinary invention for a period of three -years, and died in February 1468. - -John Faust, who as we have seen, obtained the materials of Guttenberg, -laid claim to the invention, which has been granted to him by -several. Having sufficient capital at his command, he pushed the -trade with great advantage to himself. In the Bibles which he printed -he frequently omitted the capital and initial letters, leaving them -blank for illumination in gold or azure; this was designedly done -for the purpose of imposing upon the public printed copies for M.S. -transcripts. The report which is in circulation concerning Faust, -appears to come in support of this assertion: it being said he was -at Paris, and offering a quantity of his Bibles for sale as M.S. The -French, considering the number of them, and also remarking the exact -similarity and accuracy of them, even to a single point, concluded it -was impossible for the most accurate copyist to have transcribed them -so correctly. They suspected him of necromancy, and either actually -indicted him, or threatened to do, as a magician; and by this means -obtained his secret: whence came the origin of the popular story of Dr. -Faustus, his dealing with the devil, and tragical death. - -In 1462, when Mentz was plundered and disfranchised of its former -liberties, printing rapidly spread through a great part of Europe, -particularly its artizans in that branch of art, settled at Haerlem, -Hamburgh, and other places; from Haerlem it travelled to Rome in 1466, -when the Roman character was adopted in 1467, and soon perfected. - -In the reign of Henry VI., the Archbishop of Canterbury sent R. -Turnour, master of the robes, and W. Caxton, merchant, to Haerlem, -to learn the art. These individuals privately prevailed upon one -Corselis, an under workman to come to England: and a printing press was -established at Oxford. This appears in a MS. chronicle still preserved; -it informs us, that the execution of the concern entrusted to Turnour -and Caxton cost 1500 marks; and that printing was established at Oxford -before there was any printer or printing presses in France, Italy, or -Spain. - -The University of Oxford press was soon discovered to be too remote -from the seat of government, and too great a distance from the sea, -other presses were speedily established at St. Alban’s and the Abbey of -Westminster. - -In 1467, printing was established at Tours, at Reuthlingen, and Venice, -in 1469; and it is likely at the same period at Paris, where several of -the German printers were invited by the Doctors of the Sorbonne, who -established a press in that city. - -All important as the art of printing is acknowledged to be, yet -three centuries elapsed from the date of the invention before it was -perfected in many of its most necessary details. At first the art -was kept entirely in the hands of learned men, the greatest scholars -often glorying in affixing their names to the works as correctors of -the press, and giving names to the various parts of the mechanism of -the printing-office, as is testified by the classical technicalities -still in use among the workmen. From the great improvement of punching -moulds for casting types by Schoeffer, as formerly mentioned, till -the invention of italic letters by Aldus Manutius, to whom learning -is much indebted, no other improvement of any consequence took place. -It does not appear that mechanical ingenuity was at any time directed -to the improvement of the presses or any other part of the machinery -used in printing, and the consequence was, that till far on in the -eighteenth century, the clumsy presses, which were composed of wood and -iron, and slow and heavy in working, were allowed to screech on as they -had done since the days of Guttenberg, Faust, and Caxton, while the -ink continued to be applied by means of two stuffed balls, at a great -expense of time and labour. - -At length, an almost entire revolution was effected in the printing -office, both in the appearance of the workmanship and the mechanism -of the presses. About the same period the art of stereotyping was -discovered, and developed a completely new feature in the history -of printing. One of the chief improvements in typography was, the -discarding of the long s, and every description of contraction; while, -at the same time, the formation of the letters was executed with more -neatness, and greater regularity. - -Among the first improvers of the printing press, the most honourable -place is due to the Earl of Stanhope, a nobleman who will be long -remembered for his mechanical genius; besides applying certain lever -powers to the screw and handle of the old wooden press, by which the -labour of the workman was diminished, and finer work effected; he -constructed a press wholly of iron, which is known by his name. - -Since the beginning of the present century, and more especially within -the last thirty years, presses wholly of iron, on the nicest scientific -principles, have been invented by men of mechanical genius, so as to -simplify the process of printing in an extraordinary degree; and the -invention of presses composed of cylinders, and wrought by steam, has -triumphantly crowned the improvements in this art. The alteration -effected by steam power has been as great in the printing business, -as in any branch whatever; for example, with the old wooden press, -it took a man two days to complete 1000 sheets, (that is, printed on -both sides); whereas the London “Times,” by means of the steam press -completes 24,000 in one hour! Almost every newspaper in the kingdom is -printed by cylinder-presses, although some are worked by hand instead -of steam; they are also used in other departments of the printing -business. - -The introduction of steam-presses would have been of comparatively -little benefit, if it had not been furthered by another invention of a -very simple nature, now of great value to the printer. We here allude -to the invention of the roller for applying the ink, instead of the old -clumsy and inefficient balls. The roller, which is simply a composition -of glue and treacle, cast upon wooden centre-pieces, was invented by a -journeyman printer from Edinburgh, about thirty years ago, and was so -much appreciated by the trade, as at once to spread over the whole of -Europe. - -Were it possible to conjure up the spirits of the illustrious -Guttenburg and his contemporaries within the office of the London -“Times,” or some other large printing-office, where everything is -conducted with rapidity, quietness, and order, John Faust might -well think that the printers of the nineteenth century had actually -consummated what he was only accused of in the fifteenth--completed a -compact with the devil! - -As it would be a waste of time for us to pretend to describe the -various processes and materials required in this beautiful art, as -we are aware that, without actual observation, no conception can be -formed,--this we know from experience, and though we might, like many -others, have pretended to give a description, we are perfectly aware -that we would have been unintelligible to the majority of our readers, -and very deservedly laughed at for our trouble by any practical printer -who might happen to read our pages; as far as we have gone, however, in -giving a brief historical account of the art of printing, we have no -doubt it will be found correct, as have consulted the best authorities. - - - - -STEREOTYPE. - - -Stereotype, as we have mentioned in the former article, was introduced -about the middle of last century; and as it is so intimately connected -with the art of printing, we could not find a more appropriate place -than immediately following that noble art.--Earl Stanhope has been -named as the inventor; but for this we have not sufficient authority, -and it appears extremely doubtful; as stereotyping appears to have been -invented simultaneously, in various parts of England and Scotland, -by different persons; still it was upwards of sixty years before it -was brought to such perfection as to be applicable for any beneficial -purpose. - -When properly made known, it was hailed with approbation by those more -immediately interested--the printers and publishers: but as experience -more fully developed its powers, it was found available only for -particular work. For the better understanding of this art, which is -comparatively little known, we will give a description of the process, -which we are enabled to do by the assistance of an experienced workman. - -In _setting_ the types, they are lifted from the case, one by one, -with the right hand, and built in a small iron form, called a -_composing-stick_, held in the left hand of the compositor, who sets -line after line till the stick is filled, when he empties it upon a -_galley_, and commences again in the same manner, till he has got as -much up as will make a page; this page he ties firmly up, and places -upon a smooth stone, or cast iron table. In this manner he continues, -till he gets as many pages as will make a _form_, which consists of -4, 8, 12, or more pages, as the case may be. If this form is to be -worked off at press without stereotyping, the pages are all imposed -in one _chass_, and carried to press for working, and when the whole -of the impression is off, it is thoroughly washed, and carried back -to the compositor for distribution--that is, putting the types in -their proper places. When these pages are to be stereotyped, they are -_imposed_ separately, and carried to the stereotype foundry, where they -are examined, and all dirt taken from the face; they are then slightly -oiled, and a _moulding-frame_ put round each. The frame is filled with -liquid plaster of Paris, which is well rubbed into the face of the type -to expel the air. As soon as this plaster hardens, it is removed from -the page, and shows a complete resemblance of the page from which it is -taken. The mould is put into an oven to dry, where it remains till it -resembles a piece of pottery; it is then put into an iron pan, in which -there is a thin plate of the same metal, called the _floating-plate_; -it has also an iron lid, which is firmly screwed down, and the whole is -immersed in a pot of molten type-metal, which fills the pan by means of -small holes in the corners of the lid. The length of time it remains in -the pot depends upon the heat of the metal, but it is generally from -ten to fifteen minutes, when it is taken out, and put aside to cool. -On opening the pan, nothing is seen but a solid lump of metal, which, -when carefully broke round the mould, a thin plate is obtained from the -mass, exhibiting a perfect appearance of the page from which the mould -was taken.--This is called a stereotype plate, which in general is not -above the eighth of an inch thick, and is printed from in the same -manner as a page of types. Such is the process of stereotyping, which -has become pretty general throughout the trade, but is not much known -to the public. - - - - -ENGRAVING. - - -ON WOOD. - -As we have shown in our article on Printing, Wood-engraving was in -fashion prior to the invention of printing. We are informed by Albert -Durer that Engraving on Wood was invented about the year 1520; he may -be a good authority in some matters, but in this he has committed a -mistake of nearly one hundred years; seeing that there is at least -an impression of one engraving on wood, the representation of the -Creation, which was in existence prior to 1430. It was undoubtedly a -piece of rough workmanship; but what could be expected at that early -period of the art? It has been, however, gradually improving ever -since, and it has now attained a point of excellence equal to any -of the fine arts, and calls forth the admiration of every lover of -the beautiful. It would be invidious to select any of the numerous -artists now flourishing--perhaps it would be difficult to make a -selection where so many are upon an equality; and we are of opinion -they themselves are more willing to accept the public approbation as -their reward, than any praise our pen could bestow. All we can do is -to recommend our readers to examine for themselves; they have abundant -opportunities in the numerous illustrated publications that are -daily issued from the press, and bestow that meed of praise upon the -respective artists they may deem proper. - -The process of engraving on _wood_ is diametrically distinct and -opposite to that of engraving on _copper_ or _steel_; as in the former, -the shades are produced by the parts of the work which are made most -prominent, and obtrude upon the surface of the substance; whence its -chief merit has been regarded in leaving broad and well-proportioned -lights. The parts to produce this effect being of necessity excavated, -great art and a masterly judgment are necessary to effect this, and at -the same time not to weaken the substance, lest it should be injured in -the pressure necessary to produce an impression. - -The substance usually employed for these engravings is wood of a close -grain; on this account box-wood is generally selected. The impressions -are obtained from wood-engravings upon exactly the same principle as -are the impressions from typography; and they can also be worked off -at the same time with the descriptive text. This is a superiority -which wood possesses over other engravings, and recommends itself to -publishers on account of the immense saving in the expense of a double -process in procuring copper-plate illustrations for typographical -works, and enables them to keep pace with the ruling passion of this -literary era--cheap publications. - - -ON COPPER. - -The art of engraving on copper plates, for impressions, is alleged -to have been invented by Peter Schoeffer, one of the early printers, -and son in-law of John Faust, about the year 1450. The honour of this -invention is also claimed by a Florentine goldsmith of the name of -Finguires, who dates his invention in 1540. This artist having used -liquid sulphur to take an impression of some chasing and engraving he -had made, observed a blackness produced by the sulphur left in the -deepest parts of his work, whence he obtained an impression on paper. - -But we have no hesitation in giving the preference to Schoeffer, who, -we have previously remarked, was of an ingenious turn, and assisted -Guttenburg in producing moulds for casting his types; in addition to -which, some of the books printed by him are ornamented with head -and tail-pieces, with other rude attempts at engraving; and likewise -because Schoeffer’s claim to the honour was acknowledged before -Finguires was born. - -Of engraving there are various kinds; that called by connoisseurs, the -legitimate mode of engraving, is what is termed the _line_ or _stroke_ -mode. Numerous have been the British artists who have excelled in this -style, in affording the means of multiplying our graphical productions. - -The next species of engraving we will notice is called the _stipple_, -or chalk style,--imitations of chalk drawings. Portraits and historical -pieces are executed in this style, which the celebrated Bartolozzi -brought to perfection. - -The third species we will mention, cannot properly be called engraving; -the effect is produced by scraping and rubbing; this kind is called -_chiaro obscuro_, or mezzotinto; producing prints which have the effect -of Indian ink drawings. - -A fourth species of engraving is what is commonly used for landscapes, -which produces an effect like a pencil water-colour drawing; which is -called _aquatinta_. - -In all of these kinds of engravings upon copper the artists find the -sulphuric acid, or aquafortis, a most powerful agent. Sometimes, -indeed, it is suffered to execute the whole of the process of the -graver, especially when it is called an etching. - -For the same reasons as those mentioned with regard to wood engravers, -we shall abstain from naming any of the very eminent artists now living. - -We have already observed the mode of obtaining similar effects from -wood and copper, are opposite to each other. The manner in which -impressions from wood engravings are obtained, has likewise been -noticed; and it remains that we observe the mode by which impressions -are obtained from copper-plates. The plate is covered with appropriate -ink; the surface is then carefully cleansed, leaving ink only in the -excavations or lines in the copper. The plate and paper are passed -through a roller press of great power, the roller being covered with a -blanket, which presses the paper into all the crevices of the plate, -and brings away the ink there deposited. - - -ON STEEL. - -For several years steel has been used in great quantities, instead -of copper-plates, by engravers. By this fortunate application of so -durable, and it may be added, so economical a material, not only has -a new field been discovered admirably suited to yield in perfection -the richest and finest graphic productions, which the ingenuity of -modern art can accomplish, but to do so through an amazingly numerous -series of impressions without perceptible deterioration. The art of -engraving on iron or steel for purposes of ornament, and even for -printing, in certain cases, is by no means a discovery of modern times; -but the substitution of the latter for copper, which has invited the -superiority of the British burin to achievements hitherto unattempted -by our artists, is entirely a modern practice. - -In the year 1810, Mr. Dyer, an American merchant, residing in London, -obtained a patent for certain improvements in the construction and -method of using plates and presses, &c., the principles of which were -communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad. This foreigner -was Mr. Jacob Perkin, an ingenious artist of New England, and whose -name has become subsequently so extensively known in this country, in -connection with roller-press printing from hardened steel plates. The -plates used by Mr. Perkins were, on the average, about five-eights of -an inch thick; they were either of steel so tempered as to admit of -the operation of the engraver, or, as was more generally the case, -of steel decarbonated so as to become very pure soft iron, in which -case, after they had received the work on the surface, they were case -hardened by cementation. - -The decarbonating process was performed by enclosing the plate of cast -steel properly shaped, in a cast iron box, or case, filled about the -plate to the thickness of about an inch with oxide of iron or rusty -iron filings; in this state the box is luted close, and placed on a -regular fire, where it is kept at a red heat during from three to -twelve days. Generally about nine days is sufficient to decarbonize -a plate five-eighths of an inch in thickness; when the engraving -or etching has been executed, the plate is superficially converted -into steel, by placing it in a box as before, and surrounding it on -all sides by a powder made of equal parts of burned bones, and the -cinders of burned animal matter, such as old shoes or leather. In this -state the box, with its contents, closely luted, must be exposed to a -blood-red heat for three hours; after which, it is taken out of the -fire, and plunged perpendicularly edgeways into cold water, (which has -been previously boiled) to throw off the air. By this means the plate -becomes hardened without the danger of warping or cracking. It is then -tempered or let down by brightening the under surface of the plate with -a bit of stone; after which it is heated by being placed upon a piece -of hot iron, or melted lead, until the rubbed portion acquire a pale -straw-colour. For this purpose, however, the patentee expressed himself -in favour of a bath of oil heated to the temperature of 460 degrees, or -thereabouts of Fahrenheit’s scale. The plate being cooled in water, and -polished on the surface, was ready for use. - -A more material peculiarity in Mr. Perkins’ invention, and one which -does not seem to have been approached by any preceding artist, was -the contrivance of what are called _indenting cylinders_. These -are rollers of two or three inches in diameter, and made of steel, -decarbonized by the process above described, so as to be very soft. In -this state they are made to roll backward and forward under a powerful -pressure, over the surface of one of the hardened plates, until all -the figures, letters, or indentations are communicated, with exquisite -precision, in sharp relief upon the cylinder; which, being carefully -hardened and tempered, becomes, by this means, fitted to communicate -an impression to other plates, by an operation similar to that by -which it was originally figured. It will be obvious that one advantage -gained by this method must be the entire saving of the labour and -expense of re-cutting in every case, on different plates, ornaments, -borders, emblematical designs, &c., as these can now be impressed with -little trouble on any number of plates, or in any part thereof, by the -application of the cylinder. At first sight, the performance of such -an operation as the one now alluded to may appear difficult, if not -impracticable; and, indeed, many persons on its first announcement were -disposed to doubt or deny its possibility altogether. With a proper and -powerful apparatus, however, this method of transferring engravings -from plates to cylinders, and _vice versa_, is every day performed with -facility and success, not only in the production of bank notes, labels, -&c., but in works exhibiting very elaborate engravings. - - - - -LITHOGRAPHY. - - -Lithography is the art of printing from stone, which claims for its -author Aloys Senelfelder, a native of Munich, in the kingdom of -Bavaria. The history of this useful art is recorded by the only person -capable of assigning proper and correct motives, and of tracing the -various means which were employed to arrive at the desired end, to -ultimate success: had all other useful inventions, profitable and -elegant arts, had the good fortune which this has happily experienced, -we should not have had so much cause to regret deficiencies as we have -frequently experienced in the course of our inquiries; then would -the various illustrious authors of arts have had justice rendered to -them, and still have remained possessed of that glorious immortality -so justly the reward of transcendant merit; for the history of this -meritorious invention is given by the author himself, thereby securing -to it those advantages, which the erudite author of the preface -congratulates the public upon, when in his concise epistle he uses -that beautiful expression of his countryman, Klopstock, where he says, -“Covered with eternal darkness are the great names of inventors.” - -This work has been translated into English, and published with the -following title:--“A complete Course of Lithography, containing clear -and explicit Instructions in all the different branches and manners -of the Art; accompanied by Illustrative Specimens of Drawings; to -which is prefixed a History of Lithography, from its Origin, by Aloys -Senefelder, Inventor of the Art of Lithography, or Chymical Printing,” -&c. - -The author of the preface to this work, and friend of the inventor, -states that this is an art, whereby the artist, a minister, a man of -letters, or a merchant, &c., may multiply his productions at will, -without the assistance of a second person. - -The author of the above work proceeds to give in detail his motives -for the original invention, in which he has not only been strictly -circumstantial, but no more so than the curiosity of the public -requires, which is always excited in a degree proportioned to the -confessed utility of a work, or that demand which its elegance has upon -cultivated and delicate feeling. His labours may be said to be divided -naturally into two parts, of which division the author has availed -himself; first, adducing its history, and secondly, affording the -operation of its process. - -Its history appears to have arisen with its origin; and both to have -originated in the necessities of the author. From whence it appears, -that after he had received a scholastic education to qualify him for -the jurisprudence of his country, the death of his father, who was a -votary of the Thespian art, deprived him of those resources essential -to enable him to pursue his intended honourable vocation; he was -consequently driven to seek support from the previous acquisitions -of his mind. He accordingly devoted his earnest attention to solicit -the favours of the dramatic muse as an author. After encountering -numberless difficulties, he produced one play, which was published, and -sold considerably well. But the honourable independence of his mind -induced him to reflect upon the certainty of the large expense, which -necessarily attends the practice of an author, who has not liberal -patrons in the public or the trade; and the uncertainty of adequate -remuneration from the public, for whose amusement they make such large -sacrifices of time, ease, property, health, and often life itself. -These reflections induced his ardent and ingenious mind to endeavour to -avoid the uncertainty of this contingency. He did not possess property -to enable him to establish himself as a printer, which was his desire; -he was therefore compelled to have recourse to his own ingenuity. -He tried various, and at first, unsuccessful experiments, which he -ingeniously details; because, he considered, that nearly as much is -learned from the failures of an artist, had he always the honesty to -publish them, as is gained from his most successful discoveries. - -Various were the materials upon which he first essayed to complete -his purposes; till, at length, chance directed him to try what could -be effected upon stone. For this purpose, he used a species found in -Germany, of a beautifully close grained and dense kind, susceptible of -receiving a fine polish, called Kellheim stone. Knowing the failures -which his countrymen had experienced in endeavouring to fix the ink -in this stone for etching, he had recourse to a chemical experiment -to obviate this, which succeeded in the following manner:--To four -or five parts of water, he added one of rectified vitriol, which -instantly produced an effervescence, on being poured upon it; the -stone was instantly covered with a coat of gypsum, which to vitriol is -impenetrable; this is easily wiped off, and the stone being dried, it -is ready for use. The next want he found, was a species of ink, proper -to answer the peculiar purposes of the material whereon he had to -operate; for which he discovered none so well adapted as the following -mixture:--A composition of three parts of wax, with one of yellow soap, -is melted over a fire, and mixed with a small portion of lamp-black, -dissolved in rain-water. But this is now greatly simplified, as the -lithographic printers generally use the same ink as the copperplate -printers. - -The process of lithography is very simple. The article wanted to be -printed is written or drawn upon a piece of transfer paper, which being -wet and laid on the stone, and put through the press, the writing or -drawing remains on the stone, and any number of impressions may be -taken off. Care must be taken, before inking, to come over the stone -with a damp sponge, to prevent the ink adhering to the places not -wanted, which it would otherwise do. - -We understand the Bath and Portland stone is successfully used; but the -best yet found in Britain, for the purpose, is what is known by the -name of _lias_, raised near Stratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire; it is a -calcareous and partly siliceous stone, and we think not destitute of -magnesia, having, when, polished, a very silky and somewhat saponaceous -feel. - -This art has flourished to a greater extent than we believe the most -sanguine expectations of its inventor could have anticipated. Many -beautiful specimens of art have been produced equal to the finest -copper-plate engravings. It is excellently adapted for drawing of -plans, bill-heads, circulars, cards, and many other light articles, -which used formerly to be printed by means of letter-press; and on -account of the numerous ornaments so easily applied to the lithographic -process, the most of these, and similar articles, are principally -lithographed, to the detriment, we would conceive, of the letter-press -and copper-plate printers. - - - - -PAPER. - - -Before the invention of paper, in ancient times, a great variety of -substances have been used for the purpose of recording events, or -delineating ideas, of which it becomes our duty to give a somewhat -detailed account, to show our readers the numerous advantages they -enjoy, in having a material which, like everything in common use, is -but little thought of. But let any one suppose himself to be without -this necessary article, or the means of communicating his ideas, he -would be sensible of the difference. - -Rough stones and stakes were used as the first known records of the -ancient Phœnicians, remains of which are reported to be still visible; -and to confirm this persuasion, certain heaps of stones have been -discovered in the environs of Cadiz, which are currently believed to -be the remains of those monuments alleged to be made by Hercules, in -memory of his famous expedition to the gardens of the Hesperides, for -the golden fruit, or as others have it, against Spain. It is also -stated, that the usual mode of recording great events, in the north of -Asia and Europe, was by placing stones of extraordinary size; in aid of -this, we have a great variety of instances. - -Since the _scriptural_ art has been introduced, or invented, many -materials have been, in a variety of ages, and in numerous countries, -used for the purpose of recording events to posterity; characters cut -upon rocks, upon tables of stone, upon bark, pieces of wood, written -upon skins of fish and animals, palm-leaves, besides a great variety of -other articles, of which we will only enumerate a few. - -There is a Bible still preserved, written on palm-leaves, in the -University of Gottingen, containing 5,376 leaves. Another Bible, of the -same material, is at Copenhagen. There was also, in Sir Hans Sloane’s -collection, more than twenty manuscripts, in various languages, on the -same material. - -The protocols of the Emperors in early times were written upon bark. In -the British Museum are many specimens of this substance; also in the -grand Duke’s gallery at Florence. - -To this mode is supposed to have succeeded the practice of painting -letters on linen cloth and cotton; what was the difference in -the preparation of that material to the one now employed is not -ascertained, but it is considered that some preparation was necessary -in order to use that substance. There have been frequently found in the -chests or cases containing the Egyptian mummies, very neat characters -written on linen. Linen being subject to accidents from becoming -mouldy, &c., asbestoes cloth had been occasionally used in small -quantities. - -The accidents to which these species of materials were most of them -subject, and linen particularly so, induced man to endeavour to remedy -those objects; he accordingly is found to have recourse to the animal -creation. - -In the convent of Dominican monks at Bologna, are two books of Esdras, -written on asses’ skins, said to have been written by Esdras himself. -The ancient Persians wrote on hides, from which the hair was scraped. -The shepherds wrote their songs with thorns upon straps of leather, -which they wound round their crooks. - -The ancient Welch had a peculiar manner of writing upon small squared -oblong pieces of wood, which they called _billets_, which name forms -the appellative to numerous of their productions, as the “Billett of -the Bard.” - -The Italian kings, Hugo and Lotharis, gave a grant to the Ambrosian -church, at Milan, written on the skin of a fish. - -In the Alexandrian Library there were the works of Homer, written in -golden letters on the skins of animals. In the reign of the Emperor -Baliskus, the head and “Odyssey” of Homer, written in golden letters, -on the intestines of beasts, one hundred and twenty feet long, were -burned at Constantinople. - -In the royal library at Hanover, there is a gold plate, written by an -independent prince of Coromandel to George II., three feet long and -four inches wide, inlaid on both sides with diamonds. - -At last we have arrived at the period for the introduction of the -Egyptian papyrus, a kind of rush of large dimensions, growing in the -marshes on the banks of the Nile. This plant is described as growing -in swamps to the height of fifteen feet; the stalk triangular, of a -thickness to be spanned, surrounded near the root by short leaves; -stalk naked, has on the top a bush resembling the head with hairs, or -long thin straight fibres; root brown. - -The Egyptian papyrus was manufactured into paper from very fine -pellicles near its pith, separated by a pin or pointed mussel-shell -spread on a table in such form as was required, sprinkled with Nile -water; on the first layer a second layer was laid crosswise to finish -the sheet, then pressed, hung to dry, and afterwards polished with -a tooth. The Nile water was very carefully used to prevent spots. -Twenty skins were the greatest number which could be procured from one -plant. Those nearest the pith made the finest paper. Twenty sheets -glued together were called _scapus_, but sometimes _scapi_ went to -form a _volumen_. This part of the business was executed by the -_glutinatoris_, who resembled our bookbinders. - -This plant yielded materials for making four sorts of paper. - -With respect to other substances for the same purpose, there are many, -but as most of these have one generic character, being manufactured -from the bark of trees, the detail is not here given, as it might not, -perhaps, be generally interesting, especially as nothing new appears in -this respect. - -With respect to the paper now in use, Dr. Blair says, the first -paper-mill (in England, we suppose) was erected at Dartford, in the -year 1588, by a German of the name of Spiellman; from which period we -may, perhaps, date its manufacture in this country. - -It appears, however, that it was known in the East, much earlier; it -being observed that most of the ancient manuscripts in Arabic and other -Oriental languages, were written upon cotton paper, and it is thought -the Saracens first introduced it into Spain. - -Anderson, in his “History of Commerce,” says, that till the year -1690, there was scarcely any paper made in England, but the coarse -brown sort. Paper was previously imported from France, Genoa, and -Holland.--However, the improvement of this article in England, in -consequence of the French war, produced a saving to this country of -£100,000 annually, which had been paid to France for paper alone. - -After linen and cotton are so much worn as to be unfit for any other -purpose, the several kinds are collected together, and the hard seams -and other accumulations, which would require a much longer time to -prepare proper for the general mass, than would be consistent with the -economy of the whole, those shreds are then separated and thrown away; -the different kinds are then collected and kept separate from each -other. In such a state of separation they are laid in troughs, which -are afterwards filled with water, where they are suffered to remain -till a species of fermentation takes place; and the separation of the -parts formed by art is not only rendered easy, but also, a division -may be made of the most minute parts; the separation is then made by -machinery. When properly prepared, a sufficient quantity is placed -upon a wire frame, or otherwise one formed of cloth; by mechanical -pressure, the moisture is extracted, after which the sheets are hung up -separately on lines to dry, in a building properly constructed to admit -a free circulation of air. - -Manufacturers of paper, originally, could only use white rags to -make white paper; but Mr. Campbell, in 1792, discovered a method of -discharging any colour from rags, by bleaching with oxi-muriatic acid -gas, for which he obtained a patent. - -The next considerable improvement which appears to have been made in -the manufacture of paper, consists in using felt or woollen cloth in -conjunction with the wire cloth formerly used, and now of necessity -retained, and other processes too voluminous to be inserted here. - -The only remaining circumstance we have to mention is, that in the -beginning of the present century there was manufactured, in the -vicinity of London, a very good printing paper, made entirely from -wheat straw; for which manufacture, the inventor obtained a patent, -but he did not succeed, we presume, because it is now discontinued. -Considerable quantities of paper is now made from straw in France; but -it is of a yellow tinge. Paper made from linen is the best. - - - - -PAPER HANGING. - - -The desire of man, for the gratification of his natural wants, being -soon satisfied, he yet is wanting--those artificial wants which -arise in the mind, and are the source of his comforts, because their -gratification yields him high delight. Having built him a house, to -shelter himself from the exigencies of the weather, to enlarge the -sphere of his pleasures, he is desirous to ornament it; and because he -cannot, perhaps, construct his house of silver, gold, or costly stones, -he endeavours, at least, to have an imitation; and gilding, lacquering, -painting, or staining is substituted. This idea, we will presume, -to have given origin to every species of decorative ornament in the -construction of houses--and among the rest to paper-hanging, which is -carried on to a greater extent in this country, than at any former -period. - -The ancient Greeks, according to Archbishop Potter, constructed not -only their arms, but also their houses, occasionally of brass, whilst -the Romans frequently gilt theirs; they often covered them with costly -casings or veneers, sometimes with precious stones. Since they went -to such great cost to ornament the outside of their habitations, -we need not wonder that they spared no expense in endeavouring to -ornament them within.--Those people, however, who could not procure -these extravagancies in reality, thought they would, at least, have -the nearest imitation of them; accordingly they had recourse sometimes -to veneers of those substances they had seen substantially employed -by the rich and luxurious, as well for outside ornament as interior -decoration; those who could not afford this, had recourse to pigments -and the graphic art; for this purpose, the ingenuity of man was -employed to devise various modes of ornament and decoration. Hence -arose the various kinds of painting, the fresco, scagliolo, &c., and -lastly, came staining of paper in use. - -To enumerate the various kinds of this, might be attended with very -little benefit, because the principle of all is nearly the same. -However, it has been remarked that three kinds are deserving of notice. -The first and plainest is that which has on it figures, drawn and -painted with one or more colours, consisting only of painted paper. -The second contains a woolly stuff, dyed of various tints, and made -to adhere to the paper, in certain forms, by a glutinous matter; and -the third is a species of paper covered with metallic dust. There are -other papers used for hangings, which contain a representation of many -kinds of stones, of which we understand there is a large manufactory in -Leipsic. - -There is also a species of velvet paper--a paper covered with sham -plush, or wool dyed and cut short, and made to adhere to the paper by -some kind of cement, said to have been the invention of an Englishman, -of the name of Jerome Lanyer, in the reign of Charles I., for which he -received a patent. In the specification it is stated, that he had found -out an art and mystery for affixing wool, silk, and other materials, -upon linen, cotton, leather, and other substances, with oil, size, and -cements, so as to make them useful and serviceable for hangings and -other purposes; which he called Londrindina; and he said it was his own -invention, and formerly used within this realm. - -However, it appears that this invention of Lanyer was afterwards -disputed by a Frenchman of the name of Tierce, who said it was the -production of a countryman of his, named Francois, who, he stated, -had made such before 1620, and supported his assertion by producing -patterns, and the wooden blocks with which it was printed, with the -dates inscribed upon them. The son of Francois, it appeared, followed -his father’s business, at Rouen, for more than fifty years, where he -died, in 1748. Some of his workmen are said to have left him, and gone -to the Netherlands, Germany, and other places, where they sold their -art. - -It appears that Nemetz ascribes the invention of wax-cloth hangings, -with wool chopped and beat fine, to a Frenchman, named Andran, who, he -says, in the beginning of the last century, was an excellent painter -in arabesque and grotesque figures, and inspector of the palace of the -Luxembourg at Paris, in which he had a manufactory for hangings of that -kind. It is also stated that a person of the name of Eccard invented -the art of printing, on paper-hangings, gold and silver figures, and -that he carried on an extensive manufactory for such works. - -It certainly does appear that the Germans cannot claim the privilege of -invention here, but were behind their neighbours in this art. - -One of the most ingenious of the many new improvements is said to -consist in the art of manufacturing paper-hangings by affixing to the -substance of the proper metallic dust, commonly called Nuremberg dust, -by which it acquires the appearance of various costly metals in a state -of fracture, varied with glittering particles of differently formed -parts; and receiving the light in every direction, produce certainly -a novel effect, which is rich and beautiful, while it is obtained at -little expense. - -The Nuremberg metallic dust is said to have been the invention of an -artist of that city, named John Hautsch, born in 1595, died in 1670; -his descendants have continued its preparation to the present time. -It is produced from filings of metals of several descriptions washed -well in a strong lixivious water, then being placed upon a sheet of -copper, are put upon a strong fire, and continually stirred till the -colour is altered. Those of tin, by this process, acquire every shade -of gold colour, with its metallic lustre; those of copper, different -shades of flame colour; those of iron or steel, a blue or violet; of -tin and bismuth mixed, a white or bluish white colour. The dust tinged -in this manner is then put through a flatting-mill, consisting of -two rollers of the hardest steel, like those used by gold and silver -wire-drawers; for the greater convenience a funnel is placed over them. -French covered paper manufactured from this material is called _papiers -avec paillettes_. Its lustre is so durable that it is said to continue -unaltered for many years even on the walls of sitting apartments. This -metallic dust is an article of commerce, being exported from Germany. - -As early as the seventeenth century, the miners of Silesia collected -and sold, for various purposes, a material they call _glimmer_, being -bright, shining particles of various metals, which those mines produce -in great profusion; even the black, we are told, acquires a gold colour -by being exposed to a strong heat. This was manufactured by the holy -sisters of Reichenstein, into a variety of ornaments; with it they -decorated their images, strewing over them a shining kind of _talc_. -The silver coloured glimmer had not, however, so great a brilliancy or -variety as the Nuremberg metallic dust; for which purposes that article -has a decided superiority. - -For the various purposes to which these ornaments are to be applied, -different adhesive substances should be used; in some cases glue would -have the effect, to be first drawn over the substance; in others, a -strong varnish, in which wax is dissolved; and for others, various -kinds of gums. - -Those substances being so covered, the dust may be put in a common -pepper-castor, and applied by sifting it over the substance to be so -covered. Different figures may be drawn with a pencil, and the box of -dust shook over them, as far as the extent of the lines covered with -glue; the dust will only fasten so far as it meets with what produces -adhesion. - - - - -PAINTING. - - -Its origin is to be traced up to that known source, from whence most of -those arts, which humanise society and lend a polish to life, first had -being. Diodorus Siculus speaks of bricks burnt in the fire with various -colours, representing the natural appearance of men and animals; which -is the first fact upon record. As this occurred during the building of -Babylon, it is as remote an original as we are, perhaps, authorised to -depend upon; although it is extremely probable it might be traced to an -anterior date: which conclusion, though made from inference alone, we -are allowed to suppose must have been the case; as a knowledge of the -nature of pigments must first have been ascertained before the Chaldean -artists could have been informed what colours would fade, or what would -withstand the operation of the enamelling process in the intense heat -necessary to produce the effect. They must at least have understood the -difference between vegetable colours, which are the first presented -to the senses, and most probably were the first which were used, and -those afforded by the mineral kingdom, which alone were proper for -the operation they performed. Therefore, the arts of painting and -chemistry, we would presume must have made considerable progress prior -to the erection of the tower of Babel. - -The next people, who, in point of time as well as of importance, offer -themselves to the notice of modern Europeans, are the Egyptians; and -their perfection in the use of the various colours which constitute the -compound idea we entertain when we think of painting, is well known -and appreciated; when we may any day consult our judgment by inspecting -those beautiful specimens of their eternal mode of colouring we have -in the exhibition on mummy-cases in the British Museum, and other -depositories of that species of antique preservation. The third people -who excelled in giving a beautiful and tasteful variety to surfaces in -colouring and effect, were the Etrurians, a people anciently inhabiting -a district of Italy, now known as Tuscany. Of the perfection to which -they brought the art we may form an adequate and proper judgment -by inspecting those beautiful vases preserved in the Hamiltonian -collection in the British Museum, and also in some very curious -specimens of ancient painting, procured from the ruins of Herculaneum, -collected likewise by Sir William Hamilton. - -It cannot be doubted, that most distinct societies of men have, -after the gratification of their first wants, and when leisure hours -permitted the exercise of their ingenious and inventive faculties, -invented a great variety of useful and ornamental arts; therefore, -there cannot be a question, but various arts of utility as well as of -ornament, have been invented by a great variety of people, who all, -agreeably to our prior definitions, are well entitled to the distinct -appellation of original inventors; consequently in such a case question -must evidently submit to the determination of chronology. - -Eudora, the daughter of a potter of Corinth, is presumed to have -introduced the art into Greece. The art of painting in Greece is also -claimed by Sicyon as the original. Mr. Fuseli has beautifully observed -in his first lecture illustrative of the former of these two claimants, -that “If ever legend deserved our belief, the amorous tale of the -Corinthian maid, who traced the shadow of her departing lover by the -secret lamp, appeals to our sympathy to grant it.” This invention is -becoming doubly interesting in that country, first, because of its -elegance and utility; and secondly, because it is ascribed to one of -the noblest and most powerful passions, which distinguish the human -species, the wonderful effects of which have given to humanity the most -exalted and illustrious of actions, which ennoble the character of -man--to delicate, refined, and almighty love. Numerous artists in the -Grecian school brought the art of painting to great perfection. - -The restorer of this delightful art in Europe was Cimabue, a native of -Italy, who first studied under some Grecian artists, and furnished some -admirable productions in fresco, in several Italian churches about the -renovation of the arts in modern Italy; since which time, this purely -intellectual art has been successfully cultivated in almost all the -countries of Europe, certain masters in all schools of which have been -eminent for some peculiar eminence. - -An analogy has been drawn by comparison between the fascinating effect -of music on the ear, and colour on the eye, wherein it is observed the -comparison very nearly approximates; whence the term _harmony_, applied -to the former, may correctly, and with singular propriety be used, when -speaking of the latter. And also, it is said, for the same reason, and -proceeding upon the like analogy, the term _tone_ is applicable to -both; they are accordingly used indiscriminately. Without questioning -their propriety, we give in to our sensations, and as far as our -judgment goes, believe they are not improperly introduced into the -pictorial art. - -It cannot be presumed that we should have the temerity to aspire to -the task of giving a full and complete description of every variety -which constitutes perfection in the art; for this would be to infer -professional ability, equal, or perhaps, superior to what any one -individual ever was, or, we may venture to say, ever will be, known to -possess. Besides this inference, another must be presumed, because -perfection in description must also anticipate the most delicate, -refined, and, as termed, classically correct taste; neither to these -do we assume the possession of such well-known essentials as are -positively necessary to its formation. It is, besides, altogether -difficult, as the world acknowledges, to fix a standard to the ideal -faculty of taste, and which, we hereby take occasion to notice; -therefore we hope to avoid the sin of presumption, and trust that our -readers will observe that what we do state is upon good authority, if -we have not full confidence in our own experience; but our sin, if sin -there be, is rather that of omission than of commission--of saying too -little, rather than too much. - - - - -STATUARY. - - -The origin of Statuary, or what we would term its parent--modelling, -is of very great antiquity, as we are authoratively informed by the -Grecian historians, whose testimony is supported by Monsieur D’Anville -and Major Rennel, two of the most eminent geographers of modern times. -From them we learn that three massy statues of gold were erected -to ornament the temple of Jupiter Belus. Those were erected by the -Chaldeans about two thousand two hundred and thirty years before Christ. - -There is also sufficient evidence, that the most eminent and -intellectual people, subsequent to the Chaldeans, were the Egyptians. - -Every individual, who is in the slightest degree conversant with the -history of the arts, knows that the Egyptian artisans had from the -earliest periods been in the habit of constructing colossal statues -of their numerous deities, and also of their benefactors, raised from -gratitude and adulation. - -To name only a single instance, the immense colossal statue of Memnon, -who perished before the fall of Troy, according to Homer: also Ovid, -who speaking of his mother Aurora, says, - - “Nor Troy, nor Hecuba could now bemoan, - She weeps a sad misfortune now her own; - Her offspring, Memnon, by Achilles slain, - She saw extended on the Phrygian plain.” - -Professor Flaxman has informed us, that this celebrated statue, had it -stood upright, would have measured ninety-three feet and a half high; -calculating from the dimensions of its ear, which is three feet long. -We are informed by Dr. Rees, in his valuable Cyclopedia, that sculpture -in marble was not introduced till eight hundred and seventy-three years -before Christ. But having said this much for the origin, let us proceed -to the art; and we candidly acknowledge that it is from the lectures -of that truly distinguished individual, Professsor Flaxman, we are -principally indebted for our information. - -Sculpture in Greece remained long in a rude state; but we need not -wonder at that, when we reflect that art is only an imitation of -nature. Hence it follows that man, in a rude state of nature, for -want of proper principles to direct his inquiries, and determine -his judgment, is continually liable to errors, physical, moral, and -religious;--all his productions, of what kind soever, partake of this -primitive imbecility. - -The early arts of design in Greece resembled those of other barbarous -nations, until the successive intellectual and natural, political and -civil advantages of this people raised them above the arts of the -surrounding nations. The science employed by the Greeks may be traced -in anatomy, geometry, mechanics, and perspective. From their earlier -authors and coeval monuments, Homer had described the figure with -accuracy, but insufficient for general purposes. - -OF ANATOMY.--Hippocrates was the first who enumerated the bones, and -wrote a compendious account of the principles of the human figure; he -described the shoulders, the curves of the ribs, hips and knees; the -characters of the arms and legs, in the same simple manner in which -they are represented in the basso relievo of the Parthenon, now in the -National Gallery of the British Museum. - -The ancient artists saw the figure continually exposed in all actions -and circumstances, so as to have little occasion for other assistance -to perfect their works; and they had also the assistance of casting, -drawing, and other subsidiary means. The succeeding ancient anatomists -did not describe the human figure more minutely or advantageously -for the artist, than had been done by Hippocrates, till the time of -Galen, whose external anatomy gave example for that analytical accuracy -of arrangement followed by more modern artists. Sculpture, however, -profited little from Galen’s labours, for the arts of design were in -his time in a retrogade motion towards anterior barbarism. - -The anatomical researches from Alcmæon of Crotona, a disciple of -Pythagoras, to those of Hippocrates and his scholars, assisted Phidias -and Praxiteles, their contemporaries and successors, in giving select -and appropriate forms of body and limbs to their several divinities, -whose characters were fixed by the artists from the rhapsodies of -Homer, having then become popular among the Athenians. - -Phidias was the first in this reformation. Minerva, under his hand, -became young and beautiful, who had before been harsh and elderly; and -Jupiter was awful, as when his nod shook the poles, but benignant, as -when he smiled on his daughter Venus. Apollo and Bacchus then assumed -youthful resemblances of their sire; the first more majestic, the -latter more feminine; whilst Mercury, as patron of gymnastic exercises, -was represented as more robust than his brother. Hercules became -gradually more powerful; and the forms of inferior heroes displayed -a nearer resemblance to common nature; from which, both sentiment -and beauty can alone be given to imitative art. The near approach of -ancient art to nature, considering their high advance to accuracy of -imitation, should likewise encourage the modern to imitate the ancient -artists. The moderns now also enjoy superior auxiliary assistance from -engraving, printed books, &c., which the ancients did not possess. - -MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN FRAME.--The human figure with the limbs -extended, may be inclined and bounded by the circle and square; -the centre of gravity, its change of situation, is susceptible of -description, and may be exemplified in rest and motion;--running, -striving, leaping, walking, rising, and falling. Those principles of -motion may be exhibited in a skeleton, by the bending of the backbone -backwards and forwards, whilst the limbs uniformly describe sections of -circles in their motions, constantly moving on their axis. - -DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE, as exhibited in Grecian Statuary.--The -height, eight heads (or usually ten faces); two heads across the -shoulders; one head and a half across the hips; three noses, the -thickest part of the thigh; two, to the calf of the leg; one, the -narrowest part of the shin, &c. The above is the general proportion of -the male figure. The female figure is narrower across the shoulders, -and wider across the hips than the male. - -The _beauty_ of the human figure is found in its proportion, symmetry, -and expression; it really appears that the beauty of the human figure -is the chief or ultimate of beauty observed in the visible works -of creative Omnipotence. From thence every other species of beauty -graduates in just _ratios_ of proportion. From considering the -intellectual faculties of man, we assimilate the idea, and connect -beauty with utility, as this union of his physical and mental powers -unquestionably renders him one of the most beautiful objects in the -creation. This consideration leads us involuntarily to a train of -thought, suggested by a principle laid down by Plato, “That nothing is -beautiful which is not truly good;” which also induces the following -corollary, and which is confirmed by reason, and sanctioned by -revelation, that _perfection of human beauty consists of the most -virtuous soul in the most healthy and perfect body_. - -Inasmuch as painters and sculptors adhered to those principles in -their work, they assisted to enforce a popular impression of divine -attributes and perfections, even in ages of gross idolatry. - -In the highest order of divinities, the energy of intellect was -represented above the material accidents of passion and decay. - -The statues of the Saturnian family, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, -were the most sublime and mighty of the superior divinities. -Apollo, Bacchus, and Mercury, were youthful resemblances of the -Saturnian family, in energetic, delicate, and more athletic beauty: -Apollo-Belvidere supplies Homer’s description to the sight; he looks -indignant, his hair is agitated; he steps forward in the discharge of -his shafts; his arrows are hanging on his shoulder. - -A youthful and infantine beauty of the highest class distinguish the -Cupid of Praxiteles, and the group of Ganymede and the Eagle. The -order of heroes or demigods excel in strength, activity, and beauty; -Achilles, Ajax, Hæmon, Zethos, and Amphion, are examples in Grecian -statuary to establish this remark. - -The Giants are human to the waist; their figures terminate in -serpentine tails. Ocean and the great Rivers have Herculean forms, and -faintly resemble the Saturnian family, and have reclining positions. -The Tritons resemble the Fauns in the head, and upper features, with -finny tails, and gills on their jaws; their lower parts terminate in -the tails of fish. - -In the highest class of female characters, the beauty of Juno, is -imperious; that of Minerva, wise, as she presides over peaceful -arts; or warlike, as the protectress of cities. Venus is the example -and patroness of milder beauty and the softer arts of reciprocal -communication; of which the Venus Praxiteles and Venus de Medicis are -instances. The Greeks had also a Venus Urania, the goddess of hymenial -rites and the celestial virtues. - -The Graces are three youthful, lovely sisters embracing: they represent -the tender affections, as their name implies; while their character -gives the epithet _graceful_ to undulatory and easy motion. The -universe was peopled by genii, good and evil demons, which comprehends -every species and gradation from the most sublime and beautiful in -Jupiter and Venus, to the most gross in the Satyr, resembling a goat, -and in the terrific Pan. - -As the public have now an opportunity of consulting many of the objects -above referred to, in our great national gallery in the British Museum, -those of our readers who can obtain this advantage will do well to pay -a visit to that celebrated depository for the relics of antiquity, -where they will have it in their power to convince themselves of the -truth of the foregoing remarks. - -The progeny of Ham, the son of Noah, we find, peopled Egypt, Medea, -Chaldea, Phœnicia, and several other adjoining countries. It will be -remembered that two of the three sons of Noah possessed these countries -which the folly of idolatry overflowed; whilst it was in the line of -Shem alone, that the true faith was continued. The Mosaiac narrative -is chiefly descriptive of events which occurred in the posterity of -that patriarch, because from it the righteous line of the faithful in -Abraham, David, Solomon, and ultimately Christ, proceeded. Thus more -than two-thirds of the inhabitants of the world were gross idolators: -we often find the Omniscience of the Highest forewarning the sacred -line to avoid its fascinations. Nay, when, upon more occasions than -one, the descendants of the faithful forgot themselves, and those -admonitions of the Creator were neglected, we find the sacred race -flying before the face of puny foes, which defeat was declared to be -from their having prostrated themselves before strange gods: they were -bowed thus low in battle. Not to mention their disobedience immediately -beneath Mount Sinai, which protracted their journey through the -wilderness to forty years, which, perhaps, under other circumstances, -would not have required as many days. All those troubles, their -subsequent captivities, and national afflictions, were the produce of -disobedience. This is one of those means which retributive justice -resorts to punish wilful sin; so, however, it was with the seed of -Abraham. And so it is presumed to be with the present race of men; -either immediate or remote punishment vindicates the Omnipotence of -Heaven. From the frequent maledictions we discover in the sacred volume -against idol worship, we cannot doubt that it was peculiarly offensive -to the Deity. that the great majority of the world were addicted to -this proscribed practice is equally certain. And as the Spirit of -Truth had declared in the decalogue, that “It would not be worshipped -under any form in the heavens above, in the earth below, or in the -waters under the earth;” so was image-worship, and consequently the -construction of such things, forbidden. - -We discover that as this mania infected all nations, tongues, and -people, so did not the Israelites escape it; but immediately after -their departure from Egypt we find an exact similitude of the sacred -calf of the Egyptians, cast in melted gold, which they constructed -below Mount Sinai. In Egypt, metallic statues, as well as those of -stone, must have existed anterior to that event, as they actually -had done to our own knowledge, and long before idolatry had made its -appearance in Egypt, it had existed in Chaldea, as already shown. - -As that worship had first its being in Chaldea, so had the art of -statuary its origin in that country; it was improved, perhaps, in -Egypt, and perfected in Greece, from the time of Pericles to that of -Alexander, commonly called the Great. - - - - -DRAWING. - - -THE HUMAN FIGURE. - -From what has been said in the previous article, it would appear -that drawing of the human figure was nearly coeval with the art of -statuary, or perhaps prior to it in Greece. As there is ample room -to suppose the rude aboriginal inhabitants of Greece borrowed their -art, as they did their religious and civil policy, from the Egyptians, -and in fact from every nation where they discovered anything worthy -their attention, so must we suppose they had also this art, in its -infancy it is true, from the same people. Upon reflecting for a single -moment, we are fully satisfied that the origin of the art now under -contemplation came from Egypt. An ancient philosopher expressed himself -with great truth, when he said, “Necessity was man’s first instructor.” -We accordingly perceive the necessity of the earliest inhabitants -of Egypt to exercise the art of drawing, they having determined to -record their transactions by hieroglyphical representation. We have -not the slightest doubt but we have now in the British Museum some of -the earliest specimens of Egyptian hieroglyphical delineation, in the -_sarcophagi_; from its inscription, it has been discovered that that -identical monument cannot be less than three thousand five hundred and -ninety-eight years old! - -Previous to this, we can have no doubt that the art of drawing must -have existed. - -Like its sister art, sculpture, it received every improvement of which -it was susceptible, from the mature conceptions and the delicate hand -of Grecian artisans; words are, perhaps, inadequate to convey this art -to a second person. Years of incessant labour, with an attention to -principles established and found to correspond correctly with nature, -are the only means to obtain a just knowledge of its principles, and to -judge tastefully of its correct execution. - -However, in addition to the rules laid down in the preceding article, -we add the following, which have been approved by Sir Joshua Reynolds, -by no means a contemptible judge of the art:-- - -1. That from the crown of the head to the forehead is the third part of -a face. - -2. The face begins at the root of the lowest hairs that grow on the -forehead, and ends at the bottom of the chin. - -3. The face is divided into three proportionate parts; the first -contains the forehead or brow; the second, the nose; and the third, the -mouth and chin. - -4. From the chin to the pit between the collar-bones, is two lengths of -a nose. - -5. From the pit between the collar-bones to the bottom of the breast, -one face. - -6. From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one face. - -7. From the navel to the genitories, one face. - -8. From the genitories to the upper part of the knee, two faces. - -9. The knee contains half a face. - -10. From the lower part of the knee to the ancle, two faces. - -11. From the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a face. - -12. A man with his arms extended, is from his longest finger on each -hand, as broad as he is long. - -13. From one side of the breast to the other, two faces. - -14. The bone of the arm called _humerus_, i.e., from the shoulder to -the elbow joint, is the length of two faces. - -15. From the end of the elbow to the joint of the little finger, the -bone called _cubitus_, with a part of the hand, is also two faces. - -16. From the box of the shoulder-blade, to the pit between the -collar-bones, one face. - -17. To be satisfied in measures of breadth. From the extremity of one -finger to the other, so that his breadth should be equal to the length, -it should be observed, that the bones of the elbows with the _humerus_, -and the _humerus_ with the shoulder-blade, or _scapula_, bear the -proportions of a face when the arms are extended. - -18. The sole of the foot is one-sixth part of the length of the entire -figure. - -19. The hand is the length of a face. - -20. The thumb contains a nose in length. - -21. The inside of the arm, from the place where the muscle disappears, -which is connected with the breast (called the pectoral muscle,) to the -middle of the arm, four noses long. - -22. From the middle of the arm, at the top, to the beginning of the -head, five noses. - -23. The longest toe is one nose. - -24. The outermost parts of the paps, and the pit between the -collar-bones of a female, form an equilateral triangle. - -The knowledge of the preceding proportions, are as mere rudiments -essential to the delineation of the human figure; but they relate to -a body in a quiescent state only. The more difficult task remains -to become thoroughly acquainted with its actions. To obtain this, a -rudimental and even an intimate acquaintance with the skeleton, and -assiduous and incessant practice are necessary. - -However, the lectures delivered to the Royal Academy have furnished us -with the probable extent to which the motions of the human frame may be -carried. - -First, premising that the motions of the head and trunk of the body are -limited by the several joints of the spine. - -2. The motion of the body upon the lower limbs takes place at the -hip-joints, at the knees, and at the ancles. - -3. Those limbs, called great limbs (the whole frame being technically -divided, and denominated the upper and lower extremities), have -rotatory motions at their junctions with the trunk, by means of a ball -and socket joints, at the shoulders and the hips. The analogy of parts -between the upper and lower extremities is not carried through the -structure of those limbs in the body. - -4. The fulcrum of the upper limb is itself moveable upon the trunk, as -appears from the extensive motions of the scapula, which so generally -accompany the rotation of the shoulder, and supply the limb with a -great variety of motion, much more than the lower limb possesses. - -5. The junction of the thigh with the mass without motion, called the -_pelvis_, limits its rotation to the ball and socket-joint without -farther extension. - -6. The rotation of the head and neck takes place at the joint between -the first and second vertebræ. - -7. When the nose is parallel with the _sternum_, the face may be turned -towards either shoulder, through an angle of 60 deg. on each side; the -whole range of its motion being 120 degrees. - -8. The lateral bending of the neck is equally divided between the -seven vertebræ; but the bowing of the head, and violently tossing it -backward, are chiefly effected at the joint of the skull, and the first -bone of the vertebral column called the atlas. - -9. Although the preceding motions are consistent with an erect stature -of the neck, yet the lateral motions demand a curvature of its whole -mass. - -10. The movements of the trunk are regulated by rotary and lateral -motions, nearly equally divided among the several joints of the -vertebræ of the back and loins. - -11. The joints or the dorsal or back vertebræ are, notwithstanding, -more close and compact than those of the loins; allowing of a wider -range for bending and turning in the loins than the back. - -12. The sternum and ribs move upward, to assist the chest in the -expansion required for respiration; drawing the clavicles and the -shoulders upwards in full inspiration, and tend to a contrary motion on -expiration. Such movements also, characterise strong action and certain -passion, and very apparent in a naked figure. - -13. In stooping to touch the ground, the thigh-bone forms an angle of -somewhere about 55 degrees with the average direction of the vertebræ. - -14. The leg bends upon the thigh at an angle of about 75 degrees, and -the line of the _tibia_ forms, with the sole of the foot, when that is -elevated, an angle of 65 degrees. - -15. The whole of this limb is susceptible of motion at the hip-joint -forwards to a right angle with its perpendicular position; and -backwards to an angle of 20 degrees. The leg will then continue to move -by itself to its own angle of 75 degrees with the thigh. Its extreme -motion does not exceed 45 degrees. - -16. When the shoulders are quiescent, the clavicles usually meet in an -angle of 110 degrees at the sternum. - -17. The utmost elevation of the upper joint of the arm generally forms -an angle of 155 degrees with the vertebræ, and about 125 degrees with -the line of its clavicle. The flexion of the fore-arm upon its upper -part is confined to an angle of nearly 40 degrees. - -18. The whole arm is capable of moving forward or outward through -nearly 80 degrees, and backward to nearly the same angle with its -perpendicular station. - -19. The actions of pronation and supination in the hand, range through -all intermediate degrees from a horizontal or perpendicular direction -to 270 degrees; but 90 degrees of its rotary motion in pronation comes -from the shoulder joint. - -20. The palm of the hand admits of flexion and extension to 65 degrees -in each direction; its lateral motions are 35 outward, and 30 inward. -The flexion of the fingers at each phalanx is a right angle. - -But it must be observed that in drawing the joints, very considerable -difference is found in their length, from inequality of action. The -elbow joint, when bent inward, lengthens the arm nearly one eighth; the -same general law operates on the knees, fingers, &c. When a man is at -rest, and standing on both feet, a line drawn perpendicularly between -the clavicles will fall central between his feet. Should he stand on -one foot, it falls upon the heel of that foot which supports his weight. - -If he raises one arm, it will throw as much of his body on the other -side as nature requires to support the equilibrium. One of his legs -thrown back brings the breast forward, to preserve the gravity of the -figure: the same will be observed in all other motions of the parts to -keep the central gravitation in its proper place. - -The equipoise of a figure is of two sorts: simple, when its action -relates to itself; and compound, when it refers to a second object. - -The equilibrium of nature is constantly preserved; for in walking, -leaping, running, &c., similar precautions are taken. By the -flexibility of our bodies in striking, according to the proportionate -force meant to be employed, the body is first drawn back, then the limb -propelled forward, bringing with it the weight of the body. - -In striking, lifting, throwing, &c., a greater proportion of force is -employed than may be necessary to effect the intended purpose. This is -mentioned because, in representation, the force employed in an action -should be marked in the muscle producing that action; if it be marked -rather stronger than may be necessary, the cause is obvious, for Nature -so employs her powers. - -In studying this art, students should have selected for them the best -examples to copy from at first; then they should draw from the figure -as soon as possible, and if it be possible from the best specimens -of the antique. Their first drawings are recommended to be made with -chalk, and in large proportion; attention to these will communicate -ease and freedom to their future performances. - -It will be likewise found necessary for them to draw upon geometrical -principles; this communicates a truth, which greatly adds to their -certainty and confidence, and ultimately to their ease. - -This is mentioned, because it will be found that there is no portion -of the human frame, quiescent, or in an active state, but what is -susceptible of geometrical definition. - -Experience and exercise communicate truths which produce certainty, -whence come ease and grace. - - - - -ARCHITECTURE. - - -This is a science most beneficial to humanity. It is very evident that -it must have an extremely ancient origin. The origin of this art is -presumed to have been imitated by man, from those natural caves and -recesses, which are discovered in various parts of the earth. For in -those, it is reported, the first men took shelter from the inclemency -of elemental strife, and to avoid the piercing contingencies of -ultimate and precarious uncertainty. The oldest buildings in the world -are accordingly said to be beneath the surface of the earth; among -which are reckoned the famous temple of Elephanta, in the Delta of the -Ganges; the Catacombs, in Egypt; and upon the surface of the earth, the -tower of Belus, at Babylon; the Egyptian Mausoleum, and the Druidical -Temples in Gaul and Britain. - -Architecture may well be denominated one of those arts which -accommodate, delight, and give consequence to the human species; -while at the same time it is calculated to flatter pride, and gratify -vanity. If viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to possess -a very considerable portion, not only of the comforts, but the -conveniences, the positive utilities, and many of the luxuries of life. -The advantages derived from _houses_ only are very great, being the -first step towards civilization, having great influence both on the -body and mind of man. Secluded from each other in woods, caves, and -wretched huts, the inhabitants of such recesses are generally found to -be men, indolent, dull, inactive, and abject; their faculties benumbed, -their views limited to the gratification of their individual and -most pressing wants. But when societies are formed, and commodious -dwellings provided, where well sheltered, they may breathe a temperate -air, amid summer’s scorching heat, and winter’s biting cold; sleep, -when Nature requires, in ease and security; study unmolested; converse -and taste the sweets of social enjoyments;--they are spirited, active, -ingenious, and enterprising, vigorous in body, and active in mind. -If benefits like these previously enumerated result from any art, -then will that of the architect claim a decided pre-eminence. When we -reflect on the almost infinity of useful purposes to which this art is -conducive;--that it erects us temples for the worship of our Creator, -the benevolent dispenser of all good things, that it provides us with -habitations, where ease and simplicity are agreeably combined;--that -it is conducive to our safety, comfort, and convenience, in uniting -different districts of the country by the facility of bridges, roads, -&c., is contributive to the gratification of our natural wants, and to -our safety. - -As inhabitants of a great commercial country, the benefits we derive -from _naval_ architecture are unspeakably great; when we reflect that -it operates as a medium of communication between us, an insulated -people, and the whole earth, in its remotest colonies; that it serves -to convey between our people and the most distant nations the native -produce of the respective countries, with the effects of mutual -industry; that it clothes, feeds, and furnishes employment to thousands -of our fellow-countrymen; and, in a national point of view, our wooden -bulwarks have been the wonder of the world, and continues to afford -us protection from our enemies, should all other hopes fail. What can -surpass its utility in the latter point of view? what can exceed the -assistance derived from it? By the criterions formerly mentioned let -us determine. We shall find, that of all the arts the world has ever -boasted, there are but few, if any, that can claim a superiority. - -There are no other designs, whether necessary or superfluous, so -certainly productive of their desired object, so beneficial in -consequences, or so permanent in their effects, as is the art of the -architect. Most other inventions which afford pleasure and satisfaction -soon decay; their fashion fluctuates--their value is lost; but the -productions of architecture command general attention, and are lasting -monuments, beyond the reach of ephemeral modes: they proclaim to -distant ages the consequence, genius, virtues, achievements, and -munificence of those they commemorate to the latest posterity. The -most obvious and immediate advantages of building are, the employment -of numerous ingenious artificers, industrious workmen, and labourers -of all kinds; converting materials of small value into the most noble -productions, beautifying countries, multiplying the comforts and -conveniences of life. - -But not the least desirable effects of the architect’s art, perhaps, -remain yet to be noticed, in affording to the numerous train of -arts and manufactures, concerned to furnish and adorn the works of -architecture, which employ thousands, constituting many valuable -branches of commerce. Also from that certain concourse of strangers to -every country celebrated for stately structures, who extend your fame -into other countries, where otherwise, it would never have been heard -of; adopt your fashions, give reputation, and create a demand for your -productions in foreign parts; these are circumstances which certainly -should not be too lightly valued, and these circumstances result from -architecture. - -At this day, the ruins of ancient Rome support the splendour of the -modern city, by inviting travellers, who flock, from all nations, -to witness those majestic remains of former grandeur. The same may -be said of many other countries famous for architectural remains. -Thus architecture, by supplying men with commodious habitations, -procures that health of body and energy of mind, which facilitates the -invention of arts: when by the exertion of their skill and industry, -productions multiply beyond domestic demand, she furnishes the means of -transporting them to foreign markets: whenever by commerce they acquire -wealth, she points the way to employ their riches rationally, nobly, -and benevolently, in methods honourable and useful to themselves, and -beneficial to posterity, which add splendour to the state, and yield -benefit to their descendants. She further teaches them to defend her -possessions, to secure their liberties and lives from attempts of -lawless violence or unrestrained ambition. So variously conducive to -human happiness is this art, to the wealth and safety of nations,--so, -naturally, does it demand that protection and encouragement which has -ever been yielded it in all well governed states. - -The perfection of virtuous other arts we have beheld to be a -consequence of this; for when building is encouraged, painting, -sculpture, and every species of decorative art will flourish of -course. It should not, however, be imagined that the heaping of stone -upon stone can be of consequence, or reflect honour on individuals -or nations. The practice of architecture infers actual art to be an -essential preliminary; without this, and having some laudable end in -view, it is apt to raise disgust. This art is generally classed under -three distinct heads, viz., Civil, Military, and Naval Architecture. - -In the first attempts of architecture it was extremely rude, as -might naturally be expected. It has, however, from time to time, as -improvements have advanced, been raised to relative importance, as the -education of the people progressed; and it certainly gives the best -record of the mental progress of every people which can be collected. -It has always been found to flourish best in free states, and when -the rulers have possessed genius, virtue, and good taste. The most -eminent era of Grecian architecture was when the Athenian republic was -under the direction of Pericles; at this period, also, existed the -first of statuaries, Praxiteles. Where that eminent artist and their -admirable architects were employed, in the words of Pausanius, “they -rendered the whole of Acropolis as an entire ornament.” There are -various characteristic distinctions to be made in the several orders of -architecture which distinguish the Grecian people. The Doric is eminent -for primeval simplicity; the Tuscan embraces more ornament; the Ionic -unites simplicity and elegance; but the sum of all excellence appears -to be united in the Corinthian. The Composite is also a most elegant -order, but appears to have added but little to the Corinthian elegance -and majesty. Various nations have a great diversity of architecture; -as the Egyptian, Persian (distinguished by human figures supporting -entablatures), Hindostanee, Arabasque or Marisquo, which are very -peculiar, generally having the walls to project most at the top, which -is indicative of the natural jealousy of all oriental people; they all -regarding their _women_ as their chief treasure, it appears meant for -their especial protection. - -A greater simplicity does not appear anywhere than in the architecture -of the Druids, consisting of most extensive circles of immense stones, -chiefly raised perpendicularly, with occasionally a larger stone placed -upon the apex of two others horizontally.--There are in Great Britain -numerous remains of these constructions: the chief are Stonehenge, near -Salisbury; at Avebury, also in Wiltshire; Pomonca, in the Orkneys; -Rollright, in Oxfordshire. But the most eminent spot for Druid temples -was Mona, in Anglesea, in Wales. The reason for such apparently -unmeaning erections will be found in their peculiar belief, in the -religion they professed. - -The Saxon is a very heavy order of architecture. It was used in this -kingdom much in the erection of religious edifices, and is frequently -found mixed with the Norman in such structures. The grand and most -obvious distinction is a semi-circular arch, with massy columns, -variously ornamented, and most frequently the columns which support the -same arch are diversely sculptured. The chief sculptures of this kind -in Britain, are Gloucester Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts; Sedbury -Church, Herefordshire; several churches in Rutland, Lincoln, Somerset, -Devon, and other counties. - -There appears to us to be no order of architecture better calculated -for the purpose to which it is generally adopted, than the chaste and -pure Norman style, barbarously denominated Gothic. It affords a great -variety of light, airy beauty, and tasteful grandeur. - -In this country, the Norman order succeeded the Saxon, and we lost -nothing by the exchange; for even now, that we have the entire benefit -of a choice of the purest Grecian (since its revival by Inigo Jones), -it is a matter of taste to be certain; but in our estimation, the -chaste Norman is to be preferred to the purest Grecian, for the -purposes for which it is intended; and if the means answer the ultimate -end, we submit this to be the proper criterion for preference. We find -it usually employed in religious edifices; it is pure, light, airy, -and cheerful: and we are of opinion that the service of gratitude -and thanks to the Creator demands a disposition of mind which these -feelings are best calculated to inspire. - -Domestic architecture is various, and chiefly regulated by the various -purposes for which it is designed. Its characteristic is utility. - - - - -CHAIN-BRIDGES. - -(See Frontispiece.) - - -It appears, from a description of bridges of suspension, communicated -by R. Stephenson, civil engineer, some time ago, to the “Philosophical -Journal,” that the first chain-bridge constructed in this country is -believed to be one over the Tees, forming a communication between the -counties of Durham and York. It is supposed, on good authority, to -have been erected about 1741, and is described in the “Antiquities -of Durham” as “a bridge suspended on iron chains, stretched from -rock to rock, over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep, for the passage -of travellers, particularly miners. This bridge is seventy feet in -length, and little more than two feet broad, with a hand-rail on one -side, and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all -the tremulous motion of the chain, and sees himself suspended over -a roaring gulf, on an agitated and restless gangway, to which few -strangers dare trust themselves.” In 1816-17, two or three bridges of -iron were constructed; the first, by Mr. Lees, an extensive woollen -manufacturer, at Galashiels, in Scotland. This experiment, although -made with slender wire, and necessarily imperfect in its construction, -deserves to be noticed, as affording a practical example of the -tenacity of iron so applied.--These wire bridges were suspended not -upon the catemarian principle so successfully adopted in the larger -works subsequently undertaken, but by means of diagonal braces, -radiating from their points of suspension on either side towards the -centre of the roadway. The unfortunate fabric next mentioned was -constructed on this defective principle. Among the earliest practical -exhibitions of this novel architecture in the United Kingdom, may be -mentioned the uncommonly elegant and light chain-bridge which was -thrown over the Tweed at Dryburgh, in 1817, by the Earl of Buchan, for -the accommodation of foot passengers. Its length, between the points -of suspension, was two hundred and sixty-one feet, being considered -the greatest span of any bridge in the kingdom. This useful structure, -the theme of such just applause, and which harmonised so finely with -the far-famed scenery of Dryburgh Abbey, was entirely destroyed by a -tremendous gale of wind, at the beginning of the year following its -erection.--This bridge was subsequently restored upon a more secure -system. - - - - -CLOCKS. - - -The invention of clocks, such as are now in use, is ascribed to -Pacificus, Archdeacon of Verona, who died in 846; but they were not -known in England before the year 1368. They were ultimately improved by -the application of pendulums, in 1657, by Huygens, a Dutch astronomer -and mathematician. Although Dr. Beckmann differs in some slight degree -from the previous relation concerning clocks, yet he says, “It is -sufficiently apparent that clocks, moved by wheels and weights, began -certainly to be used in the monasteries of Europe, about the eleventh -century.” He does not think, however, that Europe has a claim to the -honour of the invention, but that it is rather to be ascribed to the -Saracens; this conjecture, he confesses, is chiefly supported by what -Trithemius tells us, of one which was sent by the Sultan of Egypt to -Frederick II., in 1232. He thinks that the writers of that century -speak of clocks as though they had been then well known; he adds, that -in the fourteenth century, mention is made of the machine of Richard de -Wallingford, which has hitherto been considered as the oldest clock -known. The fabricator of this machine called it _Albion_. - -It appears that clocks had been hitherto shut up in monasteries and -other religious houses, and that it was not till after this time -they were employed for more general purposes, as the convenience of -cities, &c. The first instance on record, that has been yet noticed, -occurs where Herbert, Prince of Carrara, caused the first clock that -was ever publicly exposed, to be erected at Padua. It was erected by -John Dondi, whose family afterwards, in consequence, had the pronomen -of Horologia assigned them, in remembrance of this circumstance: it -is also mentioned on the tombstone of the artist. The family of Dondi -now followed the profession of manufacturing clocks; for his son, John -Dondi, constructed one upon improved principles. - -The first clock at Bologna was put up in the year 1356. Some time after -the year 1364, Charles V., surnamed the Wise, King of France, caused a -clock to be placed in the tower of his palace, by Henry de Wyck, whom -he had invited from Germany for the purpose, because there was then at -Paris no artist of that kind, and to whom he assigned a salary of six -sols per diem, with free lodgings in the Tower. Towards the end of that -century, probably about the year 1370, Strasburg had a clock. About -the same period, Courtray was celebrated for its clock, which the Duke -of Burgundy carried away, A. D. 1382. A public clock was erected in -the Altburg gate at Spire, in 1395, the works of which cost fifty-one -florins. - -The greater part of the principal cities of Europe, however, at this -period, had clocks without striking. Clocks could not be procured but -at a very great expense: of this, an instance occurred in the city of -Auxerre, in the year 1483, when the magistrates being desirous of a -clock, but discovering that it would cost more money than they thought -themselves justified in expending on their own authority, applied to -the Emperor Charles VIII. for leave to employ a portion of the public -funds for that purpose. - -In 1462, a public clock was put up in the church of the Virgin Mary at -Nuremberg. - -At Venice a public clock was put in the year 1497. In the same century -an excellent clock was put up for Cosmo de Medici, by Lorenzo, a -Florentine. - -Having thus mentioned their origin in various places, until they came -to ornament the religious houses, the palaces of kings, and the chief -European cities, it now remains for us to take some notice of their -existence in our own country for public use. From public documents -still extant, it appears that so great was their expense considered in -those early times of their introduction, that it was only the powerful -and the rich who could procure them. We discover that the first clock -for public and lay purposes in England was one erected on the north -side of Old Palace Yard, Westminster, on which was this inscription, -_Discite justitiam moniti_; which inscription is said to have been -preserved many years after the clock-house had been decayed. - -It is asserted that this clock was placed in that situation, for the -purpose of being heard by the members of the courts of law; and the -occasion which produced its existence is thus recorded. It was the -produce of a fine levied upon the lord chief justice of the court of -King’s Bench, in the reign of Edward I. A. D. 1288, of whom it appears -by a book called the “Year-Book,” that this magistrate had been fined -800 marks for making an alteration in a record, wherein a defendant had -been fined 13_s._ 4_d._, and he, the chief justice, made it appear to -be 6_s._ 8_d._ instead of that, the larger sum. - -Notoriety, however, was attached to this transaction from the following -circumstances. First, it appears to have been one of three questions -put by Richard III. to his judges, with whom he was closeted in the -Inner Star Chamber, to take their opinions on three points of law. The -second question was, “Whether a justice of the peace, who had enrolled -an indictment which had been negatived by the grand jury, among the -true bills, might be punished for the abuse of his office?” On this -question a diversity of opinion arose among the judges, some of whom -supposed a magistrate could not be prosecuted for what he might have -done; whilst others contended that he might, and cited the case of -the lord chief justice above mentioned: so far was the answer of the -judges strictly proper and historically true. The third circumstance -to which we have alluded, and which is most material to our present -question, is the application of the fine. It appears that it was -expended in the construction of a clock, which was erected on the north -side of Old Palace Yard; so that the judges, barristers, and students -could not enter or leave the court, without having an opportunity of -being reminded of the punishment of the chief justice, for presuming -to violate the impartial duty of his high office; nor could they even -hear it strike, whilst upon the throne of justice, without having his -case repeated in their ears; thereby acting as a constant remembrancer, -intimating they were to administer justice more than mercy. - -Sir Edward Coke observes that 800 marks were actually entered upon the -roll, so that it is extremely probable he had himself seen the record. - -This clock was considered so important during the reign of Henry VI., -that we find that the king gave the charge of keeping it, with its -appurtenances, to William Warley, dean of St. Stephen’s, with the pay -of sixpence per diem, to be received at the exchequer. - -The clock of St. Mary’s, Oxford, was also furnished in 1523, out of -fines imposed upon the students of that university. - -With respect to the clock procured from the fine of the lord chief -justice, we must also observe that its motto appears to relate to that -circumstance; but though it might be said that it might relate to a -dial as well as to a clock--a material observation to our present -inquiry--yet, with respect to its present absence, it should be -noticed, that it is probable that clock was a very indifferent one, -but from its antiquity and the tradition attending it, was permitted -to remain till the time of Elizabeth; then being quite decayed, a dial -might have been substituted upon the same clock-house, bearing the very -singular motto which, however originally applied, clearly alludes to -such a circumstance as reported of the lord chief justice. This dial is -placed on the very site where the clock-house stood. - -But it is said by Derham, in his “Artificial Clockmaker,” that the -oldest clock in this kingdom is in Hampton Court Palace, marked with -the letters N. O., presumed to have been the initials of the maker’s -name, of the date of 1540; but that author is evidently mistaken, in -alleging that to be the oldest, because the Oxford clock bears a date -seventeen years anterior to that period. With respect to the initials, -or whatever they may be, we do not consider them of the smallest -importance. - -From Shakspeare’s “Othello” it is proved that the ancient name of this -instrument was Horologe; which various passages in our poets and old -authors establish:-- - - “He’ll watch the horologe a double set, - If drink rock not his cradle.” - -Chaucer also says of a cock, - - “Full sickerer was his crowing in his loge, - As is a clock, or any abbey _orloge_;” - -which tends to show that, in his time, clocks had been confined to -religious houses. - -So Lydgate’s prologue to the story of Thebes:-- - - “I will myself be your orologere - To-morrow early.” - -With respect to our modern clocks, it would be presumption in us to -say one word, as there is not an individual but knows as much about -them, as we could tell him. We have fulfilled our intention in giving -this historical account, which we are persuaded will afford some -information. We will now proceed to - - - - -WATCHES, - - -Which are not of so great antiquity; as it is only about 1490, mention -is made of watches, which first occurs in the Italian poems of Gaspar -Visconti. Dominico Maria Manni says the inventor was Lorenzo a -Vulparia, a native of Florence. - -One might naturally be inclined to believe that the honour of original -invention is duly demanded by the whole Germanic people, from the claim -of the invention of watches being aspired to by the Nurembergians; -as Doppelenayer gravely alleges they were first invented by a person -residing in that city, in the sixteenth century, of the name of Peter -Hale; and, perhaps, he has no better foundation for his conjecture, -than that watches were at first of an oval shape, and were called -Nuremberg eggs. - -Shakspeare, in his “Twelfth Night,” speaking of a _watch_, has the -following expression, used by Malvolio: “I frown the while; and -perchance wind up my watch, or play with some rich jewel.” Also, the -Priest, in answer to Olivia, - - “Since when, my _watch_ hath told me, toward my grave - I have travelled but two hours.” - -The following observations appear to sanction our opinion of the -early existence of those machines in this country. Dr. Derham, in his -“Artificial Clockmaker,” published in 1714, mentions a watch of Henry -VIII., which at the period he wrote was in good order. Indeed, Dr. -Demainbray says that he had heard Sir Isaac Newton and Demoire both -speak of that watch. - -An anecdote is related of the Emperor Charles V., contemporary with -Henry VIII., which it appears has reference to the policy of Europe -at that day. It is said, the emperor, after dinner, used to sit with -several watches on the table, with his bottle in the centre. After the -prince’s retirement to the abbey of St. Just, he still continued to -amuse himself with keeping them in order. From his inability to effect -this correctly, it is reported he drew the rational reflection, _that -it was impossible to effect what he had attempted--the regulation of -the policy of Europe_. - -It also appears that many watches of that day struck the hours. The -“Memoirs of Literature” report that such watches having been stolen -from Charles V. and Louis XI. whilst they were in a crowd, the thieves -were detected from their striking. - -It also appears from the evidence of certain watches of ancient -construction formerly held by Sir Ashton Lever, and also by Mr. Ingham -Forster, that _catgut_ usually supplied the place of a chain in ancient -watches; also that they were of a smaller size than now made, and -generally of an oval form. - -Imperfections of this nature, and probably other causes, might have -rendered their truth uncertain, and this most probably precluded -their general use, until the latter end of the reign of Elizabeth. -The instances we have shown will prove they were generally known, and -perhaps used at the time of Shakspeare writing the “Twelfth Night.” And -in the first edition of Harrington’s “Orlando Furioso,” published in -1591, the frontispiece represents the author with what appears to be -a watch, although the engraving is extremely indistinct; moreover, the -inscription to which engraving, of _Il Tempo passo_, clearly indicates -the same thing. - -Charles I., in 1631, incorporated the clockmakers company, and by -charter, which prohibits clocks, watches, and alarums from being -imported; which circumstance proves, that the English at this period, -had no need of the aid of foreign ingenuity in this branch of mechanism. - -We are told that Guy Fawkes and Percy were detected in the third year -of James I., with a watch about them, which they had purchased, “to -try conclusions for the long and short burning of the touchwood,” (in -the words of the time) which was prepared to give fire to the train of -gunpowder. - -The most material improvement introduced in this branch of mechanical -knowledge took place in the addition of pendulums, by Huygens, as -applied to clocks; for which conception he was indebted to Galileo, -which that philosopher adopted for measuring time, he having taken -the idea from observing the vibrations of a lamp in a church. This -reign also boasts of the production of repeating-watches in England; -first fabricated under the direction of the celebrated Dr. Hook, and -manufactured by Tompion. - -An anecdote is related of the attention paid to watches by James II., -recorded by Derham, in the “Artificial Clockmaker:” One Barlow had -procured a patent, in conjunction with the lord chief justice Allebone, -for repeaters; but a person of the name of Quare making one at the same -time, upon principles he had entertained before the patent was granted -to Barlow, the king tried both in person, and gave the preference to -Quare’s, and caused it to be notified in the gazette. - -In the next reign, the reputation of British watchmakers had increased -so much, that an act was passed by parliament, enacting that -British-made watches should be marked with the maker’s name, in order -to preserve the reputation of this branch of British manufacture from -coming to discredit in foreign markets. - -Thus we have given a general outline of the history of this branch of -mechanics, for a period of nearly a thousand years, from the first -invention of clocks by Pacificus of Verona, in 846, to the beginning of -last century, since which period they have become an article of such -general use to require no comment from us. We have noticed the various -improvements in the order in which they occurred, among which the -most striking feature appears to be the addition of the pendulums, as -serving to regulate the motion of the machine; from its given length, -certain weight and uniform vibration, it must be conceived to have -been a happy thought in Galileo, for the admeasurement of time, and -its application to this branch of mechanics was no less fortunate in -Huygens. To discover the first invention of time, we will require to -look back for upwards of two thousand years, at which period we will -find - - - - -WATER-CLOCKS. - - -These are called Clepsydræ. Vitruvius, the Roman architect and -mechanist, attributes the invention of the water-clock to Ctesibus of -Alexandria, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, about -two hundred and forty-five years before the Christian era. The same -author says, the machine was first introduced at Rome, two hundred and -fifty seven years previous to the Christian era. There is reason to -believe it was first introduced at Rome into courts of justice, from -Greece, as it had been originally used in Greece for this purpose; the -Roman orators being guided in the time they occupied the court, by this -instrument, as we may learn from this expression of Cicero, “_Latrare -ad clepsydram_.” Cicero also informs us, that it was first introduced -into courts of justice, in the third consulate of Pompey. - -It has been discovered that the inventions of Egypt, Chaldea, and -other Oriental countries constantly travelled to Rome and the West. -Long since the respective periods previously mentioned, has the honour -of this invention been claimed by Burgundians, Bolognese, and other -Italians; sometimes by Frenchmen, but chiefly by Germans. - -Their claim for invention seems to be questionable in numerous -instances, whatever it may be for improvement; they certainly cannot, -consistently with what we have stated, be considered as the _first_ -inventors; although there is nothing to be alleged against these -respective people being the discoverers of designs which had a previous -existence unknown to them. - -With equal or much more propriety might the Arabians, in point of time -(could that be of consequence) be considered as inventors of this -machine; and they are well known to possess the least claim to original -invention of any people. They, however, have a merit, notwithstanding: -but it is of a negative kind; for those arts, sciences, &c. which were -(by chance) saved from the destruction of their bigoted ignorance, and -which, when the fortune of war had thrown into their hands those pure -designs of intellectual Greece, mere accident had wrested from their -zealous fury. These they transmitted to a more ingenious people as pure -as they had received them; but upon precisely as good grounds as the -before-named Europeans claimed this _original_ invention, might the -Arabians have assumed that honour. For we read that Haroun al Raschid, -Caliph of Bagdad, then the chief of the Saracen empire, sent as a -present to Charlemagne, a clock of curious workmanship, which was put -into motion by a clepsydra; which instrument is said, by Dr. Adams, -“to have been used by the ancients to measure time by water running out -of a vessel.” - -It consists of a cylinder divided into small cells, and suspended by -a thread fixed to its axis in a frame, on which the hour distances, -found by trial, are marked out. As the water flows from one cell into -another, it changes slowly the centre of gravity of the cylinder, and -puts it in motion. - -The form of this instrument is thus described by Dr. Beckmann:-- - -“The most common kinds of these water-clocks, however, correspond in -this, that the water issued drop by drop through a hole of the vessel, -and fell into another, in which a light body, that floated, marked the -height of the water as it rose, and by these means the time that had -elapsed.” - -The most improved form the same instrument has acquired, is thus -described, by the same author, from one in his own possession. - -“Amongst the newest improvements added to this machine may be reckoned -an alarum, which consists of a bell and small wheels, like that of a -clock that strikes the hours, screwed to the top of the frame in which -the cylinder is suspended. The axis of the cylinder, at the hour when -one is desirous of being awakened, pushes down a small crank, which, by -letting fall a weight, puts the alarum in motion. A dial plate with a -handle is also placed over the frame.” - -In respect to the invention of clepsydræ, we should think the original -inventor took his first idea from the use of an instrument common in -Egypt, which that people called a _Canob_, or Nilometer, being a large -stone vessel of the shape of a sarcophagus, into which water was daily -poured, by proper officers, during the increase of the Nile, to show -the people whether they had a prospect of plenty, or were to expect a -scarcity in the ensuing year. As the fall of the water, after it had -risen to a due height, was of equal importance to them; so the water -was suffered to run out proportionably to its decrease in the river, -being ascertained by just and equal marks which they generally well -understood. - -_Vitrum horae_ had also been invented to describe the progress of time. -These were conical hour-glasses, in which were placed a portion of -sand; the glasses were joined together at the apex of the cone, with -a small aperture of communication between the two.--From the glass, -in which the sand is deposited, it dropped, grain by grain, into the -sand below, standing upon its flat basis. These machines are called -hour-glasses, and well known. We have been unable to discover any -account of the origin of this instrument; but, from its simplicity, it -admits of no improvement. It is also believed this had its origin in a -convent. - - - - -SPINNING. - - -The necessity for human clothing must be so obvious, we should think, -at nearly the first existence of our race, that two opinions upon -that subject cannot exist. For, admitting the region where our first -parents were stationed was more genial to life than these, our northern -countries, yet the difference in temperature between the heat of -noon-day, and the chilly damps of night, must be obvious to every one -who has resided in, or has read of, tropical climates. Therefore, from -necessity, we contend, our first parents could not have dispensed with -the benefit of clothing. However, independent of the necessity of the -thing, the Jewish History informs us that the first man, Adam, and his -wife, in consequence of their unfortunate disobedience and positive -violation of the commands of their Divine Creator, knew of their own -nakedness; and, therefore, they were ashamed to answer to the sacred -summons. This they confessed, with a simplicity congenial to truth, -and in the same moment, frankly owned the cause; answering to the -awful interrogatory of “Who told thee that thou wast naked? Hast thou -eaten of the tree whereof I commanded thee that thou shouldest not -eat?”--“The woman, whom thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the -tree, and I did eat.” However, we are previously informed that, “the -eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and -they sewed fig-leaves together, and made themselves aprons.” - -It should be observed, that the leaf of the Banyan, or Indian fig, is -probably here meant; if it is, the luxurious leaf of this tree is about -three feet long, and proportionably wide; therefore, we may rationally -conclude, much art was not required; probably a thorn might supply the -place of a needle, and a blade of grass would do for a thread. - -Afterwards, we are told, in the same chapter,--“Unto Adam, also to his -wife, did the Lord Jehovah make coats of skins, and clothed them.” -The preceding is the earliest account of humanity; at the same time, -it also furnishes the most ancient relation of the original of human -clothing. From hieroglyphical inscriptions still extant, the most -ancient inhabitants of Egypt wore sometimes clothing made of feathers, -fastened together; sometimes of shells, also attached to each other; -but the most general ancient clothing consisted of the skins of various -animals. So is Hercules, and many of the heroes, clothed, in antique -statuary. Although the sacred history is silent on this head, we may, -perhaps, by inference, arrive at some clue or thread to guide us -through the labyrinth of uncertainty. - -Accordingly we find in the first passages, which will admit of -constructive inference, that thread, of some sort, must, of necessity, -have had existence:--“And Ada bare Jubal: he was the father of such as -dwell in _tents_, and of such as have cattle.”--Gen. iv., 20. Now, we -submit, the inference of not only spinning, but also of weaving, and -even sewing, must be conceded, before we can conceive the existence of -tents. The cloth whereof they were made at that period, it is probable, -was of the fleece of sheep; because of the early existence of woollen -cloth among the Greeks, we have no doubt, from the following and -numerous other passages in their poets; and also from the practice of -Tyrian artisans, who were, we know, generally and confessedly eminent -for their dying the imperial purple, and other scarce, valuable, -and beautiful colours; and no substance better receives, or so well -retains the most splendid of colours than does wool. But Homer speaks -expressively in point, where, in his “Iliad,” he expresses the truce -which took place between the belligerent armies of Greeks and Trojans. -After the defeat of Paris by Menelaus, and where the laughter-loving -goddess, Venus, is said to have rescued her favourite from the fate he -deserved to find; after she had conveyed the recreant hero from the -field to his apartment, she then, like a true friend to matrimonial -infidelity, goes in search of the Spartan queen, for the purpose of -bringing the lovers together. She discovered the beautiful adultress -on the walls of the city, where she had been describing to Priam, and -his ancient nobles, the Trojan councillors, the various persons of the -heroes of Greece. Upon this occasion, Venus, to use the language of the -poet (as translated by Pope), assumes a disguise. - - “To her, beset by Trojan beauties, came, - In borrowed form, the laughter-loving dame; - She seemed an ancient maid, well skill’d to cull - The snowy fleece, and wind the twisted wool.” - -The labours of Penelope, Helena herself, and innumerable passages in -the works of the poet, all tend to confirm the fact. - -That _linen_ had also an early existence is proved at a very anterior -period of the Jewish history. They had even fine linen previous to the -construction of the utensils used in sacred worship; as, in Exodus, an -ephod of linen is expressly mentioned; likewise in the xxvth chapter, -4th verse of that book, fine linen is expressly enumerated among those -presents that the people were expected to offer freely to the Lord -Jehovah. Whence we are justified in inferring they had most probably -learned in Egypt to carry its structure to great perfection. - -We have linen mentioned likewise, in Homer, upon the breach of the -truce between the Grecians and Trojans with their auxiliary forces. -On Menelaus having been wounded by an arrow from the bow of Pandarus, -where the poet sweetly sings-- - - “But thee, Atrides, in that dangerous hour, - The gods forgot not, nor thy guardian power, - Pallas assists, (and weakened in its force), - Diverts the weapons from its destined course; - So, from her babe, when slumber seals his eye, - The watchful mother wafts the envenom’d fly. - Just where his belt, with golden buckles join’d, - Where LINEN folds the double corslet lin’d. - She turn’d the shaft, which, hissing from above, - Passed the broad belt, and through the corslet drove; - The folds it pierc’d, the plaited LINEN tore - And raz’d the skin, and drew the purple gore.” - -From what appears in the subsequent, as well as the former, part of -this article, we submit, that the general manufacture of cloth, both -woollen and linen, has been established; and if this is made out, the -prior existence of the other subsidiary arts of spinning, weaving, &c. -cannot be denied. - -There are hieroglyphical symbols in the British Museum, which denote -the various operations of the manufacture of cloths; and upon a -monument upwards of three thousand six hundred years old. - -Numerous arts have been discovered by mere accident. We are told, the -very valuable operation of _feldt_making was discovered by a British -sovereign, whose feet being always cold in the winter, he had wool put -into his shoes; the moisture there contracted, the natural heat of the -body, with the action to which this wool was exposed, between the foot -and the shoe, caused the fleecy substance to consolidate; whence the -origin of that very necessary article, the _Hat_. - - - - -STOCKING MANUFACTURE. - - -The invention to which this article refers, affords a warm subject for -panegyric. That clothing for the feet be warm, medical writers have -in all ages recommended, and truly upon the most rational as well as -philosophic and experimental practice; the feet, lying the most remote -of any member from the heart, require, and particularly by people in -years, to be kept warm, in order for their present comfort, as well -as to promote the essential evacuation of superfluous humours, by -perspiration, without which no frame can be healthy. So strongly is -this precept impressed in our national moral habits, that it has formed -a general maxim for the preservation of health. Even Thomas Parr is -said to have observed, upon being asked to what cause he attributed the -protraction of his life, “To keep the head cool by temperance, and the -feet warm by exercise, to eat only when hunger required satisfaction, -and to drink only when thirsty.” We should suppose that this recipe -would be at least worth a waggon load of the puffed quack pills which -are palmed upon the public as made from a recipe left by that venerable -man. - -The art of knitting nets is one of great antiquity, as those nets used -by the Hebrews, as well as by the Greeks, are conceived to be similar -to those used in the present day. It was thought by Ovid, in his sixth -“Metamorphosis,” that the public were indebted to the spider for the -origin of this ingenious invention; which would indeed seem probable, -as it appears that the insect is prompted to be thus ingenious for the -gratification of its natural wants, the web serving as a net or gin for -the capture of flies and other small insects which supply it with food. -And if our memory serve us, we recollect that the poet also, speaking -of flies, observes that the web of the spider serves to secure the -weak flies only, whilst the strong break it and escape; alluding to -the influence of wealth and power to pierce through those laws which -were made for the protection of the weak against the encroachments and -violence offered by the strong. The author of Job, in the eighteenth -chapter and ninth verse, mentions gins. However, in knitting stockings, -the operation, as well as the effect, is essentially different from -knitting nets. In the latter the twine is knotted into distinct meshes, -which are secured by knots; in the former, the entire substance is -produced without knots. To this distinction is to be ascribed the -reason why knit stockings may become unravelled. In the other species -the knots not only prevent the material being taken apart, but they -also render the nets sufficiently strong to prevent even vigorous fish -from escaping, yet being so capacious as to permit little fish to -escape with the water. - -The art of knitting is not now, by any means, so general as it was -formerly. It then unquestionably rated among the number of female -accomplishments; and it is certainly rather wonderful, because when the -mechanism is once obtained, it requires no exertion of intellect to -practise it; it may be carried on while sitting, walking, and talking, -or in almost every situation to which ordinary life is called; and -when it is considered that its produce adds to the comfort of the -indigent, to the advantage of the poor,--and that to persons in easy -circumstances habitual industry increases their happiness, these -things considered, it is with wonder and regret we see it fallen into -disuse; particularly as it is an occupation suited to every age and -capacity, which the infant is strong enough to practise; and even in -the infirmity and weakness of age it is practicable. We certainly do -hope and trust these observations may invite the attention of those -meritorious individuals who have the direction and management of our -scholastic establishments, to revive the practice. - -Fishing nets are also in use among the most barbarous nations of this -period, as various navigators have satisfactorily proved; frequently -made of rude materials, it is true--some of the bark of trees, and -others of the beards of whales, besides a variety of other articles -which the more refined inhabitants of civilised countries would never -think of using for such a purpose. - -The art of making nets, or ornaments of fine yarn, is said not to be a -modern invention, it having been practised for hangings, and articles -of dress and ornament. In the middle ages, it appears, the clergy wore -netting of silk over their clerical robes. Professor Beckmann also -says, he suspects those transparent dresses were used by ladies more -than four hundred years ago, to cover those beauties they still wish to -be visible. - -The invention for making coverings for the legs, of this manufacture, -is, we understand, of much later invention. It is well known that the -Romans and the ancient nations had no particular covering for their -legs. Indeed the necessity was not so urgent with the inhabitants of -warm climates, as with those in our northern regions, who, we find, -generally covered not only the feet, but the legs, thighs, and loins, -with the same garment. Such, there is reason to conclude, were the -trews, or trowsers, anciently worn by the Scotch, but not knit hose, -which the following lines, from an old song, will help to prove: - - “In days whan gude King Robert rang, - His trews they cost but half a croun: - He said they were a groat o’er dear, - And ca’d the tailor thief and loun.” - -A celebrated author on antiquities says, “It is probable the art of -knitting stockings was first found out in the sixteenth century; but -the time of the invention is doubtful.” He continues, “Savary appears -to have been the first person who hazarded a conjecture that this art -is a Scottish invention, because when the French stocking-knitters -became so numerous as to form a guild, they made choice of St. Fiacre, -a native of Scotland, to be their patron; and besides this, there is a -tradition, that the first knit stockings were brought to France from -that country.” This St. Fiacre, it appears, was the son of Eugenius, -said to have been a Scottish king in the seventh century; and Fiacre -lived as a hermit at Meaux, in France; in the Roman calendar, his name -is opposite to the 30th of August. - -More probable, however, is the opinion in this country which -respectable writers support among them. We are informed by the author -of the “History of the World,” that Henry VIII., who reigned from 1509 -to 1547, and who was fond of show and magnificence, at first wore -woollen stockings; till by a singular occurrence he received a pair of -silk knit stockings from Spain. His son Edward VI., who succeeded him -on the throne, obtained by means of his merchant, Thomas Gresham, a -pair of long Spanish knit silk stockings; this present was at that time -highly prized. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, A. D. -1561, received by her silk-woman, named Montague, a pair of knit silk -stockings, and afterwards refused to wear any other kind. - -Stowe also relates, in his “General Chronicle of England,” that -the Earl of Pembroke was the first nobleman who wore worsted knit -stockings. In the year 1564, William Ridor, an apprentice of master -Thomas Burdet, having accidentally seen, in the shop of an Italian -merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings, procured from Mantua, -having borrowed them, made a pair exactly like them; these were the -first stockings that were knit in England, from woollen yarn. From this -it would appear, that knit stockings were first introduced into England -in the reign of Henry VIII., and that they were brought from Spain to -this country; and probability appears to favour the belief that they -were originally the produce of either that country or Italy. Should -this be the case, it has been conceived by Professor Beckmann, that -they came originally from Arabia to Spain. - -The investigation with respect to the feigned productions of Rowley, -published by the unfortunate Thomas Chatterton, arose from the mention -of knitting, in a passage of those poems; it being contended that knit -hose were unknown in the days of Rowley. The passage alluded to occurs -in the tragedy of “Ella:”-- - - “She sayde, as herr whytte hands whytte hosen were knyttinge, - Whatte pleasure ytt ys to be married!” - -A like ordeal took place with respect to Macpherson’s Ossian from a -similar reason, the mention of the sun’s reflection setting on a glass -window: now the existence of Ossian being contemporary with that of -Julius Cæsar, it was contended that at that period it was not customary -to glaze windows. - -The Johnsonian faction set about that business in a very unsystematic -manner: they should have procured some well qualified Erse scholar to -have gone into those wilds where Macpherson declared he collected his -materials from oral traditionary recitals, and have heard the poems -themselves from the mouths of the aged inhabitants. If the traces of -them could not have been found, they might then have ascribed the -superior honour to Macpherson of writing a work that Greece, or Rome, -in the splendour of literary glory, never surpassed, for many poetical -beauties. - -The people of Scotland, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, -had, in the proper sense of the word, breeches; and wore a kind of -stockings, their hose coming only to the knees; their stockings were -made of linen or woollen, and breeches of hemp. - -It is supposed that these particular articles of dress were also common -in England, at and after that time, for in the year 1510, Henry VIII. -appeared upon a public occasion, with his attendants, in dresses of the -following description:--“The king and some of the gentlemen had the -upper parts of their hosen, which was of blue and crimson, powdered -with castels and sheafes of arrows of fine ducket gold, and the nether -parts of scarlet, powdered with timbrels,” &c. There may be occasion -to suppose the upper parts of the hose were in separate pieces, as -they were of different colours. Hollinshed, also speaking of another -festival says, “The garments of six of them were of strange cuts, every -cut _knit_ with points of gold, and tassels of the same, their hosen -cut in and tied likewise.” - -In A. D. 1530, the word _knit_ appears to have been quite common in -England, for John Palsgrave, a French master to the Princess Mary, -daughter of Henry VIII., published a grammar, in which he stated, that -this word in French was applied to the making of nets as well as of -caps and of stockings. - -In the household book of a noble family in the reign of Henry VIII., -kept during the life of Sir Thomas L’Estrange, Knight of Hunstanton, -Norfolk, by his Lady, Ann, daughter of Lord Vaux, there are the -following entries, whence the price of those articles at that period -are ascertained:-- - -1533. 25 H. 8. 7 Sept. Peyd for 4 peyr of knytt hose--viii _s._ - -1538. 30 H. 8. 3 Oct. ---- 2 peyr of knytt hose--i _s._ - -It is observed that the first four pairs were for Sir Thomas, and the -latter for his children. - -Nevertheless, in the reign of Mary, i.e. 1558, many wore cloth hose, as -is evidenced in the following anecdote of Dr. Sands, who was afterwards -Archbishop of York. Being in the Tower, he had permission for a tailor -to come and take an order for a pair of hose. This serves to prove the -veracity of Stowe, that stockings were not an article manufactured in -England generally, we suppose, till six years afterwards. “Dr. Sands, -on his going to bed in Hurleston’s house, he had a paire of hose newlie -made, that were too long for him. For while he was in the Tower, a -tailor was admitted to make him a pair of hose. One came into him whose -name was Beniamin, dwelling in Birchin lane; he might not speak to him -or come to him to take measure of him, but onelie to look upon his -leg; he made the hose, and they were two inches too long. These hose -he praied the good wife of the house to send to some tailor to cut -his hose two inches shorter. The wife required the boy of the house -to carrie them to the next tailor, which was Beniamin that made them. -The boy required him to cut the hose. He said, ‘j am not the maister’s -tailor.’ Saith the boy, ‘Because ye are our next neighbour, and my -maister’s tailor dwelleth far off, j come to you.’ Beniamin took the -hose and looked upon them, he took his handle work in hand, and said, -‘These are not thy maister’s hose, but Doctor Sands, them j made in the -Tower.’” - -In a catalogue of the revenues of the Bishop of St. Asaph, it is -stated, “The bishop of that diocese was entitled, as a perquisite, -upon the death of any beneficed clergyman, to his best coat, jerkin, -doublet, and breeches. Item, his hose or nether stockings, shoes, and -garters.” - -About 1557, knitting must have become common, for Harrison, in his -description of the indigenous produce of this island, says, the bark -of the alder tree was used by the peasants’ wives for dying stockings -which they had knitted. - -Hollinshed also informs us, that about 1579, when Queen Elizabeth was -at Norwich, “upon the stage there stood at one end eight small women -children spinning worsted yarn, and at the other end as many knitting -worsted yarn into hose.” - -Silk stockings are said, in consequence of their high price, for a long -time to have been worn only upon grand occasions. Henry II. of France, -wore them for the first time, on the marriage of his sister with the -Duke of Savoy in the year 1559. - -In the reign of Henry III. who ascended the throne in 1575, the consort -of Geoffroy Camus de Pontcarre, who held a high office in the state, -would not wear silk stockings given to her by a nurse who lived at -court, because she considered them to be too gay. Anno 1569, when the -privy-councillor Barthold von Mandelsoh, who had been envoy to many -diets and courts, appeared on a week-day with silk stockings, which -he had brought from Italy, the Margrave John of Austria said to him, -“Barthold, I have silk stockings also; but I wear them only on Sundays -and holidays.” - -The knitting stockings with wires, called _weaving_, has been thought -to bear a resemblance to the wire work in screens of churches. However, -the invention of the stocking loom is thought more worthy of attention, -because it is alleged to have been the production of a single person, -and perfected at one trial; his name, and the exact period is -ascertained; and, because it is founded upon a similar incident to -that of the beauteous Corinthian maid, elsewhere mentioned, as the -introducer of painting in Greece; we bestow a particular attention -upon this incident which produced the stocking loom, trusting our fair -readers will favour us with their attention, when they are informed it -is ascribed to Love. - -It is a complicated piece of machinery, consisting of no fewer than two -thousand pieces; it could not have been discovered accidentally, but -must have been the result of deep combination and profound sagacity. - -Under the usurpation of Cromwell, the stocking-knitters of London -presented a petition, requesting permission to establish a guild. In -this petition they gave a circumstantial account of their profession, -of its rise, progress, and importance. No doubt can exist but that in -this document the petitioners rendered the best, and probably a true -account of the origin and progress of their trade, that of stocking -weaving being then scarcely fifty years old. The circumstances they -stated being then within memory, any misrepresentation would have -militated against them, and could have been easily contradicted. In -Deering’s account of Nottingham, this petition is found. In that town -the loom was first employed, where it has given wealth to many. - -From this account it appears the inventor’s name was William Lee, -a native of Woodborough, a village about seven miles distant from -Nottingham, in which the following passage occurs: “Which trade is -properly styled frame work-knitting, because it is direct and absolute -knit-work in the stitches thereof, nothing different therein from -the common way of knitting, (not much more anciently for public use -practised in this nation than this,) but only in the number of needles, -at an instant working in this, more than in the other by a hundred for -one, set in an engine or frame composed of above two thousand pieces -of smith’s, joiner’s and turner’s work, after so artificial and exact -a manner that, by the judgment of all beholders, it far excels in the -ingenuity, curiosity, and subtility of the invention and contexture, -all other frames or instruments of manufacture in use in any known part -of the world.” - -The inventor of this ingenious machine was heir to a considerable -freehold estate, and a graduate of St. John’s College, Cambridge. -Being, it is said, deeply enamoured of a lovely young country-girl, -who, during his frequent visits, paid more attention to her work, which -was knitting, than to her lover or his proposals, he endeavoured to -find out a machine which might facilitate and forward the operation -of knitting, and by these means afford more leisure to the object of -his affections to converse with him. Love, indeed, is confessed to be -fertile in inventions, and has been the efficient passion which has -perfected many inventions for which the gratitude of the world is due; -but a machine so complex, so wonderful in its effects, would seem to -require a longer time than was probably allowed, and a cooler judgment -than a lover’s to construct such mechanism. But even should the cause -appear problematical, there cannot exist a doubt but the real inventor -was Mr. William Lee, of Woodborough, in Nottinghamshire. - -Deering says expressly, that Lee made the first stocking-loom in the -year 1589; this account has also been adopted by various English -writers. In the Stocking-weaver’s Hall, London, is an old painting, in -which Lee is represented pointing out his loom to a female knitter, who -is standing near him; and below is seen an inscription with the date -1589, the period of the invention. “The ingenious William Lee, Master -of Arts of St. John’s College, Cambridge, devised this profitable art -for stockings, (but being despised, went to France,) yet of iron to -himself, but to us and others of gold; in memory of whom this is here -painted.” - -Lee set up an establishment at Calverton, a village five miles from -Nottingham, but met with no success. In this situation he showed -his work to Queen Elizabeth; from that princess he requested some -assistance, his work having embarrassed rather than assisted him; but -instead of meeting with that remuneration to which his genius and -invention so well entitled him, he was discouraged and discountenanced. -It need not, therefore, excite surprise that Lee accepted the -invitation of Henry IV. of France, who having heard of the invention, -promised him a magnificent reward if he would carry it to France. He -took nine journeymen, and several looms to Rouen, where he worked with -much approbation; but the king being shortly after assassinated, and -internal commotions taking place, the concern got into difficulties, -and Lee died in poverty at Paris. A knowledge of the machine was -brought back to England by some of the workmen who had emigrated with -Lee, and who established themselves in Nottinghamshire, which still -continues the principal seat of the manufacture. - -During the first century after the invention of the stocking-loom, few -improvements were made upon it, and two men were usually employed to -work one frame. But in the course of last century the machine was very -greatly improved. The late ingenious Mr. Jedediah Strut, of Belper, -Derbyshire, was the first individual who succeeded in adapting it to -the manufacture of _ribbed_ stockings. Estimating the population of -Great Britain, say sixteen millions, and the average annual expenditure -of each individual upon stockings and knit gloves at five shillings, -the total value of the manufacture will be £4,000,000, and we consider -this rather to be under than over the mark. - -The effect of this invention was very late in making its appearance in -Scotland. Till far on in the eighteenth century, the use of knitted -stockings was universal. Mittens, or woollen gloves for the hands, -and boot-hose, for drawing over the legs in riding, were also quite -common, and all were wrought by the hand. The manufacture was carried -on solely by women, the wives and daughters of farmers, generally, and -the produce was sold as the means of bringing in a small revenue. The -introduction of the stocking-loom to Hawick, in 1771, and the change -of manners which took place about this period, soon put an end to -this traffic; but still the greater part of the stockings worn by the -country people on ordinary occasions are knitted at home. The art is -also still in use in Shetland, where knitting forms the only amusement -to relieve the tedium of a long winter, and where the articles produced -are exceedingly fine in the texture: the Shetland hose bring the -highest price of any woollen stocking. - - - - -COACHES. - - -Coach is said to be derived from _caroche_, Italian; a term first used -in the eleventh century, and invented to designate a military machine, -so called. - -We intend the word coaches to stand for the generic name of all those -machines used for the carriage of persons, on business or pleasure, -(except, indeed, those for the conveyance of the dead,) from the state -carriage of the sovereign down to the humble gig. The original inventor -of this species of carriage is said to have been an Athenian monarch, -1489 years before Christ, who being afflicted with lameness in his -feet, first invented a coach for his convenience, and with a view to -conceal his debility. This may be regarded as the first original, of -the kind, of Grecian invention. - -The ancient historian, Diodorus Siculus, makes mention of a carriage -in which Sesostris was wont to be drawn; and also, he says when he -entered the city, or went out to the sacrifice, had four of his captive -kings yoked to his chariot; but it is conjectured this carriage, to -which that historian alludes, was a warrior’s car. There is, most -assuredly, ample room to believe that this was the first species of -carriage which was introduced; if so, those existed long before the -Athenian king above-named; because all the Homeric heroes, Greeks as -well as Trojans, and their auxiliaries, rode in these machines, called -chariots, or warriors’ cars, which are also known to have existed long -antecedent to that period. We remain assured that war chariots were -used in the first ages of the world, by all the great monarchs who -possessed dominion. - -That species of carriage before said to have been invented by the -Athenian monarch, we therefore presume, was a covered carriage, similar -to that species designated in the twelve tables of the Roman law, -and by them called _arcera_, which was said to be a carriage of the -last presumed description, and mentioned as being intended for the -conveyance of the infirm. To this species of carriage succeeded the -soft _lectica_. But we will leave this part of our subject, and proceed -towards our own times. - -After the subversion of the Roman power, the northern sovereigns, -who had become the barbarous and ignorant oppressors of our species, -introduced and established, among other political regulations, the -feudal system, as it was called, by which all property in land was held -by certain fiefs, whereby the king, or, as termed, lord of the soil, -let certain portions of the land to his nobles, military officers, -and other great persons, generally often on condition of certain -services required to be performed, called knights’ service, and other -military tenures; by which custom those tenants of the sovereign had to -provide certain men and horses to serve him in his wars.--These first -tenants, or vassals, afterwards underlet those lands to villains, so -named, in contradistinction to the present recognised term, from their -living in villages or hamlets, and other tenants, from whom, in their -turn, similar services and certain provisions were required.--Thus -the European world, which had become the prey of effeminacy and -luxury, had, by this single important circumstance, their character so -radically changed, that, like the mysterious power of the Cadmæan wand -of Harlequin, wrought so uncommon a change in the morals of European -society, that those who had formerly kept carriages, and wallowed in -all the soft luxurious delicacy of Asiatic effeminacy, suddenly, or, at -least, progressively, became a society of hardy equestrian veterans. -Insomuch, that masters and servants, husbands and wives, clergy and -laity, all rode upon horses, mules, or asses, which latter animals -were chiefly used by women, monks, and other religious professors. -The minister rode to court; the horse, without a conductor, returned -to the stable, till a servant, regulated by the horologe, took him -back to the court for his master. In this manner, we are assured, the -magistrates of the imperial cities rode to council, till as late as the -beginning of the sixteenth century; so that in the year 1502, steps -to assist in mounting were erected by the Roman gate at Frankfort. -The members of the council who, at the diet and other occasions, were -employed as ambassadors, were, on this account, called _rittmeister_ in -the language of the country; at present the expression riding-servant -is preserved in some of the imperial cities. The entry of great lords -in public into any place, or their departure from it, was never in -a carriage, but always on horseback; in all the pontifical records, -speaking of ceremonials, no mention is made either of a state coach, or -body coachman, but of state horses and state mules. In the following -regulation, it is found that the horse which his Holiness rode “was -necessary to be of an iron-grey colour; not mettlesome, but a quiet, -tractable nag. That a stool of three steps should be provided for the -assistance of his Holiness in mounting: that the emperor, or kings, if -present, were obliged to hold his stirrup, and lead the horse.” - -Bishops made their public entry, on induction, on horses or asses -richly caparisoned. At the coronation of the emperor, the electors and -principal officers of the empire were ordered to make their entry on -horseback.--It was formerly requisite, that those who received a fief, -or other investiture, should make their appearance on horseback. The -vassal was obliged to ride with two attendants to the court of his -lord, where, after he had dismounted his horse, he received his fief. - -Covered carriages were again introduced in the beginning of the -sixteenth century, for the accommodation of women of the very first -rank; the men, however, thought it disgraceful to ride in them. At -that period, when the electors, and other Germanic princes, did not -choose to be present at the meeting of the States, they excused -themselves to the emperor, that their health would not permit them to -ride on horseback, which was considered as an _established point_, -that it was unbecoming to them to ride like women. What, according to -their prevailing ideas, was not permitted to princes, was much less -allowed to their servants. In A. D. 1554, when Count Wolf, of Barby, -was summoned by John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, to go to Spires, to -attend the convention of the States assembled there, he _requested -leave_, on account of ill health, to make use of a close carriage with -four horses. When the counts and nobility were invited to attend the -solemnity of the elector’s half brother, John Ernest, the invitation -was accompanied with a memorandum, that such dresses of ceremony as -they might be desirous of taking with them, should be transported in a -small waggon;--which notice would have been unnecessary, had coaches -been generally used among those nobles. The use of covered carriages -was in fact, for a long time, prohibited even to women, the consorts -of princes. About the year 1545, the wife of a certain duke obtained -from him, with great difficulty, permission to use a covered carriage -in a journey to the baths, in which permission there was this express -stipulation, that none of her attendants were to be permitted this -indulgence: though much pomp was displayed upon the occasion by the -duchess. Such is the influence of example in our superiors, who can -mould dependents and inferiors to whatever shape they please. - -Notwithstanding all these ceremonious regulations, about the end of the -fifteenth century, kings and princes began to employ covered carriages -in journeys, and afterwards on public solemnities. When Richard II., -towards the close of the fourteenth century, was compelled to fly -from his rebellious subjects, himself with all his followers, were on -horseback; but his mother, who was weak and sick, rode in a carriage. -But this became afterwards unfashionable here, for that monarch’s -queen, Anna, daughter of the King of Bohemia, showed the English -ladies how gracefully she could ride on a side-saddle; and therefore -whirlicotes (the ancient name for coaches in England), and chariots, -were disused in England, except on coronations and other public -solemnities. - -In the year 1471, after the battle of Tewkesbury, which decided the -fate of Henry VI., and that of the house of Lancaster, when others flew -in different directions, the queen was found in her coach, almost dead -with sorrow. - -In 1474, the Emperor Frederic III. came to Frankfort in a close -carriage; and as he remained in it on account of the wetness of the -weather, the inhabitants had no occasion to support the canopy which -was to have been held over him, while he went to the council house and -returned. In the following year, the same emperor visited that city in -a very magnificent carriage. In 1487, on occasion of the celebration of -the feast of St. George at Windsor, the third year of Henry VII., the -queen and king went in a rich chaise; they were attended by twenty-one -ladies. In the description of the splendid tournament held by the -Elector of Brandenburg, at Ruppin, in 1509, Beckmann says, he reads of -a carriage all gilt, which belonged to the Electress; of twelve other -coaches, ornamented with crimson; and of another, belonging to the -Duchess of Mecklenburgh, which was hung with red satin. - -In the Northumberland household book, about this period, is an order of -the duke for the chapel stuff to be sent before in my lord’s chariot. - -At the coronation of the Emperor Maximilian, 1562, the Elector of -Cologne had twelve carriages. In 1594, when John Sigismund did homage -at Warsaw, for Prussia, he had in his train thirty-six coaches, with -six horses each. Count Kevenhiller, speaking of the marriage of -Ferdinand II. with a princess of Bavaria, says, “The bride rode with -her sisters in a splendid carriage studded with gold; her maids of -honour in carriages hung with black satin, and the rest of the ladies -in neat leather carriages.” - -Mary, Infanta of Spain, spouse of Ferdinand III., rode, in 1631, -in a glass carriage, in which no more than two persons could sit. -The wedding carriage of the first wife of the Emperor Leopold, who -was a Spanish princess, cost, with the harness, 38,000 florins. The -coaches used by that emperor are thus described:--“In the imperial -coaches no great magnificence was to be seen; they were covered over -with red cloth and black nails. The harness was black, and in the -whole work there was no gold. The panels were of glass, and on that -account they were called the imperial glass coaches. On festivals the -harness was ornamented with red silk fringes. The imperial coaches -were distinguished only by their having leather traces; but the ladies -in the imperial suite were obliged to be content to be conveyed in -carriages, the traces of which were made of ropes.” At the magnificent -court of Ernest Augustus, at Hanover, there were in 1681, fifty gilt -coaches, with six horses each. So early did Hanover begin to surpass -other cities in the number and splendour of its carriages. - -The first time that coaches were introduced into Sweden was towards -the end of the sixteenth century, when John of Finland, among other -articles of luxury, brought one with him on his return from England. - -Beckmann also informs us, that the great lords of Germany first -imagined that they could suppress the use of coaches by prohibitions. -There is still preserved an edict, in which the feudal nobility and -vassals are forbidden the use of coaches, under pain of incurring the -punishment of felony. - -Philip II., Duke of Pomeranian-Stettin, reminded his vassals also, -in 1608, that they ought not to make so much use of carriages as of -horses. All these orders and admonitions, however, were of no avail, -and coaches became common all over Germany. - -Persons of the first rank (ladies we presume), in France, frequently -sat behind their equerry, and the horse was often led by servants. -When Charles VI., wished to see, _incognito_, the entry of the queen, -he placed himself behind his master of the horse, with whom, however, -he was incommoded in the crowd. Private persons in France, physicians, -for instance, used no carriages in the fifteenth century. In Paris, at -all the palaces and public places, there were steps for mounting on -horseback. - -Carriages, notwithstanding, appear to have been used very early in -France, as appears by an ordinance issued in 1294, for suppressing -luxury, and in which the citizens were prohibited from using carriages. -About 1550, there were at Paris, for the first time, only three -coaches; one of which belonged to the queen; another to Diana of -Poictiers, the favourite mistress of two kings, Francis I. and Henry -II.; and the third to René de Laval, a corpulent nobleman, unable -to ride on horseback. Henry IV. was assassinated in a coach; but he -usually rode through the streets of Paris on horseback. For himself -and his queen he had only one coach, as appears by a letter which he -writes to a friend, which is still preserved: “I cannot _wait_ upon you -to-day, because my wife is using my carriage.” - -Roubo, in his costly treatise on joiners’ work, has furnished three -figures of carriages used in the time of Henry IV., from drawings -preserved in the King’s Library: from them it is seen those coaches -were not suspended by straps, that they had a canopy supported by -ornamental pillars, and that the whole body was surrounded by curtains -of stuff or leather, which could be drawn up. The coach in which Louis -IV. made his public entrance about the middle of the seventeenth -century, appears from a drawing in the same library to have been a -suspended carriage. - -Our national chronicler, John Stowe, says coaches were first known in -England about 1580; he likewise says, they were first brought from -Germany by the Earl of Arundel, in 1589. Anderson places the period -when coaches began to be used in common here about 1605. It is remarked -of the Duke of Buckingham, that he was the first who was drawn by six -horses, in 1619. To ridicule this pomp, the Earl of Northumberland put -eight horses to his carriage. - -Things are altered now when we have carriages of every description--for -the high and low, the rich and the poor. Vis-a-vis,--an open carriage -chiefly constructed for the benefit of conversation, as its name -implies. Landau, landaulets, phætons, chaises, whiskeys, cabs, -fiacres, &c., &c., are but names adapted to different purposes, and -constructed nearly upon the same principles as coaches, but some of -them close, others open, some to be opened or shut according to the -weather, or taste of the passengers, and calculated to contain an -indefinite number, from two to six persons; nay, there are the jolly -good omnibuses running in every town and village in the kingdom, the -generality of which are constructed to carry twelve inside and eight -outside passengers. - -The number of hackney coaches which ply in the streets of London have -been augmented from time to time, since their first establishment in -1625, when there were only twenty. Coaches, cabs, omnibuses, &c., now -plying, amount to nearly three thousand. - -To prevent imposition, the proprietors of these carriages are compelled -to have their names painted on some conspicuous place of the carriage, -and their number affixed in the inside, as well as the out. This -regulation has become absolutely necessary of late years, on account of -the numerous frauds practised by the coachmen. - -We read that in Russia there are employed clumsy, but very convenient -sorts of carriages, so constructed as to be either closed or open, -and to hold a bed or couch, called _brichka_, with which persons can -travel even for two or three thousand miles without much inconvenience, -except it be over the rough stones of their towns, owing to the -superior accommodations of either lying down or sitting; this change of -position renders a journey less irksome, without which it would prove -intolerable. In Russia, from Riga to the Crimea, at least, post horses -are furnished by the government, and entrusted to subalterns in the -Russian army to provide them. - -Coaches for hire were first established by public authority in France, -as early as 1671. There are employed in the streets of the capital no -fewer than three thousand hackney coaches. As early as the year 1650 -Charles Villerme paid into the royal treasury fifteen thousand livres, -for the exclusive privilege of keeping and using fiacres in Paris. - -Post chaises were introduced in the year 1664. - -Hackney coaches were established in Edinburgh in 1673, when the number -was only twenty. Public fiacres were introduced at Warsaw in 1778. In -Amsterdam the coaches have no wheels; nor have they any at Petersburg -in the winter--they are used as sledges. - -The state-coach of the city of London is a species of heir-loom, or -the hereditary property of the city; it is a very large and apparently -extremely heavy machine, but superbly decorated with large panels -of crystal glass, richly gilt, and elegantly painted with several -appropriate designs. In one of the centre panels, among a group of -figures, is one supporting a shield bearing the inscription “_Henry -Fitzalwin_, 1189,” in the old English, character; therefore we -conjecture that the coach was constructed at a period coeval with the -above date. - - - - -SADDLES, BRIDLES, AND STIRRUPS. - - -In the earliest ages it was customary to ride without either bridles -or saddles, if the poet be worthy of credit; for we observe Lucan, -speaking of the Massillians, says: - - “Without a saddle the Massilians ride, - And with a bending switch their horses guide.” - -They regulated the motion of the horses by a switch and their voice. -It has been observed, that the case was the same with the Numidians, -Getulians, Libyans, as well as most of the Grecian people. As the -reason of the thing appears to point out the superior expediency of -a bridle, they afterwards came into fashion among the Greeks, which -they called _lupi_; because it is said the bit of the bridle bore a -resemblance to the teeth of the wolf, whence Lucan says of it:-- - - “Nor with the sharper bits - Manage th’ unruly horse.” - -In the east it would appear that bridles, at least, were used at an -early period. For we have a great number of texts in the Scripture, -which definitely express as much: in the Psalms, and likewise in -Proverbs, the name and application of the bridle is often particularly -mentioned, and more frequently alluded to. Virgil, indeed, says, -referring to very early times: - - “The Lapithæ of Pelethronium rode - With bridles first,--and what their use was show’d.” - -The saddle is also of ancient origin, for we read in I. Kings, xiii., -13.,--“And he said unto his sons, _saddle_ me the ass. So they saddled -him the ass: and he rode thereon.” And before that period, in the -second generation after Noah, the Assyrian empire was established. In -its commencement, even as early as the days of Semiramis, the wife of -Ninus, the first Assyrian king, who built Ninevah, there were those -articles of horse furniture, called _packs_ and _fardles_; for in -ancient historians we find the following passage occur in this respect. -“Semiramis ascended from the plain to the top of the mountain, by -laying the packs and fardels of the beasts that followed her, one upon -another.” The same author informs us that this was Mount Bagistan, in -Medea, and that it was seventeen furlongs from the top to the bottom. - -In the first ages, among the Greeks and Romans, a cloth or mattrass, -a piece of leather or raw hide, was all they used for a saddle. Such -coverings afterwards became more costly: Silius Italicus says, they -were made of costly skins. - -It, however, appears, that after they were become common, it was -considered as effeminate to use them; hence the Romans despised them: -and in his old age, Varro boasts of having, when young, rode without a -covering to his horse. Xenophon reproaches the Persians, because they -put more clothes upon the backs of their horses than upon their beds. -From the aspect in which hardy people viewed this practice, the warlike -Teutones considered it most disgraceful, and despised the Roman cavalry. - -In the fifth century, saddles were so magnificent, that a prohibition -was issued by Leo I., that they should not be ornamented with pearls or -precious stones. In the sixth century, the Emperor Mauritas directed -that they should have coverings of fur, of large dimensions. - -From every information we have been able to collect, we believe that -the appendage of stirrups were not added to saddles before the sixth -century. It is said, that previous to the introduction of stirrups, -the young and agile used to mount their horses by vaulting upon them, -which many did in an expert and graceful manner; of course, practice -was essential to this perfection. That this should be afforded, wooden -horses were placed in the Campus Martius, where this exercise was -performed of mounting or dismounting on either side; first, without, -and next with arms. Cavalry had also, occasionally, a strap of leather, -or a metallic projection affixed to their spears, in or upon which the -foot being placed, the ascent became more practicable. Respecting the -period of this invention, Montfaucon has presumed that the invention -must have been subsequent to the use of saddles; however, opposed to -this opinion, an ingenious argument has been offered, that is possible -they might have been anterior to that invention; because, it is said, -they might have been appended to a girth round the body of the horse. -Both Hippocrates and Galen speak of a disease to which the feet and -ancles were subject, from long riding, occasioned by suspension of the -feet without a resting-place. Suetonius, the Roman, informs us that -Germanicus, the father of Caligula, was wont to ride after dinner, to -strengthen his ancles, by the action of riding affording the blood -freer circulation in the part. - -The Latin names assigned them have been various, among which is -_scalæ_; in which sense Mauritius, in his treatise on the art of war, -is said to have named them. Now, this writer is supposed to have lived -in the sixth century; but we conceive it is pretty evident they had an -earlier existence in Arabia, Turkey, and Persia, as there is an alto, -as well as bas-relief of this last country, still extant, which is -believed to have been as ancient as the days of Darius, because it was -brought from the city he built, Persepolis, having this representation. - -The invention and name of stirrup is supposed to have been borrowed -from the anatomy of the ear, where a band is found resembling it in -form. - - - - -HORSE-SHOES. - - -When we consider the vast importance of security to the feet of -that useful animal, the horse, we cannot but feel surprised that on -account of the very rough roads the ancients must occasionally had to -travel, that some metallic shoes had not been invented and introduced -previously to the period when they appeared. - -That the security of the rider necessarily depended upon the safety -of the animal he rode, cannot be questioned. Hence, then, we do not -wonder to observe, that the sagacious Aristotle and Pliny should -remark upon the covering placed upon the feet of those animals of -draught and burden. From what these authors have said, however, we -dare not conclude that the feet of horses or camels were faced or -shod with iron: but it should rather seem that in time of war, or -on long journeys, the feet of both kinds of beasts were prepared -with such species of shoes as the common people wore, and which were -generally made of strong ox-leather. We are told that when the hoofs -of cattle, particularly oxen, had sustained any injury or hurt, they -were furnished with shoes made of Spanish or African broom, with which -linen is often manufactured in the south of France and Italy; also -shoes of some of the plants of the hemp kind, which were woven or -plaited together. Although these may be considered as only a species of -surgical bandages with regard to oxen; but such shoes were particularly -given to mules, which in days of old were employed much more than at -present for riding; and from some instances of immoderate extravagance -in people of rank, it appears that they had for their animals very -costly shoes of some of the most valuable metals. Nero, when he -undertook short journeys, was drawn always by mules shod with silver, -and those of his wife were shod with gold. - -The circumstance being barely mentioned, without any particular detail, -we are anxious to afford any certain information on the mode in which -those shoes were constructed. From a passage in Dio Cassius, we have -reason to believe that it was only the upper part of the shoe that was -made of those costly metals, or that they were plaited from thin slips. - -Xenophon relates that a certain people in Asia were in the habit of -drawing socks over the feet of their horses, when the snow lay deep -on the ground. The Kamschatkian employs the same means to preserve -the feet of his dogs, which draw his sledge, or hunt the seals upon -the ice. Those species of shoes, according to Captain Cook, are so -ingeniously made as to be bound, and at the same time to admit the -claws of the animal through them. - -From a passage found in Suetonius, we may infer that the Roman -horse-shoes were put on in the manner we have mentioned; for that -author says, that the coachman of Vespasian once stopped to put on the -shoes of his mules: this being the case, the probability appears pretty -certain, that in deep roads and moist soils the animals must have -frequently lost their shoes. - -Artemedorus speaks of a shod horse, and uses the same kind of -expression whilst speaking of other cattle. Winkelman has described a -cut stone in the collection of Baron Stosch, on which is represented -the figure of a man holding one foot of a horse, whilst another, -kneeling, is employed in fastening a shoe. - -That it was not usual to shoe the war-horse, may be gathered from -this,--when Mithridates was besieging Cyzicus, he was obliged to send -his cavalry to Bythnia, because the hoofs of the horses were entirely -spoiled and worn out. Diodorus Siculus informs us, that Alexander, in -his expedition, proceeded with uninterrupted marches, until the feet -of his horses were entirely broken and destroyed. A like instance -occurs in Cinnamus, where the cavalry were obliged to be left behind, -because the horses had suffered considerably in their hoofs, to which -he adds, they were often liable. Hence it may, perhaps, appear, that -such horse-shoes as are now in use, were unknown to the ancients; and -Chardiu gives no representation of them in ancient Persian antiquities. -In the grave of Childeric, a northern chieftain and King of France, was -discovered a piece of iron, which the learned antiquarians who saw it, -pronounced, from that portion of it which the rust had left, to have -been an old horse-shoe; they saw, or thought they saw, four distinct -apertures for nails on each side; but whilst they were endeavouring -to remove the corrosive excrescence of rust, to ascertain with more -certainty, it broke under their hands. The reason why we mentioned -this here is, that if the relic discovered was really a horse-shoe, it -must have been one of the most ancient specimens known; because, we -find that monarch died in the year 481; his grave was discovered at -Tournay in 1683. The occasion of his having a horse-shoe in his grave, -was from the creed of his religion; the superstitious belief of the -Scandinavians taught them to place implicit confidence in the power -of this amulet, to prevent the ingress of evil spirits. The remains -of this belief is even now often seen in the obscure streets of the -British metropolis; and, indeed, throughout the country, where the -mystic shoe frequently appears as the faithful guardian of the domestic -threshold. - -It is, we understand, the opinion of the French historian, Daniel, -that, in the ninth century, horses were not shod always, but only in -the time of frost, and on some other very particular occasions. - -The practice of shoeing horses was introduced into England by William -I. We are told that this monarch gave the city of Northampton as a -fief to a certain person, one of his attendants, in consideration of -his paying a certain sum yearly for the shoeing of horses. And it is -also alleged, that Henry, or Hugh de Ferres, or de Ferrers, was the -same person who held this fief on the above condition, and who was the -ancestor of the family of that name, and who still bear six horse-shoes -in their coat of arms. This was the person whom William entrusted to -inspect his farriers. - -We should not omit to observe, that it is remarked, that horse-shoes -have been found, with other riding furniture, in the graves of some of -the old inhabitants of Germany, and also in those of the Vandals in the -North of Europe. - - - - -GUNPOWDER. - - -The express period when _nitrum_ was first discovered is extremely -uncertain; but that this nitrum is an alkaline salt, there is little -difficulty in proving. It has, indeed, been conjectured that it was a -component part of the _Greek fire_, invented about the year 678, which -has been generally believed to be the origin of gunpowder. From the -oldest prescriptions which have been found, and which is said to be -that given by the Princess Anna Commena, in which, however, only resin, -sulphur, and oil are mentioned, saltpetre does not appear. - -It is believed by an author very well qualified to form a judgment on -the question, that the first certain account we have of saltpetre by -that express name, occurs in the oldest account of the invention of -gunpowder, which, according to him (Professor Beckmann) occurred in -the thirteenth century. Dr. Rees, in his Cyclopedia, expressly says, -about the year 1320; and that it was first used by the Venetians -employed against the Genoese in 1380; also that it was first in Europe -at a place now known as Chrogia, against Laurence de Medicis; and the -last named authority adds, “That all Italy made complaint against it, -as a contravention of the law of arms.” Dr. Rees gives the following -recipe for its manufacture, without distinguishing the proportionate -parts:--“A composition of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together, -and usually granulated.” He describes its effects by observing, that -“it easily takes fire, and when fired, rarifies and expands with great -vehemence by means of its elastic force;” also that “it may be made -without _nitre_, by means of _marine acid_.” - -We have two accounts preserved to us of the original of this invention. -The first of which was given by our illustrious countryman, Roger -Bacon, called the Wonderful Doctor, who died A. D. 1278; previous to -which period, gunpowder must have existed. The other account is by -Albertus Magnus, in a work published in 1612. - -It is said to be doubted whether Albertus was the author of the book -which bears his name; but that he, whoever he may have been, and Bacon, -are presumed to have taken their information from the same identical -source. About the period of the invention of gunpowder, it appears -the art of making the Greek fire began to be lost. In the works of -Roger Bacon, the term occurs three times. According to Casiri, the -term _pulvis nitratus_, is to be found in an Arabic MS. the author of -which existed about 1249. If the work of Geber, _De Investigatione -Perfectionis_, be genuine, and if this writer lived, as has been -thought, in the eighth century, it would be the oldest where saltpetre -is mentioned, in a prescription for an _aqua solutiva_, which appears -to be almost _aqua regia_. - -We are inclined to believe, however, from various authorities, -that gunpowder was invented in India, as it was proved in a paper -read before the French National Institute, by M. Langles, that the -Arabians obtained a knowledge of gunpowder from the Indians, who had -been acquainted with it from the earliest periods. The use of it in -war is said to have been prohibited them in their sacred books. It -was employed in 690 at a battle near Mecca, by the Arabians. It was -brought by the Saracens from Africa to the Europeans, who improved -the preparation, and first discovered various ways of employing -it in war. In no country could saltpetre and its various uses be -more easily discovered than in India, where the soil is so rich in -nitrous particles that nothing is necessary but lixiviation to obtain -saltpetre; and where this substance is so abundant, that almost all the -gunpowder used in different wars, with which European sovereigns have -tormented themselves, burdened their subjects with intolerable taxes, -and cursed the world from its invention--has been made from Indian -saltpetre. Had not saltpetre been known previous to the thirteenth -century, neither could gunpowder or aquafortis have existed; and for -the best of all reasons, that neither of them could be made without -saltpetre or nitre. But should it appear that this neutral salt was -known in India long prior to that period, and used by Indians as well -as Arabians before they were employed by Europeans, and considering -the former to have practised chemistry previous to the latter; should -this have been proved, perhaps a similar proof will necessarily await -upon the articles aquafortis and gunpowder. Because if this affirmation -be established, it will be discovered that Europeans knew nothing of -aquafortis until after the Arabian chemists. - -Probability appears to favour the idea, that at or about the twelfth -century the accumulated number of consequents, from the improvement -in European science, the arts we now possess were introduced into our -catalogue, _i. e._, nitre, aquafortis, and gunpowder. - -After the period that saltpetre became necessary to governments for -the manufacture of gunpowder, they endeavoured to obtain it at a cheap -rate; and for that purpose were guilty in some countries of the most -violent and oppressive measures, intruding upon private property of -every description to furnish it, hunting for the effervescence even in -old walls, to the great annoyance of individuals. But after repeated -acts of the most flagrant oppression from the public officers, and from -farmers, to whom this iniquitous practice was entrusted, they could not -procure a sufficiency; but were obliged to have recourse to traffic in -India for that purpose. - - - - -GUNS. - - -That these dangerous weapons were not known in Europe previous to the -introduction of gunpowder may be safely inferred; as without that -substance their necessity or utility is wanting. - -At first the construction of this machine was characterised by that -awkward, rude, and cumbersome appearance which generally distinguished -all inventions in their infancy; reminding us of those very rude -instruments brought from the Sandwich Islands, and deposited in our -Museum. - -The first portable fire-arms were discharged by a match; in course of -time this was fastened to a cock, for the greater security of the hand -whilst discharging the piece. Afterwards a fire-stone was attached, -screwed into a cock, with a steel plate before it, and fixed in a small -wheel, which could be wound up by a key, affixed to the barrel. This -fire-stone was not at first of a vitreous nature, like that now in -use for striking fire, but a compact pyrites, long known as such, and -called a fire-stone. As an instrument so furnished was often liable -to miss fire, till a late period a match was still continued with the -wheel; and it was not till a considerable time after that, instead of -a friable pyrites, so much exposed to effloresce, a vitreous stone -was affixed to the improvement of the lock, somewhat resembling our -own gun-lock. But these progressive improvements advanced slowly, -because as recently as the early part of the last century these clumsy -contrivances were in use. During that period, those instruments were -denominated by various names, chiefly German and Dutch, such as -_buchse_, _hakenbuchse_, _arquebuss_, musket, martinet, pistol, &c. The -first of these names arose from the oldest portable kind of fire-arms -having a similarity to a box. There were long and short _buchse_, the -latter of which were peculiar to cavalry; the longest kind also, from -their resemblance to a pipe, were called in Germany, _rohr_. - -Large pieces, which were conveyed on carriages, were called _Karren -buchse_, from the action of conveyance. Soon afterwards cannon were -introduced, at first called _canna_; now known as artillery. However, -artillery-men, and others concerned in those employments, still use the -terms previously mentioned. The hackenbuchse were so very large and -unwieldy, that if carried in the hand, they could not be used manually -alone; they were, therefore, supported by a post or stay, called a -_bock_, because it had a forked end, somewhat resembling the horns of -the buck, between which the piece was fixed by a hook projecting from -the stock. There is still preserved in the Tower of London, an old -_buchse_; a specimen of every species of our national arms may be seen -in the same place. - -From those terms before-mentioned, it would appear, that not only the -English, but also the French, and most other European nations, took the -names of their fire-arms. - -It appears that pistols were first used in Germany; they had a wheel -attached to them. Bellay mentions them in the year 1544, in the -time of Francis I.; and under Henry II., the German horsemen were -called _pistoliers_. Several historians think that the name came from -Pistolia, in Tuscany, because there they were first made; and, if -we might hazard an opinion, we think this conjecture right. Hence, -although Germany might first have generally used them, we think they -were an Italian invention. - -Muskets are said to have received their name from either the French -_mouchet_, or else from the Latin _muschetus_; however, we are of -opinion that neither of these terms gave its original; and submit that -it is derived from the Latin _muscarium_,--the fall of men being as -sudden after the explosion of this deadly weapon, as the death of a -fly after it is flapped by that instrument, which was common in the -butcher’s shambles of ancient Rome. - -Daniel proves they were known in France as early as the period of -Francis I. Brandome, however, asserts they were introduced by the -Duke of Alva--that cruel monster in human shape--that tool of a -blood-thirsty tyrant--whose name has its full merit when it has eternal -execration, as the exploits of that diabolical character in the -Spanish Netherlands bear indubitable testimony: that wretch existed in -1507; and they were not known in France at that period, as Brandome -endeavours to prove, or we should have had more intelligence handed -down to posterity by the commentators of one who would so willingly -have used such an instrument. The _lock_ is said to have been invented -in the city of Nuremberg, in Germany, about 1517; but that cannot be -considered as the lock of the present day, as even in Germany the -fire-lock is known by the name of the French-lock, which certainly -militates against the previous assertion, the one giving the name -perhaps to the other. - -Beckmann says, “In the history of the Brunswick military it is stated, -that the soldiers of that Duchy first obtained flint-locks instead -of match-locks in 1687. It has often been asserted,” he continues, -“that fire-tubes which took fire of themselves were forbidden first in -Bohemia and Moravia, and afterwards in the whole German empire, under -a severe penalty, by the Emperor Maximilian I.; but I have not found -any allusion to this circumstance in the different police laws of that -emperor.” - -That the first fire-stones were pyrites appears from various sources, -and afterwards a vitreous kind of stone was introduced in its stead; -this circumstance is said to have produced some kind of confusion, as -in many instances the properties were applied to that stone which -were related by the Germans of antiquity as belonging to pyrites. In -Germany, this vitreous stone was called _vlint_; in Sweden and Denmark, -_flinta_; and in England, _flint_. This appellation is of great -antiquity. - -Anciently, in Germany, as it appears from the song of Hildebrand, a -metrical romance of very early date, that Hildebrand and Hudebrand, a -father and son, and, at the moment, ignorant of their affinity, agreed -to fight for each other’s armour; and it is said “They let fly their -ashen spears with such force, that they stuck in the shields, and they -thrust resounding axes of flint against each other, having uplifted -their shields previously; but the Lady Ulta rushed in between them--‘I -know the cross of gold,’ said she, ‘which I gave him for his shield; -this is my Hildebrand. You, Hudebrand, sheath your sword; this is your -father!’ Then she led both champions into the hall, and gave them meat -and wine with many embraces.” - -Besides these proofs that the ancient name of the stone was known -in Germany by the appellation _vlint_--which species of stone may, -perhaps, without hazarding the danger of error, be conceived to be the -same which Zipporah, the wife of Moses, is represented to have used, -in the 25th verse of the 4th chapter of Exodus: “Then Zipporah took a -sharp stone, and cut off the foreskin of her son, and cast it at his -feet, and said,--Surely a bloody husband thou art to me.” And it is -added she said so, on account of the circumcision. - -In addition to what has appeared, let us add, it cannot be doubted that -the instrument fired by this stone first obtained for it, in Germany, -the name of _vlint_; as the ancient name may, in general, be now lost, -it is commonly called flint-stone. Those people acquainted with the -northern, Scandinavian, and German antiquities, know that the knives -employed in ancient sacrifices, and other sharp instruments, were made -of this stone, as appears from the remains being yet discovered in old -barrows, and between urns. - -It is also presumed that the Ethiopian stone, mentioned as used by -one of the Egyptian embalmers, first to open the body to get at the -intestines, was a flint-stone. The soil being in some places siliceous -or chalky, naturally produces such stones in common with that earth. - -The flint is a stone indigenous in most European countries; they are -commonly collected and manufactured by people whose occupation allows -them much spare time. The easiest mode to shape them is with a species -of pillow of saw-dust, or some other soft material, sown up in coarse -cloth, held upon the knees, and with a hammer having a bevil edge, they -may be broken into almost any form or size by those accustomed to the -practice. - -The great quantity of the material from whence they are composed -allows for any waste which accident may produce. In several counties -of England they are so plentiful, that they are the common material -employed for mending the public roads. But we are informed that this -is not the case in France, where, in time of war, the people were -prohibited from exporting them. The Dutch are commonly large dealers in -this article. - -Flint is a large component in the manufacture of glass. - -Gun flints are now, however, comparatively little used, as percussion -caps are generally substituted, which act with more certainty, and -require a great deal less trouble. - - - - -ASTRONOMY. - - -Not being greedy of delusion ourselves, neither would we lead others -into error; but, on the contrary, are desirous to avoid all deception, -as we may be considered over studious to give the most rational -origin, and where we cannot get at the history of those objects which -engage our attention--whenever this is uncertain we resort to nature, -experience, and reason, and furnish the most correct explanation our -contracted circle of information will permit. Whenever we discover the -clue of history, we collect the most satisfactory detail our limits -will afford us to insert. Guided by the preceding notions, and directed -by those principles, we have endeavoured correctly to conceive, -and faithfully to portray our own conceptions in the best manner -our experience might enable us, to make a just distinction between -metaphorical allusion and literal application; ever endeavouring to -discriminate between serious assertion and studied fable. - -We fully coincide with the just remark of the learned author of “Indian -Antiquities,” who says “that in respect to the early ages of the world, -all the remains of genuine history, except that contained in the sacred -annals, is only to be obtained through the mazes of Mythology.” - -It must be confessed, that to sift this grain of corn from the bushel -of chaff with which it is surrounded, where every effort which the -ingenuity of Greece could devise to render fable as current as truth, -was resorted to, is no small task; that it requires the operation -of the best exercised reason, and the assistance of extraordinary -judgment, which is only to be attained through the medium of extensive -experience and the exercise of clear and discriminative powers: then -we pretend not to possess the best of possible acquisitions of this -kind, but the best in our power, we have endeavoured to collect, and -summoned to our assistance; and the value of our labours we will leave -the public to judge. - -If the application of observations like the preceding ever come -_apropos_, surely they apply to the present article; since from the -_sideral_ science, all the errors of an idolatrous race proceeded in -the major part of the population of the ancient world: from thence also -proceeded the most sublime imagery which embellishes the syren voice -of poetic song, the grandest metaphors, and the sweetest allegories, -which ornament the transendent eloquence of the most able rhetoricians -of Greece and Rome; the fire of exquisitely natural and most noble -allusions which enliven and embellish their historic pages. The -sweetest philosophical explications also flowed from thence, which -ornament the various immortal works of their most excellent poets, -orators, historians, natural and moral philosophers; and, in brief, of -every description of the sublimest genius of ancient Greece and Rome, -in their most divine effusions. - -It will appear, we believe, that the first astronomers of Chaldea, -Phœnicia, and Egypt, are not now known as astronomers, by name, if we -except the person of the royal Nimrod, the founder of the Chaldean -empire, which name is often confounded with Belus; sometimes one is -put for the other, and often Belus is called the son of Nimrod. How -the truth of this was, we shall not at present determine: be it as it -may, it is allowed on all hands that the sideral science claims for its -inventor no less a person than the founder of the first monarchy in the -world. That this science was first introduced by the founder of the -Tower of Babel is not questioned, because it is more evident, that in -that country there must have existed from necessity, the expediency of -the most approved observation, which could be made upon this eminently -useful science; where, on account of the excessive solar heat, people -generally travel by night: where, for hundreds of miles, are nothing -but pathless deserts, with a horizon as boundless and little impeded -as that of the ocean; assuredly under such circumstances, the local -situation of the site of the immense Observatory of Babel must point -out the expediency of procuring some intelligence from the position -which the inhabitants discovered the host of heaven to appear in at -the rising, setting, &c.; for from what will appear in the course of -this article, it will be very evident that the Tower of Babel was -constructed for the purpose of an astronomical observatory; farther, -that the climate of Chaldea was most favourable to the exercise of -that sublime art, will not admit of a question, when we consider the -atmosphere is so pure, so clear, so free from exhalation, that at -night the sky is said to resemble an immense canopy of black velvet -studded with embossed gold, from the appearance of the stars; and that -it was not only the appearance of the stars, their rising, setting, -and motion, by which they knew time was to be measured; but also the -distinction between one star and another could be correctly ascertained -from the usual colour--here it was the various planets, zodiacal -constellations, and the other asterisms in both hemispheres, received -their primary names. - -The preceding circumstance, it is conceived, fixes the local place -where the science had its origin. - -The Tower of Babel was a parallelogram, with sides of unequal length. -Herodotus thus describes it.--“The Temple of Jupiter Belus occupies the -other [square of the city], whose huge gates of brass may be seen. It -is a square building; in the midst rises a tower of the height of one -furlong, upon which resting as a base, seven other turrets are built in -regular succession. The ascent is on the outside, which, winding from -the ground, is continued to the highest tower: in the middle of the -whole structure there is a convenient resting place.” - -Diodorus Siculus says, this tower was decayed in his time; but, in his -description of Babylon, he thus speaks of it--describing it as the act -of Semiramis, who flourished two thousand nine hundred and forty-four -years before Christ:--“In the middle of the city, she built a temple to -Jupiter-Belus; of which, since writers differ amongst themselves, and -the work is now wholly decayed through length of time, there is nothing -that can with certainty be related concerning it; yet it is apparent -it was of an exceeding great height; and that, by the advantage of it, -the Chaldean astrologers exactly observed the rising and setting of the -stars. The whole was built of brick, cemented with bitumen, with great -art and cost. Upon the top she placed three statues of beaten gold, of -Jupiter, Juno, and Rhea: that of Jupiter stood upright, in the posture -as if he was walking; it was forty feet in height, and weighed one -thousand Babylonish talents. The statue of Rhea was of the same weight, -sitting on a golden throne, having two lions standing on either side, -one at her knees, and near to them were two exceeding great serpents -of silver, weighing thirty talents each. Here, too, the image of Juno -stood upright, and weighed eight hundred talents, grasping a serpent by -the head in her right hand, and holding a sceptre adorned with precious -stones in her left. For all these deities there was placed a table -made of beaten gold, forty feet long and fifteen broad, weighing five -hundred talents, upon which stood two cups, weighing thirty talents, -and near to them as many censers, weighing three hundred talents: there -were likewise placed three drinking bowls of gold--the one to Jupiter -weighed two hundred talents, and the others six hundred each.” - -We have been thus circumstantial in our description of Babylon, -for obvious reasons. First--that it was the first local situation -where, since the deluge, men had associated for civil purposes; and -secondly--because it was the original station where the astronomical -science was cultivated. From Chaldea, Astronomy travelled to Egypt, -where she was studied for many ages; she also went to Phœnicia, where -she was regarded with equal attention. But the peculiar occasion which -the Phœnician people had to improve their acquaintance with this -science, will appear, upon reflecting that these people occupied a -narrow and barren tract of land between the Mediterranean and Arabian -seas; therefore, they found it essentially necessary to improve their -situation by those means which Divine Providence had apparently marked -out for them to resort unto; we accordingly find them applying to -mercantile industry; as a commercial people, in this character, they -were the ready medium of communication between every part of the then -known world. In consequence, they had factories or mercantile stations -up the Mediterranean; but particularly on its European side, on the -shores of the Atlantic, and even in the British sea: we recognise their -occupying Marseilles, and others, on the coast of France; Cadiz, on -that of Spain; the Lizard Point, and other places, in Cornwall, where -they traded for tin in the British Isles. In brief, their commercial -spirit carried them to every part of the globe: by the by, admitting -that rational belief be allowed to Plato and Solon, we shall find that -they had, in the first ages, explored the Atlantic Ocean, and even -discovered America. A great variety of authorities may be adduced to -prove the assertion--that the Phœnicians made three descents on the -American coast; and others, who say that the inhabitants discovered -there by the Spaniards, gave the same names to the plants as had been -assigned them in Asia; that their religious rites were similar, and -general customs and manners the same,--we refer to Joseph Da Costa’s -“History of the Indies,” published in 1694. - -This author was an eye-witness, and wrote from actual observation. The -Phœnicians, in the exercise of their mercantile functions, had the most -obvious necessity to cultivate the sideral science. We find that they -accordingly did so, and made various improvements and very important -discoveries by their exercise. From the northern hemisphere being -more known to them than it was to the Chaldeans, they discovered that -splendid and beautiful asterism, _Cynosuræ_, or the polar-star,--an -asterism of the most singular service, before the properties of the -magnet were discovered, and which star was sometimes called, from them, -Phœnice. - -From Phœnicia and Egypt the celestial science of astronomy was brought -into Greece, with which people the Phœnicians were intimate; for they, -by trade, having occasion to converse with the Greeks, and also from -uniting in one national resemblance, the three opposite characteristics -of soldiers, sailors, and men of science, the communications between -the two people were very frequent. At every period, from the first -establishment of the Grecian states, that highly eminent and -intellectual people collected from all others every particular they -could obtain in all matters having relation to sciences and arts; those -they cultivated with a success worthy of the motive which first induced -them to make these collections.--Loving Knowledge for herself, they -succeeded beyond all others in obtaining her favours. - -The first Greek who appears on record to have cultivated the celestial -science with success, was Thales, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, six -hundred and forty one years before Christ; he explained the causes of -eclipses, and predicted one. He also taught that the earth was round, -and divided into five zones; he discovered the solstices and equinoxes, -and likewise divided the year into three hundred and sixty-five -days. He had travelled into Egypt in search of knowledge, where he -ascertained the height of one of the pyramids, from its shade. He -looked upon water as the principle of all things. From him the sect -called the Ionic had their origin. - -Anaximander, his pupil, followed him, and supported the opinions of his -great master; he was born before Christ six hundred and ten years; he -invented maps and dials, and is said to have constructed a sphere. His -ideas of the planets were, however, erroneous. - -Anaximenes was a scholar of Anaximander, and born five hundred and -fifty-four years before Christ. He taught that air was the origin of -all things, and many erroneous notions; among others, that the earth -was a plane, and the heavens a solid concave sphere, with the stars -affixed to it like nails. - -Anaxagoras of Clazomene, the pupil of, and successor to, Anaximenes, -born before Christ five hundred and sixty years. The doctrines he -supported are a strange association of important truths, mixed with -the most gross absurdities. He taught that the world was made by a -being of infinite power; that mind was the origin of motion; that the -upper regions, which he called ether, were filled with fire, that the -rapid revolution of this ether had raised large masses of stone from -the earth, which, being inflamed, formed the stars, which were kept -in their places, and prevented from falling by the velocity of their -motion. - -His ideas of the solar orb were extremely erroneous; alleging, -according to different authors, various uncertain positions respecting -the materials of which that planet is composed: one says, _he_ said -it was a vast mass of fire; another states _his_ opinion, that it -was red-hot iron; and a third, that it was of stone. He taught that -the comets are an assemblage of planets; that winds are produced in -consequence of highly rarified air; that thunder and lightning are a -collision of clouds; earthquakes, by subterraneous air forcing its -passage upwards; that the moon is inhabited, &c. - -This philosopher removed his school from Miletus to Athens, which was -thenceforth the grand seat of all learning. He had taught there for -thirty years, when he was prosecuted for his philosophical opinions, -particularly for his just ideas relative to the Deity, and condemned to -death. When sentence was pronounced, he said:--“It is long since Nature -condemned me to that.” However, according to the laws of Athens, he was -permitted an appeal to the people, in which his scholar, the immortal -Pericles, saved his life by his eloquence. His sentence of death -was changed into banishment. Whilst in prison he determined exactly -the proportion of the circumference of the circle to its diameter, -denominated “squaring the circle.” He died at Lampsacus. Archelaus, his -scholar, was the preceptor of the divine Socrates. - -Pythagoras was another scholar of Thales. The place of his nativity is -uncertain; but having settled in the island of Samos, he is generally -reckoned of that place. He travelled in search of knowledge through -Phœnicia, Chaldea, Egypt, and India; however, meeting with little -encouragement on his return to Samos, he passed over to Italy, in the -time of Tarquin the Proud, and opened a school at Croto, a city in the -Gulf of Tarentum, where he had a number of students, and gained much -reputation. His pupils were obliged to listen in silence for at least -two years; if talkative, longer; sometimes, for five years, before -they were permitted to ask him any questions; for which time they were -_mathematicoi_, because they were set to study geometry, dialling, -music, and other high sciences, called by the Greeks _mathemata_. But -the name of _mathematici_ was commonly applied to those who cultivated -the stellary science, and who predicted the fortunes of men, by -observing the stars under which they were born. - -This luminary of science first assumed the appellation of -_philosopher_; before him, those whose pursuits have now that title, -were called sages or wise men; he was the founder of the sect called -the Italic. He was so much honoured whilst living, and his memory -honoured when dead, by the Romans, that they attributed to him the -learning of Numa, who lived much earlier. About the year of the city -411, the Delphian oracle having directed the Romans to erect statues to -the bravest and wisest of the Greeks, they conferred that honour upon -Alcibiades and Pythagoras. - -He taught publicly that the earth is the centre of the universe; but -to his scholars he gave his real opinions; similar to those afterwards -adopted by Copernicus, that the earth and all the planets moved round -the sun, as their co-centre, and which doctrine he is presumed to have -derived from either the Chaldeans or Indians. He thought that the earth -is round, and everywhere inhabited. Hence, he admitted that we might -have antipodes, which name is said to have been invented by Plato. - -Pythagoras was distinguished for his skill in music, which he first -reduced to certain firm principles, and likewise for his discoveries -in geometry. He first proved, that in a right-angled triangle, the -square of the hypothenuse, or side subtending the right angle, is -equal to the two other sides; also that of all plain figures having -equal circumference, the circle is largest; and of all solids having -equal surfaces, the sphere is the largest. Pythagoras likewise taught -that all things were made of fire. That the Deity animated the -universe, as the soul does the body; which doctrine, with that of -the metempsychosis, or transmigration, he likewise taught; and which -thoughts were adopted by Plato, and are most beautifully expressed by -Virgil; that the sun, the moon, the planets, and fixed stars, are all -actuated by some divinity, and move each in a transparent solid sphere -in the order following:--next to the Earth, the Moon, then Mercury, -Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn; the sphere of the fixed stars -last of all; that those move with a sound inconceivably beautiful, -which ears cannot comprehend. Those eight spheres he imagined to be -analogous to the eight notes in music. - -Empedocles, the chief scholar of Pythagoras, entertained the same -sentiments with his teacher, concerning astronomy. He is said to have -thrown himself into the crater of Mount Etna, to make himself pass for -a god; or, perhaps, which may approach nearer the truth, because he -could not discover the cause of the eruption: or else in his endeavours -to discover the cause. One of his iron sandals being thrown up by the -volcano, revealed the mode in which he had perished. - -Philolaus, also a scholar of Pythagoras, first taught publicly the -diurnal motion of the earth upon its axis, and its annual motion round -the sun; which first suggested to Copernicus the idea of that system -which he established. - -Meteon, born at Leuconæ, a village near Athens, first introduced into -Europe the Lunar Cycle, consisting of nineteen solar years, or nineteen -lunar years, and seven intercalary months. It had been first adopted by -the Chaldeans. Meteon published it at the Olympic games, where it was -received with so great applause that it was then universally adopted -through the Grecian States, and their colonies, and got the name of the -Cycle, or Golden Number, to denote its excellence, which name it still -retains. - -It was also called the Great Year; which name was likewise applied to -various spaces of time by different authors; by Virgil, to the solar -year, to distinguish it from the monthly revolution of the moon; by -Cicero and others, to the revolution of six hundred years, or three -thousand six hundred years; called also several ages, when all the -stars shall come to the same position, with respect to one another, -as they were in at a certain time before; called likewise _Annus -Mundanus_, or _Vertens_. - -The lunar cycle begun four hundred and thirty-two years before the -commencement of our era, and according to it, the Greek calendars, -which determined the celebration of their annual feasts, &c. were -adjusted. Meteon is said to have derived his knowledge of this subject -from Chaldea. - -The opinions of the subsequently registered astronomer, Xonophanes, -founder of the Eleatic school, are so truly monstrous, that after -the light which had appeared, he must have travelled with his eyes -shut; or else the rage for novelty alike affected the scientific of -Greece, as it did their _literati_; choosing to travel a long way -for new thoughts, when they might have found much better at hand. -Xonophanes, among other whimsical opinions, maintained that the stars -were extinguished every morning, and illuminated every evening; that -the sun is an inflamed cloud; that eclipses happen by the extinction -of the sun, which is afterwards lighted up; that the moon is ten times -larger than the earth; that there are many suns and moons to illumine -different climates. - -The Eleatic school was chiefly famous for the study of logic, or the -art of ratiocination, first invented by Zeno. Those of this sect paid -but little attention to science, or the study of Nature. Philosophy -was anciently divided into three parts, natural, moral, and the art of -reasoning. Xonophanes was succeeded by Parmenides, his scholar, who, -in addition to his master’s absurdities, taught that the earth was -habitable in only the two temperate zones; that the earth was suspended -in the middle of the universe, in a fluid lighter than air; that all -bodies left to themselves light on its surface. This bore a slight -resemblance to the Newtonian doctrine of attraction. - -Democritus, of Abdera, a scholar of Leucippus, who flourished four -hundred and fifty-six years before Christ, was the first publisher -of the Atomic Cosmogony, invented by Mochus, the Phœnician, said to -have been received by his master Leucippus. Both admitted plurality -of worlds. Democritus was the first who taught that the milky way is -occasioned by the confused light of an infinite number of stars; which -doctrine is still maintained by the best informed of philosophers. He -also extended that idea to comets; the number of which Seneca says the -Greek philosophers did not know; and that Democritus suspected there -were more planets than we could see. This was also the opinion of many -others, the truth of which has been verified in the discoveries of -Pallas, Juno, Vesta, and the _Georgium Sidus_. - -Democritus is considered as the parent of experimental philosophy; the -greatest part of his time was devoted to it; and he is said to have -made many discoveries. He, like Meteon, and Newton, maintained the -absurd idea of the existence of a vacuum, which was denied by Thales -and Descartes. Democritus also maintained that the sea was constantly -diminishing. He declared that he would prefer the discovery of one of -the causes of the works of Nature, to the possession of the Persian -monarchy. Often laughing at the follies of mankind, he was thought by -the vulgar to be out of his mind; but Hippocrates, being sent to cure -him, soon found him to be the wisest man of the age; and Seneca reckons -him the most acute and ingenious of the ancients, on account of his -many useful inventions; particularly his ingenious making of artificial -emeralds, tinging them of any colour; of softening ivory, dissolving -stones, &c. - -Although the chief attention of Plato and Aristotle was directed to -other grand objects, yet they much contributed to the improvement of -astronomy. Notwithstanding the most famous in this respect was Eudoxus, -the scholar of Plato, who was famous for his skill in astrology, -natural and judicial, or the art of foretelling future events by -the relative situations of the stars, of their various influences, -an art which prevailed for many ages among the ancients, and is yet -assiduously cultivated by the modern Arabians and other orientals, -although in a great measure exploded in European nations. By the -former or which divisions in this science are foretold the changes of -seasons, rain, wind, thunder, cold, heat, famine, diseases, &c., from a -knowledge of the causes that are believed to act upon the earth and its -atmosphere; whilst the latter foretold the characters, fortunes, &c., -of men, from the stellary disposition at the moment of their respective -nativities. - -The philosopher, Eudoxus, spent much of his time on the top of a high -mountain, to observe the motion of the stars. He regulated the Greek -year as Cæsar did the Roman. Had the ancient Grecian astronomers been -equally attached to experiment with Democritus, they might have arrived -at more certain conclusions; but they were content with speculative -theory, and spoke rather from conjecture than observation; whence both -Strabio and Polybius treated as fabulous the since recognised assertion -of Pythius, a famous navigator to the north, who had sailed to a -country supposed to be Iceland, where he said the sun, in the middle of -summer, never set. - -The most important improvements in astronomy were made in the school -of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus; and which seminary -flourished for nine hundred and twenty-three years, till the invasion -of the Saracen army, under the command of Amrou. Those astronomers -were chiefly Greeks, or of Grecian extraction--the most learned men -being invited here by the liberality of the Ptolemies. The first -who distinguished themselves were Timocarus and Aristillus, prior to -the foundation of the library, which was founded three hundred years -before Christ. Those two men endeavoured to determine the places of the -different stars, and thus to trace the course of the planets. The next -and most eminent man was Aristarchus, about two hundred and sixty-four -years before Christ; who taught, that the sun was about nineteen times -further from the earth than the moon (which is not the twentieth part -of its real distance), although the philosophers of the Pythagorean -school did not consider it above three times, and perhaps only one -and a half further distant. Aristarchus also taught, that the moon -was fifty-six diameters of our earth from this globe, which opinion -comes near to the truth: he believed it to be scarcely one-third of -its real size. He was widely erroneous in his conception of the sun’s -dimensions. He also, in conformity to the doctrines of Pythagorus and -Philolaus, supposed the sun to be placed in the centre, and that the -earth moved round it; on which account he was accused of impiety, as -disturbing the repose of the Vesta and the Lares. This opinion was not, -however, retained by his successors in the Alexandrian school. Contrary -to the doctrine of the Greek philosophers, he taught that the stars -were at different distances, and that the orbit of the earth round the -sun was an insensible point, in consequence of the immense distance -of the stars. The only work of Aristarchus which remains, is on the -magnitude and distance of the sun and moon. - -Very nearly contemporary with Aristarchus was Euclid, the celebrated -geometrician of Alexandria; Manetho, an astrologer and historian; and -Aratus and Cleanthus, disciples of Zeno, the stoic philosopher; all -of whom contributed to the enlargement of astronomical knowledge; but -particularly the two first named. - -Eratosthenes, born at Cyrene, succeeded Aristarchus, being invited by -Ptolemy Euergetes. This professor is said to be the inventor of the -Armillary sphere, an instrument or machine composed of moveable sides, -representing the equator, the two colures, with the meridian; all of -which turned round on an axis directed to the two poles of the world, -each of which circles were anciently called armilla, and the whole -machine, astrolabus. All instruments which could be contrived for -the promotion of this science, were furnished at the public expense, -and placed within the observatory of Alexandria. Assisted by these -instruments, Eratosthenes first undertook to measure the obliquity of -the ecliptics, or rather the double of that obliquity, that is, the -distance from the tropics, which he made to be about 47 degrees; the -obliquity, or half of this distance, 23½ degrees. This grand attempt -was to ascertain the exact distance of a degree of the meridian, and -thus to determine the circumference of the earth; which he accomplished -with wonderful exactness, considering the period at which he lived; -and he performed this by the same method since adopted by the moderns -who have succeeded him. He is also said to have discovered the true -distance of the sun from the earth. - -The great Archimedes lived contemporary with Eratosthenes, that -eminent geometrician of Syracuse, whose inventive genius in mechanics -had constructed engines which protracted the fall of that capital, -with its Island Sicily, to the almost omnipotent power of Rome for a -considerable period. - -The most illustrious astronomer which had as yet appeared at Alexandria -was Hipparchus, who flourished between one hundred and sixty and one -hundred and twenty-five years before Christ. He first brought this -science into a tangible elementary form, rendering it systematic. He -discovered, or was the first who observed the difference between the -autumnal and the vernal equinox; the former being seven days longer -than the latter, which proceeds from the eccentricity of the earth’s -orbit, first discovered from observing the inequality of the solar -motion. He framed tables for what is called equation of time, or to -ascertain the difference between the shade on a well constructed dial -and a perfectly regulated clock. He made great progress in explaining -the motions and phases of the moon; however, he was not so successful -with respect to the planets. - -His greatest work was his ascertaining the number of the stars, marking -their distances, and arriving at the means by which their precise -places on the hemisphere of Alexandria could be known. He marked one -thousand six hundred stars, in seventy-two signs, into which the -heavens were divided. Pliny says this was a labour which must have been -difficult even to a god. The appearance of a new star induced him to -set about and accomplish this work, which he did in a catalogue for the -benefit of future observers. - -Hipparchus does not mention comets, whence it has been conjectured he -had never seen any; it has also been suggested, that he considered -them with meteors, which are not objects of astronomical observation. -He divided the heavens into forty-nine constellations, viz., twelve in -the ecliptic, twenty-one in the north, and sixteen in the south. To one -of these he gave the name of Berenice’s Hair, in honour of the wife of -Ptolemy Soter, who had consecrated her hair, which was very beautiful, -to Venus Urania, if her husband should return from a war in Asia -victorious; it being hung up in the temple of the goddess, soon after -disappeared, and is said to have been carried off by the gods. - -Hipparchus likewise constructed a sphere, or celestial globe, on which -all the stars visible at Alexandria were depicted; and thought to have -been similar to the Faranese globe at Rome, still extant. In his -observations on the stars, he discovered that, when viewed from the -same spot, their distance always appeared the same from each other; -but he discovered the distance of the moon to be different in various -parts of the heavens; for instance, in the horizon and zenith. This -he conceived to be owing to the extent of the globe; he, therefore, -contrived a method of reducing appearances of this kind, to what they -would be if viewed from the centre of the earth, which is called a -parallax; and the discovery of it was of the greatest importance to -astronomy. He took this idea from observing that a tree, in the middle -of a plain, appeared in different parts of the horizon, when viewed -from different situations; so does a star appear in the various points -of the heavens, when viewed in different parts of the globe. Hipparchus -was the first who connected geography with astronomy, and this fixed -both the sciences on certain principles. - -After the overthrow of the Roman empire, the first encourager of -learning was Charles the Great, or Charlemagne; but little could be -done in his time; after his death the former ignorance prevailed. -Beda, or Bede, from his piety and modesty termed _venerabilis_, and -his scholar, Alcinius, both Englishmen, greatly excelled in general -literature; among other qualifications they were eminent in the -astronomy of the preceding period. The first step towards the revival -of knowledge, or the translation of the Astronomical Elements of -Alfergan, the Arab, by order of Frederick II., chosen Emperor of -Germany in 1212. About the same time Alphonso X., King of Castile, -assembled from all parts the most famous astronomers, who at his -desire, composed what are called the Alphonsine Tables, founded on the -hypothesis of Ptolemy. - -About the same period John Sacrobosco, of Holywood, a native of -Halifax, in Yorkshire, who was educated at Oxford, and taught -mathematics and philosophy at Paris, made an abridgment of the -amalgamist of Ptolemy, and of the commentaries of the Arabs, which was -long famous as an elementary book under the title of “De Sphira Mundi.” -He died at Paris, in the year 1235. In the same year, Roger Bacon, an -English Franciscan friar, made astonishing discoveries in science for -the time he lived. He perceived the error in the Kalendar of Julius -Cæsar, and proposed a plan, for the correction of it, to Pope Clement -IV. in 1267. He is presumed from his writings to have known the use -of optical glasses, and the composition and effects of gunpowder. -He believed in planetary influence on men’s fortunes, and the -transmutation of metals. On account of his vast knowledge in astronomy, -mathematics, and chemistry, he was called Doctor _Mirabilis_; but, for -the same reason, he was suspected of magic. Under this pretext, whilst -at Paris, he was put in prison by order of the Pope’s legate; and -after a long and severe confinement, he was at last, by the interest -of several noble persons, liberated, returned to England, and died at -Oxford in 1292, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. - -In the fifteenth century two events happened which changed the face of -the sciences; the invention of printing, about 1440, and the taking -of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The learned men of that city -having escaped from the cruelty of the victors, fled into Italy, and -again introduced the taste for classical literature; which was greatly -promoted by the munificence of the Emperor Frederick III., Pope -Nicholas V., and particularly of Cosmo de Medici, who justly merited -the title of Father of his Country, and Patron of the Muses. - -The restoration of astronomy began in Germany. The first who -distinguished himself, was George Purbach, born at Purbach, on the -confines of Austria and Bavaria, in 1423, who was cut off in the -flower of his age--only thirty-eight years old. He was succeeded by -a scholar more skilful than himself, John Muller, born at Konigsberg, -in 1436, who taught mathematics and astronomy with great reputation at -Vienna. In February, 1471, appeared a comet, on which he published his -observations. Being called to Rome by Pope Sextus IV., to assist in -correcting the Kalender, he was cut off by the plague, in 1476. Bernard -Waltherus, a rich citizen of Nuremberg, his friend and associate, -succeeded him, who is said to have first made use of clocks in his -astronomical observations, in 1484, and to have been the first of the -moderns who perceived the effects of the refraction of light. - -Fracastorius, born at Verona, in 1483, was a celebrated astronomer, and -an eminent poet and good philosopher; he made considerable discoveries -in this science, and with all his abilities may be considered as the -precursor of the celebrated Copernicus. - -Nicholas Copernicus, the restorer of the Pythagorean philosophy, and -the modern discoverer of the rational and true system of astronomy, -as now universally received, under the title of his name, was born at -Thorn, a city of Royal Prussia, 19th February, 1473. Having learnt the -Latin and Greek Languages in his father’s house, he was sent to Cracow, -to be instructed in philosophy and physic, where he was honoured with -the degree of doctor; showing a greater predilection for mathematics -than medicine. His uncle by his mother’s side was a bishop, who gave -him a canonry upon his return from Italy, whither he had gone to -study astronomy, under Dominic Maria, at Bologna, and had afterwards -taught mathematics with success at Rome. In the repose and solitude of -an ecclesiastical life, he bent his chief attention to the study of -astronomy. Dissatisfied with the system of Ptolemy, which had prevailed -fourteen centuries, he laboured to form a juster one. What led him to -discover the mistakes of Ptolemy was his observations on the motions -of Venus; he is said to have derived his first notion on this subject -from various passages in the classics, which mention the opinions of -Pythagoras and his followers, as, indeed, he himself acknowledges in -his address to Pope Paul III. He established the rotation of the earth -round its axis, and its motion round the sun; but to explain certain -irregularities in the motion of the planets, he retained the epicicles -and eccentrics of Ptolemy. His work was first printed at Nuremberg, in -1543, a short time before his death. - -The doctrines of Copernicus were not at first generally adopted. The -most eminent professors in Europe adhered to the old opinions. - -Among the astronomers of this period, the Landgrave of Hesse deserves -particular praise, who erected a magnificent observatory at the top -of the Castle of Cassel, and made many observations himself, in -conjunction with Christopher Rothman and Justus Burge, concerning the -place of the sun, of the planets, and of the stars. - -But the person who enriched astronomy with the greatest number of facts -of any modern who had yet appeared, was Tycho Brahe, a Dane of noble -extraction, born in 1546, designed by his parents for the study of the -law; but attracted by an eclipse of the sun in 1560, at Copenhagen, -whither he had been sent to learn philosophy, he was struck with -astonishment in observing that the phenomenon happened at the very -moment it had been predicted. - -He admired the art of predicting eclipses, and wished to acquire it. At -first, for want of proper instruments, he fell into several mistakes, -which, however, he afterwards corrected. Having early perceived his -future improvements must depend on instruments, he caused some to be -constructed larger than usual, and thus rendered more exact. On the -11th November, 1572, he perceived a new star in Cassiopeia, which -continued without changing its place till spring 1574, equal in -splendour to Jupiter or Venus. It last it changed colours and entirely -disappeared. Nothing similar to this had been observed since the days -of Hipparchus. - -Tycho, in imitation of that illustrious astronomer, conceived a design -of forming a catalogue of the stars. To promote his views, the King of -Denmark ordered a castle to be built in Hueun, an island between Seonia -and Zealand, which Tycho called Uranibourg, “the city of heaven,” and -where he placed the finest collection of instruments that had ever -yet appeared; most of them invented or else improved by himself. He -composed a catalogue of seven hundred and seventy-seven stars, with -greater exactness than had ever been done before; and constructed -tables for finding the place of the most remarkable stars at any -given time. He was the first who determined the effect of refraction, -whereby we see the sun or any star above the horizon, before it is -so in reality; as we see the bottom of a vessel when filled with -water, standing at a distance, which we could not see when empty. He -made several other improvements and important discoveries, which he -published in a work entitled “Progymnasmata.” The labours of Tycho -attracted the attention of Europe; the learned went to consult him, and -the noble to see him. James VI. of Scotland, when he went to espouse -the sister of Frederic, King of Denmark, paid Tycho a visit, with all -his retinue, and wrote some Latin verses in his praise. - -But these honours were of short continuance. After the death of his -protector, King Frederic, the pension assigned him was withdrawn, and -he was compelled to exile himself from his native country. Having hired -a ship, he transported his furniture, books, and instruments to a small -place in Hamburgh, in 1597. The Emperor Rodolphus invited him into his -dominions, settled a large pension upon him, gave him a castle near -Prague, to prosecute his discoveries, and appointed him Longomatus, -a native of Jutland, and the celebrated Kepler, to assist him. But -Tycho was not happy in his new situation; he died 14th October, 1601, -repeating several times, “I have not lived in vain.” - -Kepler was one of the greatest philosophers that ever lived, and ought -to be considered as the discoverer of the _true_ system of the world. -He was born in Germany, at Wiel, near Wirtemberg, 27th December, -1571. He early imbibed the principles of Copernicus. After the death -of Tycho, he was employed to finish the tables which he had begun to -compose from his observations. Kepler took twenty years to finish them. -He dedicated them to the emperor, under the title of the “Rodolphine -Tables.” - -Kepler united optics with astronomy, and thus made the most important -discoveries. He was the first who discovered that the _planets move -not in a circle, but in an ellipse_; and that altogether they move -sometimes faster and sometimes slower, yet that they describe equal -areas in equal times; that is, that the spaces through which they -move in different parts of their orbit, are of equal times, though -of unequal length; yet when two straight lines are drawn from the -extremity of either space to the centre of the sun, they form triangles -which include equal areas. He likewise demonstrated that the squares of -the periodical times of the revolution of the planets round the sun, -are in proportion to the cubes of their distance from him; a theorem -of the greatest use in astronomical calculations: for having the -periodical times of two planets given, and if the distance of one of -them be known, by the rule of proportion, the distance of the other can -be ascertained. - -Kepler is said to have used logarithms in framing his “Rodolphine -Tables.” This great man died in poverty, 15th November, 1631, at -Ratisbon, whither he had gone to solicit the arrears of his pension, -which had been very ill paid: he left nothing to his wife and children -but the remembrance of his virtues. - -Contemporary with Kepler was Galileo, born at Pisa, in Italy, in 1564; -illustrious for his improvements in mechanics, for his application -of the effects of gravity, and for the invention, or at least, the -improvement of telescopes. - -The use of spectacles, or reading glasses (convex for long-sighted; and -concave for short-sighted persons,) had been invented by one Spina, a -monk at Pisa, in 1290; or, as some say, by our countryman Roger Bacon. -The use of telescopes or glasses for viewing objects at a distance, -was invented by Zachary Janssen, a spectacle-maker, at Middleburg, or -rather, as it is said, from the accidental discovery of a child. The -honour of this invention is also claimed by others. It is certain that -Galileo first improved them so as to answer astronomical purposes. -He also first made use of the single pendulum for measuring time in -making his observations; to which he was led, by considering one day -the vibrations of a lamp suspended from the vaulted roof of a church. -He likewise discovered the gravity of the atmosphere from the rising of -water in a pump, by the action of a piston, which led the way to the -invention of the barometer, by his scholar Toricelli. - -The use of telescopes opened, in a manner, a new world to Galileo. -He observed with astonishment the increased magnitude and splendour -of the planets and their satellites, formerly invisible: which -afforded additional proofs of the veracity of the Copernican system, -particularly the satellites of Jupiter, and the phasis of Venus. He -discovered an innumerable multitude of fixed stars, which the naked eye -could not discern, and what greatly excited his wonder, without the -least increase in their size or brightness. - -About the same time, John Napier, of Merchiston, in Scotland, invented -what are called “Logarithms,” first published at Edinburgh in 1614, -afterwards improved by Mr. Briggs, Professor of Geometry, at Oxford, -in which, by a very ingenious contrivance, addition is made to answer -for multiplication, and subtraction for division; an invention of the -greatest utility in astronomical calculations. - -Galileo was not afflicted with poverty, but with persecution. At -seventy years of age he was called before the Holy Inquisition, for -supporting opinions contrary to Scripture,--and was obliged, on the -11th of June, 1633, formally to abjure them, to avoid being burnt as -a heretic. The system of Copernicus had yet gained but few converts; -and the bulk of professions and learned men in Europe, attached to -the philosophy of Aristotle, supported the old doctrine. Galileo was -condemned to prison, and confined to the small city of Arcem, with its -territory, where he consoled himself by the study of astronomy. He -contrived a method of discovering the longitude by the satellites of -Jupiter, which, however, has not been productive of all the advantages -he expected. He died in prison, or rather in exile, in 1642. - -Although there were a great number of astronomers contemporary with -Kepler and Galileo, none made any conspicuous figure. John Bayer, -of Augsburg, introduced the Jewish method of marking the stars with -letters of the Greek and Latin alphabets; this the Jews use because -their law does not permit the use of figures, the produce of fancy. - -In 1732, astronomers were very attentive to observe the transit of -Venus over the disc of the sun, which Kepler had predicted, as a -confirmation of the system of Copernicus. Mercury was observed by -Gassendi in France, and some others; but the transit of Venus did not -then take place for their inspection. - -The transit of Venus was first seen by Jeremiah Horrox, of Hoole, -an obscure village, fifteen miles north of Liverpool, on the 24th of -November, 1639, and at the same time by his friend, William Crabtree, -at Manchester. Horrox was born in 1619, and died in 1641, in the -twenty-third year of his age. He wrote an account of his observations, -which were published after his death, under the title of “Venus in Sole -visa,” by Hevelius. - -The Copernican system was first publicly defended in England, by Dr. -Wilkins, in 1660; in France, by Gassendi, the son of a peasant in -Provence, who published many valuable works on Philosophy. He was born -in 1592, and died in 1655. He was violently opposed by Morin, a famous -astrologer. - -Descartes, descended from a noble family, the son of a counsellor of -Brittany, in France, born at Haye, in Tourraine, 31st of March, 1596, -early distinguished himself by his knowledge in algebra and geometry. -He attacked and overturned the philosophy of Aristotle, in his own -country. He attempted to establish certain principles, which, though -founded in theory, he took for granted, by which he accounted for all -appearances. Like Mochus and Democritus, he imagined all space to be -filled with corpuscules, or atoms, in continual agitation, and denied -the possibility of a vacuum. He explained everything by supposing -vortices, or motions round a centre, according to the opinions of -Democritus, and thus discovered the centrifugal force in the circular -motion of the planets. But the system of Descartes not being founded on -facts or experiments, did not subsist long: although at first it had -many followers. His astronomical opinions were much the same with those -of Copernicus. - -Although the lively notions of Descartes led him into error, yet his -exalted views greatly contributed to the improvement of science. Men -were led to observation and experiments, in order to overturn his -system, and astronomy was cultivated by persons of ability; viz., -Bouillard, at Paris; Ward, at Oxford, 1653; and by Helvelius, at -Dantzic, 1643, who constructed a fine observatory, and collected a -great many facts by his long assiduous observation, for fifty years, -during which he made many discoveries concerning the planets, fixed -stars, and particularly comets. Colbert, in the name of Louis XIV., -sent him a sum of money and a pension. Hevelius published a catalogue -of fixed stars, entitled, “Firmamentum Sobieskianum,” dedicated to -John Sobieski, King of Poland, at that time justly famous for having -raised the siege of Vienna, when attacked by the Turks, 1683. In honour -of whom Helvelius formed a new constellation between Antinonus and -Serpenterius, called _Sobieski’s Shield_. - -But the most distinguished astronomer of that time was Christian -Huygens, son to the secretary of the Prince of Orange, born at the -Hague, 14th of April, 1629, and educated at Leyden, under Schooten, the -commentator on Descartes,--famous for the application of pendulums to -clocks and springs to watches, for the improvement of telescopes and -microscopes, and for the great discoveries he made, in consequence of -these improvements in astronomy. - -The establishment of academies, or societies, at this time, contributed -greatly to the advancement of science. - -The Royal Society, in London, was begun in 1659, but did not assume a -regular form till 1662. Its transactions were first published in 1665. -The Academy of Sciences, at Paris, was founded in 1686, by Louis XIV., -who invited to it Rœmer, from Denmark, Huygens and Cassini from Italy. - -Cassini was born at Perinaldo, in the county of Nice, on the 8th of -June, 1625, and was appointed first professor in the Royal Observatory -at Paris, where he prosecuted his discoveries till his death, in 1712, -and was succeeded by his son. He was assisted by Picard, Auzoul, and La -Hire. - -By the direction of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, a voyage was -undertaken by Riecher and Meurisse, at the king’s expense, to the -island of Caienne, in South America, almost under the equator, in 1672, -to ascertain several philosophical facts;--the refraction of light, -the parallax of Mars, and of the Sun, the distance of the tropics, the -variation in the motion of the pendulum, &c. - -The parallax of the sun is the angle under which an observer at the -sun would see the earth: this Cassini fixed at 9½ seconds, and the -angle under which we see the sun, at 16 minutes and 6 seconds, or 966 -seconds; hence he concluded that these semi-diameters, are as 9½ to -966, or as 10 to 1932. So that, according to Cassini, the semi-diameter -of the earth is one hundred times less than that of the sun; and -consequently the sun is a million times larger than the earth. - -The parallax of the sun has since, from the transit of Venus, 6th of -June, 1761, and 3rd of June, 1769, been discovered to be but about 8 -seconds, consequently his comparative bulk to that of the earth, and -his distance from it, to be proportionably greater. The method of -finding the distance of the earth from the sun, and consequently of the -other planets, was first proposed by Dr. Halley, who had never seen, -and was morally certain he would never see, this appearance. - -Meurisse died during the voyage. Riecher returned in 1676. His answer -to the parallax of Mars was not satisfactory. Cassini calculated it at -15 seconds. - -The distance of the tropics was found to be 46 degrees, 57 minutes, 4 -seconds. The chief advantage resulting from the voyage was ascertaining -the vibration of the pendulum. In 1669, Placard remarked that clocks -went slower in summer than in winter, owing to, as since ascertained, -that it is the property of heat to dilate bodies, which consequently -lengthens the pendulum; that cold produces an opposite effect. Riecher -found that the pendulum made forty-eight vibrations less at Caienne -than at Paris; that it went two minutes and twenty seconds a day -slower; hence, to adjust, he was obliged to shorten the pendulum. - -The same fact was confirmed by Halley, while at St. Helena, 1676. But -an additional reason for this variation is presumed to exist, from the -machinery being further removed from the central axis of the earth; the -gravitating principle is presumed to be diminished at the equator more -than it is when nearer the poles. - -About this time the French Jesuit missionaries, having got admission -into China, contributed greatly to the improvement of their astronomy. -Father Schaal, one of their number, on account of his merit, and -particularly for his skill in astronomy, was so highly honoured by -the court of China, that the emperor, upon his death-bed, made him -preceptor to his son and successor. Schaal reformed the Kalendar, a -matter of great importance to that country. It was further improved -by Verbiest, who succeeded Schaal, about 1670. The most eminent -astronomers in England during this period were Flamstead, Halley, and -Hook. - -Sir Isaac Newton was born at Woolstrope, in Lincoln, December 25, 1642; -after due preparation he was admitted in the University of Cambridge. -The rapidity of his progress in mathematical knowledge was truly -astonishing. At the age of twenty-four, he had laid the foundation of -the most important mathematical discoveries. He is the first who gave -a rational and complete account of the laws which regulate planetary -motion, on the principles of attraction and gravitation. Newton was as -remarkable for a modest diffidence of his own abilities, as for the -superiority of his genius. In 1704, he published his “Optics;” in 1711, -his “Fluxions;” and in 1728, his “Chronology.” He received in his life -time the honour due to his singular merit. In 1703, he was elected -President of the Royal Society. In 1705, he received the honour of -knighthood by Queen Anne.--He was twice member of parliament. In 1669, -he was made master of the mint, which, with the presidency of the Royal -Society, he held till his death, in 1726. He was buried in Westminster -Abbey, where there is an appropriate monument to his memory. - -The system of Newton had an eminent supporter and able annotator in -the very eminent Scottish professor, Colin Mac Laurin, who was born -in the month of February, 1698. In 1719, he travelled to London, -where he was introduced to the illustrious Newton, whose notice and -friendship he obtained, and ever after reckoned as the greatest honour -and happiness of his life. In 1734, Dr. Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, -published his treatise, called “The Analyst,” in which he attempted -to charge mathematicians with infidelity in matters of religion. This -work was the occasion of Mac Laurin’s elaborate “Treatise on Fluxions,” -published at Edinburgh, in 1742, which is reckoned the most ample -treatise on that branch of novel mathematics which has yet appeared. So -very eminent was Mac Laurin’s skill in mathematics, and the principles -of anatomical science, and he possessed such excellent instruments for -these purposes, that a new theory never appeared, nor did anything -transpire in the scientific world, which was uncommon, but his friends -constantly resorted to him for explanation and experiment, and their -laudable curiosity was sure to be satisfactorily gratified. - -One of the greatest names in the modern history of astronomical -discovery is that of the late Sir William Herschel; and, much to his -praise, he was self-instructed in the science in which he earned his -high reputation. Herschel was born at Hanover, in 1736, and was the -son of a musician in humble circumstances. Brought up to his father’s -profession, at the age of fourteen he was placed in the band of the -Hanoverian Guards. A detachment of this regiment having been ordered -to England in the year 1757, he and his father accompanied it; but -the latter returned to Germany in a few months, and left his son to -try his fortune in London. For a long time he had many difficulties -to contend with, and he passed several years principally in giving -lessons in music in the different towns in the North of England. At -last, in 1765, through the interest of a gentleman to whom his merits -had become known, he obtained the situation of organist at Halifax; and -next year, having gone to fulfil a short engagement at Bath, he gave -so much satisfaction by his performances, that he was appointed to the -same office in the Octagon Chapel of that city, upon which he went to -reside there. The place which he now held was of some value; and from -the opportunities which he enjoyed of adding to its emoluments, by -engagements at the rooms and private concerts, as well as by taking -pupils, he had had the prospect of deriving a good income from his -profession, if he had made that his only or his chief object. - -During his residence at Bath, although greatly occupied with -professional engagements, the time he devoted to his mathematical -studies was surprising. Often, we are told, after a fatiguing day’s -work of fourteen or sixteen hours among his pupils, he would, on -returning home at night, repair for relaxation to what many would -deem these severer exercises. In this manner, in the course of time, -he attained a competent knowledge of geometry, and found himself in a -condition to proceed to the study of the different branches of physical -science which depend upon the mathematics. Among the first of the -latter that attracted his attention, were the kindred departments of -astronomy and optics. Having applied himself to these sciences, he -became desirous of beholding with his own eyes those wonders of the -heavens of which he had read so much, and for that purpose he borrowed -from an acquaintance a two-feet Gregorian telescope. This instrument -interested him so greatly, that he determined to procure one of his -own, and commissioned a friend in London to purchase one for him, of a -somewhat larger size. But he found the price was beyond what he could -afford. To make up for this disappointment, he resolved to construct a -telescope for himself; and after encountering innumerable difficulties -in the progress of his task, he at last succeeded, in the year 1774, in -completing a five-feet Newtonian reflector. This was the commencement -of a long and brilliant course of triumphs in the same walk of art, and -also in that of astronomical discovery. Herschel now became so much -more ardently attached to his philosophical pursuits, that, regardless -of the sacrifice of emolument he was making, he begun gradually to -limit his professional engagements, and the number of his pupils. - -Meanwhile he continued to employ his leisure in the fabrication of -still more powerful instruments than the one he had first constructed; -and in no long time he produced telescopes of seven, ten, and even -twenty feet focal distance. In fashioning the mirrors for these -instruments, his perseverance was indefatigable. For his seven-feet -reflector, we have been informed that he actually finished and made -trial of no fewer than two hundred mirrors before he found one that -satisfied him. When he sat down to prepare a mirror, his practice -was to work at it for twelve or fourteen hours, without quitting his -occupation for a moment. He would not even take his hand from what he -was about, to help himself to food; and the little he ate on such -occasions was put into his mouth by his sister. He gave the mirror a -proper shape, more by a certain natural tact than by rule; and when his -hand was once in, as the phrase is, he was afraid that the perfection -of the finish might be impaired by the least intermission of his -labours. - -It was on the 13th of March, 1781, that Herschel made the discovery to -which he owes, perhaps, most of his reputation. He had been engaged -for nearly a year and a half in making a survey of the heavens, when, -on the evening of the day that has been mentioned, having turned his -reflector (an excellent seven feet reflector of his own constructing) -to a particular part of the sky, he observed among the other stars one -which seemed to shine with a more steady radiance than those around it; -and on account of that and other peculiarities in its appearance, which -excited his suspicions, he determined to observe it more narrowly. On -reverting to it after some hours, he was a good deal surprised to find -that it had perceptibly changed its place--a fact which the next day -became more indisputable. At first he was somewhat in doubt whether -or not it was the same star which he had seen on these different -occasions; but, after continuing his observations for a few days -longer, all uncertainty upon that head vanished. He now communicated -what he had observed to the astronomer royal, who concluded the -luminary could be nothing else than a new comet. Continued observation -of it, however, for a few months, dissipated this error; and it became -evident that it was in reality a hitherto undiscovered planet. This new -world so unexpectedly found to form a part of the system to which our -own belongs, received from Herschel, the name of the _Georgium Sidus_, -or Georgian Star, in honour of the King of England; but by continental -astronomers it has been more generally called either _Herschel_, after -its discoverer, or _Uranus_. Subsequent observations, made chiefly by -Herschel himself, have ascertained many particulars regarding it, some -of which are well calculated to fill us with astonishment at the powers -of the sublime science which can wing its way so far into the immensity -of space, and bring us back information so precise and various. In -the first place, the diameter of this new globe has been found to be -nearly four and a half times larger than that of our own. Its size -altogether is about eighty times that of our earth. Its year is as long -as eighty-three of ours. - -Its distance from the sun is nearly eighteen hundred millions of miles, -or more than nineteen times that of the earth. Its density, as compared -with that of the earth, is nearly as twenty-two to one hundred; so -that its entire weight is more than eighteen times that of our planet. -Finally the force of gravitation near its surface is such, that falling -bodies descend only through fourteen feet during the first second, -instead of thirty-two feet as with us. Herschel afterwards discovered -no fewer than six satellites, or moons, belonging to his new planet. - -The announcement of the discovery of the Georgium Sidus at once made -Herschel’s name universally known. In the course of a few months the -king bestowed on him a pension of three hundred pounds a year, that -he might be able entirely to relinquish his engagements at Bath; and -upon this he came to reside at Slough, near Windsor. He now devoted -himself entirely to science; and the construction of telescopes, and -observations of the heavens, continued to form the occupations of the -remainder of his life. Astronomy is indebted to him for many other most -interesting discoveries besides the celebrated one of which we have -just given an account, as well as a variety of speculations of the most -ingenious, original, and profound character. But of these we cannot -here attempt any detail. He also introduced some important improvements -into the construction of the reflecting telescope--beside continuing -to fabricate that instrument of dimensions greatly exceeding any that -had been formerly attempted, with the powers surpassing in nearly a -corresponding degree, what had ever been before obtained. The largest -telescope which he ever made, was his famous one of forty feet long, -which he erected at Slough for the king. It was begun about the end -of the year 1785, and on the 28th of August, 1789, the enormous tube -was poised on the complicated but ingeniously contrived mechanism by -which its movements were to be regulated, and ready for use. On the -same day a new satellite of Saturn was detected by it, being the sixth -which had been observed attendant upon that planet. A seventh was -afterwards discovered by means of the same instrument. This telescope -has been taken down and replaced by another of only half the length, -constructed by Mr. J. Herschel, the distinguished son of the subject -of our present sketch. Herschel himself eventually became convinced -that no telescope could surpass, in magnifying power, one of from -twenty to twenty-five feet in length. The French astronomer, Lalande, -states that he was informed by George III. himself, that it was at his -desire that Herschel was induced to make the telescope at Slough of the -extraordinary length he did, his own wish being that it should not be -more than thirty feet long. - -So extraordinary was the ardour of this great astronomer in the study -of his favourite science, that for many years it has been asserted, -he never was in bed at any hour during which the stars were visible. -And he made almost all his observations, whatever was the season of -the year, not under cover, but in his garden, in the open air--and -generally without an attendant. There was much that was peculiar to -himself, not only in the process by which he fabricated his telescopes, -but also in his manner of using them. One of the attendants in the -king’s observatory at Richmond, who had formerly been a workman in -Ramsden’s establishment, was forcibly reminded, on seeing Herschel -take an observation, of a remark which his old master had made. -Having just completed one of his best telescopes, Ramsden, addressing -himself to his workman, said, “This, I believe, is the highest degree -of perfection we opticians by profession will ever arrive at; if any -improvement of importance shall ever after this be introduced in the -making of telescopes, it will be by some one who has not been taught by -us.” - -Some years before his death, the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon -Herschel by the University of Oxford; and in 1816, the Prince Regent -bestowed upon him the Hanoverian and Guelphic Order of Knighthood. He -died on the 23rd of August, 1822, when he was within a few months of -having completed his eighty-fourth year. - -We have been thus particular in the enumeration of particulars in the -lives of those great men, who have cultivated this sublime science, -for the purpose of availing ourselves of a suggestion furnished by Dr. -Priestly, who observed, “That we could only see Newton in two points of -his career: at the bottom of the ladder, and at the top; having left no -account of his progress, it appeared as though he had broken the steps -by which he had ascended, that none should follow.” - -From the facts collected by the many eminent men whose names have -ornamented our pages, we are enabled to state the following particulars -concerning that part of the universe denominated the Solar system. - -The _Sun_, a luminous body diffusing light and heat; whose diameter -is computed at 890,000 miles; diurnal rotation on axis 25 days 6 -hours; performs his annual revolution in orbit in 365 days 6 hours; -progressive equatorial motion in orbit per hour, 3818 miles. - -_Mercury_, whose diameter is 3,000 miles, revolves in an orbit -36,481,448 miles from that of the sun. He performs his annual period -round that planet in 87 days 23 hours; his hourly equatorial motion in -orbit is 109,699 miles. - -_Venus_,--her diameter is 9,330 miles; revolves in an orbit 68,891,486 -miles distant from the sun; performs her annual revolution in 224 days -17 hours; diurnal rotation on axis 24 days 8 hours: hourly equatorial -motion in orbit 80,295 miles. - -The _Earth_,--its diameter 7970 miles; distance of orbit from the sun -95,173,000 miles; revolves on its axis once in 24 hours; performs her -annual period round the sun in the same time the sun completes his -revolution; hourly equatorial and progressive motion in orbit 80,295 -miles. - -The _Moon_ is a satellite to the earth; her diameter is 2180 miles; her -diurnal rotation on axis is performed in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; -she performs her annual revolution round the sun in precisely the same -time as does the earth, her superior planet; her motion in orbit per -hour is 22,290 miles. - -_Mars_,--his diameter is 5400 miles; distance from the sun, 145,014,148 -miles; annual period round the sun 671 days, 17 hours; diurnal rotation -on axis 19 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; hourly motion in orbit 55,287 -miles. - -_Jupiter_,--his diameter 94,000 miles; distance from the sun -494,990,976 miles; annual period in 11 years, 314 days, 18 hours; -diurnal rotation on axis 9 hours, 56 minutes; hourly motion in orbit -29,803 miles. - -_Saturn_,--his diameter 78,000 miles; distance from the sun 907,956,130 -miles; annual revolution in orbit 22 years, 167 days, 6 hours; hourly -motion in orbit 22,101 miles. - -It should be observed that Jupiter has four moons, or satellites, with -a large and very luminous belt at a great distance from his surface. -Saturn also has seven moons, with a very luminous ring about 21,000 -miles broad, from its uppermost to its undermost edge; and about the -same distance from its surface. - -_Georgium Sidus_,--the distance of the orbit from the sun, -1,758,000,000 miles; annual revolution 28 years, 289 days; diameter -56,726 miles; has two satellites, or moons. - -About 1801, 2, and 4, there were discovered three other small planets -in the system of the sun, called _Vesta_, _Juno_, and _Pallas_. - -The fixed stars composing the _Zodiacal Signs_, are divided into twelve -constellations, one to each month; which asterisms were discovered by -Flamstead to consist of the following number of stars to each: - -_Aries_, the Ram, 66; _Taurus_, the Bull, 141; _Gemini_, the Twins, 85; -_Cancer_, the Crab, 83; _Leo_, the Lion, 95; _Virgo_, the Virgin, 110; -_Libra_, the Scales, 51; _Scorpio_, the Scorpion, 44; _Sagitarius_, the -Archer, 69; _Capricornus_, the Goat, 51; _Aquarius_, the Water-Carrier, -108; _Pisces_, the Fishes, 113. - -A comparative idea of the extent of the works of Omnipotence may be -perhaps collected, on our being informed, that the sphere where the -fixed stars appear, is presumed to be placed far beyond the most remote -planetary orbit; and that some of them are supposed to serve as suns to -illumine other systems, or worlds, to us unknown. - - - - -NAVIGATION. - - -The sacred records inform us that the ark of Noah was the first ship, -and produced by the invention of the great Architect of Nature himself; -and “though some men have so believed,” says the learned and ingenious -Sir Walter Raleigh, in his “History of the World,” “yet it is certain -the world was planted before the flood, which could not be performed -without some transporting vessels. It is true, and the success has -proved that there was not any so capacious, nor any so strong, as to -defend themselves against so violent and so continued a pouring down of -rain, as the ark of which Noah was the builder, from the invention of -God himself. Of what fashion or fabric soever were the rest, with all -men they perished according to the ordinance of God.” And it appears -extremely probable that those testimonials, whereof Ovid speaks of -former existence, were remains of ships wrecked at the general flood. - -There can be no question that the Syrians were the first maritime power -in the world, as well in point of time as importance;--but of what -species of construction their vessels were, we are not informed. Their -merchants trading to the Eastern Indies, as they did for Solomon; to -Ophir, whence they brought gold; and also to this country for tin, and -their having made three distinct descents upon America, will enable us -to maintain this our opinion. After them the Greeks, a people living -chiefly on the shores of the Hellespont and Ægean seas, with many -islands in the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Archipelagion Seas, besides -their possessions in Asia Minor, and their commerce with the European -Continent, obtained the next power by sea. We read indeed, that Minos, -the famous Cretan sovereign and legislator, who lived two descents -before the Trojan war, sent out shipping to free the Grecian seas of -pirates; which shows, as Sir Walter Raleigh ingeniously infers, that -there had been trade and war upon the waters before his time also. - -The next in point of time and importance on record was the highly -renowned expedition of the Argonauts for the golden fleece to Colchis, -a country of Asia, on the Euxine sea. Immediately after this was the -colonization of Cyrene, in Africa, by Battus, one of the companions -of Jason, in his Colchian expedition. Shortly afterwards, the Grecian -states united against Phrygian treachery and the abuse of Grecian -hospitality; forming another most memorable epoch in the history of the -world. We are informed the Grecian Neptune, or as mythology styles him -a God of the Saturnian family, for the great service he did his father, -Saturn, or Noah, against the Titans, had the seas given to him. History -informs us that the first inventor of rowing vessels was a citizen -of Corinth; and likewise that the first naval war was between the -Samians and Corcyrians. The history of Ithicus, translated into Latin -by St. Jerome, affirms that Griphon, the Scythian, was the inventor -of long-boats; and Strabo also gives the honour of the invention of -the anchor to another Scythian, the famous Anacharsis, whilst Greece -herself by her historians, ascribes its invention to Eupolemus. Also, -it is said, that Icarus invented the sail, and others, various other -pieces of the component parts of ships and boats. The specification of -such other imperfect memoirs, many of fabulous appearance, may be of no -great importance. - -It appears certain that among the four sons of Javan, the son of -Japhet, the grandson, and other the posterity of Noah, who peopled -the “Isles of the Gentiles,” the Grecian Islands must long before the -days of Minos have used those seas, from the insular nature of their -inhabitants. And it certainly does not appear extravagant to us, to -presume that this people were among the first who navigated the seas. -Mankind in various parts of the world, being stimulated by the same -necessities, urged by the same wants, and possessing the same means, -might probably produce similar inventions to each other. Most, indeed, -had occasion to navigate lakes, and cross rivers. They accordingly -constructed such machines as would answer their purpose of passage or -migration. So were rafts and canoes, formed of canes, osiers, twigs, -&c., where they grew, which they fashioned like boats, and then -covered with skins of various animals; others formed rafts of wood; -whilst some others fashioned canoes, having hollowed out trees for that -purpose. One way or other, each people thus possessed a marine, proper -for their purpose it is true, but in various degrees of excellence. -This was the case with Greeks as well as barbarians of all nations; -all these people, excepting the immediate descendants of Noah, might, -perhaps, lay a feasible claim to the honour of the original invention -of these articles; and, having never seen such, they virtually have -each a good title to the distinction. Indeed, many of them might have -taken the idea for such invention from the policy of certain animals, -and the nature of others; to instance the sagacity of the beaver and -his raft, and the little nautilus with his swelling sail: hence they -might have adopted from that animal, and that piscatory insect, the -idea of a raft, and also of a vessel with a sail. - -In latter days we find the Teutonic Saxons first came to this country, -according to Mr. Turner, the Anglo-Saxon historian, in vessels they -called _cyules-kells_ by Sir Walter Raleigh. Marine vessels have borne -a variety of names, as well as of numerous figures, from the gondola of -the Venetian to the canoe of the Esquimaux,--the British man-of-war to -the ponderous bonaventure in which the Doge annually espouses the sea. - -All those nations, too, through whose hands the maritime power has -passed, from time to time, as they have been instructed by experience, -or taught by necessity, might repeatedly have made additions and -improvements in naval architecture: some calculated for mercantile -utility, while others have only attended to warlike strength, and some -to answer both purposes, like our Indiamen. But now, the British navy, -being supplied with the best materials, and having as ingenious workmen -as any, with the addition of the warlike children of the soil, may -openly defy all nations, and proudly claim the sovereignty of the seas -where her flag has been flying ’midst the battle and the breeze for so -many years. - -But the most important improvement in Navigation--propelling vessels -by steam--has been left to our own times. The steam-engine was first -applied to small vessels for the coasting or river trade; but it has -now increased to vessels of the largest size,--in fact, the most -part of the British navy are steamships. In former times before the -introduction of this valuable auxiliary, the passage between England -and America was tedious and uncertain, sometimes taking months, but -rarely less than from four to six weeks, according to the state of -the weather; but now the case is altered. There are a regular line of -steamships, one of which leaves Liverpool every week, and the voyage -is performed with almost positive certainty in from twelve to fourteen -days, independent of the rude Boreas, or the boisterous Atlantic. -These vessels are of the largest size and handsomely fitted up for the -accommodation of passengers. - - - - -LIGHT-HOUSES. - - -A light-house, in marine architecture, is a building, or watch-tower, -erected on the sea-shore, to serve as a land-mark to mariners, on a low -coast, by day, and, in any situation, to inform them of their approach -to land in the night;--being of most essential utility in causing them -to take soundings, avoid shoals, rocks, &c.; or else it is a building -erected on a rock in the sea, which, from its situation, would be -extremely dangerous to vessels, were not some intimation given of the -existence of a rock, where it is locally situated. Of this latter -description is the celebrated Eddystone light-house, off Plymouth. - -Although this species of architecture is not likely to have been -so general in extreme antiquity, because it could not have been -essentially necessary to any except to those nations who, from the -proximity of their situation to the coast, or other circumstances, -pursued maritime concerns; or to those whose connexions rendered the -encouragement of the marine of other nations important. - -The oldest building of this description, which we believe to be upon -record, is the famous Pharos erected on the Egyptian coast, which, -being very low land, and exposed entirely to the almost constant west -winds coming up the Mediterranean from the vast Atlantic, must, of -necessity, have made the port of modern Alexandria, anciently called -Dalmietta, very dangerous. It was originally erected by Ptolemy -Philadelphus, for the encouragement and convenience of the Phœnicians, -who were accounted the foreign factors of that empire; as the Egyptians -possessed an unconquerable aversion to the sea, and therefore they -never obtained its sovereignty: whilst the former people were the first -who obtained the supremacy of that sea. - -The island upon which Pharos stood, in the time of Homer, in his simple -geography and estimation, was said to be one day’s sail from the -Delta; whereas, since the foundation of Alexandria, it was only a mile -in distance, and was even joined to the mainland by a mole, having a -bridge at each end; or according to some authors, in the middle. The -tower was, if report be true, justly entitled to the appellation it -obtained--one of the seven wonders of the world; and it is reported, -that the light from it has been seen at the distance of a hundred -miles; which, assuredly, appears improbable, because the convexity of -the earth, we think, would not permit. Its height must have been, at -least, 2,400 feet, or 800 yards from the base. - -We are enabled to furnish the following particulars of this famous -structure. It was built by order of that patron of learning and the -arts, Ptolemy Philadelphus, by that eminent architect, Sostrates, who -constructed many of the public buildings in Alexandria. It is said -to have cost Ptolemy eight hundred talents! Respecting its mode of -construction, it was raised several stories one above another; each -was decorated with columns, balustrades, and galleries of the finest -marble and most exquisite workmanship; and some have even said that -the architect had furnished the galleries with large mirrors, by which -shipping could be seen at a great distance. However, respecting this -edifice, once so famous, that its very name, Pharos, was considered -as a common term for all other constructions for the same purpose, it -is now said, from Saracenic ignorance and brutality, aided, perhaps, -by the assistance of the common leveller, Time, that nothing now -remains of this once elegant edifice, but an unsightly tower rising -out of a heap of ruins, the whole being accommodated to the inequality -of the ground on which it stands, and being, at present, no higher -than that which it should command. Such as it is, there is now a -light, we understand, usually maintained. There is also an island, -which was called Pharos, in the Adriatic sea, on the coast of Italy, -opposite Brundusium, for the same reason: likewise the celebrated -colossal statue of Apollo, at Rhodes, answered the same purpose, and -occasionally had the same appellation, as had a river of Asia, in the -environs of Cilicia and the Euphrates. This last consideration brings -us to the etymology of the word, as Ozanum says, “Pharos originally -signified a strait, as the Pharos of Messina.” Of every description of -light-houses yet known, there is none more famous than that called -Eddystone, with a description of which we shall conclude this article. - -Mr. Winstanley’s light-house was begun upon the Eddystone rock in -1696, and was more than four years in building, from the numerous -interruptions of the wind and the element he had to contend with, the -violence whereof is truly alarming, occasioned by that rock being -exposed to every wind which comes up the vast Atlantic, and that -tumultuous sea, the Bay of Biscay. These obstacles were considerably -increased by the shape of the rock itself, having a regular slope -to S.W., and from the very deep sea in its vicinity, it, therefore, -receives the uncontrolled fury of those seas: meeting with no other -object whereon to break their vehement force, the effect is so great -at high water with a S.W. wind, which continues for many days, though -a calm may have succeeded, the violent action of the waters has not -ceased, but break frightfully on Eddystone. An engraving of Mr. -Winstanley’s light-house was published at the period of its erection, -from which it appears to have been a stone tower of twelve sides, -rising forty-four feet above the highest point of the rock, which, in -the dimensions on which it was built, twenty-four feet in diameter, was -ten feet lower on one side than it was upon the other; at the top was -a balustrade and platform; upon this were erected eight pillars, which -supported a dome of the same dimensions as the tower; from the top of -which arose an octagon tower, of a diameter of fifteen feet, and seven -in height. On the summit was placed the lantern, ten feet in diameter, -and twelve in height: it had a gallery surrounding it, which gave -access to the windows. The whole was surrounded by fencible iron-work. -The entry was by a solid stone door at the bottom; the whole building -was of the same material, except the aperture for the staircase. At the -bottom was a room twelve feet high for a store-room; the next story -was of the same height, which was the stateroom; and the third was of -a similar height, which was the kitchen. Those compartments occupied -the whole height to the platform. The dome above this contained the -lodging-room; the octagon above it, the look-out. - -The reason why it occupied so much time in building was, because -the men could only work in the summer months. The first summer was -occupied in making holes in the rock, and fastening irons to hold the -future work. The second year was spent in erecting a solid pillar, -of fourteen feet diameter, and one hundred and twelve feet high, for -the future support of the building. The third year, it was augmented -in diameter and increased in height. This building was eventually -finished, within the time above-mentioned, at an enormous expense. It -stood the opposition of the elements. The violence of the sea was so -great, that Mr. Winstanley said it has been seen to rise upwards of -one hundred feet above the vane, whilst the sides of the building were -covered with surf as with a sheet, so that the whole house and lantern -were occasionally under water. This edifice withstood the conflict of -elements till 1703, when the architect, being at Plymouth, and desirous -of visiting it, for the purpose of inspecting some repairs, went to -it, but returned no more; for a storm arose, which left not a relic -of it standing, except the iron work, which had been fixed in the -rock. The Corporation of the Trinity House had then to erect another, -for which purpose they employed a Mr. John Rudyard, who was a silk -mercer, on Ludgate-hill. Mr. Rudyard’s mechanical ingenuity was said -to have qualified him well for the undertaking. It appears that he -erected a house made chiefly of wood, which presented many traits of -his genius. It was a conical frustrum, one hundred and fifty-six feet -in diameter at the base; its altitude sixty-two feet. At the top of -the building was a balcony, railed round; in the centre of its area -was the lantern. This building was made quite plain, excepting the -well for the staircase, which was solid for thirty-two feet. In the -centre a strong mast was erected. The building was admirably fixed to -the rock, from the very peculiar manner of making the holes to hold -iron cramps, they being made for the internal cavity to diverge on -each side, by an extreme of one inch at the depth of sixteen inches. -The cavity was first filled with tallow; the hot iron then dipped -in the same substance, put in the rock, and eventually filled with -pewter, which displaced the tallow, being heavier, the grease serving -to protect the iron from the corrosive acidity of the salt water. In -1708, it was finished so far as to receive a temporary light. It stood -forty-four years, and showed that it was liable to destruction from the -very perishable nature of its materials. However, on the 2nd December, -1755, the upper part of it taking fire, burnt downwards to its entire -consumption. The concern had been leased to a Captain Lovell; but at a -later period his possessions were distributed among a number of people, -when the care of rebuilding it was entrusted to Mr. Robert Weston, to -whom Mr. John Smeaton was recommended by the President of the Royal -Society, who appears to have been well qualified for the undertaking. -He accordingly furnished a plan for, and superintended the building -which now stands. Mr. Smeaton’s conjecture was quite different to that -of the late projector; he conceived that nothing could withstand the -action of the wind and water so well, and at the same time, prevent -such accidents as the past, as could a building whose gravity should -secure its most sure protection, He accordingly constructed his of -the most massy stones, all dovetailed into each other, formed of -Cornish-moor and Portland stone; all the joints breach each other, as -the masons term it, or on each joint occurs the central stone of the -next course. There are fourteen courses of these stones first laid in -this manner, of a great thickness each course. On the 12th June, 1757, -the first stone was laid in its place, each stone being pierced when -it was laid, a strong oak pin was driven through to pin it fast to its -place: the dovetails not fitting so close to each other, because it was -necessary to leave some space for the cement, this pin was calculated -to secure the stone till this could be applied and had fixed; the -cement used was composed of Watchet lime and _puzzolana_, or Dutch -terras, being made at the moment by mixing up in a pail, with water; -this mixture was poured upon the work, and run into every cavity and -crevice; this, however, was sometimes not exempt from the injury of the -sea; whenever it was injured, the defect was supplied by having some -oakum cut fine, and mixed with this cement, introduced into the joints; -then they were secured with a coat of plaster of Paris, _pro tempore_, -and this was never known to fail, if the work stood for one tide. In -this manner the platform was erected, all of the most solid materials, -and substantial workmanship. - -On the 30th of September, 1758, the work having been continued from -the 11th of the preceding May, had arrived at the store-room floor; -here an iron chain was let into the stone, as follows: the recess being -made and the chain being well oiled before insertion, the groove which -received it was divided into four separate dams by clay; two kettles -were used, to hold a sufficiency of melted lead, eleven hundred weight; -whilst the lead was in a state of fusion, two men with ladles filled -one quarter of the groove; as soon as it set, they removed one of the -clay dams, and then filled the next quarter, pouring the liquid on the -middle of the first quarter, it melted together into the second; the -dam at the opposite end was now filled, and then the fourth; by this -means the lead was associated into one solid mass. The centring for -the floor was next set up, the outward stones being first set, and -then the inner ones. Thus the base floor was finished. The men could -work no longer than till the 7th of October that year. The winter was -spent in preparing the iron, copper, and glass work for the lantern; -and the spring in unsuccessful endeavours to discover the moorings -for the vessel which attended the works, for the occasional retreat -of the workmen. On the 5th of July the work was resumed: the stones -for building had been hitherto raised from the boats by what are -called shears, formed of two poles, with the lowermost ends extended -to a sufficient width, whilst the upper ends met in a point; here was -fastened tackle, pulleys, &c., to raise them to a sufficient height to -be swung over the building; this course was now of necessity altered; -a block with pulleys being suspended from the top, projected to a -sufficient distance, supported by beams. After the base had been formed -as described, a different mode of operation was necessary to complete -the superstructure; the work being now advanced so high as to be out of -the constant wash of the sea. Instead of grooves being formed to fasten -the stones together, they were fixed by means of iron clamps and lead. -The stones to complete the superstructure were landed, and first drawn -up by machinery, called a _jack_, through the well, in the interior of -the building, being a cavity for the staircase. The work now proceeded -more rapidly, so that by the 26th of August, the stairs and all the -masonry were finished: the iron frame for the lantern was next screwed -together in its place, and the lantern soon completed. It should have -been noticed, that after the first entry was closed, the shears were -supported by a tackle called a _guy_, attached to the top of the -shears, and hooked so far on the outside of the building; the stone -being drawn up by a windlass, the guy was drawn in to swing the stone -over the building. The balcony rails and the stone basement for the -lantern having been completed, on the 17th of September the cupola was -set up by a particular kind of shears constructed purposely, the guy in -different places being fastened to booms projecting from the several -windows of the upper rooms; the next day the ball was screwed on, -and on the 11th of October, an electrical conductor was fixed, which -finished the edifice. A light was then exhibited, which has continued -to warn the mariner ever since. An ably constructed cornice throws the -spray from off the building, so that it is often seen at Plymouth with -the appearance of a white sheet, throwing itself to double the height -of the building, which from low water mark to the apex of the ball is -one hundred feet. - -We have been thus minute, because this pharos is considered to be the -best constructed of all our lighthouses. - - - - -ELECTRICITY. - - -Electricity was a property but imperfectly understood by the ancients; -indeed, it has been said, they were entirely unacquainted with it. But -we propose, shortly, to show the extent to which we are informed their -sphere of knowledge extended. This much cannot be denied, that they -were acquainted with the electrical properties of amber, of which fact -we are informed by Pliny. - -Even before Pliny, however, as early as the days of Thalis, who lived -near six hundred years anterior to the Roman historian, the Miletine -philosophers ascribed the attractive power of the magnet and of amber -to animation by a vital principle. Our word “electricity” appears to -be derived from the name the Latins gave to amber, _electrum_. It is -also evident that they were acquainted with the shock of the torpedo; -although they were ignorant, as are the moderns, of the concealed cause -of this effect. - -It has been asserted that the ancients knew how to collect the -electrical fire in the atmosphere; and it is also said, that it was -in an experiment of this nature that Tullus Hostilius lost his life. -Etymologists have carried us still farther back, and assert that it -was from the electrical property in the heavens that Jove obtained his -surname of Jupiter _Eliaus_. This, however, may be only conjectural. - -The first discoveries made of sufficient importance to demand the -appellation of “scientific” in the science of electricity, were -effected by Dr. W. Gilbert, the result of which he gave the world, in -the year 1660, in a book then published, entitled “De Magneto,” and -Dr. Gilbert was followed in his pursuits by that celebrated scientific -character, the honourable and illustrious Boyle, and other men eminent -for that species of information. - -This science was successfully cultivated in the last century by many -eminent philosophers, among whom we may mention Hawkesbee, Grey, -Muschenbrook, Doctors Franklin and Priestly, Bishop Watson, Mr. -Cavendish, and several other members of the Royal Society of England; -whilst those worthy of the true philosophic character in France did not -neglect its cultivation. - -Many fatal accidents have resulted from experiments made by people -ignorant of the science. On the 6th of August, 1753, at Petersburg, -Professor Richmann lost his life by endeavouring to draw the electric -fluid into his house. - -Electricity, like many others of the arcana of nature, still retains -almost as deeply shaded from human view as when its existence was first -made known. Nature appears to have certain secret operations, which -are not yet, perhaps, to be revealed. - - -ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. - -This is the most surprising invention of modern times, and of the -greatest importance to a commercial people; by means of it intelligence -is conveyed from one end of the kingdom to another, in the twinkling -of an eye. A company was fully organised for the carrying out this -invention, which commenced its operations in 1848, and established a -system of no ordinary complication and extent. Their wires stretch -from Glasgow on the north, to Dorchester, on the south, from the east -coast, at Yarmouth, to the west, at Liverpool. These have brought -upwards of one hundred and fifty towns into instant communication -with each other. The wires set up for the use of the public alone are -upwards of nine thousand eight hundred miles in length, and extend over -a distance of two thousand and sixty miles, and, exclusive of those -running underground, and through tunnels or rivers, are stretched on -no fewer than sixty-one thousand eight hundred posts, varying from -sixteen to thirty feet in height, and of an average square of eight -inches, with an expensive apparatus of insulators and winders attached -to each. As the most trifling derangement of the wires or apparatus -will stop the communication, it is obvious that the utmost care and -watchfulness is requisite to prevent and detect accidents. Accordingly, -the whole distance is divided into districts, each district having -a superintendent, and under him several inspectors, and a staff of -workmen, batterymen, and mechanics, more or less numerous, according to -the extent over which he presides.--When we consider these things, in -conjunction with the central staff of engineers, secretaries, &c., at -the head-establishment in London, a maximum charge of one penny per -mile cannot be considered an exorbitant demand for the accommodation -afforded to the public in keeping open so many receiving stations, -and the maintenance of the expensive establishments. The telegraphic -system is designed for important and urgent messages, and it may be -safely averred that not one despatch in a hundred has been as yet -forwarded by it, which has not been by many times worth more than the -sum paid by the sender. A commercial house in Liverpool will scarcely -grudge 8s. 6d. for a communication by which a necessary payment may be -made, an important order given, or a profitable operation facilitated -in London; and the message from Glasgow, which traverses a distance -of five hundred and twenty miles in an instant, to summon a son from -the metropolis, it may be, to the bedside of a dying parent, cannot -be judged exorbitant at a charge of 14s., considerably less than one -halfpenny per mile. - -Messrs. Wilmer and Smith, of Liverpool, publishers of the “European -Times,” have arranged the most admirable code of signals in the world; -and by the use of forty-eight letters are capable of transmitting -intelligence equal to half a column of an ordinary newspaper. The -telegraphic company disapprove of this species of short-hand, and, -therefore, charge for the forty-eight letters 13s. This Messrs. Wilmer -and Smith consider excessive, as they have forwarded similar messages -by telegraph, four thousand miles in America, for 8s., and from -Philadelphia to New York for 1s. These gentlemen, therefore, consider -they have cause to find fault with the company in reference to charges -for communications in cipher. - - - - -STEAM-ENGINES. - - -The Steam-Engine is one of the most important of human discoveries, and -is certainly one of those which afford the greatest portion of ease -and advantage to the human species, as well in the operation of its -cause, as in its ultimate effects. The most powerful of machines had -its origin from the single idea of one individual of our own nation. It -has been, from time to time, improved by different individuals, also -natives of Britain, the precise period of which improvements can be -traced, and their effects fortunately ascertained. - -Although we should observe, that the first principle of this mechanical -power was discovered by some of the ancient nations, many ages before -that which gave the origin to the present practised invention, but -from the state of information, it is conceived, to answer no purpose -of utility. It may be said to have occurred in a small machine which -the ancients called an _Æolipila_ (the bull of Æolus) consisting of -a hollow ball of metal, with a slender neck, or pipe, also of metal, -having a small orifice entering into the ball, by means of a screw; -this pipe being taken out, the ball being filled with water, and the -pipe again screwed in, the ball is heated--there issues from the -orifice, when sufficiently hot, a vapour, with great violence and -noise; care was required that this should not be by accident stopped, -if it were, the machine would infallibly burst, and perhaps, to the -danger of the lives of all in its vicinity, so immense is its power. - -Another way of introducing the water was first to heat the ball -when empty, and then suddenly to immerse it in water. Descartes, -in particular, has used this instrument to account for the natural -generation of winds. Chauvin thinks it might be employed instead of -bellows, to blow a fire. It would admirably serve to fumigate a room, -being filled with perfume instead of common water. It is said to have -been applied to clear chimneys of their soot, a practice still alleged -to be common in Italy. Dr. Plott, in his “History of Staffordshire,” -records this singular custom, where the Æolipila is used to blow the -fire. “The lord of the mannor of Essington is bound by his tenure to -drive a goose, every New Year’s day, three times round the hall of the -Lord of Hilton, while Jack of Hilton, a brazen Æolipila, blows the -fire.” The last circumstance we shall mention of this instrument, has -relation to an antique one, discovered whilst digging the Basingstoke -canal, representing a grotesque metallic figure, in which the blast -proceeded from the mouth. This figure is now in the possession of the -Society of Antiquaries of London. In this instrument, the uncommon -elastic force of steam was recognised before the suggestion of the -Marquis of Worcester, which follows: - -“In 1655, or subsequent thereto, the Marquis of Worcester published -the earliest account of the application of this power for the -purposes of utility, and suggested it as applicable to raising water. -‘Sixty-eight. An admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by -fire; not by drawing or sucking it upwards, for that would be what -the philosopher calleth it, _intra spherum actroctatis_, which is, -but at such a distance. But this way has no bounder, if the vessel be -strong enough; for I have taken a whole piece of cannon, whereof the -end was burst, stopping and screwing up the broken end, as also the -touch-hole; and making a constant fire under it, within twenty-four -hours it burst and made a great crack: so that having a way to make -my vessels, so that they are strengthened by the force within them, -and the one to fill after the other, I have seen the water run like a -constant fountain stream, forty feet high; one vessel of cold water -being consumed, another begins to force and refill with cold water, -and so successively; the fire being tended and kept constant, which -the self-same person may likewise abundantly perform, in the interim -between the necessity of turning the cocks.’” - -The marquis’s ingenuity did not, it appears, meet with that attention -which it deserved, from those to whom his communication was addressed. -In the article of steam it has been since very much improved, and -is acted upon for the most useful of purposes; also his ideas for -short-hand telegraphs, floating baths, escutcheons for locks, moulds -for candles, and a mode to disengage horses from a carriage, after they -have taken fright; which, with several others, proclaim the originality -and ingenuity of the mind of this nobleman--an honour which very few of -the British nobility aspire to. - -Since his time, another design upon the same principle has been -projected by Captain Thomas Savery, a commissioner of sick and -wounded, who in the year 1691 obtained a patent for “a new invention -for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work, -by the impellant force of fire.” This patent bears date the 25th of -July, sixteenth of William III., A. D. 1698. The patent states that the -invention will be of great use for drawing of mines, serving towns with -water, and working all sorts of mills. “Mr. Savery, June 14th, 1699, -entertained the Royal Society with showing a model of his engine for -raising water by help of fire, which he set to work before them; the -experiment succeeded according to expectation.” - -The above memoir is accompanied with a copperplate figure, with -references by way of description; from whence it appears, that the -engine then shown by Captain Savery was for raising water, not only by -the expansive force of steam, like the Marquis of Worcester’s, but also -by the condensation of steam, the water being raised by the pressure -of a rarified atmosphere to a given height, by the expansive force of -steam, in the same manner as the Marquis proposed. This action was -performed alternately in two receivers, so that while the vacuum formed -in one was drawing up water from the well, the pressure of steam in -the other was forcing up water into the reservoir; but both receivers -being supplied by one suction-pipe and one forcing-pipe, the engine -could be made to keep a continual stream, so as to suffer very little -interruption. This engine of Captain Savery’s displays much ingenuity, -and is almost as perfect in its contrivance as the same engine has been -made since his time. We regret, that without a figure we cannot supply -a perfect description of it. - -However, it appears that it was necessary to have two boilers, or -vessels of copper, one large and the other smaller: those boilers have -a gauge-pipe inserted into the smaller boiler, within about eight -inches of its bottom, and about the centre of the side of the larger -boiler; the small boiler must be quite full of water, and the larger -one only about two-thirds full. The fire is then to be lighted beneath -the larger boiler, to make the water boil, by which means the steam -being confined, will be greatly compressed, and will, therefore, on -opening a way for it to issue out (which is done by pushing the handle -of a regulator from the operator), rush with great violence through a -steam-pipe into a receiver, driving out all the air before it, sending -it up into a force-pipe through a clack, as may be perceived from its -noise; when the air is expelled, the receiver will be very much heated -by the steam. When it is thoroughly emptied of atmospheric air, and -grown very hot, which may be both seen and felt, then the handle of -the regulator is to be drawn towards the operator, by which means the -first steam-pipe will be stopped, so that no more steam can rise into -the first receiver, by which means a second receiver will be filled -in like manner. Whilst this is doing, some cold water must be poured -on the first receiver, by which means the steam in it will be cooled, -and thereby condensed into smaller room: consequently the pressure -in the valve, or cock, at the bottom of the receiver--there being -nothing to counterbalance the atmospheric pressure at the surface of -the receiver in the inner part of the sucking-pipe, it will be pressed -up into the receiver, driving up before it the valve at the bottom, -which afterwards falling again, prevents the descent of the water that -way. Then the first receiver being, at the same time, emptied of its -air, push the handle of the regulator, and the steam which rises from -the boiler will act upon the surface of the water contained in the -first receiver, where the force or pressure on it still increasing its -elasticity, till it exceeds the weight of a column of water in another -receiving-pipe, then it will necessarily drive up through the passage -into the force-pipe, and eventually discharge itself at the top of the -machinery. - -After the same manner, though alternately, is the first receiver -filled and emptied of water, and by this means a regular stream kept -continually running out of the top of a force-pipe, and so the water is -raised very often from the bottom of a mine, to the place where it is -meant to be discharged. - -It should be added, that after the machine begins to work, and the -water has risen into and filled the force-pipe, it fills also a -little cistern, and by that means fills another pipe, called the -condensing-pipe, which may be turned either way, over any of the -receivers, when either is thoroughly heated by, the steam, to condense -it within, thereby producing a vacuum, which absorbs the water out -of the well into the receiver, on the principle of a syphon. Also a -little above the cistern goes another pipe to convey the water from the -force-pipe into the lesser boiler, for the purpose of replenishing -the great boiler, when the water in it begins to be almost consumed. -Whenever there is occasion for this, the cock is to be turned which -communicates between the force-pipe and the lesser boiler, to close -it effectually; at the same time having put a little fire beneath the -small boiler, which will grow hot; its own steam, which has no vent to -escape, pressing on its surface, will force the water up another pipe, -through an aperture in the great boiler, and so long will it run, till -the surface of the water gets so low as to be beneath the bottom of the -pipe of communication--then the steam and water running together, will -cause the valve (called a clack) to strike, which will intimate to the -operator that it has discharged itself into the greater boiler, and -carried in as much water as is then necessary; after which, by turning -a cock, as much fresh water is let in as may be necessary; and then, by -turning another cock, new fresh water is let out of a recipient into -the less boiler as before; and thus the engine is supplied without fear -of decay, or any delay in the operations; and proper attention in the -workmen is only necessary to prevent disorder in a machine so expensive -and complicated. - -Also, to know when the great boiler wants replenishing, turn the -gauge-cock; if water comes out, it does not need a supply; but if steam -alone, then the want of water is certain. The like with the cock with -which the lesser boiler is prepared for the same purpose, when the -same state will be marked by like results. In working this engine, -very little skill, and less labour is required: _Attention_ is the -chief requisite; it is only to be injured by want of due care, extreme -stupidity, or wilful neglect. - -The engine described above, does not differ essentially from that first -designed by the inventor, Captain Savery; the chief alteration which -now occurs, is only in some few slight particulars. For example, the -original engine had only one boiler, and there was no ready means for -supplying it with water, to remedy the waste occasioned by evaporation -of steam, without stopping the action of the engine, whenever the -boiler was emptied to such a degree as to risk burning the vessel. -After it was replenished the machine had to remain idle till the steam -was raised, thus causing an immense loss of time; which is remedied by -the application of a second boiler. - -The description of the engine formerly mentioned is transcribed from -Mr. Savery’s publication, “The Miner’s Friend,” and which had a -subsidiary boiler, with water of a boiling heat, always ready to supply -the large boiler; and the power of steam raised in it is employed to -force the water into the larger boiler, to replace the waste occasioned -by evaporation from that boiler; by this means the transposition of -the feeding water is not only speedily performed, but being itself of -a boiling heat, it is instantly ready to produce steam for carrying -on the work. There is also one more grand improvement in the modern -machine: the first engine was worked by four separate cocks, which the -operator was compelled to turn separately at every change of stroke; -if he turned them wrong, he was not only liable to damage the engine, -but he prevented its effect, and, at the same time, lost a part of -the operation: whereas, in the improved engine, the communications -are made by a double sliding valve, or, as it has since been termed, -regulator; that is, a brass plate, shaped like a fan, and moving on a -centre within the boiler, so as to slide horizontally in contact with -the under surface of the cover of the boiler, to which it is accurately -fitted by grinding, and thus, at pleasure, opens or shuts the orifices, -or entries, to the steam pipes of the two receivers alternately. This -regulator acts with less friction than a cock of equal bore, and, by -the motion of a single handle backwards, at once opens the proper steam -pipe from one receiver, and closes that which belongs to the other -receiver. Captain Savery, in his publication before noticed, describes -the uses to which this machine may be applied, besides those before -described, viz.--1, to serve water for turning all sorts of mills; 2, -for supplying palaces, noblemen and gentlemen’s houses with water, and -affording the means for extinguishing fires therein, by the water so -raised; 3, the supplying cities and towns with water; 4, draining fens -and marshes; 5, for ships; 6, for draining mines of water; and 7, for -preventing damps in mines. - -Dr. Desaguliers, we conceive, ungenerously attacked Captain Savery’s -reputation, by alleging that this was not an original invention, and -that he was indebted for the first idea to the previously mentioned -plan of the Marquis of Worcester. Dr. Rees, with a generous liberality -worthy his great critical discrimination, scientific skill, and -general erudition, has, we think, ably defended the captain’s -character, by proving his ideas to have originated with himself; we -have only an opportunity to notice the most prominent features in this -justification, where Dr. Rees thus expresses himself. “We know that the -Marquis of Worcester gave no hint concerning the _contractibility or -condensation of steam, upon which all the merit of the modern engine -depends_. The Marquis of Worcester’s engine was actuated wholly by the -elastic power of steam, which he either found out, or proved by the -bursting of cannon in part filled with water; and not the least hint -that steam so expanded, is capable of being so far contracted in an -instant, as to leave the space it occupied in a vessel, and occasion, -in a great measure, a vacuum.” - -Subsequent to the Marquis of Worcester’s, and Captain Savery’s original -ideas, and also, subsequent to the perfection the captain had brought -his machine to, M. Amonton, a native of France, invented a machine -which he called a fire-wheel; but it does not appear that it was ever -brought to that perfection to be conducive to real utility, although -it was certainly very ingenious. - -Also, M. Papin, a native of Germany, made some pretensions to what -he alleged was an invention of his own, only it happened to appear, -unfortunately for his claim, that he was in London, and present at the -time when Captain Savery exhibited the model of his steam-engine to the -Royal Society. He made some unsuccessful experiments, by order of his -patron, the Landgrave of Hesse, which sufficiently proved that, if he -was the inventor, he did not understand the nature of his own machine. - -Not long after Savery had invented his engine, Thomas Newcomen, an -ironmonger, and John Calley, a glazier, began to direct their attention -to the employment of steam as a mechanic power. Their first engine -was constructed about the year 1711. This machine still acted on the -principle of condensing the steam by means of cold water, and the -pressure of the atmosphere on the piston. It was found of great value -in pumping water from deep mines; but the mode of its construction, the -great waste of fuel, the continued cooling and heating of the cylinder, -and the limited capacities of the atmosphere in impelling the piston -downward, all tended to circumscribe its utility. - -The steam-engine was in this state, when it happily attracted the -attention of Mr. Watt, to whom the merit and honour is due, of having -first rendered this invention available as a mechanical agent. We -cannot illustrate the improvements of this ingenious individual better -than by giving a short biographical sketch of him to whom the world is -so much indebted. - -James Watt was born at Greenock, an extensive seaport in the west of -Scotland, on the 19th of January, 1736. His father was a merchant, and -also one of the magistrates of that town. He received the rudiments of -his education in his native place; but his health being then extremely -delicate, as it continued to be to the end of his life, his attendance -at school was not always very regular. He amply made up, however, for -what he lost in this way, by the diligence with which he pursued his -studies at home, where, without any assistance, he succeeded, at a -very early age, in making considerable proficiency in various branches -of knowledge. Even at this time it is said his favourite study was -mechanical science, to a love of which he was probably in some degree -led by the example of his grandfather and his uncle, both of whom had -been teachers of mathematics, and had left a considerable reputation -for learning and ability in that department. Young Watt, however, was -not indebted to any instruction of theirs for his own acquirements in -science, the former having died two years before, and the latter one -year after he was born. At the age of eighteen he was sent to London, -to be apprenticed to a maker of mathematical instruments; but in -little more than a year the state of his health forced him to return -to Scotland; and he never received any further instruction in his -profession. A year or two after this, however, a visit which he paid -to some relations in Glasgow, suggested to him the plan of attempting -to establish himself in that city, in the line for which he had been -educated. In 1757, he accordingly removed thither, and was immediately -appointed mathematical instrument maker to the College. In this -situation he remained for some years, during which, notwithstanding -almost constant ill health, he continued both to prosecute his -profession, and to labour in the general cultivation of his mind, -with extraordinary ardour and perseverance. Here also he enjoyed the -intimacy and friendship of several distinguished persons, who were then -members of the University, especially of the celebrated Dr. Black, the -discoverer of the principle of latent heat, and Dr. Robison, so well -known by his treatises on mechanical science, who was then a student, -and about the same age as himself. Honourable, however as his present -appointment was, and important as were many of the advantages to -which it introduced him, he probably did not find it a very lucrative -one; and therefore, in 1763, when about to marry, he removed from his -apartments in the University, to a house in the city, and entered upon -the profession of a general engineer. - -For this his genius and scientific attainments most admirably -qualified him. Accordingly he soon acquired a high reputation, and -was extensively employed in making surveys and estimates for canals, -harbours, bridges, and other public works. His advice and assistance -were sought for in almost all the important improvements of this -description, which were now undertaken or proposed in his native -country. But another pursuit, in which he had been for some time -privately engaged, was destined ere long to withdraw him from this line -of exertion, and to occupy his whole mind with an object still more -worthy of its extraordinary powers. - -While yet residing in the College, his attention had been directed to -the employment of steam as a mechanical agent, by some speculations of -his friend Mr. Robison, with regard to the practicability of applying -it to the movement of wheel-carriages; and he had also himself made -some experiments with Papin’s digester, with the view of ascertaining -its expansive force. He had not prosecuted the inquiry, however, so -far as to have arrived at any determinate result, when the winter -of 1763-4, a small model of Newcomen’s engine was sent him by the -Professor of Natural Philosophy, to be repaired, and fitted for -exhibition in the class. The examination of this model set Watt upon -thinking anew, and with more interest than ever, on the powers of -steam. Struck with the radical imperfections of the atmospheric engine, -he began to turn in his mind the possibility of employing steam in -mechanics, in some new manner which should enable it to work with -much more powerful effect. This idea having got possession of him, -he engaged in an extensive course of experiments, for the purpose of -ascertaining as many facts as possible with regard to the properties -of steam; and the pains he took in this investigation were rewarded -with several valuable discoveries. The rapidity with which water -evaporates he found, for instance, depended simply upon the quantity -of heat which was made to enter it; and this again, on the extent of -the surface exposed to the fire. He also ascertained the quantity of -coals necessary for the evaporation of any given quantity of water, -the heat at which water boils, under various pressures, and many other -particulars of a similar kind, which had never before been accurately -determined. - -Thus prepared by a complete knowledge of the properties of the agent -with which he had to work, he next took into consideration, with a view -to their amendment, what he deemed the two great defects of Newcomen’s -engine. The first of these was the necessity arising from the method -employed to concentrate the steam, of cooling the cylinder, before -every stroke of the piston, by the water injected into it. On this -account, a much more powerful application of heat than would otherwise -have been requisite was demanded for the purpose of again heating that -vessel when it was to be refilled with steam. In fact, Watt ascertained -that there was thus occasioned, in the feeding of the machine, a waste -of not less than three-fourths of the whole fuel employed. If the -cylinder, instead of being thus cooled for every stroke of the piston, -could be permanently hot, a fourth part of the heat which had hitherto -been applied would be found sufficient to produce steam enough to fill -it. How then was this desideratum to be obtained? Savery, the first who -really constructed a working engine, and whose arrangements, as we have -already remarked, all showed a very superior ingenuity, employed the -method of throwing cold water over the outside of the vessel containing -the steam--a perfectly manageable process, but at the same time a very -wasteful one; inasmuch as every time it was repeated, it cooled not -only the steam, but the vessel also, which, therefore, had again to -be heated, by a large expenditure of fuel, before the steam could be -produced. Newcomen’s method of injecting the water into the cylinder -was a considerable improvement on this; but it was still objectionable -on the same ground, though not to the same degree; it still cooled not -only the steam, on which it was desired to produce that effect, but -also the cylinder itself, which, as the vessel in which more steam was -to be immediately manufactured, it was so important to keep hot. It -was also a very serious objection to this last mentioned plan, that -the injected water, itself, from the heat of the place into which it -was thrown, was very apt to be partly converted into steam; and the -more cold water was used, the more considerable did this creation of -new steam become. In fact, in the last of Newcomen’s engines, the -rarefaction of the vacuum was so greatly improved from this cause, -that the resistance experienced by the piston in its descent was found -to amount to about a fourth part of the whole atmospheric pressure by -which it was carried down, or, in other words, the working power of the -machine was thereby diminished one-fourth. - -After reflecting for some time upon all this, it at last occurred -to Watt to consider whether it might not be possible, instead of -continuing to condense the steam in the cylinder, to contrive that -method of drawing it off, to undergo that operation in some other -vessel. This fortunate idea having presented itself to his mind, it was -not long before his ingenuity suggested to him the means of realising -it. In the course of one or two days, according to his own account, he -had all the necessary apparatus arranged in his mind. The plan which -he devised was, indeed, an extremely simple one, and on that account -the more beautiful. He proposed to establish a communication by an -open pipe, between the cylinder and another vessel, the consequence of -which evidently would be, that when the steam was admitted into the -former, it would flow into the other to fill it also. If, then, the -portion in this latter vessel only should be subjected to a condensing -process, by being brought into contact with cold water, or any other -convenient means, what would follow? Why, a vacuum would be produced -here--into that, as a vent, more steam would immediately rush from the -cylinder--that likewise would be condensed--and so the process would -go on till all the steam had left the cylinder, and a perfect vacuum -had been effected in that vessel, without so much as a drop of cold -water having touched or entered it. The separate vessel alone, or the -condenser, as Watt called it, would be cooled by the water used to -condense the steam--and that, instead of being an evil, manifestly -tended to promote and quicken the condensation. When Watt reduced his -views to the test of experiment, he found the result to answer his most -sanguine expectations. The cylinder, although emptied of its steam -for every stroke of the piston as before, was now constantly kept at -the same temperature with the steam (or 212 deg. Fahrenheit); and -the consequence was, that one-fourth of the fuel formerly required, -sufficed to feed the engine. But besides this most important saving in -the expense of maintaining the engine, its power was greatly increased -by the most perfect vacuum produced in the new construction, in which -the condensing water, being no longer admitted within the cylinder, -could not, as before, create new steam there while displacing the old. - -Such, then, was the remedy by which the genius of this great inventor -effectually cured the first and most serious defect of the old -apparatus. In carrying his ideas into execution, he encountered, as -was to be expected, many difficulties, arising principally from the -impossibility of realising theoretical perfection of structure with -such materials as human art is obliged to work with; but his ingenuity -and perseverance overcame every obstacle. One of the things which cost -him the greatest trouble was, how to fit the piston so exactly to the -cylinder, as, without affecting the freedom of its motion, to prevent -the passage of the air between the two. In the old engine this end had -been obtained by covering the piston with a small quantity of water, -the dripping down of which into the space below, where it merely mixed -with the stream introduced to effect the condensation, was of little or -no consequence. But in the new construction, the superiority of which -consisted in keeping this receptacle for the steam always both hot and -dry, such an effusion of moisture, although in very small quantities, -would have occasioned material inconvenience. The air alone, besides, -which in the old engine followed the piston in its descent, acted with -considerable effect in cooling the lower part of the cylinder. His -attempts to overcome this difficulty, while they succeeded in that -object, conducted Watt also to another improvement, which effected the -complete removal of what we have called the second radical imperfection -of Newcomen’s engine, namely, its non-employment for a moving power, of -the expansive force of steam. The effectual way it occurred to him of -preventing any air from escaping into the part of the cylinder below -the piston, would be to dispense with the use of that element above -the piston, and to substitute there likewise the same contrivance as -below, of alternate steam and a vacuum. This was, of course, to be -accomplished by merely opening communications from the upper part of -the cylinder to the boiler on the one hand, and the condenser on the -other, and forming it at the same time into an air-tight chamber, by -means of a cover, with only a hole in it to admit the rod or shank -of the piston, which might, besides, without impeding its freedom of -action, be padded with hemp, the more completely to exclude the air. -It was so contrived accordingly, by a proper arrangement of the cocks -and the machinery connected with them; that, while there was a vacuum -in one end of the cylinder, there should be an admission of steam -into the other; and the steam so admitted now served, not only by its -susceptibility of sudden condensation to create the vacuum, but also, -by its expansive force, to impel the piston. - -These were the great improvements which Watt introduced in what may be -called the principle of the steam-engine, or, in other words, in the -manner of using and applying the steam. They constitute, therefore, the -grounds of his claim to be regarded as the true author of the conquest -that has been obtained by man over this powerful element. But original -and comprehensive as were the views out of which these fundamental -inventions arose, the exquisite and inexhaustible ingenuity which the -engine, as finally perfected by him, displays in every part of its -subordinate mechanism, is calculated to strike us perhaps with scarcely -less admiration. It forms undoubtedly the best exemplification that -has ever been afforded of the number and diversity of services which a -piece of machinery may be made to render to itself, by means solely of -the various application of its first moving power, when that has once -been called into action. Of these contrivances, however, we can only -notice one or two, by way of specimen. Perhaps the most singular is -that called the _governor_. This consists of an upright spindle, which -is kept constantly turning, by being connected with a certain part of -the machinery, and from which two balls are suspended, in opposite -directions, by rods, attached by joints, somewhat in the manner of -the legs of a pair of tongs. As long as the motion of the engine is -uniform, that of the spindle is so likewise, and the balls continue -steadily revolving at the same distance from each other. But as soon -as any alteration in the action of the piston takes place, the balls, -if it has become more rapid, fly further apart under the influence of -the increased centrifugal force which actuates them; or approach nearer -to each other in the opposite circumstances. This alone would have -served to indicate the state of matters to the eye; but Watt was not -to be so satisfied. He connected the rods with a valve in the tube by -which the steam is admitted to the cylinder from the boiler, in such a -way, that as they retreat from each other, they gradually narrow the -opening which is so guarded, or enlarge it as they tend to collapse; -thus diminishing the supply of steam when the engine is going too fast, -and when it is not going fast enough, enabling it to regain its proper -speed by allowing it an increase of aliment. - -Again the constant supply of a sufficiency of water to the boiler is -secured by an equally simple provision, namely, by a _float_ resting on -the surface of the water which, as soon as it is carried down by the -consumption of the water to a certain point opens a valve and admits -more. And so on through all the different parts of the apparatus, -the various wonders of which cannot be better summed up than in the -forcible and graphic language of a recent writer:--“In the present -perfect state of the engine it appears a thing almost endowed with -intelligence. It regulates, with perfect accuracy and uniformity, the -_number of its strokes_ in a given time, _counting_, or _recording_ -them moreover, to tell how much work it has done, as a clock records -the beats of its pendulum; it regulates the _quantity of steam_ -admitted to work; the _briskness of the fire_; the _supply of water_ -to the boiler; the _supply of coals_ to the fire; it _opens and shuts -its valves_ with absolute precision as to time and manner; it _oils -its joints_; it _takes out any air_ which may accidentally enter into -parts which should be vacuous; and when any thing goes wrong, which it -cannot of itself rectify, it _warns its attendants_ by ringing a bell; -yet, with all these talents and qualities, and even when exerting the -power of six hundred horses, it is obedient to the hand of a child; -its aliment is coal, wood, charcoal, or other combustible--it consumes -none when idle--it never tires, and wants no sleep; it is not subject -to malady when originally well made, and only refuses to work when worn -out with age; it is equally active in all climates, and will do work of -any kind; it is a water-pumper, a miner, a sailor, a cotton-spinner, -a weaver, a blacksmith, a miller, &c., &c.; and a small engine, in -the character of a _steam pony_, may be seen dragging after it on a -rail-road a hundred tons of merchandise, or a regiment of soldiers, -with greater speed than that of the fleetest coaches. It is the king of -machines, and a permanent realisation of the _Genii_ of Eastern fable, -whose supernatural powers were occasionally at the command of man.” - -In addition to those difficulties which his unrivalled mechanical -ingenuity enabled him to surmount, Watt, notwithstanding the merit -of his inventions, had to contend for some time with others of a -different nature, in his attempts to reduce them to practice. He had -no pecuniary resources of his own, and was at first without any friend -willing to run the risk of the outlay necessary for an experiment -on a sufficiently large scale. At last he applied to Dr. Roebuck, -an ingenious and spirited speculator, who had just established the -Carron iron-works, not far from Glasgow, and held also at the same -time a lease of the extensive coal-works at Kinneal, the property of -the Duke of Hamilton. Dr. Roebuck agreed to advance the requisite -funds, on having two-thirds of the profits made over to him; and -upon this Mr. Watt took out his first patent in the beginning of the -year 1769. An engine with a cylinder of eighteen inches diameter was -soon after erected at Kinneal; and although, as a first experiment, -it was necessarily, in some respects, of defective construction, its -working completely demonstrated the value of Watt’s improvements. But -Dr. Roebuck, whose undertakings were very numerous and various, in -no long time after forming this connexion, found himself involved in -such pecuniary difficulties, as to put it out of his power to make any -further advances in prosecution of its object. On this Watt applied -himself for some years almost entirely to the ordinary work of his -profession as a civil engineer; but at last, about the year 1774, -when all hopes of any farther assistance from Dr. Roebuck were at an -end, he resolved to close with a proposal which had been made to him -through his friend, Dr. Small, of Birmingham, that he should remove -to that town, and enter into partnership with the eminent hardware -manufacturer, Mr. Boulton, whose extensive establishments at Soho -had already become famous over Europe, and procured for England an -unrivalled reputation for the arts there carried on. Accordingly an -arrangement having been made with Dr. Roebuck, by which his share of -the patent was transferred to Mr. Boulton, the firm of Boulton and Watt -commenced the business of making steam-engines, in the year 1775. - -Mr. Watt now obtained from parliament an extension of his patent for -twenty-five years, in consideration of the acknowledged national -importance of his inventions. The first thing which he and his partner -did was to erect an engine at Soho, which they invited all persons -interested in such machines to inspect. They then proposed to erect -similar machines wherever required, on the very liberal principle of -receiving, as payment for each, only one-third of the saving in fuel -which it should effect, as compared with one of the old construction. - -But the draining of mines was only one of the many applications of the -steam-power now at his command, which Watt contemplated, and in course -of time accomplished. During the whole twenty-five years, indeed, over -which his renewed patent extended, the perfecting of his invention was -his chief occupation, and notwithstanding a delicate state of health, -and the depressing affliction of severe headaches, to which he was -extremely subject, he continued throughout this period to persevere -with unwearied diligence in adding new improvements to the mechanism of -the engine, and devising the means of applying it to new purposes of -usefulness. He devoted, in particular, the exertions of many years, to -the contriving of the best methods of making the action of the piston -communicate a rotary motion in various circumstances, and between the -years 1781 and 1785, he took out four different patents for inventions -having this in his view. - -It is gratifying to reflect, that even while he was yet alive, Watt -received from the most illustrious contemporaries, the honours due to -his genius. In 1785, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; the -degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon him by the University of -Glasgow, in 1806; and in 1808, he was elected a member of the French -Institute. He died on the 25th of August, 1819, in the 84th year of his -age. - -The beneficial results arising from the ingenuity of Watt have been -surprising. The steam-engine has already gone far to revolutionise the -whole domain of human industry; and almost every year is adding to its -power and its conquests. In our manufactures, our arts, our commerce, -our social accommodations, it is constantly achieving what, little -more than half a century ago, would have been accounted miraculous and -impossible. “The trunk of an elephant,” it has been finely and truly -said, “that can pick up a pin, or rend an oak, is as nothing to it. It -can engrave a seal, and crush masses of obdurate metal like wax before -it--draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as gossamer, and lift -a ship of war, like a bauble, in the air. It can embroider muslins, -and forge anchors; cut steel into ribbands, and impel loaded vessels -against the fury of the winds and waves.” - -Another application of it is perhaps destined to be productive of still -greater changes on the condition of society, than have resulted from -many of its previous achievements,--we refer to railroads. The first -great experiment was the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which was -opened, we believe, in 1831, and practically demonstrated, with what -hitherto almost undreamt of rapidity travelling by land may be carried -on through the aid of steam. Carriages, under the impetus communicated -by this the most potent, and at the same time the most perfectly -controllable of all our mechanical agencies, can be drawn forward at -the flying speed of thirty and thirty-five miles an hour. When so much -has been already done, it would be rash to conclude that even this is -to be our ultimate limit of attainment. In navigation, the resistance -of the water, which increases rapidly as the force opposed to it -increases, very soon set bounds to the rate at which even the power of -steam can impel a vessel forward. But on land, the thin medium of the -air presents no such insurmountable obstacles to a force making its -way through it; and a rapidity of movement may perhaps be eventually -attained here, which is to us even as yet inconceivable. But even when -the rate of land travelling already shown to be quite practicable shall -have become universal, in what a new state of society shall we find -ourselves! A nation will then, indeed, become a community; and all the -benefits of the highest civilization will be diffused equally over the -land, like the light of heaven. This invention, in short, when fully -consummated, will confer upon man as much new power and enjoyment as if -he were actually endowed with wings. - -The commerce of the kingdom has also greatly benefited by the -introduction of this valuable auxiliary, as will be seen from the -following extract from the “Working Man’s Companion:”-- - -“The establishment of steam-boats between England and Ireland has -greatly contributed to the prosperity of both countries. How have -steam boats done this? They have greatly increased the trade of both -countries. On the examination of Mr. Williams, before a Committee -of the House of Commons, he stated that ‘before steam-boats were -established, there was little trade in the smaller articles of farming -production, such as poultry and eggs. The first trading steam-boat -from Liverpool to Dublin, was set up in 1824; there are now (1832) -forty such boats between England and Ireland. The sailing vessels were -from one week to two or three weeks on the passage; the voyage from -Liverpool to Dublin is now performed in fourteen hours. Reckoning ten -mile, for an hour, Dublin and Liverpool are one hundred and forty miles -apart; with the old vessels taking twelve days as the average time of -the voyage, they were separated as completely as they would be by a -distance of two thousand eight hundred and eighty miles. What is the -consequence? Traders may now have, from any of the manufacturing towns -in England, within two or three days, even the smallest quantity of any -description of goods;’ and thus ‘one of the effects has been to give a -productive employment of the capital of persons in secondary lines of -business, that formerly could not have been brought into action.’” Mr. -Williams adds, ‘I am a daily witness to the intercourse by means of the -small traders themselves between England and Ireland. Those persons -find their way into the interior of England, and purchase manufactured -goods themselves. They are, of course, enabled to sell them upon much -better terms in Ireland; and I anticipate that this will shortly lead -to the creation of shops and other establishments in the interior of -Ireland for the sale of a great variety of articles which are not now -to be had there.’ - -“And how do the small dealers in English manufactured goods find -purchasers in the rude districts of Ireland for our cloths and our -hardware? Because the little farmers have sent us their butter and eggs -and poultry, and have either taken our manufactures in exchange, or -have taken back our money to purchase our manufactures, which is the -same thing. Many millions of eggs, collected amongst the very poorest -classes, by the industry of the women and children, are annually sent -from Dublin to Liverpool. Mr. Williams has known fifty tons, or eight -hundred and eighty thousand eggs, shipped in one day, as well as ten -tons of poultry; and he says this is quite a new creation of property. -It is a creation of property that has a direct tendency to act upon the -condition of the poorest classes in Ireland; for the produce is laid -out in providing clothes for the females and children of the families -who engage in rearing poultry and collecting eggs. Thus the English -manufacturer is bettered, for he has a new market for his manufactures, -which he exchanges for cheap provisions; and the dealer in eggs and -poultry has a new impulse to this branch of industry, because it -enables him to give clothes to his wife and children. This exchange -of benefits--this advancement in the condition of both parties--this -creation of produce and of profitable labour--this increase of the -number of labourers--could not have taken place without machinery. -That machinery is the carriage which conveys the produce to the river, -and the steam-boat which makes a port in another country much nearer -for practical purposes, than the market town of a thinly peopled -district. A new machinery is added; the steam-carriage running on -the railroad, as one of the witnesses truly says, ‘is like carrying -Liverpool forty miles into the interior, and thus extending the circle -to which the supply will be applicable.’ The last invention perfects -all the inventions which have preceded it. The village and the city are -brought close together in effort, and yet retain all the advantages of -their local situation; the port and the manufactory are divided only -by two hours distance in time, while their distance in space affords -room for all the various occupations which contribute to the perfection -of either. The whole territory of Great Britain and Ireland is more -compact, more closely united, more accessible than was a single county -two centuries ago.” - -The communication between England and Ireland has greatly increased -since the above remarks were written, in 1832. There are now upwards -of four hundred steam-boats sailing between Ireland and Great Britain, -and of late years the largest export from that unfortunate country -consists of her starving population, who, true enough, find their way -into the interior of England, but not with the intention of purchasing -manufactured goods, but of being employed in the manufacturing of them. -We believe that our mechanical readers, at least, will agree with -us, when we say that the benefit has not been reciprocal. England, -for her share, has been burthened with a pauper population, and her -sons deprived of their employment, by the immense immigration that -has of late years taken place. Poor rates are multiplied to an extent -hitherto unheard of, and our streets swarming with beggars--and those -of the most importunate class. So much was this the case, that in -1847 and 1848, Liverpool was inundated with paupers from the sister -country to such a degree, that her authorities were compelled to -petition government to put an end to the nuisance, and to grant -them assistance to prevent the death of so many thousands of their -fellow-men from dying for want; the poor-rates were so increased that -the ratepayers with justice complained. And we question much if ever -the English manufactures have been so much benefited by the commerce -as the foregoing quotation would lead us to believe. That we have been -supplied with enormous quantities of provisions we cannot deny; but -that the payment of these was taken back in our cloths and our hardware -is very questionable. That the money was taken back there can be little -doubt, not for the purpose, however, of buying clothes for the wives -and children of those families whose industry had supplied us with eggs -and poultry, but for supplying the insatiate wants of their profligate -landlords, who were squandering the subsistence of the needy peasantry -in another land. If any class of men have obtained benefit by means of -this increased and speedy communication between the two countries, it -assuredly is the absentee Irish landlord. - - - - -MILLS. - - -Corn Mills are of very ancient origin, and it may not be uninteresting -to our readers to learn something of the customs of our forefathers -with regard to them; to which we will subjoin such modern improvements -as the more advanced state of the arts have enabled the moderns to -achieve, and to excel the imperfect information of the ancients in -mechanical sciences. - -In support of the antiquity of grinding corn, we may go as for back -as the days of the patriarch Abraham, who, we are informed in Genesis -xviii. 6, “hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, Make ready -quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the -hearth.” To this we may add, that it appears in a subsequent text, -Numbers xi. 8, that manna was ground like corn. The earliest instrument -for this purpose seems to have been the mortar, which was retained long -after the introduction of mills, properly so called: because they were -most probably at first very imperfect. In process of time the mortar -was made ridged, and the pestle notched at the bottom, by which means -the grain was rather grated than pounded. - -A passage in Pliny, which has not as yet had a satisfactory -interpretation, renders this conjecture probable. In time a handle was -added to the top of the pestle, that it might be more easily driven -round in a circle, whence this machine at first was called _mortarium_, -by this means assuming the name of a hand-mill. Such a mill was so -called from rubbing backwards and forwards; and varied but little from -those used by our colour-grinders, apothecaries, potters, and other -artisans. From expressions in the sacred volume, we may rationally -infer that it was customary to have a mill of this sort in every -family. Moses having forbidden to take such instruments for a pledge; -for that, says he, “No man shall take the nether or the upper millstone -to pledge: for he taketh a man’s life.” It is observed by Michaelis, on -this passage, that a man could not then grind, consequently could not -bake the necessary daily bread for the family. - -Grinding was then the employment of the women, particularly of female -slaves, as at present in those countries which are uncivilised: the -portion of strength required for the operation, therefore, could not -have been great; but afterwards the mills were driven by bondsmen, -whose necks were placed in a circular machine of wood, so that they -could not put their hands to their mouths or eat of the meal. This must -have been an interesting link between the hand and the horse-mill. - -In course of time shafts were added to the mill, that it might be -driven by cattle, which were then blindfolded. The first cattle mills -were called _molae jumentaria_, which had, probably, only a heavy -pestle like the hand-mill; but it is conjectured, that it must have -been soon remarked, that the labour would be more easily accomplished, -if, instead of the pestle a large heavy cylinder was employed. A -competent judge has, however, believed that the first cattle mills -had not a spout or trough as ours have; at least those hand-mills -Tournefort saw at Nicaria, consisted only of two stones; but the meal -issued through an opening in the upper one, and fell upon a board or -table, on which the lower one rested. - -The upper millstone they called _meta_, or _turbo_; and the lower one -_catillus_: the name of the first also signified a cone with a blunt -apex, whence it has been thought by some, that corn was first rubbed -into meal, by rolling one stone upon another, as painters now grind -colours with a muller. This is not improbable, as present practice -among barbarous people fully proves. It is also apparent that the upper -millstone was substituted for the pestle, which action may have lent it -a name, when they called it _meta_. - -Professor Beckmann has followed Gori in his description of an antique -gem, engraved on red jasper, upon which appears “the naked figure of -a man, who in his left hand holds a sheaf of corn, and in the right -a machine that in all probability is a hand-mill. Gori considers the -figure as a representation of the god Eunostus, who was the god of -mills. The machine which Eunostus seems to exhibit, or to be surveying -himself, is, as far as one can distinguish, (for the stone is scarcely -half an inch in size), shaped like a chest, narrow at the top, and -wide at the bottom. It stands upon a table, and in the bottom there -is a perpendicular pipe, from which the meal, also represented by -the artist, appears to be issuing. Above, the chest or body of the -mill has either a top with an aperture, or perhaps a basket sunk into -it, from which the corn falls into the mill. On one side, nearly -about the middle of it, there projects a broken shank, which, without -overstraining the imagination, may be considered as a handle, or that -part of the mill which some call _mobile_. Though this figure is small, -and though it gives very little idea of the internal construction, -one may, however, conclude from it that the roller, whether it was of -wood or of iron, smooth or notched, did not stand perpendicularly, -like those of our coffee mills, but lay horizontally, which gives -us reason to conjecture a construction more ingenious than that of -the first invention. The axis of the handle had, perhaps, within the -body of the mill, a crown wheel, that turned a spindle, to the lower -end of the perpendicular axis of which the roller was fixed. Should -this be admitted, it must be allowed also, that the hand-mills of the -ancients had not so much a resemblance to the before-mentioned colour -mills as to the philosophical mills of our chemists; and Langelott, -consequently, will not be the real inventor of the latter. On the -other side, opposite to where the handle is, there arise from the mill -of Eunostus two shafts, which Gori considers as those of a besom and -shovel, two instruments used in grinding; but as the interior part -cannot be seen, it appears to me doubtful whether these may not be -parts of the mill itself.” - -In the commencement of the last century, the remains of a pair of Roman -millstones were found at Adel, in Yorkshire. One of these stones, -twenty inches in breadth, is thicker in the middle than at the edge, -consequently one side is convex; the other was of the same size, but -as thick at the sides as the other was in the centre; the traces of -notching were discoverable. - -Enough, may, perhaps, have been said concerning this original -invention; therefore this article will not be encumbered with -quotations of all those passages relative to mills, which are found -in ancient authors, as they would afford but little additional -information. Neither will mythological records be disturbed to inquire -to which deity or hero the invention was originally attributed; or to -ascertain the descent of Milantes, whom Stephanus distinguishes by that -honour, or how those millstones were constructed which are alleged to -have been built by Myletes, son of Lelex, King of Laconia; but we shall -proceed to the invention of Water-Mills. - -These appear to have been introduced about the period of Mithridates, -contemporary with Cæsar and Cicero. Strabo, relating that there was a -water-mill near the residence of the Pontian king, that honour has been -ascribed to him; but so far is this remote from certainty, that nothing -can be inferred from thence, other than that water-mills at that period -were known in Asia. Pomponius Sabinus informs us, that the first -water-mill seen at Rome was erected on the banks of the Tiber, a little -before the time of Augustus; but of this there is no other proof than -his simple assertion: he having taken the greater part of his remarks -from the illustrations of Servius, he must have had a more perfect copy -of that author than any now remaining, and from these his information -might have come. - -The most certain proof we have that Rome had water-mills in the time -of Augustus, is, that Vitruvius has told us so; but those mills were -not corn-mills, they were hydraulic engines, which he describes in -his works. From whence we learn that the ancients had wheels for -raising water, which were driven by being trod upon by men; the usual -employment for criminals, as may be learnt from Artemidorus. Also from -a pretty epigram of Antipater; “Cease your work, ye maids, ye who -laboured in the mill; sleep now, and let the birds sing to the ruddy -morning; for Ceres has commanded the water nymphs to perform your -task; these, obedient to her call, throw themselves on the wheel, force -round the axle-tree, and by these means the heavy mill.” Antipater -lived at the period of Cicero. Palladius, also, with equal clearness, -speaks of water-mills, which he advises to be built on estates where is -running water, in order to grind corn without men or cattle. - -It likewise appears that the water-wheels to which Heliogabalus -directed some of his friends and parasites to be tied, cannot be -considered to be mills for the purpose of grinding corn; for these, as -well as the _haustra_ of Lucretius were probably like those machines -for raising water, which are spoken of by Vitruvius as _hydraulic_. - -It is, however, on the authority of Pompinius Sabinus, before-cited, -that both wind and water mills were known to have been in Italy, and -even the latter in Rome, in the days of Augustus. However, about -twenty-three years after the death of Augustus, when Caligula seized -every horse from the mills, to convey effects he had in contemplation -to take from Rome, the public were much distressed for bread; whence -we must infer that water-mills must have been very rare. Even three -hundred years after Augustus, cattle mills were so common in that city, -that their number amounted to three hundred; mention of them, and of -the hand-mills, often occurs for a long time after. It is not their use -we inquire after, it is enough for us to know that they existed. - -We now come to another period, when we are informed that _public mills_ -were first introduced, which occurs in the year 398, mention being -made of them in that year, which also clearly shows that they were -then newly-established; which establishment was found necessary to be -protected by laws made in their favour. The orders for that purpose -were renewed more than once, and made more secure by Zeno, towards -the end of the fifth century. It may be properly remarked, that in the -whole code of Justinian, the least mention of wooden pales or posts is -not made, which occurs in all the new laws,--and which, it appears, -when there were several mills on the same stream, occasioned so many -disputes then, as well as in after times. The mills at Rome were -erected on those canals which conveyed water to the city; and because -these were employed in several arts, and for many purposes, it was -ordered that, by dividing the water, the mills should always be kept -going; but as they were driven by so small a quantity of water, they -probably executed very little work; and for this reason, but probably -on account of the great number of slaves, and the cheap rate at which -they were maintained, these noble machines were not so much used, -nor were so soon brought to perfection, as under other circumstances -they might have been. It appears, however, that after the abolition -of slavery, they were much improved, and more employed, and to this a -particular incident seems, in some degree, to have contributed. - -When Vitiges, King of the Goths, besieged Belisarius in Rome, in the -year 536, and caused the fourteen large expensive aqueducts to be -stopped, the city was reduced to great distress; not from want of -water, in general, because it was secured against that inconvenience -by the Tiber; but by the loss of that water which the baths required, -and, above all, of that necessary to drive the mills, which were all -situated on these canals. Horses and cattle, which might have been -employed upon grinding, were not to be found; but Belisarius fell upon -the ingenious contrivance of placing boats upon the Tiber, on which -he erected mills that were driven by the current. This experiment was -attended with complete success; and as many mills of this kind as were -necessary were constructed. To destroy these, the besiegers threw into -the stream logs of wood, dead bodies, &c., which floated down the river -into the city; but the besieged, by making use of booms to stop them, -were enabled to drag them out before they could do any mischief. This -seems to have been the origin of _floating-mills_, no record of them -appearing previously. By these means the use of water-mills became very -much extended; for floating-mills can be constructed almost upon any -stream, without forming an artificial fall; they may be stationed at -the most convenient places, and they rise and fall of themselves with -the water.--They are, however, attended with these inconveniences: they -require to be strongly secured; they often block up the stream too -much, and move slowly; and they often stop when the water is too high, -or when it is frozen. - -After this improvement, the use of water-mills was never laid aside -or forgotten, but was soon made known all over Europe; and passages -innumerable might be quoted, in every century, to prove their continued -use. The Roman, Salic, and other laws, constantly provided for the -security of these mills, and defined a punishment for such as destroyed -the sluices, or stole the mill-irons. It is said, however, that there -were water-mills in France and Germany a hundred years before these -laws had existence. - -At Venice, and other places, there were erected mills which regulated -themselves by the motion of the waters, and which were regulated by -the flowing and ebbing of the tide, and which every six hours changed -the motion of the wheels. Of this species of mills, a new invention, -or, perhaps, rather an improved one, was made in London, called a -tide-mill, an engraving of which may be seen in “The Advancement of -Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,” London, 1772. - -Zanetti is said to have shown, by some old charters, that such mills -existed about the year 1044; but with still more certainty in 1078, -1079, and 1107. - -It appears, however, that hand and cattle mills were in most places -retained, after the use of proper watermills, particularly in convents. -They were used, because the otherwise lazy monks found the exercise -they afforded beneficial to their health. Likewise the legends of -popish mythology are full of the miracles which have been wrought at -these mills. - -A modern author of credit impeaches the veracity of Pomponius Sabinus -after he had previously quoted his authority, and likewise after he -had said that he bore a good character, in a popular work, by charging -him with improbability, nay, positive falsehood, and alleging that -the Romans had no wind-mills. It should be noticed, without venturing -to decide upon the point, that he has adduced no authority for such -allegation, and that he only concludes so, by inference, as upon -the authority of Vitruvius; that mechanist, he says, in enumerating -all moving forces, does not mention wind-mills. But, for the sake -of candour, was not the one as liable to err as the other? He also -says, that neither Seneca nor St. Chrysostom mention wind-mills; and -is unmercifully severe upon an old Bohemian annalist who speaks of -wind-mills so early as 718. But he is all along bringing his forces -to prove, that wind-mills had first existence in his own district, -Germany; that they were then invented; and, perhaps, because he is of -that country. It is somewhat remarkable that scarcely any invention of -any consequence has occurred since that of printing, but the honour has -been claimed by the natives of Germany. - -Mabillon mentions a diploma of the year 1105, in which a convent in -France is allowed to erect water and wind-mills, _molendina ad ventum_. - -Bartolomeo Verde proposed to the Venetians in 1332, to build a -wind-mill. When his plan had been examined, he had a piece of ground -assigned him, which he was to retain if his undertaking succeeded -within a specified time. In 1373, the city of Spires caused a wind-mill -to be erected, and sent to the Netherlands for a person acquainted -with the method of grinding by it. A wind-mill was also constructed at -Frankfort, in 1442; but it does not appear to have been ascertained -whether there were any there before. - -About the twelfth century, in the pontificate of Gregory, when both -wind and water-mills became more general, a dispute arose whether mills -were titheable or not. The dispute existed for some time between the -persons possessed of mills and the clergy; when neither would yield. At -length, upon the matter being referred to the pope and sacred college, -the question was, (as might have been expected when interested persons -were made the arbitrators,) determined in favour of the claims of the -church. - -There was one inconvenience attending wind-mills, which might be -obviated in other mills: the mill was useless unless the wind was in -a particular direction. To remedy this, various modes were tried; at -first, the mill was fixed on a floating body in the water, which might -be turned to any wind. The next improvement consisted in turning the -body of the mill to meet the direction of the wind; this was effected -by two modes: first, the whole building is constructed in such a manner -as to turn on a pivot below; this method is said to have been invented -in Germany, and is called the German mode: second, the building is -formed so as to turn on the roof, with the shafts supporting the sails -only; this is called the Dutch mode, being invented by a Fleming about -the middle of the sixteenth century. This is the mode principally -adopted in England. - -Although in the earliest ages of the world men might have been, -perhaps, satisfied with having their corn reduced to a mealable form -alone; yet after this had been with care effected, then they thought -of improving upon this conveniency, and separating the farinaceous -part from the bran and husks. This was certainly desirable; therefore -they bolted it in a sieve with a long handle attached to it, with -a hair, or fine lawn lining; this was common in this country till -within the last sixty or eighty years; but by degrees, opportunities -of improvement in the mechanism of mills suggested to some mechanic -the idea of constructing what is now called bolting mills, applied to -the mill for grinding, and wrought at the same time by appropriate -machinery. - -It appears that sieves of horse-hair were first used by the Gauls, then -those of linen by the Spaniards. The mode of applying a sieve in the -form of an extending bag to catch the meal as it fell from the stones, -and of causing it to be turned and shaken, was first made known in the -beginning of the sixteenth century. - -The best bolting cloths are universally allowed to be manufactured -in England; they are made of wool of the longest and the best kind, -peculiarly prepared; being first well washed and spun to a fine and -equal thread; which, before it be scoured, must be scalded in hot water -to prevent its shrinking. The web must be then stiffened; it is in this -we possess an advantage which others cannot attain. Our bolting cloth -is stiffer, as well as much smoother, than any foreign manufacture. So -jealous are our German neighbours of this, that they have established -manufactories in several places at a great expense, and under very -peculiar regulations, for its fabrication. After all, they are -compelled to confess, that theirs will not wear above three weeks in -a flour manufactory, whereas ours will continue well three months in -equal exposure to friction and ordinary wear. - -For some years past, the French have been extolled for a mode of -grinding, called _mouture economique_; that were we not aware such -had been practised in ancient Rome, it might be conceived to form an -important epoch in the miller’s art. This process, however, is not -new; it consists in first grinding the wheat not so fine as might be -required for ordinary purposes; afterwards putting the meal several -times through the mill, and sifting it with various sieves. It should -seem this method was practised in ancient Rome; for Pliny, who took -care to inform himself of most things, tells us, that in his time they -had, at least, five different kinds of flour, all procured from the -same corn. It appears, that the ancient Romans had advanced very far in -this art, as well as in that of baking, &c., from what may be collected -from its economical polity preserved by Pliny and others. Whence it may -be fairly inferred, they knew how to prepare from corn more kinds of -meal, and from meal more kinds of bread, than the moderns even now are -acquainted with. - -Pliny reckons that bread should be one-third heavier than the meal -used for baking it: this proportion it appears, was known in Germany -nearly a century and a half ago, and discovered from experiments on -bread made at different times. German bakers, although they may have -been occasionally mistaken, have always undoubtedly given more bread -than meal. It appears that in latter periods, the art of grinding, -as well as baking, has declined very much in Italy; and their bread, -although produced from the finest grain in the world, is altogether bad -when manufactured by Italians. On this account, bakers from Germany -it seems, are generally employed in public baking-houses, as well at -Rome as in Venice. Bakers of that people are generally settled at those -places, where they have been in the habit of manufacturing that article -for the principal inhabitants, for upwards of three hundred years. - -From Beckmann’s History, it would appear that the _mouture economique_ -of the French has been known to the Germans for more than two hundred -years. Many were the attempts, repeatedly enforced, to deter the -experiments made, from time to time, by the French experimentalists, -to perfect this article previous to its being accomplished. In this, -the French suffered themselves to be taught by prejudice and directed -by ignorance. Numerous and judicious were the experiments made by -the scientific and philosophic of that people to produce the most in -quantity and best in quality from a definite quantity of grain, at -which the ignorant of their species suffered their prejudice to revolt, -and the powerful readily come into the mode of thinking of the vulgar, -to whom they lent their aid, to effect what Heaven in revelation had -commanded, viz: “Give not that which is holy unto dogs, neither cast ye -your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and -turn again and rend you.” Mat. vii. 6. - -It will, from the succeeding statement, that in using the language -which has just appeared, circumstances sanctioned us. The clergy of the -chapel royal, and parish church at Versailles, sent their wheat in the -beginning of last century to be ground at an adjacent mill: according -to custom, it was put through the mill only once, and the bran, which -yet contained much flour, was sold for fattening cattle. This miller -having, however, in process of time learnt the process of the _mouture -economique_, purchased the bran from these ecclesiastics, and found -that it yielded him as good flour as they had procured from the whole -wheat. The miller, at length, is presumed, in a qualm of conscience, -to have regretted cheating those holy men; he accordingly discovered -to them the secret, and gave them afterwards fourteen bushels of flour -from their wheat, instead of eight, which he had only furnished them -before. This voluntary discovery of the miller was made in 1760; and it -is probable the same discovery was made at the same time by others. - -A baker, named Malisset, proposed to the lieutenant-general of the -French police to teach a method by which people could grind their -corn with more advantage; and experiments were accordingly made and -succeeded. A mealman of Senlis, named Buquet, having the inspection -of the mill belonging to the large hospital at Paris, made the same -proposal: the result of his experiments, made under the direction -of the magistrates, was printed. The investigation of this art was -now taken up by men of learning and science, who gave it a suitable -denomination; explained it, made experiments and calculations upon -it, and at the same time recommended it so much, that the _mouture -economique_ engaged the attention of all magistrates throughout -France. Its government sent Buquet to Lyons in 1764, to Bourdeaux in -1766, to Dijon in 1767, and to Mondidier in 1768. The benefit which -France derived from that trouble, shows that it was not taken in vain. -Previous to that period, a Paris _setier_ yielded from eighty to -ninety pounds of meal, and from one hundred and fifty to one hundred -and sixty pounds of bran; but the same quantity now yields one hundred -and eighty-five pounds, and according to the latest improvements, one -hundred and ninety-five pounds of meal. In the time of St. Louis, -from four to five _setiers_ were reckoned necessary for the annual -maintenance of a man; these were scarcely sufficient; as many were -allowed to the patients in hospitals; and such were the calculations -made in the sixteenth century. When the miller’s art was everywhere -improved, the four _setiers_ were reduced to three and a half, and from -the latest improvements, they do not exceed two. - -From mills which only force the farinaceous parts from the husk, -thereby rounding the grain, the common denomination of _barley mills_ -comes, from such mills being used in the manufacture of pearl barley. -In their construction, these mills differ but little from wheat-mills, -and the machinery for the former is generally added to the latter. -The grand specific distinction is, that the millstone is rough hewn -round its circumference, and in the stead of a lower stone, there is -generally a wooden case; the middle lined with a plate of iron, pierced -like a grater with holes, the sharp edge of which turns upwards. The -barley is thrown upon the stone, which, as it turns round, frees it -from the husk, and rounds it; after which, it is put into sieves and -sifted. - -So long as the policy of governments was blind to the interests of -men, and so long as the griping avarice of a few was permitted to lay -the free-born of their species under the most severe contributions, -so long were permitted to build mills only, who had obtained a regal -license for that purpose. But, thank heaven! that ray of light it has -lent generally to man, has, in some sort, illuminated even the minds -of ministers and their tyrannical masters, to curtail that spirit -which had cast the fetters of vassalage given by feudal tyranny to its -upstart dependants. Men were left, at length, to improve their property -according to their pleasure: since which period, more mills have been -erected for the convenience of the species. This privilege, it appears, -was not prohibited by the Roman laws; those irradiations of superior -intellect well appreciated human rights. It was not till the darkness -of the middle ages had obscured the mental hemisphere, that any person -was presumed to possess a superiority over others, and to abridge the -small portion of general happiness that the favoured of fortune might -add to his satiety. During those days of universal darkness, numberless -were the evils which men suffered, and among them the present object of -our consideration was not the least; frequently having to travel for -miles to a mill to procure the necessary manufacture of so essential -an article to human life as bread. - -Let us not be decoyed, however, by the resentment produced by the -spirit of human oppression, beyond the bounds prescribed by reason, to -inveigh against such ordinance when public and general utility ever -was consulted; and certain public streams were by wise laws to be kept -free from individual encroachments with impunity. It is not against the -dictates of sober reason we declare hostility, but the gross abuse of -power. - -A time there was, when human baseness in princes and potentates, their -vassals doubtless aping the manners of their masters, claimed as their -right not only the common element of water, but also that of air! A -curious incident related by Jargow, and detailed by Professor Beckmann, -as follows, establishes the insolence of upstart men:--“In the end of -the fourteenth century, the monks of the celebrated but long since -destroyed monastery of Augustines, at Windshiem, in the province of -Overyssel, were desirous of erecting a wind-mill not far from Zwoll; -but a neighouring lord endeavoured to prevent them, declaring that the -wind in that quarter belonged to him. The monks, unwilling to give -up their point, had recourse to the Bishop of Utrecht, under whose -jurisdiction the province had continued since the tenth century. The -bishop, highly incensed against the pretender, who wished to usurp his -authority, affirmed, that the wind of the whole province belonged only -to him; and, in 1391, gave the convent express permission to build a -wind-mill wherever they thought proper.” - -Without the convenience of human ingenuity heaven had sent the blessing -of life in vain; we have, under this impression, therefore, bestowed -much time on this article, from a conviction of its vital importance to -the necessities of human existence. - - - - -SAW-MILLS. - - -The invention of the plumb-line and saw, with other useful articles in -mechanics, and handicrafts, are usually ascribed to that great--that -universal genius--Dædalus: although others give the merit to one -Talus, the nephew of Dædalus, and say, that the discovery was made -under the following circumstances:--Talus, they tell us, having found -the jaw-bone of a snake, cut a piece of wood in two with the teeth; -thence, they say, he invented the saw; his maternal uncle and master, -they add, was so jealous of this invention, that he murdered the young -man; and the mode of the discovery of the murder is accounted for in -this manner:--some persons saw Dædalus covering up the grave of his -victim, and asked what he was doing? “Oh,” says he, “I am only burying -a snake.” How much credit may be due to this relation, we do not take -upon ourselves to determine. Pliny, as well as Seneca, were of the -former opinion; whilst Diodorus Siculus, and others, hold the latter. -The youth is named by some Perdix. However, it appears to rest between -these two, no other claimant appearing. Ovid says, it was not the jaw -of a snake, but the back-bone of a fish. The former, however, appears -to be the most rational opinion as to its origin, as it is conjectured -that the vertebræ would not be sufficiently strong, and the joints are -too far apart, as well as too large. - -The Grecian saw is said to have been much the same as that instrument -which the moderns now use. This idea is corroborated by an ancient -painting discovered in Herculaneum; likewise from an antique -representation of this instrument, given by the celebrated Montfaucon. - -The preceding observations, however, have relation to the subject of -this article only, inasmuch as they are introductory to what follows. - -The most beneficial and ingenious improvement that has been made in -saws was the invention and introduction of machinery, called saw-mills, -which, in woody countries, as well as for delicate and fine veneers, -are of the greatest utility; in the former case, wood forms the chief -article of commerce where labourers are scarce; in the latter, it may -be cut nearly as thin as a sheet of paper. These saw-mills also finish -flooring deals, grooved, dovetailed, and planed on both sides, at the -rate of two deals, of twenty feet each, in a minute! They are commonly -worked in this country by means of steam-engines; in woody countries -they are generally erected on the banks of rivers, the water of which -propels the machinery. - -It is said they were invented in Germany, as far back as the fourth -century, upon the smaller river Roer; for, although Ansonius speaks of -water-mills, for cutting stone, he says nothing of mills to cut timber. -The art of cutting marble with a saw is very ancient; Pliny thinks -it was invented in Caria; at least, he knew of no place or building, -incrusted with marble, older than the palace of King Mausolus, at -Helicarnassus. Vitruvius also names the circumstances, although he uses -different terms for expressions of the same sense. He commends the -beauty of its marble, whilst Pliny speaks of its different kinds: the -former viewed it as an architect, whilst the latter inspected it as a -naturalist. It also does appear, from other writers, that the harder -and precious kinds of stones were cut in the same manner; as Pliny -speaks of a building adorned with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, and -amethysts. Yet there is no mention made of mills for cutting wood; or, -admitting they had been invented, it is probable they shared the fate -of many other useful inventions,--had been forgotten, or else some -considerable modern improvement had been made in their construction. - -Since the period of the first invention, they have been erected in -various parts of Europe and America. There appears to have been one -erected in the vicinity of Augsburg, as early as 1337; at Erlinger, in -1417. - -Upon the discovery of the island of Madeira, in 1420, the Infanta -Henry sent settlers there, and caused European fruits of every kind to -be carried there; and amongst other productions, saw-mills and other -machinery to cut the valuable timber found there into portable pieces, -which were afterwards transported to Portugal. In 1724, the city of -Breslau had a saw-mill which produced the yearly rent of three marks. -In 1490, the magistrates of Erfurt purchased a forest, and built a mill -of this description. In Norway, a country covered with wood, there -was one built in 1530. This mode of manufacture was called the new -art; and because the exportation of deals was by that means increased, -a royal impost was introduced by Christian III. in 1545, called the -deal-tythe. Soon after Henry Ranzau caused the first mill to be erected -at Holstein. In the year 1555, the Bishop of Ely, being ambassador from -the Princess Mary of England to the court of Rome, saw a saw-mill in -the neighbourhood of Lyons: the writer of his travels thought it worthy -of particular description:--“The saw-mill is driven by an upright -wheel; and the water that makes it go is gathered whole into a narrow -trough, which delivereth the same water to the wheels. This wheel -hath a piece of timber put to the axle-tree end, like the handle of a -brooch, and fastened to the end of the saw, which being turned with the -force of the water, hoisteth up and down the saw, that it continually -eateth in, and the handle of the same is kept in a rigall of wood from -swerving. Also the timber lieth as it were upon a ladder, which is -brought by little and little to the saw with another vice.” In the -sixteenth century, there was a grand improvement made in this machine -by having several saws affixed to one beam, by which timber could be -cut into several planks or boards, and of any thickness, at the same -time. There was one of these at Ratisbon, upon the Danube, in 1575. - -In England saw-mills were at first received with as little -encouragement as printing met with in Turkey, and from the same motive. -When the attempt was made to introduce them it was said the sawyers -would be deprived of bread. For this reason it was found necessary -to abandon a saw-mill erected by a Dutchman, near London, in 1663. -However, in the year 1700, a gentleman of the name of Houghton laid -before the nation the advantages to be derived from them; but he -expressed his apprehension that it might cause a commotion among the -people. What he feared, actually came to pass; for, on the erection -of one by a wealthy timber merchant, by the desire of the society -for the promotion of arts, in 1767, to be propelled by the wind, -under the direction of James Stansfield, who had learnt the method -of constructing them in Holland and Norway, a foolish mob assembled -and pulled it to pieces. Many years previous to this there had been -a similar mill erected in Scotland. There is now hardly a town of -any importance in the kingdom but what has one or more saw-mills in -operation. - - - - -FORKS. - - -The fork is an article of every-day use amongst us, and on that account -little thought of; still the short space we intend to occupy with this -subject may, perhaps, convey a little information to many of our -readers unknown to them before, or, at least, unthought of. - -There is not the least room to suppose the ancients were at all -acquainted with this little table utensil, now so necessary to our own -comfort and convenience, to say nothing of our ideas of cleanliness. -Pliny, who enumerated most things natural, physical, philosophical, and -economical, makes no mention of them; nor does it occur in any other -writer of antiquity; neither does Pollux speak of it in the very full -catalogue which he has given of things necessary for a table. - -Neither the Greeks or Romans had any name in the least applicable to -its use, either direct or by inference, where it can be asserted that -such an instrument was intended. The ancients had, it is true, in -Greece, their _creagra_. In Rome, their _furca_, _fuscina_, _furcilla_, -&c.: the Grecian instrument somewhat resembled a rake of an ordinary -construction, and calculated for the purpose of taking meat out of a -boiling pot, constructed in the shape of a hook, or rather the bent -fingers of the hand. - -With reference to the Roman names, the first two were undoubtedly -applied to instruments which approached nearer to our furnace and hay -forks.--The trident of Neptune is also called _fuscina_. The furcilla -was large enough to be employed as a weapon of defence. The present -Latin name for a fork, _fusinula_, is not to be found in any of the old -Latin writers. - -It is the opinion, we understand, of a learned Italian writer, that -the ancient Romans used the instruments they called _ligulæ_, instead -of forks. Now those instruments had some distant resemblance to our -teaspoons. Hence we must conclude that they and our ancestors used no -forks, because, had they had anything answering the purpose, even in -effect, it must undoubtedly have had a name. - -In the East, we understand it was, and still is, customary to dress -their victuals until they become so tender as to be easily pulled in -pieces. We are told by modern travellers, that if an animal be dressed -before it has lost its natural warmth, it becomes tender and very -savoury. This is the Oriental custom, and has been so from the most -remote antiquity. - -Fortunately, all articles of food were cut up in small pieces before -they were served up at table; the necessity for which practice will -appear, when we remember they usually took their meals in a recumbent -posture upon beds. Originally, persons of rank kept an officer for the -purpose of cutting the meat, who used a knife, the only one placed -at table, which, in opulent families, had an ivory handle, and was -ornamented with silver. - -The bread was never cut at table; it needed it not, being usually baked -thin, somewhat resembling the Passover cake of the Jews; this is not -understood, however, to have been universal. - -The Chinese use no forks; however, to supply them, they have small -sticks of ivory, often of very fine workmanship, inlaid with silver and -gold, which each guest employs to pick up the bits of meat, it being -previously cut small. The invention of forks was not known till about -two centuries ago in Europe, where people eat the same as they do now -in Turkey. - -In the New Testament we read of putting hands into the dish. Homer, as -well as Ovid, mention the same custom. - -In the quotation from the sacred writings, we observe that the guests -had, it is presumed, no instrument to help themselves out of the common -dish which contained the repast; for, upon the question being put of -who was to betray the Saviour, the answer was given in the following -quotation, “It is one of the twelve that dippeth with me in the dish.” - -In the passage cited from Homer, the phrase, according to the Latin -translation, implies the same sense. And had the Romans been apprised -of the utility of this instrument, or in fact of any substitute, there -could have been no occasion for the master of the amorous art to have -given his instructions to his pupils in nearly similar terms which we -now use to children. - -Although Count Caylus and Grignon both assert that ancient forks have -been found, we still want further testimony. The former says, one -with two prongs was found among some rubbish in the Appian Way, which -he alleges to be of beautiful workmanship, terminating in the handle -with a carved stag’s foot. Notwithstanding the high reputation of that -author, this assertion is not credited. The latter says, he found some -in the ruins of a Roman town in Champagne; but he does not describe -them, otherwise than to observe that one was of copper or brass, and -the others of iron: and speaking of the latter, says, they appear to be -table-forks, but are very coarsely made. - -The truth seems to be that table-forks were first used in Italy, as -appears from the book of Galeotus Martius, an Italian in the service -of Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, who reigned from 1458 to 1490. -Martius relates that at that period forks were not used at table in -Hungary as in Italy; but that at meals each person laid hold of the -meat with his fingers, and on that account they were much stained with -saffron, usually put into sauces and soups. He praises the king for -eating without a fork, conversing at the same time, and never dirtying -his clothes. - -In France, at the end of the sixteenth century, forks were quite -unknown even at the court of the monarch. Neither at that period were -they known in Sweden. - -From the history of the travels of our countryman, Coryate, entitled -“Crudities,” first published in 1611, and afterwards in 1776, the -author says he first saw them in Italy, and he was also the first -person who used them in England. As his account of them is curious, we -may be excused giving an extract, slightly altering the orthography. - -“Here I will mention a thing that might have been spoken of before in -discourse of the first Italian town. I observed a custom in all those -Italian cities and towns through which I passed, that is not used in -any other country I saw in my travels; neither do I think that any -other nation in Christendom doth use it, but only Italy. The Italian, -and also most strangers that are commorant in Italy, do always at -their meals, use a little fork when they cut their meat. For while -with their knife, which they hold in one hand, they cut the meat out -of the dish, they fasten the fork, which they hold in their other -hand, upon the same dish; so that whatsoever he be that, sitting in -the company of any others at meals, should unadvisedly touch the dish -of meat with his fingers, from which all at the table do cut, he will -give occasion of offence unto the company, as having transgressed -the laws of good manners, insomuch that for his error he shall be at -least brow-beaten if not reprehended in words. This form of feeding I -understand is generally used in all places of Italy; their fork being -for the most part made of iron or steel, and some of silver, but those -are used only by gentlemen. The reason of this their curiosity is, -because the Italian cannot by any means endure to have his dish touched -with fingers--seeing all men’s fingers are not alike clean. Hereupon -I myself thought good to imitate the Italian fashion by this forked -cutting of meat, not only while I was in Italy, but also in Germany, -and oftentime in England, since I came home, being once equipped for -that frequent using of my fork by a certain learned gentleman, a -familiar friend of mine, one Mr. Lawrence Whitaker, who in his merry -humour doubted not to call one at table _farsifer_, only for using a -fork at feeding, but for no other cause.” - -In many parts of Spain, we understand that, _at present_, -drinking-glasses, spoons, and forks are rarities. It is also said, -that even in taverns in many countries, particularly in France, knives -are not placed on the table, because it is expected that each person -should have one of his own. This custom the modern French appear to -have derived from their ancestors the ancient Gauls. But, as no person -will eat any longer without forks, the landlords are obliged to furnish -these, together with plates and spoons. - -Among the Highlanders in Scotland, Dr. Johnson asserts, that knives -have been introduced at table since the Revolution only. Before that -period the men were accustomed to cut their meat with a knife they -carry as a companion to their dirk. The men cut the meat into small -morsels for the women, who used their fingers to put it into their -mouths. - -The use of forks at table was first considered as a superfluous luxury, -and as such forbidden in convents, as appears from the records of the -congregation of St. Maur. - - - - -MUSIC. - - -The science of music, or rather of harmony, is extremely -ancient--insomuch that, with respect to the latter, it is said to be -coeval with Nature herself. But as it has relation to the science -now in use, this, like most other arts, whose origin is very remote, -is involved in obscurity; and in proportion to the astonishment and -wonder excited by its uncommon powers, in a commensurate ratio does -mystery, fable, and obscurity envelope its original. However, always -remembering that it was from harmony,-- - - --“from heavenly harmony, this universal frame began.” - -Proceeding step by step, it had eventually attained in Greece a very -early perfection. Collins, who is justly entitled to the distinguished -station held by all pupils of nature and of the muses, who is -peculiarly eminent for a just poetical spirit, thus speaks of the -heavenly science in his Ode on the Passions-- - - “Arise, as in that elder time, - Warm, energetic, chaste, sublime;-- - Thy wonders in that god-like age - Fill thy recording sisters’ page.-- - ’Tis said, and I believe the tale, - Thy humblest reed could more prevail, - Had more of strength, diviner rage - Than all that charms this laggard age, - Even all at once together found - Cecilia’s mingled world of sound.” - -It will be remembered, however, that the poet calculated as much upon -the infant simplicity of nature as upon the uncommon powers of harmony; -this consideration will certainly reconcile the apparent extravagance -of the thought. - -So great were the early powers of verse and harmony, that at one period -the votaries of the muses were regarded as persons divinely inspired; -they were the priests of man, his legislators, and his prophets. -Insomuch was the possessor of the art, and the art itself reverenced, -that the responses of the most eminent oracles were received in -measured verse. Witness the response of the Delphian oracle received by -the Athenian deputation, when Greece inquired for her wisest men, as -given by Xenophon:-- - - “Wise is Sophocles, more wise Euripides, - But the wisest of all men is Socrates.” - -Music eventually claimed the most unlimited control over the affections -of mankind, as could be proved by an infinity of instances; we shall -mention one only from a well authenticated fact, and finely illustrated -in that of Timotheus from “Alexander’s Feast,” by Dryden. We omit the -hyperbolic representation of the raising of the walls of Thebes by the -power of Amphion’s lute, and the apparently incredible relations of -the harmony of the harp of Orpheus, which are all personifications of -natural effects, and which we have neither room, time, nor opportunity -to explain in this place. - -If its origin was as previously suggested by Collins, there is occasion -to believe the shepherd’s simple life afforded it first existence; in -the native and wild notes of the pastoral reed, may be discovered the -germ of a science as various as its effects are beautiful. We shall for -the present presume the simple Pandean pipe was the first effort of -the construction of musical instruments; its soft tone being analogous -to the dulcet harmony of the voice. We are led to suppose this from -the evidence of ancient statuary, where those pipes are frequently -discovered; and this will, perhaps, deduce its origin from the -invention of the shepherd god, or oldest Pan. Nevertheless, the lyre, -or harp, is alleged from records the most ancient, having at first but -three strings, analogous to the three seasons of the primeval year; the -treble typical of spring, the tenor resembling summer, and the bass -representing winter. - -The invention of that instrument, and of music altogether, is claimed -in the pagan world by Amphion, a successor of Cadmus, the first king -of Thebes, in Bœtia, who is reported, by the music of his harp or lyre -to have built the walls of the city; Cadmus having erected the citadel -only. - -Flutes were first invented by Hyognis, the Phrygian, about the year -1506 before Christ, and first played on the flute the harmony, called -Phrygian, and other tunes of the mother of the gods, of Dionysius, of -Pan, and of the divinities of the country and the heroes. Terpander -also, who was the son of Derdineus, the Lesbian, directed the flute -players to reform the tunes of the ancients, and changed the old music, -about the year 645 before Christ, as we are informed by the Parian -Chronicle. The same Terpander, likewise, added three more strings to -the lyre. - -When Timotheus, the Spartan musician, was banished his native country -for having increased his strings to the number of ten, he sought refuge -at the court of Macedon, and accompanied his patron, Alexander, into -Persia, when that prince conquered Darius. - -From the sacred records of Judea, we may also infer the invention of -musical instruments at a date long prior to either of the periods above -mentioned, when they inform us in Genesis iv. 21, that Adah, one of the -wives of Lamech, had two sons, the name of one of whom was Jubal, who -is said to have been “the father of all such who handle the harp and -organ.” This infers the anterior invention of that instrument. - -Music consists of effects produced by the operation of certain sounds -proceeding from the dulcet voice, or musical instruments, regulated by -certain time, and a succession of harmonious notes, natural, grave, or -flat, _i. e._, half a note below its proper tone; and acute or sharp, -_i. e._, half a note above its proper key; and of such modulation -of various tones, and of different value, and also of manifold -denominations: the natural tones consisting of eight notes, with the -addition of octaves, in various keys, with flats and sharps introduced -to afford variety from the skill of the master, at different periods, -to produce the most agreeable diversity in his composition; and -sometimes according to the subject or words to which his music is -adapted. Those musical notes, though proceeding from so small a number -of radicals, are analogous to the incalculable, the endless forms, -which orthography and rhetoric can afford to a well-informed orator, or -elegant author, to embellish any subject. Thus from the definite number -of twenty-four notes, varied in different degrees, by sharps, flats, -semi-tones, &c., are produced all that is so magical, enthusiastic, -and transporting in the empire of omnipotent music. Like as the -alphabetic characters may be varied into myriads of forms suitable -to every multifarious species of conversation or composition; in a -word, a few musical notes in the hands of a master may be made by his -skill to produce, from agreeable interchanges of time, harmony, &c., -every variety of musical sentiment which can affect the human soul. A -stronger proof cannot be adduced than will be found in the before-cited -ode of “Alexander’s Feast,” by the truly poetic Dryden. In all which -harmony and melody form conspicuous characteristics. - -And of harmony, according to the learned Mr. Mason. The sense in -which the ancient Greeks viewed harmony is as follows:--“They by that -term understood the succession of simple sounds according to their -scale, with respect to acuteness or gravity.” Whilst it appears that -by harmony, the moderns understand--“The succession of simple sounds, -according to the laws of counterpoints.” From the same authority--“By -melody, the ancients understood the succession of simple sounds, -according to the laws of rhythm and metre, or in other words, according -to time, measure, or cadence. Whereas, the moderns understand by the -same term what the ancients meant by harmony, rhythm and metre being -excluded.” “And the modern air is what the ancients understood by -melody.” Hence, from the preceding definitions, it appears that what -is now called harmony was unknown to the ancients; and they viewed -that term as we now see simple melody, when we speak of it as a thing -distinguished from simple modulated air, and that their term, melody, -was applied to what we now call air or song. - -Should this be true, the long-contested difficulty, and that train of -endless disputes, which has existed among the learned and scientific -world so long, will instantly vanish. Should we suppose an ancient -flute-player used an improper tone or semi-tone, or had he transgressed -the mode or key in which he was playing, he committed an error in -harmony; yet his melody might have been perfect, with respect to the -laws of rhythm or metre; we should say of a modern musician, under -similar circumstances, that he played wrong notes, or was out of tune, -yet kept his _time_. Whoever made such a distinction would be allowed -to possess a good ear for music, though the moderns would be inclined -to call it an ear for melody or intonation. By the rules of musical -conversation, we should be justified when we call an instrument out of -tune inharmonious, although the intervals were nearly right. - -By _harmonica_, the Greeks implied nothing more than that proportion of -sound to sound, which mathematicians call _ratio_, or which would be -understood in general musical conversation, by an agreeable succession -of musical notes;--as ancient harmony consisted of the succession of -simple sounds, so does modern harmony consist of the succession of -chords. - -Whether the _diatonic_ scale be the effect of nature, or produced -by art, has occasioned disputation between many; but without losing -time or space, we are, we think, authorised, from general opinion, to -observe, that compositions formed on it, and on the plan recommended -by a lute organist, would produce sensations odiously disgusting to any -musical ear. - -The diatonic is the most simple genera in music, consisting of tones -and major semi-tones; in the scale of which genus the smallest interval -is a conjoint degree, which changes its name and place, that is, -passing from one to another; a prominent air in this species of modern -music is “God save the Queen,” entirely diatonic, without modulation, -by the intervention of a single flat or sharp. - -It may not be unacceptable to our readers to add a few particulars -of one of the greatest composers that ever existed; we allude to the -eminently illustrious GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL, a name dear to science, -and entitled to the grateful veneration of every amateur in this divine -art. He was born at Halle, in Upper Saxony, on the 24th of February -1684. Scarcely was he able to speak, before he articulated musical -sounds. His father was a professor of the healing art as a surgeon and -physician, then upwards of sixty, who intended his son for the study of -the law. Grieved at the child’s predeliction, he banished all musical -instruments from his house. But the spark which nature had kindled in -his bosom was not to be extinguished by the mistaken views of a blind -parent. The child by some means or other contrived to get a little -claverchord into a garret, where, applying himself after the family -had retired to rest, he discovered means to produce both melody and -harmony. Before he was seven years of age, the Duke of Weissenfells by -accident discovered his genius, and prevailed on his father to cherish -his inclination. He was accordingly placed with Zachan, organist of -the cathedral of Halle; when, from nine to twelve years of age, he -composed a church service every week. Losing his father whilst he was -in that city, he thought he could best support his mother by repairing -to Hamburgh, where he soon attracted general notice. This wonder of -the age was then only fourteen, when he composed “Almeria,” his -first opera. Having quitted Hamburgh, he travelled for six years in -Italy, where, at both Florence and Rome, he excited much attention: -at both which places he produced new operatic performances. In that -clime of the harmonious muse, he was introduced to, and cultivated -the friendship of, Dominico, Scarlatti, Gaspurini, and Zotti, with -other eminent scientific characters. He was particularly caressed and -patronised by Cardinal Ottoboni, in whose circle he became acquainted -with the elegant and natural Corelli. It was here he composed the -sonata “Il trionfo del tempo,” the original score of which is now in -the Royal Collection. After which he went to Naples, where he set -“Acis et Galatea,” in Italian, to music. Returning to Germany, he was -patronised by the Elector of Hanover, subsequently George the First. In -1710 he visited London, by permission of his patron, who had settled a -pension of £200 per annum on him. In London he produced the opera of -“Rinaldo,” universally admired--equal with all his other productions -that had preceded. He was compelled to leave, however reluctantly, -the British shore, consistent with his engagement to his patron the -Elector. He departed, not without exciting general regret, two years -after his first arrival in this country. He soon appeared here again, -however, and his return was welcomed like the rising of the genial -orb of day before the wrapt Ignicolist! But now seduced by the favour -which awaited him, he forgot to return. On the death of Queen Anne, -who had also settled an annual pension of £200 upon him--equal to what -he received from the Elector, his former patron--when that prince -ascended the throne, Handel was afraid to appear before his majesty, -till, by an ingenious contrivance of Baron Kilmarfyge, he was restored -to favour, Queen Anne’s bounty being doubled by the king; and the chief -nobility accepted an academy of music under Handel’s direction, which -flourished for ten years, till an unfortunate quarrel occurred between -him and Senesino, which dissolved the institution, and brought on a -contest ruinous to the fortune and the health of our musician. - -He was particularly patronised by the Earl of Burlington, the Duke of -Chandos, and most of the distinguished nobility of Great Britain. - -Having restored his health at the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle, he for the -future chose sacred subjects, which were performed at his theatre in -Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Covent Garden, and Westminster Abbey. He died in -April, 1759, aged seventy-five, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, -where he was honoured with a public funeral, six peers supporting the -pall; the very reverend and truly learned translator of “Longimus,” Dr. -Pearce, the Dean, and then Bishop of Rochester, performed the funeral -service with a full choir. - -He had been a great benefactor to numerous public charities. The funds -of the Foundling Hospital were improved through him with the amazing -sum of £10,299. The organ in its chapel, and the MS. score of his -“Messiah,” were a present and a donation to the foundation from him. He -left an amiable private as well as a good public character behind him. - -His character as a composer is too well appreciated by the British -public to require any remarks from our feeble and inharmonious pen. - - - - -SEALING-WAX, SEALS, &c. - - -Besides metals, five other mediums are enumerated by ancient -writers, wherewith letters and public acts were sealed, viz., _terra -sigillaris_, cement, paste, common wax and sealing-wax. That the -terra sigillaris was used by the Egyptians, we have the evidence of -Herodotus, and which, by inference, is strengthened by that of Moses -who speaks of seal-rings or signets, whence we may safely infer, that -they had a medium of some sort, wherewith they sealed. This _lacuna_ -Herodotus supplies, affirming it in direct terms, and assigning a name -to the substance they used for that purpose. - -This circumstance was only rendered questionable by Pliny, who alleges -the Egyptians did not use those things. - -Herodotus thus expresses himself: “The Egyptian priest bound to the -horns of cattle fit for sacrifice pieces of papyrus with sealing-earth, -on which they made an impression with the seal; and such cattle could -only be offered up as victims.” - -Lucian speaks of a fortune-teller who ordered those who came to consult -him, to write down on a bit of paper the questions they wished to ask, -to fold it up, and seal it with clay, or any other substance of a like -kind. - -Such earth appears to have been employed in sealing, by the Byzantyne -emperors; for we are told that, at the second Nicene Council, image -worship was defended by one saying, “No one believed that those who -received written orders from the Emperor, and venerated the seal, -worshipped on that account the sealing-earth, the paper, or the lead.” - -Cicero relates that Verres, having seen in the hands of his servants -a letter written to his son from Agrimentum, and observing on it an -impression in sealing-earth, he was so pleased with it that he caused -the seal-ring with which it was made to be taken from the possessor. - -Also, the same orator, in his defence of Flaccus, produced an -attestation sent from Asia, and proved its authenticity by its being -sealed with Asiatic sealing-earth; with which, he told the judges, -all public and private letters in Asia were sealed: and he showed on -the other hand, that the testimony brought by the accuser was false, -because it was sealed with _wax_, and for that reason could not have -come from Asia. The scholiast Servius relates, that a sybil received a -promise from Apollo, that she should live as long as she did not see -the earth of the island of the Erythræa, where she resided; that she -therefore quitted the place, and retired to Cumae, where she became old -and decrepid; but that having received a letter sealed with Erythræn -earth, when she saw the seal, she instantly expired. - -No one, however, will suppose that this earth was used without -preparation, as was that to which is given the name of _creta_ chalk; -for, if it was of a natural kind, it must have been of that kind -called _potter’s clay_, as that clay is susceptible of receiving an -impression, and of retaining it subsequent to hardening by drying. It -is believed that the Romans, under the indefinite term _creta_, often -understood to be a kind of potter’s earth, which can be proved by many -passages in their numerous writers. Columella speaks of a species -of chalk of which wine-jars and dishes were made, of which kind it -is conjectured Virgil speaks when he calls it adhesive. The ancient -writers on agriculture give precisely the same name to marl, which was -employed to manure land: now, both chalk and marl, in their natural -state, are extremely inapplicable to the purpose for which we are led -to believe the _terra sigillaris_ was used; therefore, admitting the -Roman _creta_ was composed of them, those substances must naturally -have undergone some laborious process, in order to render them proper -for the purpose to which they were applied. - -Notwithstanding none can feel a higher respect for Professor Beckmann, -to whom we are indebted for many of the preceding observations, than we -do, yet strongly as we are influenced with this impression, we cannot -help observing, consistent with that duty we owe to the public, that we -cannot divest ourselves of the opinion that he is only trifling with -the public feeling, perhaps for the ostentatious display of his own -learning: so many objections of so little weight are raised, that he -really appears to write for the purpose of raising new objections to -passages, which, in our comprehension, are extremely simple. We cannot -help applying to him a passage which occurs in a song of the Swan of -Twickenham, who sings:-- - - “Gnawed his pen, then dashed it on the ground, - Striking from thought to thought, a vast profound. - Plunged for the sense, but found no bottom there, - Yet wrote, and floundered on in mere despair.” - -We would not be illiberal or capricious, nor do we presume to any extra -portion of intelligence; yet, we think we can in a few words discuss -the topic, and perhaps, satisfactorily, on which he has employed so -many pages. Those terms which have troubled the professor with learned -difficulties really appear to us susceptible of an easy interpretation, -and applicable to both or either of the senses in which they are -used, as are any words in the language of ancient Rome. Accordingly, -we find the term _creta_ implies either chalk, fuller’s clay, loam, -white paint, or Asiatic earth, termed creta Asiatica; and, in brief it -appears a mere generic name for any kind of earth, raised from below -the surface of the soil: this is its true sense. But there cannot be a -question, from what is known of the preparation of clay and earth for -_terra cotta_ and other plastic purposes, which undergo a variety of -washings, kneadings, &c., that similar preparations were requisite, -in order to bring it to so curious, so delicate a purpose as that to -which the terra sagillaris was applied. And _fosse_, in the sense used -by Varre, admits of nearly a similar description, it appearing as a -pronomen for the same thing; and indicates either peat, marl, loam, -chalk, or any earthy substance which may be raised from below the -terrestrial surface. - -We have evidence every day in our fruit shops, that in certain -countries this kind of earth is yet employed for closing up jars of -dried fruits brought from Oporto, Smyrna, and other countries; as these -appear to be composed of white chalk of a texture somewhat similar to -common mortar. The warmth of the atmosphere, where it is used, soon -hardens and prevents the passage of air to the contents; the jars -themselves being oftentimes only dried in the sun. - -Thus it appears that prepared earths were first used for the purpose -of sealing; their adhesive, or, as Virgil has it, their tenacious -qualities, being wonderfully improved for manual labour. Next, paste -was employed, prepared from dough. - -To paste succeeded common wax, sometimes slightly tinctured with a -green tint, the effect of endeavouring to give it a blue colour, as -vegetable blues turn green by the process of heat employed in melting; -whilst mineral or earthy blues all sink to the bottom, from superior -gravity. This was the material employed in sealing public acts in -England, as early as the fifteenth century. We have an anecdote of the -Duke of Lancaster having no seal to ratify a deed between him and the -Duke of Burgoyne, but from what appears in the attestation, which, with -the instrument itself, according to the general custom of the day, runs -in rhyme thus: - - “I, John of Gaunt, - Doe gyve and do graunt, - To John of Burgoyne - And the heire of his loyne - Sutton and Putton - Untill the world’s rotten.” - -The attestation runs thus: - - “There being no seal within the roof, - In sooth, I seal it wyth my tooth.” - -A good example is this of the simple brevity of the time, and a severe -lecture upon the eternal repetitions of our modern lawyers, whereby the -limitations and special uses of deeds are made, perhaps, not according -to the necessities of the case, but are lengthened from selfish -purposes. - -The Great Charter, which gives an assurance of the rights of -Englishmen, is sealed with white wax; as may be seen in the British -Museum. - -The first arms used as a seal in England, were those of the tyrannical -subjugator of English rights, William, commonly called the Conqueror, -and they were brought from Normandy. - -Although Fenn, in his collection of original Letters of the last half -of the fifteenth century, published in London, 1787, has given the size -and shape of the seals, he does not apprise us of what substance they -were composed. Respecting a letter of 1455, he says only, that “the -seal is of red wax,” by which, it is presumed, he means common wax; and -though, perhaps not equal in quality to such as is now used, yet it was -made of nearly similar materials. Tavernier, in his Travels, says, that -in Surat gum-lac is melted and formed into sticks, like sealing-wax. -Wecker also gives directions to make an impression with calcined gypsum -and a solution of gum or isinglass. Porta, likewise, knew that this -might be done, and, perhaps, to greater perfection with amalgam of -quicksilver. - -Among the records of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, are some letters of -1563, sealed with red and black wax. In the family of the Rhingrave, -Philip Francis von Daun, the oldest letter sealed with wax, known in -Germany, is found, of the date of August 3, 1554; it was written from -London, by an agent of that family, of the name of Gerrard Herman. The -colour of the wax is dark red, and very shining. - -The oldest recipe known in Germany for making sealing-wax, was found -by M. Von Murr, in a work by Samuel Zimmerman, citizen of Augsburg, -published in 1759. The copy in the library of the university of -Gottingen is signed by the author himself.--“To make hard sealing-wax, -called Spanish wax, with which, if letters be sealed, they cannot be -opened without breaking the seal; take beautiful clear resin, the -whitest you can procure, and melt it over a slow coal fire. When it is -properly melted, take it from the fire, and for every pound of resin, -add two ounces of cinnabar, pounded very fine, stirring it about. Then -let the whole cool, or pour it into cold water. Thus you will have -beautiful red sealing-wax. - -“If you are desirous of having black wax, add lamp-black to it. With -smalt or azure, you may make blue: with white-lead, white; and with -orpiment, yellow. - -“If, instead of resin, you melt purified turpentine in a glass vessel, -and give it any colour you choose, you will have a harder kind of -sealing-wax, and not so brittle as the former.” - -It may be remarked, that in these recipes for the fabrication of -sealing-wax there is no mention of gum-lac, which is known at present -as a chief ingredient in the composition of this article. - -Zimmerman’s sealing-wax approaches very near to the quality of that -known as _maltha_, whence we may conclude, that the manufacture of it -did not originally come from the East Indies. The most ancient mention -of sealing-wax occurs in a botanical work, treating of the history of -aromatics and simples, by Garcia ab Horto, published at Antwerp in -1563, where the author, speaking of gum-lac says, that those sticks -used for sealing letters are made of it; at which time sealing-wax was -common among the Portuguese, and has since been manufactured chiefly in -Holland. - -M. Spiess, principal keeper of the Records at Plessenberg, says, -respecting the antiquity of _Wafers_, in Germany, that the most -ancient use of them he has known, occurs in a letter written by D. -Krapf, at Spires, in 1624, to the government of Bayreuth.--The same -authority informs us that some years after, the Brandenburg factor at -Nuremberg sent such wafers to a bailiff, at Osternohe. During the whole -of the seventeenth century, wafers were not used in the Chancery at -Brandenburg, and only by private persons there. - -Seals, it appears, from certain passages of Egyptian history, parallel -with, and perhaps anterior to the Israelitish ingress, were formed or -cut in emeralds, the native produce of that country. Other precious -stones, metals, steel, lead, and a variety of materials, but chiefly of -a hard and precious kind, have been always employed for that purpose. - - - - -BLACK-LEAD PENCILS. - - -The period when this semi-metallic substance was introduced, for -the purpose for which it is now applied, cannot with certainty be -ascertained, as no record is found of the transaction: by the common -expedient of inference, however, we certainly may conclude, it was in -very remote ages; for transcribers of MSS. upwards of one thousand -years ago, used a substance somewhat resembling it in effect. - -But, perhaps, the antiquity of the use of black-lead pencils cannot -be so well determined from diplomatiques, as their frequency might -be proved from mineralogical writers. The first mention of this -discovery occurs in the works of Gesner, who, in his “Book of -Fossils,” published in 1565, says that the British people had pencils -for writing, with wooden-handles inclosing a piece of lead, which he -believed to be an artificial composition; and it was called _stimmi -Anglicanum_; which seems to import that it was a British production; -and we should consider, from the name of British antimony being given -to it, that it might have been Cumberland black-lead. - -About thirty years afterwards, Cæsalpinus gave a more perfect account -of it:--he says it was a lead-coloured, shining stone, as smooth as -glass, and appeared as if rubbed over with oil; it gave to the fingers -an ash-grey tint, with a plumbeous brightness; and, he adds, pointed -pencils were made of it, for the use of painters and draughtsmen. A -closer description of the substance than this cannot be discovered. - -Somewhere about three years afterwards, a still more perfect -description was furnished by Imperatis; who says, “It is much more -convenient for drawing than pen and ink, because the marks made with -it appear distinct upon a white ground, also, in consequence of -its brightness, show themselves on black, and can be preserved or -rubbed out at pleasure. This mineral is smooth, appears greasy to the -touch, and has a leaden-colour, which it communicates with a metallic -brightness. It can resist, for a long time, the strongest fire, and -even from it requires more hardness; it has, in consequence, been -thought to be a species of _talc_. This, in the arts to which it -is applied, is a property which greatly enhanceth its value, being -manufactured into crucibles, &c., with clay. These vessels are capable -of enduring the strongest heat of a chemical furnace.” - -Sometimes this lead is foliaceous, and may be crumbled into small -pieces or scales; but frequently found denser and more strong. This -latter is what writing pencils should be made of; but the former being -more frequently found, and, also, coming from the refuse of the -workmen, is too often mixed up with some glutinous substance, and there -is every reason to suppose it to be enclosed in the groove in a plastic -state; these pencils are commonly hawked about our streets by pedlars -and Jews; of purchasing which people should be cautious, as they are, -in general, utterly worthless. - -Robinson, in his Essay towards a natural History of Westmoreland and -Cumberland states, that, at first, the country people round Keswick -marked their sheep with black-lead. Afterwards, they discovered the -art of employing it in their earthenware, and also to preserve iron -from rust. The same writer says, the Dutch use it in dyeing, to render -black more durable; and that they buy it in large quantities for that -purpose. But their application of it for dyeing, we should consider as -highly questionable. - -The mode of eradicating black-lead by means of an elastic gum, called -caoutchouc, or, Indian-rubber, was, we have been informed, first -discovered in England somewhere about sixty years ago. - - - - -COLOURED GLASS. - - -The manufacture of glass we find was quite common in Ethiopia, Syria, -Assyria, and other Eastern countries, in the earliest ages of the -world, as Diodorus Siculus informs us, who says, the Ethiopians -enclosed in glass, the bodies of their parents and friends; we -doubt, however, that on this point, the historian was deceived. But -it really appears probable that soon after the art of making glass -was discovered, the idea of communicating to it some colours would -easily present itself. This probability appears increased, when it -is recollected that much care is requisite to render glass perfectly -colourless. As the various metallic particles with which stone and -sand abound, (these being the chief ingredients of which glass is -composed, and which gradually give tints in fusion,) will almost -unavoidably communicate some hue or other, therefore the perfection of -glass is to have it perfectly colourless. - -But with respect to coloured glass; so frequently have people been -imposed upon by having coloured glass sold to them for valuable stones, -that some conscientious authors have very laudably and carefully -abstained from lending the benefit of instruction in its manufacture, -by publishing the method. - -The Egyptian artists were so famous in the manufacture of glass, that -the Romans were content to receive this article from the glass-houses -in Alexandria, and did not interfere in endeavouring to procure the art -themselves, until the latter part of the empire. - -We read that an Egyptian priest made a present to the Emperor Adrian -of several beautiful glass cups, which sparkled with many colours; and -such value did that august personage place upon these toys, that he -ordered them to be used only on high feasts and solemnities. - -Strabo relates, that a glass manufacturer of Alexandria informed him -that an earth was found in Egypt, without which the valuable coloured -glass could not be made. It has been thought by some, the glass earth -here meant was a mineral alkali which was readily found in Egypt, -serving to make glass; but this author speaking expressly of coloured -glass, it has been suggested as probable, the alkali above named could -not have reference to what the artisan intended to imply, but that it -must be referred to some metallic earth or manganese. - -One Democritus is named by Seneca, as having discovered an art of -making artificial emeralds; but it has been conjectured that what the -philosopher meant was the art of communicating colour to natural -rock crystal, or colouring glass already made, so as to resemble -stones, which is a process performed by cementation. Directions have -been furnished for this purpose by Porta, Neri, and others; but it is -discovered that the articles so coloured are liable to such accidents -in the process, that it is next to impossible to render things of any -size tolerably perfect, so as to bear cutting afterwards. - -In the Museum Victorium at Rome, there are shown a chrysolite and an -emerald, both perfectly well executed, and thoroughly transparent, -without a blemish. - -We have not from the ancients an account of what process they employed; -but it must be evident that nothing less than metallic calces could -have been used; and for this evident reason, that any other substance -could not have resisted the influence of the necessary heat. The last -century has, however, produced certain artists in northern European -nations, who have adopted a method of employing the precious metals, to -communicate a tincture to glass in the process of making, where iron, -&c. were originally only used; and their endeavours have been attended -with singular success. - -By means of an amalgam of gold, or a solution in _aqua regia_, and -precipitated with a solution of tin, the metal then assuming the -appearance of a rich purple coloured powder; so prepared, it is mixed -with the best _frit_, and then called the precipitate or gold calx of -Cassius, the inventor of gold purple, or mineral purple. - -This precipitate communicates a rich ruby coloured purple, so perfect -that it is impossible to discover the deception, without the substances -be tried by the usual means--cut with a diamond or a prepared file. - -We have had in England some very eminent artists in the practice of -staining glass, and also for making artificial representations of -various precious stones. - -Although the professed object of alchemy has now met with that -contempt it merited--because, notwithstanding the immense sums which -have been expended, the time lost, and unprofitable labour employed -in the unavailing search after what probably never will be found--yet -the labour lost and money expended has not been totally useless, since -it has served to open the seals which secured chemical science to the -modern world; and which is the chief, if not the sole advantage it can -claim over antiquity for superiority of information. - -Painting on glass, but, perhaps, staining had been a more appropriate -expression, or, properly speaking, in enamel, with the preparations -for colouring in mosaic work, may, to a certain extent, be justly -considered as branches of the art of colouring glass; in all which -there is no colour more difficult to be attained than a beautiful red; -it now is, and ever has been, most difficult, consequently the dearest -colour. The presumed ignorance of ancient artists in preparing this -colour has afforded some reason, it is said, to suppose the ancients -knew of no other substance proper for that purpose but calx of iron, -or manganese. To this we may reply, many specimens are found which -show they were not so ignorant in that art, and that it is more than -probable the same jealousy which is found to exist in modern days among -artizans might prevent our sagacious predecessors from publishing the -secrets of their respective professions to the world. We contend, that -as the materials must then have had existence, which have been since so -successfully employed, pray what was the reason the ancients should not -avail themselves of their benefit? In all the higher speculations of -science and arts, where the great and superior energies of genius were -requisite, this perfection in the ancients far surpassed any exertions -which have been since achieved by the moderns. To instance one artist -and one art solely, we name the great Praxiteles, so famous in the art -of statuary, whose works were a model of perfection. - - - - -ETCHING ON GLASS AND GLASS CUTTING. - - -Without entering into the history of the lapidary’s art, we only -propose to speak of those things which ancient and modern authors have -said upon the art of engraving on glass, observing, that it was an art -anciently known to both the Greeks and Romans; although it appears -extremely probable, that from their expressed ignorance of many of -those properties which modern chemistry has discovered to belong to -matter, they were ignorant of the art of etching on glass. - -From antique specimens still preserved, a doubt cannot for a moment -be suffered to exist on our minds, but that the art of engraving upon -glass was familiar to the Greek artists, who formed upon glass both -linear figures, and in relievo, by the same means as are now employed -for nearly the same purpose, if we can place any confidence in an able -and learned lapidary, Natter, who has established, that the ancients -employed the same kind of instruments for this purpose, or nearly such -as are now in use; abating, perhaps the use of diamonds, and the dust -of that precious material, for which it is conceived they used emery -powder, and the dust of glass. - -From what is related by Pliny, it certainly appears that they used the -lapidary’s wheel, an instrument moving in a horizontal direction over -the work-table. - -Some have thought that drinking cups and vessels may have been formed -from the glass whilst in a state of fusion, by means of this wheel; to -this they think those words of Martial refer, where he says, _calices -audaces_, having reference to the boldness of the artisan’s touch; -those vessels he was constructing often broke under the last touch he -bestowed upon his transparent labours, although, perhaps, of costly -value; these accidents must of necessity have rendered those articles -extremely expensive. - -There are not wanting many who affirm the art of glass-cutting, -with the instruments necessary for that operation, to be of modern -invention. Those assign it to the ingenuity of Caspar Lehmann, -originally an engraver on iron and steel, and who, as Beckmann -informs us, made an attempt, which succeeded, in cutting crystal, and -afterwards glass in the same manner. This artist, we are told, was in -the service of Rodolphus, the second emperor of that name, who, in -the year 1609, besides giving him valuable presents, conferred on him -the title of lapidary and glass-cutter to his court, and gave him a -patent, allowing him the exclusive privilege of exercising this new -art. He worked at Prague, where he had an assistant of the name of -Zacharias Belzer; but George Schwanhard, one of his pupils, carried -on the business to a much larger extent. The last named was a son of -Hans Schwanhard, a joiner at Rothenburg, and was born in 1601; at the -age of seventeen he went to Prague, to learn the art of cutting glass -from Lehmann. His good behaviour won so much upon the affections of -his master, that on his death in the year 1622, he left him his heir. -Schwanhard succeeded in obtaining a continuation of the patent from -the emperor, and removed to Nuremburg, where he wrought for many of -the nobility of that district. This was, we believe, the occasion of -that city claiming the honour of being the birth-place of this new -art. In the year 1652, he worked at Prague, and also at Ratisbon, by -command of the Emperor Ferdinand III.; and he died in 1676. He left -two sons, who both followed the lucrative employment of their father. -Afterwards Nuremburg produced many expert masters in the art, who, -from the improvement in the tools, and also from discovering more -economical modes of using them, were enabled to execute the orders of -the public at a more moderate rate than had been previously charged -for some articles. Those latter masters likewise brought this art to a -much greater degree of perfection. Notwithstanding Zahn was of the same -country, and must have been apprised of the facts previously stated, -yet he mentions it as a very recent invention at Nuremberg, at the time -he published his “Oculus Artificial.” He also furnishes a plate, giving -at the same time a description of the various instruments employed. -However, that this invention is not purely _novel_, may be perceived -from those facts we have already submitted. - -It should be stated that before this latter re-introduction, artists -used, with a diamond, to cut figures upon glass in almost every form, -as far as the representation by lines went. The history of diamonds has -been presented to the public by Mr. Mawe, in his observations on the -diamond districts of Brazil. It appears to be yet undetermined whether -the ancients used that stone for the purpose of cutting others; upon -this point Pliny appears to be satisfied that they did. - -Solinus and Isidore both express themselves in a manner the reverse. -But although this may leave us in some doubt, it appears pretty clear -that they did not attempt to cut that valuable production with its -own dust, or to give it different faces, or render it more brilliant -by the same means. If this point was settled, there could be no great -difficulty in affirming or negativing the fact of their engraving upon -that stone. Thus doubts appear to increase on this head, for Mariette -denies that they did; Natter appears uncertain; and Klotz asserts -with confidence it was certain. His authority, to be sure, has been -considered not to be of much weight. - -The proper question, however, appears to be, whether the Greeks and -Romans used diamonds for cutting and engraving other stones or glass. -Natter, in his work already noticed, thinks they were employed on some -antique engravings. His authority is deserving respect. But if they -were employed on other stones, the authority which at present directs -us, confidently alleges they did not employ them in cutting glass; but -he points out the mode in which that article was wont to be divided, in -the following terms: “They used for that purpose emery, sharp-pointed -instruments of the hardest steel, and a red-hot iron, by which they -directed the rents at their pleasure.” - -The first mention which appears to occur of the use of the diamond for -this purpose, is recorded of Francis I. of France, who, fond of the -arts, sciences, and new inventions, wrote a couple of lines with a -diamond, on a pane of glass in the Castle of Chambord, to let Anne de -Pisseleu, Duchess of Estampes, know that he was jealous. - -About 1652, festoons and other ornaments, cut with a diamond, were -made on Venetian glasses; then considered the best. Schwanhard was -a professed adept in that art; and since his time an artist of the -name of John Rost, of Augsburg, cut some drinking glasses, which were -purchased by the Emperor Charles VI., at an extravagant price. - - -ETCHING ON GLASS. - -An acid to dissolve siliceous earth was discovered as late as 1771, by -the celebrated chemist Scheele, in _sparry fluor_. It is conceived that -this cannot be of older date than that period; but it is alleged that -an acid was discovered as early as the year 1670, by Henry Schwanhard. -It being said that some aquafortis had dropped, by accident upon his -spectacles, the glass being corroded by it, he thence learned to -improve the liquid that he could etch figures and write upon glass. How -he prepared this liquid is a secret which has not been revealed. The -_Teutsche Akedemie_ says on this subject, that he, by the acuteness of -his genius, proved that which had been considered impossible could be -accomplished; and found out a corrosive so powerful that the hardest -crystal glass, which had hitherto withstood the force of the strongest -spirits, was obliged to yield to it, as well as metals and stones. By -these means he delineated and etched, on glass, figures of men, in -various situations, animals and plants, in a manner perfectly natural, -and brought them to the highest perfection. - -The glass proposed to be etched is made perfectly clean and free from -grease; then the figure is covered with a varnish; then an edge of wax -being raised round the glass, the acid is poured in, and the whole -ground on the exterior of the figures appears rough, whilst the figure -is preserved in its original beauty of outline, bright and smooth. This -is the mode the inventor adopted. - -Professor Beckmann says, he mentioned this ancient method of etching -upon glass, to an artist of the name of Klindworth, who possessed great -dexterity in such arts, and requested him to try it; he drew a tree -with oil varnish and colours on a plate of glass, applied the acid on -the plate in the usual manner; after it had been upon the plate for a -sufficient time, poured off, and the plate afterwards cleaned of the -varnish, a beautiful tree was left bright and smooth, with a rough -back-ground. It is conceived that many great improvements may yet be -made in this process. - -It appears that no other acid than that produced by the sparry fluor -is capable of corroding every kind of glass, though Baume, in his -“Chemique Experimentale,” says, that many kinds of glass may be -corroded by the marine and vitriolic acids. - -In this state of uncertainty was the public mind till the year -1725, when it was thought that a recipe, older than that previously -mentioned, might possibly be discovered. Accordingly, in that year, in -the month of January, the following is said to have been transmitted -to the publisher of the “Œkonomische Encyclopedie,” by Dr. John -George Weygand, of Goldingen, which is reported to have belonged to -Dr. Matthew Pauli, of Dresden, then deceased; with which the last -named gentleman had etched, on glass, arms, landscapes, and figures -of various kinds. We find, that in it, very strong acid of nitre was -used, which entirely disengages the acid of sparry fluor, though the -vitriolic acid has been commonly employed, and figures thus produced -will appear as if raised above the plane of the glass. - -This sparry fluor is found abundantly in Derbyshire, as well as in the -mines of Germany. Theophrastus is the first who notices the effect of -sparry fluor, by observing that there are certain stones which, when -added to silver, copper, and iron ores, become fluid. It appears that -Cronstedt was the first systematic writer who gave it a name. - -When _spiritus nitri per distillationem_ has passed into the recipient, -ply it with a strong fire, and when well dephlegmated, pour it, (as -it corrodes ordinary glass,) into a Waldenburg flask; then throw into -it a pulverised green Bohemian emerald, otherwise called _hesphorus_, -(which, when reduced to powder and heated, emits in the dark a green -light,) and place it in warm sand for twenty-four hours. Take a piece -of glass, well cleaned, and freed from all grease by means of a ley; -put a border of wax round it, about an inch in height, and cover it -equally all over with the above acid. The longer you let it stand, -so much the better; and at the end of some time the glass will be -corroded, and the figures which have been traced out with sulphur and -oil varnish will appear as if raised above the plane of the glass. - - - - -HYDROMETERS. - - -The Hydrometer is an instrument for admeasuring liquids; by it the -strength or specific gravity of different fluids is discovered, by -the depth to which it sinks in them. It has been chiefly used for -discovering the contents of different salt waters, without analysis, -and is now almost entirely used by persons connected with the -spirit-trade, to ascertain the different degrees of strength, and what -alloy they will bear; hence its utility to the manufacturer and the -excise-officer is apparent. - -The laws respecting the comparative weight of different fluids, as well -as of solid bodies immersed in them, was first discovered by that great -geometrician Archimedes. It may be far from improbable that Archimedes -constructed that instrument himself; and if it should appear that he -did, it must have happened two hundred and twelve years before the -Christian era. - -The most ancient mention of this instrument by its specific name, -occurs in the fifth century of our era, upon the following occasion. -The anecdote is very singular and affecting, and also evinces the -incapacity of humanity to act consistent and as it ought, when we -suffer ourselves to be directed by passions unworthy of the human -character. - -It is first discovered in those letters of Synesius to the philosophic -and beautiful Hypatia. We trust we may be excused the liberty we -propose to take in detailing this circumstance, which is comparatively -little known; and as its interest also recommends it, this furnishes an -additional motive. - -Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, an eminent mathematician of -Alexandria, some of whose writings are still extant. By her father -she was instructed in the mathematics, and from other great men, -who at that period abounded in Alexandria, she learned the Platonic -and Aristotelian philosophy, and acquired such a knowledge of these -sciences, that she taught them publicly, with the greatest applause. -She was young and beautiful, had a personable figure, was sprightly -and agreeable in conversation, though, at the same time, modest; and -she possessed the most rigid virtue, which was proof against every -temptation. She conducted herself with so much propriety towards -her lovers, that they never could obtain more than the pleasure of -her company, and hearing her discourse; and with this, which they -considered as an honour, they were contented. Those who were so daring -as to desire further communion she dismissed; and even destroyed -the appetite of one of her admirers, who would not suffer her to -philosophise, by means of some strong preparation, which others appear -not to have since imitated. - -She suffered so cruel a death, that had she been a Christian, and -suffered from Pagan error, her name would have been ranked among its -most honoured victims in the list of martyrology; but being a Pagan, -and suffering from the persecution of superstitious and anti-Christian -zeal, she is honoured among the foremost of martyrs to celestial -philosophy. - -The name of the Christian patriarch, at that period in Alexandria, was -Cyrill, whose family had, for upwards of a hundred years before his -time, produced bishops, who had been much more serviceable to their own -family connections than they had ever been towards the propagation of -the Christian faith. The present was proud, litigious, and revengeful, -vindictive and intolerant to the last degree; his ignorance debasing -his own character as a man, and scandalising the religion of which he -was so unworthy a minister. He stupidly conceived himself sanctioned -in everything which his foolish and mistaken ideas might dictate to be -for the glory of God, and acted as a persecutor, prosecutor, judge, and -executioner: he had condemned Nestorias without hearing his defence. -As the city of Alexandria was then very flourishing on account of its -extended commerce, the emperor had there allowed greater toleration and -more peculiar privileges to all religions, than in any other place: -it consequently contained, among others, a great number of Jews, who -carried on a most extensive trade, as well as a great many Pagan -families. In the eyes of the bigot Cyrill this was wrong; he would have -the sheep-fold clean, and the Jews must be banished. The governor, -however, who was a man of prudence and sober discretion, much better -acquainted with the real interests of the city, opposed a measure he -saw replete with mischief, and even caused to be condemned to death a -Christian profligate, who had injured the Jews. This malefactor was, by -the express order of Cyrill, buried in the church as a martyr; and he -collected an army of five hundred lazy monks, who abused the governor -in the public streets, and excited an insurrection among the people -against the Jews, so that the debased race of Abraham was expelled from -the city where they had so long existed unmolested from the time of -Alexander the Great. - -Cyrill, one day, whilst looking for objects of persecution, saw a -number of carriages, attended with servants, belonging to the first -families in the city, before a certain house. Inquiring what was the -cause of the assembly, he was informed that it was the habitation of -the lovely Hypatia, who, on account of her extensive learning and very -eminent talents, was visited by people of the first respectability. -This afforded to the malignant priest a sufficient object for the -exercise of his jealousy against the meritorious, the unoffending, the -beautiful Hypatia. He from that moment resolved upon her destruction. -Accordingly he lost no time in exciting his myrmidons, the monks and -priests, those who should have been the ministers of that religion -which they professed to teach, to destroy the fair philosopher. -They accordingly, with diabolical rage, and instigated by infernal -cruelty, took the earliest opportunity to seize her, hurried her to the -church--the temple of peace and good-will--which they violated by an -offence at which humanity must shudder; having torn the clothes from -her delicate form, they tore the flesh from her bones with potsherds, -then dragged her mangled body about the city, and afterwards burnt it. - -This demoniacal tragedy took place in the year 415, and was perpetrated -by the professed servants of Him who came into world to save those -which were lost--to preach peace and good-will to all men. The -impressions which such an event made upon people of every persuasion -may be conceived; they admit not of description from a feeble pen: but -we may ask the question, was it such a transaction as was calculated to -make converts to the doctrines of Christianity?--whose avowed motive -and maxim is, in the words of Milton, - - “By winning words, to conquer willing hearts, - And make persuasion do the work of fear.” - -All historians are not agreed in some circumstances of the preceding -relation; but they generally unite in bestowing praise upon Hypatia, -whose memory was long honoured by her grateful and affectionate -scholars, among whom was Synesius, of a noble Pagan family, who had -cultivated philosophy and the mathematics with the utmost ardour, -and who had been one of her most intimate friends and followers. On -account of his learning and virtues, many eminent talents, and open -disposition, the inhabitants of Ptolemais were desirous he should be -bishop, having been previously employed on many public and important -concerns with success. After modestly desiring, for a long period, -that they would fix their choice upon a more worthy object, they still -persisting, he assented, upon condition that he was not to believe -in the resurrection, to which he could not at that time bring his -internal conviction: he suffered himself to be baptised, and became -their bishop; he was confirmed by the orthodox patriarch Theophilus, -the predecessor of Cyrill, to whose jurisdiction Ptolemais belonged: -he afterwards renounced his error respecting the resurrection. This -learned man evinced his gratitude to Hypatia, by the honourable mention -which he made of her in some of his writings, still preserved. - -In his fifteenth letter to her, he tells Hypatia, that he was so -unfortunate, or found himself so ill, that he wished to use an -hydroscopium (the Greek for hydrometer), and he requests that -she would cause one to be constructed for him. He says, “It is a -cylindrical tube, of the size of a reed or pipe; a line is drawn upon -it lengthways, which is intersected by others, and these point out the -weight of water. At the end of the tube is a cone, the base of which -is joined to that of the tube, so that they have both only one base. -This part of the instrument is called _baryllion_. If it be placed in -water, it remains in a perpendicular direction, so that one can readily -discover by it the weight of the fluid.” - -Petau, who published the works of Synesius, in the year 1640, -acknowledges that he did not understand this passage. An old scoliast, -he says, who had added some illegible words, thought it was a -water-clock; but the ellepsydra was not immersed in water, but filled -with it. He therefore thought that it might allude to the chorobates, -which Vitruvius describes as an instrument employed in levelling; but -it appears that Synesius, who complained of ill health, could have no -occasion for such an instrument. Besides, no part of that instrument he -describes, has any resemblance to the one described by Synesius. - -From the works of Fermat, an excellent mathematician, and a very -learned man, well acquainted with antiquities and the works of the -ancients, we give the following explanation concerning the hydroscopium -of Archimedes, as this article would be incomplete without it:-- - -“It is impossible,” says he, “that the _hydroscopium_ could be the -level or _chorobates_ of Vitruvius, for the lines on the latter were -perpendicular to the horizon, whereas the lines on the former were -parallel to it. The hydroscopium was undoubtedly a hydrometer of the -simplest construction. The tube may be made of copper, and open at the -top; but at the other end, which, when used, is the lowest, it must -terminate with a cone, the base of which is added to that of the tube. -Lengthwise, along the tube, are drawn two lines, which are intersected -by others, and the more numerous these divisions are, the instrument -will be so much the more correct.--When placed in water it sinks to a -certain depth, which will be marked by the cross-lines, and which will -be greater, according to the lightness of the water.” A figure which is -added, might have been dispensed with. When a common friend of Fermat -and Petau showed it to the latter, he considered it to be so just, -and explanatory of the real meaning of Synesius, that he wished to be -allowed the opportunity of introducing it in a new edition of the works -of Synesius. - - -_FINIS._ - - -J. S. Pratt, Stokesley, Yorkshire. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Many typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Text uses both “Guttenberg” and “Guttenburg”, “Helvelius” and -“Hevelius”; both versions retained. - -Page 18: “documentary” was printed as “documentry”; changed here. - -Page 33: “transcendant” was printed that way. - -Page 33: The opening quotation mark preceding “A complete Course of -Lithography” was added by Transcriber. Other punctuation and spelling -within that title has not been changed, but some of it differs from -what was printed in the English translation of the cited book. - -Page 54: The period after “Deity” in “offensive to the Deity. that the -great majority” probably should be a semi-colon. - -Pages 63 and 249: A question mark is followed by a lower-case word. - -Page 109: “Chardiu” was printed that way. - -Page 139: “It last it changed colours” should begin with “At”. - -Page 171: “the bull of Æolus” probably is a misprint for “ball”. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Historical Account of Useful -Inventions and Scientific Disc, by George Grant - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL ACCOUNT--USEFUL INVENTIONS *** - -***** This file should be named 53613-0.txt or 53613-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/6/1/53613/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Historical Account of Useful Inventions and Scientific Discoveries - Being a manual of instruction and entertainment. - -Author: George Grant - -Release Date: November 27, 2016 [EBook #53613] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL ACCOUNT--USEFUL INVENTIONS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<h2>A SELECT LIST OF BOOKS,<br /> - -<span class="subhead notbold">PUBLISHED BY PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY LONDON:</span> - -<span class="small notbold"><i>And may be had of all Booksellers</i>.</span></h2> - -<p class="center"><span class="wiggly">​</span></p> - -<blockquote class="hang"> - -<p>The Lamps of the Temple: Shadows from the Lights of the -Modern Pulpit. Cloth, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap smaller">CONTENTS</span>:—The Pulpit and the Age—The Revs. Thomas Binney—Henry - -Melville, B.D.—Dr. Edward Andrews—Dr. Richard -Winter Hamilton—James Parsons—Alfred J. Morris—Dr. -Robert Newton—Dr. Joseph E. Beaumont—Benjamin Parsons—Dr. -John Cumming—John Pulsford—George Dawson, M.A.—The -Welch Pulpit.—Concluding Summary.</p> - -<p>Memoirs of William Wordsworth, compiled from authentic sources; -with numerous quotations from his Poems, illustrative of his -Life and Character: by January Searle. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The Keepsake; beautifully bound, and illustrated, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Friendship’s Offering, illustrated, handsomely bound, gilt edges. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The Sacred Garland, illustrated, handsomely bound, gilt edges. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The Wreath of Friendship, illustrated, handsomely bound, gilt -edges. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Praise and Principle; or, For what shall I live? Cloth, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The New Entertaining Naturalist: illustrated with numerous cuts, -handsomely bound, gilt edges, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The Wonders of Nature and Art; comprising the most remarkable -Curiosities in the Known World: illustrated with numerous -cuts, and handsomely bound, gilt edges. 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The History of Modern Europe, from the commencement of the -16th Century to the year 1850. By the Rev. R. Stewart, M.A. -Cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Popular History of Ireland, from the earliest period to the present -time: by the Rev. R. Stuart, M.A. Cloth, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Historical Sketches of Feudalism, British and Continental: with -numerous notices of the doings of the Feudalry in all ages and -Countries. By Andrew Bell. Cloth, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Shakspere: his Times and Contemporaries. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>Self-Reliance; a Book for Young Men; being Biographic Sketches -of Men who have risen to Independence and Usefulness, by -Perseverance and Energy. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap smaller">CONTENTS</span>:—Sir Humphrey Davy—William Allen—William Hutton—Thomas -Scott—William Gifford—Sir William Herschel—Milners, -Brothers—Alexander Murray—Benjamin West—James -Brindley—James Ferguson.</p> - -<p>Deck and Port; or, Incidents of a Cruise to California; with -Sketches of Rio de Janeiro, Valparaiso, Lima, Honolulu, and -San Francisco, by Colton, handsomely bound in Cloth, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Sketches of India; by H. Moses, Esq., M.D.: embellished with a -handsome view of Bombay. Cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The Wonders of the Human Frame: Man,—Anatomically and -Physiologically considered. Compiled from a Series of Lectures -in language adapted to all classes of Readers. 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -Pen Pictures of Popular English Preachers. A new and enlarged -edition. Cloth, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap smaller">CONTENTS</span>:—Rev. Dr. Cumming—W. Jay—J. Parsons—Hon. & -Rev. Baptist W. Noel—Dr. M’Neile—J. Sortain—T. Winter—J. -Jack—I. Roper—Dr. Croly—Dr. Buckland—Dr. Campbell—Dr. -Fletcher—A. O. Beattie—T. Raffles—F. Close—Dr. -Candlish—T. Binney—John Angel James—Henry Melville, -M.A.—Dr. Wolfe—Dr. Pusey—Cardinal Wiseman—W. J. -E. Bennett—Father Gavazzi.</p> - -<p>Pen and Ink Sketches of Authors and Authoresses. By the author -of “Pen Pictures of Popular English Preachers.” Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Life of Thomas Chatterton; including his unpublished Poems -and Correspondence, by ditto. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>Extracts from the Diary of a Living Physician. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap smaller">CONTENTS</span>:—The Broken Vow—The Incurable—The Betrayer—The -Separation—The Wanderer—The Substitute—The Beginning -and the End of Intemperance—The Monomaniac—The Last -Admonition—The Poacher’s Story—The Soldier’s Death Bed.</p> - -<p>Rhyme, Romance, and Revery: by John Bolton Rogerson. Handsomely -bound; coloured frontispiece, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>Shamrock Leaves: Tales and Sketches of Ireland. Full gilt, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Holly Wreath; a Pleasant Companion for a Leisure Hour. -By Miss Sargeant. Handsomely bound and illustrated. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Poetic Rosary: by J. Critchley Prince. Dedicated by permission -to Charles Dickens, Esq. Handsomely gilt, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>John Milton: the Patriot Poet. Illustrations of the Model Man. -by Edwin Paxton Hood. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Literature of Labour; illustrious Instances of the Education of -Poetry in Poverty, by ditto. A new and enlarged edition, -dedicated to Professor Wilson. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Dark Days of Queen Mary, by ditto. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Good Old Times of Queen Bess, by ditto. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>Self-Education; twelve chapters for young thinkers, by ditto, -Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>Genius and Industry; the Achievements of Mind among the -Cottages, by ditto. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>Old England: Scenes from Life, in the Hall and the Hamlet, by -the Forest and Fireside, by ditto. Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Mental and Moral Philosophy of Laughter: A Vista of the -Ludicrous Side of Life, by ditto. 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Cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p>The Child’s Own Story Book; illustrated, full gilt, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></blockquote> - -<hr /> -<div id="i_frontis" class="newpage p4 figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> -<img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" width="600" height="342" alt="" /> -<div class="captionr">See page <a href="#h_68">68</a>.</div> -<div class="caption">CHAIN BRIDGE.</div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<h1> -<span class="small">A</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">HISTORICAL ACCOUNT</span><br /> -<span class="xsmall">OF</span><br /> -<span class="larger">USEFUL INVENTIONS</span><br /> -<span class="xsmall">AND</span><br /> -SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES:</h1> - -<p class="p2 center large">BEING A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION AND<br /> -ENTERTAINMENT.</p> - -<p class="p2 center large bold">BY GEORGE GRANT,</p> -<p class="p1 center vspace smaller wspace">AUTHOR OF “PANORAMA OF SCIENCE,” “THE HISTORY OF LONDON,”<br /> -ETC. ETC.</p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace gesperrt large">LONDON:<br /> -<span class="smaller">PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY.<br /> -<span class="smaller">MDCCCLII.</span></span> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0">It has been demonstrated that the desire of -obtaining knowledge is one of the most natural, -and, at the same time, most ennobling attributes -of the human mind. There is at the present -time a great number of inquiring minds among -the working classes of this kingdom, and a still -greater number of the young of all classes -thirsting for information, who in entering upon -a course of general reading must be greatly at a -loss for many things which are familiarly alluded -to in ordinary conversation, with which everybody -is understood to be acquainted, or would -have people to think so, but which, in reality, -are only familiar to persons who have been living -for a considerable time in intimate converse with -the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">viii</a></span> -The “Historical Account of Useful Inventions -and Discoveries in Science,” is intended in some -measure to supply such information to the anxious -inquirer after knowledge. Of the numerous articles -here treated of, it will be perceived that each -has been traced to its origin in as lucid a style as -possible, and in so doing we have endeavoured -to combine instruction with amusement. As a -proof of this we need only refer to the table of -Contents.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> - <tr class="small"> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Printing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_11">11</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Stereotype</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_25">25</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Engraving on Wood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_27">27</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> Copper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_28">28</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> Steel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_30">30</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lithography</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_32">32</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Paper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_36">36</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Paper Hanging</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_41">41</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Painting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_45">45</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Statuary</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_48">48</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Drawing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_55">55</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Architecture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_62">62</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Chain Bridges</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_68">68</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Clocks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_69">69</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Watches</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_74">74</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Water Clocks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_77">77</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Spinning</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_80">80</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Stocking Manufacture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_84">84</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Coaches</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_95">95</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Saddles, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_104">104</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x">x</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Horse-Shoes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_107">107</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Gunpowder</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_111">111</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Guns</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_114">114</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Astronomy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_119">119</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Navigation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_155">155</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Light-Houses</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_159">159</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Electricity</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_167">167</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Electric Telegraph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_169">169</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam-Engines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_171">171</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mills</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_195">195</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Saw-Mills</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_211">211</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Forks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_214">214</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Music</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_219">219</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sealing-Wax, Seals, &.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_228">228</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Black Lead Pencils</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_234">234</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Coloured Glass</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_236">236</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Etching on Glass, and Glass-cutting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_240">240</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Hydrometers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#h_246">246</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">11</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="USEFUL_INVENTIONS"></a><span class="larger">USEFUL INVENTIONS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><span class="wiggly">​</span></p> - -<h2 id="h_11" class="nobreak p1"><a id="PRINTING"></a>PRINTING.</h2> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Among</span> the many arts and sciences cultivated in -society, some are only adapted to supply our natural -wants, or assist our infirmities; some are mere -instruments of luxury, calculated to flatter pride, -to gratify vanity, and to satisfy our desires of every -description; whilst others tend at once to secure, to -accommodate, delight, and give consequence to man. -Of this latter kind, Printing undoubtedly stands pre-eminent; -and if viewed in its full extent, it may -be truly said to possess a very considerable portion -not only of the comforts, but the conveniences and -positive utilities of life. The advantages derived from -this invention must be acknowledged by all,—this art -has proved the principal step towards civilization: by -it has Christianity been propagated; and by its powerful -means are we made acquainted with all that is -useful in knowledge, in art, and science. It would -take the pen of an inspired writer to enumerate all -the blessings which flow from it. It is a patent engine -which possesses a preponderating influence over -the mind of man either for good or evil, according as -it is used.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">12</a></span> -As we proceed we will have frequent occasion to -express our feelings in grateful eulogium, when considering -the benefits resulting to society from various -ingenious inventions and discoveries; but when we -consider the advantages derived from the typographic -art, it appears like a vortex, drawing every other -sensation into its deep interest, and engulphing every -consideration, so that we can think of nothing but -printing, and its extensive catalogue of benefits. This -interest is wonderfully increased, whether it be viewed -on account of its ingenuity, the extent of its benefits, -or the benevolence of its objects. In whatever point -of view we behold it, whether as a medium for giving -the utmost facility to the despatch of the common -concerns of life; or as affording the eager mind of the -philosophic inquirer the ready means to gratify the -inquisitive thirst of his knowledge; in every species -of mental intelligence, the rapid facility which it -affords to the multiplication of those mediums of communication, -by which knowledge is promulgated in -every part of the earth. We are at a loss for a term -sufficiently comprehensive to express our sense of the -infinite importance of those advantages which accrue -to mankind from the invention of an art so replete -with important consequences, which we hourly perceive -to emanate from typography. We need therefore -scarcely offer an apology for inserting a brief history -of this divine art in our pages.</p> - -<p>The earliest specimens of printing which have been -discovered, consist in the stamped marks on the bricks -and tiles used in building the tower and city of Babel, -and which may be dated as far back as two thousand -two hundred years before Christ. A number of these -stamped clay materials of Babel are still preserved in -antiquarian repositories. It is remarkable that they -generally differ in shape and appearance, and that the -letters or words, which are in ancient character, seem -to have been stamped by the hand with moveable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">13</a></span> -blocks. In Trinity College, Cambridge, some curious -specimens are preserved, one of which is a round -piece of clay, seven inches in height, and three in -thickness at the end, resembling a barrel, being -thickest at the middle. This interesting relic, this -Chaldean book, is entirely covered with lines of -letters and words running from the one end to the -other; from its portable character it may be called a -<i>pocket volume</i>, and one which cannot be less than four -thousand years old. It is mounted on a marble -pedestal, covered with a glass case, secured by an -iron bracket, and so contrived that the curious inspector -may cause it to revolve on its marble base; -but the greatest care is taken of this valuable relic of -antiquity. It appears to have been printed by two -moulds, and at the middle of the circumference a -small blank square has been left, in case as it is supposed, -room should be required for a portion of the -clay to escape in the action of compression.</p> - -<p>Next to these extremely ancient stamped bricks, in -point of interest and antiquity, are specimens of the -earliest engraving of letters on stone. We are informed -by various historical writers that Cadmus, a Phœnician, -who lived one thousand five hundred years before -Christ, at a period contemporary with Moses, and -who was esteemed as the builder of the city of -Thebes, was the first who taught the Greeks the -use of alphabetic symbols, an art he most likely -acquired from the Hebrews. The most ancient specimen -of an engraved inscription now known to be -extant, is the Sigean Inscription, so called from having -been disinterred upon a promontory named Sigeum, -situate near the ancient city of Troy, in Phrygia. -It is engraved on a pillar of beautifully white marble, -nine feet high, two feet broad, and eight inches thick, -and which, from the inscription, served as the pedestal -of the heathen god Hermocrates. The letters used in -this inscription are the capitals of the Grecian language,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">14</a></span> -though rudely cut, but read from right to left like the -Hebrew. This specimen of engraving must be about -three thousand years old.</p> - -<p>Another not less interesting relic of the earliest age -of printing is found in a Roman signet ring or stamp, -approaching in character to that species of stamp now -used by the post-office on letters. This curiosity is -preserved in the British Museum. It is the very -earliest specimen we possess of printing, by means of -ink or any similar substance. It is made of metal, a -sort of Roman brass; the ground of which is covered -with a green kind of verdigris rust, with which antique -medals are usually covered. The letters rise flush up -to the elevation of the exterior rim which surrounds -it. Its dimensions are, about two inches long, by one -inch broad. At the back of it is a small ring for the -finger, to promote the convenience of holding it. As -no person of the name which is inscribed upon it is -mentioned in Roman History, he is therefore supposed -to have been a functionary of some Roman officer, or -private steward, and who, perhaps, used this stamp to -save himself the trouble of writing his name. A stamp -somewhat similar, in the Greek character, is in the -possession of the Antiquarian Society, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.</p> - -<p>It will be perceived that however curious these -relics of antiquity may be, they do not bear any connection -with the art of printing books. The origin of -this invention seems to be quite independent of a preceding -knowledge of impressing by means of stamps. -What is, however, worthy of remark, the art of printing -books, though on a rude principle, was known and -in use among the Chinese, at least one thousand four -hundred years before it was invented in Europe. -The printing of the Chinese has never resembled anything -of the kind in this country. From the -first it has been conducted without moveable types. -Each page has been, and continues to be, a block<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">15</a></span> -or cut stamp, which is thus useful for only one -subject—so that every book must have its own -blocks. No press is used. The paper being thin, -when laid on the block receives the impression by -being smoothed over with a brush. There is reason -to infer that the art of printing, as thus practised by -the Chinese, may have originated through a knowledge -of the still more ancient Chaldean mode of printing by -blocks on clay. But we may expect, from the well-known -ingenuity of the Chinese, and their (in general,) -having the organ of imitation so fully developed, that -they will not much longer continue this primitive -method of printing, as an enterprising practical printer -has emigrated, with an excellent assortment of presses, -types, &c., from Edinburgh, to conduct his business in -the celestial empire. We wish him all success.</p> - -<p>The discovery of the art of printing with moveable -types, which took place in the fifteenth century, in -Germany, was considerably aided by a fashion, which -had been some time prevalent, of cutting blocks of wood -into pictures, or representations of scenes illustrative -of Scriptural history, and printing them on paper, -simply by the pressure of the hand, a brush, or cushion -behind.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest of these wood-cuts is still extant, -and represents the creation of man, as detailed in the -book of Genesis. In the centre of the picture stands -a figure, intended for the Divinity, having the appearance -of an old man with flowing garments, a venerable -beard, and rays proceeding from the head; on the -ground, before him, lies a human being, intended for -Adam, fast asleep; and from an opening in his side is -seen proceeding the slender figure of a female, meaning -Eve, who is taken by the hand by God, and is -apparently receiving His blessing. The execution of -this, and cuts of a similar nature, is of the rudest -description, and is a striking testimony of the low -scale of art at the time. Pictures of this nature,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">16</a></span> -which were bound up into books, nevertheless, were -the immediate forerunners of the great invention -itself. Books of prints, it will naturally be imagined, -would soon be found imperfect, for want of descriptive -text; this, therefore, urged on the great discovery. -The manufacturers of the books, at first, cut single -sentences or words, and stamped them below the -pictures; but this not conveying a sufficient idea of -the subject represented, an anxiety arose to give a -lengthened description on the opposite pages. This it -seems was, at length, accomplished; still the sentences -were all cut in a piece, and the notion of having -separate letters, so as to form words at pleasure, was -unknown at that period. We will now proceed to -the introduction of the modern art of printing.</p> - -<p>Ever since the typographic art has been introduced -into modern Europe in its present form, the best, and -one of the most certain criterions,—which prove the -undoubted sense of our species,—exists in the multiplicity -of claims which have been made by several -cities for the honour of affording the earliest shelter -to the infancy of this art. It really appears to be -a question yet undecided, to what city, individual, -or even era, to attribute this beneficial invention.</p> - -<p>However, there is every reason to believe that in -this art, as well as in most others, the improvements -which have subsequently taken place, have benefited -the art itself, as much as that has benefited mankind: -therefore, the question of its origin does not appear to -us to be of so much importance.</p> - -<p>Amidst the claims of various individuals, Mr. -Bouzer, in his “Origin of Printing,” says, that this -honour ought to be adjudged to one of the three cities -of Haerlem, Mentz, or Strasburg; of which, in his -opinion, the first named city has best established her -legitimate right. “But it appears,” to use his own -words, “that all those cities, in a qualified sense, may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">17</a></span> -claim it, considering the improvements they have made -upon each other.”</p> - -<p>The real and original inventor of the modern art -of printing, as at first used, and from whence the -improved practice is descended, was one Laurentius, -of Haerlem; who, however, proceeded no further -than to cut separate wooden letters. There is every -reason to believe that, at first, these wooden forms -were made upon the principle of the <i>forma literarum</i> -of the Romans. This Laurentius, it appears, made -his first essay about the year 1430; he died ten years -afterwards, having first printed the “Horarium,” -the “Speculum Belgicum,” and two editions of -“Donatus.”</p> - -<p>The individual on whom history most generally -places the honour of being the earliest discoverer of -the art of printing by means of moveable letters, or -types, was John Guttenberg, a citizen of Mayence, or -Mentz, who flourished from the year 1436 to 1466, -in the reign of Frederick III. of Germany. The -ingenious Guttenburg was born at Mayence, in the -beginning of the fifteenth century, and removed to -Strasburg about the year 1424, or, perhaps rather -earlier. Here he became acquainted with the above-named -Laurentius, with whom he proceeded to Haerlem, -and continued in the employment of Laurentius for -some time. However, he returned to Strasburg, -where, in 1435, he entered into partnership with -Andrew Dritzehan, John Riff, and Andrew Heelman, -citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose to -them some important secrets, by which they would -make their fortunes. The workshop was in the house -of Dritzehan, who dying, Guttenberg immediately -sent his servant, Lawrence Beildick, to Nicholas, the -brother of the deceased, and requested that no person -might be admitted into the workshop, lest the secret -should be discovered, and the <i>forms</i> stolen. But they -had already disappeared; and this fraud, as well as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">18</a></span> -the claims of Nicholas Dritzehan, to succeed to his -brother’s share, produced a law-suit among the surviving -partners. Five witnesses were examined; and -from the evidence of Guttenburg’s servants, it was -incontrovertibly proved that Guttenberg was the first -that practised the art of printing with moveable types -in Strasburg; and that on the death of Andrew -Dritzehan, he had expressly ordered the forms to be -broken up, and the types dispersed, lest any one -should discover his secret. The words given in his order, -which were supported by documentary evidence, were -these—“Go, take the component parts of the press, -and pull them to pieces; then, no one will understand -what they mean.” In the same document mention is -made of <i>four forms</i>, kept together by <i>two screws</i>, or -<i>press spindles</i>, and of letters and pages being cut up -and destroyed.</p> - -<p>It has been asserted that Guttenberg stole the types -from Laurentius, with which he repaired to Strasburg, -and commenced business; but of this we can find no -corroboration. It has also been said that upon this -occasion, Guttenberg stole his own materials, but this -is likewise unauthenticated.</p> - -<p>The result of this law-suit, which occurred in 1439, -was a dissolution of partnership; and Guttenberg, -after having exhausted his means in the effort, proceeded, -in 1445, to his native city of Mentz, where he -resumed his typographic labours.</p> - -<p>Being ambitious of making his extraordinary invention -known, and of value to himself, but being at the -same time deficient in the means, he opened his mind -to a wealthy goldsmith and worker in precious metals, -named John Fust, or Faust, and prevailed on him to -advance large sums of money, in order to make further -and more complete trials of the art. Guttenberg, -being thus associated with Faust, the first regular -printing office was begun, and the business carried on -in a style corresponding to the infancy of the art.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">19</a></span> -After many smaller essays in trying the capabilities -of a press and moveable types, Guttenberg had the -hardihood to attempt an edition of the Bible, which -he succeeded in printing complete between the years -1450 and 1455. This celebrated Bible, which was -the first important specimen of the art of printing, -and which, judging from what it has led to, we should -certainly esteem as the most extraordinary and praiseworthy -of human productions, was executed with cut -metal types, on six hundred and thirty-seven leaves; -and, from a copy still in existence in the Royal Library -of Berlin, some appear to have been printed on -vellum. The work was printed in the Latin language.</p> - -<p>The execution of this—the first printed Bible—which -has justly conferred undying honours on the -illustrious Guttenberg, was most unfortunately, the -immediate cause of his ruin. The expenses incident -to carrying on a fatiguing and elaborate process of -workmanship, for a period of five years, being much -more considerable than what were originally contemplated -by Faust, he instituted a suit against poor -Guttenberg, who, in consequence of the decision -against him, was obliged to pay interest, and also a -part of the capital that had been advanced. This -suit was followed by a dissolution of partnership; and -the whole of Guttenberg’s materials fell into the hands -of John Faust.</p> - -<p>Besides the above-mentioned Bible, some other -specimens of the work of Guttenberg have been discovered -to be in existence. One in particular, which -is worthy of notice, was found some years ago, among -a bundle of old papers, in the archives of Mayence. -It is an almanack for the year 1457, which served as -a cover for a register of accounts for that year. This -would most likely be printed towards the close of the -year 1456, and may, consequently, be deemed the -most ancient specimen of typographic printing extant, -with a certain date.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">20</a></span> -Antiquaries and Bibliomaniacs have found considerable -difficulty in ascertaining by what process Guttenberg -manufactured types; but it appears to be the -prevalent opinion, that those which he first used were -individually cut by the hand; and being all made as -near a height and thickness as possible, they were -thus put together in the forms. The cutting of these -types must have been a tedious, as well as laborious, -occupation. This ingenious man, however, soon discovered -the mode of casting his types, by means of -moulds; for without this great accessory to the art of -printing, he conceived it was next to impossible to -carry on his business. The art of type-founding is -therefore given to John Guttenberg, in which it would -appear he has had no competitor for the honour; but, -it is but justice to state that the plan of striking the -moulds with punches was a subsequent invention of -Peter Schoeffer, his successor, who became partner -with Faust, and afterwards his son-in-law.</p> - -<p>That Guttenberg was a person of refined taste in -the execution of his works, is sufficiently obvious to -every person who has had the opportunity of seeing -any of them. Adopting a very ancient custom common -in the written copies of the Scriptures and the -missals of the church, he used a large ornamental letter -at the commencement of books and chapters, finely -embellished, and surrounded with a variety of figures -as in a frame. The initial letter of the first psalm -thus forms a splendid specimen of the art of printing -in its early progress. It is richly ornamented with -foliage, flowers, a bird, and a greyhound, and is still -more beautiful from being printed in a pale blue -colour, while the embellishments are red, and of a -transparent appearance.</p> - -<p>What became of Guttenberg immediately after the -unsuccessful termination of his law-suit with Faust, -is not well known. Like the illustrious discoverer of -the great Western Continent, he seems to have retired<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">21</a></span> -almost broken-hearted from the service of an ungrateful -world, and to have spent most of the remainder of -his days in obscurity. It is ascertained, however, -that, in 1465, he received an annual pension from the -Elector Adolphus, but that he only enjoyed this trifling -compensation for his extraordinary invention for a -period of three years, and died in February 1468.</p> - -<p>John Faust, who as we have seen, obtained the -materials of Guttenberg, laid claim to the invention, -which has been granted to him by several. Having -sufficient capital at his command, he pushed the trade -with great advantage to himself. In the Bibles -which he printed he frequently omitted the capital -and initial letters, leaving them blank for illumination -in gold or azure; this was designedly done for the -purpose of imposing upon the public printed copies -for M.S. transcripts. The report which is in circulation -concerning Faust, appears to come in support of -this assertion: it being said he was at Paris, and -offering a quantity of his Bibles for sale as M.S. The -French, considering the number of them, and also -remarking the exact similarity and accuracy of them, -even to a single point, concluded it was impossible for -the most accurate copyist to have transcribed them so -correctly. They suspected him of necromancy, and -either actually indicted him, or threatened to do, as a -magician; and by this means obtained his secret: -whence came the origin of the popular story of Dr. -Faustus, his dealing with the devil, and tragical death.</p> - -<p>In 1462, when Mentz was plundered and disfranchised -of its former liberties, printing rapidly spread -through a great part of Europe, particularly its artizans -in that branch of art, settled at Haerlem, Hamburgh, -and other places; from Haerlem it travelled to Rome -in 1466, when the Roman character was adopted in -1467, and soon perfected.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Henry VI., the Archbishop of Canterbury -sent R. Turnour, master of the robes, and W.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">22</a></span> -Caxton, merchant, to Haerlem, to learn the art. -These individuals privately prevailed upon one Corselis, -an under workman to come to England: and a -printing press was established at Oxford. This -appears in a MS. chronicle still preserved; it informs -us, that the execution of the concern entrusted to -Turnour and Caxton cost 1500 marks; and that -printing was established at Oxford before there was -any printer or printing presses in France, Italy, or -Spain.</p> - -<p>The University of Oxford press was soon discovered -to be too remote from the seat of government, and -too great a distance from the sea, other presses were -speedily established at St. Alban’s and the Abbey of -Westminster.</p> - -<p>In 1467, printing was established at Tours, at -Reuthlingen, and Venice, in 1469; and it is likely -at the same period at Paris, where several of the -German printers were invited by the Doctors of the -Sorbonne, who established a press in that city.</p> - -<p>All important as the art of printing is acknowledged -to be, yet three centuries elapsed from the -date of the invention before it was perfected in many -of its most necessary details. At first the art was -kept entirely in the hands of learned men, the greatest -scholars often glorying in affixing their names to the -works as correctors of the press, and giving names to -the various parts of the mechanism of the printing-office, -as is testified by the classical technicalities still -in use among the workmen. From the great improvement -of punching moulds for casting types by -Schoeffer, as formerly mentioned, till the invention of -italic letters by Aldus Manutius, to whom learning is -much indebted, no other improvement of any consequence -took place. It does not appear that mechanical -ingenuity was at any time directed to the improvement -of the presses or any other part of the machinery -used in printing, and the consequence was, that till<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">23</a></span> -far on in the eighteenth century, the clumsy presses, -which were composed of wood and iron, and slow and -heavy in working, were allowed to screech on as they -had done since the days of Guttenberg, Faust, and -Caxton, while the ink continued to be applied by -means of two stuffed balls, at a great expense of time -and labour.</p> - -<p>At length, an almost entire revolution was effected -in the printing office, both in the appearance of the -workmanship and the mechanism of the presses. -About the same period the art of stereotyping was -discovered, and developed a completely new feature in -the history of printing. One of the chief improvements -in typography was, the discarding of the long -s, and every description of contraction; while, at the -same time, the formation of the letters was executed -with more neatness, and greater regularity.</p> - -<p>Among the first improvers of the printing press, -the most honourable place is due to the Earl of Stanhope, -a nobleman who will be long remembered for -his mechanical genius; besides applying certain lever -powers to the screw and handle of the old wooden -press, by which the labour of the workman was diminished, -and finer work effected; he constructed a press -wholly of iron, which is known by his name.</p> - -<p>Since the beginning of the present century, and -more especially within the last thirty years, presses -wholly of iron, on the nicest scientific principles, have -been invented by men of mechanical genius, so as to -simplify the process of printing in an extraordinary degree; -and the invention of presses composed of cylinders, -and wrought by steam, has triumphantly crowned -the improvements in this art. The alteration effected -by steam power has been as great in the printing -business, as in any branch whatever; for example, -with the old wooden press, it took a man two days to -complete 1000 sheets, (that is, printed on both sides); -whereas the London “Times,” by means of the steam<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">24</a></span> -press completes 24,000 in one hour! Almost every -newspaper in the kingdom is printed by cylinder-presses, -although some are worked by hand instead of -steam; they are also used in other departments of the -printing business.</p> - -<p>The introduction of steam-presses would have been -of comparatively little benefit, if it had not been furthered -by another invention of a very simple nature, -now of great value to the printer. We here allude to -the invention of the roller for applying the ink, instead -of the old clumsy and inefficient balls. The roller, -which is simply a composition of glue and treacle, -cast upon wooden centre-pieces, was invented by a -journeyman printer from Edinburgh, about thirty -years ago, and was so much appreciated by the trade, -as at once to spread over the whole of Europe.</p> - -<p>Were it possible to conjure up the spirits of the -illustrious Guttenburg and his contemporaries within -the office of the London “Times,” or some other large -printing-office, where everything is conducted with -rapidity, quietness, and order, John Faust might well -think that the printers of the nineteenth century had -actually consummated what he was only accused of in -the fifteenth—completed a compact with the devil!</p> - -<p>As it would be a waste of time for us to pretend to -describe the various processes and materials required in -this beautiful art, as we are aware that, without actual -observation, no conception can be formed,—this we -know from experience, and though we might, like -many others, have pretended to give a description, -we are perfectly aware that we would have been unintelligible -to the majority of our readers, and very -deservedly laughed at for our trouble by any practical -printer who might happen to read our pages; as far -as we have gone, however, in giving a brief historical -account of the art of printing, we have no doubt it -will be found correct, as have consulted the best -authorities.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">25</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_25"><a id="STEREOTYPE"></a>STEREOTYPE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Stereotype</span>, as we have mentioned in the former -article, was introduced about the middle of last century; -and as it is so intimately connected with the -art of printing, we could not find a more appropriate -place than immediately following that noble art.—Earl -Stanhope has been named as the inventor; but -for this we have not sufficient authority, and it appears -extremely doubtful; as stereotyping appears to have -been invented simultaneously, in various parts of -England and Scotland, by different persons; still it -was upwards of sixty years before it was brought to -such perfection as to be applicable for any beneficial -purpose.</p> - -<p>When properly made known, it was hailed with -approbation by those more immediately interested—the -printers and publishers: but as experience more -fully developed its powers, it was found available only -for particular work. For the better understanding of -this art, which is comparatively little known, we will -give a description of the process, which we are enabled -to do by the assistance of an experienced workman.</p> - -<p>In <i>setting</i> the types, they are lifted from the case, -one by one, with the right hand, and built in a small -iron form, called a <i>composing-stick</i>, held in the left -hand of the compositor, who sets line after line till -the stick is filled, when he empties it upon a <i>galley</i>, -and commences again in the same manner, till he has -got as much up as will make a page; this page he -ties firmly up, and places upon a smooth stone, or cast -iron table. In this manner he continues, till he gets -as many pages as will make a <i>form</i>, which consists of -4, 8, 12, or more pages, as the case may be. If -this form is to be worked off at press without stereotyping,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">26</a></span> -the pages are all imposed in one <i>chass</i>, and -carried to press for working, and when the whole of -the impression is off, it is thoroughly washed, and -carried back to the compositor for distribution—that -is, putting the types in their proper places. When -these pages are to be stereotyped, they are <i>imposed</i> -separately, and carried to the stereotype foundry, -where they are examined, and all dirt taken from the -face; they are then slightly oiled, and a <i>moulding-frame</i> -put round each. The frame is filled with liquid -plaster of Paris, which is well rubbed into the face of -the type to expel the air. As soon as this plaster -hardens, it is removed from the page, and shows a -complete resemblance of the page from which it is -taken. The mould is put into an oven to dry, where -it remains till it resembles a piece of pottery; it is -then put into an iron pan, in which there is a thin -plate of the same metal, called the <i>floating-plate</i>; it -has also an iron lid, which is firmly screwed down, -and the whole is immersed in a pot of molten type-metal, -which fills the pan by means of small holes in -the corners of the lid. The length of time it remains -in the pot depends upon the heat of the metal, but it -is generally from ten to fifteen minutes, when it is -taken out, and put aside to cool. On opening the pan, -nothing is seen but a solid lump of metal, which, -when carefully broke round the mould, a thin plate is -obtained from the mass, exhibiting a perfect appearance -of the page from which the mould was taken.—This -is called a stereotype plate, which in general is -not above the eighth of an inch thick, and is printed -from in the same manner as a page of types. Such is -the process of stereotyping, which has become pretty -general throughout the trade, but is not much known -to the public.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">27</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_27"><a id="ENGRAVING"></a>ENGRAVING.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>ON WOOD.</h3> -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">As</span> we have shown in our article on Printing, -Wood-engraving was in fashion prior to the invention -of printing. We are informed by Albert Durer that -Engraving on Wood was invented about the year 1520; -he may be a good authority in some matters, but in -this he has committed a mistake of nearly one hundred -years; seeing that there is at least an impression -of one engraving on wood, the representation of the -Creation, which was in existence prior to 1430. It -was undoubtedly a piece of rough workmanship; but -what could be expected at that early period of the -art? It has been, however, gradually improving -ever since, and it has now attained a point of excellence -equal to any of the fine arts, and calls forth the -admiration of every lover of the beautiful. It would -be invidious to select any of the numerous artists now -flourishing—perhaps it would be difficult to make a -selection where so many are upon an equality; and -we are of opinion they themselves are more willing to -accept the public approbation as their reward, than -any praise our pen could bestow. All we can do is -to recommend our readers to examine for themselves; -they have abundant opportunities in the numerous -illustrated publications that are daily issued from the -press, and bestow that meed of praise upon the -respective artists they may deem proper.</p> - -<p>The process of engraving on <i>wood</i> is diametrically -distinct and opposite to that of engraving on <i>copper</i> or -<i>steel</i>; as in the former, the shades are produced by -the parts of the work which are made most prominent, -and obtrude upon the surface of the substance;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">28</a></span> -whence its chief merit has been regarded in leaving -broad and well-proportioned lights. The parts to -produce this effect being of necessity excavated, great -art and a masterly judgment are necessary to effect -this, and at the same time not to weaken the substance, -lest it should be injured in the pressure necessary -to produce an impression.</p> - -<p>The substance usually employed for these engravings -is wood of a close grain; on this account box-wood -is generally selected. The impressions are obtained -from wood-engravings upon exactly the same principle -as are the impressions from typography; and -they can also be worked off at the same time with -the descriptive text. This is a superiority which -wood possesses over other engravings, and recommends -itself to publishers on account of the immense saving -in the expense of a double process in procuring copper-plate -illustrations for typographical works, and enables -them to keep pace with the ruling passion of this -literary era—cheap publications.</p> - -<h3 id="h_28">ON COPPER.</h3> - -<p>The art of engraving on copper plates, for impressions, -is alleged to have been invented by Peter -Schoeffer, one of the early printers, and son in-law of -John Faust, about the year 1450. The honour of -this invention is also claimed by a Florentine goldsmith -of the name of Finguires, who dates his invention -in 1540. This artist having used liquid sulphur -to take an impression of some chasing and engraving -he had made, observed a blackness produced by the -sulphur left in the deepest parts of his work, whence -he obtained an impression on paper.</p> - -<p>But we have no hesitation in giving the preference -to Schoeffer, who, we have previously remarked, was -of an ingenious turn, and assisted Guttenburg in producing -moulds for casting his types; in addition to -which, some of the books printed by him are ornamented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">29</a></span> -with head and tail-pieces, with other rude -attempts at engraving; and likewise because Schoeffer’s -claim to the honour was acknowledged before Finguires -was born.</p> - -<p>Of engraving there are various kinds; that called -by connoisseurs, the legitimate mode of engraving, is -what is termed the <i>line</i> or <i>stroke</i> mode. Numerous -have been the British artists who have excelled in this -style, in affording the means of multiplying our -graphical productions.</p> - -<p>The next species of engraving we will notice is -called the <i>stipple</i>, or chalk style,—imitations of chalk -drawings. Portraits and historical pieces are executed -in this style, which the celebrated Bartolozzi brought -to perfection.</p> - -<p>The third species we will mention, cannot properly -be called engraving; the effect is produced by scraping -and rubbing; this kind is called <i>chiaro obscuro</i>, or -mezzotinto; producing prints which have the effect -of Indian ink drawings.</p> - -<p>A fourth species of engraving is what is commonly -used for landscapes, which produces an effect like a -pencil water-colour drawing; which is called <i>aquatinta</i>.</p> - -<p>In all of these kinds of engravings upon copper -the artists find the sulphuric acid, or aquafortis, a -most powerful agent. Sometimes, indeed, it is suffered -to execute the whole of the process of the -graver, especially when it is called an etching.</p> - -<p>For the same reasons as those mentioned with -regard to wood engravers, we shall abstain from -naming any of the very eminent artists now living.</p> - -<p>We have already observed the mode of obtaining -similar effects from wood and copper, are opposite to -each other. The manner in which impressions from -wood engravings are obtained, has likewise been -noticed; and it remains that we observe the mode by -which impressions are obtained from copper-plates.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">30</a></span> -The plate is covered with appropriate ink; the surface -is then carefully cleansed, leaving ink only in the -excavations or lines in the copper. The plate and -paper are passed through a roller press of great -power, the roller being covered with a blanket, which -presses the paper into all the crevices of the plate, -and brings away the ink there deposited.</p> - -<h3 id="h_30">ON STEEL.</h3> - -<p>For several years steel has been used in great quantities, -instead of copper-plates, by engravers. By this -fortunate application of so durable, and it may be -added, so economical a material, not only has a new field -been discovered admirably suited to yield in perfection -the richest and finest graphic productions, which the -ingenuity of modern art can accomplish, but to do so -through an amazingly numerous series of impressions -without perceptible deterioration. The art of engraving -on iron or steel for purposes of ornament, and -even for printing, in certain cases, is by no means a -discovery of modern times; but the substitution of -the latter for copper, which has invited the superiority -of the British burin to achievements hitherto -unattempted by our artists, is entirely a modern -practice.</p> - -<p>In the year 1810, Mr. Dyer, an American merchant, -residing in London, obtained a patent for -certain improvements in the construction and method -of using plates and presses, &c., the principles of -which were communicated to him by a foreigner -residing abroad. This foreigner was Mr. Jacob Perkin, -an ingenious artist of New England, and whose -name has become subsequently so extensively known -in this country, in connection with roller-press printing -from hardened steel plates. The plates used by -Mr. Perkins were, on the average, about five-eights -of an inch thick; they were either of steel so tempered -as to admit of the operation of the engraver,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">31</a></span> -or, as was more generally the case, of steel decarbonated -so as to become very pure soft iron, in which -case, after they had received the work on the surface, -they were case hardened by cementation.</p> - -<p>The decarbonating process was performed by enclosing -the plate of cast steel properly shaped, in a cast -iron box, or case, filled about the plate to the thickness -of about an inch with oxide of iron or rusty iron -filings; in this state the box is luted close, and placed -on a regular fire, where it is kept at a red heat during -from three to twelve days. Generally about nine -days is sufficient to decarbonize a plate five-eighths of -an inch in thickness; when the engraving or etching -has been executed, the plate is superficially converted -into steel, by placing it in a box as before, and surrounding -it on all sides by a powder made of equal -parts of burned bones, and the cinders of burned animal -matter, such as old shoes or leather. In this -state the box, with its contents, closely luted, must be -exposed to a blood-red heat for three hours; after -which, it is taken out of the fire, and plunged perpendicularly -edgeways into cold water, (which has been -previously boiled) to throw off the air. By this -means the plate becomes hardened without the danger -of warping or cracking. It is then tempered or let -down by brightening the under surface of the plate -with a bit of stone; after which it is heated by being -placed upon a piece of hot iron, or melted lead, until -the rubbed portion acquire a pale straw-colour. For -this purpose, however, the patentee expressed himself -in favour of a bath of oil heated to the temperature -of 460 degrees, or thereabouts of Fahrenheit’s scale. -The plate being cooled in water, and polished on the -surface, was ready for use.</p> - -<p>A more material peculiarity in Mr. Perkins’ invention, -and one which does not seem to have been -approached by any preceding artist, was the contrivance -of what are called <i>indenting cylinders</i>. These<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">32</a></span> -are rollers of two or three inches in diameter, and -made of steel, decarbonized by the process above -described, so as to be very soft. In this state they -are made to roll backward and forward under a powerful -pressure, over the surface of one of the hardened -plates, until all the figures, letters, or indentations -are communicated, with exquisite precision, in sharp -relief upon the cylinder; which, being carefully hardened -and tempered, becomes, by this means, fitted to -communicate an impression to other plates, by an -operation similar to that by which it was originally -figured. It will be obvious that one advantage gained -by this method must be the entire saving of the labour -and expense of re-cutting in every case, on different -plates, ornaments, borders, emblematical designs, &c., -as these can now be impressed with little trouble on -any number of plates, or in any part thereof, by the -application of the cylinder. At first sight, the performance -of such an operation as the one now alluded -to may appear difficult, if not impracticable; and, -indeed, many persons on its first announcement were -disposed to doubt or deny its possibility altogether. -With a proper and powerful apparatus, however, this -method of transferring engravings from plates to -cylinders, and <i>vice versa</i>, is every day performed -with facility and success, not only in the production -of bank notes, labels, &c., but in works exhibiting -very elaborate engravings.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_32"><a id="LITHOGRAPHY"></a>LITHOGRAPHY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Lithography</span> is the art of printing from stone, which -claims for its author Aloys Senelfelder, a native of -Munich, in the kingdom of Bavaria. The history of -this useful art is recorded by the only person capable -of assigning proper and correct motives, and of tracing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">33</a></span> -the various means which were employed to arrive at -the desired end, to ultimate success: had all other -useful inventions, profitable and elegant arts, had the -good fortune which this has happily experienced, we -should not have had so much cause to regret deficiencies -as we have frequently experienced in the -course of our inquiries; then would the various illustrious -authors of arts have had justice rendered to -them, and still have remained possessed of that glorious -immortality so justly the reward of transcendant -merit; for the history of this meritorious invention is -given by the author himself, thereby securing to it -those advantages, which the erudite author of the -preface congratulates the public upon, when in his -concise epistle he uses that beautiful expression of his -countryman, Klopstock, where he says, “Covered -with eternal darkness are the great names of inventors.”</p> - -<p>This work has been translated into English, and -published with the following title:—“A complete -Course of Lithography, containing clear and explicit -Instructions in all the different branches and manners -of the Art; accompanied by Illustrative Specimens of -Drawings; to which is prefixed a History of Lithography, -from its Origin, by Aloys Senefelder, -Inventor of the Art of Lithography, or Chymical -Printing,” &c.</p> - -<p>The author of the preface to this work, and friend -of the inventor, states that this is an art, whereby -the artist, a minister, a man of letters, or a merchant, -&c., may multiply his productions at will, -without the assistance of a second person.</p> - -<p>The author of the above work proceeds to give in -detail his motives for the original invention, in which -he has not only been strictly circumstantial, but no -more so than the curiosity of the public requires, -which is always excited in a degree proportioned to -the confessed utility of a work, or that demand which -its elegance has upon cultivated and delicate feeling.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">34</a></span> -His labours may be said to be divided naturally into -two parts, of which division the author has availed -himself; first, adducing its history, and secondly, -affording the operation of its process.</p> - -<p>Its history appears to have arisen with its origin; -and both to have originated in the necessities of the -author. From whence it appears, that after he had -received a scholastic education to qualify him for the -jurisprudence of his country, the death of his father, -who was a votary of the Thespian art, deprived him -of those resources essential to enable him to pursue -his intended honourable vocation; he was consequently -driven to seek support from the previous -acquisitions of his mind. He accordingly devoted -his earnest attention to solicit the favours of the dramatic -muse as an author. After encountering numberless -difficulties, he produced one play, which was -published, and sold considerably well. But the honourable -independence of his mind induced him to -reflect upon the certainty of the large expense, which -necessarily attends the practice of an author, who has -not liberal patrons in the public or the trade; and -the uncertainty of adequate remuneration from the -public, for whose amusement they make such large -sacrifices of time, ease, property, health, and often -life itself. These reflections induced his ardent and -ingenious mind to endeavour to avoid the uncertainty -of this contingency. He did not possess property to -enable him to establish himself as a printer, which -was his desire; he was therefore compelled to have -recourse to his own ingenuity. He tried various, and -at first, unsuccessful experiments, which he ingeniously -details; because, he considered, that nearly as much -is learned from the failures of an artist, had he always -the honesty to publish them, as is gained from his -most successful discoveries.</p> - -<p>Various were the materials upon which he first -essayed to complete his purposes; till, at length,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">35</a></span> -chance directed him to try what could be effected -upon stone. For this purpose, he used a species found -in Germany, of a beautifully close grained and dense -kind, susceptible of receiving a fine polish, called -Kellheim stone. Knowing the failures which his -countrymen had experienced in endeavouring to fix -the ink in this stone for etching, he had recourse to a -chemical experiment to obviate this, which succeeded -in the following manner:—To four or five parts of -water, he added one of rectified vitriol, which instantly -produced an effervescence, on being poured upon it; -the stone was instantly covered with a coat of gypsum, -which to vitriol is impenetrable; this is easily wiped -off, and the stone being dried, it is ready for use. -The next want he found, was a species of ink, proper -to answer the peculiar purposes of the material -whereon he had to operate; for which he discovered -none so well adapted as the following mixture:—A -composition of three parts of wax, with one of yellow -soap, is melted over a fire, and mixed with a small -portion of lamp-black, dissolved in rain-water. But -this is now greatly simplified, as the lithographic -printers generally use the same ink as the copperplate -printers.</p> - -<p>The process of lithography is very simple. The -article wanted to be printed is written or drawn upon -a piece of transfer paper, which being wet and laid -on the stone, and put through the press, the writing -or drawing remains on the stone, and any number of -impressions may be taken off. Care must be taken, -before inking, to come over the stone with a damp -sponge, to prevent the ink adhering to the places not -wanted, which it would otherwise do.</p> - -<p>We understand the Bath and Portland stone is -successfully used; but the best yet found in Britain, -for the purpose, is what is known by the name of -<i>lias</i>, raised near Stratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire; -it is a calcareous and partly siliceous stone, and we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">36</a></span> -think not destitute of magnesia, having, when, polished, -a very silky and somewhat saponaceous feel.</p> - -<p>This art has flourished to a greater extent than we -believe the most sanguine expectations of its inventor -could have anticipated. Many beautiful specimens -of art have been produced equal to the finest copper-plate -engravings. It is excellently adapted for drawing -of plans, bill-heads, circulars, cards, and many other -light articles, which used formerly to be printed by -means of letter-press; and on account of the numerous -ornaments so easily applied to the lithographic -process, the most of these, and similar articles, are -principally lithographed, to the detriment, we would -conceive, of the letter-press and copper-plate printers.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_36"><a id="PAPER"></a>PAPER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Before</span> the invention of paper, in ancient times, a -great variety of substances have been used for the -purpose of recording events, or delineating ideas, of -which it becomes our duty to give a somewhat detailed -account, to show our readers the numerous advantages -they enjoy, in having a material which, like everything -in common use, is but little thought of. But -let any one suppose himself to be without this necessary -article, or the means of communicating his ideas, -he would be sensible of the difference.</p> - -<p>Rough stones and stakes were used as the first -known records of the ancient Phœnicians, remains of -which are reported to be still visible; and to confirm -this persuasion, certain heaps of stones have been discovered -in the environs of Cadiz, which are currently -believed to be the remains of those monuments alleged -to be made by Hercules, in memory of his famous expedition -to the gardens of the Hesperides, for the -golden fruit, or as others have it, against Spain. It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">37</a></span> -also stated, that the usual mode of recording great -events, in the north of Asia and Europe, was by placing -stones of extraordinary size; in aid of this, we have a -great variety of instances.</p> - -<p>Since the <i>scriptural</i> art has been introduced, or -invented, many materials have been, in a variety of -ages, and in numerous countries, used for the purpose -of recording events to posterity; characters cut upon -rocks, upon tables of stone, upon bark, pieces of wood, -written upon skins of fish and animals, palm-leaves, -besides a great variety of other articles, of which we -will only enumerate a few.</p> - -<p>There is a Bible still preserved, written on palm-leaves, -in the University of Gottingen, containing 5,376 -leaves. Another Bible, of the same material, is at -Copenhagen. There was also, in Sir Hans Sloane’s -collection, more than twenty manuscripts, in various -languages, on the same material.</p> - -<p>The protocols of the Emperors in early times were -written upon bark. In the British Museum are many -specimens of this substance; also in the grand Duke’s -gallery at Florence.</p> - -<p>To this mode is supposed to have succeeded the -practice of painting letters on linen cloth and cotton; -what was the difference in the preparation of that -material to the one now employed is not ascertained, -but it is considered that some preparation was necessary -in order to use that substance. There have been -frequently found in the chests or cases containing the -Egyptian mummies, very neat characters written on -linen. Linen being subject to accidents from becoming -mouldy, &c., asbestoes cloth had been occasionally -used in small quantities.</p> - -<p>The accidents to which these species of materials -were most of them subject, and linen particularly so, -induced man to endeavour to remedy those objects; -he accordingly is found to have recourse to the animal -creation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">38</a></span> -In the convent of Dominican monks at Bologna, are -two books of Esdras, written on asses’ skins, said to -have been written by Esdras himself. The ancient -Persians wrote on hides, from which the hair was -scraped. The shepherds wrote their songs with thorns -upon straps of leather, which they wound round their -crooks.</p> - -<p>The ancient Welch had a peculiar manner of writing -upon small squared oblong pieces of wood, which they -called <i>billets</i>, which name forms the appellative to -numerous of their productions, as the “Billett of the -Bard.”</p> - -<p>The Italian kings, Hugo and Lotharis, gave a -grant to the Ambrosian church, at Milan, written on -the skin of a fish.</p> - -<p>In the Alexandrian Library there were the works -of Homer, written in golden letters on the skins of -animals. In the reign of the Emperor Baliskus, the -head and “Odyssey” of Homer, written in golden -letters, on the intestines of beasts, one hundred and -twenty feet long, were burned at Constantinople.</p> - -<p>In the royal library at Hanover, there is a gold -plate, written by an independent prince of Coromandel -to George II., three feet long and four inches wide, -inlaid on both sides with diamonds.</p> - -<p>At last we have arrived at the period for the -introduction of the Egyptian papyrus, a kind of rush -of large dimensions, growing in the marshes on the -banks of the Nile. This plant is described as growing -in swamps to the height of fifteen feet; the stalk -triangular, of a thickness to be spanned, surrounded -near the root by short leaves; stalk naked, has on -the top a bush resembling the head with hairs, or -long thin straight fibres; root brown.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian papyrus was manufactured into paper -from very fine pellicles near its pith, separated by a -pin or pointed mussel-shell spread on a table in such -form as was required, sprinkled with Nile water; on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">39</a></span> -the first layer a second layer was laid crosswise to -finish the sheet, then pressed, hung to dry, and afterwards -polished with a tooth. The Nile water was -very carefully used to prevent spots. Twenty skins -were the greatest number which could be procured -from one plant. Those nearest the pith made the -finest paper. Twenty sheets glued together were -called <i>scapus</i>, but sometimes <i>scapi</i> went to form a -<i>volumen</i>. This part of the business was executed by -the <i>glutinatoris</i>, who resembled our bookbinders.</p> - -<p>This plant yielded materials for making four sorts -of paper.</p> - -<p>With respect to other substances for the same purpose, -there are many, but as most of these have one -generic character, being manufactured from the bark -of trees, the detail is not here given, as it might not, -perhaps, be generally interesting, especially as nothing -new appears in this respect.</p> - -<p>With respect to the paper now in use, Dr. Blair -says, the first paper-mill (in England, we suppose) -was erected at Dartford, in the year 1588, by a -German of the name of Spiellman; from which period -we may, perhaps, date its manufacture in this country.</p> - -<p>It appears, however, that it was known in the -East, much earlier; it being observed that most of -the ancient manuscripts in Arabic and other Oriental -languages, were written upon cotton paper, and it is -thought the Saracens first introduced it into Spain.</p> - -<p>Anderson, in his “History of Commerce,” says, -that till the year 1690, there was scarcely any paper -made in England, but the coarse brown sort. Paper -was previously imported from France, Genoa, and -Holland.—However, the improvement of this article -in England, in consequence of the French war, produced -a saving to this country of £100,000 annually, -which had been paid to France for paper alone.</p> - -<p>After linen and cotton are so much worn as to be -unfit for any other purpose, the several kinds are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">40</a></span> -collected together, and the hard seams and other -accumulations, which would require a much longer -time to prepare proper for the general mass, than -would be consistent with the economy of the whole, -those shreds are then separated and thrown away; -the different kinds are then collected and kept separate -from each other. In such a state of separation they -are laid in troughs, which are afterwards filled with -water, where they are suffered to remain till a species -of fermentation takes place; and the separation of the -parts formed by art is not only rendered easy, but -also, a division may be made of the most minute -parts; the separation is then made by machinery. -When properly prepared, a sufficient quantity is -placed upon a wire frame, or otherwise one formed of -cloth; by mechanical pressure, the moisture is extracted, -after which the sheets are hung up separately -on lines to dry, in a building properly constructed to -admit a free circulation of air.</p> - -<p>Manufacturers of paper, originally, could only use -white rags to make white paper; but Mr. Campbell, -in 1792, discovered a method of discharging any -colour from rags, by bleaching with oxi-muriatic acid -gas, for which he obtained a patent.</p> - -<p>The next considerable improvement which appears -to have been made in the manufacture of paper, consists -in using felt or woollen cloth in conjunction with -the wire cloth formerly used, and now of necessity -retained, and other processes too voluminous to be -inserted here.</p> - -<p>The only remaining circumstance we have to mention -is, that in the beginning of the present century -there was manufactured, in the vicinity of London, a -very good printing paper, made entirely from wheat -straw; for which manufacture, the inventor obtained -a patent, but he did not succeed, we presume, because -it is now discontinued. Considerable quantities of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">41</a></span> -paper is now made from straw in France; but it is of -a yellow tinge. Paper made from linen is the best.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_41"><a id="PAPER_HANGING"></a>PAPER HANGING.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> desire of man, for the gratification of his natural -wants, being soon satisfied, he yet is wanting—those -artificial wants which arise in the mind, and are the -source of his comforts, because their gratification -yields him high delight. Having built him a house, -to shelter himself from the exigencies of the weather, -to enlarge the sphere of his pleasures, he is desirous to -ornament it; and because he cannot, perhaps, construct -his house of silver, gold, or costly stones, he endeavours, -at least, to have an imitation; and gilding, lacquering, -painting, or staining is substituted. This idea, -we will presume, to have given origin to every species -of decorative ornament in the construction of houses—and -among the rest to paper-hanging, which is carried -on to a greater extent in this country, than at any -former period.</p> - -<p>The ancient Greeks, according to Archbishop Potter, -constructed not only their arms, but also their houses, -occasionally of brass, whilst the Romans frequently -gilt theirs; they often covered them with costly -casings or veneers, sometimes with precious stones. -Since they went to such great cost to ornament the -outside of their habitations, we need not wonder that -they spared no expense in endeavouring to ornament -them within.—Those people, however, who could not -procure these extravagancies in reality, thought they -would, at least, have the nearest imitation of them; -accordingly they had recourse sometimes to veneers of -those substances they had seen substantially employed -by the rich and luxurious, as well for outside ornament -as interior decoration; those who could not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">42</a></span> -afford this, had recourse to pigments and the graphic -art; for this purpose, the ingenuity of man was -employed to devise various modes of ornament and -decoration. Hence arose the various kinds of painting, -the fresco, scagliolo, &c., and lastly, came staining -of paper in use.</p> - -<p>To enumerate the various kinds of this, might be -attended with very little benefit, because the principle -of all is nearly the same. However, it has been -remarked that three kinds are deserving of notice. -The first and plainest is that which has on it figures, -drawn and painted with one or more colours, consisting -only of painted paper. The second contains a -woolly stuff, dyed of various tints, and made to adhere -to the paper, in certain forms, by a glutinous matter; -and the third is a species of paper covered with -metallic dust. There are other papers used for hangings, -which contain a representation of many kinds of -stones, of which we understand there is a large manufactory -in Leipsic.</p> - -<p>There is also a species of velvet paper—a paper -covered with sham plush, or wool dyed and cut short, -and made to adhere to the paper by some kind of -cement, said to have been the invention of an Englishman, -of the name of Jerome Lanyer, in the reign of -Charles I., for which he received a patent. In the -specification it is stated, that he had found out an art -and mystery for affixing wool, silk, and other materials, -upon linen, cotton, leather, and other substances, -with oil, size, and cements, so as to make them useful -and serviceable for hangings and other purposes; -which he called Londrindina; and he said it was his -own invention, and formerly used within this realm.</p> - -<p>However, it appears that this invention of Lanyer -was afterwards disputed by a Frenchman of the name -of Tierce, who said it was the production of a countryman -of his, named Francois, who, he stated, had made -such before 1620, and supported his assertion by producing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">43</a></span> -patterns, and the wooden blocks with which it -was printed, with the dates inscribed upon them. -The son of Francois, it appeared, followed his father’s -business, at Rouen, for more than fifty years, where he -died, in 1748. Some of his workmen are said to have -left him, and gone to the Netherlands, Germany, -and other places, where they sold their art.</p> - -<p>It appears that Nemetz ascribes the invention of -wax-cloth hangings, with wool chopped and beat fine, -to a Frenchman, named Andran, who, he says, in the -beginning of the last century, was an excellent painter -in arabesque and grotesque figures, and inspector of -the palace of the Luxembourg at Paris, in which he -had a manufactory for hangings of that kind. It is -also stated that a person of the name of Eccard invented -the art of printing, on paper-hangings, gold -and silver figures, and that he carried on an extensive -manufactory for such works.</p> - -<p>It certainly does appear that the Germans cannot -claim the privilege of invention here, but were behind -their neighbours in this art.</p> - -<p>One of the most ingenious of the many new improvements -is said to consist in the art of manufacturing -paper-hangings by affixing to the substance of the -proper metallic dust, commonly called Nuremberg -dust, by which it acquires the appearance of various -costly metals in a state of fracture, varied with glittering -particles of differently formed parts; and receiving -the light in every direction, produce certainly -a novel effect, which is rich and beautiful, while it is -obtained at little expense.</p> - -<p>The Nuremberg metallic dust is said to have been -the invention of an artist of that city, named John -Hautsch, born in 1595, died in 1670; his descendants -have continued its preparation to the present time. It -is produced from filings of metals of several descriptions -washed well in a strong lixivious water, then -being placed upon a sheet of copper, are put upon a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">44</a></span> -strong fire, and continually stirred till the colour is -altered. Those of tin, by this process, acquire every -shade of gold colour, with its metallic lustre; those of -copper, different shades of flame colour; those of iron -or steel, a blue or violet; of tin and bismuth mixed, -a white or bluish white colour. The dust tinged in -this manner is then put through a flatting-mill, consisting -of two rollers of the hardest steel, like those -used by gold and silver wire-drawers; for the greater -convenience a funnel is placed over them. French -covered paper manufactured from this material is called -<i>papiers avec paillettes</i>. Its lustre is so durable that it -is said to continue unaltered for many years even on -the walls of sitting apartments. This metallic dust is -an article of commerce, being exported from Germany.</p> - -<p>As early as the seventeenth century, the miners of -Silesia collected and sold, for various purposes, a -material they call <i>glimmer</i>, being bright, shining particles -of various metals, which those mines produce in -great profusion; even the black, we are told, acquires -a gold colour by being exposed to a strong heat. -This was manufactured by the holy sisters of Reichenstein, -into a variety of ornaments; with it they decorated -their images, strewing over them a shining -kind of <i>talc</i>. The silver coloured glimmer had not, -however, so great a brilliancy or variety as the Nuremberg -metallic dust; for which purposes that article has -a decided superiority.</p> - -<p>For the various purposes to which these ornaments -are to be applied, different adhesive substances should -be used; in some cases glue would have the effect, to -be first drawn over the substance; in others, a strong -varnish, in which wax is dissolved; and for others, -various kinds of gums.</p> - -<p>Those substances being so covered, the dust may be -put in a common pepper-castor, and applied by sifting -it over the substance to be so covered. Different -figures may be drawn with a pencil, and the box of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">45</a></span> -dust shook over them, as far as the extent of the lines -covered with glue; the dust will only fasten so far as -it meets with what produces adhesion.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_45"><a id="PAINTING"></a>PAINTING.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Its</span> origin is to be traced up to that known source, -from whence most of those arts, which humanise society -and lend a polish to life, first had being. Diodorus -Siculus speaks of bricks burnt in the fire with various -colours, representing the natural appearance of men -and animals; which is the first fact upon record. As -this occurred during the building of Babylon, it is as -remote an original as we are, perhaps, authorised to -depend upon; although it is extremely probable it -might be traced to an anterior date: which conclusion, -though made from inference alone, we are allowed -to suppose must have been the case; as a knowledge -of the nature of pigments must first have been ascertained -before the Chaldean artists could have been -informed what colours would fade, or what would -withstand the operation of the enamelling process in -the intense heat necessary to produce the effect. They -must at least have understood the difference between -vegetable colours, which are the first presented to the -senses, and most probably were the first which were -used, and those afforded by the mineral kingdom, -which alone were proper for the operation they performed. -Therefore, the arts of painting and chemistry, -we would presume must have made considerable -progress prior to the erection of the tower of Babel.</p> - -<p>The next people, who, in point of time as well as -of importance, offer themselves to the notice of modern -Europeans, are the Egyptians; and their perfection -in the use of the various colours which constitute the -compound idea we entertain when we think of painting,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">46</a></span> -is well known and appreciated; when we may -any day consult our judgment by inspecting those -beautiful specimens of their eternal mode of colouring -we have in the exhibition on mummy-cases in the -British Museum, and other depositories of that species -of antique preservation. The third people who excelled -in giving a beautiful and tasteful variety to -surfaces in colouring and effect, were the Etrurians, -a people anciently inhabiting a district of Italy, now -known as Tuscany. Of the perfection to which they -brought the art we may form an adequate and proper -judgment by inspecting those beautiful vases preserved -in the Hamiltonian collection in the British Museum, -and also in some very curious specimens of ancient -painting, procured from the ruins of Herculaneum, -collected likewise by Sir William Hamilton.</p> - -<p>It cannot be doubted, that most distinct societies -of men have, after the gratification of their first -wants, and when leisure hours permitted the exercise -of their ingenious and inventive faculties, invented a -great variety of useful and ornamental arts; therefore, -there cannot be a question, but various arts of utility -as well as of ornament, have been invented by a great -variety of people, who all, agreeably to our prior definitions, -are well entitled to the distinct appellation -of original inventors; consequently in such a case -question must evidently submit to the determination of -chronology.</p> - -<p>Eudora, the daughter of a potter of Corinth, is -presumed to have introduced the art into Greece. -The art of painting in Greece is also claimed by -Sicyon as the original. Mr. Fuseli has beautifully -observed in his first lecture illustrative of the former -of these two claimants, that “If ever legend deserved -our belief, the amorous tale of the Corinthian maid, -who traced the shadow of her departing lover by the -secret lamp, appeals to our sympathy to grant it.” -This invention is becoming doubly interesting in that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">47</a></span> -country, first, because of its elegance and utility; and -secondly, because it is ascribed to one of the noblest -and most powerful passions, which distinguish the -human species, the wonderful effects of which have -given to humanity the most exalted and illustrious of -actions, which ennoble the character of man—to delicate, -refined, and almighty love. Numerous artists -in the Grecian school brought the art of painting to -great perfection.</p> - -<p>The restorer of this delightful art in Europe was -Cimabue, a native of Italy, who first studied under -some Grecian artists, and furnished some admirable -productions in fresco, in several Italian churches about -the renovation of the arts in modern Italy; since -which time, this purely intellectual art has been -successfully cultivated in almost all the countries of -Europe, certain masters in all schools of which have -been eminent for some peculiar eminence.</p> - -<p>An analogy has been drawn by comparison between -the fascinating effect of music on the ear, and colour -on the eye, wherein it is observed the comparison -very nearly approximates; whence the term <i>harmony</i>, -applied to the former, may correctly, and with -singular propriety be used, when speaking of the -latter. And also, it is said, for the same reason, and -proceeding upon the like analogy, the term <i>tone</i> is -applicable to both; they are accordingly used indiscriminately. -Without questioning their propriety, -we give in to our sensations, and as far as our judgment -goes, believe they are not improperly introduced -into the pictorial art.</p> - -<p>It cannot be presumed that we should have the -temerity to aspire to the task of giving a full and -complete description of every variety which constitutes -perfection in the art; for this would be to infer -professional ability, equal, or perhaps, superior to -what any one individual ever was, or, we may venture -to say, ever will be, known to possess. Besides<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">48</a></span> -this inference, another must be presumed, because -perfection in description must also anticipate the most -delicate, refined, and, as termed, classically correct -taste; neither to these do we assume the possession -of such well-known essentials as are positively necessary -to its formation. It is, besides, altogether difficult, -as the world acknowledges, to fix a standard to -the ideal faculty of taste, and which, we hereby take -occasion to notice; therefore we hope to avoid the sin -of presumption, and trust that our readers will observe -that what we do state is upon good authority, if we -have not full confidence in our own experience; but -our sin, if sin there be, is rather that of omission than -of commission—of saying too little, rather than too -much.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_48"><a id="STATUARY"></a>STATUARY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> origin of Statuary, or what we would term its -parent—modelling, is of very great antiquity, as we -are authoratively informed by the Grecian historians, -whose testimony is supported by Monsieur D’Anville -and Major Rennel, two of the most eminent geographers -of modern times. From them we learn that -three massy statues of gold were erected to ornament -the temple of Jupiter Belus. Those were erected by -the Chaldeans about two thousand two hundred and -thirty years before Christ.</p> - -<p>There is also sufficient evidence, that the most eminent -and intellectual people, subsequent to the Chaldeans, -were the Egyptians.</p> - -<p>Every individual, who is in the slightest degree -conversant with the history of the arts, knows that -the Egyptian artisans had from the earliest periods -been in the habit of constructing colossal statues of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">49</a></span> -their numerous deities, and also of their benefactors, -raised from gratitude and adulation.</p> - -<p>To name only a single instance, the immense -colossal statue of Memnon, who perished before the -fall of Troy, according to Homer: also Ovid, who -speaking of his mother Aurora, says,</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Nor Troy, nor Hecuba could now bemoan,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">She weeps a sad misfortune now her own;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Her offspring, Memnon, by Achilles slain,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">She saw extended on the Phrygian plain.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Professor Flaxman has informed us, that this celebrated -statue, had it stood upright, would have -measured ninety-three feet and a half high; calculating -from the dimensions of its ear, which is three feet -long. We are informed by Dr. Rees, in his valuable -Cyclopedia, that sculpture in marble was not introduced -till eight hundred and seventy-three years -before Christ. But having said this much for the -origin, let us proceed to the art; and we candidly -acknowledge that it is from the lectures of that truly -distinguished individual, Professsor Flaxman, we are -principally indebted for our information.</p> - -<p>Sculpture in Greece remained long in a rude state; -but we need not wonder at that, when we reflect that -art is only an imitation of nature. Hence it follows -that man, in a rude state of nature, for want of proper -principles to direct his inquiries, and determine -his judgment, is continually liable to errors, physical, -moral, and religious;—all his productions, of what -kind soever, partake of this primitive imbecility.</p> - -<p>The early arts of design in Greece resembled those -of other barbarous nations, until the successive intellectual -and natural, political and civil advantages of -this people raised them above the arts of the surrounding -nations. The science employed by the -Greeks may be traced in anatomy, geometry, mechanics,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">50</a></span> -and perspective. From their earlier authors -and coeval monuments, Homer had described the -figure with accuracy, but insufficient for general purposes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of Anatomy.</span>—Hippocrates was the first who -enumerated the bones, and wrote a compendious -account of the principles of the human figure; he -described the shoulders, the curves of the ribs, hips -and knees; the characters of the arms and legs, in -the same simple manner in which they are represented -in the basso relievo of the Parthenon, now in the -National Gallery of the British Museum.</p> - -<p>The ancient artists saw the figure continually exposed -in all actions and circumstances, so as to have -little occasion for other assistance to perfect their -works; and they had also the assistance of casting, -drawing, and other subsidiary means. The succeeding -ancient anatomists did not describe the human figure -more minutely or advantageously for the artist, than -had been done by Hippocrates, till the time of Galen, -whose external anatomy gave example for that analytical -accuracy of arrangement followed by more -modern artists. Sculpture, however, profited little -from Galen’s labours, for the arts of design were -in his time in a retrogade motion towards anterior -barbarism.</p> - -<p>The anatomical researches from Alcmæon of Crotona, -a disciple of Pythagoras, to those of Hippocrates -and his scholars, assisted Phidias and Praxiteles, their -contemporaries and successors, in giving select and -appropriate forms of body and limbs to their several -divinities, whose characters were fixed by the artists -from the rhapsodies of Homer, having then become -popular among the Athenians.</p> - -<p>Phidias was the first in this reformation. Minerva, -under his hand, became young and beautiful, who -had before been harsh and elderly; and Jupiter was -awful, as when his nod shook the poles, but benignant,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">51</a></span> -as when he smiled on his daughter Venus. Apollo -and Bacchus then assumed youthful resemblances of -their sire; the first more majestic, the latter more -feminine; whilst Mercury, as patron of gymnastic -exercises, was represented as more robust than his -brother. Hercules became gradually more powerful; -and the forms of inferior heroes displayed a nearer -resemblance to common nature; from which, both -sentiment and beauty can alone be given to imitative -art. The near approach of ancient art to nature, -considering their high advance to accuracy of imitation, -should likewise encourage the modern to imitate -the ancient artists. The moderns now also enjoy -superior auxiliary assistance from engraving, printed -books, &c., which the ancients did not possess.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mechanism of the Human Frame.</span>—The human -figure with the limbs extended, may be inclined and -bounded by the circle and square; the centre of gravity, -its change of situation, is susceptible of description, -and may be exemplified in rest and motion;—running, -striving, leaping, walking, rising, and falling. -Those principles of motion may be exhibited in a -skeleton, by the bending of the backbone backwards -and forwards, whilst the limbs uniformly describe -sections of circles in their motions, constantly moving -on their axis.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dimensions of the Human Figure</span>, as exhibited -in Grecian Statuary.—The height, eight heads (or -usually ten faces); two heads across the shoulders; -one head and a half across the hips; three noses, the -thickest part of the thigh; two, to the calf of the leg; -one, the narrowest part of the shin, &c. The above -is the general proportion of the male figure. The -female figure is narrower across the shoulders, and -wider across the hips than the male.</p> - -<p>The <i>beauty</i> of the human figure is found in its proportion, -symmetry, and expression; it really appears -that the beauty of the human figure is the chief or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">52</a></span> -ultimate of beauty observed in the visible works of -creative Omnipotence. From thence every other -species of beauty graduates in just <i>ratios</i> of proportion. -From considering the intellectual faculties of -man, we assimilate the idea, and connect beauty with -utility, as this union of his physical and mental powers -unquestionably renders him one of the most beautiful -objects in the creation. This consideration leads us -involuntarily to a train of thought, suggested by a -principle laid down by Plato, “That nothing is beautiful -which is not truly good;” which also induces -the following corollary, and which is confirmed by -reason, and sanctioned by revelation, that <i>perfection -of human beauty consists of the most virtuous soul -in the most healthy and perfect body</i>.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as painters and sculptors adhered to those -principles in their work, they assisted to enforce a -popular impression of divine attributes and perfections, -even in ages of gross idolatry.</p> - -<p>In the highest order of divinities, the energy of -intellect was represented above the material accidents -of passion and decay.</p> - -<p>The statues of the Saturnian family, Jupiter, Neptune, -and Pluto, were the most sublime and mighty of -the superior divinities. Apollo, Bacchus, and Mercury, -were youthful resemblances of the Saturnian -family, in energetic, delicate, and more athletic beauty: -Apollo-Belvidere supplies Homer’s description to the -sight; he looks indignant, his hair is agitated; he steps -forward in the discharge of his shafts; his arrows are -hanging on his shoulder.</p> - -<p>A youthful and infantine beauty of the highest class -distinguish the Cupid of Praxiteles, and the group -of Ganymede and the Eagle. The order of heroes or -demigods excel in strength, activity, and beauty; -Achilles, Ajax, Hæmon, Zethos, and Amphion, are -examples in Grecian statuary to establish this remark.</p> - -<p>The Giants are human to the waist; their figures<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">53</a></span> -terminate in serpentine tails. Ocean and the great -Rivers have Herculean forms, and faintly resemble the -Saturnian family, and have reclining positions. The -Tritons resemble the Fauns in the head, and upper -features, with finny tails, and gills on their jaws; their -lower parts terminate in the tails of fish.</p> - -<p>In the highest class of female characters, the beauty -of Juno, is imperious; that of Minerva, wise, as she -presides over peaceful arts; or warlike, as the protectress -of cities. Venus is the example and patroness -of milder beauty and the softer arts of reciprocal -communication; of which the Venus Praxiteles and -Venus de Medicis are instances. The Greeks had -also a Venus Urania, the goddess of hymenial rites -and the celestial virtues.</p> - -<p>The Graces are three youthful, lovely sisters embracing: -they represent the tender affections, as their -name implies; while their character gives the epithet -<i>graceful</i> to undulatory and easy motion. The universe -was peopled by genii, good and evil demons, -which comprehends every species and gradation from -the most sublime and beautiful in Jupiter and Venus, -to the most gross in the Satyr, resembling a goat, and -in the terrific Pan.</p> - -<p>As the public have now an opportunity of consulting -many of the objects above referred to, in our -great national gallery in the British Museum, those -of our readers who can obtain this advantage will -do well to pay a visit to that celebrated depository -for the relics of antiquity, where they will have it in -their power to convince themselves of the truth of -the foregoing remarks.</p> - -<p>The progeny of Ham, the son of Noah, we find, -peopled Egypt, Medea, Chaldea, Phœnicia, and several -other adjoining countries. It will be remembered -that two of the three sons of Noah possessed these -countries which the folly of idolatry overflowed; -whilst it was in the line of Shem alone, that the true<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">54</a></span> -faith was continued. The Mosaiac narrative is chiefly -descriptive of events which occurred in the posterity -of that patriarch, because from it the righteous line of -the faithful in Abraham, David, Solomon, and ultimately -Christ, proceeded. Thus more than two-thirds -of the inhabitants of the world were gross -idolators: we often find the Omniscience of the -Highest forewarning the sacred line to avoid its fascinations. -Nay, when, upon more occasions than one, -the descendants of the faithful forgot themselves, and -those admonitions of the Creator were neglected, we -find the sacred race flying before the face of puny foes, -which defeat was declared to be from their having -prostrated themselves before strange gods: they were -bowed thus low in battle. Not to mention their disobedience -immediately beneath Mount Sinai, which -protracted their journey through the wilderness to -forty years, which, perhaps, under other circumstances, -would not have required as many days. All -those troubles, their subsequent captivities, and national -afflictions, were the produce of disobedience. -This is one of those means which retributive justice -resorts to punish wilful sin; so, however, it was with -the seed of Abraham. And so it is presumed to be -with the present race of men; either immediate or -remote punishment vindicates the Omnipotence of -Heaven. From the frequent maledictions we discover -in the sacred volume against idol worship, we cannot -doubt that it was peculiarly offensive to the Deity. -that the great majority of the world were addicted to -this proscribed practice is equally certain. And as -the Spirit of Truth had declared in the decalogue, -that “It would not be worshipped under any form in -the heavens above, in the earth below, or in the -waters under the earth;” so was image-worship, -and consequently the construction of such things, -forbidden.</p> - -<p>We discover that as this mania infected all nations,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">55</a></span> -tongues, and people, so did not the Israelites escape -it; but immediately after their departure from Egypt -we find an exact similitude of the sacred calf of the -Egyptians, cast in melted gold, which they constructed -below Mount Sinai. In Egypt, metallic statues, as -well as those of stone, must have existed anterior to -that event, as they actually had done to our own -knowledge, and long before idolatry had made its appearance -in Egypt, it had existed in Chaldea, as -already shown.</p> - -<p>As that worship had first its being in Chaldea, so -had the art of statuary its origin in that country; it -was improved, perhaps, in Egypt, and perfected in -Greece, from the time of Pericles to that of Alexander, -commonly called the Great.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_55"><a id="DRAWING"></a>DRAWING.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE HUMAN FIGURE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">From</span> what has been said in the previous article, it -would appear that drawing of the human figure was -nearly coeval with the art of statuary, or perhaps prior -to it in Greece. As there is ample room to suppose -the rude aboriginal inhabitants of Greece borrowed -their art, as they did their religious and civil policy, -from the Egyptians, and in fact from every nation -where they discovered anything worthy their attention, -so must we suppose they had also this art, in its -infancy it is true, from the same people. Upon reflecting -for a single moment, we are fully satisfied that -the origin of the art now under contemplation came -from Egypt. An ancient philosopher expressed himself -with great truth, when he said, “Necessity was -man’s first instructor.” We accordingly perceive the -necessity of the earliest inhabitants of Egypt to exercise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">56</a></span> -the art of drawing, they having determined to -record their transactions by hieroglyphical representation. -We have not the slightest doubt but we have -now in the British Museum some of the earliest specimens -of Egyptian hieroglyphical delineation, in the -<i>sarcophagi</i>; from its inscription, it has been discovered -that that identical monument cannot be less than three -thousand five hundred and ninety-eight years old!</p> - -<p>Previous to this, we can have no doubt that the art -of drawing must have existed.</p> - -<p>Like its sister art, sculpture, it received every improvement -of which it was susceptible, from the mature -conceptions and the delicate hand of Grecian -artisans; words are, perhaps, inadequate to convey -this art to a second person. Years of incessant -labour, with an attention to principles established and -found to correspond correctly with nature, are the -only means to obtain a just knowledge of its principles, -and to judge tastefully of its correct execution.</p> - -<p>However, in addition to the rules laid down in the -preceding article, we add the following, which have -been approved by Sir Joshua Reynolds, by no means -a contemptible judge of the <span class="locked">art:—</span></p> - -<p>1. That from the crown of the head to the forehead -is the third part of a face.</p> - -<p>2. The face begins at the root of the lowest hairs -that grow on the forehead, and ends at the bottom of -the chin.</p> - -<p>3. The face is divided into three proportionate -parts; the first contains the forehead or brow; the -second, the nose; and the third, the mouth and chin.</p> - -<p>4. From the chin to the pit between the collar-bones, -is two lengths of a nose.</p> - -<p>5. From the pit between the collar-bones to the -bottom of the breast, one face.</p> - -<p>6. From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one -face.</p> - -<p>7. From the navel to the genitories, one face.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">57</a></span> -8. From the genitories to the upper part of the -knee, two faces.</p> - -<p>9. The knee contains half a face.</p> - -<p>10. From the lower part of the knee to the ancle, -two faces.</p> - -<p>11. From the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a -face.</p> - -<p>12. A man with his arms extended, is from his -longest finger on each hand, as broad as he is long.</p> - -<p>13. From one side of the breast to the other, two -faces.</p> - -<p>14. The bone of the arm called <i>humerus</i>, i.e., from -the shoulder to the elbow joint, is the length of two -faces.</p> - -<p>15. From the end of the elbow to the joint of the -little finger, the bone called <i>cubitus</i>, with a part of -the hand, is also two faces.</p> - -<p>16. From the box of the shoulder-blade, to the pit -between the collar-bones, one face.</p> - -<p>17. To be satisfied in measures of breadth. From -the extremity of one finger to the other, so that his -breadth should be equal to the length, it should be -observed, that the bones of the elbows with the -<i>humerus</i>, and the <i>humerus</i> with the shoulder-blade, or -<i>scapula</i>, bear the proportions of a face when the arms -are extended.</p> - -<p>18. The sole of the foot is one-sixth part of the -length of the entire figure.</p> - -<p>19. The hand is the length of a face.</p> - -<p>20. The thumb contains a nose in length.</p> - -<p>21. The inside of the arm, from the place where -the muscle disappears, which is connected with the -breast (called the pectoral muscle,) to the middle of -the arm, four noses long.</p> - -<p>22. From the middle of the arm, at the top, to the -beginning of the head, five noses.</p> - -<p>23. The longest toe is one nose.</p> - -<p>24. The outermost parts of the paps, and the pit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">58</a></span> -between the collar-bones of a female, form an equilateral -triangle.</p> - -<p>The knowledge of the preceding proportions, are as -mere rudiments essential to the delineation of the -human figure; but they relate to a body in a quiescent -state only. The more difficult task remains to become -thoroughly acquainted with its actions. To obtain -this, a rudimental and even an intimate acquaintance -with the skeleton, and assiduous and incessant practice -are necessary.</p> - -<p>However, the lectures delivered to the Royal -Academy have furnished us with the probable extent -to which the motions of the human frame may be -carried.</p> - -<p>First, premising that the motions of the head and -trunk of the body are limited by the several joints of -the spine.</p> - -<p>2. The motion of the body upon the lower limbs -takes place at the hip-joints, at the knees, and at the -ancles.</p> - -<p>3. Those limbs, called great limbs (the whole frame -being technically divided, and denominated the upper -and lower extremities), have rotatory motions at their -junctions with the trunk, by means of a ball and -socket joints, at the shoulders and the hips. The -analogy of parts between the upper and lower extremities -is not carried through the structure of those -limbs in the body.</p> - -<p>4. The fulcrum of the upper limb is itself moveable -upon the trunk, as appears from the extensive motions -of the scapula, which so generally accompany the -rotation of the shoulder, and supply the limb with a -great variety of motion, much more than the lower -limb possesses.</p> - -<p>5. The junction of the thigh with the mass without -motion, called the <i>pelvis</i>, limits its rotation to the ball -and socket-joint without farther extension.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">59</a></span> -6. The rotation of the head and neck takes place at -the joint between the first and second vertebræ.</p> - -<p>7. When the nose is parallel with the <i>sternum</i>, the -face may be turned towards either shoulder, through -an angle of 60 deg. on each side; the whole range -of its motion being 120 degrees.</p> - -<p>8. The lateral bending of the neck is equally divided -between the seven vertebræ; but the bowing of -the head, and violently tossing it backward, are chiefly -effected at the joint of the skull, and the first bone of -the vertebral column called the atlas.</p> - -<p>9. Although the preceding motions are consistent -with an erect stature of the neck, yet the lateral motions -demand a curvature of its whole mass.</p> - -<p>10. The movements of the trunk are regulated by -rotary and lateral motions, nearly equally divided -among the several joints of the vertebræ of the back -and loins.</p> - -<p>11. The joints or the dorsal or back vertebræ are, -notwithstanding, more close and compact than those of -the loins; allowing of a wider range for bending and -turning in the loins than the back.</p> - -<p>12. The sternum and ribs move upward, to assist -the chest in the expansion required for respiration; -drawing the clavicles and the shoulders upwards in -full inspiration, and tend to a contrary motion on expiration. -Such movements also, characterise strong -action and certain passion, and very apparent in a -naked figure.</p> - -<p>13. In stooping to touch the ground, the thigh-bone -forms an angle of somewhere about 55 degrees with -the average direction of the vertebræ.</p> - -<p>14. The leg bends upon the thigh at an angle of -about 75 degrees, and the line of the <i>tibia</i> forms, with -the sole of the foot, when that is elevated, an angle of -65 degrees.</p> - -<p>15. The whole of this limb is susceptible of motion -at the hip-joint forwards to a right angle with its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">60</a></span> -perpendicular position; and backwards to an angle of -20 degrees. The leg will then continue to move by -itself to its own angle of 75 degrees with the thigh. -Its extreme motion does not exceed 45 degrees.</p> - -<p>16. When the shoulders are quiescent, the clavicles -usually meet in an angle of 110 degrees at the -sternum.</p> - -<p>17. The utmost elevation of the upper joint of the -arm generally forms an angle of 155 degrees with the -vertebræ, and about 125 degrees with the line of its -clavicle. The flexion of the fore-arm upon its upper -part is confined to an angle of nearly 40 degrees.</p> - -<p>18. The whole arm is capable of moving forward or -outward through nearly 80 degrees, and backward to -nearly the same angle with its perpendicular station.</p> - -<p>19. The actions of pronation and supination in the -hand, range through all intermediate degrees from a -horizontal or perpendicular direction to 270 degrees; -but 90 degrees of its rotary motion in pronation comes -from the shoulder joint.</p> - -<p>20. The palm of the hand admits of flexion and -extension to 65 degrees in each direction; its lateral -motions are 35 outward, and 30 inward. The flexion -of the fingers at each phalanx is a right angle.</p> - -<p>But it must be observed that in drawing the joints, -very considerable difference is found in their length, -from inequality of action. The elbow joint, when -bent inward, lengthens the arm nearly one eighth; the -same general law operates on the knees, fingers, &c. -When a man is at rest, and standing on both feet, a -line drawn perpendicularly between the clavicles will -fall central between his feet. Should he stand on one -foot, it falls upon the heel of that foot which supports -his weight.</p> - -<p>If he raises one arm, it will throw as much of his -body on the other side as nature requires to support -the equilibrium. One of his legs thrown back brings -the breast forward, to preserve the gravity of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">61</a></span> -figure: the same will be observed in all other motions -of the parts to keep the central gravitation in its -proper place.</p> - -<p>The equipoise of a figure is of two sorts: simple, -when its action relates to itself; and compound, when -it refers to a second object.</p> - -<p>The equilibrium of nature is constantly preserved; -for in walking, leaping, running, &c., similar precautions -are taken. By the flexibility of our bodies in -striking, according to the proportionate force meant to -be employed, the body is first drawn back, then the -limb propelled forward, bringing with it the weight of -the body.</p> - -<p>In striking, lifting, throwing, &c., a greater proportion -of force is employed than may be necessary to -effect the intended purpose. This is mentioned because, -in representation, the force employed in an -action should be marked in the muscle producing that -action; if it be marked rather stronger than may be -necessary, the cause is obvious, for Nature so employs -her powers.</p> - -<p>In studying this art, students should have selected -for them the best examples to copy from at first; then -they should draw from the figure as soon as possible, -and if it be possible from the best specimens of the -antique. Their first drawings are recommended to be -made with chalk, and in large proportion; attention -to these will communicate ease and freedom to their -future performances.</p> - -<p>It will be likewise found necessary for them to draw -upon geometrical principles; this communicates a -truth, which greatly adds to their certainty and confidence, -and ultimately to their ease.</p> - -<p>This is mentioned, because it will be found that -there is no portion of the human frame, quiescent, or -in an active state, but what is susceptible of geometrical -definition.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">62</a></span> -Experience and exercise communicate truths which -produce certainty, whence come ease and grace.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_62"><a id="ARCHITECTURE"></a>ARCHITECTURE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">This</span> is a science most beneficial to humanity. It is -very evident that it must have an extremely ancient -origin. The origin of this art is presumed to have -been imitated by man, from those natural caves and -recesses, which are discovered in various parts of the -earth. For in those, it is reported, the first men took -shelter from the inclemency of elemental strife, and to -avoid the piercing contingencies of ultimate and precarious -uncertainty. The oldest buildings in the -world are accordingly said to be beneath the surface -of the earth; among which are reckoned the famous -temple of Elephanta, in the Delta of the Ganges; the -Catacombs, in Egypt; and upon the surface of the -earth, the tower of Belus, at Babylon; the Egyptian -Mausoleum, and the Druidical Temples in Gaul and -Britain.</p> - -<p>Architecture may well be denominated one of those -arts which accommodate, delight, and give consequence -to the human species; while at the same time it is -calculated to flatter pride, and gratify vanity. If -viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to possess -a very considerable portion, not only of the comforts, -but the conveniences, the positive utilities, and -many of the luxuries of life. The advantages derived -from <i>houses</i> only are very great, being the first step -towards civilization, having great influence both on -the body and mind of man. Secluded from each other -in woods, caves, and wretched huts, the inhabitants -of such recesses are generally found to be men, indolent, -dull, inactive, and abject; their faculties benumbed, -their views limited to the gratification of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">63</a></span> -their individual and most pressing wants. But when -societies are formed, and commodious dwellings provided, -where well sheltered, they may breathe a temperate -air, amid summer’s scorching heat, and winter’s -biting cold; sleep, when Nature requires, in ease and -security; study unmolested; converse and taste the -sweets of social enjoyments;—they are spirited, active, -ingenious, and enterprising, vigorous in body, and -active in mind. If benefits like these previously enumerated -result from any art, then will that of the -architect claim a decided pre-eminence. When we -reflect on the almost infinity of useful purposes to -which this art is conducive;—that it erects us temples -for the worship of our Creator, the benevolent dispenser -of all good things, that it provides us with -habitations, where ease and simplicity are agreeably -combined;—that it is conducive to our safety, comfort, -and convenience, in uniting different districts of the -country by the facility of bridges, roads, &c., is contributive -to the gratification of our natural wants, and -to our safety.</p> - -<p>As inhabitants of a great commercial country, the -benefits we derive from <i>naval</i> architecture are unspeakably -great; when we reflect that it operates as -a medium of communication between us, an insulated -people, and the whole earth, in its remotest colonies; -that it serves to convey between our people and the -most distant nations the native produce of the respective -countries, with the effects of mutual industry; -that it clothes, feeds, and furnishes employment to -thousands of our fellow-countrymen; and, in a national -point of view, our wooden bulwarks have been the -wonder of the world, and continues to afford us protection -from our enemies, should all other hopes fail. -What can surpass its utility in the latter point of view? -what can exceed the assistance derived from it? By -the criterions formerly mentioned let us determine. -We shall find, that of all the arts the world has ever<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">64</a></span> -boasted, there are but few, if any, that can claim a -superiority.</p> - -<p>There are no other designs, whether necessary or -superfluous, so certainly productive of their desired -object, so beneficial in consequences, or so permanent -in their effects, as is the art of the architect. Most -other inventions which afford pleasure and satisfaction -soon decay; their fashion fluctuates—their value is -lost; but the productions of architecture command -general attention, and are lasting monuments, beyond -the reach of ephemeral modes: they proclaim to distant -ages the consequence, genius, virtues, achievements, -and munificence of those they commemorate to -the latest posterity. The most obvious and immediate -advantages of building are, the employment of -numerous ingenious artificers, industrious workmen, -and labourers of all kinds; converting materials of -small value into the most noble productions, beautifying -countries, multiplying the comforts and conveniences -of life.</p> - -<p>But not the least desirable effects of the architect’s -art, perhaps, remain yet to be noticed, in affording to -the numerous train of arts and manufactures, concerned -to furnish and adorn the works of architecture, -which employ thousands, constituting many valuable -branches of commerce. Also from that certain concourse -of strangers to every country celebrated for -stately structures, who extend your fame into other -countries, where otherwise, it would never have been -heard of; adopt your fashions, give reputation, and -create a demand for your productions in foreign parts; -these are circumstances which certainly should not be -too lightly valued, and these circumstances result from -architecture.</p> - -<p>At this day, the ruins of ancient Rome support the -splendour of the modern city, by inviting travellers, -who flock, from all nations, to witness those majestic -remains of former grandeur. The same may be said<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">65</a></span> -of many other countries famous for architectural -remains. Thus architecture, by supplying men with -commodious habitations, procures that health of body -and energy of mind, which facilitates the invention of -arts: when by the exertion of their skill and industry, -productions multiply beyond domestic demand, she -furnishes the means of transporting them to foreign -markets: whenever by commerce they acquire wealth, -she points the way to employ their riches rationally, -nobly, and benevolently, in methods honourable and -useful to themselves, and beneficial to posterity, which -add splendour to the state, and yield benefit to their -descendants. She further teaches them to defend her -possessions, to secure their liberties and lives from -attempts of lawless violence or unrestrained ambition. -So variously conducive to human happiness is this art, -to the wealth and safety of nations,—so, naturally, -does it demand that protection and encouragement -which has ever been yielded it in all well governed -states.</p> - -<p>The perfection of virtuous other arts we have -beheld to be a consequence of this; for when building -is encouraged, painting, sculpture, and every species -of decorative art will flourish of course. It should -not, however, be imagined that the heaping of stone -upon stone can be of consequence, or reflect -honour on individuals or nations. The practice of -architecture infers actual art to be an essential preliminary; -without this, and having some laudable end -in view, it is apt to raise disgust. This art is generally -classed under three distinct heads, viz., Civil, -Military, and Naval Architecture.</p> - -<p>In the first attempts of architecture it was extremely -rude, as might naturally be expected. It has, however, -from time to time, as improvements have advanced, -been raised to relative importance, as the education of -the people progressed; and it certainly gives the best -record of the mental progress of every people which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">66</a></span> -can be collected. It has always been found to flourish -best in free states, and when the rulers have possessed -genius, virtue, and good taste. The most eminent -era of Grecian architecture was when the Athenian -republic was under the direction of Pericles; at this -period, also, existed the first of statuaries, Praxiteles. -Where that eminent artist and their admirable architects -were employed, in the words of Pausanius, “they -rendered the whole of Acropolis as an entire ornament.” -There are various characteristic distinctions -to be made in the several orders of architecture which -distinguish the Grecian people. The Doric is eminent -for primeval simplicity; the Tuscan embraces more -ornament; the Ionic unites simplicity and elegance; -but the sum of all excellence appears to be united in -the Corinthian. The Composite is also a most elegant -order, but appears to have added but little to the -Corinthian elegance and majesty. Various nations -have a great diversity of architecture; as the Egyptian, -Persian (distinguished by human figures supporting -entablatures), Hindostanee, Arabasque or -Marisquo, which are very peculiar, generally having -the walls to project most at the top, which is indicative -of the natural jealousy of all oriental people; -they all regarding their <i>women</i> as their chief treasure, -it appears meant for their especial protection.</p> - -<p>A greater simplicity does not appear anywhere -than in the architecture of the Druids, consisting of -most extensive circles of immense stones, chiefly raised -perpendicularly, with occasionally a larger stone -placed upon the apex of two others horizontally.—There -are in Great Britain numerous remains of these -constructions: the chief are Stonehenge, near Salisbury; -at Avebury, also in Wiltshire; Pomonca, in -the Orkneys; Rollright, in Oxfordshire. But the -most eminent spot for Druid temples was Mona, in -Anglesea, in Wales. The reason for such apparently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">67</a></span> -unmeaning erections will be found in their peculiar -belief, in the religion they professed.</p> - -<p>The Saxon is a very heavy order of architecture. -It was used in this kingdom much in the erection of -religious edifices, and is frequently found mixed with -the Norman in such structures. The grand and most -obvious distinction is a semi-circular arch, with massy -columns, variously ornamented, and most frequently -the columns which support the same arch are diversely -sculptured. The chief sculptures of this kind in Britain, -are Gloucester Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey, -Wilts; Sedbury Church, Herefordshire; several -churches in Rutland, Lincoln, Somerset, Devon, and -other counties.</p> - -<p>There appears to us to be no order of architecture -better calculated for the purpose to which it is generally -adopted, than the chaste and pure Norman -style, barbarously denominated Gothic. It affords -a great variety of light, airy beauty, and tasteful -grandeur.</p> - -<p>In this country, the Norman order succeeded the -Saxon, and we lost nothing by the exchange; for even -now, that we have the entire benefit of a choice of -the purest Grecian (since its revival by Inigo Jones), -it is a matter of taste to be certain; but in our estimation, -the chaste Norman is to be preferred to the -purest Grecian, for the purposes for which it is intended; -and if the means answer the ultimate end, we -submit this to be the proper criterion for preference. -We find it usually employed in religious edifices; it is -pure, light, airy, and cheerful: and we are of opinion -that the service of gratitude and thanks to the Creator -demands a disposition of mind which these feelings -are best calculated to inspire.</p> - -<p>Domestic architecture is various, and chiefly regulated -by the various purposes for which it is designed. -Its characteristic is utility.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">68</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3 id="h_68"><a id="CHAIN-BRIDGES"></a>CHAIN-BRIDGES.</h3> -</div> - -<p class="p0 center">(See <a href="#i_frontis">Frontispiece</a>.)</p> - -<p class="p2">It appears, from a description of bridges of suspension, -communicated by R. Stephenson, civil engineer, -some time ago, to the “Philosophical Journal,” that -the first chain-bridge constructed in this country is -believed to be one over the Tees, forming a communication -between the counties of Durham and York. -It is supposed, on good authority, to have been erected -about 1741, and is described in the “Antiquities of -Durham” as “a bridge suspended on iron chains, -stretched from rock to rock, over a chasm nearly sixty -feet deep, for the passage of travellers, particularly -miners. This bridge is seventy feet in length, and -little more than two feet broad, with a hand-rail on -one side, and planked in such a manner that the -traveller experiences all the tremulous motion of the -chain, and sees himself suspended over a roaring gulf, -on an agitated and restless gangway, to which few -strangers dare trust themselves.” In 1816–17, two -or three bridges of iron were constructed; the first, -by Mr. Lees, an extensive woollen manufacturer, at -Galashiels, in Scotland. This experiment, although -made with slender wire, and necessarily imperfect in -its construction, deserves to be noticed, as affording a -practical example of the tenacity of iron so applied.—These -wire bridges were suspended not upon the -catemarian principle so successfully adopted in the -larger works subsequently undertaken, but by means -of diagonal braces, radiating from their points of -suspension on either side towards the centre of the -roadway. The unfortunate fabric next mentioned -was constructed on this defective principle. Among -the earliest practical exhibitions of this novel architecture -in the United Kingdom, may be mentioned -the uncommonly elegant and light chain-bridge which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">69</a></span> -was thrown over the Tweed at Dryburgh, in 1817, -by the Earl of Buchan, for the accommodation of foot -passengers. Its length, between the points of suspension, -was two hundred and sixty-one feet, being -considered the greatest span of any bridge in the -kingdom. This useful structure, the theme of such -just applause, and which harmonised so finely with -the far-famed scenery of Dryburgh Abbey, was -entirely destroyed by a tremendous gale of wind, at -the beginning of the year following its erection.—This -bridge was subsequently restored upon a more -secure system.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_69"><a id="CLOCKS"></a>CLOCKS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> invention of clocks, such as are now in use, is -ascribed to Pacificus, Archdeacon of Verona, who -died in 846; but they were not known in England -before the year 1368. They were ultimately improved -by the application of pendulums, in 1657, by -Huygens, a Dutch astronomer and mathematician. -Although Dr. Beckmann differs in some slight degree -from the previous relation concerning clocks, yet he -says, “It is sufficiently apparent that clocks, moved -by wheels and weights, began certainly to be used in -the monasteries of Europe, about the eleventh century.” -He does not think, however, that Europe -has a claim to the honour of the invention, but that -it is rather to be ascribed to the Saracens; this conjecture, -he confesses, is chiefly supported by what -Trithemius tells us, of one which was sent by the -Sultan of Egypt to Frederick II., in 1232. He thinks -that the writers of that century speak of clocks as -though they had been then well known; he adds, that in -the fourteenth century, mention is made of the machine -of Richard de Wallingford, which has hitherto been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">70</a></span> -considered as the oldest clock known. The fabricator -of this machine called it <i>Albion</i>.</p> - -<p>It appears that clocks had been hitherto shut up -in monasteries and other religious houses, and that it -was not till after this time they were employed for -more general purposes, as the convenience of cities, &c. -The first instance on record, that has been yet noticed, -occurs where Herbert, Prince of Carrara, caused the -first clock that was ever publicly exposed, to be -erected at Padua. It was erected by John Dondi, -whose family afterwards, in consequence, had the -pronomen of Horologia assigned them, in remembrance -of this circumstance: it is also mentioned on -the tombstone of the artist. The family of Dondi -now followed the profession of manufacturing clocks; -for his son, John Dondi, constructed one upon improved -principles.</p> - -<p>The first clock at Bologna was put up in the year -1356. Some time after the year 1364, Charles V., -surnamed the Wise, King of France, caused a clock -to be placed in the tower of his palace, by Henry de -Wyck, whom he had invited from Germany for the -purpose, because there was then at Paris no artist of -that kind, and to whom he assigned a salary of six -sols per diem, with free lodgings in the Tower. Towards -the end of that century, probably about the -year 1370, Strasburg had a clock. About the same -period, Courtray was celebrated for its clock, which -the Duke of Burgundy carried away, <span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1382. A -public clock was erected in the Altburg gate at Spire, -in 1395, the works of which cost fifty-one florins.</p> - -<p>The greater part of the principal cities of Europe, -however, at this period, had clocks without striking. -Clocks could not be procured but at a very great -expense: of this, an instance occurred in the city of -Auxerre, in the year 1483, when the magistrates -being desirous of a clock, but discovering that it -would cost more money than they thought themselves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">71</a></span> -justified in expending on their own authority, applied -to the Emperor Charles VIII. for leave to employ a -portion of the public funds for that purpose.</p> - -<p>In 1462, a public clock was put up in the church -of the Virgin Mary at Nuremberg.</p> - -<p>At Venice a public clock was put in the year 1497. -In the same century an excellent clock was put up -for Cosmo de Medici, by Lorenzo, a Florentine.</p> - -<p>Having thus mentioned their origin in various -places, until they came to ornament the religious -houses, the palaces of kings, and the chief European -cities, it now remains for us to take some notice of -their existence in our own country for public use. -From public documents still extant, it appears that so -great was their expense considered in those early -times of their introduction, that it was only the -powerful and the rich who could procure them. We -discover that the first clock for public and lay purposes -in England was one erected on the north side of -Old Palace Yard, Westminster, on which was this -inscription, <i>Discite justitiam moniti</i>; which inscription -is said to have been preserved many years after the -clock-house had been decayed.</p> - -<p>It is asserted that this clock was placed in that -situation, for the purpose of being heard by the members -of the courts of law; and the occasion which -produced its existence is thus recorded. It was the -produce of a fine levied upon the lord chief justice of -the court of King’s Bench, in the reign of Edward I. -<span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1288, of whom it appears by a book called the -“Year-Book,” that this magistrate had been fined 800 -marks for making an alteration in a record, wherein a -defendant had been fined 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, and he, the chief -justice, made it appear to be 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> instead of that, -the larger sum.</p> - -<p>Notoriety, however, was attached to this transaction -from the following circumstances. First, it -appears to have been one of three questions put by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">72</a></span> -Richard III. to his judges, with whom he was closeted -in the Inner Star Chamber, to take their opinions on -three points of law. The second question was, -“Whether a justice of the peace, who had enrolled an -indictment which had been negatived by the grand -jury, among the true bills, might be punished for the -abuse of his office?” On this question a diversity of -opinion arose among the judges, some of whom supposed -a magistrate could not be prosecuted for what -he might have done; whilst others contended that he -might, and cited the case of the lord chief justice -above mentioned: so far was the answer of the judges -strictly proper and historically true. The third circumstance -to which we have alluded, and which is -most material to our present question, is the application -of the fine. It appears that it was expended in -the construction of a clock, which was erected on the -north side of Old Palace Yard; so that the judges, -barristers, and students could not enter or leave the -court, without having an opportunity of being reminded -of the punishment of the chief justice, for -presuming to violate the impartial duty of his high -office; nor could they even hear it strike, whilst upon -the throne of justice, without having his case repeated -in their ears; thereby acting as a constant remembrancer, -intimating they were to administer justice -more than mercy.</p> - -<p>Sir Edward Coke observes that 800 marks were -actually entered upon the roll, so that it is extremely -probable he had himself seen the record.</p> - -<p>This clock was considered so important during the -reign of Henry VI., that we find that the king gave -the charge of keeping it, with its appurtenances, to -William Warley, dean of St. Stephen’s, with the pay -of sixpence per diem, to be received at the exchequer.</p> - -<p>The clock of St. Mary’s, Oxford, was also furnished -in 1523, out of fines imposed upon the students of -that university.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">73</a></span> -With respect to the clock procured from the fine -of the lord chief justice, we must also observe that -its motto appears to relate to that circumstance; but -though it might be said that it might relate to a dial -as well as to a clock—a material observation to our -present inquiry—yet, with respect to its present absence, -it should be noticed, that it is probable that -clock was a very indifferent one, but from its antiquity -and the tradition attending it, was permitted to -remain till the time of Elizabeth; then being quite -decayed, a dial might have been substituted upon the -same clock-house, bearing the very singular motto -which, however originally applied, clearly alludes to -such a circumstance as reported of the lord chief -justice. This dial is placed on the very site where -the clock-house stood.</p> - -<p>But it is said by Derham, in his “Artificial Clockmaker,” -that the oldest clock in this kingdom is in -Hampton Court Palace, marked with the letters N. O., -presumed to have been the initials of the maker’s name, -of the date of 1540; but that author is evidently mistaken, -in alleging that to be the oldest, because the -Oxford clock bears a date seventeen years anterior to -that period. With respect to the initials, or whatever -they may be, we do not consider them of the -smallest importance.</p> - -<p>From Shakspeare’s “Othello” it is proved that the -ancient name of this instrument was Horologe; which -various passages in our poets and old authors -<span class="locked">establish:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“He’ll watch the horologe a double set,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">If drink rock not his cradle.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">Chaucer also says of a cock,</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Full sickerer was his crowing in his loge,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">As is a clock, or any abbey <i>orloge</i>;”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> -<p class="in0"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">74</a></span> -which tends to show that, in his time, clocks had -been confined to religious houses.</p> - -<p>So Lydgate’s prologue to the story of <span class="locked">Thebes:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“I will myself be your orologere<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To-morrow early.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>With respect to our modern clocks, it would be -presumption in us to say one word, as there is not an -individual but knows as much about them, as we could -tell him. We have fulfilled our intention in giving -this historical account, which we are persuaded will -afford some information. We will now proceed to</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_74"><a id="WATCHES"></a>WATCHES,</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Which</span> are not of so great antiquity; as it is only -about 1490, mention is made of watches, which first -occurs in the Italian poems of Gaspar Visconti. -Dominico Maria Manni says the inventor was Lorenzo -a Vulparia, a native of Florence.</p> - -<p>One might naturally be inclined to believe that the -honour of original invention is duly demanded by the -whole Germanic people, from the claim of the invention -of watches being aspired to by the Nurembergians; -as Doppelenayer gravely alleges they were first -invented by a person residing in that city, in the sixteenth -century, of the name of Peter Hale; and, -perhaps, he has no better foundation for his conjecture, -than that watches were at first of an oval shape, and -were called Nuremberg eggs.</p> - -<p>Shakspeare, in his “Twelfth Night,” speaking of a -<i>watch</i>, has the following expression, used by Malvolio: -“I frown the while; and perchance wind up my -watch, or play with some rich jewel.” Also, the -Priest, in answer to Olivia,</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Since when, my <i>watch</i> hath told me, toward my grave<br /></span> -<span class="i0">I have travelled but two hours.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The following observations appear to sanction our<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">75</a></span> -opinion of the early existence of those machines in this -country. Dr. Derham, in his “Artificial Clockmaker,” -published in 1714, mentions a watch of Henry -VIII., which at the period he wrote was in good -order. Indeed, Dr. Demainbray says that he had -heard Sir Isaac Newton and Demoire both speak of -that watch.</p> - -<p>An anecdote is related of the Emperor Charles V., -contemporary with Henry VIII., which it appears -has reference to the policy of Europe at that day. -It is said, the emperor, after dinner, used to sit with -several watches on the table, with his bottle in the -centre. After the prince’s retirement to the abbey of -St. Just, he still continued to amuse himself with -keeping them in order. From his inability to effect -this correctly, it is reported he drew the rational reflection, -<i>that it was impossible to effect what he had -attempted—the regulation of the policy of Europe</i>.</p> - -<p>It also appears that many watches of that day -struck the hours. The “Memoirs of Literature” report -that such watches having been stolen from Charles V. -and Louis XI. whilst they were in a crowd, the thieves -were detected from their striking.</p> - -<p>It also appears from the evidence of certain watches -of ancient construction formerly held by Sir Ashton -Lever, and also by Mr. Ingham Forster, that <i>catgut</i> -usually supplied the place of a chain in ancient -watches; also that they were of a smaller size than -now made, and generally of an oval form.</p> - -<p>Imperfections of this nature, and probably other -causes, might have rendered their truth uncertain, and -this most probably precluded their general use, until -the latter end of the reign of Elizabeth. The instances -we have shown will prove they were generally known, -and perhaps used at the time of Shakspeare writing -the “Twelfth Night.” And in the first edition of -Harrington’s “Orlando Furioso,” published in 1591, -the frontispiece represents the author with what appears<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">76</a></span> -to be a watch, although the engraving is extremely -indistinct; moreover, the inscription to which -engraving, of <i>Il Tempo passo</i>, clearly indicates the same -thing.</p> - -<p>Charles I., in 1631, incorporated the clockmakers -company, and by charter, which prohibits clocks, -watches, and alarums from being imported; which -circumstance proves, that the English at this period, -had no need of the aid of foreign ingenuity in this -branch of mechanism.</p> - -<p>We are told that Guy Fawkes and Percy were -detected in the third year of James I., with a watch -about them, which they had purchased, “to try conclusions -for the long and short burning of the touchwood,” -(in the words of the time) which was prepared -to give fire to the train of gunpowder.</p> - -<p>The most material improvement introduced in this -branch of mechanical knowledge took place in the -addition of pendulums, by Huygens, as applied to -clocks; for which conception he was indebted to -Galileo, which that philosopher adopted for measuring -time, he having taken the idea from observing the -vibrations of a lamp in a church. This reign also -boasts of the production of repeating-watches in -England; first fabricated under the direction of the -celebrated Dr. Hook, and manufactured by Tompion.</p> - -<p>An anecdote is related of the attention paid to -watches by James II., recorded by Derham, in the -“Artificial Clockmaker:” One Barlow had procured a -patent, in conjunction with the lord chief justice -Allebone, for repeaters; but a person of the name of -Quare making one at the same time, upon principles -he had entertained before the patent was granted to -Barlow, the king tried both in person, and gave the -preference to Quare’s, and caused it to be notified in -the gazette.</p> - -<p>In the next reign, the reputation of British watchmakers -had increased so much, that an act was passed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">77</a></span> -by parliament, enacting that British-made watches -should be marked with the maker’s name, in order to -preserve the reputation of this branch of British -manufacture from coming to discredit in foreign -markets.</p> - -<p>Thus we have given a general outline of the history -of this branch of mechanics, for a period of nearly a -thousand years, from the first invention of clocks by -Pacificus of Verona, in 846, to the beginning of last -century, since which period they have become an -article of such general use to require no comment from -us. We have noticed the various improvements in -the order in which they occurred, among which the -most striking feature appears to be the addition of the -pendulums, as serving to regulate the motion of the -machine; from its given length, certain weight and -uniform vibration, it must be conceived to have been -a happy thought in Galileo, for the admeasurement of -time, and its application to this branch of mechanics -was no less fortunate in Huygens. To discover -the first invention of time, we will require to look -back for upwards of two thousand years, at which -period we will find</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_77"><a id="WATER-CLOCKS"></a>WATER-CLOCKS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">These</span> are called Clepsydræ. Vitruvius, the Roman -architect and mechanist, attributes the invention of the -water-clock to Ctesibus of Alexandria, who flourished -in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, about two hundred -and forty-five years before the Christian era. The -same author says, the machine was first introduced at -Rome, two hundred and fifty seven years previous -to the Christian era. There is reason to believe it -was first introduced at Rome into courts of justice, -from Greece, as it had been originally used in Greece -for this purpose; the Roman orators being guided in -the time they occupied the court, by this instrument, -as we may learn from this expression of Cicero,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">78</a></span> -“<i>Latrare ad clepsydram</i>.” Cicero also informs us, -that it was first introduced into courts of justice, in -the third consulate of Pompey.</p> - -<p>It has been discovered that the inventions of Egypt, -Chaldea, and other Oriental countries constantly -travelled to Rome and the West. Long since the -respective periods previously mentioned, has the -honour of this invention been claimed by Burgundians, -Bolognese, and other Italians; sometimes by Frenchmen, -but chiefly by Germans.</p> - -<p>Their claim for invention seems to be questionable -in numerous instances, whatever it may be for improvement; -they certainly cannot, consistently with -what we have stated, be considered as the <i>first</i> -inventors; although there is nothing to be alleged -against these respective people being the discoverers of -designs which had a previous existence unknown to -them.</p> - -<p>With equal or much more propriety might the -Arabians, in point of time (could that be of consequence) -be considered as inventors of this machine; -and they are well known to possess the least claim to -original invention of any people. They, however, -have a merit, notwithstanding: but it is of a negative -kind; for those arts, sciences, &c. which were (by -chance) saved from the destruction of their bigoted -ignorance, and which, when the fortune of war had -thrown into their hands those pure designs of intellectual -Greece, mere accident had wrested from their -zealous fury. These they transmitted to a more ingenious -people as pure as they had received them; but -upon precisely as good grounds as the before-named -Europeans claimed this <i>original</i> invention, might the -Arabians have assumed that honour. For we read -that Haroun al Raschid, Caliph of Bagdad, then the -chief of the Saracen empire, sent as a present to -Charlemagne, a clock of curious workmanship, which -was put into motion by a clepsydra; which instrument<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">79</a></span> -is said, by Dr. Adams, “to have been used by -the ancients to measure time by water running out of -a vessel.”</p> - -<p>It consists of a cylinder divided into small cells, and -suspended by a thread fixed to its axis in a frame, on -which the hour distances, found by trial, are marked -out. As the water flows from one cell into another, it -changes slowly the centre of gravity of the cylinder, -and puts it in motion.</p> - -<p>The form of this instrument is thus described by -Dr. <span class="locked">Beckmann:—</span></p> - -<p>“The most common kinds of these water-clocks, -however, correspond in this, that the water issued -drop by drop through a hole of the vessel, and fell -into another, in which a light body, that floated, -marked the height of the water as it rose, and by -these means the time that had elapsed.”</p> - -<p>The most improved form the same instrument has -acquired, is thus described, by the same author, from -one in his own possession.</p> - -<p>“Amongst the newest improvements added to this -machine may be reckoned an alarum, which consists -of a bell and small wheels, like that of a clock that -strikes the hours, screwed to the top of the frame in -which the cylinder is suspended. The axis of the -cylinder, at the hour when one is desirous of being -awakened, pushes down a small crank, which, by letting -fall a weight, puts the alarum in motion. A dial -plate with a handle is also placed over the frame.”</p> - -<p>In respect to the invention of clepsydræ, we should -think the original inventor took his first idea from the -use of an instrument common in Egypt, which that -people called a <i>Canob</i>, or Nilometer, being a large -stone vessel of the shape of a sarcophagus, into which -water was daily poured, by proper officers, during the -increase of the Nile, to show the people whether they -had a prospect of plenty, or were to expect a scarcity -in the ensuing year. As the fall of the water, after<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">80</a></span> -it had risen to a due height, was of equal importance -to them; so the water was suffered to run out proportionably -to its decrease in the river, being ascertained -by just and equal marks which they generally -well understood.</p> - -<p><i>Vitrum horae</i> had also been invented to describe -the progress of time. These were conical hour-glasses, -in which were placed a portion of sand; the glasses -were joined together at the apex of the cone, with a -small aperture of communication between the two.—From -the glass, in which the sand is deposited, it -dropped, grain by grain, into the sand below, standing -upon its flat basis. These machines are called hour-glasses, -and well known. We have been unable to -discover any account of the origin of this instrument; -but, from its simplicity, it admits of no improvement. -It is also believed this had its origin in a convent.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_80"><a id="SPINNING"></a>SPINNING.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> necessity for human clothing must be so obvious, -we should think, at nearly the first existence of our -race, that two opinions upon that subject cannot -exist. For, admitting the region where our first -parents were stationed was more genial to life than -these, our northern countries, yet the difference in -temperature between the heat of noon-day, and the -chilly damps of night, must be obvious to every one -who has resided in, or has read of, tropical climates. -Therefore, from necessity, we contend, our first parents -could not have dispensed with the benefit of clothing. -However, independent of the necessity of the thing, -the Jewish History informs us that the first man, -Adam, and his wife, in consequence of their unfortunate -disobedience and positive violation of the commands -of their Divine Creator, knew of their own<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">81</a></span> -nakedness; and, therefore, they were ashamed to -answer to the sacred summons. This they confessed, -with a simplicity congenial to truth, and in the same -moment, frankly owned the cause; answering to the -awful interrogatory of “Who told thee that thou wast -naked? Hast thou eaten of the tree whereof I commanded -thee that thou shouldest not eat?”—“The -woman, whom thou gavest to be with me, she gave -me of the tree, and I did eat.” However, we are -previously informed that, “the eyes of them both -were opened, and they knew that they were naked; -and they sewed fig-leaves together, and made themselves -aprons.”</p> - -<p>It should be observed, that the leaf of the Banyan, -or Indian fig, is probably here meant; if it is, the -luxurious leaf of this tree is about three feet long, and -proportionably wide; therefore, we may rationally -conclude, much art was not required; probably a -thorn might supply the place of a needle, and a blade -of grass would do for a thread.</p> - -<p>Afterwards, we are told, in the same chapter,—“Unto -Adam, also to his wife, did the Lord Jehovah -make coats of skins, and clothed them.” The preceding -is the earliest account of humanity; at the -same time, it also furnishes the most ancient relation -of the original of human clothing. From hieroglyphical -inscriptions still extant, the most ancient -inhabitants of Egypt wore sometimes clothing made of -feathers, fastened together; sometimes of shells, also -attached to each other; but the most general ancient -clothing consisted of the skins of various animals. So -is Hercules, and many of the heroes, clothed, in -antique statuary. Although the sacred history is -silent on this head, we may, perhaps, by inference, -arrive at some clue or thread to guide us through the -labyrinth of uncertainty.</p> - -<p>Accordingly we find in the first passages, which -will admit of constructive inference, that thread, of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">82</a></span> -some sort, must, of necessity, have had existence:—“And -Ada bare Jubal: he was the father of such as -dwell in <i>tents</i>, and of such as have cattle.”—Gen. -iv., 20. Now, we submit, the inference of not -only spinning, but also of weaving, and even sewing, -must be conceded, before we can conceive the existence -of tents. The cloth whereof they were made at that -period, it is probable, was of the fleece of sheep; -because of the early existence of woollen cloth among -the Greeks, we have no doubt, from the following and -numerous other passages in their poets; and also -from the practice of Tyrian artisans, who were, we -know, generally and confessedly eminent for their -dying the imperial purple, and other scarce, valuable, -and beautiful colours; and no substance better receives, -or so well retains the most splendid of colours than -does wool. But Homer speaks expressively in point, -where, in his “Iliad,” he expresses the truce which took -place between the belligerent armies of Greeks and -Trojans. After the defeat of Paris by Menelaus, and -where the laughter-loving goddess, Venus, is said to -have rescued her favourite from the fate he deserved -to find; after she had conveyed the recreant hero from -the field to his apartment, she then, like a true friend -to matrimonial infidelity, goes in search of the Spartan -queen, for the purpose of bringing the lovers together. -She discovered the beautiful adultress on the walls of -the city, where she had been describing to Priam, and -his ancient nobles, the Trojan councillors, the various -persons of the heroes of Greece. Upon this occasion, -Venus, to use the language of the poet (as translated -by Pope), assumes a disguise.</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“To her, beset by Trojan beauties, came,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">In borrowed form, the laughter-loving dame;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">She seemed an ancient maid, well skill’d to cull<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The snowy fleece, and wind the twisted wool.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The labours of Penelope, Helena herself, and innumerable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">83</a></span> -passages in the works of the poet, all tend to -confirm the fact.</p> - -<p>That <i>linen</i> had also an early existence is proved at -a very anterior period of the Jewish history. They -had even fine linen previous to the construction of the -utensils used in sacred worship; as, in Exodus, an -ephod of linen is expressly mentioned; likewise in the -xxvth chapter, 4th verse of that book, fine linen is -expressly enumerated among those presents that the -people were expected to offer freely to the Lord Jehovah. -Whence we are justified in inferring they -had most probably learned in Egypt to carry its structure -to great perfection.</p> - -<p>We have linen mentioned likewise, in Homer, upon -the breach of the truce between the Grecians and -Trojans with their auxiliary forces. On Menelaus -having been wounded by an arrow from the bow of -Pandarus, where the poet sweetly <span class="locked">sings—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“But thee, Atrides, in that dangerous hour,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The gods forgot not, nor thy guardian power,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Pallas assists, (and weakened in its force),<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Diverts the weapons from its destined course;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">So, from her babe, when slumber seals his eye,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The watchful mother wafts the envenom’d fly.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Just where his belt, with golden buckles join’d,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Where <span class="smcap smaller">LINEN</span> folds the double corslet lin’d.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">She turn’d the shaft, which, hissing from above,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Passed the broad belt, and through the corslet drove;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The folds it pierc’d, the plaited <span class="smcap smaller">LINEN</span> tore<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And raz’d the skin, and drew the purple gore.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>From what appears in the subsequent, as well as -the former, part of this article, we submit, that the -general manufacture of cloth, both woollen and linen, -has been established; and if this is made out, the -prior existence of the other subsidiary arts of spinning, -weaving, &c. cannot be denied.</p> - -<p>There are hieroglyphical symbols in the British -Museum, which denote the various operations of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">84</a></span> -manufacture of cloths; and upon a monument upwards -of three thousand six hundred years old.</p> - -<p>Numerous arts have been discovered by mere accident. -We are told, the very valuable operation of <i>feldt</i>making -was discovered by a British sovereign, whose -feet being always cold in the winter, he had wool put -into his shoes; the moisture there contracted, the natural -heat of the body, with the action to which this -wool was exposed, between the foot and the shoe, -caused the fleecy substance to consolidate; whence -the origin of that very necessary article, the <i>Hat</i>.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_84"><a id="STOCKING_MANUFACTURE"></a>STOCKING MANUFACTURE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> invention to which this article refers, affords a -warm subject for panegyric. That clothing for the -feet be warm, medical writers have in all ages recommended, -and truly upon the most rational as well as -philosophic and experimental practice; the feet, lying -the most remote of any member from the heart, require, -and particularly by people in years, to be kept warm, -in order for their present comfort, as well as to promote -the essential evacuation of superfluous humours, -by perspiration, without which no frame can be -healthy. So strongly is this precept impressed in our -national moral habits, that it has formed a general -maxim for the preservation of health. Even Thomas -Parr is said to have observed, upon being asked to -what cause he attributed the protraction of his life, -“To keep the head cool by temperance, and the feet -warm by exercise, to eat only when hunger required -satisfaction, and to drink only when thirsty.” We -should suppose that this recipe would be at least -worth a waggon load of the puffed quack pills which -are palmed upon the public as made from a recipe -left by that venerable man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">85</a></span> -The art of knitting nets is one of great antiquity, -as those nets used by the Hebrews, as well as by the -Greeks, are conceived to be similar to those used in -the present day. It was thought by Ovid, in his -sixth “Metamorphosis,” that the public were indebted -to the spider for the origin of this ingenious invention; -which would indeed seem probable, as it appears -that the insect is prompted to be thus ingenious for -the gratification of its natural wants, the web serving -as a net or gin for the capture of flies and other small -insects which supply it with food. And if our memory -serve us, we recollect that the poet also, speaking -of flies, observes that the web of the spider serves -to secure the weak flies only, whilst the strong break -it and escape; alluding to the influence of wealth and -power to pierce through those laws which were made -for the protection of the weak against the encroachments -and violence offered by the strong. The author -of Job, in the eighteenth chapter and ninth verse, -mentions gins. However, in knitting stockings, the -operation, as well as the effect, is essentially different -from knitting nets. In the latter the twine is knotted -into distinct meshes, which are secured by knots; in -the former, the entire substance is produced without -knots. To this distinction is to be ascribed the reason -why knit stockings may become unravelled. In the -other species the knots not only prevent the material -being taken apart, but they also render the nets sufficiently -strong to prevent even vigorous fish from -escaping, yet being so capacious as to permit little -fish to escape with the water.</p> - -<p>The art of knitting is not now, by any means, so -general as it was formerly. It then unquestionably -rated among the number of female accomplishments; -and it is certainly rather wonderful, because when the -mechanism is once obtained, it requires no exertion of -intellect to practise it; it may be carried on while -sitting, walking, and talking, or in almost every situation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">86</a></span> -to which ordinary life is called; and when it is -considered that its produce adds to the comfort of -the indigent, to the advantage of the poor,—and that -to persons in easy circumstances habitual industry -increases their happiness, these things considered, it -is with wonder and regret we see it fallen into disuse; -particularly as it is an occupation suited to every age -and capacity, which the infant is strong enough to -practise; and even in the infirmity and weakness of -age it is practicable. We certainly do hope and trust -these observations may invite the attention of those -meritorious individuals who have the direction and -management of our scholastic establishments, to revive -the practice.</p> - -<p>Fishing nets are also in use among the most barbarous -nations of this period, as various navigators -have satisfactorily proved; frequently made of rude -materials, it is true—some of the bark of trees, and -others of the beards of whales, besides a variety of -other articles which the more refined inhabitants of -civilised countries would never think of using for such -a purpose.</p> - -<p>The art of making nets, or ornaments of fine yarn, -is said not to be a modern invention, it having been -practised for hangings, and articles of dress and ornament. -In the middle ages, it appears, the clergy -wore netting of silk over their clerical robes. Professor -Beckmann also says, he suspects those transparent -dresses were used by ladies more than four -hundred years ago, to cover those beauties they still -wish to be visible.</p> - -<p>The invention for making coverings for the legs, of -this manufacture, is, we understand, of much later -invention. It is well known that the Romans and -the ancient nations had no particular covering for their -legs. Indeed the necessity was not so urgent with -the inhabitants of warm climates, as with those in our -northern regions, who, we find, generally covered not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">87</a></span> -only the feet, but the legs, thighs, and loins, with -the same garment. Such, there is reason to conclude, -were the trews, or trowsers, anciently worn by the -Scotch, but not knit hose, which the following lines, -from an old song, will help to prove:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“In days whan gude King Robert rang,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">His trews they cost but half a croun:<br /></span> -<span class="i0">He said they were a groat o’er dear,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And ca’d the tailor thief and loun.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>A celebrated author on antiquities says, “It is -probable the art of knitting stockings was first found -out in the sixteenth century; but the time of the invention -is doubtful.” He continues, “Savary appears -to have been the first person who hazarded a conjecture -that this art is a Scottish invention, because -when the French stocking-knitters became so numerous -as to form a guild, they made choice of St. -Fiacre, a native of Scotland, to be their patron; and -besides this, there is a tradition, that the first knit -stockings were brought to France from that country.” -This St. Fiacre, it appears, was the son of Eugenius, -said to have been a Scottish king in the seventh century; -and Fiacre lived as a hermit at Meaux, in -France; in the Roman calendar, his name is opposite -to the 30th of August.</p> - -<p>More probable, however, is the opinion in this -country which respectable writers support among -them. We are informed by the author of the “History -of the World,” that Henry VIII., who reigned from -1509 to 1547, and who was fond of show and magnificence, -at first wore woollen stockings; till by a -singular occurrence he received a pair of silk knit -stockings from Spain. His son Edward VI., who -succeeded him on the throne, obtained by means of -his merchant, Thomas Gresham, a pair of long Spanish -knit silk stockings; this present was at that time -highly prized. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">88</a></span> -her reign, <span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1561, received by her silk-woman, -named Montague, a pair of knit silk stockings, and -afterwards refused to wear any other kind.</p> - -<p>Stowe also relates, in his “General Chronicle of England,” -that the Earl of Pembroke was the first nobleman -who wore worsted knit stockings. In the year -1564, William Ridor, an apprentice of master Thomas -Burdet, having accidentally seen, in the shop of an -Italian merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings, -procured from Mantua, having borrowed them, made -a pair exactly like them; these were the first stockings -that were knit in England, from woollen yarn. From -this it would appear, that knit stockings were first -introduced into England in the reign of Henry VIII., -and that they were brought from Spain to this country; -and probability appears to favour the belief that they -were originally the produce of either that country or -Italy. Should this be the case, it has been conceived -by Professor Beckmann, that they came originally -from Arabia to Spain.</p> - -<p>The investigation with respect to the feigned productions -of Rowley, published by the unfortunate -Thomas Chatterton, arose from the mention of knitting, -in a passage of those poems; it being contended that -knit hose were unknown in the days of Rowley. The -passage alluded to occurs in the tragedy of “Ella:”—</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“She sayde, as herr whytte hands whytte hosen were knyttinge,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Whatte pleasure ytt ys to be married!”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>A like ordeal took place with respect to Macpherson’s -Ossian from a similar reason, the mention of the -sun’s reflection setting on a glass window: now the -existence of Ossian being contemporary with that of -Julius Cæsar, it was contended that at that period it -was not customary to glaze windows.</p> - -<p>The Johnsonian faction set about that business in a -very unsystematic manner: they should have procured<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">89</a></span> -some well qualified Erse scholar to have gone into -those wilds where Macpherson declared he collected -his materials from oral traditionary recitals, and have -heard the poems themselves from the mouths of the -aged inhabitants. If the traces of them could not -have been found, they might then have ascribed the -superior honour to Macpherson of writing a work that -Greece, or Rome, in the splendour of literary glory, -never surpassed, for many poetical beauties.</p> - -<p>The people of Scotland, in the beginning of the sixteenth -century, had, in the proper sense of the word, -breeches; and wore a kind of stockings, their hose -coming only to the knees; their stockings were made -of linen or woollen, and breeches of hemp.</p> - -<p>It is supposed that these particular articles of dress -were also common in England, at and after that time, -for in the year 1510, Henry VIII. appeared upon a -public occasion, with his attendants, in dresses of the -following description:—“The king and some of the -gentlemen had the upper parts of their hosen, which -was of blue and crimson, powdered with castels and -sheafes of arrows of fine ducket gold, and the nether -parts of scarlet, powdered with timbrels,” &c. There -may be occasion to suppose the upper parts of the -hose were in separate pieces, as they were of different -colours. Hollinshed, also speaking of another festival -says, “The garments of six of them were of strange -cuts, every cut <i>knit</i> with points of gold, and tassels of -the same, their hosen cut in and tied likewise.”</p> - -<p>In <span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1530, the word <i>knit</i> appears to have been -quite common in England, for John Palsgrave, a French -master to the Princess Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., -published a grammar, in which he stated, that this -word in French was applied to the making of nets as -well as of caps and of stockings.</p> - -<p>In the household book of a noble family in the reign -of Henry VIII., kept during the life of Sir Thomas -L’Estrange, Knight of Hunstanton, Norfolk, by his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">90</a></span> -Lady, Ann, daughter of Lord Vaux, there are the -following entries, whence the price of those articles at -that period are <span class="locked">ascertained:—</span></p> - -<p>1533. 25 H. 8. 7 Sept. Peyd for 4 peyr of knytt -hose—viii <i>s.</i></p> - -<p>1538. 30 H. 8. 3 Oct. —— 2 peyr of knytt -hose—i <i>s.</i></p> - -<p>It is observed that the first four pairs were for Sir -Thomas, and the latter for his children.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, in the reign of Mary, i.e. 1558, many -wore cloth hose, as is evidenced in the following -anecdote of Dr. Sands, who was afterwards Archbishop -of York. Being in the Tower, he had permission for -a tailor to come and take an order for a pair of hose. -This serves to prove the veracity of Stowe, that -stockings were not an article manufactured in England -generally, we suppose, till six years afterwards. -“Dr. Sands, on his going to bed in Hurleston’s house, -he had a paire of hose newlie made, that were too -long for him. For while he was in the Tower, a -tailor was admitted to make him a pair of hose. One -came into him whose name was Beniamin, dwelling in -Birchin lane; he might not speak to him or come to -him to take measure of him, but onelie to look upon -his leg; he made the hose, and they were two inches -too long. These hose he praied the good wife of the -house to send to some tailor to cut his hose two inches -shorter. The wife required the boy of the house to -carrie them to the next tailor, which was Beniamin -that made them. The boy required him to cut the -hose. He said, ‘j am not the maister’s tailor.’ Saith -the boy, ‘Because ye are our next neighbour, and my -maister’s tailor dwelleth far off, j come to you.’ -Beniamin took the hose and looked upon them, he -took his handle work in hand, and said, ‘These are not -thy maister’s hose, but Doctor Sands, them j made in -the Tower.’”</p> - -<p>In a catalogue of the revenues of the Bishop of St.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">91</a></span> -Asaph, it is stated, “The bishop of that diocese was -entitled, as a perquisite, upon the death of any beneficed -clergyman, to his best coat, jerkin, doublet, and -breeches. Item, his hose or nether stockings, shoes, -and garters.”</p> - -<p>About 1557, knitting must have become common, -for Harrison, in his description of the indigenous produce -of this island, says, the bark of the alder tree -was used by the peasants’ wives for dying stockings -which they had knitted.</p> - -<p>Hollinshed also informs us, that about 1579, when -Queen Elizabeth was at Norwich, “upon the stage -there stood at one end eight small women children -spinning worsted yarn, and at the other end as many -knitting worsted yarn into hose.”</p> - -<p>Silk stockings are said, in consequence of their high -price, for a long time to have been worn only upon -grand occasions. Henry II. of France, wore them for -the first time, on the marriage of his sister with the -Duke of Savoy in the year 1559.</p> - -<p>In the reign of Henry III. who ascended the throne -in 1575, the consort of Geoffroy Camus de Pontcarre, -who held a high office in the state, would not wear -silk stockings given to her by a nurse who lived at -court, because she considered them to be too gay. -Anno 1569, when the privy-councillor Barthold von -Mandelsoh, who had been envoy to many diets and -courts, appeared on a week-day with silk stockings, -which he had brought from Italy, the Margrave John -of Austria said to him, “Barthold, I have silk stockings -also; but I wear them only on Sundays and -holidays.”</p> - -<p>The knitting stockings with wires, called <i>weaving</i>, -has been thought to bear a resemblance to the wire -work in screens of churches. However, the invention -of the stocking loom is thought more worthy of attention, -because it is alleged to have been the production -of a single person, and perfected at one trial; his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">92</a></span> -name, and the exact period is ascertained; and, because -it is founded upon a similar incident to that of -the beauteous Corinthian maid, elsewhere mentioned, -as the introducer of painting in Greece; we bestow -a particular attention upon this incident which produced -the stocking loom, trusting our fair readers will -favour us with their attention, when they are informed -it is ascribed to Love.</p> - -<p>It is a complicated piece of machinery, consisting of -no fewer than two thousand pieces; it could not have -been discovered accidentally, but must have been the -result of deep combination and profound sagacity.</p> - -<p>Under the usurpation of Cromwell, the stocking-knitters -of London presented a petition, requesting -permission to establish a guild. In this petition they -gave a circumstantial account of their profession, of its -rise, progress, and importance. No doubt can exist -but that in this document the petitioners rendered the -best, and probably a true account of the origin and -progress of their trade, that of stocking weaving being -then scarcely fifty years old. The circumstances they -stated being then within memory, any misrepresentation -would have militated against them, and could -have been easily contradicted. In Deering’s account -of Nottingham, this petition is found. In that town -the loom was first employed, where it has given -wealth to many.</p> - -<p>From this account it appears the inventor’s name -was William Lee, a native of Woodborough, a village -about seven miles distant from Nottingham, in which -the following passage occurs: “Which trade is properly -styled frame work-knitting, because it is direct -and absolute knit-work in the stitches thereof, nothing -different therein from the common way of knitting, -(not much more anciently for public use practised in -this nation than this,) but only in the number of -needles, at an instant working in this, more than in -the other by a hundred for one, set in an engine or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">93</a></span> -frame composed of above two thousand pieces of smith’s, -joiner’s and turner’s work, after so artificial and exact -a manner that, by the judgment of all beholders, it far -excels in the ingenuity, curiosity, and subtility of the -invention and contexture, all other frames or instruments -of manufacture in use in any known part of the -world.”</p> - -<p>The inventor of this ingenious machine was heir to -a considerable freehold estate, and a graduate of St. -John’s College, Cambridge. Being, it is said, deeply -enamoured of a lovely young country-girl, who, during -his frequent visits, paid more attention to her work, -which was knitting, than to her lover or his proposals, -he endeavoured to find out a machine which might -facilitate and forward the operation of knitting, and -by these means afford more leisure to the object of his -affections to converse with him. Love, indeed, is -confessed to be fertile in inventions, and has been the -efficient passion which has perfected many inventions -for which the gratitude of the world is due; but a -machine so complex, so wonderful in its effects, would -seem to require a longer time than was probably -allowed, and a cooler judgment than a lover’s to construct -such mechanism. But even should the cause -appear problematical, there cannot exist a doubt but -the real inventor was Mr. William Lee, of Woodborough, -in Nottinghamshire.</p> - -<p>Deering says expressly, that Lee made the first -stocking-loom in the year 1589; this account has -also been adopted by various English writers. In -the Stocking-weaver’s Hall, London, is an old painting, -in which Lee is represented pointing out his -loom to a female knitter, who is standing near him; -and below is seen an inscription with the date 1589, -the period of the invention. “The ingenious William -Lee, Master of Arts of St. John’s College, Cambridge, -devised this profitable art for stockings, (but -being despised, went to France,) yet of iron to himself,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">94</a></span> -but to us and others of gold; in memory of whom this -is here painted.”</p> - -<p>Lee set up an establishment at Calverton, a village -five miles from Nottingham, but met with no success. -In this situation he showed his work to Queen Elizabeth; -from that princess he requested some assistance, -his work having embarrassed rather than assisted -him; but instead of meeting with that remuneration -to which his genius and invention so well entitled -him, he was discouraged and discountenanced. It -need not, therefore, excite surprise that Lee accepted -the invitation of Henry IV. of France, who having -heard of the invention, promised him a magnificent -reward if he would carry it to France. He took nine -journeymen, and several looms to Rouen, where he -worked with much approbation; but the king being -shortly after assassinated, and internal commotions -taking place, the concern got into difficulties, and Lee -died in poverty at Paris. A knowledge of the machine -was brought back to England by some of the workmen -who had emigrated with Lee, and who established -themselves in Nottinghamshire, which still continues -the principal seat of the manufacture.</p> - -<p>During the first century after the invention of the -stocking-loom, few improvements were made upon it, -and two men were usually employed to work one -frame. But in the course of last century the machine -was very greatly improved. The late ingenious Mr. -Jedediah Strut, of Belper, Derbyshire, was the first -individual who succeeded in adapting it to the manufacture -of <i>ribbed</i> stockings. Estimating the population -of Great Britain, say sixteen millions, and the average -annual expenditure of each individual upon stockings -and knit gloves at five shillings, the total value of the -manufacture will be £4,000,000, and we consider this -rather to be under than over the mark.</p> - -<p>The effect of this invention was very late in making -its appearance in Scotland. Till far on in the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">95</a></span> -century, the use of knitted stockings was universal. -Mittens, or woollen gloves for the hands, and -boot-hose, for drawing over the legs in riding, were -also quite common, and all were wrought by the -hand. The manufacture was carried on solely by -women, the wives and daughters of farmers, generally, -and the produce was sold as the means of bringing in -a small revenue. The introduction of the stocking-loom -to Hawick, in 1771, and the change of manners -which took place about this period, soon put an end to -this traffic; but still the greater part of the stockings -worn by the country people on ordinary occasions -are knitted at home. The art is also still in use in -Shetland, where knitting forms the only amusement -to relieve the tedium of a long winter, and where the -articles produced are exceedingly fine in the texture: -the Shetland hose bring the highest price of any -woollen stocking.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_95"><a id="COACHES"></a>COACHES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Coach</span> is said to be derived from <i>caroche</i>, Italian; a -term first used in the eleventh century, and invented -to designate a military machine, so called.</p> - -<p>We intend the word coaches to stand for the generic -name of all those machines used for the carriage of -persons, on business or pleasure, (except, indeed, those -for the conveyance of the dead,) from the state carriage -of the sovereign down to the humble gig. The -original inventor of this species of carriage is said to -have been an Athenian monarch, 1489 years before -Christ, who being afflicted with lameness in his feet, -first invented a coach for his convenience, and with a -view to conceal his debility. This may be regarded -as the first original, of the kind, of Grecian invention.</p> - -<p>The ancient historian, Diodorus Siculus, makes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">96</a></span> -mention of a carriage in which Sesostris was wont to -be drawn; and also, he says when he entered the city, -or went out to the sacrifice, had four of his captive -kings yoked to his chariot; but it is conjectured this -carriage, to which that historian alludes, was a -warrior’s car. There is, most assuredly, ample room -to believe that this was the first species of carriage -which was introduced; if so, those existed long -before the Athenian king above-named; because all -the Homeric heroes, Greeks as well as Trojans, and -their auxiliaries, rode in these machines, called -chariots, or warriors’ cars, which are also known to -have existed long antecedent to that period. We -remain assured that war chariots were used in the -first ages of the world, by all the great monarchs who -possessed dominion.</p> - -<p>That species of carriage before said to have been -invented by the Athenian monarch, we therefore -presume, was a covered carriage, similar to that -species designated in the twelve tables of the -Roman law, and by them called <i>arcera</i>, which was -said to be a carriage of the last presumed description, -and mentioned as being intended for the conveyance of -the infirm. To this species of carriage succeeded the -soft <i>lectica</i>. But we will leave this part of our -subject, and proceed towards our own times.</p> - -<p>After the subversion of the Roman power, the -northern sovereigns, who had become the barbarous -and ignorant oppressors of our species, introduced and -established, among other political regulations, the -feudal system, as it was called, by which all property -in land was held by certain fiefs, whereby the king, -or, as termed, lord of the soil, let certain portions of -the land to his nobles, military officers, and other -great persons, generally often on condition of certain -services required to be performed, called knights’ service, -and other military tenures; by which custom -those tenants of the sovereign had to provide certain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">97</a></span> -men and horses to serve him in his wars.—These first -tenants, or vassals, afterwards underlet those lands to -villains, so named, in contradistinction to the present -recognised term, from their living in villages or hamlets, -and other tenants, from whom, in their turn, similar -services and certain provisions were required.—Thus -the European world, which had become the prey of -effeminacy and luxury, had, by this single important -circumstance, their character so radically changed, -that, like the mysterious power of the Cadmæan wand -of Harlequin, wrought so uncommon a change in the -morals of European society, that those who had formerly -kept carriages, and wallowed in all the soft -luxurious delicacy of Asiatic effeminacy, suddenly, or, -at least, progressively, became a society of hardy -equestrian veterans. Insomuch, that masters and servants, -husbands and wives, clergy and laity, all rode -upon horses, mules, or asses, which latter animals -were chiefly used by women, monks, and other religious -professors. The minister rode to court; the -horse, without a conductor, returned to the stable, till -a servant, regulated by the horologe, took him back -to the court for his master. In this manner, we are -assured, the magistrates of the imperial cities rode to -council, till as late as the beginning of the sixteenth -century; so that in the year 1502, steps to assist in -mounting were erected by the Roman gate at Frankfort. -The members of the council who, at the diet -and other occasions, were employed as ambassadors, -were, on this account, called <i>rittmeister</i> in the language -of the country; at present the expression riding-servant -is preserved in some of the imperial cities. The -entry of great lords in public into any place, or their -departure from it, was never in a carriage, but -always on horseback; in all the pontifical records, -speaking of ceremonials, no mention is made either of -a state coach, or body coachman, but of state horses -and state mules. In the following regulation, it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">98</a></span> -found that the horse which his Holiness rode “was -necessary to be of an iron-grey colour; not mettlesome, -but a quiet, tractable nag. That a stool of -three steps should be provided for the assistance of -his Holiness in mounting: that the emperor, or kings, -if present, were obliged to hold his stirrup, and lead -the horse.”</p> - -<p>Bishops made their public entry, on induction, on -horses or asses richly caparisoned. At the coronation -of the emperor, the electors and principal officers of -the empire were ordered to make their entry on horseback.—It -was formerly requisite, that those who -received a fief, or other investiture, should make their -appearance on horseback. The vassal was obliged to -ride with two attendants to the court of his lord, -where, after he had dismounted his horse, he received -his fief.</p> - -<p>Covered carriages were again introduced in the -beginning of the sixteenth century, for the accommodation -of women of the very first rank; the men, -however, thought it disgraceful to ride in them. At -that period, when the electors, and other Germanic -princes, did not choose to be present at the meeting -of the States, they excused themselves to the emperor, -that their health would not permit them to ride on -horseback, which was considered as an <i>established -point</i>, that it was unbecoming to them to ride like -women. What, according to their prevailing ideas, -was not permitted to princes, was much less allowed -to their servants. In <span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1554, when Count Wolf, -of Barby, was summoned by John Frederic, Elector -of Saxony, to go to Spires, to attend the convention -of the States assembled there, he <i>requested leave</i>, on -account of ill health, to make use of a close carriage -with four horses. When the counts and nobility -were invited to attend the solemnity of the elector’s -half brother, John Ernest, the invitation was accompanied -with a memorandum, that such dresses of ceremony<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">99</a></span> -as they might be desirous of taking with them, -should be transported in a small waggon;—which -notice would have been unnecessary, had coaches been -generally used among those nobles. The use of covered -carriages was in fact, for a long time, prohibited even -to women, the consorts of princes. About the year -1545, the wife of a certain duke obtained from him, -with great difficulty, permission to use a covered carriage -in a journey to the baths, in which permission -there was this express stipulation, that none of her -attendants were to be permitted this indulgence: -though much pomp was displayed upon the occasion -by the duchess. Such is the influence of example in -our superiors, who can mould dependents and inferiors -to whatever shape they please.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding all these ceremonious regulations, -about the end of the fifteenth century, kings and -princes began to employ covered carriages in journeys, -and afterwards on public solemnities. When -Richard II., towards the close of the fourteenth century, -was compelled to fly from his rebellious subjects, -himself with all his followers, were on horseback; -but his mother, who was weak and sick, rode in a -carriage. But this became afterwards unfashionable -here, for that monarch’s queen, Anna, daughter of the -King of Bohemia, showed the English ladies how -gracefully she could ride on a side-saddle; and therefore -whirlicotes (the ancient name for coaches in -England), and chariots, were disused in England, -except on coronations and other public solemnities.</p> - -<p>In the year 1471, after the battle of Tewkesbury, -which decided the fate of Henry VI., and that of the -house of Lancaster, when others flew in different -directions, the queen was found in her coach, almost -dead with sorrow.</p> - -<p>In 1474, the Emperor Frederic III. came to Frankfort -in a close carriage; and as he remained in it on -account of the wetness of the weather, the inhabitants<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">100</a></span> -had no occasion to support the canopy which was to -have been held over him, while he went to the council -house and returned. In the following year, the same -emperor visited that city in a very magnificent carriage. -In 1487, on occasion of the celebration of the -feast of St. George at Windsor, the third year of -Henry VII., the queen and king went in a rich -chaise; they were attended by twenty-one ladies. In -the description of the splendid tournament held by the -Elector of Brandenburg, at Ruppin, in 1509, Beckmann -says, he reads of a carriage all gilt, which -belonged to the Electress; of twelve other coaches, -ornamented with crimson; and of another, belonging -to the Duchess of Mecklenburgh, which was hung -with red satin.</p> - -<p>In the Northumberland household book, about this -period, is an order of the duke for the chapel stuff to -be sent before in my lord’s chariot.</p> - -<p>At the coronation of the Emperor Maximilian, -1562, the Elector of Cologne had twelve carriages. -In 1594, when John Sigismund did homage at Warsaw, -for Prussia, he had in his train thirty-six -coaches, with six horses each. Count Kevenhiller, -speaking of the marriage of Ferdinand II. with a -princess of Bavaria, says, “The bride rode with her -sisters in a splendid carriage studded with gold; her -maids of honour in carriages hung with black satin, -and the rest of the ladies in neat leather carriages.”</p> - -<p>Mary, Infanta of Spain, spouse of Ferdinand III., -rode, in 1631, in a glass carriage, in which no more -than two persons could sit. The wedding carriage of -the first wife of the Emperor Leopold, who was a -Spanish princess, cost, with the harness, 38,000 -florins. The coaches used by that emperor are thus -described:—“In the imperial coaches no great magnificence -was to be seen; they were covered over with -red cloth and black nails. The harness was black, -and in the whole work there was no gold. The panels<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">101</a></span> -were of glass, and on that account they were called -the imperial glass coaches. On festivals the harness -was ornamented with red silk fringes. The imperial -coaches were distinguished only by their having leather -traces; but the ladies in the imperial suite were -obliged to be content to be conveyed in carriages, the -traces of which were made of ropes.” At the magnificent -court of Ernest Augustus, at Hanover, there -were in 1681, fifty gilt coaches, with six horses each. -So early did Hanover begin to surpass other cities in -the number and splendour of its carriages.</p> - -<p>The first time that coaches were introduced into -Sweden was towards the end of the sixteenth century, -when John of Finland, among other articles of -luxury, brought one with him on his return from -England.</p> - -<p>Beckmann also informs us, that the great lords of -Germany first imagined that they could suppress the -use of coaches by prohibitions. There is still preserved -an edict, in which the feudal nobility and -vassals are forbidden the use of coaches, under pain of -incurring the punishment of felony.</p> - -<p>Philip II., Duke of Pomeranian-Stettin, reminded -his vassals also, in 1608, that they ought not to make -so much use of carriages as of horses. All these -orders and admonitions, however, were of no avail, -and coaches became common all over Germany.</p> - -<p>Persons of the first rank (ladies we presume), in -France, frequently sat behind their equerry, and the -horse was often led by servants. When Charles VI., -wished to see, <i>incognito</i>, the entry of the queen, he -placed himself behind his master of the horse, with -whom, however, he was incommoded in the crowd. -Private persons in France, physicians, for instance, -used no carriages in the fifteenth century. In Paris, -at all the palaces and public places, there were steps -for mounting on horseback.</p> - -<p>Carriages, notwithstanding, appear to have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">102</a></span> -used very early in France, as appears by an ordinance -issued in 1294, for suppressing luxury, and in which -the citizens were prohibited from using carriages. -About 1550, there were at Paris, for the first time, -only three coaches; one of which belonged to the -queen; another to Diana of Poictiers, the favourite -mistress of two kings, Francis I. and Henry II.; and -the third to René de Laval, a corpulent nobleman, -unable to ride on horseback. Henry IV. was assassinated -in a coach; but he usually rode through the -streets of Paris on horseback. For himself and his -queen he had only one coach, as appears by a letter -which he writes to a friend, which is still preserved: -“I cannot <i>wait</i> upon you to-day, because my wife is -using my carriage.”</p> - -<p>Roubo, in his costly treatise on joiners’ work, has -furnished three figures of carriages used in the time -of Henry IV., from drawings preserved in the King’s -Library: from them it is seen those coaches were not -suspended by straps, that they had a canopy supported -by ornamental pillars, and that the whole body -was surrounded by curtains of stuff or leather, which -could be drawn up. The coach in which Louis IV. -made his public entrance about the middle of the -seventeenth century, appears from a drawing in the -same library to have been a suspended carriage.</p> - -<p>Our national chronicler, John Stowe, says coaches -were first known in England about 1580; he likewise -says, they were first brought from Germany by the -Earl of Arundel, in 1589. Anderson places the period -when coaches began to be used in common here -about 1605. It is remarked of the Duke of Buckingham, -that he was the first who was drawn by six -horses, in 1619. To ridicule this pomp, the Earl of -Northumberland put eight horses to his carriage.</p> - -<p>Things are altered now when we have carriages of -every description—for the high and low, the rich and -the poor. Vis-a-vis,—an open carriage chiefly constructed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">103</a></span> -for the benefit of conversation, as its name -implies. Landau, landaulets, phætons, chaises, whiskeys, -cabs, fiacres, &c., &c., are but names adapted to -different purposes, and constructed nearly upon the -same principles as coaches, but some of them close, -others open, some to be opened or shut according to -the weather, or taste of the passengers, and calculated -to contain an indefinite number, from two to six -persons; nay, there are the jolly good omnibuses running -in every town and village in the kingdom, the -generality of which are constructed to carry twelve -inside and eight outside passengers.</p> - -<p>The number of hackney coaches which ply in the -streets of London have been augmented from time to -time, since their first establishment in 1625, when -there were only twenty. Coaches, cabs, omnibuses, -&c., now plying, amount to nearly three thousand.</p> - -<p>To prevent imposition, the proprietors of these carriages -are compelled to have their names painted on -some conspicuous place of the carriage, and their -number affixed in the inside, as well as the out. This -regulation has become absolutely necessary of late -years, on account of the numerous frauds practised -by the coachmen.</p> - -<p>We read that in Russia there are employed clumsy, -but very convenient sorts of carriages, so constructed -as to be either closed or open, and to hold a bed or -couch, called <i>brichka</i>, with which persons can travel -even for two or three thousand miles without much -inconvenience, except it be over the rough stones of -their towns, owing to the superior accommodations of -either lying down or sitting; this change of position -renders a journey less irksome, without which it -would prove intolerable. In Russia, from Riga to the -Crimea, at least, post horses are furnished by the -government, and entrusted to subalterns in the Russian -army to provide them.</p> - -<p>Coaches for hire were first established by public<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">104</a></span> -authority in France, as early as 1671. There are -employed in the streets of the capital no fewer than -three thousand hackney coaches. As early as the -year 1650 Charles Villerme paid into the royal treasury -fifteen thousand livres, for the exclusive privilege -of keeping and using fiacres in Paris.</p> - -<p>Post chaises were introduced in the year 1664.</p> - -<p>Hackney coaches were established in Edinburgh in -1673, when the number was only twenty. Public -fiacres were introduced at Warsaw in 1778. In Amsterdam -the coaches have no wheels; nor have they -any at Petersburg in the winter—they are used as -sledges.</p> - -<p>The state-coach of the city of London is a species -of heir-loom, or the hereditary property of the city; -it is a very large and apparently extremely heavy -machine, but superbly decorated with large panels of -crystal glass, richly gilt, and elegantly painted with -several appropriate designs. In one of the centre -panels, among a group of figures, is one supporting a -shield bearing the inscription “<i>Henry Fitzalwin</i>, -1189,” in the old English, character; therefore we -conjecture that the coach was constructed at a period -coeval with the above date.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_104"><a id="SADDLES_BRIDLES_AND_STIRRUPS"></a>SADDLES, BRIDLES, AND STIRRUPS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">In</span> the earliest ages it was customary to ride without -either bridles or saddles, if the poet be worthy of credit; -for we observe Lucan, speaking of the Massillians, -says:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Without a saddle the Massilians ride,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And with a bending switch their horses guide.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">They regulated the motion of the horses by a switch -and their voice. It has been observed, that the case<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">105</a></span> -was the same with the Numidians, Getulians, Libyans, -as well as most of the Grecian people. As the reason -of the thing appears to point out the superior expediency -of a bridle, they afterwards came into fashion -among the Greeks, which they called <i>lupi</i>; because -it is said the bit of the bridle bore a resemblance to -the teeth of the wolf, whence Lucan says of <span class="locked">it:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Nor with the sharper bits<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Manage th’ unruly horse.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>In the east it would appear that bridles, at least, -were used at an early period. For we have a great -number of texts in the Scripture, which definitely -express as much: in the Psalms, and likewise in Proverbs, -the name and application of the bridle is often -particularly mentioned, and more frequently alluded -to. Virgil, indeed, says, referring to very early times:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“The Lapithæ of Pelethronium rode<br /></span> -<span class="i0">With bridles first,—and what their use was show’d.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The saddle is also of ancient origin, for we read in -I. Kings, xiii., 13.,—“And he said unto his sons, -<i>saddle</i> me the ass. So they saddled him the ass: and -he rode thereon.” And before that period, in the -second generation after Noah, the Assyrian empire -was established. In its commencement, even as early -as the days of Semiramis, the wife of Ninus, the first -Assyrian king, who built Ninevah, there were those -articles of horse furniture, called <i>packs</i> and <i>fardles</i>; -for in ancient historians we find the following passage -occur in this respect. “Semiramis ascended from the -plain to the top of the mountain, by laying the packs -and fardels of the beasts that followed her, one upon -another.” The same author informs us that this was -Mount Bagistan, in Medea, and that it was seventeen -furlongs from the top to the bottom.</p> - -<p>In the first ages, among the Greeks and Romans, -a cloth or mattrass, a piece of leather or raw hide, was -all they used for a saddle. Such coverings afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">106</a></span> -became more costly: Silius Italicus says, they were -made of costly skins.</p> - -<p>It, however, appears, that after they were become -common, it was considered as effeminate to use them; -hence the Romans despised them: and in his old age, -Varro boasts of having, when young, rode without a -covering to his horse. Xenophon reproaches the Persians, -because they put more clothes upon the backs -of their horses than upon their beds. From the -aspect in which hardy people viewed this practice, the -warlike Teutones considered it most disgraceful, and -despised the Roman cavalry.</p> - -<p>In the fifth century, saddles were so magnificent, -that a prohibition was issued by Leo I., that they -should not be ornamented with pearls or precious -stones. In the sixth century, the Emperor Mauritas -directed that they should have coverings of fur, of -large dimensions.</p> - -<p>From every information we have been able to collect, -we believe that the appendage of stirrups were -not added to saddles before the sixth century. It is -said, that previous to the introduction of stirrups, the -young and agile used to mount their horses by vaulting -upon them, which many did in an expert and graceful -manner; of course, practice was essential to this perfection. -That this should be afforded, wooden horses -were placed in the Campus Martius, where this -exercise was performed of mounting or dismounting -on either side; first, without, and next with arms. -Cavalry had also, occasionally, a strap of leather, or a -metallic projection affixed to their spears, in or upon -which the foot being placed, the ascent became more -practicable. Respecting the period of this invention, -Montfaucon has presumed that the invention must -have been subsequent to the use of saddles; however, -opposed to this opinion, an ingenious argument has -been offered, that is possible they might have been -anterior to that invention; because, it is said, they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">107</a></span> -might have been appended to a girth round the body -of the horse. Both Hippocrates and Galen speak of a -disease to which the feet and ancles were subject, from -long riding, occasioned by suspension of the feet without -a resting-place. Suetonius, the Roman, informs -us that Germanicus, the father of Caligula, was wont -to ride after dinner, to strengthen his ancles, by the -action of riding affording the blood freer circulation in -the part.</p> - -<p>The Latin names assigned them have been various, -among which is <i>scalæ</i>; in which sense Mauritius, in -his treatise on the art of war, is said to have named -them. Now, this writer is supposed to have lived in -the sixth century; but we conceive it is pretty evident -they had an earlier existence in Arabia, Turkey, -and Persia, as there is an alto, as well as bas-relief of -this last country, still extant, which is believed to -have been as ancient as the days of Darius, because it -was brought from the city he built, Persepolis, having -this representation.</p> - -<p>The invention and name of stirrup is supposed to -have been borrowed from the anatomy of the ear, -where a band is found resembling it in form.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_107"><a id="HORSE-SHOES"></a>HORSE-SHOES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">When</span> we consider the vast importance of security to -the feet of that useful animal, the horse, we cannot but -feel surprised that on account of the very rough roads -the ancients must occasionally had to travel, that some -metallic shoes had not been invented and introduced -previously to the period when they appeared.</p> - -<p>That the security of the rider necessarily depended -upon the safety of the animal he rode, cannot be -questioned. Hence, then, we do not wonder to observe, -that the sagacious Aristotle and Pliny should<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">108</a></span> -remark upon the covering placed upon the feet of -those animals of draught and burden. From what -these authors have said, however, we dare not conclude -that the feet of horses or camels were faced or -shod with iron: but it should rather seem that in -time of war, or on long journeys, the feet of both -kinds of beasts were prepared with such species of -shoes as the common people wore, and which were -generally made of strong ox-leather. We are told -that when the hoofs of cattle, particularly oxen, had -sustained any injury or hurt, they were furnished -with shoes made of Spanish or African broom, with -which linen is often manufactured in the south of -France and Italy; also shoes of some of the plants of -the hemp kind, which were woven or plaited together. -Although these may be considered as only a -species of surgical bandages with regard to oxen; but -such shoes were particularly given to mules, which in -days of old were employed much more than at present -for riding; and from some instances of immoderate -extravagance in people of rank, it appears that they -had for their animals very costly shoes of some of the -most valuable metals. Nero, when he undertook -short journeys, was drawn always by mules shod -with silver, and those of his wife were shod with -gold.</p> - -<p>The circumstance being barely mentioned, without -any particular detail, we are anxious to afford any -certain information on the mode in which those shoes -were constructed. From a passage in Dio Cassius, -we have reason to believe that it was only the upper -part of the shoe that was made of those costly metals, -or that they were plaited from thin slips.</p> - -<p>Xenophon relates that a certain people in Asia -were in the habit of drawing socks over the feet of -their horses, when the snow lay deep on the ground. -The Kamschatkian employs the same means to preserve -the feet of his dogs, which draw his sledge, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">109</a></span> -hunt the seals upon the ice. Those species of shoes, -according to Captain Cook, are so ingeniously made -as to be bound, and at the same time to admit the -claws of the animal through them.</p> - -<p>From a passage found in Suetonius, we may infer -that the Roman horse-shoes were put on in the manner -we have mentioned; for that author says, that -the coachman of Vespasian once stopped to put on the -shoes of his mules: this being the case, the probability -appears pretty certain, that in deep roads and moist -soils the animals must have frequently lost their shoes.</p> - -<p>Artemedorus speaks of a shod horse, and uses the -same kind of expression whilst speaking of other -cattle. Winkelman has described a cut stone in the -collection of Baron Stosch, on which is represented -the figure of a man holding one foot of a horse, whilst -another, kneeling, is employed in fastening a shoe.</p> - -<p>That it was not usual to shoe the war-horse, may -be gathered from this,—when Mithridates was -besieging Cyzicus, he was obliged to send his cavalry -to Bythnia, because the hoofs of the horses were -entirely spoiled and worn out. Diodorus Siculus -informs us, that Alexander, in his expedition, proceeded -with uninterrupted marches, until the feet of -his horses were entirely broken and destroyed. A -like instance occurs in Cinnamus, where the cavalry -were obliged to be left behind, because the horses -had suffered considerably in their hoofs, to which he -adds, they were often liable. Hence it may, perhaps, -appear, that such horse-shoes as are now in use, were -unknown to the ancients; and Chardiu gives no -representation of them in ancient Persian antiquities. -In the grave of Childeric, a northern chieftain and -King of France, was discovered a piece of iron, which -the learned antiquarians who saw it, pronounced, -from that portion of it which the rust had left, to -have been an old horse-shoe; they saw, or thought -they saw, four distinct apertures for nails on each<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">110</a></span> -side; but whilst they were endeavouring to remove -the corrosive excrescence of rust, to ascertain with -more certainty, it broke under their hands. The -reason why we mentioned this here is, that if the relic -discovered was really a horse-shoe, it must have been -one of the most ancient specimens known; because, -we find that monarch died in the year 481; his grave -was discovered at Tournay in 1683. The occasion of -his having a horse-shoe in his grave, was from the -creed of his religion; the superstitious belief of the -Scandinavians taught them to place implicit confidence -in the power of this amulet, to prevent the ingress of -evil spirits. The remains of this belief is even now -often seen in the obscure streets of the British metropolis; -and, indeed, throughout the country, where -the mystic shoe frequently appears as the faithful -guardian of the domestic threshold.</p> - -<p>It is, we understand, the opinion of the French -historian, Daniel, that, in the ninth century, horses -were not shod always, but only in the time of frost, -and on some other very particular occasions.</p> - -<p>The practice of shoeing horses was introduced into -England by William I. We are told that this -monarch gave the city of Northampton as a fief to a -certain person, one of his attendants, in consideration -of his paying a certain sum yearly for the shoeing of -horses. And it is also alleged, that Henry, or Hugh -de Ferres, or de Ferrers, was the same person who -held this fief on the above condition, and who was -the ancestor of the family of that name, and who still -bear six horse-shoes in their coat of arms. This was -the person whom William entrusted to inspect his -farriers.</p> - -<p>We should not omit to observe, that it is remarked, -that horse-shoes have been found, with other riding -furniture, in the graves of some of the old inhabitants -of Germany, and also in those of the Vandals in the -North of Europe.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">111</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_111"><a id="GUNPOWDER"></a>GUNPOWDER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> express period when <i>nitrum</i> was first discovered -is extremely uncertain; but that this nitrum is an -alkaline salt, there is little difficulty in proving. It -has, indeed, been conjectured that it was a component -part of the <i>Greek fire</i>, invented about the year 678, -which has been generally believed to be the origin of -gunpowder. From the oldest prescriptions which -have been found, and which is said to be that given -by the Princess Anna Commena, in which, however, -only resin, sulphur, and oil are mentioned, saltpetre -does not appear.</p> - -<p>It is believed by an author very well qualified to -form a judgment on the question, that the first certain -account we have of saltpetre by that express name, -occurs in the oldest account of the invention of gunpowder, -which, according to him (Professor Beckmann) -occurred in the thirteenth century. Dr. Rees, -in his Cyclopedia, expressly says, about the year 1320; -and that it was first used by the Venetians employed -against the Genoese in 1380; also that it was first -in Europe at a place now known as Chrogia, against -Laurence de Medicis; and the last named authority -adds, “That all Italy made complaint against it, as a -contravention of the law of arms.” Dr. Rees gives -the following recipe for its manufacture, without distinguishing -the proportionate parts:—“A composition -of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together, and -usually granulated.” He describes its effects by -observing, that “it easily takes fire, and when fired, -rarifies and expands with great vehemence by means -of its elastic force;” also that “it may be made -without <i>nitre</i>, by means of <i>marine acid</i>.”</p> - -<p>We have two accounts preserved to us of the -original of this invention. The first of which was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">112</a></span> -given by our illustrious countryman, Roger Bacon, -called the Wonderful Doctor, who died <span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1278; -previous to which period, gunpowder must have -existed. The other account is by Albertus Magnus, -in a work published in 1612.</p> - -<p>It is said to be doubted whether Albertus was the -author of the book which bears his name; but that -he, whoever he may have been, and Bacon, are presumed -to have taken their information from the same -identical source. About the period of the invention -of gunpowder, it appears the art of making the Greek -fire began to be lost. In the works of Roger Bacon, -the term occurs three times. According to Casiri, -the term <i>pulvis nitratus</i>, is to be found in an Arabic MS. -the author of which existed about 1249. If the work -of Geber, <i>De Investigatione Perfectionis</i>, be genuine, -and if this writer lived, as has been thought, in the -eighth century, it would be the oldest where saltpetre -is mentioned, in a prescription for an <i>aqua solutiva</i>, -which appears to be almost <i>aqua regia</i>.</p> - -<p>We are inclined to believe, however, from various -authorities, that gunpowder was invented in India, as -it was proved in a paper read before the French -National Institute, by M. Langles, that the Arabians -obtained a knowledge of gunpowder from the Indians, -who had been acquainted with it from the earliest -periods. The use of it in war is said to have been -prohibited them in their sacred books. It was employed -in 690 at a battle near Mecca, by the Arabians. -It was brought by the Saracens from Africa to the -Europeans, who improved the preparation, and first -discovered various ways of employing it in war. In -no country could saltpetre and its various uses be -more easily discovered than in India, where the soil -is so rich in nitrous particles that nothing is necessary -but lixiviation to obtain saltpetre; and where this -substance is so abundant, that almost all the gunpowder -used in different wars, with which European<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">113</a></span> -sovereigns have tormented themselves, burdened their -subjects with intolerable taxes, and cursed the world -from its invention—has been made from Indian saltpetre. -Had not saltpetre been known previous to -the thirteenth century, neither could gunpowder or -aquafortis have existed; and for the best of all reasons, -that neither of them could be made without saltpetre -or nitre. But should it appear that this neutral salt -was known in India long prior to that period, and -used by Indians as well as Arabians before they were -employed by Europeans, and considering the former -to have practised chemistry previous to the latter; -should this have been proved, perhaps a similar proof -will necessarily await upon the articles aquafortis and -gunpowder. Because if this affirmation be established, -it will be discovered that Europeans knew nothing of -aquafortis until after the Arabian chemists.</p> - -<p>Probability appears to favour the idea, that at or -about the twelfth century the accumulated number of -consequents, from the improvement in European -science, the arts we now possess were introduced into -our catalogue, <i>i. e.</i>, nitre, aquafortis, and gunpowder.</p> - -<p>After the period that saltpetre became necessary to -governments for the manufacture of gunpowder, they -endeavoured to obtain it at a cheap rate; and for that -purpose were guilty in some countries of the most -violent and oppressive measures, intruding upon private -property of every description to furnish it, hunting for -the effervescence even in old walls, to the great annoyance -of individuals. But after repeated acts of the -most flagrant oppression from the public officers, and -from farmers, to whom this iniquitous practice was -entrusted, they could not procure a sufficiency; but -were obliged to have recourse to traffic in India for -that purpose.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">114</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_114"><a id="GUNS"></a>GUNS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">That</span> these dangerous weapons were not known in -Europe previous to the introduction of gunpowder may -be safely inferred; as without that substance their -necessity or utility is wanting.</p> - -<p>At first the construction of this machine was characterised -by that awkward, rude, and cumbersome -appearance which generally distinguished all inventions -in their infancy; reminding us of those very rude -instruments brought from the Sandwich Islands, and -deposited in our Museum.</p> - -<p>The first portable fire-arms were discharged by a -match; in course of time this was fastened to a cock, -for the greater security of the hand whilst discharging -the piece. Afterwards a fire-stone was attached, -screwed into a cock, with a steel plate before it, and -fixed in a small wheel, which could be wound up by -a key, affixed to the barrel. This fire-stone was not -at first of a vitreous nature, like that now in use for -striking fire, but a compact pyrites, long known as -such, and called a fire-stone. As an instrument so -furnished was often liable to miss fire, till a late period -a match was still continued with the wheel; and it -was not till a considerable time after that, instead of a -friable pyrites, so much exposed to effloresce, a vitreous -stone was affixed to the improvement of the lock, -somewhat resembling our own gun-lock. But these -progressive improvements advanced slowly, because -as recently as the early part of the last century these -clumsy contrivances were in use. During that period, -those instruments were denominated by various names, -chiefly German and Dutch, such as <i>buchse</i>, <i>hakenbuchse</i>, -<i>arquebuss</i>, musket, martinet, pistol, &c. The first of -these names arose from the oldest portable kind of fire-arms -having a similarity to a box. There were long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">115</a></span> -and short <i>buchse</i>, the latter of which were peculiar to -cavalry; the longest kind also, from their resemblance -to a pipe, were called in Germany, <i>rohr</i>.</p> - -<p>Large pieces, which were conveyed on carriages, -were called <i>Karren buchse</i>, from the action of conveyance. -Soon afterwards cannon were introduced, -at first called <i>canna</i>; now known as artillery. However, -artillery-men, and others concerned in those -employments, still use the terms previously mentioned. -The hackenbuchse were so very large and unwieldy, -that if carried in the hand, they could not be used -manually alone; they were, therefore, supported by a -post or stay, called a <i>bock</i>, because it had a forked -end, somewhat resembling the horns of the buck, -between which the piece was fixed by a hook projecting -from the stock. There is still preserved in -the Tower of London, an old <i>buchse</i>; a specimen of -every species of our national arms may be seen in the -same place.</p> - -<p>From those terms before-mentioned, it would -appear, that not only the English, but also the -French, and most other European nations, took the -names of their fire-arms.</p> - -<p>It appears that pistols were first used in Germany; -they had a wheel attached to them. Bellay mentions -them in the year 1544, in the time of Francis I.; and -under Henry II., the German horsemen were called -<i>pistoliers</i>. Several historians think that the name -came from Pistolia, in Tuscany, because there they -were first made; and, if we might hazard an opinion, -we think this conjecture right. Hence, although -Germany might first have generally used them, we -think they were an Italian invention.</p> - -<p>Muskets are said to have received their name from -either the French <i>mouchet</i>, or else from the Latin -<i>muschetus</i>; however, we are of opinion that neither -of these terms gave its original; and submit that it is -derived from the Latin <i>muscarium</i>,—the fall of men<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">116</a></span> -being as sudden after the explosion of this deadly -weapon, as the death of a fly after it is flapped by -that instrument, which was common in the butcher’s -shambles of ancient Rome.</p> - -<p>Daniel proves they were known in France as early -as the period of Francis I. Brandome, however, -asserts they were introduced by the Duke of Alva—that -cruel monster in human shape—that tool of a -blood-thirsty tyrant—whose name has its full merit -when it has eternal execration, as the exploits of that -diabolical character in the Spanish Netherlands bear -indubitable testimony: that wretch existed in 1507; -and they were not known in France at that period, as -Brandome endeavours to prove, or we should have -had more intelligence handed down to posterity by -the commentators of one who would so willingly have -used such an instrument. The <i>lock</i> is said to have -been invented in the city of Nuremberg, in Germany, -about 1517; but that cannot be considered as the -lock of the present day, as even in Germany the -fire-lock is known by the name of the French-lock, -which certainly militates against the previous assertion, -the one giving the name perhaps to the other.</p> - -<p>Beckmann says, “In the history of the Brunswick -military it is stated, that the soldiers of that Duchy -first obtained flint-locks instead of match-locks in -1687. It has often been asserted,” he continues, -“that fire-tubes which took fire of themselves were -forbidden first in Bohemia and Moravia, and afterwards -in the whole German empire, under a severe -penalty, by the Emperor Maximilian I.; but I have -not found any allusion to this circumstance in the -different police laws of that emperor.”</p> - -<p>That the first fire-stones were pyrites appears from -various sources, and afterwards a vitreous kind of -stone was introduced in its stead; this circumstance -is said to have produced some kind of confusion, as in -many instances the properties were applied to that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">117</a></span> -stone which were related by the Germans of antiquity -as belonging to pyrites. In Germany, this vitreous -stone was called <i>vlint</i>; in Sweden and Denmark, -<i>flinta</i>; and in England, <i>flint</i>. This appellation is of -great antiquity.</p> - -<p>Anciently, in Germany, as it appears from the song -of Hildebrand, a metrical romance of very early date, -that Hildebrand and Hudebrand, a father and son, -and, at the moment, ignorant of their affinity, agreed -to fight for each other’s armour; and it is said “They -let fly their ashen spears with such force, that they -stuck in the shields, and they thrust resounding axes -of flint against each other, having uplifted their shields -previously; but the Lady Ulta rushed in between -them—‘I know the cross of gold,’ said she, ‘which -I gave him for his shield; this is my Hildebrand. -You, Hudebrand, sheath your sword; this is your -father!’ Then she led both champions into the -hall, and gave them meat and wine with many -embraces.”</p> - -<p>Besides these proofs that the ancient name of the -stone was known in Germany by the appellation -<i>vlint</i>—which species of stone may, perhaps, without -hazarding the danger of error, be conceived to be the -same which Zipporah, the wife of Moses, is represented -to have used, in the 25th verse of the 4th chapter of -Exodus: “Then Zipporah took a sharp stone, and -cut off the foreskin of her son, and cast it at his feet, -and said,—Surely a bloody husband thou art to me.” -And it is added she said so, on account of the circumcision.</p> - -<p>In addition to what has appeared, let us add, it -cannot be doubted that the instrument fired by this -stone first obtained for it, in Germany, the name of -<i>vlint</i>; as the ancient name may, in general, be now -lost, it is commonly called flint-stone. Those people -acquainted with the northern, Scandinavian, and -German antiquities, know that the knives employed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">118</a></span> -in ancient sacrifices, and other sharp instruments, -were made of this stone, as appears from the remains -being yet discovered in old barrows, and between -urns.</p> - -<p>It is also presumed that the Ethiopian stone, mentioned -as used by one of the Egyptian embalmers, first -to open the body to get at the intestines, was a flint-stone. -The soil being in some places siliceous or -chalky, naturally produces such stones in common -with that earth.</p> - -<p>The flint is a stone indigenous in most European -countries; they are commonly collected and manufactured -by people whose occupation allows them much -spare time. The easiest mode to shape them is with a -species of pillow of saw-dust, or some other soft material, -sown up in coarse cloth, held upon the knees, and -with a hammer having a bevil edge, they may be -broken into almost any form or size by those accustomed -to the practice.</p> - -<p>The great quantity of the material from whence -they are composed allows for any waste which accident -may produce. In several counties of England -they are so plentiful, that they are the common material -employed for mending the public roads. But we -are informed that this is not the case in France, -where, in time of war, the people were prohibited -from exporting them. The Dutch are commonly -large dealers in this article.</p> - -<p>Flint is a large component in the manufacture of -glass.</p> - -<p>Gun flints are now, however, comparatively little -used, as percussion caps are generally substituted, -which act with more certainty, and require a great -deal less trouble.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">119</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_119"><a id="ASTRONOMY"></a>ASTRONOMY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Not</span> being greedy of delusion ourselves, neither would -we lead others into error; but, on the contrary, are -desirous to avoid all deception, as we may be considered -over studious to give the most rational origin, -and where we cannot get at the history of those objects -which engage our attention—whenever this is -uncertain we resort to nature, experience, and reason, -and furnish the most correct explanation our contracted -circle of information will permit. Whenever we discover -the clue of history, we collect the most satisfactory -detail our limits will afford us to insert. Guided -by the preceding notions, and directed by those principles, -we have endeavoured correctly to conceive, -and faithfully to portray our own conceptions in the -best manner our experience might enable us, to make -a just distinction between metaphorical allusion and -literal application; ever endeavouring to discriminate -between serious assertion and studied fable.</p> - -<p>We fully coincide with the just remark of the -learned author of “Indian Antiquities,” who says -“that in respect to the early ages of the world, all -the remains of genuine history, except that contained -in the sacred annals, is only to be obtained -through the mazes of Mythology.”</p> - -<p>It must be confessed, that to sift this grain of corn -from the bushel of chaff with which it is surrounded, -where every effort which the ingenuity of Greece -could devise to render fable as current as truth, was -resorted to, is no small task; that it requires the -operation of the best exercised reason, and the assistance -of extraordinary judgment, which is only to be -attained through the medium of extensive experience -and the exercise of clear and discriminative powers: -then we pretend not to possess the best of possible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">120</a></span> -acquisitions of this kind, but the best in our power, -we have endeavoured to collect, and summoned to our -assistance; and the value of our labours we will leave -the public to judge.</p> - -<p>If the application of observations like the preceding -ever come <i>apropos</i>, surely they apply to the present -article; since from the <i>sideral</i> science, all the errors -of an idolatrous race proceeded in the major part of -the population of the ancient world: from thence also -proceeded the most sublime imagery which embellishes -the syren voice of poetic song, the grandest metaphors, -and the sweetest allegories, which ornament the transendent -eloquence of the most able rhetoricians of -Greece and Rome; the fire of exquisitely natural and -most noble allusions which enliven and embellish their -historic pages. The sweetest philosophical explications -also flowed from thence, which ornament the -various immortal works of their most excellent poets, -orators, historians, natural and moral philosophers; -and, in brief, of every description of the sublimest -genius of ancient Greece and Rome, in their most -divine effusions.</p> - -<p>It will appear, we believe, that the first astronomers -of Chaldea, Phœnicia, and Egypt, are not now known -as astronomers, by name, if we except the person of -the royal Nimrod, the founder of the Chaldean empire, -which name is often confounded with Belus; sometimes -one is put for the other, and often Belus is -called the son of Nimrod. How the truth of this -was, we shall not at present determine: be it as it -may, it is allowed on all hands that the sideral science -claims for its inventor no less a person than the founder -of the first monarchy in the world. That this science -was first introduced by the founder of the Tower -of Babel is not questioned, because it is more -evident, that in that country there must have -existed from necessity, the expediency of the most -approved observation, which could be made upon this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">121</a></span> -eminently useful science; where, on account of the -excessive solar heat, people generally travel by night: -where, for hundreds of miles, are nothing but pathless -deserts, with a horizon as boundless and little impeded -as that of the ocean; assuredly under such circumstances, -the local situation of the site of the immense -Observatory of Babel must point out the expediency -of procuring some intelligence from the position which -the inhabitants discovered the host of heaven to -appear in at the rising, setting, &c.; for from what -will appear in the course of this article, it will be -very evident that the Tower of Babel was constructed -for the purpose of an astronomical observatory; farther, -that the climate of Chaldea was most favourable -to the exercise of that sublime art, will not admit of -a question, when we consider the atmosphere is so -pure, so clear, so free from exhalation, that at night -the sky is said to resemble an immense canopy of -black velvet studded with embossed gold, from the -appearance of the stars; and that it was not only the -appearance of the stars, their rising, setting, and motion, -by which they knew time was to be measured; -but also the distinction between one star and another -could be correctly ascertained from the usual colour—here -it was the various planets, zodiacal constellations, -and the other asterisms in both hemispheres, received -their primary names.</p> - -<p>The preceding circumstance, it is conceived, fixes -the local place where the science had its origin.</p> - -<p>The Tower of Babel was a parallelogram, with -sides of unequal length. Herodotus thus describes -it.—“The Temple of Jupiter Belus occupies the -other [square of the city], whose huge gates of brass -may be seen. It is a square building; in the midst -rises a tower of the height of one furlong, upon which -resting as a base, seven other turrets are built in -regular succession. The ascent is on the outside,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">122</a></span> -which, winding from the ground, is continued to the -highest tower: in the middle of the whole structure -there is a convenient resting place.”</p> - -<p>Diodorus Siculus says, this tower was decayed in -his time; but, in his description of Babylon, he thus -speaks of it—describing it as the act of Semiramis, who -flourished two thousand nine hundred and forty-four -years before Christ:—“In the middle of the city, she -built a temple to Jupiter-Belus; of which, since -writers differ amongst themselves, and the work is -now wholly decayed through length of time, there is -nothing that can with certainty be related concerning -it; yet it is apparent it was of an exceeding great -height; and that, by the advantage of it, the Chaldean -astrologers exactly observed the rising and setting -of the stars. The whole was built of brick, cemented -with bitumen, with great art and cost. Upon the top -she placed three statues of beaten gold, of Jupiter, -Juno, and Rhea: that of Jupiter stood upright, in -the posture as if he was walking; it was forty feet -in height, and weighed one thousand Babylonish -talents. The statue of Rhea was of the same weight, -sitting on a golden throne, having two lions standing -on either side, one at her knees, and near to them -were two exceeding great serpents of silver, weighing -thirty talents each. Here, too, the image of Juno -stood upright, and weighed eight hundred talents, -grasping a serpent by the head in her right -hand, and holding a sceptre adorned with precious -stones in her left. For all these deities there was -placed a table made of beaten gold, forty feet long -and fifteen broad, weighing five hundred talents, upon -which stood two cups, weighing thirty talents, and -near to them as many censers, weighing three hundred -talents: there were likewise placed three drinking bowls -of gold—the one to Jupiter weighed two -hundred talents, and the others six hundred each.”</p> - -<p>We have been thus circumstantial in our description<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">123</a></span> -of Babylon, for obvious reasons. First—that it was -the first local situation where, since the deluge, men -had associated for civil purposes; and secondly—because -it was the original station where the astronomical -science was cultivated. From Chaldea, Astronomy -travelled to Egypt, where she was studied for -many ages; she also went to Phœnicia, where she was -regarded with equal attention. But the peculiar occasion -which the Phœnician people had to improve their -acquaintance with this science, will appear, upon -reflecting that these people occupied a narrow and -barren tract of land between the Mediterranean and -Arabian seas; therefore, they found it essentially -necessary to improve their situation by those means -which Divine Providence had apparently marked out -for them to resort unto; we accordingly find them -applying to mercantile industry; as a commercial -people, in this character, they were the ready medium -of communication between every part of the then -known world. In consequence, they had factories or -mercantile stations up the Mediterranean; but particularly -on its European side, on the shores of the -Atlantic, and even in the British sea: we recognise -their occupying Marseilles, and others, on the coast of -France; Cadiz, on that of Spain; the Lizard Point, -and other places, in Cornwall, where they traded for -tin in the British Isles. In brief, their commercial -spirit carried them to every part of the globe: by the -by, admitting that rational belief be allowed to Plato -and Solon, we shall find that they had, in the first -ages, explored the Atlantic Ocean, and even discovered -America. A great variety of authorities may -be adduced to prove the assertion—that the Phœnicians -made three descents on the American coast; and -others, who say that the inhabitants discovered there -by the Spaniards, gave the same names to the plants -as had been assigned them in Asia; that their religious -rites were similar, and general customs and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">124</a></span> -manners the same,—we refer to Joseph Da Costa’s -“History of the Indies,” published in 1694.</p> - -<p>This author was an eye-witness, and wrote from -actual observation. The Phœnicians, in the exercise -of their mercantile functions, had the most obvious -necessity to cultivate the sideral science. We find -that they accordingly did so, and made various improvements -and very important discoveries by their -exercise. From the northern hemisphere being more -known to them than it was to the Chaldeans, they -discovered that splendid and beautiful asterism, <i>Cynosuræ</i>, -or the polar-star,—an asterism of the most -singular service, before the properties of the magnet -were discovered, and which star was sometimes called, -from them, Phœnice.</p> - -<p>From Phœnicia and Egypt the celestial science of -astronomy was brought into Greece, with which -people the Phœnicians were intimate; for they, by -trade, having occasion to converse with the Greeks, -and also from uniting in one national resemblance, the -three opposite characteristics of soldiers, sailors, and -men of science, the communications between the two -people were very frequent. At every period, from -the first establishment of the Grecian states, that -highly eminent and intellectual people collected from -all others every particular they could obtain in all -matters having relation to sciences and arts; those -they cultivated with a success worthy of the motive -which first induced them to make these collections.—Loving -Knowledge for herself, they succeeded beyond -all others in obtaining her favours.</p> - -<p>The first Greek who appears on record to have -cultivated the celestial science with success, was -Thales, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, six hundred -and forty one years before Christ; he explained the -causes of eclipses, and predicted one. He also taught -that the earth was round, and divided into five zones; -he discovered the solstices and equinoxes, and likewise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">125</a></span> -divided the year into three hundred and sixty-five -days. He had travelled into Egypt in search of -knowledge, where he ascertained the height of one -of the pyramids, from its shade. He looked upon -water as the principle of all things. From him the -sect called the Ionic had their origin.</p> - -<p>Anaximander, his pupil, followed him, and supported -the opinions of his great master; he was born -before Christ six hundred and ten years; he invented -maps and dials, and is said to have constructed a -sphere. His ideas of the planets were, however, -erroneous.</p> - -<p>Anaximenes was a scholar of Anaximander, and -born five hundred and fifty-four years before Christ. -He taught that air was the origin of all things, and -many erroneous notions; among others, that the -earth was a plane, and the heavens a solid concave -sphere, with the stars affixed to it like nails.</p> - -<p>Anaxagoras of Clazomene, the pupil of, and successor -to, Anaximenes, born before Christ five -hundred and sixty years. The doctrines he supported -are a strange association of important truths, -mixed with the most gross absurdities. He taught -that the world was made by a being of infinite -power; that mind was the origin of motion; -that the upper regions, which he called ether, -were filled with fire, that the rapid revolution of -this ether had raised large masses of stone from the -earth, which, being inflamed, formed the stars, which -were kept in their places, and prevented from falling -by the velocity of their motion.</p> - -<p>His ideas of the solar orb were extremely erroneous; -alleging, according to different authors, various uncertain -positions respecting the materials of which -that planet is composed: one says, <i>he</i> said it was a -vast mass of fire; another states <i>his</i> opinion, that it -was red-hot iron; and a third, that it was of stone. -He taught that the comets are an assemblage of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">126</a></span> -planets; that winds are produced in consequence of -highly rarified air; that thunder and lightning are a -collision of clouds; earthquakes, by subterraneous -air forcing its passage upwards; that the moon is -inhabited, &c.</p> - -<p>This philosopher removed his school from Miletus -to Athens, which was thenceforth the grand seat of -all learning. He had taught there for thirty years, -when he was prosecuted for his philosophical opinions, -particularly for his just ideas relative to the Deity, -and condemned to death. When sentence was pronounced, -he said:—“It is long since Nature condemned -me to that.” However, according to the -laws of Athens, he was permitted an appeal to the -people, in which his scholar, the immortal Pericles, -saved his life by his eloquence. His sentence of death -was changed into banishment. Whilst in prison he -determined exactly the proportion of the circumference -of the circle to its diameter, denominated “squaring -the circle.” He died at Lampsacus. Archelaus, his -scholar, was the preceptor of the divine Socrates.</p> - -<p>Pythagoras was another scholar of Thales. The -place of his nativity is uncertain; but having settled -in the island of Samos, he is generally reckoned of -that place. He travelled in search of knowledge -through Phœnicia, Chaldea, Egypt, and India; however, -meeting with little encouragement on his return -to Samos, he passed over to Italy, in the time of -Tarquin the Proud, and opened a school at Croto, a -city in the Gulf of Tarentum, where he had a number -of students, and gained much reputation. His pupils -were obliged to listen in silence for at least two years; -if talkative, longer; sometimes, for five years, before -they were permitted to ask him any questions; for -which time they were <i>mathematicoi</i>, because they -were set to study geometry, dialling, music, and other -high sciences, called by the Greeks <i>mathemata</i>. But -the name of <i>mathematici</i> was commonly applied to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">127</a></span> -those who cultivated the stellary science, and who -predicted the fortunes of men, by observing the stars -under which they were born.</p> - -<p>This luminary of science first assumed the appellation -of <i>philosopher</i>; before him, those whose pursuits -have now that title, were called sages or wise men; -he was the founder of the sect called the Italic. He -was so much honoured whilst living, and his memory -honoured when dead, by the Romans, that they attributed -to him the learning of Numa, who lived much -earlier. About the year of the city 411, the Delphian -oracle having directed the Romans to erect statues to -the bravest and wisest of the Greeks, they conferred -that honour upon Alcibiades and Pythagoras.</p> - -<p>He taught publicly that the earth is the centre of -the universe; but to his scholars he gave his real -opinions; similar to those afterwards adopted by Copernicus, -that the earth and all the planets moved -round the sun, as their co-centre, and which doctrine -he is presumed to have derived from either the Chaldeans -or Indians. He thought that the earth is round, -and everywhere inhabited. Hence, he admitted that -we might have antipodes, which name is said to have -been invented by Plato.</p> - -<p>Pythagoras was distinguished for his skill in music, -which he first reduced to certain firm principles, and -likewise for his discoveries in geometry. He first -proved, that in a right-angled triangle, the square of -the hypothenuse, or side subtending the right angle, -is equal to the two other sides; also that of all plain -figures having equal circumference, the circle is largest; -and of all solids having equal surfaces, the sphere is -the largest. Pythagoras likewise taught that all -things were made of fire. That the Deity animated -the universe, as the soul does the body; which doctrine, -with that of the metempsychosis, or transmigration, -he likewise taught; and which thoughts were -adopted by Plato, and are most beautifully expressed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">128</a></span> -by Virgil; that the sun, the moon, the planets, and -fixed stars, are all actuated by some divinity, and -move each in a transparent solid sphere in the order -following:—next to the Earth, the Moon, then Mercury, -Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn; the -sphere of the fixed stars last of all; that those move -with a sound inconceivably beautiful, which ears cannot -comprehend. Those eight spheres he imagined -to be analogous to the eight notes in music.</p> - -<p>Empedocles, the chief scholar of Pythagoras, entertained -the same sentiments with his teacher, concerning -astronomy. He is said to have thrown himself -into the crater of Mount Etna, to make himself pass -for a god; or, perhaps, which may approach nearer -the truth, because he could not discover the cause of -the eruption: or else in his endeavours to discover -the cause. One of his iron sandals being thrown up -by the volcano, revealed the mode in which he had -perished.</p> - -<p>Philolaus, also a scholar of Pythagoras, first taught -publicly the diurnal motion of the earth upon its axis, -and its annual motion round the sun; which first suggested -to Copernicus the idea of that system which -he established.</p> - -<p>Meteon, born at Leuconæ, a village near Athens, first -introduced into Europe the Lunar Cycle, consisting of -nineteen solar years, or nineteen lunar years, and -seven intercalary months. It had been first adopted -by the Chaldeans. Meteon published it at the Olympic -games, where it was received with so great applause -that it was then universally adopted through -the Grecian States, and their colonies, and got the -name of the Cycle, or Golden Number, to denote its -excellence, which name it still retains.</p> - -<p>It was also called the Great Year; which name -was likewise applied to various spaces of time by different -authors; by Virgil, to the solar year, to distinguish -it from the monthly revolution of the moon;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">129</a></span> -by Cicero and others, to the revolution of six hundred -years, or three thousand six hundred years; called -also several ages, when all the stars shall come to the -same position, with respect to one another, as they -were in at a certain time before; called likewise <i>Annus -Mundanus</i>, or <i>Vertens</i>.</p> - -<p>The lunar cycle begun four hundred and thirty-two -years before the commencement of our era, and according -to it, the Greek calendars, which determined -the celebration of their annual feasts, &c. were adjusted. -Meteon is said to have derived his knowledge -of this subject from Chaldea.</p> - -<p>The opinions of the subsequently registered astronomer, -Xonophanes, founder of the Eleatic school, are -so truly monstrous, that after the light which had -appeared, he must have travelled with his eyes shut; -or else the rage for novelty alike affected the scientific -of Greece, as it did their <i>literati</i>; choosing to travel -a long way for new thoughts, when they might have -found much better at hand. Xonophanes, among -other whimsical opinions, maintained that the stars -were extinguished every morning, and illuminated -every evening; that the sun is an inflamed cloud; -that eclipses happen by the extinction of the sun, -which is afterwards lighted up; that the moon is ten -times larger than the earth; that there are many suns -and moons to illumine different climates.</p> - -<p>The Eleatic school was chiefly famous for the study -of logic, or the art of ratiocination, first invented by -Zeno. Those of this sect paid but little attention to -science, or the study of Nature. Philosophy was -anciently divided into three parts, natural, moral, and -the art of reasoning. Xonophanes was succeeded by -Parmenides, his scholar, who, in addition to his -master’s absurdities, taught that the earth was habitable -in only the two temperate zones; that the earth -was suspended in the middle of the universe, in a fluid -lighter than air; that all bodies left to themselves light<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">130</a></span> -on its surface. This bore a slight resemblance to the -Newtonian doctrine of attraction.</p> - -<p>Democritus, of Abdera, a scholar of Leucippus, who -flourished four hundred and fifty-six years before -Christ, was the first publisher of the Atomic Cosmogony, -invented by Mochus, the Phœnician, said to -have been received by his master Leucippus. Both -admitted plurality of worlds. Democritus was the -first who taught that the milky way is occasioned by -the confused light of an infinite number of stars; -which doctrine is still maintained by the best informed -of philosophers. He also extended that idea to comets; -the number of which Seneca says the Greek philosophers -did not know; and that Democritus suspected -there were more planets than we could see. This was -also the opinion of many others, the truth of which -has been verified in the discoveries of Pallas, Juno, -Vesta, and the <i>Georgium Sidus</i>.</p> - -<p>Democritus is considered as the parent of experimental -philosophy; the greatest part of his time was -devoted to it; and he is said to have made many discoveries. -He, like Meteon, and Newton, maintained -the absurd idea of the existence of a vacuum, which -was denied by Thales and Descartes. Democritus -also maintained that the sea was constantly diminishing. -He declared that he would prefer the discovery of one -of the causes of the works of Nature, to the possession -of the Persian monarchy. Often laughing at the follies -of mankind, he was thought by the vulgar to be out -of his mind; but Hippocrates, being sent to cure him, -soon found him to be the wisest man of the age; and -Seneca reckons him the most acute and ingenious of -the ancients, on account of his many useful inventions; -particularly his ingenious making of artificial emeralds, -tinging them of any colour; of softening ivory, dissolving -stones, &c.</p> - -<p>Although the chief attention of Plato and Aristotle -was directed to other grand objects, yet they much<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">131</a></span> -contributed to the improvement of astronomy. Notwithstanding -the most famous in this respect was -Eudoxus, the scholar of Plato, who was famous for -his skill in astrology, natural and judicial, or the art -of foretelling future events by the relative situations -of the stars, of their various influences, an art which -prevailed for many ages among the ancients, and is -yet assiduously cultivated by the modern Arabians -and other orientals, although in a great measure -exploded in European nations. By the former or -which divisions in this science are foretold the changes -of seasons, rain, wind, thunder, cold, heat, famine, -diseases, &c., from a knowledge of the causes that are -believed to act upon the earth and its atmosphere; -whilst the latter foretold the characters, fortunes, &c., -of men, from the stellary disposition at the moment of -their respective nativities.</p> - -<p>The philosopher, Eudoxus, spent much of his time -on the top of a high mountain, to observe the motion -of the stars. He regulated the Greek year as Cæsar -did the Roman. Had the ancient Grecian astronomers -been equally attached to experiment with Democritus, -they might have arrived at more certain conclusions; -but they were content with speculative -theory, and spoke rather from conjecture than observation; -whence both Strabio and Polybius treated as -fabulous the since recognised assertion of Pythius, a -famous navigator to the north, who had sailed to a -country supposed to be Iceland, where he said the -sun, in the middle of summer, never set.</p> - -<p>The most important improvements in astronomy -were made in the school of Alexandria, founded by -Ptolemy Philadelphus; and which seminary flourished -for nine hundred and twenty-three years, till the -invasion of the Saracen army, under the command of -Amrou. Those astronomers were chiefly Greeks, or -of Grecian extraction—the most learned men being -invited here by the liberality of the Ptolemies. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">132</a></span> -first who distinguished themselves were Timocarus -and Aristillus, prior to the foundation of the library, -which was founded three hundred years before Christ. -Those two men endeavoured to determine the places -of the different stars, and thus to trace the course of -the planets. The next and most eminent man was -Aristarchus, about two hundred and sixty-four years -before Christ; who taught, that the sun was about -nineteen times further from the earth than the moon -(which is not the twentieth part of its real distance), -although the philosophers of the Pythagorean school -did not consider it above three times, and perhaps -only one and a half further distant. Aristarchus also -taught, that the moon was fifty-six diameters of our -earth from this globe, which opinion comes near to -the truth: he believed it to be scarcely one-third of -its real size. He was widely erroneous in his conception -of the sun’s dimensions. He also, in conformity -to the doctrines of Pythagorus and Philolaus, supposed -the sun to be placed in the centre, and that the -earth moved round it; on which account he was -accused of impiety, as disturbing the repose of the -Vesta and the Lares. This opinion was not, however, -retained by his successors in the Alexandrian -school. Contrary to the doctrine of the Greek philosophers, -he taught that the stars were at different -distances, and that the orbit of the earth round the -sun was an insensible point, in consequence of the -immense distance of the stars. The only work of -Aristarchus which remains, is on the magnitude and -distance of the sun and moon.</p> - -<p>Very nearly contemporary with Aristarchus was -Euclid, the celebrated geometrician of Alexandria; -Manetho, an astrologer and historian; and Aratus and -Cleanthus, disciples of Zeno, the stoic philosopher; -all of whom contributed to the enlargement of astronomical -knowledge; but particularly the two first -named.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">133</a></span> -Eratosthenes, born at Cyrene, succeeded Aristarchus, -being invited by Ptolemy Euergetes. This -professor is said to be the inventor of the Armillary -sphere, an instrument or machine composed of moveable -sides, representing the equator, the two colures, -with the meridian; all of which turned round on an -axis directed to the two poles of the world, each of -which circles were anciently called armilla, and the -whole machine, astrolabus. All instruments which -could be contrived for the promotion of this science, -were furnished at the public expense, and placed -within the observatory of Alexandria. Assisted by -these instruments, Eratosthenes first undertook to -measure the obliquity of the ecliptics, or rather the -double of that obliquity, that is, the distance from the -tropics, which he made to be about 47 degrees; the -obliquity, or half of this distance, 23½ degrees. This -grand attempt was to ascertain the exact distance of -a degree of the meridian, and thus to determine the -circumference of the earth; which he accomplished -with wonderful exactness, considering the period at -which he lived; and he performed this by the same -method since adopted by the moderns who have succeeded -him. He is also said to have discovered the -true distance of the sun from the earth.</p> - -<p>The great Archimedes lived contemporary with -Eratosthenes, that eminent geometrician of Syracuse, -whose inventive genius in mechanics had constructed -engines which protracted the fall of that capital, with -its Island Sicily, to the almost omnipotent power of -Rome for a considerable period.</p> - -<p>The most illustrious astronomer which had as yet -appeared at Alexandria was Hipparchus, who flourished -between one hundred and sixty and one hundred -and twenty-five years before Christ. He first brought -this science into a tangible elementary form, rendering -it systematic. He discovered, or was the first who -observed the difference between the autumnal and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">134</a></span> -vernal equinox; the former being seven days longer -than the latter, which proceeds from the eccentricity -of the earth’s orbit, first discovered from observing -the inequality of the solar motion. He framed tables -for what is called equation of time, or to ascertain the -difference between the shade on a well constructed -dial and a perfectly regulated clock. He made great -progress in explaining the motions and phases of the -moon; however, he was not so successful with respect -to the planets.</p> - -<p>His greatest work was his ascertaining the number -of the stars, marking their distances, and arriving at -the means by which their precise places on the hemisphere -of Alexandria could be known. He marked -one thousand six hundred stars, in seventy-two signs, -into which the heavens were divided. Pliny says -this was a labour which must have been difficult -even to a god. The appearance of a new star induced -him to set about and accomplish this work, which he -did in a catalogue for the benefit of future observers.</p> - -<p>Hipparchus does not mention comets, whence it has -been conjectured he had never seen any; it has also -been suggested, that he considered them with meteors, -which are not objects of astronomical observation. -He divided the heavens into forty-nine constellations, -viz., twelve in the ecliptic, twenty-one in the north, -and sixteen in the south. To one of these he gave -the name of Berenice’s Hair, in honour of the wife of -Ptolemy Soter, who had consecrated her hair, which -was very beautiful, to Venus Urania, if her husband -should return from a war in Asia victorious; it being -hung up in the temple of the goddess, soon after disappeared, -and is said to have been carried off by the -gods.</p> - -<p>Hipparchus likewise constructed a sphere, or celestial -globe, on which all the stars visible at Alexandria -were depicted; and thought to have been similar to -the Faranese globe at Rome, still extant. In his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">135</a></span> -observations on the stars, he discovered that, when -viewed from the same spot, their distance always -appeared the same from each other; but he discovered -the distance of the moon to be different in various -parts of the heavens; for instance, in the horizon and -zenith. This he conceived to be owing to the extent -of the globe; he, therefore, contrived a method of -reducing appearances of this kind, to what they would -be if viewed from the centre of the earth, which is -called a parallax; and the discovery of it was of the -greatest importance to astronomy. He took this idea -from observing that a tree, in the middle of a plain, -appeared in different parts of the horizon, when -viewed from different situations; so does a star appear -in the various points of the heavens, when viewed -in different parts of the globe. Hipparchus was the -first who connected geography with astronomy, and -this fixed both the sciences on certain principles.</p> - -<p>After the overthrow of the Roman empire, the first -encourager of learning was Charles the Great, or -Charlemagne; but little could be done in his time; -after his death the former ignorance prevailed. Beda, -or Bede, from his piety and modesty termed <i>venerabilis</i>, -and his scholar, Alcinius, both Englishmen, -greatly excelled in general literature; among other -qualifications they were eminent in the astronomy of -the preceding period. The first step towards the -revival of knowledge, or the translation of the Astronomical -Elements of Alfergan, the Arab, by order of -Frederick II., chosen Emperor of Germany in 1212. -About the same time Alphonso X., King of Castile, -assembled from all parts the most famous astronomers, -who at his desire, composed what are called the -Alphonsine Tables, founded on the hypothesis of -Ptolemy.</p> - -<p>About the same period John Sacrobosco, of Holywood, -a native of Halifax, in Yorkshire, who was -educated at Oxford, and taught mathematics and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">136</a></span> -philosophy at Paris, made an abridgment of the -amalgamist of Ptolemy, and of the commentaries of -the Arabs, which was long famous as an elementary -book under the title of “De Sphira Mundi.” He died -at Paris, in the year 1235. In the same year, Roger -Bacon, an English Franciscan friar, made astonishing -discoveries in science for the time he lived. He perceived -the error in the Kalendar of Julius Cæsar, and -proposed a plan, for the correction of it, to Pope -Clement IV. in 1267. He is presumed from his -writings to have known the use of optical glasses, and -the composition and effects of gunpowder. He -believed in planetary influence on men’s fortunes, and -the transmutation of metals. On account of his vast -knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, and chemistry, -he was called Doctor <i>Mirabilis</i>; but, for the same -reason, he was suspected of magic. Under this pretext, -whilst at Paris, he was put in prison by order of -the Pope’s legate; and after a long and severe confinement, -he was at last, by the interest of several -noble persons, liberated, returned to England, and -died at Oxford in 1292, in the seventy-eighth year of -his age.</p> - -<p>In the fifteenth century two events happened which -changed the face of the sciences; the invention of -printing, about 1440, and the taking of Constantinople -by the Turks in 1453. The learned men of that -city having escaped from the cruelty of the victors, -fled into Italy, and again introduced the taste for -classical literature; which was greatly promoted by -the munificence of the Emperor Frederick III., Pope -Nicholas V., and particularly of Cosmo de Medici, -who justly merited the title of Father of his Country, -and Patron of the Muses.</p> - -<p>The restoration of astronomy began in Germany. -The first who distinguished himself, was George Purbach, -born at Purbach, on the confines of Austria and -Bavaria, in 1423, who was cut off in the flower of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">137</a></span> -age—only thirty-eight years old. He was succeeded -by a scholar more skilful than himself, John Muller, -born at Konigsberg, in 1436, who taught mathematics -and astronomy with great reputation at Vienna. -In February, 1471, appeared a comet, on which he -published his observations. Being called to Rome by -Pope Sextus IV., to assist in correcting the Kalender, -he was cut off by the plague, in 1476. Bernard -Waltherus, a rich citizen of Nuremberg, his friend -and associate, succeeded him, who is said to have first -made use of clocks in his astronomical observations, in -1484, and to have been the first of the moderns who -perceived the effects of the refraction of light.</p> - -<p>Fracastorius, born at Verona, in 1483, was a celebrated -astronomer, and an eminent poet and good -philosopher; he made considerable discoveries in this -science, and with all his abilities may be considered as -the precursor of the celebrated Copernicus.</p> - -<p>Nicholas Copernicus, the restorer of the Pythagorean -philosophy, and the modern discoverer of the rational -and true system of astronomy, as now universally -received, under the title of his name, was born at -Thorn, a city of Royal Prussia, 19th February, 1473. -Having learnt the Latin and Greek Languages in his -father’s house, he was sent to Cracow, to be instructed -in philosophy and physic, where he was honoured -with the degree of doctor; showing a greater predilection -for mathematics than medicine. His uncle -by his mother’s side was a bishop, who gave him a -canonry upon his return from Italy, whither he had -gone to study astronomy, under Dominic Maria, at -Bologna, and had afterwards taught mathematics with -success at Rome. In the repose and solitude of an -ecclesiastical life, he bent his chief attention to the -study of astronomy. Dissatisfied with the system of -Ptolemy, which had prevailed fourteen centuries, he -laboured to form a juster one. What led him to -discover the mistakes of Ptolemy was his observations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">138</a></span> -on the motions of Venus; he is said to have derived -his first notion on this subject from various passages -in the classics, which mention the opinions of Pythagoras -and his followers, as, indeed, he himself acknowledges -in his address to Pope Paul III. He established -the rotation of the earth round its axis, and its motion -round the sun; but to explain certain irregularities in -the motion of the planets, he retained the epicicles -and eccentrics of Ptolemy. His work was first -printed at Nuremberg, in 1543, a short time before -his death.</p> - -<p>The doctrines of Copernicus were not at first -generally adopted. The most eminent professors in -Europe adhered to the old opinions.</p> - -<p>Among the astronomers of this period, the Landgrave -of Hesse deserves particular praise, who erected -a magnificent observatory at the top of the Castle of -Cassel, and made many observations himself, in conjunction -with Christopher Rothman and Justus Burge, -concerning the place of the sun, of the planets, and of -the stars.</p> - -<p>But the person who enriched astronomy with the -greatest number of facts of any modern who had yet -appeared, was Tycho Brahe, a Dane of noble extraction, -born in 1546, designed by his parents for -the study of the law; but attracted by an eclipse of -the sun in 1560, at Copenhagen, whither he had -been sent to learn philosophy, he was struck with -astonishment in observing that the phenomenon happened -at the very moment it had been predicted.</p> - -<p>He admired the art of predicting eclipses, and -wished to acquire it. At first, for want of proper -instruments, he fell into several mistakes, which, -however, he afterwards corrected. Having early perceived -his future improvements must depend on instruments, -he caused some to be constructed larger -than usual, and thus rendered more exact. On the -11th November, 1572, he perceived a new star in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">139</a></span> -Cassiopeia, which continued without changing its -place till spring 1574, equal in splendour to Jupiter -or Venus. It last it changed colours and entirely -disappeared. Nothing similar to this had been observed -since the days of Hipparchus.</p> - -<p>Tycho, in imitation of that illustrious astronomer, -conceived a design of forming a catalogue of the stars. -To promote his views, the King of Denmark ordered -a castle to be built in Hueun, an island between -Seonia and Zealand, which Tycho called Uranibourg, -“the city of heaven,” and where he placed the finest -collection of instruments that had ever yet appeared; -most of them invented or else improved by himself. -He composed a catalogue of seven hundred and -seventy-seven stars, with greater exactness than had -ever been done before; and constructed tables for -finding the place of the most remarkable stars at any -given time. He was the first who determined the -effect of refraction, whereby we see the sun or any -star above the horizon, before it is so in reality; as -we see the bottom of a vessel when filled with water, -standing at a distance, which we could not see when -empty. He made several other improvements and -important discoveries, which he published in a work -entitled “Progymnasmata.” The labours of Tycho -attracted the attention of Europe; the learned went -to consult him, and the noble to see him. James VI. -of Scotland, when he went to espouse the sister of -Frederic, King of Denmark, paid Tycho a visit, with -all his retinue, and wrote some Latin verses in his -praise.</p> - -<p>But these honours were of short continuance. -After the death of his protector, King Frederic, the -pension assigned him was withdrawn, and he was -compelled to exile himself from his native country. -Having hired a ship, he transported his furniture, -books, and instruments to a small place in Hamburgh, -in 1597. The Emperor Rodolphus invited him into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">140</a></span> -his dominions, settled a large pension upon him, gave -him a castle near Prague, to prosecute his discoveries, -and appointed him Longomatus, a native of Jutland, -and the celebrated Kepler, to assist him. But Tycho -was not happy in his new situation; he died 14th -October, 1601, repeating several times, “I have not -lived in vain.”</p> - -<p>Kepler was one of the greatest philosophers that -ever lived, and ought to be considered as the discoverer -of the <i>true</i> system of the world. He was born -in Germany, at Wiel, near Wirtemberg, 27th December, -1571. He early imbibed the principles of -Copernicus. After the death of Tycho, he was employed -to finish the tables which he had begun to -compose from his observations. Kepler took twenty -years to finish them. He dedicated them to the -emperor, under the title of the “Rodolphine Tables.”</p> - -<p>Kepler united optics with astronomy, and thus -made the most important discoveries. He was the -first who discovered that the <i>planets move not in a -circle, but in an ellipse</i>; and that altogether they move -sometimes faster and sometimes slower, yet that they -describe equal areas in equal times; that is, that the -spaces through which they move in different parts of -their orbit, are of equal times, though of unequal -length; yet when two straight lines are drawn from -the extremity of either space to the centre of the sun, -they form triangles which include equal areas. He -likewise demonstrated that the squares of the periodical -times of the revolution of the planets round -the sun, are in proportion to the cubes of their distance -from him; a theorem of the greatest use in -astronomical calculations: for having the periodical -times of two planets given, and if the distance of one -of them be known, by the rule of proportion, the -distance of the other can be ascertained.</p> - -<p>Kepler is said to have used logarithms in framing -his “Rodolphine Tables.” This great man died in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">141</a></span> -poverty, 15th November, 1631, at Ratisbon, whither -he had gone to solicit the arrears of his pension, -which had been very ill paid: he left nothing to his -wife and children but the remembrance of his virtues.</p> - -<p>Contemporary with Kepler was Galileo, born at -Pisa, in Italy, in 1564; illustrious for his improvements -in mechanics, for his application of the effects -of gravity, and for the invention, or at least, the -improvement of telescopes.</p> - -<p>The use of spectacles, or reading glasses (convex -for long-sighted; and concave for short-sighted persons,) -had been invented by one Spina, a monk at -Pisa, in 1290; or, as some say, by our countryman -Roger Bacon. The use of telescopes or glasses for -viewing objects at a distance, was invented by Zachary -Janssen, a spectacle-maker, at Middleburg, or -rather, as it is said, from the accidental discovery of -a child. The honour of this invention is also claimed -by others. It is certain that Galileo first improved -them so as to answer astronomical purposes. He -also first made use of the single pendulum for measuring -time in making his observations; to which he -was led, by considering one day the vibrations of a -lamp suspended from the vaulted roof of a church. -He likewise discovered the gravity of the atmosphere -from the rising of water in a pump, by the action of -a piston, which led the way to the invention of the -barometer, by his scholar Toricelli.</p> - -<p>The use of telescopes opened, in a manner, a new -world to Galileo. He observed with astonishment -the increased magnitude and splendour of the planets -and their satellites, formerly invisible: which afforded -additional proofs of the veracity of the Copernican system, -particularly the satellites of Jupiter, and the -phasis of Venus. He discovered an innumerable -multitude of fixed stars, which the naked eye could -not discern, and what greatly excited his wonder, -without the least increase in their size or brightness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">142</a></span> -About the same time, John Napier, of Merchiston, -in Scotland, invented what are called “Logarithms,” -first published at Edinburgh in 1614, afterwards -improved by Mr. Briggs, Professor of Geometry, at -Oxford, in which, by a very ingenious contrivance, -addition is made to answer for multiplication, and -subtraction for division; an invention of the greatest -utility in astronomical calculations.</p> - -<p>Galileo was not afflicted with poverty, but with -persecution. At seventy years of age he was called -before the Holy Inquisition, for supporting opinions -contrary to Scripture,—and was obliged, on the 11th -of June, 1633, formally to abjure them, to avoid -being burnt as a heretic. The system of Copernicus -had yet gained but few converts; and the bulk of -professions and learned men in Europe, attached to -the philosophy of Aristotle, supported the old doctrine. -Galileo was condemned to prison, and confined to the -small city of Arcem, with its territory, where he -consoled himself by the study of astronomy. He -contrived a method of discovering the longitude by -the satellites of Jupiter, which, however, has not been -productive of all the advantages he expected. He -died in prison, or rather in exile, in 1642.</p> - -<p>Although there were a great number of astronomers -contemporary with Kepler and Galileo, none made -any conspicuous figure. John Bayer, of Augsburg, -introduced the Jewish method of marking the stars -with letters of the Greek and Latin alphabets; this -the Jews use because their law does not permit the -use of figures, the produce of fancy.</p> - -<p>In 1732, astronomers were very attentive to observe -the transit of Venus over the disc of the sun, which -Kepler had predicted, as a confirmation of the system -of Copernicus. Mercury was observed by Gassendi -in France, and some others; but the transit of Venus -did not then take place for their inspection.</p> - -<p>The transit of Venus was first seen by Jeremiah<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">143</a></span> -Horrox, of Hoole, an obscure village, fifteen miles -north of Liverpool, on the 24th of November, 1639, -and at the same time by his friend, William Crabtree, -at Manchester. Horrox was born in 1619, and died -in 1641, in the twenty-third year of his age. He -wrote an account of his observations, which were -published after his death, under the title of “Venus -in Sole visa,” by Hevelius.</p> - -<p>The Copernican system was first publicly defended -in England, by Dr. Wilkins, in 1660; in France, by -Gassendi, the son of a peasant in Provence, who -published many valuable works on Philosophy. He -was born in 1592, and died in 1655. He was -violently opposed by Morin, a famous astrologer.</p> - -<p>Descartes, descended from a noble family, the son -of a counsellor of Brittany, in France, born at Haye, -in Tourraine, 31st of March, 1596, early distinguished -himself by his knowledge in algebra and geometry. -He attacked and overturned the philosophy of Aristotle, -in his own country. He attempted to establish -certain principles, which, though founded in theory, -he took for granted, by which he accounted for all -appearances. Like Mochus and Democritus, he -imagined all space to be filled with corpuscules, or -atoms, in continual agitation, and denied the possibility -of a vacuum. He explained everything by -supposing vortices, or motions round a centre, according -to the opinions of Democritus, and thus discovered -the centrifugal force in the circular motion of the -planets. But the system of Descartes not being -founded on facts or experiments, did not subsist long: -although at first it had many followers. His astronomical -opinions were much the same with those of -Copernicus.</p> - -<p>Although the lively notions of Descartes led him -into error, yet his exalted views greatly contributed to -the improvement of science. Men were led to observation -and experiments, in order to overturn his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">144</a></span> -system, and astronomy was cultivated by persons -of ability; viz., Bouillard, at Paris; Ward, -at Oxford, 1653; and by Helvelius, at Dantzic, -1643, who constructed a fine observatory, and collected -a great many facts by his long assiduous -observation, for fifty years, during which he made -many discoveries concerning the planets, fixed stars, -and particularly comets. Colbert, in the name of -Louis XIV., sent him a sum of money and a pension. -Hevelius published a catalogue of fixed stars, entitled, -“Firmamentum Sobieskianum,” dedicated to -John Sobieski, King of Poland, at that time justly -famous for having raised the siege of Vienna, when -attacked by the Turks, 1683. In honour of whom -Helvelius formed a new constellation between Antinonus -and Serpenterius, called <i>Sobieski’s Shield</i>.</p> - -<p>But the most distinguished astronomer of that time -was Christian Huygens, son to the secretary of the -Prince of Orange, born at the Hague, 14th of April, -1629, and educated at Leyden, under Schooten, the -commentator on Descartes,—famous for the application -of pendulums to clocks and springs to watches, -for the improvement of telescopes and microscopes, -and for the great discoveries he made, in consequence -of these improvements in astronomy.</p> - -<p>The establishment of academies, or societies, at -this time, contributed greatly to the advancement of -science.</p> - -<p>The Royal Society, in London, was begun in 1659, -but did not assume a regular form till 1662. Its -transactions were first published in 1665. The -Academy of Sciences, at Paris, was founded in 1686, -by Louis XIV., who invited to it Rœmer, from -Denmark, Huygens and Cassini from Italy.</p> - -<p>Cassini was born at Perinaldo, in the county of -Nice, on the 8th of June, 1625, and was appointed -first professor in the Royal Observatory at Paris, -where he prosecuted his discoveries till his death, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">145</a></span> -1712, and was succeeded by his son. He was assisted -by Picard, Auzoul, and La Hire.</p> - -<p>By the direction of the Academy of Sciences at -Paris, a voyage was undertaken by Riecher and -Meurisse, at the king’s expense, to the island of -Caienne, in South America, almost under the equator, -in 1672, to ascertain several philosophical facts;—the -refraction of light, the parallax of Mars, and of the -Sun, the distance of the tropics, the variation in the -motion of the pendulum, &c.</p> - -<p>The parallax of the sun is the angle under which an -observer at the sun would see the earth: this Cassini -fixed at 9½ seconds, and the angle under which we -see the sun, at 16 minutes and 6 seconds, or 966 -seconds; hence he concluded that these semi-diameters, -are as 9½ to 966, or as 10 to 1932. So -that, according to Cassini, the semi-diameter of the -earth is one hundred times less than that of the sun; -and consequently the sun is a million times larger -than the earth.</p> - -<p>The parallax of the sun has since, from the transit -of Venus, 6th of June, 1761, and 3rd of June, 1769, -been discovered to be but about 8 seconds, consequently -his comparative bulk to that of the earth, -and his distance from it, to be proportionably greater. -The method of finding the distance of the earth from -the sun, and consequently of the other planets, was -first proposed by Dr. Halley, who had never seen, -and was morally certain he would never see, this -appearance.</p> - -<p>Meurisse died during the voyage. Riecher returned -in 1676. His answer to the parallax of Mars was -not satisfactory. Cassini calculated it at 15 seconds.</p> - -<p>The distance of the tropics was found to be 46 -degrees, 57 minutes, 4 seconds. The chief advantage -resulting from the voyage was ascertaining the vibration -of the pendulum. In 1669, Placard remarked -that clocks went slower in summer than in winter,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">146</a></span> -owing to, as since ascertained, that it is the property -of heat to dilate bodies, which consequently lengthens -the pendulum; that cold produces an opposite effect. -Riecher found that the pendulum made forty-eight -vibrations less at Caienne than at Paris; that it went -two minutes and twenty seconds a day slower; -hence, to adjust, he was obliged to shorten the -pendulum.</p> - -<p>The same fact was confirmed by Halley, while at -St. Helena, 1676. But an additional reason for this -variation is presumed to exist, from the machinery -being further removed from the central axis of the -earth; the gravitating principle is presumed to be -diminished at the equator more than it is when nearer -the poles.</p> - -<p>About this time the French Jesuit missionaries, -having got admission into China, contributed greatly -to the improvement of their astronomy. Father -Schaal, one of their number, on account of his merit, -and particularly for his skill in astronomy, was so -highly honoured by the court of China, that the -emperor, upon his death-bed, made him preceptor to -his son and successor. Schaal reformed the Kalendar, -a matter of great importance to that country. It was -further improved by Verbiest, who succeeded Schaal, -about 1670. The most eminent astronomers in -England during this period were Flamstead, Halley, -and Hook.</p> - -<p>Sir Isaac Newton was born at Woolstrope, in Lincoln, -December 25, 1642; after due preparation he -was admitted in the University of Cambridge. The -rapidity of his progress in mathematical knowledge -was truly astonishing. At the age of twenty-four, he -had laid the foundation of the most important mathematical -discoveries. He is the first who gave a -rational and complete account of the laws which -regulate planetary motion, on the principles of attraction -and gravitation. Newton was as remarkable for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">147</a></span> -a modest diffidence of his own abilities, as for the -superiority of his genius. In 1704, he published his -“Optics;” in 1711, his “Fluxions;” and in 1728, -his “Chronology.” He received in his life time the -honour due to his singular merit. In 1703, he was -elected President of the Royal Society. In 1705, he -received the honour of knighthood by Queen Anne.—He -was twice member of parliament. In 1669, he -was made master of the mint, which, with the presidency -of the Royal Society, he held till his death, in -1726. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, where -there is an appropriate monument to his memory.</p> - -<p>The system of Newton had an eminent supporter -and able annotator in the very eminent Scottish professor, -Colin Mac Laurin, who was born in the month -of February, 1698. In 1719, he travelled to London, -where he was introduced to the illustrious Newton, -whose notice and friendship he obtained, and ever after -reckoned as the greatest honour and happiness of his -life. In 1734, Dr. Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, published -his treatise, called “The Analyst,” in which he -attempted to charge mathematicians with infidelity in -matters of religion. This work was the occasion of -Mac Laurin’s elaborate “Treatise on Fluxions,” published -at Edinburgh, in 1742, which is reckoned the -most ample treatise on that branch of novel mathematics -which has yet appeared. So very eminent was -Mac Laurin’s skill in mathematics, and the principles -of anatomical science, and he possessed such excellent -instruments for these purposes, that a new theory -never appeared, nor did anything transpire in the -scientific world, which was uncommon, but his friends -constantly resorted to him for explanation and experiment, -and their laudable curiosity was sure to be -satisfactorily gratified.</p> - -<p>One of the greatest names in the modern history of -astronomical discovery is that of the late Sir William -Herschel; and, much to his praise, he was self-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">148</a></span>instructed -in the science in which he earned his high -reputation. Herschel was born at Hanover, in 1736, -and was the son of a musician in humble circumstances. -Brought up to his father’s profession, at the -age of fourteen he was placed in the band of the -Hanoverian Guards. A detachment of this regiment -having been ordered to England in the year 1757, he -and his father accompanied it; but the latter returned -to Germany in a few months, and left his son to try -his fortune in London. For a long time he had many -difficulties to contend with, and he passed several -years principally in giving lessons in music in the -different towns in the North of England. At last, in -1765, through the interest of a gentleman to whom -his merits had become known, he obtained the situation -of organist at Halifax; and next year, having -gone to fulfil a short engagement at Bath, he gave so -much satisfaction by his performances, that he was -appointed to the same office in the Octagon Chapel of -that city, upon which he went to reside there. The -place which he now held was of some value; and -from the opportunities which he enjoyed of adding to -its emoluments, by engagements at the rooms and -private concerts, as well as by taking pupils, he had -had the prospect of deriving a good income from his -profession, if he had made that his only or his chief -object.</p> - -<p>During his residence at Bath, although greatly occupied -with professional engagements, the time he -devoted to his mathematical studies was surprising. -Often, we are told, after a fatiguing day’s work of -fourteen or sixteen hours among his pupils, he would, -on returning home at night, repair for relaxation to -what many would deem these severer exercises. In -this manner, in the course of time, he attained a competent -knowledge of geometry, and found himself in -a condition to proceed to the study of the different -branches of physical science which depend upon the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">149</a></span> -mathematics. Among the first of the latter that attracted -his attention, were the kindred departments of -astronomy and optics. Having applied himself to -these sciences, he became desirous of beholding with -his own eyes those wonders of the heavens of which -he had read so much, and for that purpose he borrowed -from an acquaintance a two-feet Gregorian -telescope. This instrument interested him so greatly, -that he determined to procure one of his own, and commissioned -a friend in London to purchase one for him, -of a somewhat larger size. But he found the price -was beyond what he could afford. To make up for -this disappointment, he resolved to construct a telescope -for himself; and after encountering innumerable -difficulties in the progress of his task, he at last succeeded, -in the year 1774, in completing a five-feet -Newtonian reflector. This was the commencement of -a long and brilliant course of triumphs in the same -walk of art, and also in that of astronomical discovery. -Herschel now became so much more ardently attached -to his philosophical pursuits, that, regardless of the -sacrifice of emolument he was making, he begun gradually -to limit his professional engagements, and the -number of his pupils.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile he continued to employ his leisure in -the fabrication of still more powerful instruments than -the one he had first constructed; and in no long time -he produced telescopes of seven, ten, and even twenty -feet focal distance. In fashioning the mirrors for these -instruments, his perseverance was indefatigable. For -his seven-feet reflector, we have been informed that -he actually finished and made trial of no fewer than -two hundred mirrors before he found one that satisfied -him. When he sat down to prepare a mirror, his -practice was to work at it for twelve or fourteen -hours, without quitting his occupation for a moment. -He would not even take his hand from what he was -about, to help himself to food; and the little he ate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">150</a></span> -on such occasions was put into his mouth by his -sister. He gave the mirror a proper shape, more by -a certain natural tact than by rule; and when his -hand was once in, as the phrase is, he was afraid that -the perfection of the finish might be impaired by the -least intermission of his labours.</p> - -<p>It was on the 13th of March, 1781, that Herschel -made the discovery to which he owes, perhaps, most -of his reputation. He had been engaged for nearly a -year and a half in making a survey of the heavens, -when, on the evening of the day that has been mentioned, -having turned his reflector (an excellent seven -feet reflector of his own constructing) to a particular -part of the sky, he observed among the other stars -one which seemed to shine with a more steady radiance -than those around it; and on account of that -and other peculiarities in its appearance, which excited -his suspicions, he determined to observe it more narrowly. -On reverting to it after some hours, he was -a good deal surprised to find that it had perceptibly -changed its place—a fact which the next day became -more indisputable. At first he was somewhat in -doubt whether or not it was the same star which he -had seen on these different occasions; but, after continuing -his observations for a few days longer, all -uncertainty upon that head vanished. He now communicated -what he had observed to the astronomer -royal, who concluded the luminary could be nothing -else than a new comet. Continued observation of it, -however, for a few months, dissipated this error; and -it became evident that it was in reality a hitherto -undiscovered planet. This new world so unexpectedly -found to form a part of the system to which our own -belongs, received from Herschel, the name of the -<i>Georgium Sidus</i>, or Georgian Star, in honour of the -King of England; but by continental astronomers it -has been more generally called either <i>Herschel</i>, after -its discoverer, or <i>Uranus</i>. Subsequent observations,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">151</a></span> -made chiefly by Herschel himself, have ascertained -many particulars regarding it, some of which are well -calculated to fill us with astonishment at the powers -of the sublime science which can wing its way so far -into the immensity of space, and bring us back information -so precise and various. In the first place, the -diameter of this new globe has been found to be nearly -four and a half times larger than that of our own. -Its size altogether is about eighty times that of our -earth. Its year is as long as eighty-three of ours.</p> - -<p>Its distance from the sun is nearly eighteen hundred -millions of miles, or more than nineteen times -that of the earth. Its density, as compared with that -of the earth, is nearly as twenty-two to one hundred; -so that its entire weight is more than eighteen -times that of our planet. Finally the force of gravitation -near its surface is such, that falling bodies descend -only through fourteen feet during the first -second, instead of thirty-two feet as with us. Herschel -afterwards discovered no fewer than six satellites, -or moons, belonging to his new planet.</p> - -<p>The announcement of the discovery of the Georgium -Sidus at once made Herschel’s name universally -known. In the course of a few months the king -bestowed on him a pension of three hundred pounds -a year, that he might be able entirely to relinquish -his engagements at Bath; and upon this he came to -reside at Slough, near Windsor. He now devoted -himself entirely to science; and the construction of -telescopes, and observations of the heavens, continued -to form the occupations of the remainder of his life. -Astronomy is indebted to him for many other most -interesting discoveries besides the celebrated one of -which we have just given an account, as well as a -variety of speculations of the most ingenious, original, -and profound character. But of these we cannot here -attempt any detail. He also introduced some important -improvements into the construction of the reflecting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">152</a></span> -telescope—beside continuing to fabricate that instrument -of dimensions greatly exceeding any that had been -formerly attempted, with the powers surpassing in -nearly a corresponding degree, what had ever been before -obtained. The largest telescope which he ever made, -was his famous one of forty feet long, which he erected -at Slough for the king. It was begun about the end -of the year 1785, and on the 28th of August, 1789, -the enormous tube was poised on the complicated but -ingeniously contrived mechanism by which its movements -were to be regulated, and ready for use. On -the same day a new satellite of Saturn was detected -by it, being the sixth which had been observed attendant -upon that planet. A seventh was afterwards -discovered by means of the same instrument. This -telescope has been taken down and replaced by another -of only half the length, constructed by Mr. J. Herschel, -the distinguished son of the subject of our present -sketch. Herschel himself eventually became convinced -that no telescope could surpass, in magnifying -power, one of from twenty to twenty-five feet in -length. The French astronomer, Lalande, states that -he was informed by George III. himself, that it was -at his desire that Herschel was induced to make the -telescope at Slough of the extraordinary length he did, -his own wish being that it should not be more than -thirty feet long.</p> - -<p>So extraordinary was the ardour of this great -astronomer in the study of his favourite science, that -for many years it has been asserted, he never was in -bed at any hour during which the stars were visible. -And he made almost all his observations, whatever -was the season of the year, not under cover, but in -his garden, in the open air—and generally without -an attendant. There was much that was peculiar to -himself, not only in the process by which he fabricated -his telescopes, but also in his manner of using -them. One of the attendants in the king’s observatory<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">153</a></span> -at Richmond, who had formerly been a workman in -Ramsden’s establishment, was forcibly reminded, on -seeing Herschel take an observation, of a remark -which his old master had made. Having just completed -one of his best telescopes, Ramsden, addressing -himself to his workman, said, “This, I believe, is -the highest degree of perfection we opticians by profession -will ever arrive at; if any improvement of -importance shall ever after this be introduced in the -making of telescopes, it will be by some one who has -not been taught by us.”</p> - -<p>Some years before his death, the degree of LL.D. -was conferred upon Herschel by the University of -Oxford; and in 1816, the Prince Regent bestowed -upon him the Hanoverian and Guelphic Order of -Knighthood. He died on the 23rd of August, 1822, -when he was within a few months of having completed -his eighty-fourth year.</p> - -<p>We have been thus particular in the enumeration -of particulars in the lives of those great men, who -have cultivated this sublime science, for the purpose -of availing ourselves of a suggestion furnished by Dr. -Priestly, who observed, “That we could only see -Newton in two points of his career: at the bottom of -the ladder, and at the top; having left no account of -his progress, it appeared as though he had broken the -steps by which he had ascended, that none should -follow.”</p> - -<p>From the facts collected by the many eminent men -whose names have ornamented our pages, we are -enabled to state the following particulars concerning -that part of the universe denominated the Solar system.</p> - -<p>The <i>Sun</i>, a luminous body diffusing light and heat; -whose diameter is computed at 890,000 miles; diurnal -rotation on axis 25 days 6 hours; performs his annual -revolution in orbit in 365 days 6 hours; progressive -equatorial motion in orbit per hour, 3818 miles.</p> - -<p><i>Mercury</i>, whose diameter is 3,000 miles, revolves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">154</a></span> -in an orbit 36,481,448 miles from that of the sun. -He performs his annual period round that planet in -87 days 23 hours; his hourly equatorial motion in -orbit is 109,699 miles.</p> - -<p><i>Venus</i>,—her diameter is 9,330 miles; revolves in -an orbit 68,891,486 miles distant from the sun; performs -her annual revolution in 224 days 17 hours; -diurnal rotation on axis 24 days 8 hours: hourly -equatorial motion in orbit 80,295 miles.</p> - -<p>The <i>Earth</i>,—its diameter 7970 miles; distance of -orbit from the sun 95,173,000 miles; revolves on its -axis once in 24 hours; performs her annual period -round the sun in the same time the sun completes his -revolution; hourly equatorial and progressive motion -in orbit 80,295 miles.</p> - -<p>The <i>Moon</i> is a satellite to the earth; her diameter -is 2180 miles; her diurnal rotation on axis is performed -in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; she performs -her annual revolution round the sun in precisely -the same time as does the earth, her superior planet; -her motion in orbit per hour is 22,290 miles.</p> - -<p><i>Mars</i>,—his diameter is 5400 miles; distance from -the sun, 145,014,148 miles; annual period round the -sun 671 days, 17 hours; diurnal rotation on axis 19 -days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; hourly motion in orbit -55,287 miles.</p> - -<p><i>Jupiter</i>,—his diameter 94,000 miles; distance from -the sun 494,990,976 miles; annual period in 11 years, -314 days, 18 hours; diurnal rotation on axis 9 hours, -56 minutes; hourly motion in orbit 29,803 miles.</p> - -<p><i>Saturn</i>,—his diameter 78,000 miles; distance from -the sun 907,956,130 miles; annual revolution in orbit -22 years, 167 days, 6 hours; hourly motion in orbit -22,101 miles.</p> - -<p>It should be observed that Jupiter has four moons, -or satellites, with a large and very luminous belt at a -great distance from his surface. Saturn also has seven -moons, with a very luminous ring about 21,000 miles<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">155</a></span> -broad, from its uppermost to its undermost edge; and -about the same distance from its surface.</p> - -<p><i>Georgium Sidus</i>,—the distance of the orbit from the -sun, 1,758,000,000 miles; annual revolution 28 years, -289 days; diameter 56,726 miles; has two satellites, -or moons.</p> - -<p>About 1801, 2, and 4, there were discovered three -other small planets in the system of the sun, called -<i>Vesta</i>, <i>Juno</i>, and <i>Pallas</i>.</p> - -<p>The fixed stars composing the <i>Zodiacal Signs</i>, are -divided into twelve constellations, one to each month; -which asterisms were discovered by Flamstead to -consist of the following number of stars to each:</p> - -<p><i>Aries</i>, the Ram, 66; <i>Taurus</i>, the Bull, 141; -<i>Gemini</i>, the Twins, 85; <i>Cancer</i>, the Crab, 83; <i>Leo</i>, -the Lion, 95; <i>Virgo</i>, the Virgin, 110; <i>Libra</i>, the -Scales, 51; <i>Scorpio</i>, the Scorpion, 44; <i>Sagitarius</i>, -the Archer, 69; <i>Capricornus</i>, the Goat, 51; <i>Aquarius</i>, -the Water-Carrier, 108; <i>Pisces</i>, the Fishes, 113.</p> - -<p>A comparative idea of the extent of the works of -Omnipotence may be perhaps collected, on our being -informed, that the sphere where the fixed stars appear, -is presumed to be placed far beyond the most remote -planetary orbit; and that some of them are supposed -to serve as suns to illumine other systems, or worlds, -to us unknown.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_155"><a id="NAVIGATION"></a>NAVIGATION.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> sacred records inform us that the ark of Noah -was the first ship, and produced by the invention of -the great Architect of Nature himself; and “though -some men have so believed,” says the learned and -ingenious Sir Walter Raleigh, in his “History of the -World,” “yet it is certain the world was planted before -the flood, which could not be performed without some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">156</a></span> -transporting vessels. It is true, and the success has -proved that there was not any so capacious, nor any -so strong, as to defend themselves against so violent -and so continued a pouring down of rain, as the ark -of which Noah was the builder, from the invention of -God himself. Of what fashion or fabric soever were -the rest, with all men they perished according to the -ordinance of God.” And it appears extremely probable -that those testimonials, whereof Ovid speaks of -former existence, were remains of ships wrecked at -the general flood.</p> - -<p>There can be no question that the Syrians were the -first maritime power in the world, as well in point of -time as importance;—but of what species of construction -their vessels were, we are not informed. -Their merchants trading to the Eastern Indies, as -they did for Solomon; to Ophir, whence they brought -gold; and also to this country for tin, and their having -made three distinct descents upon America, will -enable us to maintain this our opinion. After them -the Greeks, a people living chiefly on the shores of the -Hellespont and Ægean seas, with many islands in the -Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Archipelagion Seas, -besides their possessions in Asia Minor, and their -commerce with the European Continent, obtained the -next power by sea. We read indeed, that Minos, the -famous Cretan sovereign and legislator, who lived two -descents before the Trojan war, sent out shipping to -free the Grecian seas of pirates; which shows, as Sir -Walter Raleigh ingeniously infers, that there had been -trade and war upon the waters before his time also.</p> - -<p>The next in point of time and importance on record -was the highly renowned expedition of the Argonauts -for the golden fleece to Colchis, a country of Asia, on -the Euxine sea. Immediately after this was the colonization -of Cyrene, in Africa, by Battus, one of the -companions of Jason, in his Colchian expedition. -Shortly afterwards, the Grecian states united against<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">157</a></span> -Phrygian treachery and the abuse of Grecian hospitality; -forming another most memorable epoch in the -history of the world. We are informed the Grecian -Neptune, or as mythology styles him a God of the -Saturnian family, for the great service he did his -father, Saturn, or Noah, against the Titans, had the -seas given to him. History informs us that the first -inventor of rowing vessels was a citizen of Corinth; -and likewise that the first naval war was between the -Samians and Corcyrians. The history of Ithicus, -translated into Latin by St. Jerome, affirms that Griphon, -the Scythian, was the inventor of long-boats; -and Strabo also gives the honour of the invention of -the anchor to another Scythian, the famous Anacharsis, -whilst Greece herself by her historians, -ascribes its invention to Eupolemus. Also, it is said, -that Icarus invented the sail, and others, various -other pieces of the component parts of ships and boats. -The specification of such other imperfect memoirs, -many of fabulous appearance, may be of no great -importance.</p> - -<p>It appears certain that among the four sons of -Javan, the son of Japhet, the grandson, and other the -posterity of Noah, who peopled the “Isles of the -Gentiles,” the Grecian Islands must long before the -days of Minos have used those seas, from the insular -nature of their inhabitants. And it certainly does -not appear extravagant to us, to presume that this -people were among the first who navigated the seas. -Mankind in various parts of the world, being stimulated -by the same necessities, urged by the same -wants, and possessing the same means, might probably -produce similar inventions to each other. Most, -indeed, had occasion to navigate lakes, and cross rivers. -They accordingly constructed such machines as would -answer their purpose of passage or migration. So -were rafts and canoes, formed of canes, osiers, twigs, -&c., where they grew, which they fashioned like<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">158</a></span> -boats, and then covered with skins of various animals; -others formed rafts of wood; whilst some others -fashioned canoes, having hollowed out trees for that -purpose. One way or other, each people thus possessed -a marine, proper for their purpose it is true, -but in various degrees of excellence. This was the -case with Greeks as well as barbarians of all nations; -all these people, excepting the immediate descendants -of Noah, might, perhaps, lay a feasible claim to the -honour of the original invention of these articles; -and, having never seen such, they virtually have -each a good title to the distinction. Indeed, many of -them might have taken the idea for such invention -from the policy of certain animals, and the nature of -others; to instance the sagacity of the beaver and his -raft, and the little nautilus with his swelling sail: -hence they might have adopted from that animal, and -that piscatory insect, the idea of a raft, and also of a -vessel with a sail.</p> - -<p>In latter days we find the Teutonic Saxons first -came to this country, according to Mr. Turner, the -Anglo-Saxon historian, in vessels they called <i>cyules-kells</i> -by Sir Walter Raleigh. Marine vessels have -borne a variety of names, as well as of numerous -figures, from the gondola of the Venetian to the canoe -of the Esquimaux,—the British man-of-war to the -ponderous bonaventure in which the Doge annually -espouses the sea.</p> - -<p>All those nations, too, through whose hands the -maritime power has passed, from time to time, as -they have been instructed by experience, or taught by -necessity, might repeatedly have made additions and -improvements in naval architecture: some calculated -for mercantile utility, while others have only attended -to warlike strength, and some to answer both purposes, -like our Indiamen. But now, the British -navy, being supplied with the best materials, and -having as ingenious workmen as any, with the addition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">159</a></span> -of the warlike children of the soil, may openly -defy all nations, and proudly claim the sovereignty of -the seas where her flag has been flying ’midst the -battle and the breeze for so many years.</p> - -<p>But the most important improvement in Navigation—propelling -vessels by steam—has been left to our -own times. The steam-engine was first applied to -small vessels for the coasting or river trade; but it -has now increased to vessels of the largest size,—in -fact, the most part of the British navy are steamships. -In former times before the introduction of this -valuable auxiliary, the passage between England and -America was tedious and uncertain, sometimes taking -months, but rarely less than from four to six weeks, -according to the state of the weather; but now the -case is altered. There are a regular line of steamships, -one of which leaves Liverpool every week, -and the voyage is performed with almost positive -certainty in from twelve to fourteen days, independent -of the rude Boreas, or the boisterous Atlantic. These -vessels are of the largest size and handsomely fitted -up for the accommodation of passengers.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_159"><a id="LIGHT-HOUSES"></a>LIGHT-HOUSES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">A</span> light-house, in marine architecture, is a building, -or watch-tower, erected on the sea-shore, to serve as a -land-mark to mariners, on a low coast, by day, and, -in any situation, to inform them of their approach to -land in the night;—being of most essential utility in -causing them to take soundings, avoid shoals, rocks, -&c.; or else it is a building erected on a rock in the -sea, which, from its situation, would be extremely -dangerous to vessels, were not some intimation given -of the existence of a rock, where it is locally situated.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">160</a></span> -Of this latter description is the celebrated Eddystone -light-house, off Plymouth.</p> - -<p>Although this species of architecture is not likely -to have been so general in extreme antiquity, because -it could not have been essentially necessary to any -except to those nations who, from the proximity of -their situation to the coast, or other circumstances, -pursued maritime concerns; or to those whose connexions -rendered the encouragement of the marine of -other nations important.</p> - -<p>The oldest building of this description, which we -believe to be upon record, is the famous Pharos -erected on the Egyptian coast, which, being very low -land, and exposed entirely to the almost constant west -winds coming up the Mediterranean from the vast -Atlantic, must, of necessity, have made the port of -modern Alexandria, anciently called Dalmietta, very -dangerous. It was originally erected by Ptolemy -Philadelphus, for the encouragement and convenience -of the Phœnicians, who were accounted the foreign -factors of that empire; as the Egyptians possessed an -unconquerable aversion to the sea, and therefore they -never obtained its sovereignty: whilst the former -people were the first who obtained the supremacy of -that sea.</p> - -<p>The island upon which Pharos stood, in the time of -Homer, in his simple geography and estimation, was -said to be one day’s sail from the Delta; whereas, -since the foundation of Alexandria, it was only a -mile in distance, and was even joined to the mainland -by a mole, having a bridge at each end; or -according to some authors, in the middle. The tower -was, if report be true, justly entitled to the appellation -it obtained—one of the seven wonders of the -world; and it is reported, that the light from it has -been seen at the distance of a hundred miles; which, -assuredly, appears improbable, because the convexity -of the earth, we think, would not permit. Its height<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">161</a></span> -must have been, at least, 2,400 feet, or 800 yards -from the base.</p> - -<p>We are enabled to furnish the following particulars -of this famous structure. It was built by order of -that patron of learning and the arts, Ptolemy Philadelphus, -by that eminent architect, Sostrates, who -constructed many of the public buildings in Alexandria. -It is said to have cost Ptolemy eight hundred talents! -Respecting its mode of construction, it was raised -several stories one above another; each was decorated -with columns, balustrades, and galleries of the finest -marble and most exquisite workmanship; and some -have even said that the architect had furnished the -galleries with large mirrors, by which shipping could -be seen at a great distance. However, respecting -this edifice, once so famous, that its very name, Pharos, -was considered as a common term for all other constructions -for the same purpose, it is now said, from -Saracenic ignorance and brutality, aided, perhaps, by -the assistance of the common leveller, Time, that -nothing now remains of this once elegant edifice, but -an unsightly tower rising out of a heap of ruins, the -whole being accommodated to the inequality of the -ground on which it stands, and being, at present, no -higher than that which it should command. Such as -it is, there is now a light, we understand, usually -maintained. There is also an island, which was -called Pharos, in the Adriatic sea, on the coast of -Italy, opposite Brundusium, for the same reason: -likewise the celebrated colossal statue of Apollo, at -Rhodes, answered the same purpose, and occasionally -had the same appellation, as had a river of Asia, in -the environs of Cilicia and the Euphrates. This last -consideration brings us to the etymology of the word, -as Ozanum says, “Pharos originally signified a strait, -as the Pharos of Messina.” Of every description of -light-houses yet known, there is none more famous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">162</a></span> -than that called Eddystone, with a description of -which we shall conclude this article.</p> - -<p>Mr. Winstanley’s light-house was begun upon the -Eddystone rock in 1696, and was more than four -years in building, from the numerous interruptions of -the wind and the element he had to contend with, -the violence whereof is truly alarming, occasioned by -that rock being exposed to every wind which comes -up the vast Atlantic, and that tumultuous sea, the -Bay of Biscay. These obstacles were considerably -increased by the shape of the rock itself, having a -regular slope to S.W., and from the very deep sea in -its vicinity, it, therefore, receives the uncontrolled -fury of those seas: meeting with no other object -whereon to break their vehement force, the effect is -so great at high water with a S.W. wind, which continues -for many days, though a calm may have succeeded, -the violent action of the waters has not ceased, -but break frightfully on Eddystone. An engraving -of Mr. Winstanley’s light-house was published at the -period of its erection, from which it appears to have -been a stone tower of twelve sides, rising forty-four -feet above the highest point of the rock, which, in -the dimensions on which it was built, twenty-four -feet in diameter, was ten feet lower on one side than -it was upon the other; at the top was a balustrade -and platform; upon this were erected eight pillars, -which supported a dome of the same dimensions as -the tower; from the top of which arose an octagon -tower, of a diameter of fifteen feet, and seven in -height. On the summit was placed the lantern, ten -feet in diameter, and twelve in height: it had a gallery -surrounding it, which gave access to the windows. -The whole was surrounded by fencible iron-work. -The entry was by a solid stone door at the bottom; -the whole building was of the same material, except -the aperture for the staircase. At the bottom was -a room twelve feet high for a store-room; the next<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">163</a></span> -story was of the same height, which was the stateroom; -and the third was of a similar height, which -was the kitchen. Those compartments occupied the -whole height to the platform. The dome above this -contained the lodging-room; the octagon above it, the -look-out.</p> - -<p>The reason why it occupied so much time in building -was, because the men could only work in the -summer months. The first summer was occupied in -making holes in the rock, and fastening irons to hold -the future work. The second year was spent in erecting -a solid pillar, of fourteen feet diameter, and one -hundred and twelve feet high, for the future support -of the building. The third year, it was augmented -in diameter and increased in height. This building -was eventually finished, within the time above-mentioned, -at an enormous expense. It stood the opposition -of the elements. The violence of the sea was -so great, that Mr. Winstanley said it has been seen -to rise upwards of one hundred feet above the vane, -whilst the sides of the building were covered with -surf as with a sheet, so that the whole house and -lantern were occasionally under water. This edifice -withstood the conflict of elements till 1703, when the -architect, being at Plymouth, and desirous of visiting -it, for the purpose of inspecting some repairs, -went to it, but returned no more; for a storm arose, -which left not a relic of it standing, except the iron -work, which had been fixed in the rock. The Corporation -of the Trinity House had then to erect -another, for which purpose they employed a Mr. -John Rudyard, who was a silk mercer, on Ludgate-hill. -Mr. Rudyard’s mechanical ingenuity was -said to have qualified him well for the undertaking. -It appears that he erected a house made chiefly of -wood, which presented many traits of his genius. It -was a conical frustrum, one hundred and fifty-six -feet in diameter at the base; its altitude sixty-two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">164</a></span> -feet. At the top of the building was a balcony, -railed round; in the centre of its area was the lantern. -This building was made quite plain, excepting -the well for the staircase, which was solid for -thirty-two feet. In the centre a strong mast was -erected. The building was admirably fixed to the -rock, from the very peculiar manner of making the -holes to hold iron cramps, they being made for the -internal cavity to diverge on each side, by an extreme -of one inch at the depth of sixteen inches. The -cavity was first filled with tallow; the hot iron then -dipped in the same substance, put in the rock, and -eventually filled with pewter, which displaced the -tallow, being heavier, the grease serving to protect the -iron from the corrosive acidity of the salt water. In -1708, it was finished so far as to receive a temporary -light. It stood forty-four years, and showed that it -was liable to destruction from the very perishable -nature of its materials. However, on the 2nd December, -1755, the upper part of it taking fire, burnt -downwards to its entire consumption. The concern -had been leased to a Captain Lovell; but at a later -period his possessions were distributed among a number -of people, when the care of rebuilding it was -entrusted to Mr. Robert Weston, to whom Mr. John -Smeaton was recommended by the President of the -Royal Society, who appears to have been well qualified -for the undertaking. He accordingly furnished a plan -for, and superintended the building which now stands. -Mr. Smeaton’s conjecture was quite different to that -of the late projector; he conceived that nothing could -withstand the action of the wind and water so well, -and at the same time, prevent such accidents as the -past, as could a building whose gravity should secure -its most sure protection, He accordingly constructed -his of the most massy stones, all dovetailed into each -other, formed of Cornish-moor and Portland stone; -all the joints breach each other, as the masons term it,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">165</a></span> -or on each joint occurs the central stone of the next -course. There are fourteen courses of these stones -first laid in this manner, of a great thickness each -course. On the 12th June, 1757, the first stone was -laid in its place, each stone being pierced when it was -laid, a strong oak pin was driven through to pin it -fast to its place: the dovetails not fitting so close to -each other, because it was necessary to leave some -space for the cement, this pin was calculated to secure -the stone till this could be applied and had fixed; the -cement used was composed of Watchet lime and <i>puzzolana</i>, -or Dutch terras, being made at the moment -by mixing up in a pail, with water; this mixture -was poured upon the work, and run into every cavity -and crevice; this, however, was sometimes not exempt -from the injury of the sea; whenever it was injured, -the defect was supplied by having some oakum cut -fine, and mixed with this cement, introduced into the -joints; then they were secured with a coat of plaster -of Paris, <i>pro tempore</i>, and this was never known to fail, -if the work stood for one tide. In this manner the -platform was erected, all of the most solid materials, -and substantial workmanship.</p> - -<p>On the 30th of September, 1758, the work having -been continued from the 11th of the preceding May, -had arrived at the store-room floor; here an iron -chain was let into the stone, as follows: the recess being -made and the chain being well oiled before insertion, -the groove which received it was divided into four -separate dams by clay; two kettles were used, to hold -a sufficiency of melted lead, eleven hundred weight; -whilst the lead was in a state of fusion, two men -with ladles filled one quarter of the groove; as soon -as it set, they removed one of the clay dams, and then -filled the next quarter, pouring the liquid on the middle -of the first quarter, it melted together into the -second; the dam at the opposite end was now filled, -and then the fourth; by this means the lead was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">166</a></span> -associated into one solid mass. The centring for the -floor was next set up, the outward stones being first -set, and then the inner ones. Thus the base floor was -finished. The men could work no longer than till the -7th of October that year. The winter was spent in -preparing the iron, copper, and glass work for the -lantern; and the spring in unsuccessful endeavours to -discover the moorings for the vessel which attended -the works, for the occasional retreat of the workmen. -On the 5th of July the work was resumed: the -stones for building had been hitherto raised from the -boats by what are called shears, formed of two poles, -with the lowermost ends extended to a sufficient -width, whilst the upper ends met in a point; here -was fastened tackle, pulleys, &c., to raise them to a -sufficient height to be swung over the building; this -course was now of necessity altered; a block with -pulleys being suspended from the top, projected to a -sufficient distance, supported by beams. After the -base had been formed as described, a different mode -of operation was necessary to complete the superstructure; -the work being now advanced so high as -to be out of the constant wash of the sea. Instead -of grooves being formed to fasten the stones together, -they were fixed by means of iron clamps and lead. -The stones to complete the superstructure were landed, -and first drawn up by machinery, called a <i>jack</i>, -through the well, in the interior of the building, being -a cavity for the staircase. The work now proceeded -more rapidly, so that by the 26th of August, the -stairs and all the masonry were finished: the iron -frame for the lantern was next screwed together in its -place, and the lantern soon completed. It should -have been noticed, that after the first entry was -closed, the shears were supported by a tackle called a -<i>guy</i>, attached to the top of the shears, and hooked so -far on the outside of the building; the stone being -drawn up by a windlass, the guy was drawn in to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">167</a></span> -swing the stone over the building. The balcony rails -and the stone basement for the lantern having been -completed, on the 17th of September the cupola was -set up by a particular kind of shears constructed purposely, -the guy in different places being fastened to -booms projecting from the several windows of the -upper rooms; the next day the ball was screwed on, -and on the 11th of October, an electrical conductor -was fixed, which finished the edifice. A light was -then exhibited, which has continued to warn the mariner -ever since. An ably constructed cornice throws -the spray from off the building, so that it is often -seen at Plymouth with the appearance of a white sheet, -throwing itself to double the height of the -building, which from low water mark to the apex of -the ball is one hundred feet.</p> - -<p>We have been thus minute, because this pharos is -considered to be the best constructed of all our -lighthouses.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_167"><a id="ELECTRICITY"></a>ELECTRICITY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Electricity</span> was a property but imperfectly understood -by the ancients; indeed, it has been said, they -were entirely unacquainted with it. But we propose, -shortly, to show the extent to which we are informed -their sphere of knowledge extended. This much -cannot be denied, that they were acquainted with the -electrical properties of amber, of which fact we are -informed by Pliny.</p> - -<p>Even before Pliny, however, as early as the days -of Thalis, who lived near six hundred years anterior -to the Roman historian, the Miletine philosophers -ascribed the attractive power of the magnet and of -amber to animation by a vital principle. Our word -“electricity” appears to be derived from the name the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">168</a></span> -Latins gave to amber, <i>electrum</i>. It is also evident -that they were acquainted with the shock of the -torpedo; although they were ignorant, as are the -moderns, of the concealed cause of this effect.</p> - -<p>It has been asserted that the ancients knew how to -collect the electrical fire in the atmosphere; and it is -also said, that it was in an experiment of this nature -that Tullus Hostilius lost his life. Etymologists have -carried us still farther back, and assert that it was -from the electrical property in the heavens that Jove -obtained his surname of Jupiter <i>Eliaus</i>. This, -however, may be only conjectural.</p> - -<p>The first discoveries made of sufficient importance -to demand the appellation of “scientific” in the science -of electricity, were effected by Dr. W. Gilbert, the -result of which he gave the world, in the year 1660, -in a book then published, entitled “De Magneto,” -and Dr. Gilbert was followed in his pursuits by that -celebrated scientific character, the honourable and -illustrious Boyle, and other men eminent for that -species of information.</p> - -<p>This science was successfully cultivated in the last -century by many eminent philosophers, among whom -we may mention Hawkesbee, Grey, Muschenbrook, -Doctors Franklin and Priestly, Bishop Watson, Mr. -Cavendish, and several other members of the Royal -Society of England; whilst those worthy of the true -philosophic character in France did not neglect its -cultivation.</p> - -<p>Many fatal accidents have resulted from experiments -made by people ignorant of the science. On -the 6th of August, 1753, at Petersburg, Professor -Richmann lost his life by endeavouring to draw the -electric fluid into his house.</p> - -<p>Electricity, like many others of the arcana of nature, -still retains almost as deeply shaded from human -view as when its existence was first made known.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">169</a></span> -Nature appears to have certain secret operations, -which are not yet, perhaps, to be revealed.</p> - -<h3 id="h_169">ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.</h3> - -<p>This is the most surprising invention of modern -times, and of the greatest importance to a commercial -people; by means of it intelligence is conveyed from -one end of the kingdom to another, in the twinkling of -an eye. A company was fully organised for the -carrying out this invention, which commenced its -operations in 1848, and established a system of no -ordinary complication and extent. Their wires stretch -from Glasgow on the north, to Dorchester, on the -south, from the east coast, at Yarmouth, to the west, -at Liverpool. These have brought upwards of one -hundred and fifty towns into instant communication -with each other. The wires set up for the use of the -public alone are upwards of nine thousand eight -hundred miles in length, and extend over a distance -of two thousand and sixty miles, and, exclusive -of those running underground, and through -tunnels or rivers, are stretched on no fewer than -sixty-one thousand eight hundred posts, varying -from sixteen to thirty feet in height, and of -an average square of eight inches, with an -expensive apparatus of insulators and winders -attached to each. As the most trifling derangement -of the wires or apparatus will stop the communication, -it is obvious that the utmost care and watchfulness is -requisite to prevent and detect accidents. Accordingly, -the whole distance is divided into districts, each district -having a superintendent, and under him several -inspectors, and a staff of workmen, batterymen, and -mechanics, more or less numerous, according to the -extent over which he presides.—When we consider -these things, in conjunction with the central staff of -engineers, secretaries, &c., at the head-establishment in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">170</a></span> -London, a maximum charge of one penny per mile -cannot be considered an exorbitant demand for the -accommodation afforded to the public in keeping open -so many receiving stations, and the maintenance of the -expensive establishments. The telegraphic system is -designed for important and urgent messages, and it -may be safely averred that not one despatch in a -hundred has been as yet forwarded by it, which has -not been by many times worth more than the sum -paid by the sender. A commercial house in Liverpool -will scarcely grudge 8s. 6d. for a communication -by which a necessary payment may be made, an -important order given, or a profitable operation facilitated -in London; and the message from Glasgow, -which traverses a distance of five hundred and -twenty miles in an instant, to summon a son from -the metropolis, it may be, to the bedside of a dying -parent, cannot be judged exorbitant at a charge of -14s., considerably less than one halfpenny per mile.</p> - -<p>Messrs. Wilmer and Smith, of Liverpool, publishers -of the “European Times,” have arranged the most -admirable code of signals in the world; and by the use -of forty-eight letters are capable of transmitting intelligence -equal to half a column of an ordinary newspaper. -The telegraphic company disapprove of this species of -short-hand, and, therefore, charge for the forty-eight -letters 13s. This Messrs. Wilmer and Smith consider -excessive, as they have forwarded similar messages -by telegraph, four thousand miles in America, for 8s., -and from Philadelphia to New York for 1s. These -gentlemen, therefore, consider they have cause to find -fault with the company in reference to charges for -communications in cipher.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">171</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_171"><a id="STEAM-ENGINES"></a>STEAM-ENGINES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> Steam-Engine is one of the most important of -human discoveries, and is certainly one of those which -afford the greatest portion of ease and advantage to -the human species, as well in the operation of its -cause, as in its ultimate effects. The most powerful -of machines had its origin from the single idea of one -individual of our own nation. It has been, from time -to time, improved by different individuals, also natives -of Britain, the precise period of which improvements -can be traced, and their effects fortunately ascertained.</p> - -<p>Although we should observe, that the first principle -of this mechanical power was discovered by some of -the ancient nations, many ages before that which gave -the origin to the present practised invention, but from -the state of information, it is conceived, to answer no -purpose of utility. It may be said to have occurred -in a small machine which the ancients called an -<i>Æolipila</i> (the bull of Æolus) consisting of a hollow -ball of metal, with a slender neck, or pipe, also of -metal, having a small orifice entering into the ball, -by means of a screw; this pipe being taken out, the -ball being filled with water, and the pipe again -screwed in, the ball is heated—there issues from the -orifice, when sufficiently hot, a vapour, with great -violence and noise; care was required that this should -not be by accident stopped, if it were, the machine -would infallibly burst, and perhaps, to the danger of -the lives of all in its vicinity, so immense is its power.</p> - -<p>Another way of introducing the water was first to -heat the ball when empty, and then suddenly to immerse -it in water. Descartes, in particular, has used -this instrument to account for the natural generation -of winds. Chauvin thinks it might be employed instead -of bellows, to blow a fire. It would admirably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">172</a></span> -serve to fumigate a room, being filled with perfume -instead of common water. It is said to have been -applied to clear chimneys of their soot, a practice still -alleged to be common in Italy. Dr. Plott, in his “History -of Staffordshire,” records this singular custom, -where the Æolipila is used to blow the fire. “The -lord of the mannor of Essington is bound by his -tenure to drive a goose, every New Year’s day, three -times round the hall of the Lord of Hilton, while -Jack of Hilton, a brazen Æolipila, blows the fire.” -The last circumstance we shall mention of this instrument, -has relation to an antique one, discovered -whilst digging the Basingstoke canal, representing a -grotesque metallic figure, in which the blast proceeded -from the mouth. This figure is now in the possession -of the Society of Antiquaries of London. In this instrument, -the uncommon elastic force of steam was -recognised before the suggestion of the Marquis of -Worcester, which follows:</p> - -<p>“In 1655, or subsequent thereto, the Marquis of -Worcester published the earliest account of the application -of this power for the purposes of utility, -and suggested it as applicable to raising water. -‘Sixty-eight. An admirable and most forcible -way to drive up water by fire; not by drawing -or sucking it upwards, for that would be what -the philosopher calleth it, <i>intra spherum actroctatis</i>, -which is, but at such a distance. But this way has -no bounder, if the vessel be strong enough; for I have -taken a whole piece of cannon, whereof the end was -burst, stopping and screwing up the broken end, as -also the touch-hole; and making a constant fire under -it, within twenty-four hours it burst and made a great -crack: so that having a way to make my vessels, so -that they are strengthened by the force within them, -and the one to fill after the other, I have seen the -water run like a constant fountain stream, forty feet -high; one vessel of cold water being consumed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">173</a></span> -another begins to force and refill with cold water, and -so successively; the fire being tended and kept constant, -which the self-same person may likewise -abundantly perform, in the interim between the -necessity of turning the cocks.’”</p> - -<p>The marquis’s ingenuity did not, it appears, meet -with that attention which it deserved, from those to -whom his communication was addressed. In the -article of steam it has been since very much improved, -and is acted upon for the most useful of purposes; -also his ideas for short-hand telegraphs, floating baths, -escutcheons for locks, moulds for candles, and a mode -to disengage horses from a carriage, after they have -taken fright; which, with several others, proclaim -the originality and ingenuity of the mind of this -nobleman—an honour which very few of the British -nobility aspire to.</p> - -<p>Since his time, another design upon the same -principle has been projected by Captain Thomas -Savery, a commissioner of sick and wounded, who in -the year 1691 obtained a patent for “a new invention -for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts -of mill-work, by the impellant force of fire.” This -patent bears date the 25th of July, sixteenth of William -III., <span class="smcap smaller">A. D.</span> 1698. The patent states that the -invention will be of great use for drawing of mines, -serving towns with water, and working all sorts of -mills. “Mr. Savery, June 14th, 1699, entertained -the Royal Society with showing a model of his engine -for raising water by help of fire, which he set to work -before them; the experiment succeeded according to -expectation.”</p> - -<p>The above memoir is accompanied with a copperplate -figure, with references by way of description; -from whence it appears, that the engine then shown -by Captain Savery was for raising water, not only -by the expansive force of steam, like the Marquis of -Worcester’s, but also by the condensation of steam,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">174</a></span> -the water being raised by the pressure of a rarified -atmosphere to a given height, by the expansive force -of steam, in the same manner as the Marquis proposed. -This action was performed alternately in two -receivers, so that while the vacuum formed in one -was drawing up water from the well, the pressure of -steam in the other was forcing up water into the reservoir; -but both receivers being supplied by one -suction-pipe and one forcing-pipe, the engine could be -made to keep a continual stream, so as to suffer very -little interruption. This engine of Captain Savery’s -displays much ingenuity, and is almost as perfect in -its contrivance as the same engine has been made since -his time. We regret, that without a figure we cannot -supply a perfect description of it.</p> - -<p>However, it appears that it was necessary to have -two boilers, or vessels of copper, one large and the -other smaller: those boilers have a gauge-pipe inserted -into the smaller boiler, within about eight -inches of its bottom, and about the centre of the side -of the larger boiler; the small boiler must be quite -full of water, and the larger one only about two-thirds -full. The fire is then to be lighted beneath the larger -boiler, to make the water boil, by which means the -steam being confined, will be greatly compressed, and -will, therefore, on opening a way for it to issue out -(which is done by pushing the handle of a regulator -from the operator), rush with great violence through -a steam-pipe into a receiver, driving out all the air -before it, sending it up into a force-pipe through a -clack, as may be perceived from its noise; when the -air is expelled, the receiver will be very much heated -by the steam. When it is thoroughly emptied of atmospheric -air, and grown very hot, which may be -both seen and felt, then the handle of the regulator is -to be drawn towards the operator, by which means -the first steam-pipe will be stopped, so that no more -steam can rise into the first receiver, by which means<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">175</a></span> -a second receiver will be filled in like manner. Whilst -this is doing, some cold water must be poured on the -first receiver, by which means the steam in it will be -cooled, and thereby condensed into smaller room: consequently -the pressure in the valve, or cock, at the -bottom of the receiver—there being nothing to counterbalance -the atmospheric pressure at the surface of -the receiver in the inner part of the sucking-pipe, it -will be pressed up into the receiver, driving up before -it the valve at the bottom, which afterwards falling -again, prevents the descent of the water that way. -Then the first receiver being, at the same time, emptied -of its air, push the handle of the regulator, and -the steam which rises from the boiler will act upon -the surface of the water contained in the first receiver, -where the force or pressure on it still increasing -its elasticity, till it exceeds the weight of a column of -water in another receiving-pipe, then it will necessarily -drive up through the passage into the force-pipe, -and eventually discharge itself at the top of the -machinery.</p> - -<p>After the same manner, though alternately, is the -first receiver filled and emptied of water, and by this -means a regular stream kept continually running out -of the top of a force-pipe, and so the water is raised -very often from the bottom of a mine, to the place -where it is meant to be discharged.</p> - -<p>It should be added, that after the machine begins -to work, and the water has risen into and filled the -force-pipe, it fills also a little cistern, and by that -means fills another pipe, called the condensing-pipe, -which may be turned either way, over any of the -receivers, when either is thoroughly heated by, the -steam, to condense it within, thereby producing a -vacuum, which absorbs the water out of the well into -the receiver, on the principle of a syphon. Also a -little above the cistern goes another pipe to convey -the water from the force-pipe into the lesser boiler, for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">176</a></span> -the purpose of replenishing the great boiler, when the -water in it begins to be almost consumed. Whenever -there is occasion for this, the cock is to be turned -which communicates between the force-pipe and the -lesser boiler, to close it effectually; at the same time -having put a little fire beneath the small boiler, which -will grow hot; its own steam, which has no vent to -escape, pressing on its surface, will force the water up -another pipe, through an aperture in the great boiler, -and so long will it run, till the surface of the water -gets so low as to be beneath the bottom of the pipe -of communication—then the steam and water running -together, will cause the valve (called a clack) to -strike, which will intimate to the operator that it has -discharged itself into the greater boiler, and carried in -as much water as is then necessary; after which, by -turning a cock, as much fresh water is let in as may -be necessary; and then, by turning another cock, new -fresh water is let out of a recipient into the less boiler -as before; and thus the engine is supplied without fear -of decay, or any delay in the operations; and proper -attention in the workmen is only necessary to prevent -disorder in a machine so expensive and complicated.</p> - -<p>Also, to know when the great boiler wants replenishing, -turn the gauge-cock; if water comes out, it does -not need a supply; but if steam alone, then the want -of water is certain. The like with the cock with -which the lesser boiler is prepared for the same purpose, -when the same state will be marked by like -results. In working this engine, very little skill, and -less labour is required: <i>Attention</i> is the chief requisite; -it is only to be injured by want of due care, -extreme stupidity, or wilful neglect.</p> - -<p>The engine described above, does not differ essentially -from that first designed by the inventor, Captain -Savery; the chief alteration which now occurs, is only -in some few slight particulars. For example, the -original engine had only one boiler, and there was no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">177</a></span> -ready means for supplying it with water, to remedy -the waste occasioned by evaporation of steam, without -stopping the action of the engine, whenever the boiler -was emptied to such a degree as to risk burning the -vessel. After it was replenished the machine had to -remain idle till the steam was raised, thus causing an -immense loss of time; which is remedied by the -application of a second boiler.</p> - -<p>The description of the engine formerly mentioned is -transcribed from Mr. Savery’s publication, “The -Miner’s Friend,” and which had a subsidiary boiler, -with water of a boiling heat, always ready to supply -the large boiler; and the power of steam raised in it -is employed to force the water into the larger boiler, -to replace the waste occasioned by evaporation from -that boiler; by this means the transposition of the -feeding water is not only speedily performed, but being -itself of a boiling heat, it is instantly ready to produce -steam for carrying on the work. There is also one -more grand improvement in the modern machine: the -first engine was worked by four separate cocks, which -the operator was compelled to turn separately at every -change of stroke; if he turned them wrong, he was -not only liable to damage the engine, but he prevented -its effect, and, at the same time, lost a part of the -operation: whereas, in the improved engine, the communications -are made by a double sliding valve, or, as -it has since been termed, regulator; that is, a brass -plate, shaped like a fan, and moving on a centre within -the boiler, so as to slide horizontally in contact with -the under surface of the cover of the boiler, to which -it is accurately fitted by grinding, and thus, at pleasure, -opens or shuts the orifices, or entries, to the steam -pipes of the two receivers alternately. This regulator -acts with less friction than a cock of equal bore, and, -by the motion of a single handle backwards, at once -opens the proper steam pipe from one receiver, and -closes that which belongs to the other receiver. Captain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">178</a></span> -Savery, in his publication before noticed, describes -the uses to which this machine may be applied, besides -those before described, viz.—1, to serve water for -turning all sorts of mills; 2, for supplying palaces, -noblemen and gentlemen’s houses with water, and -affording the means for extinguishing fires therein, by -the water so raised; 3, the supplying cities and towns -with water; 4, draining fens and marshes; 5, for -ships; 6, for draining mines of water; and 7, for -preventing damps in mines.</p> - -<p>Dr. Desaguliers, we conceive, ungenerously attacked -Captain Savery’s reputation, by alleging that this was -not an original invention, and that he was indebted -for the first idea to the previously mentioned plan of -the Marquis of Worcester. Dr. Rees, with a generous -liberality worthy his great critical discrimination, -scientific skill, and general erudition, has, we think, -ably defended the captain’s character, by proving his -ideas to have originated with himself; we have only -an opportunity to notice the most prominent features -in this justification, where Dr. Rees thus expresses -himself. “We know that the Marquis of Worcester -gave no hint concerning the <i>contractibility or condensation -of steam, upon which all the merit of the modern -engine depends</i>. The Marquis of Worcester’s engine -was actuated wholly by the elastic power of steam, -which he either found out, or proved by the bursting -of cannon in part filled with water; and not the least -hint that steam so expanded, is capable of being so far -contracted in an instant, as to leave the space it occupied -in a vessel, and occasion, in a great measure, a -vacuum.”</p> - -<p>Subsequent to the Marquis of Worcester’s, and -Captain Savery’s original ideas, and also, subsequent -to the perfection the captain had brought his machine -to, M. Amonton, a native of France, invented a machine -which he called a fire-wheel; but it does not appear -that it was ever brought to that perfection to be conducive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">179</a></span> -to real utility, although it was certainly very -ingenious.</p> - -<p>Also, M. Papin, a native of Germany, made some -pretensions to what he alleged was an invention of his -own, only it happened to appear, unfortunately for his -claim, that he was in London, and present at the time -when Captain Savery exhibited the model of his -steam-engine to the Royal Society. He made some -unsuccessful experiments, by order of his patron, the -Landgrave of Hesse, which sufficiently proved that, if -he was the inventor, he did not understand the nature -of his own machine.</p> - -<p>Not long after Savery had invented his engine, -Thomas Newcomen, an ironmonger, and John Calley, -a glazier, began to direct their attention to the employment -of steam as a mechanic power. Their first -engine was constructed about the year 1711. This -machine still acted on the principle of condensing the -steam by means of cold water, and the pressure of the -atmosphere on the piston. It was found of great -value in pumping water from deep mines; but the -mode of its construction, the great waste of fuel, the -continued cooling and heating of the cylinder, and the -limited capacities of the atmosphere in impelling the -piston downward, all tended to circumscribe its utility.</p> - -<p>The steam-engine was in this state, when it happily -attracted the attention of Mr. Watt, to whom the -merit and honour is due, of having first rendered this -invention available as a mechanical agent. We cannot -illustrate the improvements of this ingenious individual -better than by giving a short biographical -sketch of him to whom the world is so much indebted.</p> - -<p>James Watt was born at Greenock, an extensive -seaport in the west of Scotland, on the 19th of -January, 1736. His father was a merchant, and also one -of the magistrates of that town. He received the -rudiments of his education in his native place; but -his health being then extremely delicate, as it continued<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">180</a></span> -to be to the end of his life, his attendance at school -was not always very regular. He amply made up, -however, for what he lost in this way, by the diligence -with which he pursued his studies at home, where, -without any assistance, he succeeded, at a very early -age, in making considerable proficiency in various -branches of knowledge. Even at this time it is said -his favourite study was mechanical science, to a love -of which he was probably in some degree led by the -example of his grandfather and his uncle, both of -whom had been teachers of mathematics, and had left -a considerable reputation for learning and ability in -that department. Young Watt, however, was not -indebted to any instruction of theirs for his own acquirements -in science, the former having died two -years before, and the latter one year after he was -born. At the age of eighteen he was sent to London, -to be apprenticed to a maker of mathematical instruments; -but in little more than a year the state of his -health forced him to return to Scotland; and he never -received any further instruction in his profession. A -year or two after this, however, a visit which he paid -to some relations in Glasgow, suggested to him the -plan of attempting to establish himself in that city, in -the line for which he had been educated. In 1757, -he accordingly removed thither, and was immediately -appointed mathematical instrument maker to the -College. In this situation he remained for some years, -during which, notwithstanding almost constant ill -health, he continued both to prosecute his profession, -and to labour in the general cultivation of his mind, -with extraordinary ardour and perseverance. Here -also he enjoyed the intimacy and friendship of several -distinguished persons, who were then members of the -University, especially of the celebrated Dr. Black, the -discoverer of the principle of latent heat, and Dr. -Robison, so well known by his treatises on mechanical -science, who was then a student, and about the same<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">181</a></span> -age as himself. Honourable, however as his present -appointment was, and important as were many of the -advantages to which it introduced him, he probably -did not find it a very lucrative one; and therefore, in -1763, when about to marry, he removed from his -apartments in the University, to a house in the city, -and entered upon the profession of a general engineer.</p> - -<p>For this his genius and scientific attainments most -admirably qualified him. Accordingly he soon -acquired a high reputation, and was extensively employed -in making surveys and estimates for canals, -harbours, bridges, and other public works. His -advice and assistance were sought for in almost all the -important improvements of this description, which -were now undertaken or proposed in his native -country. But another pursuit, in which he had been -for some time privately engaged, was destined ere long -to withdraw him from this line of exertion, and to -occupy his whole mind with an object still more -worthy of its extraordinary powers.</p> - -<p>While yet residing in the College, his attention had -been directed to the employment of steam as a -mechanical agent, by some speculations of his friend -Mr. Robison, with regard to the practicability of -applying it to the movement of wheel-carriages; and -he had also himself made some experiments with -Papin’s digester, with the view of ascertaining its -expansive force. He had not prosecuted the inquiry, -however, so far as to have arrived at any determinate -result, when the winter of 1763–4, a small model of -Newcomen’s engine was sent him by the Professor of -Natural Philosophy, to be repaired, and fitted for -exhibition in the class. The examination of this -model set Watt upon thinking anew, and with more -interest than ever, on the powers of steam. Struck -with the radical imperfections of the atmospheric -engine, he began to turn in his mind the possibility of -employing steam in mechanics, in some new manner<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">182</a></span> -which should enable it to work with much more -powerful effect. This idea having got possession of -him, he engaged in an extensive course of experiments, -for the purpose of ascertaining as many facts as possible -with regard to the properties of steam; and the -pains he took in this investigation were rewarded -with several valuable discoveries. The rapidity with -which water evaporates he found, for instance, -depended simply upon the quantity of heat which -was made to enter it; and this again, on the extent -of the surface exposed to the fire. He also ascertained -the quantity of coals necessary for the evaporation of -any given quantity of water, the heat at which water -boils, under various pressures, and many other particulars -of a similar kind, which had never before been -accurately determined.</p> - -<p>Thus prepared by a complete knowledge of the -properties of the agent with which he had to work, -he next took into consideration, with a view to their -amendment, what he deemed the two great defects of -Newcomen’s engine. The first of these was the -necessity arising from the method employed to concentrate -the steam, of cooling the cylinder, before -every stroke of the piston, by the water injected into -it. On this account, a much more powerful application -of heat than would otherwise have been requisite -was demanded for the purpose of again heating that -vessel when it was to be refilled with steam. In -fact, Watt ascertained that there was thus occasioned, -in the feeding of the machine, a waste of not less than -three-fourths of the whole fuel employed. If the -cylinder, instead of being thus cooled for every stroke -of the piston, could be permanently hot, a fourth part -of the heat which had hitherto been applied would be -found sufficient to produce steam enough to fill it. -How then was this desideratum to be obtained? -Savery, the first who really constructed a working -engine, and whose arrangements, as we have already<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">183</a></span> -remarked, all showed a very superior ingenuity, -employed the method of throwing cold water over the -outside of the vessel containing the steam—a perfectly -manageable process, but at the same time a very -wasteful one; inasmuch as every time it was repeated, -it cooled not only the steam, but the vessel also, -which, therefore, had again to be heated, by a large -expenditure of fuel, before the steam could be produced. -Newcomen’s method of injecting the water -into the cylinder was a considerable improvement on -this; but it was still objectionable on the same ground, -though not to the same degree; it still cooled not -only the steam, on which it was desired to produce -that effect, but also the cylinder itself, which, as the -vessel in which more steam was to be immediately -manufactured, it was so important to keep hot. It -was also a very serious objection to this last mentioned -plan, that the injected water, itself, from the heat of -the place into which it was thrown, was very apt to -be partly converted into steam; and the more cold -water was used, the more considerable did this creation -of new steam become. In fact, in the last of -Newcomen’s engines, the rarefaction of the vacuum -was so greatly improved from this cause, that the -resistance experienced by the piston in its descent -was found to amount to about a fourth part of the -whole atmospheric pressure by which it was carried -down, or, in other words, the working power of the -machine was thereby diminished one-fourth.</p> - -<p>After reflecting for some time upon all this, it at -last occurred to Watt to consider whether it might -not be possible, instead of continuing to condense the -steam in the cylinder, to contrive that method of -drawing it off, to undergo that operation in some -other vessel. This fortunate idea having presented -itself to his mind, it was not long before his ingenuity -suggested to him the means of realising it. In the -course of one or two days, according to his own<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">184</a></span> -account, he had all the necessary apparatus arranged -in his mind. The plan which he devised was, indeed, -an extremely simple one, and on that account the -more beautiful. He proposed to establish a communication -by an open pipe, between the cylinder and -another vessel, the consequence of which evidently -would be, that when the steam was admitted into the -former, it would flow into the other to fill it also. -If, then, the portion in this latter vessel only should -be subjected to a condensing process, by being -brought into contact with cold water, or any other -convenient means, what would follow? Why, a -vacuum would be produced here—into that, as a -vent, more steam would immediately rush from the -cylinder—that likewise would be condensed—and so -the process would go on till all the steam had left the -cylinder, and a perfect vacuum had been effected in -that vessel, without so much as a drop of cold water -having touched or entered it. The separate vessel -alone, or the condenser, as Watt called it, would be -cooled by the water used to condense the steam—and -that, instead of being an evil, manifestly tended to -promote and quicken the condensation. When Watt -reduced his views to the test of experiment, he found -the result to answer his most sanguine expectations. -The cylinder, although emptied of its steam for every -stroke of the piston as before, was now constantly -kept at the same temperature with the steam (or 212 -deg. Fahrenheit); and the consequence was, that one-fourth -of the fuel formerly required, sufficed to feed -the engine. But besides this most important saving -in the expense of maintaining the engine, its power -was greatly increased by the most perfect vacuum -produced in the new construction, in which the condensing -water, being no longer admitted within the -cylinder, could not, as before, create new steam there -while displacing the old.</p> - -<p>Such, then, was the remedy by which the genius<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">185</a></span> -of this great inventor effectually cured the first and -most serious defect of the old apparatus. In carrying -his ideas into execution, he encountered, as was to be -expected, many difficulties, arising principally from -the impossibility of realising theoretical perfection of -structure with such materials as human art is obliged -to work with; but his ingenuity and perseverance -overcame every obstacle. One of the things which -cost him the greatest trouble was, how to fit the -piston so exactly to the cylinder, as, without affecting -the freedom of its motion, to prevent the passage of the -air between the two. In the old engine this end had -been obtained by covering the piston with a small -quantity of water, the dripping down of which into -the space below, where it merely mixed with the -stream introduced to effect the condensation, was of -little or no consequence. But in the new construction, -the superiority of which consisted in keeping this -receptacle for the steam always both hot and dry, -such an effusion of moisture, although in very small -quantities, would have occasioned material inconvenience. -The air alone, besides, which in the old -engine followed the piston in its descent, acted with -considerable effect in cooling the lower part of the -cylinder. His attempts to overcome this difficulty, -while they succeeded in that object, conducted Watt -also to another improvement, which effected the -complete removal of what we have called the second -radical imperfection of Newcomen’s engine, namely, -its non-employment for a moving power, of the expansive -force of steam. The effectual way it occurred to -him of preventing any air from escaping into the part -of the cylinder below the piston, would be to dispense -with the use of that element above the piston, and to -substitute there likewise the same contrivance as below, -of alternate steam and a vacuum. This was, of course, -to be accomplished by merely opening communications -from the upper part of the cylinder to the boiler on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">186</a></span> -the one hand, and the condenser on the other, and -forming it at the same time into an air-tight chamber, -by means of a cover, with only a hole in it to admit -the rod or shank of the piston, which might, besides, -without impeding its freedom of action, be padded -with hemp, the more completely to exclude the air. -It was so contrived accordingly, by a proper arrangement -of the cocks and the machinery connected with -them; that, while there was a vacuum in one end of -the cylinder, there should be an admission of steam -into the other; and the steam so admitted now served, -not only by its susceptibility of sudden condensation -to create the vacuum, but also, by its expansive force, -to impel the piston.</p> - -<p>These were the great improvements which Watt -introduced in what may be called the principle of the -steam-engine, or, in other words, in the manner of -using and applying the steam. They constitute, -therefore, the grounds of his claim to be regarded as -the true author of the conquest that has been obtained -by man over this powerful element. But original and -comprehensive as were the views out of which these -fundamental inventions arose, the exquisite and inexhaustible -ingenuity which the engine, as finally perfected -by him, displays in every part of its subordinate -mechanism, is calculated to strike us perhaps with -scarcely less admiration. It forms undoubtedly the -best exemplification that has ever been afforded of the -number and diversity of services which a piece of -machinery may be made to render to itself, by means -solely of the various application of its first moving -power, when that has once been called into action. -Of these contrivances, however, we can only notice -one or two, by way of specimen. Perhaps the most -singular is that called the <i>governor</i>. This consists of -an upright spindle, which is kept constantly turning, -by being connected with a certain part of the -machinery, and from which two balls are suspended,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">187</a></span> -in opposite directions, by rods, attached by joints, -somewhat in the manner of the legs of a pair -of tongs. As long as the motion of the engine is -uniform, that of the spindle is so likewise, and the -balls continue steadily revolving at the same distance -from each other. But as soon as any alteration in the -action of the piston takes place, the balls, if it has -become more rapid, fly further apart under the influence -of the increased centrifugal force which actuates -them; or approach nearer to each other in the opposite -circumstances. This alone would have served to -indicate the state of matters to the eye; but Watt -was not to be so satisfied. He connected the rods -with a valve in the tube by which the steam is -admitted to the cylinder from the boiler, in such a way, -that as they retreat from each other, they gradually -narrow the opening which is so guarded, or enlarge it -as they tend to collapse; thus diminishing the supply -of steam when the engine is going too fast, and when -it is not going fast enough, enabling it to regain its -proper speed by allowing it an increase of aliment.</p> - -<p>Again the constant supply of a sufficiency of water -to the boiler is secured by an equally simple provision, -namely, by a <i>float</i> resting on the surface of the water -which, as soon as it is carried down by the consumption -of the water to a certain point opens a valve and -admits more. And so on through all the different -parts of the apparatus, the various wonders of which -cannot be better summed up than in the forcible and -graphic language of a recent writer:—“In the present -perfect state of the engine it appears a thing almost -endowed with intelligence. It regulates, with perfect -accuracy and uniformity, the <i>number of its strokes</i> in a -given time, <i>counting</i>, or <i>recording</i> them moreover, to -tell how much work it has done, as a clock records -the beats of its pendulum; it regulates the <i>quantity -of steam</i> admitted to work; the <i>briskness of the fire</i>; -the <i>supply of water</i> to the boiler; the <i>supply of coals</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">188</a></span> -to the fire; it <i>opens and shuts its valves</i> with absolute -precision as to time and manner; it <i>oils its joints</i>; it -<i>takes out any air</i> which may accidentally enter into -parts which should be vacuous; and when any thing -goes wrong, which it cannot of itself rectify, it <i>warns -its attendants</i> by ringing a bell; yet, with all these -talents and qualities, and even when exerting the -power of six hundred horses, it is obedient to the -hand of a child; its aliment is coal, wood, charcoal, -or other combustible—it consumes none when idle—it -never tires, and wants no sleep; it is not subject to -malady when originally well made, and only refuses -to work when worn out with age; it is equally active -in all climates, and will do work of any kind; it is a -water-pumper, a miner, a sailor, a cotton-spinner, a -weaver, a blacksmith, a miller, &c., &c.; and a -small engine, in the character of a <i>steam pony</i>, may -be seen dragging after it on a rail-road a hundred tons -of merchandise, or a regiment of soldiers, with greater -speed than that of the fleetest coaches. It is the king -of machines, and a permanent realisation of the <i>Genii</i> -of Eastern fable, whose supernatural powers were occasionally -at the command of man.”</p> - -<p>In addition to those difficulties which his unrivalled -mechanical ingenuity enabled him to surmount, Watt, -notwithstanding the merit of his inventions, had to -contend for some time with others of a different nature, -in his attempts to reduce them to practice. He -had no pecuniary resources of his own, and was at -first without any friend willing to run the risk of the -outlay necessary for an experiment on a sufficiently -large scale. At last he applied to Dr. Roebuck, an -ingenious and spirited speculator, who had just established -the Carron iron-works, not far from Glasgow, -and held also at the same time a lease of the extensive -coal-works at Kinneal, the property of the Duke of -Hamilton. Dr. Roebuck agreed to advance the requisite -funds, on having two-thirds of the profits made<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">189</a></span> -over to him; and upon this Mr. Watt took out his -first patent in the beginning of the year 1769. An -engine with a cylinder of eighteen inches diameter -was soon after erected at Kinneal; and although, -as a first experiment, it was necessarily, in some -respects, of defective construction, its working completely -demonstrated the value of Watt’s improvements. -But Dr. Roebuck, whose undertakings were -very numerous and various, in no long time after -forming this connexion, found himself involved in such -pecuniary difficulties, as to put it out of his power to -make any further advances in prosecution of its object. -On this Watt applied himself for some years almost -entirely to the ordinary work of his profession as a -civil engineer; but at last, about the year 1774, when -all hopes of any farther assistance from Dr. Roebuck -were at an end, he resolved to close with a proposal -which had been made to him through his friend, Dr. -Small, of Birmingham, that he should remove to that -town, and enter into partnership with the eminent -hardware manufacturer, Mr. Boulton, whose extensive -establishments at Soho had already become famous -over Europe, and procured for England an unrivalled -reputation for the arts there carried on. Accordingly -an arrangement having been made with Dr. Roebuck, -by which his share of the patent was transferred to -Mr. Boulton, the firm of Boulton and Watt commenced -the business of making steam-engines, in the year -1775.</p> - -<p>Mr. Watt now obtained from parliament an extension -of his patent for twenty-five years, in consideration -of the acknowledged national importance of his -inventions. The first thing which he and his partner -did was to erect an engine at Soho, which they -invited all persons interested in such machines to -inspect. They then proposed to erect similar machines -wherever required, on the very liberal principle of -receiving, as payment for each, only one-third of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">190</a></span> -saving in fuel which it should effect, as compared with -one of the old construction.</p> - -<p>But the draining of mines was only one of the many -applications of the steam-power now at his command, -which Watt contemplated, and in course of time -accomplished. During the whole twenty-five years, -indeed, over which his renewed patent extended, the -perfecting of his invention was his chief occupation, -and notwithstanding a delicate state of health, and the -depressing affliction of severe headaches, to which he -was extremely subject, he continued throughout this -period to persevere with unwearied diligence in adding -new improvements to the mechanism of the engine, -and devising the means of applying it to new purposes -of usefulness. He devoted, in particular, the exertions -of many years, to the contriving of the best methods -of making the action of the piston communicate a -rotary motion in various circumstances, and between -the years 1781 and 1785, he took out four different -patents for inventions having this in his view.</p> - -<p>It is gratifying to reflect, that even while he was -yet alive, Watt received from the most illustrious -contemporaries, the honours due to his genius. In -1785, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; -the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon him -by the University of Glasgow, in 1806; and in 1808, -he was elected a member of the French Institute. He -died on the 25th of August, 1819, in the 84th year of -his age.</p> - -<p>The beneficial results arising from the ingenuity of -Watt have been surprising. The steam-engine has -already gone far to revolutionise the whole domain of -human industry; and almost every year is adding to -its power and its conquests. In our manufactures, -our arts, our commerce, our social accommodations, it -is constantly achieving what, little more than half a -century ago, would have been accounted miraculous -and impossible. “The trunk of an elephant,” it has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">191</a></span> -been finely and truly said, “that can pick up a pin, -or rend an oak, is as nothing to it. It can engrave -a seal, and crush masses of obdurate metal like wax -before it—draw out, without breaking, a thread as -fine as gossamer, and lift a ship of war, like a bauble, -in the air. It can embroider muslins, and forge anchors; -cut steel into ribbands, and impel loaded -vessels against the fury of the winds and waves.”</p> - -<p>Another application of it is perhaps destined to be -productive of still greater changes on the condition of -society, than have resulted from many of its previous -achievements,—we refer to railroads. The first great -experiment was the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, -which was opened, we believe, in 1831, and -practically demonstrated, with what hitherto almost -undreamt of rapidity travelling by land may be carried -on through the aid of steam. Carriages, under -the impetus communicated by this the most potent, -and at the same time the most perfectly controllable -of all our mechanical agencies, can be drawn forward -at the flying speed of thirty and thirty-five miles an -hour. When so much has been already done, it would -be rash to conclude that even this is to be our ultimate -limit of attainment. In navigation, the resistance of -the water, which increases rapidly as the force opposed -to it increases, very soon set bounds to the rate at -which even the power of steam can impel a vessel -forward. But on land, the thin medium of the air -presents no such insurmountable obstacles to a force -making its way through it; and a rapidity of movement -may perhaps be eventually attained here, which -is to us even as yet inconceivable. But even when -the rate of land travelling already shown to be quite -practicable shall have become universal, in what a -new state of society shall we find ourselves! A nation -will then, indeed, become a community; and all the -benefits of the highest civilization will be diffused -equally over the land, like the light of heaven. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">192</a></span> -invention, in short, when fully consummated, will -confer upon man as much new power and enjoyment -as if he were actually endowed with wings.</p> - -<p>The commerce of the kingdom has also greatly -benefited by the introduction of this valuable auxiliary, -as will be seen from the following extract from the -“Working Man’s <span class="locked">Companion:”—</span></p> - -<p>“The establishment of steam-boats between England -and Ireland has greatly contributed to the -prosperity of both countries. How have steam boats -done this? They have greatly increased the trade of -both countries. On the examination of Mr. Williams, -before a Committee of the House of Commons, he -stated that ‘before steam-boats were established, -there was little trade in the smaller articles of farming -production, such as poultry and eggs. The first -trading steam-boat from Liverpool to Dublin, was set -up in 1824; there are now (1832) forty such boats -between England and Ireland. The sailing vessels -were from one week to two or three weeks on the -passage; the voyage from Liverpool to Dublin is now -performed in fourteen hours. Reckoning ten mile, -for an hour, Dublin and Liverpool are one hundred -and forty miles apart; with the old vessels taking -twelve days as the average time of the voyage, they -were separated as completely as they would be by a -distance of two thousand eight hundred and eighty -miles. What is the consequence? Traders may now -have, from any of the manufacturing towns in England, -within two or three days, even the smallest quantity -of any description of goods;’ and thus ‘one of the -effects has been to give a productive employment of -the capital of persons in secondary lines of business, -that formerly could not have been brought into action.’” -Mr. Williams adds, ‘I am a daily witness to the -intercourse by means of the small traders themselves -between England and Ireland. Those persons find -their way into the interior of England, and purchase<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">193</a></span> -manufactured goods themselves. They are, of course, -enabled to sell them upon much better terms in Ireland; -and I anticipate that this will shortly lead to -the creation of shops and other establishments in the -interior of Ireland for the sale of a great variety of -articles which are not now to be had there.’</p> - -<p>“And how do the small dealers in English manufactured -goods find purchasers in the rude districts of -Ireland for our cloths and our hardware? Because -the little farmers have sent us their butter and eggs -and poultry, and have either taken our manufactures -in exchange, or have taken back our money to purchase -our manufactures, which is the same thing. -Many millions of eggs, collected amongst the very -poorest classes, by the industry of the women and -children, are annually sent from Dublin to Liverpool. -Mr. Williams has known fifty tons, or eight hundred -and eighty thousand eggs, shipped in one day, as well -as ten tons of poultry; and he says this is quite a -new creation of property. It is a creation of property -that has a direct tendency to act upon the condition -of the poorest classes in Ireland; for the produce is -laid out in providing clothes for the females and children -of the families who engage in rearing poultry -and collecting eggs. Thus the English manufacturer -is bettered, for he has a new market for his manufactures, -which he exchanges for cheap provisions; -and the dealer in eggs and poultry has a new impulse -to this branch of industry, because it enables him to -give clothes to his wife and children. This exchange -of benefits—this advancement in the condition of both -parties—this creation of produce and of profitable -labour—this increase of the number of labourers—could -not have taken place without machinery. That -machinery is the carriage which conveys the produce -to the river, and the steam-boat which makes a port -in another country much nearer for practical purposes, -than the market town of a thinly peopled district. A<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">194</a></span> -new machinery is added; the steam-carriage running -on the railroad, as one of the witnesses truly says, -‘is like carrying Liverpool forty miles into the interior, -and thus extending the circle to which the supply -will be applicable.’ The last invention perfects all -the inventions which have preceded it. The village -and the city are brought close together in effort, and -yet retain all the advantages of their local situation; -the port and the manufactory are divided only by two -hours distance in time, while their distance in space -affords room for all the various occupations which contribute -to the perfection of either. The whole territory -of Great Britain and Ireland is more compact, -more closely united, more accessible than was a single -county two centuries ago.”</p> - -<p>The communication between England and Ireland -has greatly increased since the above remarks were -written, in 1832. There are now upwards of four hundred -steam-boats sailing between Ireland and Great -Britain, and of late years the largest export from that -unfortunate country consists of her starving population, -who, true enough, find their way into the interior of England, -but not with the intention of purchasing manufactured -goods, but of being employed in the manufacturing -of them. We believe that our mechanical -readers, at least, will agree with us, when we say that -the benefit has not been reciprocal. England, for her -share, has been burthened with a pauper population, -and her sons deprived of their employment, by the -immense immigration that has of late years taken -place. Poor rates are multiplied to an extent hitherto -unheard of, and our streets swarming with beggars—and -those of the most importunate class. So much -was this the case, that in 1847 and 1848, Liverpool -was inundated with paupers from the sister country -to such a degree, that her authorities were compelled -to petition government to put an end to the nuisance, -and to grant them assistance to prevent the death of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">195</a></span> -so many thousands of their fellow-men from dying for -want; the poor-rates were so increased that the ratepayers -with justice complained. And we question -much if ever the English manufactures have been so -much benefited by the commerce as the foregoing -quotation would lead us to believe. That we have -been supplied with enormous quantities of provisions -we cannot deny; but that the payment of these was -taken back in our cloths and our hardware is very -questionable. That the money was taken back there -can be little doubt, not for the purpose, however, of -buying clothes for the wives and children of those -families whose industry had supplied us with eggs -and poultry, but for supplying the insatiate wants of -their profligate landlords, who were squandering the -subsistence of the needy peasantry in another land. -If any class of men have obtained benefit by means of -this increased and speedy communication between -the two countries, it assuredly is the absentee Irish -landlord.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_195"><a id="MILLS"></a>MILLS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Corn</span> Mills are of very ancient origin, and it may -not be uninteresting to our readers to learn something -of the customs of our forefathers with regard to them; -to which we will subjoin such modern improvements -as the more advanced state of the arts have enabled -the moderns to achieve, and to excel the imperfect -information of the ancients in mechanical sciences.</p> - -<p>In support of the antiquity of grinding corn, we -may go as for back as the days of the patriarch Abraham, -who, we are informed in Genesis xviii. 6, -“hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, Make -ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, -and make cakes upon the hearth.” To this we may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">196</a></span> -add, that it appears in a subsequent text, Numbers -xi. 8, that manna was ground like corn. The earliest -instrument for this purpose seems to have been the -mortar, which was retained long after the introduction -of mills, properly so called: because they were -most probably at first very imperfect. In process of -time the mortar was made ridged, and the pestle -notched at the bottom, by which means the grain was -rather grated than pounded.</p> - -<p>A passage in Pliny, which has not as yet had a -satisfactory interpretation, renders this conjecture -probable. In time a handle was added to the top of -the pestle, that it might be more easily driven round -in a circle, whence this machine at first was called -<i>mortarium</i>, by this means assuming the name of a -hand-mill. Such a mill was so called from rubbing -backwards and forwards; and varied but little from -those used by our colour-grinders, apothecaries, potters, -and other artisans. From expressions in the sacred -volume, we may rationally infer that it was customary -to have a mill of this sort in every family. Moses -having forbidden to take such instruments for a -pledge; for that, says he, “No man shall take the -nether or the upper millstone to pledge: for he taketh -a man’s life.” It is observed by Michaelis, on this -passage, that a man could not then grind, consequently -could not bake the necessary daily bread for -the family.</p> - -<p>Grinding was then the employment of the women, -particularly of female slaves, as at present in those -countries which are uncivilised: the portion of strength -required for the operation, therefore, could not have -been great; but afterwards the mills were driven by -bondsmen, whose necks were placed in a circular -machine of wood, so that they could not put their -hands to their mouths or eat of the meal. This must -have been an interesting link between the hand and -the horse-mill.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">197</a></span> -In course of time shafts were added to the mill, -that it might be driven by cattle, which were then -blindfolded. The first cattle mills were called <i>molae -jumentaria</i>, which had, probably, only a heavy -pestle like the hand-mill; but it is conjectured, that -it must have been soon remarked, that the labour -would be more easily accomplished, if, instead of the -pestle a large heavy cylinder was employed. A competent -judge has, however, believed that the first -cattle mills had not a spout or trough as ours have; -at least those hand-mills Tournefort saw at Nicaria, -consisted only of two stones; but the meal issued -through an opening in the upper one, and fell upon -a board or table, on which the lower one rested.</p> - -<p>The upper millstone they called <i>meta</i>, or <i>turbo</i>; and -the lower one <i>catillus</i>: the name of the first also signified -a cone with a blunt apex, whence it has been -thought by some, that corn was first rubbed into -meal, by rolling one stone upon another, as painters -now grind colours with a muller. This is not improbable, -as present practice among barbarous people -fully proves. It is also apparent that the upper millstone -was substituted for the pestle, which action may -have lent it a name, when they called it <i>meta</i>.</p> - -<p>Professor Beckmann has followed Gori in his description -of an antique gem, engraved on red jasper, upon -which appears “the naked figure of a man, who in -his left hand holds a sheaf of corn, and in the right a -machine that in all probability is a hand-mill. Gori -considers the figure as a representation of the god -Eunostus, who was the god of mills. The machine -which Eunostus seems to exhibit, or to be surveying -himself, is, as far as one can distinguish, (for the stone -is scarcely half an inch in size), shaped like a chest, -narrow at the top, and wide at the bottom. It stands -upon a table, and in the bottom there is a perpendicular -pipe, from which the meal, also represented -by the artist, appears to be issuing. Above, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">198</a></span> -chest or body of the mill has either a top with an -aperture, or perhaps a basket sunk into it, from which -the corn falls into the mill. On one side, nearly about -the middle of it, there projects a broken shank, which, -without overstraining the imagination, may be considered -as a handle, or that part of the mill which -some call <i>mobile</i>. Though this figure is small, and -though it gives very little idea of the internal construction, -one may, however, conclude from it that the -roller, whether it was of wood or of iron, smooth or -notched, did not stand perpendicularly, like those of -our coffee mills, but lay horizontally, which gives us -reason to conjecture a construction more ingenious -than that of the first invention. The axis of the -handle had, perhaps, within the body of the mill, a -crown wheel, that turned a spindle, to the lower end -of the perpendicular axis of which the roller was fixed. -Should this be admitted, it must be allowed also, that -the hand-mills of the ancients had not so much a -resemblance to the before-mentioned colour mills as to -the philosophical mills of our chemists; and Langelott, -consequently, will not be the real inventor of the -latter. On the other side, opposite to where the -handle is, there arise from the mill of Eunostus two -shafts, which Gori considers as those of a besom and -shovel, two instruments used in grinding; but as the -interior part cannot be seen, it appears to me doubtful -whether these may not be parts of the mill itself.”</p> - -<p>In the commencement of the last century, the -remains of a pair of Roman millstones were found at -Adel, in Yorkshire. One of these stones, twenty -inches in breadth, is thicker in the middle than at the -edge, consequently one side is convex; the other was -of the same size, but as thick at the sides as the other -was in the centre; the traces of notching were discoverable.</p> - -<p>Enough, may, perhaps, have been said concerning -this original invention; therefore this article will not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">199</a></span> -be encumbered with quotations of all those passages -relative to mills, which are found in ancient authors, -as they would afford but little additional information. -Neither will mythological records be disturbed to -inquire to which deity or hero the invention was -originally attributed; or to ascertain the descent of -Milantes, whom Stephanus distinguishes by that -honour, or how those millstones were constructed -which are alleged to have been built by Myletes, son -of Lelex, King of Laconia; but we shall proceed to -the invention of Water-Mills.</p> - -<p>These appear to have been introduced about the -period of Mithridates, contemporary with Cæsar and -Cicero. Strabo, relating that there was a water-mill -near the residence of the Pontian king, that honour -has been ascribed to him; but so far is this remote -from certainty, that nothing can be inferred from -thence, other than that water-mills at that period -were known in Asia. Pomponius Sabinus informs us, -that the first water-mill seen at Rome was erected on -the banks of the Tiber, a little before the time of -Augustus; but of this there is no other proof than his -simple assertion: he having taken the greater part of -his remarks from the illustrations of Servius, he must -have had a more perfect copy of that author than any -now remaining, and from these his information might -have come.</p> - -<p>The most certain proof we have that Rome had -water-mills in the time of Augustus, is, that Vitruvius -has told us so; but those mills were not corn-mills, -they were hydraulic engines, which he describes in -his works. From whence we learn that the ancients -had wheels for raising water, which were driven by -being trod upon by men; the usual employment for -criminals, as may be learnt from Artemidorus. Also -from a pretty epigram of Antipater; “Cease your -work, ye maids, ye who laboured in the mill; sleep -now, and let the birds sing to the ruddy morning;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">200</a></span> -for Ceres has commanded the water nymphs to perform -your task; these, obedient to her call, throw themselves -on the wheel, force round the axle-tree, and by -these means the heavy mill.” Antipater lived at the -period of Cicero. Palladius, also, with equal clearness, -speaks of water-mills, which he advises to be -built on estates where is running water, in order to -grind corn without men or cattle.</p> - -<p>It likewise appears that the water-wheels to which -Heliogabalus directed some of his friends and parasites -to be tied, cannot be considered to be mills for the -purpose of grinding corn; for these, as well as the -<i>haustra</i> of Lucretius were probably like those machines -for raising water, which are spoken of by Vitruvius -as <i>hydraulic</i>.</p> - -<p>It is, however, on the authority of Pompinius Sabinus, -before-cited, that both wind and water mills -were known to have been in Italy, and even the latter -in Rome, in the days of Augustus. However, about -twenty-three years after the death of Augustus, when -Caligula seized every horse from the mills, to convey -effects he had in contemplation to take from Rome, -the public were much distressed for bread; whence -we must infer that water-mills must have been very -rare. Even three hundred years after Augustus, -cattle mills were so common in that city, that their -number amounted to three hundred; mention of them, -and of the hand-mills, often occurs for a long time -after. It is not their use we inquire after, it is enough -for us to know that they existed.</p> - -<p>We now come to another period, when we are informed -that <i>public mills</i> were first introduced, which -occurs in the year 398, mention being made of them -in that year, which also clearly shows that they were -then newly-established; which establishment was -found necessary to be protected by laws made in their -favour. The orders for that purpose were renewed -more than once, and made more secure by Zeno, towards<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">201</a></span> -the end of the fifth century. It may be properly -remarked, that in the whole code of Justinian, -the least mention of wooden pales or posts is not -made, which occurs in all the new laws,—and which, -it appears, when there were several mills on the same -stream, occasioned so many disputes then, as well as -in after times. The mills at Rome were erected on -those canals which conveyed water to the city; and -because these were employed in several arts, and for -many purposes, it was ordered that, by dividing the -water, the mills should always be kept going; but as -they were driven by so small a quantity of water, -they probably executed very little work; and for this -reason, but probably on account of the great number -of slaves, and the cheap rate at which they were -maintained, these noble machines were not so much -used, nor were so soon brought to perfection, as under -other circumstances they might have been. It appears, -however, that after the abolition of slavery, -they were much improved, and more employed, and -to this a particular incident seems, in some degree, to -have contributed.</p> - -<p>When Vitiges, King of the Goths, besieged Belisarius -in Rome, in the year 536, and caused the fourteen -large expensive aqueducts to be stopped, the city -was reduced to great distress; not from want of -water, in general, because it was secured against that -inconvenience by the Tiber; but by the loss of that -water which the baths required, and, above all, of that -necessary to drive the mills, which were all situated -on these canals. Horses and cattle, which might have -been employed upon grinding, were not to be found; -but Belisarius fell upon the ingenious contrivance of -placing boats upon the Tiber, on which he erected -mills that were driven by the current. This experiment -was attended with complete success; and as -many mills of this kind as were necessary were constructed. -To destroy these, the besiegers threw into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">202</a></span> -the stream logs of wood, dead bodies, &c., which -floated down the river into the city; but the besieged, -by making use of booms to stop them, were enabled -to drag them out before they could do any mischief. -This seems to have been the origin of <i>floating-mills</i>, -no record of them appearing previously. By these -means the use of water-mills became very much extended; -for floating-mills can be constructed almost -upon any stream, without forming an artificial fall; -they may be stationed at the most convenient places, -and they rise and fall of themselves with the water.—They -are, however, attended with these inconveniences: -they require to be strongly secured; they often block -up the stream too much, and move slowly; and they -often stop when the water is too high, or when it is -frozen.</p> - -<p>After this improvement, the use of water-mills was -never laid aside or forgotten, but was soon made -known all over Europe; and passages innumerable -might be quoted, in every century, to prove their continued -use. The Roman, Salic, and other laws, -constantly provided for the security of these mills, and -defined a punishment for such as destroyed the sluices, -or stole the mill-irons. It is said, however, that there -were water-mills in France and Germany a hundred -years before these laws had existence.</p> - -<p>At Venice, and other places, there were erected -mills which regulated themselves by the motion of the -waters, and which were regulated by the flowing and -ebbing of the tide, and which every six hours changed -the motion of the wheels. Of this species of mills, a -new invention, or, perhaps, rather an improved one, -was made in London, called a tide-mill, an engraving -of which may be seen in “The Advancement of Arts, -Manufactures, and Commerce,” London, 1772.</p> - -<p>Zanetti is said to have shown, by some old charters, -that such mills existed about the year 1044; but -with still more certainty in 1078, 1079, and 1107.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">203</a></span> -It appears, however, that hand and cattle mills were -in most places retained, after the use of proper watermills, -particularly in convents. They were used, -because the otherwise lazy monks found the exercise -they afforded beneficial to their health. Likewise -the legends of popish mythology are full of the -miracles which have been wrought at these mills.</p> - -<p>A modern author of credit impeaches the veracity -of Pomponius Sabinus after he had previously quoted -his authority, and likewise after he had said that -he bore a good character, in a popular work, by -charging him with improbability, nay, positive falsehood, -and alleging that the Romans had no wind-mills. -It should be noticed, without venturing to -decide upon the point, that he has adduced no authority -for such allegation, and that he only concludes so, -by inference, as upon the authority of Vitruvius; that -mechanist, he says, in enumerating all moving forces, -does not mention wind-mills. But, for the sake of -candour, was not the one as liable to err as the other? -He also says, that neither Seneca nor St. Chrysostom -mention wind-mills; and is unmercifully severe upon -an old Bohemian annalist who speaks of wind-mills -so early as 718. But he is all along bringing his -forces to prove, that wind-mills had first existence in -his own district, Germany; that they were then invented; -and, perhaps, because he is of that country. -It is somewhat remarkable that scarcely any invention -of any consequence has occurred since that of printing, -but the honour has been claimed by the natives of -Germany.</p> - -<p>Mabillon mentions a diploma of the year 1105, in -which a convent in France is allowed to erect water -and wind-mills, <i>molendina ad ventum</i>.</p> - -<p>Bartolomeo Verde proposed to the Venetians in -1332, to build a wind-mill. When his plan had been -examined, he had a piece of ground assigned him, -which he was to retain if his undertaking succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">204</a></span> -within a specified time. In 1373, the city of Spires -caused a wind-mill to be erected, and sent to the -Netherlands for a person acquainted with the method -of grinding by it. A wind-mill was also constructed -at Frankfort, in 1442; but it does not appear to -have been ascertained whether there were any there -before.</p> - -<p>About the twelfth century, in the pontificate of -Gregory, when both wind and water-mills became -more general, a dispute arose whether mills were -titheable or not. The dispute existed for some time -between the persons possessed of mills and the clergy; -when neither would yield. At length, upon the -matter being referred to the pope and sacred college, -the question was, (as might have been expected when -interested persons were made the arbitrators,) determined -in favour of the claims of the church.</p> - -<p>There was one inconvenience attending wind-mills, -which might be obviated in other mills: the mill was -useless unless the wind was in a particular direction. -To remedy this, various modes were tried; at first, -the mill was fixed on a floating body in the water, -which might be turned to any wind. The next improvement -consisted in turning the body of the mill -to meet the direction of the wind; this was effected -by two modes: first, the whole building is constructed -in such a manner as to turn on a pivot below; this -method is said to have been invented in Germany, -and is called the German mode: second, the building -is formed so as to turn on the roof, with the shafts -supporting the sails only; this is called the Dutch -mode, being invented by a Fleming about the middle -of the sixteenth century. This is the mode principally -adopted in England.</p> - -<p>Although in the earliest ages of the world men -might have been, perhaps, satisfied with having their -corn reduced to a mealable form alone; yet after this -had been with care effected, then they thought of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">205</a></span> -improving upon this conveniency, and separating the -farinaceous part from the bran and husks. This was -certainly desirable; therefore they bolted it in a sieve -with a long handle attached to it, with a hair, or fine -lawn lining; this was common in this country till -within the last sixty or eighty years; but by degrees, -opportunities of improvement in the mechanism of -mills suggested to some mechanic the idea of constructing -what is now called bolting mills, applied to -the mill for grinding, and wrought at the same time -by appropriate machinery.</p> - -<p>It appears that sieves of horse-hair were first used -by the Gauls, then those of linen by the Spaniards. -The mode of applying a sieve in the form of an -extending bag to catch the meal as it fell from the -stones, and of causing it to be turned and shaken, was -first made known in the beginning of the sixteenth -century.</p> - -<p>The best bolting cloths are universally allowed to -be manufactured in England; they are made of wool -of the longest and the best kind, peculiarly prepared; -being first well washed and spun to a fine and equal -thread; which, before it be scoured, must be scalded -in hot water to prevent its shrinking. The web must -be then stiffened; it is in this we possess an advantage -which others cannot attain. Our bolting cloth -is stiffer, as well as much smoother, than any foreign -manufacture. So jealous are our German neighbours -of this, that they have established manufactories in -several places at a great expense, and under very -peculiar regulations, for its fabrication. After all, -they are compelled to confess, that theirs will not -wear above three weeks in a flour manufactory, -whereas ours will continue well three months in equal -exposure to friction and ordinary wear.</p> - -<p>For some years past, the French have been -extolled for a mode of grinding, called <i>mouture economique</i>; -that were we not aware such had been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">206</a></span> -practised in ancient Rome, it might be conceived to -form an important epoch in the miller’s art. This -process, however, is not new; it consists in first -grinding the wheat not so fine as might be required for -ordinary purposes; afterwards putting the meal several -times through the mill, and sifting it with various -sieves. It should seem this method was practised in -ancient Rome; for Pliny, who took care to inform -himself of most things, tells us, that in his time they -had, at least, five different kinds of flour, all procured -from the same corn. It appears, that the ancient -Romans had advanced very far in this art, as well as -in that of baking, &c., from what may be collected -from its economical polity preserved by Pliny and -others. Whence it may be fairly inferred, they knew -how to prepare from corn more kinds of meal, and -from meal more kinds of bread, than the moderns -even now are acquainted with.</p> - -<p>Pliny reckons that bread should be one-third heavier -than the meal used for baking it: this proportion it -appears, was known in Germany nearly a century -and a half ago, and discovered from experiments on -bread made at different times. German bakers, -although they may have been occasionally mistaken, -have always undoubtedly given more bread than meal. -It appears that in latter periods, the art of grinding, -as well as baking, has declined very much in Italy; -and their bread, although produced from the finest -grain in the world, is altogether bad when manufactured -by Italians. On this account, bakers from -Germany it seems, are generally employed in public -baking-houses, as well at Rome as in Venice. Bakers -of that people are generally settled at those places, -where they have been in the habit of manufacturing -that article for the principal inhabitants, for upwards -of three hundred years.</p> - -<p>From Beckmann’s History, it would appear that the -<i>mouture economique</i> of the French has been known to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">207</a></span> -the Germans for more than two hundred years. -Many were the attempts, repeatedly enforced, to -deter the experiments made, from time to time, by -the French experimentalists, to perfect this article -previous to its being accomplished. In this, the -French suffered themselves to be taught by prejudice -and directed by ignorance. Numerous and judicious -were the experiments made by the scientific and philosophic -of that people to produce the most in quantity -and best in quality from a definite quantity of grain, -at which the ignorant of their species suffered their -prejudice to revolt, and the powerful readily come -into the mode of thinking of the vulgar, to whom -they lent their aid, to effect what Heaven in revelation -had commanded, viz: “Give not that which is holy -unto dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine, -lest they trample them under their feet, and turn -again and rend you.” Mat. vii. 6.</p> - -<p>It will, from the succeeding statement, that in using -the language which has just appeared, circumstances -sanctioned us. The clergy of the chapel royal, and -parish church at Versailles, sent their wheat in the -beginning of last century to be ground at an adjacent -mill: according to custom, it was put through the mill -only once, and the bran, which yet contained much -flour, was sold for fattening cattle. This miller -having, however, in process of time learnt the process -of the <i>mouture economique</i>, purchased the bran from -these ecclesiastics, and found that it yielded him as -good flour as they had procured from the whole -wheat. The miller, at length, is presumed, in a -qualm of conscience, to have regretted cheating those -holy men; he accordingly discovered to them the -secret, and gave them afterwards fourteen bushels of -flour from their wheat, instead of eight, which he had -only furnished them before. This voluntary discovery -of the miller was made in 1760; and it is probable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">208</a></span> -the same discovery was made at the same time by -others.</p> - -<p>A baker, named Malisset, proposed to the lieutenant-general -of the French police to teach a method -by which people could grind their corn with more -advantage; and experiments were accordingly made -and succeeded. A mealman of Senlis, named Buquet, -having the inspection of the mill belonging to the -large hospital at Paris, made the same proposal: the -result of his experiments, made under the direction of -the magistrates, was printed. The investigation of -this art was now taken up by men of learning and -science, who gave it a suitable denomination; explained -it, made experiments and calculations upon it, -and at the same time recommended it so much, that -the <i>mouture economique</i> engaged the attention of all -magistrates throughout France. Its government sent -Buquet to Lyons in 1764, to Bourdeaux in 1766, to -Dijon in 1767, and to Mondidier in 1768. The -benefit which France derived from that trouble, shows -that it was not taken in vain. Previous to that period, -a Paris <i>setier</i> yielded from eighty to ninety pounds of -meal, and from one hundred and fifty to one hundred -and sixty pounds of bran; but the same quantity now -yields one hundred and eighty-five pounds, and according -to the latest improvements, one hundred and -ninety-five pounds of meal. In the time of St. Louis, -from four to five <i>setiers</i> were reckoned necessary for -the annual maintenance of a man; these were scarcely -sufficient; as many were allowed to the patients in -hospitals; and such were the calculations made in the -sixteenth century. When the miller’s art was everywhere -improved, the four <i>setiers</i> were reduced to three -and a half, and from the latest improvements, they do -not exceed two.</p> - -<p>From mills which only force the farinaceous parts -from the husk, thereby rounding the grain, the common -denomination of <i>barley mills</i> comes, from such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">209</a></span> -mills being used in the manufacture of pearl barley. -In their construction, these mills differ but little from -wheat-mills, and the machinery for the former is -generally added to the latter. The grand specific distinction -is, that the millstone is rough hewn round its -circumference, and in the stead of a lower stone, there -is generally a wooden case; the middle lined with a -plate of iron, pierced like a grater with holes, the -sharp edge of which turns upwards. The barley is -thrown upon the stone, which, as it turns round, frees -it from the husk, and rounds it; after which, it is put -into sieves and sifted.</p> - -<p>So long as the policy of governments was blind to -the interests of men, and so long as the griping avarice -of a few was permitted to lay the free-born of their -species under the most severe contributions, so long -were permitted to build mills only, who had obtained -a regal license for that purpose. But, thank heaven! -that ray of light it has lent generally to man, has, in -some sort, illuminated even the minds of ministers and -their tyrannical masters, to curtail that spirit which -had cast the fetters of vassalage given by feudal -tyranny to its upstart dependants. Men were left, at -length, to improve their property according to their -pleasure: since which period, more mills have been -erected for the convenience of the species. This privilege, -it appears, was not prohibited by the Roman -laws; those irradiations of superior intellect well -appreciated human rights. It was not till the darkness -of the middle ages had obscured the mental hemisphere, -that any person was presumed to possess a -superiority over others, and to abridge the small portion -of general happiness that the favoured of fortune -might add to his satiety. During those days of universal -darkness, numberless were the evils which men -suffered, and among them the present object of our -consideration was not the least; frequently having to -travel for miles to a mill to procure the necessary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">210</a></span> -manufacture of so essential an article to human life as -bread.</p> - -<p>Let us not be decoyed, however, by the resentment -produced by the spirit of human oppression, beyond -the bounds prescribed by reason, to inveigh against -such ordinance when public and general utility ever -was consulted; and certain public streams were by -wise laws to be kept free from individual encroachments -with impunity. It is not against the dictates -of sober reason we declare hostility, but the gross -abuse of power.</p> - -<p>A time there was, when human baseness in princes -and potentates, their vassals doubtless aping the manners -of their masters, claimed as their right not only -the common element of water, but also that of air! -A curious incident related by Jargow, and detailed by -Professor Beckmann, as follows, establishes the insolence -of upstart men:—“In the end of the fourteenth -century, the monks of the celebrated but long since -destroyed monastery of Augustines, at Windshiem, in -the province of Overyssel, were desirous of erecting a -wind-mill not far from Zwoll; but a neighouring lord -endeavoured to prevent them, declaring that the wind -in that quarter belonged to him. The monks, unwilling -to give up their point, had recourse to the Bishop -of Utrecht, under whose jurisdiction the province had -continued since the tenth century. The bishop, -highly incensed against the pretender, who wished to -usurp his authority, affirmed, that the wind of the -whole province belonged only to him; and, in 1391, -gave the convent express permission to build a wind-mill -wherever they thought proper.”</p> - -<p>Without the convenience of human ingenuity -heaven had sent the blessing of life in vain; we have, -under this impression, therefore, bestowed much time -on this article, from a conviction of its vital importance -to the necessities of human existence.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">211</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_211"><a id="SAW-MILLS"></a>SAW-MILLS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> invention of the plumb-line and saw, with other -useful articles in mechanics, and handicrafts, are -usually ascribed to that great—that universal genius—Dædalus: -although others give the merit to one Talus, -the nephew of Dædalus, and say, that the discovery -was made under the following circumstances:—Talus, -they tell us, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, -cut a piece of wood in two with the teeth; thence, -they say, he invented the saw; his maternal uncle and -master, they add, was so jealous of this invention, that -he murdered the young man; and the mode of the -discovery of the murder is accounted for in this -manner:—some persons saw Dædalus covering up -the grave of his victim, and asked what he was -doing? “Oh,” says he, “I am only burying a -snake.” How much credit may be due to this relation, -we do not take upon ourselves to determine. -Pliny, as well as Seneca, were of the former opinion; -whilst Diodorus Siculus, and others, hold the latter. -The youth is named by some Perdix. However, it -appears to rest between these two, no other claimant -appearing. Ovid says, it was not the jaw of a snake, -but the back-bone of a fish. The former, however, -appears to be the most rational opinion as to its origin, -as it is conjectured that the vertebræ would not be -sufficiently strong, and the joints are too far apart, as -well as too large.</p> - -<p>The Grecian saw is said to have been much the -same as that instrument which the moderns now use. -This idea is corroborated by an ancient painting discovered -in Herculaneum; likewise from an antique -representation of this instrument, given by the celebrated -Montfaucon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">212</a></span> -The preceding observations, however, have relation -to the subject of this article only, inasmuch as they -are introductory to what follows.</p> - -<p>The most beneficial and ingenious improvement -that has been made in saws was the invention and -introduction of machinery, called saw-mills, which, in -woody countries, as well as for delicate and fine -veneers, are of the greatest utility; in the former case, -wood forms the chief article of commerce where -labourers are scarce; in the latter, it may be cut -nearly as thin as a sheet of paper. These saw-mills -also finish flooring deals, grooved, dovetailed, and -planed on both sides, at the rate of two deals, of -twenty feet each, in a minute! They are commonly -worked in this country by means of steam-engines; -in woody countries they are generally erected on the -banks of rivers, the water of which propels the -machinery.</p> - -<p>It is said they were invented in Germany, as far -back as the fourth century, upon the smaller river Roer; -for, although Ansonius speaks of water-mills, for -cutting stone, he says nothing of mills to cut timber. -The art of cutting marble with a saw is very ancient; -Pliny thinks it was invented in Caria; at least, he -knew of no place or building, incrusted with marble, -older than the palace of King Mausolus, at Helicarnassus. -Vitruvius also names the circumstances, -although he uses different terms for expressions -of the same sense. He commends the beauty of -its marble, whilst Pliny speaks of its different kinds: -the former viewed it as an architect, whilst the latter -inspected it as a naturalist. It also does appear, from -other writers, that the harder and precious kinds of -stones were cut in the same manner; as Pliny speaks -of a building adorned with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, -and amethysts. Yet there is no mention made -of mills for cutting wood; or, admitting they had -been invented, it is probable they shared the fate of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">213</a></span> -many other useful inventions,—had been forgotten, or -else some considerable modern improvement had been -made in their construction.</p> - -<p>Since the period of the first invention, they have -been erected in various parts of Europe and America. -There appears to have been one erected in the vicinity -of Augsburg, as early as 1337; at Erlinger, in 1417.</p> - -<p>Upon the discovery of the island of Madeira, in -1420, the Infanta Henry sent settlers there, and -caused European fruits of every kind to be carried -there; and amongst other productions, saw-mills and -other machinery to cut the valuable timber found -there into portable pieces, which were afterwards -transported to Portugal. In 1724, the city of Breslau -had a saw-mill which produced the yearly rent of -three marks. In 1490, the magistrates of Erfurt -purchased a forest, and built a mill of this description. -In Norway, a country covered with wood, -there was one built in 1530. This mode of manufacture -was called the new art; and because the -exportation of deals was by that means increased, a -royal impost was introduced by Christian III. in -1545, called the deal-tythe. Soon after Henry -Ranzau caused the first mill to be erected at Holstein. -In the year 1555, the Bishop of Ely, being ambassador -from the Princess Mary of England to the court -of Rome, saw a saw-mill in the neighbourhood of -Lyons: the writer of his travels thought it worthy of -particular description:—“The saw-mill is driven by -an upright wheel; and the water that makes it go is -gathered whole into a narrow trough, which delivereth -the same water to the wheels. This wheel -hath a piece of timber put to the axle-tree end, like -the handle of a brooch, and fastened to the end of the -saw, which being turned with the force of the water, -hoisteth up and down the saw, that it continually -eateth in, and the handle of the same is kept in a -rigall of wood from swerving. Also the timber lieth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">214</a></span> -as it were upon a ladder, which is brought by little -and little to the saw with another vice.” In the sixteenth -century, there was a grand improvement made -in this machine by having several saws affixed to one -beam, by which timber could be cut into several -planks or boards, and of any thickness, at the same -time. There was one of these at Ratisbon, upon the -Danube, in 1575.</p> - -<p>In England saw-mills were at first received with as -little encouragement as printing met with in Turkey, -and from the same motive. When the attempt was -made to introduce them it was said the sawyers would -be deprived of bread. For this reason it was found -necessary to abandon a saw-mill erected by a Dutchman, -near London, in 1663. However, in the year -1700, a gentleman of the name of Houghton laid -before the nation the advantages to be derived from -them; but he expressed his apprehension that it -might cause a commotion among the people. What -he feared, actually came to pass; for, on the erection -of one by a wealthy timber merchant, by the desire -of the society for the promotion of arts, in 1767, to -be propelled by the wind, under the direction of -James Stansfield, who had learnt the method of constructing -them in Holland and Norway, a foolish mob -assembled and pulled it to pieces. Many years previous -to this there had been a similar mill erected in -Scotland. There is now hardly a town of any importance -in the kingdom but what has one or more -saw-mills in operation.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_214"><a id="FORKS"></a>FORKS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> fork is an article of every-day use amongst us, -and on that account little thought of; still the short -space we intend to occupy with this subject may,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">215</a></span> -perhaps, convey a little information to many of our -readers unknown to them before, or, at least, unthought -of.</p> - -<p>There is not the least room to suppose the ancients -were at all acquainted with this little table utensil, -now so necessary to our own comfort and convenience, -to say nothing of our ideas of cleanliness. Pliny, -who enumerated most things natural, physical, philosophical, -and economical, makes no mention of them; -nor does it occur in any other writer of antiquity; -neither does Pollux speak of it in the very full catalogue -which he has given of things necessary for a -table.</p> - -<p>Neither the Greeks or Romans had any name in -the least applicable to its use, either direct or by -inference, where it can be asserted that such an -instrument was intended. The ancients had, it is -true, in Greece, their <i>creagra</i>. In Rome, their <i>furca</i>, -<i>fuscina</i>, <i>furcilla</i>, &c.: the Grecian instrument somewhat -resembled a rake of an ordinary construction, -and calculated for the purpose of taking meat out of a -boiling pot, constructed in the shape of a hook, or -rather the bent fingers of the hand.</p> - -<p>With reference to the Roman names, the first -two were undoubtedly applied to instruments which -approached nearer to our furnace and hay forks.—The -trident of Neptune is also called <i>fuscina</i>. The -furcilla was large enough to be employed as a weapon -of defence. The present Latin name for a fork, -<i>fusinula</i>, is not to be found in any of the old Latin -writers.</p> - -<p>It is the opinion, we understand, of a learned Italian -writer, that the ancient Romans used the instruments -they called <i>ligulæ</i>, instead of forks. Now those -instruments had some distant resemblance to our teaspoons. -Hence we must conclude that they and our -ancestors used no forks, because, had they had anything<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">216</a></span> -answering the purpose, even in effect, it must -undoubtedly have had a name.</p> - -<p>In the East, we understand it was, and still is, -customary to dress their victuals until they become so -tender as to be easily pulled in pieces. We are told -by modern travellers, that if an animal be dressed -before it has lost its natural warmth, it becomes -tender and very savoury. This is the Oriental -custom, and has been so from the most remote -antiquity.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, all articles of food were cut up in -small pieces before they were served up at table; -the necessity for which practice will appear, when we -remember they usually took their meals in a recumbent -posture upon beds. Originally, persons of rank -kept an officer for the purpose of cutting the meat, -who used a knife, the only one placed at table, -which, in opulent families, had an ivory handle, and -was ornamented with silver.</p> - -<p>The bread was never cut at table; it needed it not, -being usually baked thin, somewhat resembling the -Passover cake of the Jews; this is not understood, -however, to have been universal.</p> - -<p>The Chinese use no forks; however, to supply -them, they have small sticks of ivory, often of very -fine workmanship, inlaid with silver and gold, which -each guest employs to pick up the bits of meat, it -being previously cut small. The invention of forks -was not known till about two centuries ago in Europe, -where people eat the same as they do now in Turkey.</p> - -<p>In the New Testament we read of putting hands -into the dish. Homer, as well as Ovid, mention the -same custom.</p> - -<p>In the quotation from the sacred writings, we -observe that the guests had, it is presumed, no instrument -to help themselves out of the common dish -which contained the repast; for, upon the question -being put of who was to betray the Saviour, the answer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">217</a></span> -was given in the following quotation, “It is one -of the twelve that dippeth with me in the dish.”</p> - -<p>In the passage cited from Homer, the phrase, -according to the Latin translation, implies the same -sense. And had the Romans been apprised of the -utility of this instrument, or in fact of any substitute, -there could have been no occasion for the master of -the amorous art to have given his instructions to his -pupils in nearly similar terms which we now use to -children.</p> - -<p>Although Count Caylus and Grignon both assert -that ancient forks have been found, we still want -further testimony. The former says, one with two -prongs was found among some rubbish in the Appian -Way, which he alleges to be of beautiful workmanship, -terminating in the handle with a carved stag’s -foot. Notwithstanding the high reputation of that -author, this assertion is not credited. The latter -says, he found some in the ruins of a Roman town in -Champagne; but he does not describe them, otherwise -than to observe that one was of copper or brass, -and the others of iron: and speaking of the latter, -says, they appear to be table-forks, but are very -coarsely made.</p> - -<p>The truth seems to be that table-forks were first -used in Italy, as appears from the book of Galeotus -Martius, an Italian in the service of Matthias Corvinus, -King of Hungary, who reigned from 1458 to -1490. Martius relates that at that period forks were -not used at table in Hungary as in Italy; but that at -meals each person laid hold of the meat with his -fingers, and on that account they were much stained -with saffron, usually put into sauces and soups. He -praises the king for eating without a fork, conversing -at the same time, and never dirtying his clothes.</p> - -<p>In France, at the end of the sixteenth century, -forks were quite unknown even at the court of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">218</a></span> -monarch. Neither at that period were they known -in Sweden.</p> - -<p>From the history of the travels of our countryman, -Coryate, entitled “Crudities,” first published in 1611, -and afterwards in 1776, the author says he first saw -them in Italy, and he was also the first person who -used them in England. As his account of them is -curious, we may be excused giving an extract, slightly -altering the orthography.</p> - -<p>“Here I will mention a thing that might have been -spoken of before in discourse of the first Italian town. -I observed a custom in all those Italian cities and -towns through which I passed, that is not used in any -other country I saw in my travels; neither do I -think that any other nation in Christendom doth use -it, but only Italy. The Italian, and also most strangers -that are commorant in Italy, do always at their -meals, use a little fork when they cut their meat. -For while with their knife, which they hold in one -hand, they cut the meat out of the dish, they fasten -the fork, which they hold in their other hand, upon -the same dish; so that whatsoever he be that, sitting -in the company of any others at meals, should unadvisedly -touch the dish of meat with his fingers, from -which all at the table do cut, he will give occasion of -offence unto the company, as having transgressed the -laws of good manners, insomuch that for his error he -shall be at least brow-beaten if not reprehended in -words. This form of feeding I understand is generally -used in all places of Italy; their fork being for -the most part made of iron or steel, and some of -silver, but those are used only by gentlemen. The -reason of this their curiosity is, because the Italian -cannot by any means endure to have his dish touched -with fingers—seeing all men’s fingers are not alike -clean. Hereupon I myself thought good to imitate -the Italian fashion by this forked cutting of meat, -not only while I was in Italy, but also in Germany,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">219</a></span> -and oftentime in England, since I came home, being -once equipped for that frequent using of my fork by a -certain learned gentleman, a familiar friend of mine, -one Mr. Lawrence Whitaker, who in his merry -humour doubted not to call one at table <i>farsifer</i>, only -for using a fork at feeding, but for no other cause.”</p> - -<p>In many parts of Spain, we understand that, <i>at -present</i>, drinking-glasses, spoons, and forks are rarities. -It is also said, that even in taverns in many countries, -particularly in France, knives are not placed on the -table, because it is expected that each person should -have one of his own. This custom the modern -French appear to have derived from their ancestors -the ancient Gauls. But, as no person will eat any -longer without forks, the landlords are obliged to -furnish these, together with plates and spoons.</p> - -<p>Among the Highlanders in Scotland, Dr. Johnson -asserts, that knives have been introduced at table -since the Revolution only. Before that period the -men were accustomed to cut their meat with a knife -they carry as a companion to their dirk. The men -cut the meat into small morsels for the women, who -used their fingers to put it into their mouths.</p> - -<p>The use of forks at table was first considered as a -superfluous luxury, and as such forbidden in convents, -as appears from the records of the congregation of -St. Maur.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_219"><a id="MUSIC"></a>MUSIC.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> science of music, or rather of harmony, is extremely -ancient—insomuch that, with respect to the -latter, it is said to be coeval with Nature herself. But -as it has relation to the science now in use, this, like -most other arts, whose origin is very remote, is involved -in obscurity; and in proportion to the astonishment<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">220</a></span> -and wonder excited by its uncommon powers, in -a commensurate ratio does mystery, fable, and -obscurity envelope its original. However, always -remembering that it was from <span class="locked">harmony,—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">—“from heavenly harmony, this universal frame began.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Proceeding step by step, it had eventually attained -in Greece a very early perfection. Collins, who is -justly entitled to the distinguished station held by all -pupils of nature and of the muses, who is peculiarly -eminent for a just poetical spirit, thus speaks of the -heavenly science in his Ode on the <span class="locked">Passions—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Arise, as in that elder time,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Warm, energetic, chaste, sublime;—<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Thy wonders in that god-like age<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Fill thy recording sisters’ page.—<br /></span> -<span class="i0">’Tis said, and I believe the tale,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Thy humblest reed could more prevail,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Had more of strength, diviner rage<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Than all that charms this laggard age,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Even all at once together found<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Cecilia’s mingled world of sound.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">It will be remembered, however, that the poet calculated -as much upon the infant simplicity of nature as -upon the uncommon powers of harmony; this consideration -will certainly reconcile the apparent extravagance -of the thought.</p> - -<p>So great were the early powers of verse and harmony, -that at one period the votaries of the muses were regarded -as persons divinely inspired; they were the -priests of man, his legislators, and his prophets. Insomuch -was the possessor of the art, and the art itself -reverenced, that the responses of the most eminent -oracles were received in measured verse. Witness the -response of the Delphian oracle received by the -Athenian deputation, when Greece inquired for her -wisest men, as given by <span class="locked">Xenophon:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">221</a></span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Wise is Sophocles, more wise Euripides,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">But the wisest of all men is Socrates.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Music eventually claimed the most unlimited control -over the affections of mankind, as could be -proved by an infinity of instances; we shall mention -one only from a well authenticated fact, and finely -illustrated in that of Timotheus from “Alexander’s -Feast,” by Dryden. We omit the hyperbolic representation -of the raising of the walls of Thebes by the -power of Amphion’s lute, and the apparently incredible -relations of the harmony of the harp of Orpheus, -which are all personifications of natural effects, and -which we have neither room, time, nor opportunity to -explain in this place.</p> - -<p>If its origin was as previously suggested by Collins, -there is occasion to believe the shepherd’s simple life -afforded it first existence; in the native and wild -notes of the pastoral reed, may be discovered the -germ of a science as various as its effects are beautiful. -We shall for the present presume the simple Pandean -pipe was the first effort of the construction of musical -instruments; its soft tone being analogous to the -dulcet harmony of the voice. We are led to suppose -this from the evidence of ancient statuary, where -those pipes are frequently discovered; and this will, -perhaps, deduce its origin from the invention of the -shepherd god, or oldest Pan. Nevertheless, the lyre, -or harp, is alleged from records the most ancient, -having at first but three strings, analogous to the three -seasons of the primeval year; the treble typical of -spring, the tenor resembling summer, and the bass -representing winter.</p> - -<p>The invention of that instrument, and of music -altogether, is claimed in the pagan world by Amphion, -a successor of Cadmus, the first king of Thebes, -in Bœtia, who is reported, by the music of his harp -or lyre to have built the walls of the city; Cadmus -having erected the citadel only.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222">222</a></span> -Flutes were first invented by Hyognis, the -Phrygian, about the year 1506 before Christ, and -first played on the flute the harmony, called -Phrygian, and other tunes of the mother of the -gods, of Dionysius, of Pan, and of the divinities of the -country and the heroes. Terpander also, who was -the son of Derdineus, the Lesbian, directed the flute -players to reform the tunes of the ancients, and -changed the old music, about the year 645 before -Christ, as we are informed by the Parian Chronicle. -The same Terpander, likewise, added three more -strings to the lyre.</p> - -<p>When Timotheus, the Spartan musician, was -banished his native country for having increased his -strings to the number of ten, he sought refuge at the -court of Macedon, and accompanied his patron, Alexander, -into Persia, when that prince conquered -Darius.</p> - -<p>From the sacred records of Judea, we may also -infer the invention of musical instruments at a date -long prior to either of the periods above mentioned, -when they inform us in Genesis iv. 21, that Adah, -one of the wives of Lamech, had two sons, the name -of one of whom was Jubal, who is said to have been -“the father of all such who handle the harp and -organ.” This infers the anterior invention of that -instrument.</p> - -<p>Music consists of effects produced by the operation -of certain sounds proceeding from the dulcet voice, or -musical instruments, regulated by certain time, and a -succession of harmonious notes, natural, grave, or -flat, <i>i. e.</i>, half a note below its proper tone; and -acute or sharp, <i>i. e.</i>, half a note above its proper key; -and of such modulation of various tones, and of -different value, and also of manifold denominations: -the natural tones consisting of eight notes, with the -addition of octaves, in various keys, with flats and -sharps introduced to afford variety from the skill of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">223</a></span> -the master, at different periods, to produce the most -agreeable diversity in his composition; and sometimes -according to the subject or words to which his music -is adapted. Those musical notes, though proceeding -from so small a number of radicals, are analogous to -the incalculable, the endless forms, which orthography -and rhetoric can afford to a well-informed -orator, or elegant author, to embellish any subject. -Thus from the definite number of twenty-four notes, -varied in different degrees, by sharps, flats, semi-tones, -&c., are produced all that is so magical, enthusiastic, -and transporting in the empire of omnipotent -music. Like as the alphabetic characters may be -varied into myriads of forms suitable to every multifarious -species of conversation or composition; in a -word, a few musical notes in the hands of a master -may be made by his skill to produce, from agreeable -interchanges of time, harmony, &c., every variety of -musical sentiment which can affect the human soul. -A stronger proof cannot be adduced than will be found -in the before-cited ode of “Alexander’s Feast,” by the -truly poetic Dryden. In all which harmony and -melody form conspicuous characteristics.</p> - -<p>And of harmony, according to the learned Mr. -Mason. The sense in which the ancient Greeks -viewed harmony is as follows:—“They by that term -understood the succession of simple sounds according -to their scale, with respect to acuteness or gravity.” -Whilst it appears that by harmony, the moderns -understand—“The succession of simple sounds, according -to the laws of counterpoints.” From the -same authority—“By melody, the ancients understood -the succession of simple sounds, according to -the laws of rhythm and metre, or in other words, -according to time, measure, or cadence. Whereas, -the moderns understand by the same term what the -ancients meant by harmony, rhythm and metre being -excluded.” “And the modern air is what the ancients<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">224</a></span> -understood by melody.” Hence, from the preceding -definitions, it appears that what is now called harmony -was unknown to the ancients; and they viewed -that term as we now see simple melody, when we -speak of it as a thing distinguished from simple modulated -air, and that their term, melody, was applied to -what we now call air or song.</p> - -<p>Should this be true, the long-contested difficulty, -and that train of endless disputes, which has existed -among the learned and scientific world so long, will -instantly vanish. Should we suppose an ancient -flute-player used an improper tone or semi-tone, or -had he transgressed the mode or key in which he was -playing, he committed an error in harmony; yet his -melody might have been perfect, with respect to the -laws of rhythm or metre; we should say of a modern -musician, under similar circumstances, that he played -wrong notes, or was out of tune, yet kept his <i>time</i>. -Whoever made such a distinction would be allowed to -possess a good ear for music, though the moderns -would be inclined to call it an ear for melody or intonation. -By the rules of musical conversation, we -should be justified when we call an instrument out of -tune inharmonious, although the intervals were nearly -right.</p> - -<p>By <i>harmonica</i>, the Greeks implied nothing more -than that proportion of sound to sound, which mathematicians -call <i>ratio</i>, or which would be understood in -general musical conversation, by an agreeable succession -of musical notes;—as ancient harmony consisted -of the succession of simple sounds, so does modern -harmony consist of the succession of chords.</p> - -<p>Whether the <i>diatonic</i> scale be the effect of nature, -or produced by art, has occasioned disputation between -many; but without losing time or space, we are, we -think, authorised, from general opinion, to observe, -that compositions formed on it, and on the plan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">225</a></span> -recommended by a lute organist, would produce sensations -odiously disgusting to any musical ear.</p> - -<p>The diatonic is the most simple genera in music, -consisting of tones and major semi-tones; in the scale -of which genus the smallest interval is a conjoint -degree, which changes its name and place, that is, -passing from one to another; a prominent air in this -species of modern music is “God save the Queen,” -entirely diatonic, without modulation, by the intervention -of a single flat or sharp.</p> - -<p>It may not be unacceptable to our readers to add a -few particulars of one of the greatest composers that -ever existed; we allude to the eminently illustrious -<span class="smcap">George Frederick Handel</span>, a name dear to science, -and entitled to the grateful veneration of every amateur -in this divine art. He was born at Halle, in -Upper Saxony, on the 24th of February 1684. -Scarcely was he able to speak, before he articulated -musical sounds. His father was a professor of the -healing art as a surgeon and physician, then upwards -of sixty, who intended his son for the study of the law. -Grieved at the child’s predeliction, he banished all -musical instruments from his house. But the spark -which nature had kindled in his bosom was not to be -extinguished by the mistaken views of a blind parent. -The child by some means or other contrived to get a -little claverchord into a garret, where, applying himself -after the family had retired to rest, he discovered -means to produce both melody and harmony. Before -he was seven years of age, the Duke of Weissenfells -by accident discovered his genius, and prevailed on his -father to cherish his inclination. He was accordingly -placed with Zachan, organist of the cathedral of Halle; -when, from nine to twelve years of age, he composed -a church service every week. Losing his father whilst -he was in that city, he thought he could best support -his mother by repairing to Hamburgh, where he soon -attracted general notice. This wonder of the age was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">226</a></span> -then only fourteen, when he composed “Almeria,” his -first opera. Having quitted Hamburgh, he travelled -for six years in Italy, where, at both Florence and -Rome, he excited much attention: at both which -places he produced new operatic performances. In -that clime of the harmonious muse, he was introduced -to, and cultivated the friendship of, Dominico, Scarlatti, -Gaspurini, and Zotti, with other eminent scientific -characters. He was particularly caressed and -patronised by Cardinal Ottoboni, in whose circle he -became acquainted with the elegant and natural Corelli. -It was here he composed the sonata “Il trionfo -del tempo,” the original score of which is now in the -Royal Collection. After which he went to Naples, -where he set “Acis et Galatea,” in Italian, to music. -Returning to Germany, he was patronised by the -Elector of Hanover, subsequently George the First. -In 1710 he visited London, by permission of his -patron, who had settled a pension of £200 per annum -on him. In London he produced the opera of “Rinaldo,” -universally admired—equal with all his other -productions that had preceded. He was compelled to -leave, however reluctantly, the British shore, consistent -with his engagement to his patron the Elector. -He departed, not without exciting general regret, two -years after his first arrival in this country. He soon -appeared here again, however, and his return was -welcomed like the rising of the genial orb of day -before the wrapt Ignicolist! But now seduced by the -favour which awaited him, he forgot to return. On -the death of Queen Anne, who had also settled an -annual pension of £200 upon him—equal to what he -received from the Elector, his former patron—when -that prince ascended the throne, Handel was afraid -to appear before his majesty, till, by an ingenious -contrivance of Baron Kilmarfyge, he was restored to -favour, Queen Anne’s bounty being doubled by the -king; and the chief nobility accepted an academy of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">227</a></span> -music under Handel’s direction, which flourished for -ten years, till an unfortunate quarrel occurred between -him and Senesino, which dissolved the institution, -and brought on a contest ruinous to the fortune and -the health of our musician.</p> - -<p>He was particularly patronised by the Earl of Burlington, -the Duke of Chandos, and most of the distinguished -nobility of Great Britain.</p> - -<p>Having restored his health at the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle, -he for the future chose sacred subjects, -which were performed at his theatre in Lincoln’s Inn -Fields, Covent Garden, and Westminster Abbey. He -died in April, 1759, aged seventy-five, and was buried -in Westminster Abbey, where he was honoured with -a public funeral, six peers supporting the pall; the -very reverend and truly learned translator of “Longimus,” -Dr. Pearce, the Dean, and then Bishop of -Rochester, performed the funeral service with a full -choir.</p> - -<p>He had been a great benefactor to numerous public -charities. The funds of the Foundling Hospital were -improved through him with the amazing sum of -£10,299. The organ in its chapel, and the MS. score -of his “Messiah,” were a present and a donation to the -foundation from him. He left an amiable private as -well as a good public character behind him.</p> - -<p>His character as a composer is too well appreciated -by the British public to require any remarks from our -feeble and inharmonious pen.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_228"><a id="SEALING-WAX_SEALS_c"></a>SEALING-WAX, SEALS, &c.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Besides</span> metals, five other mediums are enumerated -by ancient writers, wherewith letters and public acts -were sealed, viz., <i>terra sigillaris</i>, cement, paste, common -wax and sealing-wax. That the terra sigillaris<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">228</a></span> -was used by the Egyptians, we have the evidence of -Herodotus, and which, by inference, is strengthened -by that of Moses who speaks of seal-rings or signets, -whence we may safely infer, that they had a medium -of some sort, wherewith they sealed. This <i>lacuna</i> -Herodotus supplies, affirming it in direct terms, and -assigning a name to the substance they used for that -purpose.</p> - -<p>This circumstance was only rendered questionable -by Pliny, who alleges the Egyptians did not use those -things.</p> - -<p>Herodotus thus expresses himself: “The Egyptian -priest bound to the horns of cattle fit for sacrifice -pieces of papyrus with sealing-earth, on which they -made an impression with the seal; and such cattle -could only be offered up as victims.”</p> - -<p>Lucian speaks of a fortune-teller who ordered those -who came to consult him, to write down on a bit of -paper the questions they wished to ask, to fold it up, -and seal it with clay, or any other substance of a like -kind.</p> - -<p>Such earth appears to have been employed in sealing, -by the Byzantyne emperors; for we are told that, -at the second Nicene Council, image worship was -defended by one saying, “No one believed that those -who received written orders from the Emperor, and -venerated the seal, worshipped on that account the -sealing-earth, the paper, or the lead.”</p> - -<p>Cicero relates that Verres, having seen in the hands -of his servants a letter written to his son from Agrimentum, -and observing on it an impression in sealing-earth, -he was so pleased with it that he caused the -seal-ring with which it was made to be taken from -the possessor.</p> - -<p>Also, the same orator, in his defence of Flaccus, -produced an attestation sent from Asia, and proved its -authenticity by its being sealed with Asiatic sealing-earth; -with which, he told the judges, all public and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">229</a></span> -private letters in Asia were sealed: and he showed on -the other hand, that the testimony brought by the -accuser was false, because it was sealed with <i>wax</i>, and -for that reason could not have come from Asia. The -scholiast Servius relates, that a sybil received a promise -from Apollo, that she should live as long as she -did not see the earth of the island of the Erythræa, -where she resided; that she therefore quitted the place, -and retired to Cumae, where she became old and -decrepid; but that having received a letter sealed -with Erythræn earth, when she saw the seal, she -instantly expired.</p> - -<p>No one, however, will suppose that this earth was -used without preparation, as was that to which is -given the name of <i>creta</i> chalk; for, if it was of a -natural kind, it must have been of that kind called -<i>potter’s clay</i>, as that clay is susceptible of receiving an -impression, and of retaining it subsequent to hardening -by drying. It is believed that the Romans, under the -indefinite term <i>creta</i>, often understood to be a kind of -potter’s earth, which can be proved by many passages -in their numerous writers. Columella speaks of a -species of chalk of which wine-jars and dishes were -made, of which kind it is conjectured Virgil speaks -when he calls it adhesive. The ancient writers on -agriculture give precisely the same name to marl, -which was employed to manure land: now, both -chalk and marl, in their natural state, are extremely -inapplicable to the purpose for which we are led to -believe the <i>terra sigillaris</i> was used; therefore, admitting -the Roman <i>creta</i> was composed of them, those -substances must naturally have undergone some laborious -process, in order to render them proper for the -purpose to which they were applied.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding none can feel a higher respect for -Professor Beckmann, to whom we are indebted for -many of the preceding observations, than we do, yet -strongly as we are influenced with this impression, we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">230</a></span> -cannot help observing, consistent with that duty we -owe to the public, that we cannot divest ourselves of -the opinion that he is only trifling with the public -feeling, perhaps for the ostentatious display of his own -learning: so many objections of so little weight are -raised, that he really appears to write for the purpose -of raising new objections to passages, which, in our -comprehension, are extremely simple. We cannot -help applying to him a passage which occurs in a song -of the Swan of Twickenham, who <span class="locked">sings:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Gnawed his pen, then dashed it on the ground,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Striking from thought to thought, a vast profound.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Plunged for the sense, but found no bottom there,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Yet wrote, and floundered on in mere despair.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>We would not be illiberal or capricious, nor do we -presume to any extra portion of intelligence; yet, we -think we can in a few words discuss the topic, and -perhaps, satisfactorily, on which he has employed so -many pages. Those terms which have troubled the -professor with learned difficulties really appear to us -susceptible of an easy interpretation, and applicable -to both or either of the senses in which they are used, -as are any words in the language of ancient Rome. -Accordingly, we find the term <i>creta</i> implies either -chalk, fuller’s clay, loam, white paint, or Asiatic -earth, termed creta Asiatica; and, in brief it appears a -mere generic name for any kind of earth, raised from -below the surface of the soil: this is its true sense. -But there cannot be a question, from what is known -of the preparation of clay and earth for <i>terra cotta</i> -and other plastic purposes, which undergo a variety -of washings, kneadings, &c., that similar preparations -were requisite, in order to bring it to so curious, so -delicate a purpose as that to which the terra sagillaris -was applied. And <i>fosse</i>, in the sense used by Varre, -admits of nearly a similar description, it appearing as -a pronomen for the same thing; and indicates either<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">231</a></span> -peat, marl, loam, chalk, or any earthy substance -which may be raised from below the terrestrial -surface.</p> - -<p>We have evidence every day in our fruit shops, -that in certain countries this kind of earth is yet -employed for closing up jars of dried fruits brought -from Oporto, Smyrna, and other countries; as these -appear to be composed of white chalk of a texture -somewhat similar to common mortar. The warmth -of the atmosphere, where it is used, soon hardens and -prevents the passage of air to the contents; the jars -themselves being oftentimes only dried in the sun.</p> - -<p>Thus it appears that prepared earths were first -used for the purpose of sealing; their adhesive, or, as -Virgil has it, their tenacious qualities, being wonderfully -improved for manual labour. Next, paste was -employed, prepared from dough.</p> - -<p>To paste succeeded common wax, sometimes slightly -tinctured with a green tint, the effect of endeavouring -to give it a blue colour, as vegetable blues turn green -by the process of heat employed in melting; whilst -mineral or earthy blues all sink to the bottom, from -superior gravity. This was the material employed in -sealing public acts in England, as early as the fifteenth -century. We have an anecdote of the Duke of Lancaster -having no seal to ratify a deed between him -and the Duke of Burgoyne, but from what appears in -the attestation, which, with the instrument itself, -according to the general custom of the day, runs in -rhyme thus:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“I, John of Gaunt,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Doe gyve and do graunt,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To John of Burgoyne<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And the heire of his loyne<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Sutton and Putton<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Untill the world’s rotten.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">The attestation runs thus:</p> - -<p class="in0"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">232</a></span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“There being no seal within the roof,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">In sooth, I seal it wyth my tooth.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>A good example is this of the simple brevity of the -time, and a severe lecture upon the eternal repetitions -of our modern lawyers, whereby the limitations and -special uses of deeds are made, perhaps, not according -to the necessities of the case, but are lengthened from -selfish purposes.</p> - -<p>The Great Charter, which gives an assurance of the -rights of Englishmen, is sealed with white wax; as -may be seen in the British Museum.</p> - -<p>The first arms used as a seal in England, were -those of the tyrannical subjugator of English rights, -William, commonly called the Conqueror, and they -were brought from Normandy.</p> - -<p>Although Fenn, in his collection of original Letters -of the last half of the fifteenth century, published in -London, 1787, has given the size and shape of the -seals, he does not apprise us of what substance they -were composed. Respecting a letter of 1455, he says -only, that “the seal is of red wax,” by which, it is -presumed, he means common wax; and though, perhaps -not equal in quality to such as is now used, yet -it was made of nearly similar materials. Tavernier, -in his Travels, says, that in Surat gum-lac is melted -and formed into sticks, like sealing-wax. Wecker -also gives directions to make an impression with -calcined gypsum and a solution of gum or isinglass. -Porta, likewise, knew that this might be done, and, -perhaps, to greater perfection with amalgam of quicksilver.</p> - -<p>Among the records of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, -are some letters of 1563, sealed with red and black -wax. In the family of the Rhingrave, Philip Francis -von Daun, the oldest letter sealed with wax, known -in Germany, is found, of the date of August 3, 1554; -it was written from London, by an agent of that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">233</a></span> -family, of the name of Gerrard Herman. The colour -of the wax is dark red, and very shining.</p> - -<p>The oldest recipe known in Germany for making -sealing-wax, was found by M. Von Murr, in a work -by Samuel Zimmerman, citizen of Augsburg, published -in 1759. The copy in the library of the -university of Gottingen is signed by the author himself.—“To -make hard sealing-wax, called Spanish -wax, with which, if letters be sealed, they cannot be -opened without breaking the seal; take beautiful -clear resin, the whitest you can procure, and melt it -over a slow coal fire. When it is properly melted, -take it from the fire, and for every pound of resin, -add two ounces of cinnabar, pounded very fine, stirring -it about. Then let the whole cool, or pour it into cold -water. Thus you will have beautiful red sealing-wax.</p> - -<p>“If you are desirous of having black wax, add -lamp-black to it. With smalt or azure, you may -make blue: with white-lead, white; and with orpiment, -yellow.</p> - -<p>“If, instead of resin, you melt purified turpentine -in a glass vessel, and give it any colour you choose, -you will have a harder kind of sealing-wax, and not -so brittle as the former.”</p> - -<p>It may be remarked, that in these recipes for the -fabrication of sealing-wax there is no mention of gum-lac, -which is known at present as a chief ingredient in -the composition of this article.</p> - -<p>Zimmerman’s sealing-wax approaches very near to -the quality of that known as <i>maltha</i>, whence we may -conclude, that the manufacture of it did not originally -come from the East Indies. The most ancient mention -of sealing-wax occurs in a botanical work, treating of -the history of aromatics and simples, by Garcia ab -Horto, published at Antwerp in 1563, where the -author, speaking of gum-lac says, that those sticks -used for sealing letters are made of it; at which time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">234</a></span> -sealing-wax was common among the Portuguese, and -has since been manufactured chiefly in Holland.</p> - -<p>M. Spiess, principal keeper of the Records at Plessenberg, -says, respecting the antiquity of <i>Wafers</i>, in -Germany, that the most ancient use of them he has -known, occurs in a letter written by D. Krapf, at -Spires, in 1624, to the government of Bayreuth.—The -same authority informs us that some years after, -the Brandenburg factor at Nuremberg sent such -wafers to a bailiff, at Osternohe. During the whole -of the seventeenth century, wafers were not used in -the Chancery at Brandenburg, and only by private -persons there.</p> - -<p>Seals, it appears, from certain passages of Egyptian -history, parallel with, and perhaps anterior to the -Israelitish ingress, were formed or cut in emeralds, -the native produce of that country. Other precious -stones, metals, steel, lead, and a variety of materials, -but chiefly of a hard and precious kind, have been -always employed for that purpose.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_234"><a id="BLACK-LEAD_PENCILS"></a>BLACK-LEAD PENCILS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> period when this semi-metallic substance was -introduced, for the purpose for which it is now applied, -cannot with certainty be ascertained, as no record is -found of the transaction: by the common expedient -of inference, however, we certainly may conclude, it -was in very remote ages; for transcribers of MSS. -upwards of one thousand years ago, used a substance -somewhat resembling it in effect.</p> - -<p>But, perhaps, the antiquity of the use of black-lead -pencils cannot be so well determined from diplomatiques, -as their frequency might be proved from -mineralogical writers. The first mention of this -discovery occurs in the works of Gesner, who, in his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">235</a></span> -“Book of Fossils,” published in 1565, says that the -British people had pencils for writing, with wooden-handles -inclosing a piece of lead, which he believed to -be an artificial composition; and it was called <i>stimmi -Anglicanum</i>; which seems to import that it was a -British production; and we should consider, from the -name of British antimony being given to it, that it -might have been Cumberland black-lead.</p> - -<p>About thirty years afterwards, Cæsalpinus gave a -more perfect account of it:—he says it was a lead-coloured, -shining stone, as smooth as glass, and -appeared as if rubbed over with oil; it gave to the -fingers an ash-grey tint, with a plumbeous brightness; -and, he adds, pointed pencils were made of it, for the -use of painters and draughtsmen. A closer description -of the substance than this cannot be discovered.</p> - -<p>Somewhere about three years afterwards, a still -more perfect description was furnished by Imperatis; -who says, “It is much more convenient for drawing -than pen and ink, because the marks made with it -appear distinct upon a white ground, also, in consequence -of its brightness, show themselves on black, -and can be preserved or rubbed out at pleasure. This -mineral is smooth, appears greasy to the touch, and -has a leaden-colour, which it communicates with a -metallic brightness. It can resist, for a long time, the -strongest fire, and even from it requires more hardness; -it has, in consequence, been thought to be a -species of <i>talc</i>. This, in the arts to which it is applied, -is a property which greatly enhanceth its value, being -manufactured into crucibles, &c., with clay. These -vessels are capable of enduring the strongest heat of a -chemical furnace.”</p> - -<p>Sometimes this lead is foliaceous, and may be crumbled -into small pieces or scales; but frequently found -denser and more strong. This latter is what writing -pencils should be made of; but the former being more -frequently found, and, also, coming from the refuse of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">236</a></span> -the workmen, is too often mixed up with some -glutinous substance, and there is every reason to suppose -it to be enclosed in the groove in a plastic state; -these pencils are commonly hawked about our streets -by pedlars and Jews; of purchasing which people -should be cautious, as they are, in general, utterly -worthless.</p> - -<p>Robinson, in his Essay towards a natural History of -Westmoreland and Cumberland states, that, at first, -the country people round Keswick marked their sheep -with black-lead. Afterwards, they discovered the art -of employing it in their earthenware, and also to -preserve iron from rust. The same writer says, the -Dutch use it in dyeing, to render black more durable; -and that they buy it in large quantities for that purpose. -But their application of it for dyeing, we should -consider as highly questionable.</p> - -<p>The mode of eradicating black-lead by means of an -elastic gum, called caoutchouc, or, Indian-rubber, -was, we have been informed, first discovered in -England somewhere about sixty years ago.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_236"><a id="COLOURED_GLASS"></a>COLOURED GLASS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> manufacture of glass we find was quite common -in Ethiopia, Syria, Assyria, and other Eastern countries, -in the earliest ages of the world, as Diodorus -Siculus informs us, who says, the Ethiopians enclosed -in glass, the bodies of their parents and friends; we -doubt, however, that on this point, the historian was -deceived. But it really appears probable that soon -after the art of making glass was discovered, the idea -of communicating to it some colours would easily present -itself. This probability appears increased, when -it is recollected that much care is requisite to render -glass perfectly colourless. As the various metallic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">237</a></span> -particles with which stone and sand abound, (these -being the chief ingredients of which glass is composed, -and which gradually give tints in fusion,) will -almost unavoidably communicate some hue or other, -therefore the perfection of glass is to have it perfectly -colourless.</p> - -<p>But with respect to coloured glass; so frequently -have people been imposed upon by having coloured -glass sold to them for valuable stones, that some -conscientious authors have very laudably and carefully -abstained from lending the benefit of instruction -in its manufacture, by publishing the method.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian artists were so famous in the manufacture -of glass, that the Romans were content to -receive this article from the glass-houses in Alexandria, -and did not interfere in endeavouring to procure -the art themselves, until the latter part of the empire.</p> - -<p>We read that an Egyptian priest made a present -to the Emperor Adrian of several beautiful glass cups, -which sparkled with many colours; and such value -did that august personage place upon these toys, that -he ordered them to be used only on high feasts and -solemnities.</p> - -<p>Strabo relates, that a glass manufacturer of Alexandria -informed him that an earth was found in Egypt, -without which the valuable coloured glass could not -be made. It has been thought by some, the glass -earth here meant was a mineral alkali which was -readily found in Egypt, serving to make glass; but -this author speaking expressly of coloured glass, it has -been suggested as probable, the alkali above named -could not have reference to what the artisan intended -to imply, but that it must be referred to some metallic -earth or manganese.</p> - -<p>One Democritus is named by Seneca, as having -discovered an art of making artificial emeralds; but -it has been conjectured that what the philosopher -meant was the art of communicating colour to natural<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">238</a></span> -rock crystal, or colouring glass already made, so -as to resemble stones, which is a process performed by -cementation. Directions have been furnished for this -purpose by Porta, Neri, and others; but it is discovered -that the articles so coloured are liable to such accidents -in the process, that it is next to impossible to -render things of any size tolerably perfect, so as to -bear cutting afterwards.</p> - -<p>In the Museum Victorium at Rome, there are shown -a chrysolite and an emerald, both perfectly well executed, -and thoroughly transparent, without a blemish.</p> - -<p>We have not from the ancients an account of what -process they employed; but it must be evident that -nothing less than metallic calces could have been used; -and for this evident reason, that any other substance -could not have resisted the influence of the necessary -heat. The last century has, however, produced certain -artists in northern European nations, who have -adopted a method of employing the precious metals, -to communicate a tincture to glass in the process of -making, where iron, &c. were originally only used; -and their endeavours have been attended with singular -success.</p> - -<p>By means of an amalgam of gold, or a solution -in <i>aqua regia</i>, and precipitated with a solution of tin, -the metal then assuming the appearance of a rich -purple coloured powder; so prepared, it is mixed with -the best <i>frit</i>, and then called the precipitate or gold -calx of Cassius, the inventor of gold purple, or mineral -purple.</p> - -<p>This precipitate communicates a rich ruby coloured -purple, so perfect that it is impossible to discover the -deception, without the substances be tried by the -usual means—cut with a diamond or a prepared file.</p> - -<p>We have had in England some very eminent artists -in the practice of staining glass, and also for making -artificial representations of various precious stones.</p> - -<p>Although the professed object of alchemy has now<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">239</a></span> -met with that contempt it merited—because, notwithstanding -the immense sums which have been expended, -the time lost, and unprofitable labour employed in the -unavailing search after what probably never will be -found—yet the labour lost and money expended has -not been totally useless, since it has served to open -the seals which secured chemical science to the modern -world; and which is the chief, if not the sole advantage -it can claim over antiquity for superiority of -information.</p> - -<p>Painting on glass, but, perhaps, staining had been -a more appropriate expression, or, properly speaking, -in enamel, with the preparations for colouring in -mosaic work, may, to a certain extent, be justly considered -as branches of the art of colouring glass; in -all which there is no colour more difficult to be attained -than a beautiful red; it now is, and ever has -been, most difficult, consequently the dearest colour. -The presumed ignorance of ancient artists in preparing -this colour has afforded some reason, it is said, to suppose -the ancients knew of no other substance proper -for that purpose but calx of iron, or manganese. To -this we may reply, many specimens are found which -show they were not so ignorant in that art, and that -it is more than probable the same jealousy which is -found to exist in modern days among artizans might -prevent our sagacious predecessors from publishing the -secrets of their respective professions to the world. -We contend, that as the materials must then have had -existence, which have been since so successfully employed, -pray what was the reason the ancients should -not avail themselves of their benefit? In all the -higher speculations of science and arts, where the -great and superior energies of genius were requisite, -this perfection in the ancients far surpassed any exertions -which have been since achieved by the moderns. -To instance one artist and one art solely, we name the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">240</a></span> -great Praxiteles, so famous in the art of statuary, -whose works were a model of perfection.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_240"><a id="ETCHING_ON_GLASS_AND_GLASS_CUTTING"></a>ETCHING ON GLASS AND GLASS CUTTING.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Without</span> entering into the history of the lapidary’s -art, we only propose to speak of those things which -ancient and modern authors have said upon the art of -engraving on glass, observing, that it was an art -anciently known to both the Greeks and Romans; -although it appears extremely probable, that from -their expressed ignorance of many of those properties -which modern chemistry has discovered to belong to -matter, they were ignorant of the art of etching on -glass.</p> - -<p>From antique specimens still preserved, a doubt -cannot for a moment be suffered to exist on our minds, -but that the art of engraving upon glass was familiar to -the Greek artists, who formed upon glass both linear -figures, and in relievo, by the same means as are now -employed for nearly the same purpose, if we can -place any confidence in an able and learned lapidary, -Natter, who has established, that the ancients employed -the same kind of instruments for this purpose, -or nearly such as are now in use; abating, perhaps the -use of diamonds, and the dust of that precious material, -for which it is conceived they used emery -powder, and the dust of glass.</p> - -<p>From what is related by Pliny, it certainly appears -that they used the lapidary’s wheel, an instrument -moving in a horizontal direction over the work-table.</p> - -<p>Some have thought that drinking cups and vessels -may have been formed from the glass whilst in a state -of fusion, by means of this wheel; to this they think -those words of Martial refer, where he says, <i>calices -audaces</i>, having reference to the boldness of the artisan’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">241</a></span> -touch; those vessels he was constructing often broke -under the last touch he bestowed upon his transparent -labours, although, perhaps, of costly value; these -accidents must of necessity have rendered those articles -extremely expensive.</p> - -<p>There are not wanting many who affirm the art of -glass-cutting, with the instruments necessary for that -operation, to be of modern invention. Those assign it -to the ingenuity of Caspar Lehmann, originally an engraver -on iron and steel, and who, as Beckmann informs -us, made an attempt, which succeeded, in -cutting crystal, and afterwards glass in the same -manner. This artist, we are told, was in the service -of Rodolphus, the second emperor of that name, who, -in the year 1609, besides giving him valuable presents, -conferred on him the title of lapidary and glass-cutter -to his court, and gave him a patent, allowing him the -exclusive privilege of exercising this new art. He -worked at Prague, where he had an assistant of the -name of Zacharias Belzer; but George Schwanhard, -one of his pupils, carried on the business to a much -larger extent. The last named was a son of Hans -Schwanhard, a joiner at Rothenburg, and was born -in 1601; at the age of seventeen he went to Prague, -to learn the art of cutting glass from Lehmann. His -good behaviour won so much upon the affections of -his master, that on his death in the year 1622, he left -him his heir. Schwanhard succeeded in obtaining a -continuation of the patent from the emperor, and removed -to Nuremburg, where he wrought for many of -the nobility of that district. This was, we believe, -the occasion of that city claiming the honour of being -the birth-place of this new art. In the year 1652, -he worked at Prague, and also at Ratisbon, by command -of the Emperor Ferdinand III.; and he died in -1676. He left two sons, who both followed the lucrative -employment of their father. Afterwards Nuremburg -produced many expert masters in the art, who,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">242</a></span> -from the improvement in the tools, and also from discovering -more economical modes of using them, were -enabled to execute the orders of the public at a more -moderate rate than had been previously charged for -some articles. Those latter masters likewise brought -this art to a much greater degree of perfection. Notwithstanding -Zahn was of the same country, and must -have been apprised of the facts previously stated, yet -he mentions it as a very recent invention at Nuremberg, -at the time he published his “Oculus Artificial.” -He also furnishes a plate, giving at the same time a -description of the various instruments employed. -However, that this invention is not purely <i>novel</i>, may -be perceived from those facts we have already -submitted.</p> - -<p>It should be stated that before this latter re-introduction, -artists used, with a diamond, to cut figures -upon glass in almost every form, as far as the representation -by lines went. The history of diamonds -has been presented to the public by Mr. Mawe, in his -observations on the diamond districts of Brazil. It -appears to be yet undetermined whether the ancients -used that stone for the purpose of cutting others; -upon this point Pliny appears to be satisfied that they -did.</p> - -<p>Solinus and Isidore both express themselves in a -manner the reverse. But although this may leave us -in some doubt, it appears pretty clear that they did -not attempt to cut that valuable production with its -own dust, or to give it different faces, or render it -more brilliant by the same means. If this point was -settled, there could be no great difficulty in affirming -or negativing the fact of their engraving upon that -stone. Thus doubts appear to increase on this head, -for Mariette denies that they did; Natter appears -uncertain; and Klotz asserts with confidence it was -certain. His authority, to be sure, has been considered -not to be of much weight.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">243</a></span> -The proper question, however, appears to be, -whether the Greeks and Romans used diamonds for -cutting and engraving other stones or glass. Natter, -in his work already noticed, thinks they were employed -on some antique engravings. His authority is -deserving respect. But if they were employed on -other stones, the authority which at present directs -us, confidently alleges they did not employ them in -cutting glass; but he points out the mode in which -that article was wont to be divided, in the following -terms: “They used for that purpose emery, sharp-pointed -instruments of the hardest steel, and a red-hot -iron, by which they directed the rents at their -pleasure.”</p> - -<p>The first mention which appears to occur of the use -of the diamond for this purpose, is recorded of Francis -I. of France, who, fond of the arts, sciences, and new -inventions, wrote a couple of lines with a diamond, on -a pane of glass in the Castle of Chambord, to let -Anne de Pisseleu, Duchess of Estampes, know that -he was jealous.</p> - -<p>About 1652, festoons and other ornaments, cut with -a diamond, were made on Venetian glasses; then considered -the best. Schwanhard was a professed adept -in that art; and since his time an artist of the name -of John Rost, of Augsburg, cut some drinking glasses, -which were purchased by the Emperor Charles VI., -at an extravagant price.</p> - -<h3 id="h_243">ETCHING ON GLASS.</h3> - -<p>An acid to dissolve siliceous earth was discovered -as late as 1771, by the celebrated chemist Scheele, -in <i>sparry fluor</i>. It is conceived that this cannot -be of older date than that period; but it is alleged -that an acid was discovered as early as the year -1670, by Henry Schwanhard. It being said that -some aquafortis had dropped, by accident upon his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">244</a></span> -spectacles, the glass being corroded by it, he thence -learned to improve the liquid that he could etch figures -and write upon glass. How he prepared this liquid -is a secret which has not been revealed. The <i>Teutsche -Akedemie</i> says on this subject, that he, by the acuteness -of his genius, proved that which had been considered -impossible could be accomplished; and found -out a corrosive so powerful that the hardest crystal -glass, which had hitherto withstood the force of the -strongest spirits, was obliged to yield to it, as well as -metals and stones. By these means he delineated and -etched, on glass, figures of men, in various situations, -animals and plants, in a manner perfectly natural, -and brought them to the highest perfection.</p> - -<p>The glass proposed to be etched is made perfectly -clean and free from grease; then the figure is covered -with a varnish; then an edge of wax being raised -round the glass, the acid is poured in, and the whole -ground on the exterior of the figures appears rough, -whilst the figure is preserved in its original beauty of -outline, bright and smooth. This is the mode the -inventor adopted.</p> - -<p>Professor Beckmann says, he mentioned this ancient -method of etching upon glass, to an artist of the -name of Klindworth, who possessed great dexterity -in such arts, and requested him to try it; he drew a -tree with oil varnish and colours on a plate of glass, -applied the acid on the plate in the usual manner; -after it had been upon the plate for a sufficient time, -poured off, and the plate afterwards cleaned of the -varnish, a beautiful tree was left bright and smooth, -with a rough back-ground. It is conceived that -many great improvements may yet be made in this -process.</p> - -<p>It appears that no other acid than that produced by -the sparry fluor is capable of corroding every kind of -glass, though Baume, in his “Chemique Experimentale,”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">245</a></span> -says, that many kinds of glass may be corroded -by the marine and vitriolic acids.</p> - -<p>In this state of uncertainty was the public mind -till the year 1725, when it was thought that a recipe, -older than that previously mentioned, might possibly -be discovered. Accordingly, in that year, in the month -of January, the following is said to have been -transmitted to the publisher of the “Œkonomische -Encyclopedie,” by Dr. John George Weygand, of -Goldingen, which is reported to have belonged to Dr. -Matthew Pauli, of Dresden, then deceased; with -which the last named gentleman had etched, on glass, -arms, landscapes, and figures of various kinds. We -find, that in it, very strong acid of nitre was used, -which entirely disengages the acid of sparry fluor, -though the vitriolic acid has been commonly employed, -and figures thus produced will appear as if raised -above the plane of the glass.</p> - -<p>This sparry fluor is found abundantly in Derbyshire, -as well as in the mines of Germany. Theophrastus -is the first who notices the effect of sparry fluor, by -observing that there are certain stones which, when -added to silver, copper, and iron ores, become fluid. -It appears that Cronstedt was the first systematic -writer who gave it a name.</p> - -<p>When <i>spiritus nitri per distillationem</i> has passed -into the recipient, ply it with a strong fire, and when -well dephlegmated, pour it, (as it corrodes ordinary -glass,) into a Waldenburg flask; then throw into it -a pulverised green Bohemian emerald, otherwise called -<i>hesphorus</i>, (which, when reduced to powder and -heated, emits in the dark a green light,) and place it -in warm sand for twenty-four hours. Take a piece -of glass, well cleaned, and freed from all grease by -means of a ley; put a border of wax round it, about -an inch in height, and cover it equally all over with -the above acid. The longer you let it stand, so much -the better; and at the end of some time the glass<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">246</a></span> -will be corroded, and the figures which have been -traced out with sulphur and oil varnish will appear -as if raised above the plane of the glass.</p> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="h_246"><a id="HYDROMETERS"></a>HYDROMETERS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">The</span> Hydrometer is an instrument for admeasuring -liquids; by it the strength or specific gravity of different -fluids is discovered, by the depth to which it -sinks in them. It has been chiefly used for discovering -the contents of different salt waters, without analysis, -and is now almost entirely used by persons connected -with the spirit-trade, to ascertain the different degrees -of strength, and what alloy they will bear; hence -its utility to the manufacturer and the excise-officer -is apparent.</p> - -<p>The laws respecting the comparative weight of -different fluids, as well as of solid bodies immersed in -them, was first discovered by that great geometrician -Archimedes. It may be far from improbable that -Archimedes constructed that instrument himself; and -if it should appear that he did, it must have happened -two hundred and twelve years before the Christian era.</p> - -<p>The most ancient mention of this instrument by its -specific name, occurs in the fifth century of our era, -upon the following occasion. The anecdote is very -singular and affecting, and also evinces the incapacity -of humanity to act consistent and as it ought, when -we suffer ourselves to be directed by passions unworthy -of the human character.</p> - -<p>It is first discovered in those letters of Synesius to -the philosophic and beautiful Hypatia. We trust we -may be excused the liberty we propose to take in -detailing this circumstance, which is comparatively -little known; and as its interest also recommends it, -this furnishes an additional motive.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">247</a></span> -Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, an eminent -mathematician of Alexandria, some of whose writings -are still extant. By her father she was instructed in -the mathematics, and from other great men, who at -that period abounded in Alexandria, she learned the -Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy, and acquired -such a knowledge of these sciences, that she taught -them publicly, with the greatest applause. She was -young and beautiful, had a personable figure, was -sprightly and agreeable in conversation, though, at the -same time, modest; and she possessed the most rigid -virtue, which was proof against every temptation. -She conducted herself with so much propriety towards -her lovers, that they never could obtain more than the -pleasure of her company, and hearing her discourse; -and with this, which they considered as an honour, -they were contented. Those who were so daring as -to desire further communion she dismissed; and even -destroyed the appetite of one of her admirers, who -would not suffer her to philosophise, by means of -some strong preparation, which others appear not to -have since imitated.</p> - -<p>She suffered so cruel a death, that had she been a -Christian, and suffered from Pagan error, her name -would have been ranked among its most honoured -victims in the list of martyrology; but being a Pagan, -and suffering from the persecution of superstitious -and anti-Christian zeal, she is honoured among the -foremost of martyrs to celestial philosophy.</p> - -<p>The name of the Christian patriarch, at that -period in Alexandria, was Cyrill, whose family had, -for upwards of a hundred years before his time, produced -bishops, who had been much more serviceable -to their own family connections than they had ever -been towards the propagation of the Christian faith. -The present was proud, litigious, and revengeful, vindictive -and intolerant to the last degree; his ignorance -debasing his own character as a man, and scandalising<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">248</a></span> -the religion of which he was so unworthy a minister. -He stupidly conceived himself sanctioned in everything -which his foolish and mistaken ideas might -dictate to be for the glory of God, and acted as a -persecutor, prosecutor, judge, and executioner: he -had condemned Nestorias without hearing his defence. -As the city of Alexandria was then very flourishing -on account of its extended commerce, the emperor -had there allowed greater toleration and more peculiar -privileges to all religions, than in any other place: it -consequently contained, among others, a great number -of Jews, who carried on a most extensive trade, -as well as a great many Pagan families. In the eyes -of the bigot Cyrill this was wrong; he would have -the sheep-fold clean, and the Jews must be banished. -The governor, however, who was a man of prudence -and sober discretion, much better acquainted with the -real interests of the city, opposed a measure he saw -replete with mischief, and even caused to be condemned -to death a Christian profligate, who had -injured the Jews. This malefactor was, by the express -order of Cyrill, buried in the church as a martyr; -and he collected an army of five hundred lazy -monks, who abused the governor in the public streets, -and excited an insurrection among the people against -the Jews, so that the debased race of Abraham was -expelled from the city where they had so long existed -unmolested from the time of Alexander the Great.</p> - -<p>Cyrill, one day, whilst looking for objects of persecution, -saw a number of carriages, attended with -servants, belonging to the first families in the city, -before a certain house. Inquiring what was the cause -of the assembly, he was informed that it was the -habitation of the lovely Hypatia, who, on account of -her extensive learning and very eminent talents, was -visited by people of the first respectability. This -afforded to the malignant priest a sufficient object for -the exercise of his jealousy against the meritorious,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">249</a></span> -the unoffending, the beautiful Hypatia. He from -that moment resolved upon her destruction. Accordingly -he lost no time in exciting his myrmidons, the -monks and priests, those who should have been the -ministers of that religion which they professed to teach, -to destroy the fair philosopher. They accordingly, -with diabolical rage, and instigated by infernal cruelty, -took the earliest opportunity to seize her, hurried her -to the church—the temple of peace and good-will—which -they violated by an offence at which humanity -must shudder; having torn the clothes from her delicate -form, they tore the flesh from her bones with -potsherds, then dragged her mangled body about the -city, and afterwards burnt it.</p> - -<p>This demoniacal tragedy took place in the year 415, -and was perpetrated by the professed servants of Him -who came into world to save those which were lost—to -preach peace and good-will to all men. The -impressions which such an event made upon people of -every persuasion may be conceived; they admit not of -description from a feeble pen: but we may ask the -question, was it such a transaction as was calculated -to make converts to the doctrines of Christianity?—whose -avowed motive and maxim is, in the words of -Milton,</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“By winning words, to conquer willing hearts,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And make persuasion do the work of fear.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>All historians are not agreed in some circumstances -of the preceding relation; but they generally unite in -bestowing praise upon Hypatia, whose memory was -long honoured by her grateful and affectionate scholars, -among whom was Synesius, of a noble Pagan family, -who had cultivated philosophy and the mathematics -with the utmost ardour, and who had been one of her -most intimate friends and followers. On account of -his learning and virtues, many eminent talents, and -open disposition, the inhabitants of Ptolemais were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">250</a></span> -desirous he should be bishop, having been previously -employed on many public and important concerns with -success. After modestly desiring, for a long period, -that they would fix their choice upon a more worthy -object, they still persisting, he assented, upon condition -that he was not to believe in the resurrection, to which -he could not at that time bring his internal conviction: -he suffered himself to be baptised, and became their -bishop; he was confirmed by the orthodox patriarch -Theophilus, the predecessor of Cyrill, to whose jurisdiction -Ptolemais belonged: he afterwards renounced -his error respecting the resurrection. This learned -man evinced his gratitude to Hypatia, by the honourable -mention which he made of her in some of his -writings, still preserved.</p> - -<p>In his fifteenth letter to her, he tells Hypatia, that -he was so unfortunate, or found himself so ill, that he -wished to use an hydroscopium (the Greek for hydrometer), -and he requests that she would cause one to -be constructed for him. He says, “It is a cylindrical -tube, of the size of a reed or pipe; a line is drawn -upon it lengthways, which is intersected by others, -and these point out the weight of water. At the end -of the tube is a cone, the base of which is joined to -that of the tube, so that they have both only one base. -This part of the instrument is called <i>baryllion</i>. If it -be placed in water, it remains in a perpendicular direction, -so that one can readily discover by it the weight -of the fluid.”</p> - -<p>Petau, who published the works of Synesius, in the -year 1640, acknowledges that he did not understand -this passage. An old scoliast, he says, who had added -some illegible words, thought it was a water-clock; but -the ellepsydra was not immersed in water, but filled -with it. He therefore thought that it might allude -to the chorobates, which Vitruvius describes as an -instrument employed in levelling; but it appears that -Synesius, who complained of ill health, could have no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">251</a></span> -occasion for such an instrument. Besides, no part of -that instrument he describes, has any resemblance to -the one described by Synesius.</p> - -<p>From the works of Fermat, an excellent mathematician, -and a very learned man, well acquainted with -antiquities and the works of the ancients, we give the -following explanation concerning the hydroscopium of -Archimedes, as this article would be incomplete -without <span class="locked">it:—</span></p> - -<p>“It is impossible,” says he, “that the <i>hydroscopium</i> -could be the level or <i>chorobates</i> of Vitruvius, for the -lines on the latter were perpendicular to the horizon, -whereas the lines on the former were parallel to it. -The hydroscopium was undoubtedly a hydrometer of -the simplest construction. The tube may be made of -copper, and open at the top; but at the other end, -which, when used, is the lowest, it must terminate -with a cone, the base of which is added to that of the -tube. Lengthwise, along the tube, are drawn two -lines, which are intersected by others, and the more -numerous these divisions are, the instrument will be -so much the more correct.—When placed in water it -sinks to a certain depth, which will be marked by the -cross-lines, and which will be greater, according to -the lightness of the water.” A figure which is added, -might have been dispensed with. When a common -friend of Fermat and Petau showed it to the latter, -he considered it to be so just, and explanatory of the -real meaning of Synesius, that he wished to be allowed -the opportunity of introducing it in a new edition of -the works of Synesius.</p> - -<p class="p2 center larger gesperrt"><i>FINIS.</i></p> - -<p class="p2 center smaller">J. S. Pratt, Stokesley, Yorkshire.</p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Many typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained.</p> - -<p>Text uses both “Guttenberg” and “Guttenburg”, -“Helvelius” and “Hevelius”; both versions retained.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_18">18</a>: “documentary” was printed as “documentry”; -changed here.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_33">33</a>: “transcendant” was printed that way.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_33">33</a>: The opening quotation mark preceding “A complete -Course of Lithography” was added by Transcriber. Other -punctuation and spelling within that title has not been -changed, but some of it differs from what was printed in -the English translation of the cited book.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_54">54</a>: The period after “Deity” in -“offensive to the Deity. that the great majority” probably should be -a semi-colon.</p> - -<p>Pages <a href="#Page_63">63</a> and <a href="#Page_249">249</a>: A question mark is followed by a lower-case -word.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_109">109</a>: “Chardiu” was printed that way.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_139">139</a>: “It last it changed colours” should begin with “At”.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_171">171</a>: “the bull of Æolus” probably is a misprint for “ball”.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Historical Account of Useful -Inventions and Scientific Disc, by George Grant - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL ACCOUNT--USEFUL INVENTIONS *** - -***** This file should be named 53613-h.htm or 53613-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/6/1/53613/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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