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diff --git a/old/53613-0.txt b/old/53613-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 30f330f..0000000 --- a/old/53613-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8486 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Historical Account of Useful Inventions -and Scientific Discoveries, by George Grant - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Historical Account of Useful Inventions and Scientific Discoveries - Being a manual of instruction and entertainment. - -Author: George Grant - -Release Date: November 27, 2016 [EBook #53613] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL ACCOUNT--USEFUL INVENTIONS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -A SELECT LIST OF BOOKS, - -PUBLISHED BY PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY LONDON: - -_And may be had of all Booksellers_. - - - The Lamps of the Temple: Shadows from the Lights of the Modern - Pulpit. 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See page 68.] - - - - - A - HISTORICAL ACCOUNT - OF - USEFUL INVENTIONS - AND - SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES: - - BEING A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION AND - ENTERTAINMENT. - - BY GEORGE GRANT, - AUTHOR OF “PANORAMA OF SCIENCE,” “THE HISTORY OF LONDON,” - ETC. ETC. - - LONDON: - PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY. - MDCCCLII. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -It has been demonstrated that the desire of obtaining knowledge is one -of the most natural, and, at the same time, most ennobling attributes -of the human mind. There is at the present time a great number of -inquiring minds among the working classes of this kingdom, and a still -greater number of the young of all classes thirsting for information, -who in entering upon a course of general reading must be greatly at -a loss for many things which are familiarly alluded to in ordinary -conversation, with which everybody is understood to be acquainted, or -would have people to think so, but which, in reality, are only familiar -to persons who have been living for a considerable time in intimate -converse with the world. - -The “Historical Account of Useful Inventions and Discoveries in -Science,” is intended in some measure to supply such information to the -anxious inquirer after knowledge. Of the numerous articles here treated -of, it will be perceived that each has been traced to its origin in -as lucid a style as possible, and in so doing we have endeavoured to -combine instruction with amusement. As a proof of this we need only -refer to the table of Contents. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE. - - Printing 11 - - Stereotype 25 - - Engraving on Wood 27 - - ” ” Copper 28 - - ” ” Steel 30 - - Lithography 32 - - Paper 36 - - Paper Hanging 41 - - Painting 45 - - Statuary 48 - - Drawing 55 - - Architecture 62 - - Chain Bridges 68 - - Clocks 69 - - Watches 74 - - Water Clocks 77 - - Spinning 80 - - Stocking Manufacture 84 - - Coaches 95 - - Saddles, &c. 104 - - Horse-Shoes 107 - - Gunpowder 111 - - Guns 114 - - Astronomy 119 - - Navigation 155 - - Light-Houses 159 - - Electricity 167 - - Electric Telegraph 169 - - Steam-Engines 171 - - Mills 195 - - Saw-Mills 211 - - Forks 214 - - Music 219 - - Sealing-Wax, Seals, &. 228 - - Black Lead Pencils 234 - - Coloured Glass 236 - - Etching on Glass, and Glass-cutting 240 - - Hydrometers 246 - - - - -USEFUL INVENTIONS. - - - - -PRINTING. - - -Among the many arts and sciences cultivated in society, some are -only adapted to supply our natural wants, or assist our infirmities; -some are mere instruments of luxury, calculated to flatter pride, -to gratify vanity, and to satisfy our desires of every description; -whilst others tend at once to secure, to accommodate, delight, and give -consequence to man. Of this latter kind, Printing undoubtedly stands -pre-eminent; and if viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to -possess a very considerable portion not only of the comforts, but the -conveniences and positive utilities of life. The advantages derived -from this invention must be acknowledged by all,--this art has proved -the principal step towards civilization: by it has Christianity been -propagated; and by its powerful means are we made acquainted with all -that is useful in knowledge, in art, and science. It would take the pen -of an inspired writer to enumerate all the blessings which flow from -it. It is a patent engine which possesses a preponderating influence -over the mind of man either for good or evil, according as it is used. - -As we proceed we will have frequent occasion to express our feelings -in grateful eulogium, when considering the benefits resulting to -society from various ingenious inventions and discoveries; but when -we consider the advantages derived from the typographic art, it -appears like a vortex, drawing every other sensation into its deep -interest, and engulphing every consideration, so that we can think of -nothing but printing, and its extensive catalogue of benefits. This -interest is wonderfully increased, whether it be viewed on account of -its ingenuity, the extent of its benefits, or the benevolence of its -objects. In whatever point of view we behold it, whether as a medium -for giving the utmost facility to the despatch of the common concerns -of life; or as affording the eager mind of the philosophic inquirer -the ready means to gratify the inquisitive thirst of his knowledge; -in every species of mental intelligence, the rapid facility which it -affords to the multiplication of those mediums of communication, by -which knowledge is promulgated in every part of the earth. We are at -a loss for a term sufficiently comprehensive to express our sense of -the infinite importance of those advantages which accrue to mankind -from the invention of an art so replete with important consequences, -which we hourly perceive to emanate from typography. We need therefore -scarcely offer an apology for inserting a brief history of this divine -art in our pages. - -The earliest specimens of printing which have been discovered, consist -in the stamped marks on the bricks and tiles used in building the tower -and city of Babel, and which may be dated as far back as two thousand -two hundred years before Christ. A number of these stamped clay -materials of Babel are still preserved in antiquarian repositories. It -is remarkable that they generally differ in shape and appearance, and -that the letters or words, which are in ancient character, seem to have -been stamped by the hand with moveable blocks. In Trinity College, -Cambridge, some curious specimens are preserved, one of which is a -round piece of clay, seven inches in height, and three in thickness -at the end, resembling a barrel, being thickest at the middle. This -interesting relic, this Chaldean book, is entirely covered with lines -of letters and words running from the one end to the other; from its -portable character it may be called a _pocket volume_, and one which -cannot be less than four thousand years old. It is mounted on a marble -pedestal, covered with a glass case, secured by an iron bracket, and -so contrived that the curious inspector may cause it to revolve on its -marble base; but the greatest care is taken of this valuable relic of -antiquity. It appears to have been printed by two moulds, and at the -middle of the circumference a small blank square has been left, in case -as it is supposed, room should be required for a portion of the clay to -escape in the action of compression. - -Next to these extremely ancient stamped bricks, in point of interest -and antiquity, are specimens of the earliest engraving of letters on -stone. We are informed by various historical writers that Cadmus, a -Phœnician, who lived one thousand five hundred years before Christ, at -a period contemporary with Moses, and who was esteemed as the builder -of the city of Thebes, was the first who taught the Greeks the use of -alphabetic symbols, an art he most likely acquired from the Hebrews. -The most ancient specimen of an engraved inscription now known to -be extant, is the Sigean Inscription, so called from having been -disinterred upon a promontory named Sigeum, situate near the ancient -city of Troy, in Phrygia. It is engraved on a pillar of beautifully -white marble, nine feet high, two feet broad, and eight inches thick, -and which, from the inscription, served as the pedestal of the heathen -god Hermocrates. The letters used in this inscription are the capitals -of the Grecian language, though rudely cut, but read from right to -left like the Hebrew. This specimen of engraving must be about three -thousand years old. - -Another not less interesting relic of the earliest age of printing is -found in a Roman signet ring or stamp, approaching in character to that -species of stamp now used by the post-office on letters. This curiosity -is preserved in the British Museum. It is the very earliest specimen we -possess of printing, by means of ink or any similar substance. It is -made of metal, a sort of Roman brass; the ground of which is covered -with a green kind of verdigris rust, with which antique medals are -usually covered. The letters rise flush up to the elevation of the -exterior rim which surrounds it. Its dimensions are, about two inches -long, by one inch broad. At the back of it is a small ring for the -finger, to promote the convenience of holding it. As no person of the -name which is inscribed upon it is mentioned in Roman History, he is -therefore supposed to have been a functionary of some Roman officer, -or private steward, and who, perhaps, used this stamp to save himself -the trouble of writing his name. A stamp somewhat similar, in the -Greek character, is in the possession of the Antiquarian Society, of -Newcastle-upon-Tyne. - -It will be perceived that however curious these relics of antiquity may -be, they do not bear any connection with the art of printing books. The -origin of this invention seems to be quite independent of a preceding -knowledge of impressing by means of stamps. What is, however, worthy -of remark, the art of printing books, though on a rude principle, was -known and in use among the Chinese, at least one thousand four hundred -years before it was invented in Europe. The printing of the Chinese -has never resembled anything of the kind in this country. From the -first it has been conducted without moveable types. Each page has -been, and continues to be, a block or cut stamp, which is thus useful -for only one subject--so that every book must have its own blocks. No -press is used. The paper being thin, when laid on the block receives -the impression by being smoothed over with a brush. There is reason -to infer that the art of printing, as thus practised by the Chinese, -may have originated through a knowledge of the still more ancient -Chaldean mode of printing by blocks on clay. But we may expect, from -the well-known ingenuity of the Chinese, and their (in general,) having -the organ of imitation so fully developed, that they will not much -longer continue this primitive method of printing, as an enterprising -practical printer has emigrated, with an excellent assortment of -presses, types, &c., from Edinburgh, to conduct his business in the -celestial empire. We wish him all success. - -The discovery of the art of printing with moveable types, which took -place in the fifteenth century, in Germany, was considerably aided by a -fashion, which had been some time prevalent, of cutting blocks of wood -into pictures, or representations of scenes illustrative of Scriptural -history, and printing them on paper, simply by the pressure of the -hand, a brush, or cushion behind. - -One of the earliest of these wood-cuts is still extant, and represents -the creation of man, as detailed in the book of Genesis. In the centre -of the picture stands a figure, intended for the Divinity, having the -appearance of an old man with flowing garments, a venerable beard, and -rays proceeding from the head; on the ground, before him, lies a human -being, intended for Adam, fast asleep; and from an opening in his side -is seen proceeding the slender figure of a female, meaning Eve, who is -taken by the hand by God, and is apparently receiving His blessing. -The execution of this, and cuts of a similar nature, is of the rudest -description, and is a striking testimony of the low scale of art at -the time. Pictures of this nature, which were bound up into books, -nevertheless, were the immediate forerunners of the great invention -itself. Books of prints, it will naturally be imagined, would soon be -found imperfect, for want of descriptive text; this, therefore, urged -on the great discovery. The manufacturers of the books, at first, cut -single sentences or words, and stamped them below the pictures; but -this not conveying a sufficient idea of the subject represented, an -anxiety arose to give a lengthened description on the opposite pages. -This it seems was, at length, accomplished; still the sentences were -all cut in a piece, and the notion of having separate letters, so as to -form words at pleasure, was unknown at that period. We will now proceed -to the introduction of the modern art of printing. - -Ever since the typographic art has been introduced into modern -Europe in its present form, the best, and one of the most certain -criterions,--which prove the undoubted sense of our species,--exists -in the multiplicity of claims which have been made by several cities -for the honour of affording the earliest shelter to the infancy of this -art. It really appears to be a question yet undecided, to what city, -individual, or even era, to attribute this beneficial invention. - -However, there is every reason to believe that in this art, as well as -in most others, the improvements which have subsequently taken place, -have benefited the art itself, as much as that has benefited mankind: -therefore, the question of its origin does not appear to us to be of so -much importance. - -Amidst the claims of various individuals, Mr. Bouzer, in his “Origin of -Printing,” says, that this honour ought to be adjudged to one of the -three cities of Haerlem, Mentz, or Strasburg; of which, in his opinion, -the first named city has best established her legitimate right. “But it -appears,” to use his own words, “that all those cities, in a qualified -sense, may claim it, considering the improvements they have made upon -each other.” - -The real and original inventor of the modern art of printing, as at -first used, and from whence the improved practice is descended, was -one Laurentius, of Haerlem; who, however, proceeded no further than to -cut separate wooden letters. There is every reason to believe that, at -first, these wooden forms were made upon the principle of the _forma -literarum_ of the Romans. This Laurentius, it appears, made his first -essay about the year 1430; he died ten years afterwards, having first -printed the “Horarium,” the “Speculum Belgicum,” and two editions of -“Donatus.” - -The individual on whom history most generally places the honour of -being the earliest discoverer of the art of printing by means of -moveable letters, or types, was John Guttenberg, a citizen of Mayence, -or Mentz, who flourished from the year 1436 to 1466, in the reign -of Frederick III. of Germany. The ingenious Guttenburg was born at -Mayence, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and removed to -Strasburg about the year 1424, or, perhaps rather earlier. Here he -became acquainted with the above-named Laurentius, with whom he -proceeded to Haerlem, and continued in the employment of Laurentius -for some time. However, he returned to Strasburg, where, in 1435, he -entered into partnership with Andrew Dritzehan, John Riff, and Andrew -Heelman, citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose to them -some important secrets, by which they would make their fortunes. -The workshop was in the house of Dritzehan, who dying, Guttenberg -immediately sent his servant, Lawrence Beildick, to Nicholas, the -brother of the deceased, and requested that no person might be admitted -into the workshop, lest the secret should be discovered, and the -_forms_ stolen. But they had already disappeared; and this fraud, as -well as the claims of Nicholas Dritzehan, to succeed to his brother’s -share, produced a law-suit among the surviving partners. Five witnesses -were examined; and from the evidence of Guttenburg’s servants, it was -incontrovertibly proved that Guttenberg was the first that practised -the art of printing with moveable types in Strasburg; and that on -the death of Andrew Dritzehan, he had expressly ordered the forms to -be broken up, and the types dispersed, lest any one should discover -his secret. The words given in his order, which were supported by -documentary evidence, were these--“Go, take the component parts of -the press, and pull them to pieces; then, no one will understand what -they mean.” In the same document mention is made of _four forms_, kept -together by _two screws_, or _press spindles_, and of letters and pages -being cut up and destroyed. - -It has been asserted that Guttenberg stole the types from Laurentius, -with which he repaired to Strasburg, and commenced business; but of -this we can find no corroboration. It has also been said that upon this -occasion, Guttenberg stole his own materials, but this is likewise -unauthenticated. - -The result of this law-suit, which occurred in 1439, was a dissolution -of partnership; and Guttenberg, after having exhausted his means in -the effort, proceeded, in 1445, to his native city of Mentz, where he -resumed his typographic labours. - -Being ambitious of making his extraordinary invention known, and of -value to himself, but being at the same time deficient in the means, he -opened his mind to a wealthy goldsmith and worker in precious metals, -named John Fust, or Faust, and prevailed on him to advance large sums -of money, in order to make further and more complete trials of the -art. Guttenberg, being thus associated with Faust, the first regular -printing office was begun, and the business carried on in a style -corresponding to the infancy of the art. After many smaller essays in -trying the capabilities of a press and moveable types, Guttenberg had -the hardihood to attempt an edition of the Bible, which he succeeded -in printing complete between the years 1450 and 1455. This celebrated -Bible, which was the first important specimen of the art of printing, -and which, judging from what it has led to, we should certainly esteem -as the most extraordinary and praiseworthy of human productions, was -executed with cut metal types, on six hundred and thirty-seven leaves; -and, from a copy still in existence in the Royal Library of Berlin, -some appear to have been printed on vellum. The work was printed in the -Latin language. - -The execution of this--the first printed Bible--which has justly -conferred undying honours on the illustrious Guttenberg, was most -unfortunately, the immediate cause of his ruin. The expenses incident -to carrying on a fatiguing and elaborate process of workmanship, for -a period of five years, being much more considerable than what were -originally contemplated by Faust, he instituted a suit against poor -Guttenberg, who, in consequence of the decision against him, was -obliged to pay interest, and also a part of the capital that had been -advanced. This suit was followed by a dissolution of partnership; and -the whole of Guttenberg’s materials fell into the hands of John Faust. - -Besides the above-mentioned Bible, some other specimens of the work of -Guttenberg have been discovered to be in existence. One in particular, -which is worthy of notice, was found some years ago, among a bundle -of old papers, in the archives of Mayence. It is an almanack for the -year 1457, which served as a cover for a register of accounts for that -year. This would most likely be printed towards the close of the year -1456, and may, consequently, be deemed the most ancient specimen of -typographic printing extant, with a certain date. - -Antiquaries and Bibliomaniacs have found considerable difficulty -in ascertaining by what process Guttenberg manufactured types; but -it appears to be the prevalent opinion, that those which he first -used were individually cut by the hand; and being all made as near a -height and thickness as possible, they were thus put together in the -forms. The cutting of these types must have been a tedious, as well as -laborious, occupation. This ingenious man, however, soon discovered -the mode of casting his types, by means of moulds; for without this -great accessory to the art of printing, he conceived it was next to -impossible to carry on his business. The art of type-founding is -therefore given to John Guttenberg, in which it would appear he has had -no competitor for the honour; but, it is but justice to state that the -plan of striking the moulds with punches was a subsequent invention -of Peter Schoeffer, his successor, who became partner with Faust, and -afterwards his son-in-law. - -That Guttenberg was a person of refined taste in the execution of -his works, is sufficiently obvious to every person who has had the -opportunity of seeing any of them. Adopting a very ancient custom -common in the written copies of the Scriptures and the missals of the -church, he used a large ornamental letter at the commencement of books -and chapters, finely embellished, and surrounded with a variety of -figures as in a frame. The initial letter of the first psalm thus forms -a splendid specimen of the art of printing in its early progress. It is -richly ornamented with foliage, flowers, a bird, and a greyhound, and -is still more beautiful from being printed in a pale blue colour, while -the embellishments are red, and of a transparent appearance. - -What became of Guttenberg immediately after the unsuccessful -termination of his law-suit with Faust, is not well known. Like the -illustrious discoverer of the great Western Continent, he seems to have -retired almost broken-hearted from the service of an ungrateful world, -and to have spent most of the remainder of his days in obscurity. It -is ascertained, however, that, in 1465, he received an annual pension -from the Elector Adolphus, but that he only enjoyed this trifling -compensation for his extraordinary invention for a period of three -years, and died in February 1468. - -John Faust, who as we have seen, obtained the materials of Guttenberg, -laid claim to the invention, which has been granted to him by -several. Having sufficient capital at his command, he pushed the -trade with great advantage to himself. In the Bibles which he printed -he frequently omitted the capital and initial letters, leaving them -blank for illumination in gold or azure; this was designedly done -for the purpose of imposing upon the public printed copies for M.S. -transcripts. The report which is in circulation concerning Faust, -appears to come in support of this assertion: it being said he was -at Paris, and offering a quantity of his Bibles for sale as M.S. The -French, considering the number of them, and also remarking the exact -similarity and accuracy of them, even to a single point, concluded it -was impossible for the most accurate copyist to have transcribed them -so correctly. They suspected him of necromancy, and either actually -indicted him, or threatened to do, as a magician; and by this means -obtained his secret: whence came the origin of the popular story of Dr. -Faustus, his dealing with the devil, and tragical death. - -In 1462, when Mentz was plundered and disfranchised of its former -liberties, printing rapidly spread through a great part of Europe, -particularly its artizans in that branch of art, settled at Haerlem, -Hamburgh, and other places; from Haerlem it travelled to Rome in 1466, -when the Roman character was adopted in 1467, and soon perfected. - -In the reign of Henry VI., the Archbishop of Canterbury sent R. -Turnour, master of the robes, and W. Caxton, merchant, to Haerlem, -to learn the art. These individuals privately prevailed upon one -Corselis, an under workman to come to England: and a printing press was -established at Oxford. This appears in a MS. chronicle still preserved; -it informs us, that the execution of the concern entrusted to Turnour -and Caxton cost 1500 marks; and that printing was established at Oxford -before there was any printer or printing presses in France, Italy, or -Spain. - -The University of Oxford press was soon discovered to be too remote -from the seat of government, and too great a distance from the sea, -other presses were speedily established at St. Alban’s and the Abbey of -Westminster. - -In 1467, printing was established at Tours, at Reuthlingen, and Venice, -in 1469; and it is likely at the same period at Paris, where several of -the German printers were invited by the Doctors of the Sorbonne, who -established a press in that city. - -All important as the art of printing is acknowledged to be, yet -three centuries elapsed from the date of the invention before it was -perfected in many of its most necessary details. At first the art -was kept entirely in the hands of learned men, the greatest scholars -often glorying in affixing their names to the works as correctors of -the press, and giving names to the various parts of the mechanism of -the printing-office, as is testified by the classical technicalities -still in use among the workmen. From the great improvement of punching -moulds for casting types by Schoeffer, as formerly mentioned, till -the invention of italic letters by Aldus Manutius, to whom learning -is much indebted, no other improvement of any consequence took place. -It does not appear that mechanical ingenuity was at any time directed -to the improvement of the presses or any other part of the machinery -used in printing, and the consequence was, that till far on in the -eighteenth century, the clumsy presses, which were composed of wood and -iron, and slow and heavy in working, were allowed to screech on as they -had done since the days of Guttenberg, Faust, and Caxton, while the -ink continued to be applied by means of two stuffed balls, at a great -expense of time and labour. - -At length, an almost entire revolution was effected in the printing -office, both in the appearance of the workmanship and the mechanism -of the presses. About the same period the art of stereotyping was -discovered, and developed a completely new feature in the history -of printing. One of the chief improvements in typography was, the -discarding of the long s, and every description of contraction; while, -at the same time, the formation of the letters was executed with more -neatness, and greater regularity. - -Among the first improvers of the printing press, the most honourable -place is due to the Earl of Stanhope, a nobleman who will be long -remembered for his mechanical genius; besides applying certain lever -powers to the screw and handle of the old wooden press, by which the -labour of the workman was diminished, and finer work effected; he -constructed a press wholly of iron, which is known by his name. - -Since the beginning of the present century, and more especially within -the last thirty years, presses wholly of iron, on the nicest scientific -principles, have been invented by men of mechanical genius, so as to -simplify the process of printing in an extraordinary degree; and the -invention of presses composed of cylinders, and wrought by steam, has -triumphantly crowned the improvements in this art. The alteration -effected by steam power has been as great in the printing business, -as in any branch whatever; for example, with the old wooden press, -it took a man two days to complete 1000 sheets, (that is, printed on -both sides); whereas the London “Times,” by means of the steam press -completes 24,000 in one hour! Almost every newspaper in the kingdom is -printed by cylinder-presses, although some are worked by hand instead -of steam; they are also used in other departments of the printing -business. - -The introduction of steam-presses would have been of comparatively -little benefit, if it had not been furthered by another invention of a -very simple nature, now of great value to the printer. We here allude -to the invention of the roller for applying the ink, instead of the old -clumsy and inefficient balls. The roller, which is simply a composition -of glue and treacle, cast upon wooden centre-pieces, was invented by a -journeyman printer from Edinburgh, about thirty years ago, and was so -much appreciated by the trade, as at once to spread over the whole of -Europe. - -Were it possible to conjure up the spirits of the illustrious -Guttenburg and his contemporaries within the office of the London -“Times,” or some other large printing-office, where everything is -conducted with rapidity, quietness, and order, John Faust might -well think that the printers of the nineteenth century had actually -consummated what he was only accused of in the fifteenth--completed a -compact with the devil! - -As it would be a waste of time for us to pretend to describe the -various processes and materials required in this beautiful art, as -we are aware that, without actual observation, no conception can be -formed,--this we know from experience, and though we might, like many -others, have pretended to give a description, we are perfectly aware -that we would have been unintelligible to the majority of our readers, -and very deservedly laughed at for our trouble by any practical printer -who might happen to read our pages; as far as we have gone, however, in -giving a brief historical account of the art of printing, we have no -doubt it will be found correct, as have consulted the best authorities. - - - - -STEREOTYPE. - - -Stereotype, as we have mentioned in the former article, was introduced -about the middle of last century; and as it is so intimately connected -with the art of printing, we could not find a more appropriate place -than immediately following that noble art.--Earl Stanhope has been -named as the inventor; but for this we have not sufficient authority, -and it appears extremely doubtful; as stereotyping appears to have been -invented simultaneously, in various parts of England and Scotland, -by different persons; still it was upwards of sixty years before it -was brought to such perfection as to be applicable for any beneficial -purpose. - -When properly made known, it was hailed with approbation by those more -immediately interested--the printers and publishers: but as experience -more fully developed its powers, it was found available only for -particular work. For the better understanding of this art, which is -comparatively little known, we will give a description of the process, -which we are enabled to do by the assistance of an experienced workman. - -In _setting_ the types, they are lifted from the case, one by one, -with the right hand, and built in a small iron form, called a -_composing-stick_, held in the left hand of the compositor, who sets -line after line till the stick is filled, when he empties it upon a -_galley_, and commences again in the same manner, till he has got as -much up as will make a page; this page he ties firmly up, and places -upon a smooth stone, or cast iron table. In this manner he continues, -till he gets as many pages as will make a _form_, which consists of -4, 8, 12, or more pages, as the case may be. If this form is to be -worked off at press without stereotyping, the pages are all imposed -in one _chass_, and carried to press for working, and when the whole -of the impression is off, it is thoroughly washed, and carried back -to the compositor for distribution--that is, putting the types in -their proper places. When these pages are to be stereotyped, they are -_imposed_ separately, and carried to the stereotype foundry, where they -are examined, and all dirt taken from the face; they are then slightly -oiled, and a _moulding-frame_ put round each. The frame is filled with -liquid plaster of Paris, which is well rubbed into the face of the type -to expel the air. As soon as this plaster hardens, it is removed from -the page, and shows a complete resemblance of the page from which it is -taken. The mould is put into an oven to dry, where it remains till it -resembles a piece of pottery; it is then put into an iron pan, in which -there is a thin plate of the same metal, called the _floating-plate_; -it has also an iron lid, which is firmly screwed down, and the whole is -immersed in a pot of molten type-metal, which fills the pan by means of -small holes in the corners of the lid. The length of time it remains in -the pot depends upon the heat of the metal, but it is generally from -ten to fifteen minutes, when it is taken out, and put aside to cool. -On opening the pan, nothing is seen but a solid lump of metal, which, -when carefully broke round the mould, a thin plate is obtained from the -mass, exhibiting a perfect appearance of the page from which the mould -was taken.--This is called a stereotype plate, which in general is not -above the eighth of an inch thick, and is printed from in the same -manner as a page of types. Such is the process of stereotyping, which -has become pretty general throughout the trade, but is not much known -to the public. - - - - -ENGRAVING. - - -ON WOOD. - -As we have shown in our article on Printing, Wood-engraving was in -fashion prior to the invention of printing. We are informed by Albert -Durer that Engraving on Wood was invented about the year 1520; he may -be a good authority in some matters, but in this he has committed a -mistake of nearly one hundred years; seeing that there is at least -an impression of one engraving on wood, the representation of the -Creation, which was in existence prior to 1430. It was undoubtedly a -piece of rough workmanship; but what could be expected at that early -period of the art? It has been, however, gradually improving ever -since, and it has now attained a point of excellence equal to any -of the fine arts, and calls forth the admiration of every lover of -the beautiful. It would be invidious to select any of the numerous -artists now flourishing--perhaps it would be difficult to make a -selection where so many are upon an equality; and we are of opinion -they themselves are more willing to accept the public approbation as -their reward, than any praise our pen could bestow. All we can do is -to recommend our readers to examine for themselves; they have abundant -opportunities in the numerous illustrated publications that are -daily issued from the press, and bestow that meed of praise upon the -respective artists they may deem proper. - -The process of engraving on _wood_ is diametrically distinct and -opposite to that of engraving on _copper_ or _steel_; as in the former, -the shades are produced by the parts of the work which are made most -prominent, and obtrude upon the surface of the substance; whence its -chief merit has been regarded in leaving broad and well-proportioned -lights. The parts to produce this effect being of necessity excavated, -great art and a masterly judgment are necessary to effect this, and at -the same time not to weaken the substance, lest it should be injured in -the pressure necessary to produce an impression. - -The substance usually employed for these engravings is wood of a close -grain; on this account box-wood is generally selected. The impressions -are obtained from wood-engravings upon exactly the same principle as -are the impressions from typography; and they can also be worked off -at the same time with the descriptive text. This is a superiority -which wood possesses over other engravings, and recommends itself to -publishers on account of the immense saving in the expense of a double -process in procuring copper-plate illustrations for typographical -works, and enables them to keep pace with the ruling passion of this -literary era--cheap publications. - - -ON COPPER. - -The art of engraving on copper plates, for impressions, is alleged -to have been invented by Peter Schoeffer, one of the early printers, -and son in-law of John Faust, about the year 1450. The honour of this -invention is also claimed by a Florentine goldsmith of the name of -Finguires, who dates his invention in 1540. This artist having used -liquid sulphur to take an impression of some chasing and engraving he -had made, observed a blackness produced by the sulphur left in the -deepest parts of his work, whence he obtained an impression on paper. - -But we have no hesitation in giving the preference to Schoeffer, who, -we have previously remarked, was of an ingenious turn, and assisted -Guttenburg in producing moulds for casting his types; in addition to -which, some of the books printed by him are ornamented with head -and tail-pieces, with other rude attempts at engraving; and likewise -because Schoeffer’s claim to the honour was acknowledged before -Finguires was born. - -Of engraving there are various kinds; that called by connoisseurs, the -legitimate mode of engraving, is what is termed the _line_ or _stroke_ -mode. Numerous have been the British artists who have excelled in this -style, in affording the means of multiplying our graphical productions. - -The next species of engraving we will notice is called the _stipple_, -or chalk style,--imitations of chalk drawings. Portraits and historical -pieces are executed in this style, which the celebrated Bartolozzi -brought to perfection. - -The third species we will mention, cannot properly be called engraving; -the effect is produced by scraping and rubbing; this kind is called -_chiaro obscuro_, or mezzotinto; producing prints which have the effect -of Indian ink drawings. - -A fourth species of engraving is what is commonly used for landscapes, -which produces an effect like a pencil water-colour drawing; which is -called _aquatinta_. - -In all of these kinds of engravings upon copper the artists find the -sulphuric acid, or aquafortis, a most powerful agent. Sometimes, -indeed, it is suffered to execute the whole of the process of the -graver, especially when it is called an etching. - -For the same reasons as those mentioned with regard to wood engravers, -we shall abstain from naming any of the very eminent artists now living. - -We have already observed the mode of obtaining similar effects from -wood and copper, are opposite to each other. The manner in which -impressions from wood engravings are obtained, has likewise been -noticed; and it remains that we observe the mode by which impressions -are obtained from copper-plates. The plate is covered with appropriate -ink; the surface is then carefully cleansed, leaving ink only in the -excavations or lines in the copper. The plate and paper are passed -through a roller press of great power, the roller being covered with a -blanket, which presses the paper into all the crevices of the plate, -and brings away the ink there deposited. - - -ON STEEL. - -For several years steel has been used in great quantities, instead -of copper-plates, by engravers. By this fortunate application of so -durable, and it may be added, so economical a material, not only has -a new field been discovered admirably suited to yield in perfection -the richest and finest graphic productions, which the ingenuity of -modern art can accomplish, but to do so through an amazingly numerous -series of impressions without perceptible deterioration. The art of -engraving on iron or steel for purposes of ornament, and even for -printing, in certain cases, is by no means a discovery of modern times; -but the substitution of the latter for copper, which has invited the -superiority of the British burin to achievements hitherto unattempted -by our artists, is entirely a modern practice. - -In the year 1810, Mr. Dyer, an American merchant, residing in London, -obtained a patent for certain improvements in the construction and -method of using plates and presses, &c., the principles of which were -communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad. This foreigner -was Mr. Jacob Perkin, an ingenious artist of New England, and whose -name has become subsequently so extensively known in this country, in -connection with roller-press printing from hardened steel plates. The -plates used by Mr. Perkins were, on the average, about five-eights of -an inch thick; they were either of steel so tempered as to admit of -the operation of the engraver, or, as was more generally the case, -of steel decarbonated so as to become very pure soft iron, in which -case, after they had received the work on the surface, they were case -hardened by cementation. - -The decarbonating process was performed by enclosing the plate of cast -steel properly shaped, in a cast iron box, or case, filled about the -plate to the thickness of about an inch with oxide of iron or rusty -iron filings; in this state the box is luted close, and placed on a -regular fire, where it is kept at a red heat during from three to -twelve days. Generally about nine days is sufficient to decarbonize -a plate five-eighths of an inch in thickness; when the engraving -or etching has been executed, the plate is superficially converted -into steel, by placing it in a box as before, and surrounding it on -all sides by a powder made of equal parts of burned bones, and the -cinders of burned animal matter, such as old shoes or leather. In this -state the box, with its contents, closely luted, must be exposed to a -blood-red heat for three hours; after which, it is taken out of the -fire, and plunged perpendicularly edgeways into cold water, (which has -been previously boiled) to throw off the air. By this means the plate -becomes hardened without the danger of warping or cracking. It is then -tempered or let down by brightening the under surface of the plate with -a bit of stone; after which it is heated by being placed upon a piece -of hot iron, or melted lead, until the rubbed portion acquire a pale -straw-colour. For this purpose, however, the patentee expressed himself -in favour of a bath of oil heated to the temperature of 460 degrees, or -thereabouts of Fahrenheit’s scale. The plate being cooled in water, and -polished on the surface, was ready for use. - -A more material peculiarity in Mr. Perkins’ invention, and one which -does not seem to have been approached by any preceding artist, was -the contrivance of what are called _indenting cylinders_. These -are rollers of two or three inches in diameter, and made of steel, -decarbonized by the process above described, so as to be very soft. In -this state they are made to roll backward and forward under a powerful -pressure, over the surface of one of the hardened plates, until all -the figures, letters, or indentations are communicated, with exquisite -precision, in sharp relief upon the cylinder; which, being carefully -hardened and tempered, becomes, by this means, fitted to communicate -an impression to other plates, by an operation similar to that by -which it was originally figured. It will be obvious that one advantage -gained by this method must be the entire saving of the labour and -expense of re-cutting in every case, on different plates, ornaments, -borders, emblematical designs, &c., as these can now be impressed with -little trouble on any number of plates, or in any part thereof, by the -application of the cylinder. At first sight, the performance of such -an operation as the one now alluded to may appear difficult, if not -impracticable; and, indeed, many persons on its first announcement were -disposed to doubt or deny its possibility altogether. With a proper and -powerful apparatus, however, this method of transferring engravings -from plates to cylinders, and _vice versa_, is every day performed with -facility and success, not only in the production of bank notes, labels, -&c., but in works exhibiting very elaborate engravings. - - - - -LITHOGRAPHY. - - -Lithography is the art of printing from stone, which claims for its -author Aloys Senelfelder, a native of Munich, in the kingdom of -Bavaria. The history of this useful art is recorded by the only person -capable of assigning proper and correct motives, and of tracing the -various means which were employed to arrive at the desired end, to -ultimate success: had all other useful inventions, profitable and -elegant arts, had the good fortune which this has happily experienced, -we should not have had so much cause to regret deficiencies as we have -frequently experienced in the course of our inquiries; then would -the various illustrious authors of arts have had justice rendered to -them, and still have remained possessed of that glorious immortality -so justly the reward of transcendant merit; for the history of this -meritorious invention is given by the author himself, thereby securing -to it those advantages, which the erudite author of the preface -congratulates the public upon, when in his concise epistle he uses -that beautiful expression of his countryman, Klopstock, where he says, -“Covered with eternal darkness are the great names of inventors.” - -This work has been translated into English, and published with the -following title:--“A complete Course of Lithography, containing clear -and explicit Instructions in all the different branches and manners -of the Art; accompanied by Illustrative Specimens of Drawings; to -which is prefixed a History of Lithography, from its Origin, by Aloys -Senefelder, Inventor of the Art of Lithography, or Chymical Printing,” -&c. - -The author of the preface to this work, and friend of the inventor, -states that this is an art, whereby the artist, a minister, a man of -letters, or a merchant, &c., may multiply his productions at will, -without the assistance of a second person. - -The author of the above work proceeds to give in detail his motives -for the original invention, in which he has not only been strictly -circumstantial, but no more so than the curiosity of the public -requires, which is always excited in a degree proportioned to the -confessed utility of a work, or that demand which its elegance has upon -cultivated and delicate feeling. His labours may be said to be divided -naturally into two parts, of which division the author has availed -himself; first, adducing its history, and secondly, affording the -operation of its process. - -Its history appears to have arisen with its origin; and both to have -originated in the necessities of the author. From whence it appears, -that after he had received a scholastic education to qualify him for -the jurisprudence of his country, the death of his father, who was a -votary of the Thespian art, deprived him of those resources essential -to enable him to pursue his intended honourable vocation; he was -consequently driven to seek support from the previous acquisitions -of his mind. He accordingly devoted his earnest attention to solicit -the favours of the dramatic muse as an author. After encountering -numberless difficulties, he produced one play, which was published, and -sold considerably well. But the honourable independence of his mind -induced him to reflect upon the certainty of the large expense, which -necessarily attends the practice of an author, who has not liberal -patrons in the public or the trade; and the uncertainty of adequate -remuneration from the public, for whose amusement they make such large -sacrifices of time, ease, property, health, and often life itself. -These reflections induced his ardent and ingenious mind to endeavour to -avoid the uncertainty of this contingency. He did not possess property -to enable him to establish himself as a printer, which was his desire; -he was therefore compelled to have recourse to his own ingenuity. -He tried various, and at first, unsuccessful experiments, which he -ingeniously details; because, he considered, that nearly as much is -learned from the failures of an artist, had he always the honesty to -publish them, as is gained from his most successful discoveries. - -Various were the materials upon which he first essayed to complete -his purposes; till, at length, chance directed him to try what could -be effected upon stone. For this purpose, he used a species found in -Germany, of a beautifully close grained and dense kind, susceptible of -receiving a fine polish, called Kellheim stone. Knowing the failures -which his countrymen had experienced in endeavouring to fix the ink -in this stone for etching, he had recourse to a chemical experiment -to obviate this, which succeeded in the following manner:--To four -or five parts of water, he added one of rectified vitriol, which -instantly produced an effervescence, on being poured upon it; the -stone was instantly covered with a coat of gypsum, which to vitriol is -impenetrable; this is easily wiped off, and the stone being dried, it -is ready for use. The next want he found, was a species of ink, proper -to answer the peculiar purposes of the material whereon he had to -operate; for which he discovered none so well adapted as the following -mixture:--A composition of three parts of wax, with one of yellow soap, -is melted over a fire, and mixed with a small portion of lamp-black, -dissolved in rain-water. But this is now greatly simplified, as the -lithographic printers generally use the same ink as the copperplate -printers. - -The process of lithography is very simple. The article wanted to be -printed is written or drawn upon a piece of transfer paper, which being -wet and laid on the stone, and put through the press, the writing or -drawing remains on the stone, and any number of impressions may be -taken off. Care must be taken, before inking, to come over the stone -with a damp sponge, to prevent the ink adhering to the places not -wanted, which it would otherwise do. - -We understand the Bath and Portland stone is successfully used; but the -best yet found in Britain, for the purpose, is what is known by the -name of _lias_, raised near Stratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire; it is a -calcareous and partly siliceous stone, and we think not destitute of -magnesia, having, when, polished, a very silky and somewhat saponaceous -feel. - -This art has flourished to a greater extent than we believe the most -sanguine expectations of its inventor could have anticipated. Many -beautiful specimens of art have been produced equal to the finest -copper-plate engravings. It is excellently adapted for drawing of -plans, bill-heads, circulars, cards, and many other light articles, -which used formerly to be printed by means of letter-press; and on -account of the numerous ornaments so easily applied to the lithographic -process, the most of these, and similar articles, are principally -lithographed, to the detriment, we would conceive, of the letter-press -and copper-plate printers. - - - - -PAPER. - - -Before the invention of paper, in ancient times, a great variety of -substances have been used for the purpose of recording events, or -delineating ideas, of which it becomes our duty to give a somewhat -detailed account, to show our readers the numerous advantages they -enjoy, in having a material which, like everything in common use, is -but little thought of. But let any one suppose himself to be without -this necessary article, or the means of communicating his ideas, he -would be sensible of the difference. - -Rough stones and stakes were used as the first known records of the -ancient Phœnicians, remains of which are reported to be still visible; -and to confirm this persuasion, certain heaps of stones have been -discovered in the environs of Cadiz, which are currently believed to -be the remains of those monuments alleged to be made by Hercules, in -memory of his famous expedition to the gardens of the Hesperides, for -the golden fruit, or as others have it, against Spain. It is also -stated, that the usual mode of recording great events, in the north of -Asia and Europe, was by placing stones of extraordinary size; in aid of -this, we have a great variety of instances. - -Since the _scriptural_ art has been introduced, or invented, many -materials have been, in a variety of ages, and in numerous countries, -used for the purpose of recording events to posterity; characters cut -upon rocks, upon tables of stone, upon bark, pieces of wood, written -upon skins of fish and animals, palm-leaves, besides a great variety of -other articles, of which we will only enumerate a few. - -There is a Bible still preserved, written on palm-leaves, in the -University of Gottingen, containing 5,376 leaves. Another Bible, of the -same material, is at Copenhagen. There was also, in Sir Hans Sloane’s -collection, more than twenty manuscripts, in various languages, on the -same material. - -The protocols of the Emperors in early times were written upon bark. In -the British Museum are many specimens of this substance; also in the -grand Duke’s gallery at Florence. - -To this mode is supposed to have succeeded the practice of painting -letters on linen cloth and cotton; what was the difference in -the preparation of that material to the one now employed is not -ascertained, but it is considered that some preparation was necessary -in order to use that substance. There have been frequently found in the -chests or cases containing the Egyptian mummies, very neat characters -written on linen. Linen being subject to accidents from becoming -mouldy, &c., asbestoes cloth had been occasionally used in small -quantities. - -The accidents to which these species of materials were most of them -subject, and linen particularly so, induced man to endeavour to remedy -those objects; he accordingly is found to have recourse to the animal -creation. - -In the convent of Dominican monks at Bologna, are two books of Esdras, -written on asses’ skins, said to have been written by Esdras himself. -The ancient Persians wrote on hides, from which the hair was scraped. -The shepherds wrote their songs with thorns upon straps of leather, -which they wound round their crooks. - -The ancient Welch had a peculiar manner of writing upon small squared -oblong pieces of wood, which they called _billets_, which name forms -the appellative to numerous of their productions, as the “Billett of -the Bard.” - -The Italian kings, Hugo and Lotharis, gave a grant to the Ambrosian -church, at Milan, written on the skin of a fish. - -In the Alexandrian Library there were the works of Homer, written in -golden letters on the skins of animals. In the reign of the Emperor -Baliskus, the head and “Odyssey” of Homer, written in golden letters, -on the intestines of beasts, one hundred and twenty feet long, were -burned at Constantinople. - -In the royal library at Hanover, there is a gold plate, written by an -independent prince of Coromandel to George II., three feet long and -four inches wide, inlaid on both sides with diamonds. - -At last we have arrived at the period for the introduction of the -Egyptian papyrus, a kind of rush of large dimensions, growing in the -marshes on the banks of the Nile. This plant is described as growing -in swamps to the height of fifteen feet; the stalk triangular, of a -thickness to be spanned, surrounded near the root by short leaves; -stalk naked, has on the top a bush resembling the head with hairs, or -long thin straight fibres; root brown. - -The Egyptian papyrus was manufactured into paper from very fine -pellicles near its pith, separated by a pin or pointed mussel-shell -spread on a table in such form as was required, sprinkled with Nile -water; on the first layer a second layer was laid crosswise to finish -the sheet, then pressed, hung to dry, and afterwards polished with -a tooth. The Nile water was very carefully used to prevent spots. -Twenty skins were the greatest number which could be procured from one -plant. Those nearest the pith made the finest paper. Twenty sheets -glued together were called _scapus_, but sometimes _scapi_ went to -form a _volumen_. This part of the business was executed by the -_glutinatoris_, who resembled our bookbinders. - -This plant yielded materials for making four sorts of paper. - -With respect to other substances for the same purpose, there are many, -but as most of these have one generic character, being manufactured -from the bark of trees, the detail is not here given, as it might not, -perhaps, be generally interesting, especially as nothing new appears in -this respect. - -With respect to the paper now in use, Dr. Blair says, the first -paper-mill (in England, we suppose) was erected at Dartford, in the -year 1588, by a German of the name of Spiellman; from which period we -may, perhaps, date its manufacture in this country. - -It appears, however, that it was known in the East, much earlier; it -being observed that most of the ancient manuscripts in Arabic and other -Oriental languages, were written upon cotton paper, and it is thought -the Saracens first introduced it into Spain. - -Anderson, in his “History of Commerce,” says, that till the year -1690, there was scarcely any paper made in England, but the coarse -brown sort. Paper was previously imported from France, Genoa, and -Holland.--However, the improvement of this article in England, in -consequence of the French war, produced a saving to this country of -£100,000 annually, which had been paid to France for paper alone. - -After linen and cotton are so much worn as to be unfit for any other -purpose, the several kinds are collected together, and the hard seams -and other accumulations, which would require a much longer time to -prepare proper for the general mass, than would be consistent with the -economy of the whole, those shreds are then separated and thrown away; -the different kinds are then collected and kept separate from each -other. In such a state of separation they are laid in troughs, which -are afterwards filled with water, where they are suffered to remain -till a species of fermentation takes place; and the separation of the -parts formed by art is not only rendered easy, but also, a division -may be made of the most minute parts; the separation is then made by -machinery. When properly prepared, a sufficient quantity is placed -upon a wire frame, or otherwise one formed of cloth; by mechanical -pressure, the moisture is extracted, after which the sheets are hung up -separately on lines to dry, in a building properly constructed to admit -a free circulation of air. - -Manufacturers of paper, originally, could only use white rags to -make white paper; but Mr. Campbell, in 1792, discovered a method of -discharging any colour from rags, by bleaching with oxi-muriatic acid -gas, for which he obtained a patent. - -The next considerable improvement which appears to have been made in -the manufacture of paper, consists in using felt or woollen cloth in -conjunction with the wire cloth formerly used, and now of necessity -retained, and other processes too voluminous to be inserted here. - -The only remaining circumstance we have to mention is, that in the -beginning of the present century there was manufactured, in the -vicinity of London, a very good printing paper, made entirely from -wheat straw; for which manufacture, the inventor obtained a patent, -but he did not succeed, we presume, because it is now discontinued. -Considerable quantities of paper is now made from straw in France; but -it is of a yellow tinge. Paper made from linen is the best. - - - - -PAPER HANGING. - - -The desire of man, for the gratification of his natural wants, being -soon satisfied, he yet is wanting--those artificial wants which -arise in the mind, and are the source of his comforts, because their -gratification yields him high delight. Having built him a house, to -shelter himself from the exigencies of the weather, to enlarge the -sphere of his pleasures, he is desirous to ornament it; and because he -cannot, perhaps, construct his house of silver, gold, or costly stones, -he endeavours, at least, to have an imitation; and gilding, lacquering, -painting, or staining is substituted. This idea, we will presume, -to have given origin to every species of decorative ornament in the -construction of houses--and among the rest to paper-hanging, which is -carried on to a greater extent in this country, than at any former -period. - -The ancient Greeks, according to Archbishop Potter, constructed not -only their arms, but also their houses, occasionally of brass, whilst -the Romans frequently gilt theirs; they often covered them with costly -casings or veneers, sometimes with precious stones. Since they went -to such great cost to ornament the outside of their habitations, -we need not wonder that they spared no expense in endeavouring to -ornament them within.--Those people, however, who could not procure -these extravagancies in reality, thought they would, at least, have -the nearest imitation of them; accordingly they had recourse sometimes -to veneers of those substances they had seen substantially employed -by the rich and luxurious, as well for outside ornament as interior -decoration; those who could not afford this, had recourse to pigments -and the graphic art; for this purpose, the ingenuity of man was -employed to devise various modes of ornament and decoration. Hence -arose the various kinds of painting, the fresco, scagliolo, &c., and -lastly, came staining of paper in use. - -To enumerate the various kinds of this, might be attended with very -little benefit, because the principle of all is nearly the same. -However, it has been remarked that three kinds are deserving of notice. -The first and plainest is that which has on it figures, drawn and -painted with one or more colours, consisting only of painted paper. -The second contains a woolly stuff, dyed of various tints, and made -to adhere to the paper, in certain forms, by a glutinous matter; and -the third is a species of paper covered with metallic dust. There are -other papers used for hangings, which contain a representation of many -kinds of stones, of which we understand there is a large manufactory in -Leipsic. - -There is also a species of velvet paper--a paper covered with sham -plush, or wool dyed and cut short, and made to adhere to the paper by -some kind of cement, said to have been the invention of an Englishman, -of the name of Jerome Lanyer, in the reign of Charles I., for which he -received a patent. In the specification it is stated, that he had found -out an art and mystery for affixing wool, silk, and other materials, -upon linen, cotton, leather, and other substances, with oil, size, and -cements, so as to make them useful and serviceable for hangings and -other purposes; which he called Londrindina; and he said it was his own -invention, and formerly used within this realm. - -However, it appears that this invention of Lanyer was afterwards -disputed by a Frenchman of the name of Tierce, who said it was the -production of a countryman of his, named Francois, who, he stated, -had made such before 1620, and supported his assertion by producing -patterns, and the wooden blocks with which it was printed, with the -dates inscribed upon them. The son of Francois, it appeared, followed -his father’s business, at Rouen, for more than fifty years, where he -died, in 1748. Some of his workmen are said to have left him, and gone -to the Netherlands, Germany, and other places, where they sold their -art. - -It appears that Nemetz ascribes the invention of wax-cloth hangings, -with wool chopped and beat fine, to a Frenchman, named Andran, who, he -says, in the beginning of the last century, was an excellent painter -in arabesque and grotesque figures, and inspector of the palace of the -Luxembourg at Paris, in which he had a manufactory for hangings of that -kind. It is also stated that a person of the name of Eccard invented -the art of printing, on paper-hangings, gold and silver figures, and -that he carried on an extensive manufactory for such works. - -It certainly does appear that the Germans cannot claim the privilege of -invention here, but were behind their neighbours in this art. - -One of the most ingenious of the many new improvements is said to -consist in the art of manufacturing paper-hangings by affixing to the -substance of the proper metallic dust, commonly called Nuremberg dust, -by which it acquires the appearance of various costly metals in a state -of fracture, varied with glittering particles of differently formed -parts; and receiving the light in every direction, produce certainly -a novel effect, which is rich and beautiful, while it is obtained at -little expense. - -The Nuremberg metallic dust is said to have been the invention of an -artist of that city, named John Hautsch, born in 1595, died in 1670; -his descendants have continued its preparation to the present time. -It is produced from filings of metals of several descriptions washed -well in a strong lixivious water, then being placed upon a sheet of -copper, are put upon a strong fire, and continually stirred till the -colour is altered. Those of tin, by this process, acquire every shade -of gold colour, with its metallic lustre; those of copper, different -shades of flame colour; those of iron or steel, a blue or violet; of -tin and bismuth mixed, a white or bluish white colour. The dust tinged -in this manner is then put through a flatting-mill, consisting of -two rollers of the hardest steel, like those used by gold and silver -wire-drawers; for the greater convenience a funnel is placed over them. -French covered paper manufactured from this material is called _papiers -avec paillettes_. Its lustre is so durable that it is said to continue -unaltered for many years even on the walls of sitting apartments. This -metallic dust is an article of commerce, being exported from Germany. - -As early as the seventeenth century, the miners of Silesia collected -and sold, for various purposes, a material they call _glimmer_, being -bright, shining particles of various metals, which those mines produce -in great profusion; even the black, we are told, acquires a gold colour -by being exposed to a strong heat. This was manufactured by the holy -sisters of Reichenstein, into a variety of ornaments; with it they -decorated their images, strewing over them a shining kind of _talc_. -The silver coloured glimmer had not, however, so great a brilliancy or -variety as the Nuremberg metallic dust; for which purposes that article -has a decided superiority. - -For the various purposes to which these ornaments are to be applied, -different adhesive substances should be used; in some cases glue would -have the effect, to be first drawn over the substance; in others, a -strong varnish, in which wax is dissolved; and for others, various -kinds of gums. - -Those substances being so covered, the dust may be put in a common -pepper-castor, and applied by sifting it over the substance to be so -covered. Different figures may be drawn with a pencil, and the box of -dust shook over them, as far as the extent of the lines covered with -glue; the dust will only fasten so far as it meets with what produces -adhesion. - - - - -PAINTING. - - -Its origin is to be traced up to that known source, from whence most of -those arts, which humanise society and lend a polish to life, first had -being. Diodorus Siculus speaks of bricks burnt in the fire with various -colours, representing the natural appearance of men and animals; which -is the first fact upon record. As this occurred during the building of -Babylon, it is as remote an original as we are, perhaps, authorised to -depend upon; although it is extremely probable it might be traced to an -anterior date: which conclusion, though made from inference alone, we -are allowed to suppose must have been the case; as a knowledge of the -nature of pigments must first have been ascertained before the Chaldean -artists could have been informed what colours would fade, or what would -withstand the operation of the enamelling process in the intense heat -necessary to produce the effect. They must at least have understood the -difference between vegetable colours, which are the first presented -to the senses, and most probably were the first which were used, and -those afforded by the mineral kingdom, which alone were proper for -the operation they performed. Therefore, the arts of painting and -chemistry, we would presume must have made considerable progress prior -to the erection of the tower of Babel. - -The next people, who, in point of time as well as of importance, offer -themselves to the notice of modern Europeans, are the Egyptians; and -their perfection in the use of the various colours which constitute the -compound idea we entertain when we think of painting, is well known -and appreciated; when we may any day consult our judgment by inspecting -those beautiful specimens of their eternal mode of colouring we have -in the exhibition on mummy-cases in the British Museum, and other -depositories of that species of antique preservation. The third people -who excelled in giving a beautiful and tasteful variety to surfaces in -colouring and effect, were the Etrurians, a people anciently inhabiting -a district of Italy, now known as Tuscany. Of the perfection to which -they brought the art we may form an adequate and proper judgment -by inspecting those beautiful vases preserved in the Hamiltonian -collection in the British Museum, and also in some very curious -specimens of ancient painting, procured from the ruins of Herculaneum, -collected likewise by Sir William Hamilton. - -It cannot be doubted, that most distinct societies of men have, -after the gratification of their first wants, and when leisure hours -permitted the exercise of their ingenious and inventive faculties, -invented a great variety of useful and ornamental arts; therefore, -there cannot be a question, but various arts of utility as well as of -ornament, have been invented by a great variety of people, who all, -agreeably to our prior definitions, are well entitled to the distinct -appellation of original inventors; consequently in such a case question -must evidently submit to the determination of chronology. - -Eudora, the daughter of a potter of Corinth, is presumed to have -introduced the art into Greece. The art of painting in Greece is also -claimed by Sicyon as the original. Mr. Fuseli has beautifully observed -in his first lecture illustrative of the former of these two claimants, -that “If ever legend deserved our belief, the amorous tale of the -Corinthian maid, who traced the shadow of her departing lover by the -secret lamp, appeals to our sympathy to grant it.” This invention is -becoming doubly interesting in that country, first, because of its -elegance and utility; and secondly, because it is ascribed to one of -the noblest and most powerful passions, which distinguish the human -species, the wonderful effects of which have given to humanity the most -exalted and illustrious of actions, which ennoble the character of -man--to delicate, refined, and almighty love. Numerous artists in the -Grecian school brought the art of painting to great perfection. - -The restorer of this delightful art in Europe was Cimabue, a native of -Italy, who first studied under some Grecian artists, and furnished some -admirable productions in fresco, in several Italian churches about the -renovation of the arts in modern Italy; since which time, this purely -intellectual art has been successfully cultivated in almost all the -countries of Europe, certain masters in all schools of which have been -eminent for some peculiar eminence. - -An analogy has been drawn by comparison between the fascinating effect -of music on the ear, and colour on the eye, wherein it is observed the -comparison very nearly approximates; whence the term _harmony_, applied -to the former, may correctly, and with singular propriety be used, when -speaking of the latter. And also, it is said, for the same reason, and -proceeding upon the like analogy, the term _tone_ is applicable to -both; they are accordingly used indiscriminately. Without questioning -their propriety, we give in to our sensations, and as far as our -judgment goes, believe they are not improperly introduced into the -pictorial art. - -It cannot be presumed that we should have the temerity to aspire to -the task of giving a full and complete description of every variety -which constitutes perfection in the art; for this would be to infer -professional ability, equal, or perhaps, superior to what any one -individual ever was, or, we may venture to say, ever will be, known to -possess. Besides this inference, another must be presumed, because -perfection in description must also anticipate the most delicate, -refined, and, as termed, classically correct taste; neither to these -do we assume the possession of such well-known essentials as are -positively necessary to its formation. It is, besides, altogether -difficult, as the world acknowledges, to fix a standard to the ideal -faculty of taste, and which, we hereby take occasion to notice; -therefore we hope to avoid the sin of presumption, and trust that our -readers will observe that what we do state is upon good authority, if -we have not full confidence in our own experience; but our sin, if sin -there be, is rather that of omission than of commission--of saying too -little, rather than too much. - - - - -STATUARY. - - -The origin of Statuary, or what we would term its parent--modelling, -is of very great antiquity, as we are authoratively informed by the -Grecian historians, whose testimony is supported by Monsieur D’Anville -and Major Rennel, two of the most eminent geographers of modern times. -From them we learn that three massy statues of gold were erected -to ornament the temple of Jupiter Belus. Those were erected by the -Chaldeans about two thousand two hundred and thirty years before Christ. - -There is also sufficient evidence, that the most eminent and -intellectual people, subsequent to the Chaldeans, were the Egyptians. - -Every individual, who is in the slightest degree conversant with the -history of the arts, knows that the Egyptian artisans had from the -earliest periods been in the habit of constructing colossal statues -of their numerous deities, and also of their benefactors, raised from -gratitude and adulation. - -To name only a single instance, the immense colossal statue of Memnon, -who perished before the fall of Troy, according to Homer: also Ovid, -who speaking of his mother Aurora, says, - - “Nor Troy, nor Hecuba could now bemoan, - She weeps a sad misfortune now her own; - Her offspring, Memnon, by Achilles slain, - She saw extended on the Phrygian plain.” - -Professor Flaxman has informed us, that this celebrated statue, had it -stood upright, would have measured ninety-three feet and a half high; -calculating from the dimensions of its ear, which is three feet long. -We are informed by Dr. Rees, in his valuable Cyclopedia, that sculpture -in marble was not introduced till eight hundred and seventy-three years -before Christ. But having said this much for the origin, let us proceed -to the art; and we candidly acknowledge that it is from the lectures -of that truly distinguished individual, Professsor Flaxman, we are -principally indebted for our information. - -Sculpture in Greece remained long in a rude state; but we need not -wonder at that, when we reflect that art is only an imitation of -nature. Hence it follows that man, in a rude state of nature, for -want of proper principles to direct his inquiries, and determine -his judgment, is continually liable to errors, physical, moral, and -religious;--all his productions, of what kind soever, partake of this -primitive imbecility. - -The early arts of design in Greece resembled those of other barbarous -nations, until the successive intellectual and natural, political and -civil advantages of this people raised them above the arts of the -surrounding nations. The science employed by the Greeks may be traced -in anatomy, geometry, mechanics, and perspective. From their earlier -authors and coeval monuments, Homer had described the figure with -accuracy, but insufficient for general purposes. - -OF ANATOMY.--Hippocrates was the first who enumerated the bones, and -wrote a compendious account of the principles of the human figure; he -described the shoulders, the curves of the ribs, hips and knees; the -characters of the arms and legs, in the same simple manner in which -they are represented in the basso relievo of the Parthenon, now in the -National Gallery of the British Museum. - -The ancient artists saw the figure continually exposed in all actions -and circumstances, so as to have little occasion for other assistance -to perfect their works; and they had also the assistance of casting, -drawing, and other subsidiary means. The succeeding ancient anatomists -did not describe the human figure more minutely or advantageously -for the artist, than had been done by Hippocrates, till the time of -Galen, whose external anatomy gave example for that analytical accuracy -of arrangement followed by more modern artists. Sculpture, however, -profited little from Galen’s labours, for the arts of design were in -his time in a retrogade motion towards anterior barbarism. - -The anatomical researches from Alcmæon of Crotona, a disciple of -Pythagoras, to those of Hippocrates and his scholars, assisted Phidias -and Praxiteles, their contemporaries and successors, in giving select -and appropriate forms of body and limbs to their several divinities, -whose characters were fixed by the artists from the rhapsodies of -Homer, having then become popular among the Athenians. - -Phidias was the first in this reformation. Minerva, under his hand, -became young and beautiful, who had before been harsh and elderly; and -Jupiter was awful, as when his nod shook the poles, but benignant, as -when he smiled on his daughter Venus. Apollo and Bacchus then assumed -youthful resemblances of their sire; the first more majestic, the -latter more feminine; whilst Mercury, as patron of gymnastic exercises, -was represented as more robust than his brother. Hercules became -gradually more powerful; and the forms of inferior heroes displayed -a nearer resemblance to common nature; from which, both sentiment -and beauty can alone be given to imitative art. The near approach of -ancient art to nature, considering their high advance to accuracy of -imitation, should likewise encourage the modern to imitate the ancient -artists. The moderns now also enjoy superior auxiliary assistance from -engraving, printed books, &c., which the ancients did not possess. - -MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN FRAME.--The human figure with the limbs -extended, may be inclined and bounded by the circle and square; -the centre of gravity, its change of situation, is susceptible of -description, and may be exemplified in rest and motion;--running, -striving, leaping, walking, rising, and falling. Those principles of -motion may be exhibited in a skeleton, by the bending of the backbone -backwards and forwards, whilst the limbs uniformly describe sections of -circles in their motions, constantly moving on their axis. - -DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE, as exhibited in Grecian Statuary.--The -height, eight heads (or usually ten faces); two heads across the -shoulders; one head and a half across the hips; three noses, the -thickest part of the thigh; two, to the calf of the leg; one, the -narrowest part of the shin, &c. The above is the general proportion of -the male figure. The female figure is narrower across the shoulders, -and wider across the hips than the male. - -The _beauty_ of the human figure is found in its proportion, symmetry, -and expression; it really appears that the beauty of the human figure -is the chief or ultimate of beauty observed in the visible works -of creative Omnipotence. From thence every other species of beauty -graduates in just _ratios_ of proportion. From considering the -intellectual faculties of man, we assimilate the idea, and connect -beauty with utility, as this union of his physical and mental powers -unquestionably renders him one of the most beautiful objects in the -creation. This consideration leads us involuntarily to a train of -thought, suggested by a principle laid down by Plato, “That nothing is -beautiful which is not truly good;” which also induces the following -corollary, and which is confirmed by reason, and sanctioned by -revelation, that _perfection of human beauty consists of the most -virtuous soul in the most healthy and perfect body_. - -Inasmuch as painters and sculptors adhered to those principles in -their work, they assisted to enforce a popular impression of divine -attributes and perfections, even in ages of gross idolatry. - -In the highest order of divinities, the energy of intellect was -represented above the material accidents of passion and decay. - -The statues of the Saturnian family, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, -were the most sublime and mighty of the superior divinities. -Apollo, Bacchus, and Mercury, were youthful resemblances of the -Saturnian family, in energetic, delicate, and more athletic beauty: -Apollo-Belvidere supplies Homer’s description to the sight; he looks -indignant, his hair is agitated; he steps forward in the discharge of -his shafts; his arrows are hanging on his shoulder. - -A youthful and infantine beauty of the highest class distinguish the -Cupid of Praxiteles, and the group of Ganymede and the Eagle. The -order of heroes or demigods excel in strength, activity, and beauty; -Achilles, Ajax, Hæmon, Zethos, and Amphion, are examples in Grecian -statuary to establish this remark. - -The Giants are human to the waist; their figures terminate in -serpentine tails. Ocean and the great Rivers have Herculean forms, and -faintly resemble the Saturnian family, and have reclining positions. -The Tritons resemble the Fauns in the head, and upper features, with -finny tails, and gills on their jaws; their lower parts terminate in -the tails of fish. - -In the highest class of female characters, the beauty of Juno, is -imperious; that of Minerva, wise, as she presides over peaceful -arts; or warlike, as the protectress of cities. Venus is the example -and patroness of milder beauty and the softer arts of reciprocal -communication; of which the Venus Praxiteles and Venus de Medicis are -instances. The Greeks had also a Venus Urania, the goddess of hymenial -rites and the celestial virtues. - -The Graces are three youthful, lovely sisters embracing: they represent -the tender affections, as their name implies; while their character -gives the epithet _graceful_ to undulatory and easy motion. The -universe was peopled by genii, good and evil demons, which comprehends -every species and gradation from the most sublime and beautiful in -Jupiter and Venus, to the most gross in the Satyr, resembling a goat, -and in the terrific Pan. - -As the public have now an opportunity of consulting many of the objects -above referred to, in our great national gallery in the British Museum, -those of our readers who can obtain this advantage will do well to pay -a visit to that celebrated depository for the relics of antiquity, -where they will have it in their power to convince themselves of the -truth of the foregoing remarks. - -The progeny of Ham, the son of Noah, we find, peopled Egypt, Medea, -Chaldea, Phœnicia, and several other adjoining countries. It will be -remembered that two of the three sons of Noah possessed these countries -which the folly of idolatry overflowed; whilst it was in the line of -Shem alone, that the true faith was continued. The Mosaiac narrative -is chiefly descriptive of events which occurred in the posterity of -that patriarch, because from it the righteous line of the faithful in -Abraham, David, Solomon, and ultimately Christ, proceeded. Thus more -than two-thirds of the inhabitants of the world were gross idolators: -we often find the Omniscience of the Highest forewarning the sacred -line to avoid its fascinations. Nay, when, upon more occasions than -one, the descendants of the faithful forgot themselves, and those -admonitions of the Creator were neglected, we find the sacred race -flying before the face of puny foes, which defeat was declared to be -from their having prostrated themselves before strange gods: they were -bowed thus low in battle. Not to mention their disobedience immediately -beneath Mount Sinai, which protracted their journey through the -wilderness to forty years, which, perhaps, under other circumstances, -would not have required as many days. All those troubles, their -subsequent captivities, and national afflictions, were the produce of -disobedience. This is one of those means which retributive justice -resorts to punish wilful sin; so, however, it was with the seed of -Abraham. And so it is presumed to be with the present race of men; -either immediate or remote punishment vindicates the Omnipotence of -Heaven. From the frequent maledictions we discover in the sacred volume -against idol worship, we cannot doubt that it was peculiarly offensive -to the Deity. that the great majority of the world were addicted to -this proscribed practice is equally certain. And as the Spirit of -Truth had declared in the decalogue, that “It would not be worshipped -under any form in the heavens above, in the earth below, or in the -waters under the earth;” so was image-worship, and consequently the -construction of such things, forbidden. - -We discover that as this mania infected all nations, tongues, and -people, so did not the Israelites escape it; but immediately after -their departure from Egypt we find an exact similitude of the sacred -calf of the Egyptians, cast in melted gold, which they constructed -below Mount Sinai. In Egypt, metallic statues, as well as those of -stone, must have existed anterior to that event, as they actually -had done to our own knowledge, and long before idolatry had made its -appearance in Egypt, it had existed in Chaldea, as already shown. - -As that worship had first its being in Chaldea, so had the art of -statuary its origin in that country; it was improved, perhaps, in -Egypt, and perfected in Greece, from the time of Pericles to that of -Alexander, commonly called the Great. - - - - -DRAWING. - - -THE HUMAN FIGURE. - -From what has been said in the previous article, it would appear -that drawing of the human figure was nearly coeval with the art of -statuary, or perhaps prior to it in Greece. As there is ample room -to suppose the rude aboriginal inhabitants of Greece borrowed their -art, as they did their religious and civil policy, from the Egyptians, -and in fact from every nation where they discovered anything worthy -their attention, so must we suppose they had also this art, in its -infancy it is true, from the same people. Upon reflecting for a single -moment, we are fully satisfied that the origin of the art now under -contemplation came from Egypt. An ancient philosopher expressed himself -with great truth, when he said, “Necessity was man’s first instructor.” -We accordingly perceive the necessity of the earliest inhabitants -of Egypt to exercise the art of drawing, they having determined to -record their transactions by hieroglyphical representation. We have -not the slightest doubt but we have now in the British Museum some of -the earliest specimens of Egyptian hieroglyphical delineation, in the -_sarcophagi_; from its inscription, it has been discovered that that -identical monument cannot be less than three thousand five hundred and -ninety-eight years old! - -Previous to this, we can have no doubt that the art of drawing must -have existed. - -Like its sister art, sculpture, it received every improvement of which -it was susceptible, from the mature conceptions and the delicate hand -of Grecian artisans; words are, perhaps, inadequate to convey this art -to a second person. Years of incessant labour, with an attention to -principles established and found to correspond correctly with nature, -are the only means to obtain a just knowledge of its principles, and to -judge tastefully of its correct execution. - -However, in addition to the rules laid down in the preceding article, -we add the following, which have been approved by Sir Joshua Reynolds, -by no means a contemptible judge of the art:-- - -1. That from the crown of the head to the forehead is the third part of -a face. - -2. The face begins at the root of the lowest hairs that grow on the -forehead, and ends at the bottom of the chin. - -3. The face is divided into three proportionate parts; the first -contains the forehead or brow; the second, the nose; and the third, the -mouth and chin. - -4. From the chin to the pit between the collar-bones, is two lengths of -a nose. - -5. From the pit between the collar-bones to the bottom of the breast, -one face. - -6. From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one face. - -7. From the navel to the genitories, one face. - -8. From the genitories to the upper part of the knee, two faces. - -9. The knee contains half a face. - -10. From the lower part of the knee to the ancle, two faces. - -11. From the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a face. - -12. A man with his arms extended, is from his longest finger on each -hand, as broad as he is long. - -13. From one side of the breast to the other, two faces. - -14. The bone of the arm called _humerus_, i.e., from the shoulder to -the elbow joint, is the length of two faces. - -15. From the end of the elbow to the joint of the little finger, the -bone called _cubitus_, with a part of the hand, is also two faces. - -16. From the box of the shoulder-blade, to the pit between the -collar-bones, one face. - -17. To be satisfied in measures of breadth. From the extremity of one -finger to the other, so that his breadth should be equal to the length, -it should be observed, that the bones of the elbows with the _humerus_, -and the _humerus_ with the shoulder-blade, or _scapula_, bear the -proportions of a face when the arms are extended. - -18. The sole of the foot is one-sixth part of the length of the entire -figure. - -19. The hand is the length of a face. - -20. The thumb contains a nose in length. - -21. The inside of the arm, from the place where the muscle disappears, -which is connected with the breast (called the pectoral muscle,) to the -middle of the arm, four noses long. - -22. From the middle of the arm, at the top, to the beginning of the -head, five noses. - -23. The longest toe is one nose. - -24. The outermost parts of the paps, and the pit between the -collar-bones of a female, form an equilateral triangle. - -The knowledge of the preceding proportions, are as mere rudiments -essential to the delineation of the human figure; but they relate to -a body in a quiescent state only. The more difficult task remains -to become thoroughly acquainted with its actions. To obtain this, a -rudimental and even an intimate acquaintance with the skeleton, and -assiduous and incessant practice are necessary. - -However, the lectures delivered to the Royal Academy have furnished us -with the probable extent to which the motions of the human frame may be -carried. - -First, premising that the motions of the head and trunk of the body are -limited by the several joints of the spine. - -2. The motion of the body upon the lower limbs takes place at the -hip-joints, at the knees, and at the ancles. - -3. Those limbs, called great limbs (the whole frame being technically -divided, and denominated the upper and lower extremities), have -rotatory motions at their junctions with the trunk, by means of a ball -and socket joints, at the shoulders and the hips. The analogy of parts -between the upper and lower extremities is not carried through the -structure of those limbs in the body. - -4. The fulcrum of the upper limb is itself moveable upon the trunk, as -appears from the extensive motions of the scapula, which so generally -accompany the rotation of the shoulder, and supply the limb with a -great variety of motion, much more than the lower limb possesses. - -5. The junction of the thigh with the mass without motion, called the -_pelvis_, limits its rotation to the ball and socket-joint without -farther extension. - -6. The rotation of the head and neck takes place at the joint between -the first and second vertebræ. - -7. When the nose is parallel with the _sternum_, the face may be turned -towards either shoulder, through an angle of 60 deg. on each side; the -whole range of its motion being 120 degrees. - -8. The lateral bending of the neck is equally divided between the -seven vertebræ; but the bowing of the head, and violently tossing it -backward, are chiefly effected at the joint of the skull, and the first -bone of the vertebral column called the atlas. - -9. Although the preceding motions are consistent with an erect stature -of the neck, yet the lateral motions demand a curvature of its whole -mass. - -10. The movements of the trunk are regulated by rotary and lateral -motions, nearly equally divided among the several joints of the -vertebræ of the back and loins. - -11. The joints or the dorsal or back vertebræ are, notwithstanding, -more close and compact than those of the loins; allowing of a wider -range for bending and turning in the loins than the back. - -12. The sternum and ribs move upward, to assist the chest in the -expansion required for respiration; drawing the clavicles and the -shoulders upwards in full inspiration, and tend to a contrary motion on -expiration. Such movements also, characterise strong action and certain -passion, and very apparent in a naked figure. - -13. In stooping to touch the ground, the thigh-bone forms an angle of -somewhere about 55 degrees with the average direction of the vertebræ. - -14. The leg bends upon the thigh at an angle of about 75 degrees, and -the line of the _tibia_ forms, with the sole of the foot, when that is -elevated, an angle of 65 degrees. - -15. The whole of this limb is susceptible of motion at the hip-joint -forwards to a right angle with its perpendicular position; and -backwards to an angle of 20 degrees. The leg will then continue to move -by itself to its own angle of 75 degrees with the thigh. Its extreme -motion does not exceed 45 degrees. - -16. When the shoulders are quiescent, the clavicles usually meet in an -angle of 110 degrees at the sternum. - -17. The utmost elevation of the upper joint of the arm generally forms -an angle of 155 degrees with the vertebræ, and about 125 degrees with -the line of its clavicle. The flexion of the fore-arm upon its upper -part is confined to an angle of nearly 40 degrees. - -18. The whole arm is capable of moving forward or outward through -nearly 80 degrees, and backward to nearly the same angle with its -perpendicular station. - -19. The actions of pronation and supination in the hand, range through -all intermediate degrees from a horizontal or perpendicular direction -to 270 degrees; but 90 degrees of its rotary motion in pronation comes -from the shoulder joint. - -20. The palm of the hand admits of flexion and extension to 65 degrees -in each direction; its lateral motions are 35 outward, and 30 inward. -The flexion of the fingers at each phalanx is a right angle. - -But it must be observed that in drawing the joints, very considerable -difference is found in their length, from inequality of action. The -elbow joint, when bent inward, lengthens the arm nearly one eighth; the -same general law operates on the knees, fingers, &c. When a man is at -rest, and standing on both feet, a line drawn perpendicularly between -the clavicles will fall central between his feet. Should he stand on -one foot, it falls upon the heel of that foot which supports his weight. - -If he raises one arm, it will throw as much of his body on the other -side as nature requires to support the equilibrium. One of his legs -thrown back brings the breast forward, to preserve the gravity of the -figure: the same will be observed in all other motions of the parts to -keep the central gravitation in its proper place. - -The equipoise of a figure is of two sorts: simple, when its action -relates to itself; and compound, when it refers to a second object. - -The equilibrium of nature is constantly preserved; for in walking, -leaping, running, &c., similar precautions are taken. By the -flexibility of our bodies in striking, according to the proportionate -force meant to be employed, the body is first drawn back, then the limb -propelled forward, bringing with it the weight of the body. - -In striking, lifting, throwing, &c., a greater proportion of force is -employed than may be necessary to effect the intended purpose. This is -mentioned because, in representation, the force employed in an action -should be marked in the muscle producing that action; if it be marked -rather stronger than may be necessary, the cause is obvious, for Nature -so employs her powers. - -In studying this art, students should have selected for them the best -examples to copy from at first; then they should draw from the figure -as soon as possible, and if it be possible from the best specimens -of the antique. Their first drawings are recommended to be made with -chalk, and in large proportion; attention to these will communicate -ease and freedom to their future performances. - -It will be likewise found necessary for them to draw upon geometrical -principles; this communicates a truth, which greatly adds to their -certainty and confidence, and ultimately to their ease. - -This is mentioned, because it will be found that there is no portion -of the human frame, quiescent, or in an active state, but what is -susceptible of geometrical definition. - -Experience and exercise communicate truths which produce certainty, -whence come ease and grace. - - - - -ARCHITECTURE. - - -This is a science most beneficial to humanity. It is very evident that -it must have an extremely ancient origin. The origin of this art is -presumed to have been imitated by man, from those natural caves and -recesses, which are discovered in various parts of the earth. For in -those, it is reported, the first men took shelter from the inclemency -of elemental strife, and to avoid the piercing contingencies of -ultimate and precarious uncertainty. The oldest buildings in the world -are accordingly said to be beneath the surface of the earth; among -which are reckoned the famous temple of Elephanta, in the Delta of the -Ganges; the Catacombs, in Egypt; and upon the surface of the earth, the -tower of Belus, at Babylon; the Egyptian Mausoleum, and the Druidical -Temples in Gaul and Britain. - -Architecture may well be denominated one of those arts which -accommodate, delight, and give consequence to the human species; -while at the same time it is calculated to flatter pride, and gratify -vanity. If viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to possess -a very considerable portion, not only of the comforts, but the -conveniences, the positive utilities, and many of the luxuries of life. -The advantages derived from _houses_ only are very great, being the -first step towards civilization, having great influence both on the -body and mind of man. Secluded from each other in woods, caves, and -wretched huts, the inhabitants of such recesses are generally found to -be men, indolent, dull, inactive, and abject; their faculties benumbed, -their views limited to the gratification of their individual and -most pressing wants. But when societies are formed, and commodious -dwellings provided, where well sheltered, they may breathe a temperate -air, amid summer’s scorching heat, and winter’s biting cold; sleep, -when Nature requires, in ease and security; study unmolested; converse -and taste the sweets of social enjoyments;--they are spirited, active, -ingenious, and enterprising, vigorous in body, and active in mind. -If benefits like these previously enumerated result from any art, -then will that of the architect claim a decided pre-eminence. When we -reflect on the almost infinity of useful purposes to which this art is -conducive;--that it erects us temples for the worship of our Creator, -the benevolent dispenser of all good things, that it provides us with -habitations, where ease and simplicity are agreeably combined;--that -it is conducive to our safety, comfort, and convenience, in uniting -different districts of the country by the facility of bridges, roads, -&c., is contributive to the gratification of our natural wants, and to -our safety. - -As inhabitants of a great commercial country, the benefits we derive -from _naval_ architecture are unspeakably great; when we reflect that -it operates as a medium of communication between us, an insulated -people, and the whole earth, in its remotest colonies; that it serves -to convey between our people and the most distant nations the native -produce of the respective countries, with the effects of mutual -industry; that it clothes, feeds, and furnishes employment to thousands -of our fellow-countrymen; and, in a national point of view, our wooden -bulwarks have been the wonder of the world, and continues to afford -us protection from our enemies, should all other hopes fail. What can -surpass its utility in the latter point of view? what can exceed the -assistance derived from it? By the criterions formerly mentioned let -us determine. We shall find, that of all the arts the world has ever -boasted, there are but few, if any, that can claim a superiority. - -There are no other designs, whether necessary or superfluous, so -certainly productive of their desired object, so beneficial in -consequences, or so permanent in their effects, as is the art of the -architect. Most other inventions which afford pleasure and satisfaction -soon decay; their fashion fluctuates--their value is lost; but the -productions of architecture command general attention, and are lasting -monuments, beyond the reach of ephemeral modes: they proclaim to -distant ages the consequence, genius, virtues, achievements, and -munificence of those they commemorate to the latest posterity. The -most obvious and immediate advantages of building are, the employment -of numerous ingenious artificers, industrious workmen, and labourers -of all kinds; converting materials of small value into the most noble -productions, beautifying countries, multiplying the comforts and -conveniences of life. - -But not the least desirable effects of the architect’s art, perhaps, -remain yet to be noticed, in affording to the numerous train of -arts and manufactures, concerned to furnish and adorn the works of -architecture, which employ thousands, constituting many valuable -branches of commerce. Also from that certain concourse of strangers to -every country celebrated for stately structures, who extend your fame -into other countries, where otherwise, it would never have been heard -of; adopt your fashions, give reputation, and create a demand for your -productions in foreign parts; these are circumstances which certainly -should not be too lightly valued, and these circumstances result from -architecture. - -At this day, the ruins of ancient Rome support the splendour of the -modern city, by inviting travellers, who flock, from all nations, -to witness those majestic remains of former grandeur. The same may -be said of many other countries famous for architectural remains. -Thus architecture, by supplying men with commodious habitations, -procures that health of body and energy of mind, which facilitates the -invention of arts: when by the exertion of their skill and industry, -productions multiply beyond domestic demand, she furnishes the means of -transporting them to foreign markets: whenever by commerce they acquire -wealth, she points the way to employ their riches rationally, nobly, -and benevolently, in methods honourable and useful to themselves, and -beneficial to posterity, which add splendour to the state, and yield -benefit to their descendants. She further teaches them to defend her -possessions, to secure their liberties and lives from attempts of -lawless violence or unrestrained ambition. So variously conducive to -human happiness is this art, to the wealth and safety of nations,--so, -naturally, does it demand that protection and encouragement which has -ever been yielded it in all well governed states. - -The perfection of virtuous other arts we have beheld to be a -consequence of this; for when building is encouraged, painting, -sculpture, and every species of decorative art will flourish of -course. It should not, however, be imagined that the heaping of stone -upon stone can be of consequence, or reflect honour on individuals -or nations. The practice of architecture infers actual art to be an -essential preliminary; without this, and having some laudable end in -view, it is apt to raise disgust. This art is generally classed under -three distinct heads, viz., Civil, Military, and Naval Architecture. - -In the first attempts of architecture it was extremely rude, as -might naturally be expected. It has, however, from time to time, as -improvements have advanced, been raised to relative importance, as the -education of the people progressed; and it certainly gives the best -record of the mental progress of every people which can be collected. -It has always been found to flourish best in free states, and when -the rulers have possessed genius, virtue, and good taste. The most -eminent era of Grecian architecture was when the Athenian republic was -under the direction of Pericles; at this period, also, existed the -first of statuaries, Praxiteles. Where that eminent artist and their -admirable architects were employed, in the words of Pausanius, “they -rendered the whole of Acropolis as an entire ornament.” There are -various characteristic distinctions to be made in the several orders of -architecture which distinguish the Grecian people. The Doric is eminent -for primeval simplicity; the Tuscan embraces more ornament; the Ionic -unites simplicity and elegance; but the sum of all excellence appears -to be united in the Corinthian. The Composite is also a most elegant -order, but appears to have added but little to the Corinthian elegance -and majesty. Various nations have a great diversity of architecture; -as the Egyptian, Persian (distinguished by human figures supporting -entablatures), Hindostanee, Arabasque or Marisquo, which are very -peculiar, generally having the walls to project most at the top, which -is indicative of the natural jealousy of all oriental people; they all -regarding their _women_ as their chief treasure, it appears meant for -their especial protection. - -A greater simplicity does not appear anywhere than in the architecture -of the Druids, consisting of most extensive circles of immense stones, -chiefly raised perpendicularly, with occasionally a larger stone placed -upon the apex of two others horizontally.--There are in Great Britain -numerous remains of these constructions: the chief are Stonehenge, near -Salisbury; at Avebury, also in Wiltshire; Pomonca, in the Orkneys; -Rollright, in Oxfordshire. But the most eminent spot for Druid temples -was Mona, in Anglesea, in Wales. The reason for such apparently -unmeaning erections will be found in their peculiar belief, in the -religion they professed. - -The Saxon is a very heavy order of architecture. It was used in this -kingdom much in the erection of religious edifices, and is frequently -found mixed with the Norman in such structures. The grand and most -obvious distinction is a semi-circular arch, with massy columns, -variously ornamented, and most frequently the columns which support the -same arch are diversely sculptured. The chief sculptures of this kind -in Britain, are Gloucester Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts; Sedbury -Church, Herefordshire; several churches in Rutland, Lincoln, Somerset, -Devon, and other counties. - -There appears to us to be no order of architecture better calculated -for the purpose to which it is generally adopted, than the chaste and -pure Norman style, barbarously denominated Gothic. It affords a great -variety of light, airy beauty, and tasteful grandeur. - -In this country, the Norman order succeeded the Saxon, and we lost -nothing by the exchange; for even now, that we have the entire benefit -of a choice of the purest Grecian (since its revival by Inigo Jones), -it is a matter of taste to be certain; but in our estimation, the -chaste Norman is to be preferred to the purest Grecian, for the -purposes for which it is intended; and if the means answer the ultimate -end, we submit this to be the proper criterion for preference. We find -it usually employed in religious edifices; it is pure, light, airy, -and cheerful: and we are of opinion that the service of gratitude -and thanks to the Creator demands a disposition of mind which these -feelings are best calculated to inspire. - -Domestic architecture is various, and chiefly regulated by the various -purposes for which it is designed. Its characteristic is utility. - - - - -CHAIN-BRIDGES. - -(See Frontispiece.) - - -It appears, from a description of bridges of suspension, communicated -by R. Stephenson, civil engineer, some time ago, to the “Philosophical -Journal,” that the first chain-bridge constructed in this country is -believed to be one over the Tees, forming a communication between the -counties of Durham and York. It is supposed, on good authority, to -have been erected about 1741, and is described in the “Antiquities -of Durham” as “a bridge suspended on iron chains, stretched from -rock to rock, over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep, for the passage -of travellers, particularly miners. This bridge is seventy feet in -length, and little more than two feet broad, with a hand-rail on one -side, and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all -the tremulous motion of the chain, and sees himself suspended over -a roaring gulf, on an agitated and restless gangway, to which few -strangers dare trust themselves.” In 1816-17, two or three bridges of -iron were constructed; the first, by Mr. Lees, an extensive woollen -manufacturer, at Galashiels, in Scotland. This experiment, although -made with slender wire, and necessarily imperfect in its construction, -deserves to be noticed, as affording a practical example of the -tenacity of iron so applied.--These wire bridges were suspended not -upon the catemarian principle so successfully adopted in the larger -works subsequently undertaken, but by means of diagonal braces, -radiating from their points of suspension on either side towards the -centre of the roadway. The unfortunate fabric next mentioned was -constructed on this defective principle. Among the earliest practical -exhibitions of this novel architecture in the United Kingdom, may be -mentioned the uncommonly elegant and light chain-bridge which was -thrown over the Tweed at Dryburgh, in 1817, by the Earl of Buchan, for -the accommodation of foot passengers. Its length, between the points -of suspension, was two hundred and sixty-one feet, being considered -the greatest span of any bridge in the kingdom. This useful structure, -the theme of such just applause, and which harmonised so finely with -the far-famed scenery of Dryburgh Abbey, was entirely destroyed by a -tremendous gale of wind, at the beginning of the year following its -erection.--This bridge was subsequently restored upon a more secure -system. - - - - -CLOCKS. - - -The invention of clocks, such as are now in use, is ascribed to -Pacificus, Archdeacon of Verona, who died in 846; but they were not -known in England before the year 1368. They were ultimately improved by -the application of pendulums, in 1657, by Huygens, a Dutch astronomer -and mathematician. Although Dr. Beckmann differs in some slight degree -from the previous relation concerning clocks, yet he says, “It is -sufficiently apparent that clocks, moved by wheels and weights, began -certainly to be used in the monasteries of Europe, about the eleventh -century.” He does not think, however, that Europe has a claim to the -honour of the invention, but that it is rather to be ascribed to the -Saracens; this conjecture, he confesses, is chiefly supported by what -Trithemius tells us, of one which was sent by the Sultan of Egypt to -Frederick II., in 1232. He thinks that the writers of that century -speak of clocks as though they had been then well known; he adds, that -in the fourteenth century, mention is made of the machine of Richard de -Wallingford, which has hitherto been considered as the oldest clock -known. The fabricator of this machine called it _Albion_. - -It appears that clocks had been hitherto shut up in monasteries and -other religious houses, and that it was not till after this time -they were employed for more general purposes, as the convenience of -cities, &c. The first instance on record, that has been yet noticed, -occurs where Herbert, Prince of Carrara, caused the first clock that -was ever publicly exposed, to be erected at Padua. It was erected by -John Dondi, whose family afterwards, in consequence, had the pronomen -of Horologia assigned them, in remembrance of this circumstance: it -is also mentioned on the tombstone of the artist. The family of Dondi -now followed the profession of manufacturing clocks; for his son, John -Dondi, constructed one upon improved principles. - -The first clock at Bologna was put up in the year 1356. Some time after -the year 1364, Charles V., surnamed the Wise, King of France, caused a -clock to be placed in the tower of his palace, by Henry de Wyck, whom -he had invited from Germany for the purpose, because there was then at -Paris no artist of that kind, and to whom he assigned a salary of six -sols per diem, with free lodgings in the Tower. Towards the end of that -century, probably about the year 1370, Strasburg had a clock. About -the same period, Courtray was celebrated for its clock, which the Duke -of Burgundy carried away, A. D. 1382. A public clock was erected in -the Altburg gate at Spire, in 1395, the works of which cost fifty-one -florins. - -The greater part of the principal cities of Europe, however, at this -period, had clocks without striking. Clocks could not be procured but -at a very great expense: of this, an instance occurred in the city of -Auxerre, in the year 1483, when the magistrates being desirous of a -clock, but discovering that it would cost more money than they thought -themselves justified in expending on their own authority, applied to -the Emperor Charles VIII. for leave to employ a portion of the public -funds for that purpose. - -In 1462, a public clock was put up in the church of the Virgin Mary at -Nuremberg. - -At Venice a public clock was put in the year 1497. In the same century -an excellent clock was put up for Cosmo de Medici, by Lorenzo, a -Florentine. - -Having thus mentioned their origin in various places, until they came -to ornament the religious houses, the palaces of kings, and the chief -European cities, it now remains for us to take some notice of their -existence in our own country for public use. From public documents -still extant, it appears that so great was their expense considered in -those early times of their introduction, that it was only the powerful -and the rich who could procure them. We discover that the first clock -for public and lay purposes in England was one erected on the north -side of Old Palace Yard, Westminster, on which was this inscription, -_Discite justitiam moniti_; which inscription is said to have been -preserved many years after the clock-house had been decayed. - -It is asserted that this clock was placed in that situation, for the -purpose of being heard by the members of the courts of law; and the -occasion which produced its existence is thus recorded. It was the -produce of a fine levied upon the lord chief justice of the court of -King’s Bench, in the reign of Edward I. A. D. 1288, of whom it appears -by a book called the “Year-Book,” that this magistrate had been fined -800 marks for making an alteration in a record, wherein a defendant had -been fined 13_s._ 4_d._, and he, the chief justice, made it appear to -be 6_s._ 8_d._ instead of that, the larger sum. - -Notoriety, however, was attached to this transaction from the following -circumstances. First, it appears to have been one of three questions -put by Richard III. to his judges, with whom he was closeted in the -Inner Star Chamber, to take their opinions on three points of law. The -second question was, “Whether a justice of the peace, who had enrolled -an indictment which had been negatived by the grand jury, among the -true bills, might be punished for the abuse of his office?” On this -question a diversity of opinion arose among the judges, some of whom -supposed a magistrate could not be prosecuted for what he might have -done; whilst others contended that he might, and cited the case of -the lord chief justice above mentioned: so far was the answer of the -judges strictly proper and historically true. The third circumstance -to which we have alluded, and which is most material to our present -question, is the application of the fine. It appears that it was -expended in the construction of a clock, which was erected on the north -side of Old Palace Yard; so that the judges, barristers, and students -could not enter or leave the court, without having an opportunity of -being reminded of the punishment of the chief justice, for presuming -to violate the impartial duty of his high office; nor could they even -hear it strike, whilst upon the throne of justice, without having his -case repeated in their ears; thereby acting as a constant remembrancer, -intimating they were to administer justice more than mercy. - -Sir Edward Coke observes that 800 marks were actually entered upon the -roll, so that it is extremely probable he had himself seen the record. - -This clock was considered so important during the reign of Henry VI., -that we find that the king gave the charge of keeping it, with its -appurtenances, to William Warley, dean of St. Stephen’s, with the pay -of sixpence per diem, to be received at the exchequer. - -The clock of St. Mary’s, Oxford, was also furnished in 1523, out of -fines imposed upon the students of that university. - -With respect to the clock procured from the fine of the lord chief -justice, we must also observe that its motto appears to relate to that -circumstance; but though it might be said that it might relate to a -dial as well as to a clock--a material observation to our present -inquiry--yet, with respect to its present absence, it should be -noticed, that it is probable that clock was a very indifferent one, -but from its antiquity and the tradition attending it, was permitted -to remain till the time of Elizabeth; then being quite decayed, a dial -might have been substituted upon the same clock-house, bearing the very -singular motto which, however originally applied, clearly alludes to -such a circumstance as reported of the lord chief justice. This dial is -placed on the very site where the clock-house stood. - -But it is said by Derham, in his “Artificial Clockmaker,” that the -oldest clock in this kingdom is in Hampton Court Palace, marked with -the letters N. O., presumed to have been the initials of the maker’s -name, of the date of 1540; but that author is evidently mistaken, in -alleging that to be the oldest, because the Oxford clock bears a date -seventeen years anterior to that period. With respect to the initials, -or whatever they may be, we do not consider them of the smallest -importance. - -From Shakspeare’s “Othello” it is proved that the ancient name of this -instrument was Horologe; which various passages in our poets and old -authors establish:-- - - “He’ll watch the horologe a double set, - If drink rock not his cradle.” - -Chaucer also says of a cock, - - “Full sickerer was his crowing in his loge, - As is a clock, or any abbey _orloge_;” - -which tends to show that, in his time, clocks had been confined to -religious houses. - -So Lydgate’s prologue to the story of Thebes:-- - - “I will myself be your orologere - To-morrow early.” - -With respect to our modern clocks, it would be presumption in us to -say one word, as there is not an individual but knows as much about -them, as we could tell him. We have fulfilled our intention in giving -this historical account, which we are persuaded will afford some -information. We will now proceed to - - - - -WATCHES, - - -Which are not of so great antiquity; as it is only about 1490, mention -is made of watches, which first occurs in the Italian poems of Gaspar -Visconti. Dominico Maria Manni says the inventor was Lorenzo a -Vulparia, a native of Florence. - -One might naturally be inclined to believe that the honour of original -invention is duly demanded by the whole Germanic people, from the claim -of the invention of watches being aspired to by the Nurembergians; -as Doppelenayer gravely alleges they were first invented by a person -residing in that city, in the sixteenth century, of the name of Peter -Hale; and, perhaps, he has no better foundation for his conjecture, -than that watches were at first of an oval shape, and were called -Nuremberg eggs. - -Shakspeare, in his “Twelfth Night,” speaking of a _watch_, has the -following expression, used by Malvolio: “I frown the while; and -perchance wind up my watch, or play with some rich jewel.” Also, the -Priest, in answer to Olivia, - - “Since when, my _watch_ hath told me, toward my grave - I have travelled but two hours.” - -The following observations appear to sanction our opinion of the -early existence of those machines in this country. Dr. Derham, in his -“Artificial Clockmaker,” published in 1714, mentions a watch of Henry -VIII., which at the period he wrote was in good order. Indeed, Dr. -Demainbray says that he had heard Sir Isaac Newton and Demoire both -speak of that watch. - -An anecdote is related of the Emperor Charles V., contemporary with -Henry VIII., which it appears has reference to the policy of Europe -at that day. It is said, the emperor, after dinner, used to sit with -several watches on the table, with his bottle in the centre. After the -prince’s retirement to the abbey of St. Just, he still continued to -amuse himself with keeping them in order. From his inability to effect -this correctly, it is reported he drew the rational reflection, _that -it was impossible to effect what he had attempted--the regulation of -the policy of Europe_. - -It also appears that many watches of that day struck the hours. The -“Memoirs of Literature” report that such watches having been stolen -from Charles V. and Louis XI. whilst they were in a crowd, the thieves -were detected from their striking. - -It also appears from the evidence of certain watches of ancient -construction formerly held by Sir Ashton Lever, and also by Mr. Ingham -Forster, that _catgut_ usually supplied the place of a chain in ancient -watches; also that they were of a smaller size than now made, and -generally of an oval form. - -Imperfections of this nature, and probably other causes, might have -rendered their truth uncertain, and this most probably precluded -their general use, until the latter end of the reign of Elizabeth. -The instances we have shown will prove they were generally known, and -perhaps used at the time of Shakspeare writing the “Twelfth Night.” And -in the first edition of Harrington’s “Orlando Furioso,” published in -1591, the frontispiece represents the author with what appears to be -a watch, although the engraving is extremely indistinct; moreover, the -inscription to which engraving, of _Il Tempo passo_, clearly indicates -the same thing. - -Charles I., in 1631, incorporated the clockmakers company, and by -charter, which prohibits clocks, watches, and alarums from being -imported; which circumstance proves, that the English at this period, -had no need of the aid of foreign ingenuity in this branch of mechanism. - -We are told that Guy Fawkes and Percy were detected in the third year -of James I., with a watch about them, which they had purchased, “to -try conclusions for the long and short burning of the touchwood,” (in -the words of the time) which was prepared to give fire to the train of -gunpowder. - -The most material improvement introduced in this branch of mechanical -knowledge took place in the addition of pendulums, by Huygens, as -applied to clocks; for which conception he was indebted to Galileo, -which that philosopher adopted for measuring time, he having taken -the idea from observing the vibrations of a lamp in a church. This -reign also boasts of the production of repeating-watches in England; -first fabricated under the direction of the celebrated Dr. Hook, and -manufactured by Tompion. - -An anecdote is related of the attention paid to watches by James II., -recorded by Derham, in the “Artificial Clockmaker:” One Barlow had -procured a patent, in conjunction with the lord chief justice Allebone, -for repeaters; but a person of the name of Quare making one at the same -time, upon principles he had entertained before the patent was granted -to Barlow, the king tried both in person, and gave the preference to -Quare’s, and caused it to be notified in the gazette. - -In the next reign, the reputation of British watchmakers had increased -so much, that an act was passed by parliament, enacting that -British-made watches should be marked with the maker’s name, in order -to preserve the reputation of this branch of British manufacture from -coming to discredit in foreign markets. - -Thus we have given a general outline of the history of this branch of -mechanics, for a period of nearly a thousand years, from the first -invention of clocks by Pacificus of Verona, in 846, to the beginning of -last century, since which period they have become an article of such -general use to require no comment from us. We have noticed the various -improvements in the order in which they occurred, among which the -most striking feature appears to be the addition of the pendulums, as -serving to regulate the motion of the machine; from its given length, -certain weight and uniform vibration, it must be conceived to have -been a happy thought in Galileo, for the admeasurement of time, and -its application to this branch of mechanics was no less fortunate in -Huygens. To discover the first invention of time, we will require to -look back for upwards of two thousand years, at which period we will -find - - - - -WATER-CLOCKS. - - -These are called Clepsydræ. Vitruvius, the Roman architect and -mechanist, attributes the invention of the water-clock to Ctesibus of -Alexandria, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, about -two hundred and forty-five years before the Christian era. The same -author says, the machine was first introduced at Rome, two hundred and -fifty seven years previous to the Christian era. There is reason to -believe it was first introduced at Rome into courts of justice, from -Greece, as it had been originally used in Greece for this purpose; the -Roman orators being guided in the time they occupied the court, by this -instrument, as we may learn from this expression of Cicero, “_Latrare -ad clepsydram_.” Cicero also informs us, that it was first introduced -into courts of justice, in the third consulate of Pompey. - -It has been discovered that the inventions of Egypt, Chaldea, and -other Oriental countries constantly travelled to Rome and the West. -Long since the respective periods previously mentioned, has the honour -of this invention been claimed by Burgundians, Bolognese, and other -Italians; sometimes by Frenchmen, but chiefly by Germans. - -Their claim for invention seems to be questionable in numerous -instances, whatever it may be for improvement; they certainly cannot, -consistently with what we have stated, be considered as the _first_ -inventors; although there is nothing to be alleged against these -respective people being the discoverers of designs which had a previous -existence unknown to them. - -With equal or much more propriety might the Arabians, in point of time -(could that be of consequence) be considered as inventors of this -machine; and they are well known to possess the least claim to original -invention of any people. They, however, have a merit, notwithstanding: -but it is of a negative kind; for those arts, sciences, &c. which were -(by chance) saved from the destruction of their bigoted ignorance, and -which, when the fortune of war had thrown into their hands those pure -designs of intellectual Greece, mere accident had wrested from their -zealous fury. These they transmitted to a more ingenious people as pure -as they had received them; but upon precisely as good grounds as the -before-named Europeans claimed this _original_ invention, might the -Arabians have assumed that honour. For we read that Haroun al Raschid, -Caliph of Bagdad, then the chief of the Saracen empire, sent as a -present to Charlemagne, a clock of curious workmanship, which was put -into motion by a clepsydra; which instrument is said, by Dr. Adams, -“to have been used by the ancients to measure time by water running out -of a vessel.” - -It consists of a cylinder divided into small cells, and suspended by -a thread fixed to its axis in a frame, on which the hour distances, -found by trial, are marked out. As the water flows from one cell into -another, it changes slowly the centre of gravity of the cylinder, and -puts it in motion. - -The form of this instrument is thus described by Dr. Beckmann:-- - -“The most common kinds of these water-clocks, however, correspond in -this, that the water issued drop by drop through a hole of the vessel, -and fell into another, in which a light body, that floated, marked the -height of the water as it rose, and by these means the time that had -elapsed.” - -The most improved form the same instrument has acquired, is thus -described, by the same author, from one in his own possession. - -“Amongst the newest improvements added to this machine may be reckoned -an alarum, which consists of a bell and small wheels, like that of a -clock that strikes the hours, screwed to the top of the frame in which -the cylinder is suspended. The axis of the cylinder, at the hour when -one is desirous of being awakened, pushes down a small crank, which, by -letting fall a weight, puts the alarum in motion. A dial plate with a -handle is also placed over the frame.” - -In respect to the invention of clepsydræ, we should think the original -inventor took his first idea from the use of an instrument common in -Egypt, which that people called a _Canob_, or Nilometer, being a large -stone vessel of the shape of a sarcophagus, into which water was daily -poured, by proper officers, during the increase of the Nile, to show -the people whether they had a prospect of plenty, or were to expect a -scarcity in the ensuing year. As the fall of the water, after it had -risen to a due height, was of equal importance to them; so the water -was suffered to run out proportionably to its decrease in the river, -being ascertained by just and equal marks which they generally well -understood. - -_Vitrum horae_ had also been invented to describe the progress of time. -These were conical hour-glasses, in which were placed a portion of -sand; the glasses were joined together at the apex of the cone, with -a small aperture of communication between the two.--From the glass, -in which the sand is deposited, it dropped, grain by grain, into the -sand below, standing upon its flat basis. These machines are called -hour-glasses, and well known. We have been unable to discover any -account of the origin of this instrument; but, from its simplicity, it -admits of no improvement. It is also believed this had its origin in a -convent. - - - - -SPINNING. - - -The necessity for human clothing must be so obvious, we should think, -at nearly the first existence of our race, that two opinions upon -that subject cannot exist. For, admitting the region where our first -parents were stationed was more genial to life than these, our northern -countries, yet the difference in temperature between the heat of -noon-day, and the chilly damps of night, must be obvious to every one -who has resided in, or has read of, tropical climates. Therefore, from -necessity, we contend, our first parents could not have dispensed with -the benefit of clothing. However, independent of the necessity of the -thing, the Jewish History informs us that the first man, Adam, and his -wife, in consequence of their unfortunate disobedience and positive -violation of the commands of their Divine Creator, knew of their own -nakedness; and, therefore, they were ashamed to answer to the sacred -summons. This they confessed, with a simplicity congenial to truth, -and in the same moment, frankly owned the cause; answering to the -awful interrogatory of “Who told thee that thou wast naked? Hast thou -eaten of the tree whereof I commanded thee that thou shouldest not -eat?”--“The woman, whom thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the -tree, and I did eat.” However, we are previously informed that, “the -eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and -they sewed fig-leaves together, and made themselves aprons.” - -It should be observed, that the leaf of the Banyan, or Indian fig, is -probably here meant; if it is, the luxurious leaf of this tree is about -three feet long, and proportionably wide; therefore, we may rationally -conclude, much art was not required; probably a thorn might supply the -place of a needle, and a blade of grass would do for a thread. - -Afterwards, we are told, in the same chapter,--“Unto Adam, also to his -wife, did the Lord Jehovah make coats of skins, and clothed them.” -The preceding is the earliest account of humanity; at the same time, -it also furnishes the most ancient relation of the original of human -clothing. From hieroglyphical inscriptions still extant, the most -ancient inhabitants of Egypt wore sometimes clothing made of feathers, -fastened together; sometimes of shells, also attached to each other; -but the most general ancient clothing consisted of the skins of various -animals. So is Hercules, and many of the heroes, clothed, in antique -statuary. Although the sacred history is silent on this head, we may, -perhaps, by inference, arrive at some clue or thread to guide us -through the labyrinth of uncertainty. - -Accordingly we find in the first passages, which will admit of -constructive inference, that thread, of some sort, must, of necessity, -have had existence:--“And Ada bare Jubal: he was the father of such as -dwell in _tents_, and of such as have cattle.”--Gen. iv., 20. Now, we -submit, the inference of not only spinning, but also of weaving, and -even sewing, must be conceded, before we can conceive the existence of -tents. The cloth whereof they were made at that period, it is probable, -was of the fleece of sheep; because of the early existence of woollen -cloth among the Greeks, we have no doubt, from the following and -numerous other passages in their poets; and also from the practice of -Tyrian artisans, who were, we know, generally and confessedly eminent -for their dying the imperial purple, and other scarce, valuable, -and beautiful colours; and no substance better receives, or so well -retains the most splendid of colours than does wool. But Homer speaks -expressively in point, where, in his “Iliad,” he expresses the truce -which took place between the belligerent armies of Greeks and Trojans. -After the defeat of Paris by Menelaus, and where the laughter-loving -goddess, Venus, is said to have rescued her favourite from the fate he -deserved to find; after she had conveyed the recreant hero from the -field to his apartment, she then, like a true friend to matrimonial -infidelity, goes in search of the Spartan queen, for the purpose of -bringing the lovers together. She discovered the beautiful adultress -on the walls of the city, where she had been describing to Priam, and -his ancient nobles, the Trojan councillors, the various persons of the -heroes of Greece. Upon this occasion, Venus, to use the language of the -poet (as translated by Pope), assumes a disguise. - - “To her, beset by Trojan beauties, came, - In borrowed form, the laughter-loving dame; - She seemed an ancient maid, well skill’d to cull - The snowy fleece, and wind the twisted wool.” - -The labours of Penelope, Helena herself, and innumerable passages in -the works of the poet, all tend to confirm the fact. - -That _linen_ had also an early existence is proved at a very anterior -period of the Jewish history. They had even fine linen previous to the -construction of the utensils used in sacred worship; as, in Exodus, an -ephod of linen is expressly mentioned; likewise in the xxvth chapter, -4th verse of that book, fine linen is expressly enumerated among those -presents that the people were expected to offer freely to the Lord -Jehovah. Whence we are justified in inferring they had most probably -learned in Egypt to carry its structure to great perfection. - -We have linen mentioned likewise, in Homer, upon the breach of the -truce between the Grecians and Trojans with their auxiliary forces. -On Menelaus having been wounded by an arrow from the bow of Pandarus, -where the poet sweetly sings-- - - “But thee, Atrides, in that dangerous hour, - The gods forgot not, nor thy guardian power, - Pallas assists, (and weakened in its force), - Diverts the weapons from its destined course; - So, from her babe, when slumber seals his eye, - The watchful mother wafts the envenom’d fly. - Just where his belt, with golden buckles join’d, - Where LINEN folds the double corslet lin’d. - She turn’d the shaft, which, hissing from above, - Passed the broad belt, and through the corslet drove; - The folds it pierc’d, the plaited LINEN tore - And raz’d the skin, and drew the purple gore.” - -From what appears in the subsequent, as well as the former, part of -this article, we submit, that the general manufacture of cloth, both -woollen and linen, has been established; and if this is made out, the -prior existence of the other subsidiary arts of spinning, weaving, &c. -cannot be denied. - -There are hieroglyphical symbols in the British Museum, which denote -the various operations of the manufacture of cloths; and upon a -monument upwards of three thousand six hundred years old. - -Numerous arts have been discovered by mere accident. We are told, the -very valuable operation of _feldt_making was discovered by a British -sovereign, whose feet being always cold in the winter, he had wool put -into his shoes; the moisture there contracted, the natural heat of the -body, with the action to which this wool was exposed, between the foot -and the shoe, caused the fleecy substance to consolidate; whence the -origin of that very necessary article, the _Hat_. - - - - -STOCKING MANUFACTURE. - - -The invention to which this article refers, affords a warm subject for -panegyric. That clothing for the feet be warm, medical writers have -in all ages recommended, and truly upon the most rational as well as -philosophic and experimental practice; the feet, lying the most remote -of any member from the heart, require, and particularly by people in -years, to be kept warm, in order for their present comfort, as well -as to promote the essential evacuation of superfluous humours, by -perspiration, without which no frame can be healthy. So strongly is -this precept impressed in our national moral habits, that it has formed -a general maxim for the preservation of health. Even Thomas Parr is -said to have observed, upon being asked to what cause he attributed the -protraction of his life, “To keep the head cool by temperance, and the -feet warm by exercise, to eat only when hunger required satisfaction, -and to drink only when thirsty.” We should suppose that this recipe -would be at least worth a waggon load of the puffed quack pills which -are palmed upon the public as made from a recipe left by that venerable -man. - -The art of knitting nets is one of great antiquity, as those nets used -by the Hebrews, as well as by the Greeks, are conceived to be similar -to those used in the present day. It was thought by Ovid, in his sixth -“Metamorphosis,” that the public were indebted to the spider for the -origin of this ingenious invention; which would indeed seem probable, -as it appears that the insect is prompted to be thus ingenious for the -gratification of its natural wants, the web serving as a net or gin for -the capture of flies and other small insects which supply it with food. -And if our memory serve us, we recollect that the poet also, speaking -of flies, observes that the web of the spider serves to secure the -weak flies only, whilst the strong break it and escape; alluding to -the influence of wealth and power to pierce through those laws which -were made for the protection of the weak against the encroachments and -violence offered by the strong. The author of Job, in the eighteenth -chapter and ninth verse, mentions gins. However, in knitting stockings, -the operation, as well as the effect, is essentially different from -knitting nets. In the latter the twine is knotted into distinct meshes, -which are secured by knots; in the former, the entire substance is -produced without knots. To this distinction is to be ascribed the -reason why knit stockings may become unravelled. In the other species -the knots not only prevent the material being taken apart, but they -also render the nets sufficiently strong to prevent even vigorous fish -from escaping, yet being so capacious as to permit little fish to -escape with the water. - -The art of knitting is not now, by any means, so general as it was -formerly. It then unquestionably rated among the number of female -accomplishments; and it is certainly rather wonderful, because when the -mechanism is once obtained, it requires no exertion of intellect to -practise it; it may be carried on while sitting, walking, and talking, -or in almost every situation to which ordinary life is called; and -when it is considered that its produce adds to the comfort of the -indigent, to the advantage of the poor,--and that to persons in easy -circumstances habitual industry increases their happiness, these -things considered, it is with wonder and regret we see it fallen into -disuse; particularly as it is an occupation suited to every age and -capacity, which the infant is strong enough to practise; and even in -the infirmity and weakness of age it is practicable. We certainly do -hope and trust these observations may invite the attention of those -meritorious individuals who have the direction and management of our -scholastic establishments, to revive the practice. - -Fishing nets are also in use among the most barbarous nations of this -period, as various navigators have satisfactorily proved; frequently -made of rude materials, it is true--some of the bark of trees, and -others of the beards of whales, besides a variety of other articles -which the more refined inhabitants of civilised countries would never -think of using for such a purpose. - -The art of making nets, or ornaments of fine yarn, is said not to be a -modern invention, it having been practised for hangings, and articles -of dress and ornament. In the middle ages, it appears, the clergy wore -netting of silk over their clerical robes. Professor Beckmann also -says, he suspects those transparent dresses were used by ladies more -than four hundred years ago, to cover those beauties they still wish to -be visible. - -The invention for making coverings for the legs, of this manufacture, -is, we understand, of much later invention. It is well known that the -Romans and the ancient nations had no particular covering for their -legs. Indeed the necessity was not so urgent with the inhabitants of -warm climates, as with those in our northern regions, who, we find, -generally covered not only the feet, but the legs, thighs, and loins, -with the same garment. Such, there is reason to conclude, were the -trews, or trowsers, anciently worn by the Scotch, but not knit hose, -which the following lines, from an old song, will help to prove: - - “In days whan gude King Robert rang, - His trews they cost but half a croun: - He said they were a groat o’er dear, - And ca’d the tailor thief and loun.” - -A celebrated author on antiquities says, “It is probable the art of -knitting stockings was first found out in the sixteenth century; but -the time of the invention is doubtful.” He continues, “Savary appears -to have been the first person who hazarded a conjecture that this art -is a Scottish invention, because when the French stocking-knitters -became so numerous as to form a guild, they made choice of St. Fiacre, -a native of Scotland, to be their patron; and besides this, there is a -tradition, that the first knit stockings were brought to France from -that country.” This St. Fiacre, it appears, was the son of Eugenius, -said to have been a Scottish king in the seventh century; and Fiacre -lived as a hermit at Meaux, in France; in the Roman calendar, his name -is opposite to the 30th of August. - -More probable, however, is the opinion in this country which -respectable writers support among them. We are informed by the author -of the “History of the World,” that Henry VIII., who reigned from 1509 -to 1547, and who was fond of show and magnificence, at first wore -woollen stockings; till by a singular occurrence he received a pair of -silk knit stockings from Spain. His son Edward VI., who succeeded him -on the throne, obtained by means of his merchant, Thomas Gresham, a -pair of long Spanish knit silk stockings; this present was at that time -highly prized. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, A. D. -1561, received by her silk-woman, named Montague, a pair of knit silk -stockings, and afterwards refused to wear any other kind. - -Stowe also relates, in his “General Chronicle of England,” that -the Earl of Pembroke was the first nobleman who wore worsted knit -stockings. In the year 1564, William Ridor, an apprentice of master -Thomas Burdet, having accidentally seen, in the shop of an Italian -merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings, procured from Mantua, -having borrowed them, made a pair exactly like them; these were the -first stockings that were knit in England, from woollen yarn. From this -it would appear, that knit stockings were first introduced into England -in the reign of Henry VIII., and that they were brought from Spain to -this country; and probability appears to favour the belief that they -were originally the produce of either that country or Italy. Should -this be the case, it has been conceived by Professor Beckmann, that -they came originally from Arabia to Spain. - -The investigation with respect to the feigned productions of Rowley, -published by the unfortunate Thomas Chatterton, arose from the mention -of knitting, in a passage of those poems; it being contended that knit -hose were unknown in the days of Rowley. The passage alluded to occurs -in the tragedy of “Ella:”-- - - “She sayde, as herr whytte hands whytte hosen were knyttinge, - Whatte pleasure ytt ys to be married!” - -A like ordeal took place with respect to Macpherson’s Ossian from a -similar reason, the mention of the sun’s reflection setting on a glass -window: now the existence of Ossian being contemporary with that of -Julius Cæsar, it was contended that at that period it was not customary -to glaze windows. - -The Johnsonian faction set about that business in a very unsystematic -manner: they should have procured some well qualified Erse scholar to -have gone into those wilds where Macpherson declared he collected his -materials from oral traditionary recitals, and have heard the poems -themselves from the mouths of the aged inhabitants. If the traces of -them could not have been found, they might then have ascribed the -superior honour to Macpherson of writing a work that Greece, or Rome, -in the splendour of literary glory, never surpassed, for many poetical -beauties. - -The people of Scotland, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, -had, in the proper sense of the word, breeches; and wore a kind of -stockings, their hose coming only to the knees; their stockings were -made of linen or woollen, and breeches of hemp. - -It is supposed that these particular articles of dress were also common -in England, at and after that time, for in the year 1510, Henry VIII. -appeared upon a public occasion, with his attendants, in dresses of the -following description:--“The king and some of the gentlemen had the -upper parts of their hosen, which was of blue and crimson, powdered -with castels and sheafes of arrows of fine ducket gold, and the nether -parts of scarlet, powdered with timbrels,” &c. There may be occasion -to suppose the upper parts of the hose were in separate pieces, as -they were of different colours. Hollinshed, also speaking of another -festival says, “The garments of six of them were of strange cuts, every -cut _knit_ with points of gold, and tassels of the same, their hosen -cut in and tied likewise.” - -In A. D. 1530, the word _knit_ appears to have been quite common in -England, for John Palsgrave, a French master to the Princess Mary, -daughter of Henry VIII., published a grammar, in which he stated, that -this word in French was applied to the making of nets as well as of -caps and of stockings. - -In the household book of a noble family in the reign of Henry VIII., -kept during the life of Sir Thomas L’Estrange, Knight of Hunstanton, -Norfolk, by his Lady, Ann, daughter of Lord Vaux, there are the -following entries, whence the price of those articles at that period -are ascertained:-- - -1533. 25 H. 8. 7 Sept. Peyd for 4 peyr of knytt hose--viii _s._ - -1538. 30 H. 8. 3 Oct. ---- 2 peyr of knytt hose--i _s._ - -It is observed that the first four pairs were for Sir Thomas, and the -latter for his children. - -Nevertheless, in the reign of Mary, i.e. 1558, many wore cloth hose, as -is evidenced in the following anecdote of Dr. Sands, who was afterwards -Archbishop of York. Being in the Tower, he had permission for a tailor -to come and take an order for a pair of hose. This serves to prove the -veracity of Stowe, that stockings were not an article manufactured in -England generally, we suppose, till six years afterwards. “Dr. Sands, -on his going to bed in Hurleston’s house, he had a paire of hose newlie -made, that were too long for him. For while he was in the Tower, a -tailor was admitted to make him a pair of hose. One came into him whose -name was Beniamin, dwelling in Birchin lane; he might not speak to him -or come to him to take measure of him, but onelie to look upon his -leg; he made the hose, and they were two inches too long. These hose -he praied the good wife of the house to send to some tailor to cut -his hose two inches shorter. The wife required the boy of the house -to carrie them to the next tailor, which was Beniamin that made them. -The boy required him to cut the hose. He said, ‘j am not the maister’s -tailor.’ Saith the boy, ‘Because ye are our next neighbour, and my -maister’s tailor dwelleth far off, j come to you.’ Beniamin took the -hose and looked upon them, he took his handle work in hand, and said, -‘These are not thy maister’s hose, but Doctor Sands, them j made in the -Tower.’” - -In a catalogue of the revenues of the Bishop of St. Asaph, it is -stated, “The bishop of that diocese was entitled, as a perquisite, -upon the death of any beneficed clergyman, to his best coat, jerkin, -doublet, and breeches. Item, his hose or nether stockings, shoes, and -garters.” - -About 1557, knitting must have become common, for Harrison, in his -description of the indigenous produce of this island, says, the bark -of the alder tree was used by the peasants’ wives for dying stockings -which they had knitted. - -Hollinshed also informs us, that about 1579, when Queen Elizabeth was -at Norwich, “upon the stage there stood at one end eight small women -children spinning worsted yarn, and at the other end as many knitting -worsted yarn into hose.” - -Silk stockings are said, in consequence of their high price, for a long -time to have been worn only upon grand occasions. Henry II. of France, -wore them for the first time, on the marriage of his sister with the -Duke of Savoy in the year 1559. - -In the reign of Henry III. who ascended the throne in 1575, the consort -of Geoffroy Camus de Pontcarre, who held a high office in the state, -would not wear silk stockings given to her by a nurse who lived at -court, because she considered them to be too gay. Anno 1569, when the -privy-councillor Barthold von Mandelsoh, who had been envoy to many -diets and courts, appeared on a week-day with silk stockings, which -he had brought from Italy, the Margrave John of Austria said to him, -“Barthold, I have silk stockings also; but I wear them only on Sundays -and holidays.” - -The knitting stockings with wires, called _weaving_, has been thought -to bear a resemblance to the wire work in screens of churches. However, -the invention of the stocking loom is thought more worthy of attention, -because it is alleged to have been the production of a single person, -and perfected at one trial; his name, and the exact period is -ascertained; and, because it is founded upon a similar incident to -that of the beauteous Corinthian maid, elsewhere mentioned, as the -introducer of painting in Greece; we bestow a particular attention -upon this incident which produced the stocking loom, trusting our fair -readers will favour us with their attention, when they are informed it -is ascribed to Love. - -It is a complicated piece of machinery, consisting of no fewer than two -thousand pieces; it could not have been discovered accidentally, but -must have been the result of deep combination and profound sagacity. - -Under the usurpation of Cromwell, the stocking-knitters of London -presented a petition, requesting permission to establish a guild. In -this petition they gave a circumstantial account of their profession, -of its rise, progress, and importance. No doubt can exist but that in -this document the petitioners rendered the best, and probably a true -account of the origin and progress of their trade, that of stocking -weaving being then scarcely fifty years old. The circumstances they -stated being then within memory, any misrepresentation would have -militated against them, and could have been easily contradicted. In -Deering’s account of Nottingham, this petition is found. In that town -the loom was first employed, where it has given wealth to many. - -From this account it appears the inventor’s name was William Lee, -a native of Woodborough, a village about seven miles distant from -Nottingham, in which the following passage occurs: “Which trade is -properly styled frame work-knitting, because it is direct and absolute -knit-work in the stitches thereof, nothing different therein from -the common way of knitting, (not much more anciently for public use -practised in this nation than this,) but only in the number of needles, -at an instant working in this, more than in the other by a hundred for -one, set in an engine or frame composed of above two thousand pieces -of smith’s, joiner’s and turner’s work, after so artificial and exact -a manner that, by the judgment of all beholders, it far excels in the -ingenuity, curiosity, and subtility of the invention and contexture, -all other frames or instruments of manufacture in use in any known part -of the world.” - -The inventor of this ingenious machine was heir to a considerable -freehold estate, and a graduate of St. John’s College, Cambridge. -Being, it is said, deeply enamoured of a lovely young country-girl, -who, during his frequent visits, paid more attention to her work, which -was knitting, than to her lover or his proposals, he endeavoured to -find out a machine which might facilitate and forward the operation -of knitting, and by these means afford more leisure to the object of -his affections to converse with him. Love, indeed, is confessed to be -fertile in inventions, and has been the efficient passion which has -perfected many inventions for which the gratitude of the world is due; -but a machine so complex, so wonderful in its effects, would seem to -require a longer time than was probably allowed, and a cooler judgment -than a lover’s to construct such mechanism. But even should the cause -appear problematical, there cannot exist a doubt but the real inventor -was Mr. William Lee, of Woodborough, in Nottinghamshire. - -Deering says expressly, that Lee made the first stocking-loom in the -year 1589; this account has also been adopted by various English -writers. In the Stocking-weaver’s Hall, London, is an old painting, in -which Lee is represented pointing out his loom to a female knitter, who -is standing near him; and below is seen an inscription with the date -1589, the period of the invention. “The ingenious William Lee, Master -of Arts of St. John’s College, Cambridge, devised this profitable art -for stockings, (but being despised, went to France,) yet of iron to -himself, but to us and others of gold; in memory of whom this is here -painted.” - -Lee set up an establishment at Calverton, a village five miles from -Nottingham, but met with no success. In this situation he showed -his work to Queen Elizabeth; from that princess he requested some -assistance, his work having embarrassed rather than assisted him; but -instead of meeting with that remuneration to which his genius and -invention so well entitled him, he was discouraged and discountenanced. -It need not, therefore, excite surprise that Lee accepted the -invitation of Henry IV. of France, who having heard of the invention, -promised him a magnificent reward if he would carry it to France. He -took nine journeymen, and several looms to Rouen, where he worked with -much approbation; but the king being shortly after assassinated, and -internal commotions taking place, the concern got into difficulties, -and Lee died in poverty at Paris. A knowledge of the machine was -brought back to England by some of the workmen who had emigrated with -Lee, and who established themselves in Nottinghamshire, which still -continues the principal seat of the manufacture. - -During the first century after the invention of the stocking-loom, few -improvements were made upon it, and two men were usually employed to -work one frame. But in the course of last century the machine was very -greatly improved. The late ingenious Mr. Jedediah Strut, of Belper, -Derbyshire, was the first individual who succeeded in adapting it to -the manufacture of _ribbed_ stockings. Estimating the population of -Great Britain, say sixteen millions, and the average annual expenditure -of each individual upon stockings and knit gloves at five shillings, -the total value of the manufacture will be £4,000,000, and we consider -this rather to be under than over the mark. - -The effect of this invention was very late in making its appearance in -Scotland. Till far on in the eighteenth century, the use of knitted -stockings was universal. Mittens, or woollen gloves for the hands, -and boot-hose, for drawing over the legs in riding, were also quite -common, and all were wrought by the hand. The manufacture was carried -on solely by women, the wives and daughters of farmers, generally, and -the produce was sold as the means of bringing in a small revenue. The -introduction of the stocking-loom to Hawick, in 1771, and the change -of manners which took place about this period, soon put an end to -this traffic; but still the greater part of the stockings worn by the -country people on ordinary occasions are knitted at home. The art is -also still in use in Shetland, where knitting forms the only amusement -to relieve the tedium of a long winter, and where the articles produced -are exceedingly fine in the texture: the Shetland hose bring the -highest price of any woollen stocking. - - - - -COACHES. - - -Coach is said to be derived from _caroche_, Italian; a term first used -in the eleventh century, and invented to designate a military machine, -so called. - -We intend the word coaches to stand for the generic name of all those -machines used for the carriage of persons, on business or pleasure, -(except, indeed, those for the conveyance of the dead,) from the state -carriage of the sovereign down to the humble gig. The original inventor -of this species of carriage is said to have been an Athenian monarch, -1489 years before Christ, who being afflicted with lameness in his -feet, first invented a coach for his convenience, and with a view to -conceal his debility. This may be regarded as the first original, of -the kind, of Grecian invention. - -The ancient historian, Diodorus Siculus, makes mention of a carriage -in which Sesostris was wont to be drawn; and also, he says when he -entered the city, or went out to the sacrifice, had four of his captive -kings yoked to his chariot; but it is conjectured this carriage, to -which that historian alludes, was a warrior’s car. There is, most -assuredly, ample room to believe that this was the first species of -carriage which was introduced; if so, those existed long before the -Athenian king above-named; because all the Homeric heroes, Greeks as -well as Trojans, and their auxiliaries, rode in these machines, called -chariots, or warriors’ cars, which are also known to have existed long -antecedent to that period. We remain assured that war chariots were -used in the first ages of the world, by all the great monarchs who -possessed dominion. - -That species of carriage before said to have been invented by the -Athenian monarch, we therefore presume, was a covered carriage, similar -to that species designated in the twelve tables of the Roman law, -and by them called _arcera_, which was said to be a carriage of the -last presumed description, and mentioned as being intended for the -conveyance of the infirm. To this species of carriage succeeded the -soft _lectica_. But we will leave this part of our subject, and proceed -towards our own times. - -After the subversion of the Roman power, the northern sovereigns, -who had become the barbarous and ignorant oppressors of our species, -introduced and established, among other political regulations, the -feudal system, as it was called, by which all property in land was held -by certain fiefs, whereby the king, or, as termed, lord of the soil, -let certain portions of the land to his nobles, military officers, -and other great persons, generally often on condition of certain -services required to be performed, called knights’ service, and other -military tenures; by which custom those tenants of the sovereign had to -provide certain men and horses to serve him in his wars.--These first -tenants, or vassals, afterwards underlet those lands to villains, so -named, in contradistinction to the present recognised term, from their -living in villages or hamlets, and other tenants, from whom, in their -turn, similar services and certain provisions were required.--Thus -the European world, which had become the prey of effeminacy and -luxury, had, by this single important circumstance, their character so -radically changed, that, like the mysterious power of the Cadmæan wand -of Harlequin, wrought so uncommon a change in the morals of European -society, that those who had formerly kept carriages, and wallowed in -all the soft luxurious delicacy of Asiatic effeminacy, suddenly, or, at -least, progressively, became a society of hardy equestrian veterans. -Insomuch, that masters and servants, husbands and wives, clergy and -laity, all rode upon horses, mules, or asses, which latter animals -were chiefly used by women, monks, and other religious professors. -The minister rode to court; the horse, without a conductor, returned -to the stable, till a servant, regulated by the horologe, took him -back to the court for his master. In this manner, we are assured, the -magistrates of the imperial cities rode to council, till as late as the -beginning of the sixteenth century; so that in the year 1502, steps -to assist in mounting were erected by the Roman gate at Frankfort. -The members of the council who, at the diet and other occasions, were -employed as ambassadors, were, on this account, called _rittmeister_ in -the language of the country; at present the expression riding-servant -is preserved in some of the imperial cities. The entry of great lords -in public into any place, or their departure from it, was never in -a carriage, but always on horseback; in all the pontifical records, -speaking of ceremonials, no mention is made either of a state coach, or -body coachman, but of state horses and state mules. In the following -regulation, it is found that the horse which his Holiness rode “was -necessary to be of an iron-grey colour; not mettlesome, but a quiet, -tractable nag. That a stool of three steps should be provided for the -assistance of his Holiness in mounting: that the emperor, or kings, if -present, were obliged to hold his stirrup, and lead the horse.” - -Bishops made their public entry, on induction, on horses or asses -richly caparisoned. At the coronation of the emperor, the electors and -principal officers of the empire were ordered to make their entry on -horseback.--It was formerly requisite, that those who received a fief, -or other investiture, should make their appearance on horseback. The -vassal was obliged to ride with two attendants to the court of his -lord, where, after he had dismounted his horse, he received his fief. - -Covered carriages were again introduced in the beginning of the -sixteenth century, for the accommodation of women of the very first -rank; the men, however, thought it disgraceful to ride in them. At -that period, when the electors, and other Germanic princes, did not -choose to be present at the meeting of the States, they excused -themselves to the emperor, that their health would not permit them to -ride on horseback, which was considered as an _established point_, -that it was unbecoming to them to ride like women. What, according to -their prevailing ideas, was not permitted to princes, was much less -allowed to their servants. In A. D. 1554, when Count Wolf, of Barby, -was summoned by John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, to go to Spires, to -attend the convention of the States assembled there, he _requested -leave_, on account of ill health, to make use of a close carriage with -four horses. When the counts and nobility were invited to attend the -solemnity of the elector’s half brother, John Ernest, the invitation -was accompanied with a memorandum, that such dresses of ceremony as -they might be desirous of taking with them, should be transported in a -small waggon;--which notice would have been unnecessary, had coaches -been generally used among those nobles. The use of covered carriages -was in fact, for a long time, prohibited even to women, the consorts -of princes. About the year 1545, the wife of a certain duke obtained -from him, with great difficulty, permission to use a covered carriage -in a journey to the baths, in which permission there was this express -stipulation, that none of her attendants were to be permitted this -indulgence: though much pomp was displayed upon the occasion by the -duchess. Such is the influence of example in our superiors, who can -mould dependents and inferiors to whatever shape they please. - -Notwithstanding all these ceremonious regulations, about the end of the -fifteenth century, kings and princes began to employ covered carriages -in journeys, and afterwards on public solemnities. When Richard II., -towards the close of the fourteenth century, was compelled to fly -from his rebellious subjects, himself with all his followers, were on -horseback; but his mother, who was weak and sick, rode in a carriage. -But this became afterwards unfashionable here, for that monarch’s -queen, Anna, daughter of the King of Bohemia, showed the English -ladies how gracefully she could ride on a side-saddle; and therefore -whirlicotes (the ancient name for coaches in England), and chariots, -were disused in England, except on coronations and other public -solemnities. - -In the year 1471, after the battle of Tewkesbury, which decided the -fate of Henry VI., and that of the house of Lancaster, when others flew -in different directions, the queen was found in her coach, almost dead -with sorrow. - -In 1474, the Emperor Frederic III. came to Frankfort in a close -carriage; and as he remained in it on account of the wetness of the -weather, the inhabitants had no occasion to support the canopy which -was to have been held over him, while he went to the council house and -returned. In the following year, the same emperor visited that city in -a very magnificent carriage. In 1487, on occasion of the celebration of -the feast of St. George at Windsor, the third year of Henry VII., the -queen and king went in a rich chaise; they were attended by twenty-one -ladies. In the description of the splendid tournament held by the -Elector of Brandenburg, at Ruppin, in 1509, Beckmann says, he reads of -a carriage all gilt, which belonged to the Electress; of twelve other -coaches, ornamented with crimson; and of another, belonging to the -Duchess of Mecklenburgh, which was hung with red satin. - -In the Northumberland household book, about this period, is an order of -the duke for the chapel stuff to be sent before in my lord’s chariot. - -At the coronation of the Emperor Maximilian, 1562, the Elector of -Cologne had twelve carriages. In 1594, when John Sigismund did homage -at Warsaw, for Prussia, he had in his train thirty-six coaches, with -six horses each. Count Kevenhiller, speaking of the marriage of -Ferdinand II. with a princess of Bavaria, says, “The bride rode with -her sisters in a splendid carriage studded with gold; her maids of -honour in carriages hung with black satin, and the rest of the ladies -in neat leather carriages.” - -Mary, Infanta of Spain, spouse of Ferdinand III., rode, in 1631, -in a glass carriage, in which no more than two persons could sit. -The wedding carriage of the first wife of the Emperor Leopold, who -was a Spanish princess, cost, with the harness, 38,000 florins. The -coaches used by that emperor are thus described:--“In the imperial -coaches no great magnificence was to be seen; they were covered over -with red cloth and black nails. The harness was black, and in the -whole work there was no gold. The panels were of glass, and on that -account they were called the imperial glass coaches. On festivals the -harness was ornamented with red silk fringes. The imperial coaches -were distinguished only by their having leather traces; but the ladies -in the imperial suite were obliged to be content to be conveyed in -carriages, the traces of which were made of ropes.” At the magnificent -court of Ernest Augustus, at Hanover, there were in 1681, fifty gilt -coaches, with six horses each. So early did Hanover begin to surpass -other cities in the number and splendour of its carriages. - -The first time that coaches were introduced into Sweden was towards -the end of the sixteenth century, when John of Finland, among other -articles of luxury, brought one with him on his return from England. - -Beckmann also informs us, that the great lords of Germany first -imagined that they could suppress the use of coaches by prohibitions. -There is still preserved an edict, in which the feudal nobility and -vassals are forbidden the use of coaches, under pain of incurring the -punishment of felony. - -Philip II., Duke of Pomeranian-Stettin, reminded his vassals also, -in 1608, that they ought not to make so much use of carriages as of -horses. All these orders and admonitions, however, were of no avail, -and coaches became common all over Germany. - -Persons of the first rank (ladies we presume), in France, frequently -sat behind their equerry, and the horse was often led by servants. -When Charles VI., wished to see, _incognito_, the entry of the queen, -he placed himself behind his master of the horse, with whom, however, -he was incommoded in the crowd. Private persons in France, physicians, -for instance, used no carriages in the fifteenth century. In Paris, at -all the palaces and public places, there were steps for mounting on -horseback. - -Carriages, notwithstanding, appear to have been used very early in -France, as appears by an ordinance issued in 1294, for suppressing -luxury, and in which the citizens were prohibited from using carriages. -About 1550, there were at Paris, for the first time, only three -coaches; one of which belonged to the queen; another to Diana of -Poictiers, the favourite mistress of two kings, Francis I. and Henry -II.; and the third to René de Laval, a corpulent nobleman, unable -to ride on horseback. Henry IV. was assassinated in a coach; but he -usually rode through the streets of Paris on horseback. For himself -and his queen he had only one coach, as appears by a letter which he -writes to a friend, which is still preserved: “I cannot _wait_ upon you -to-day, because my wife is using my carriage.” - -Roubo, in his costly treatise on joiners’ work, has furnished three -figures of carriages used in the time of Henry IV., from drawings -preserved in the King’s Library: from them it is seen those coaches -were not suspended by straps, that they had a canopy supported by -ornamental pillars, and that the whole body was surrounded by curtains -of stuff or leather, which could be drawn up. The coach in which Louis -IV. made his public entrance about the middle of the seventeenth -century, appears from a drawing in the same library to have been a -suspended carriage. - -Our national chronicler, John Stowe, says coaches were first known in -England about 1580; he likewise says, they were first brought from -Germany by the Earl of Arundel, in 1589. Anderson places the period -when coaches began to be used in common here about 1605. It is remarked -of the Duke of Buckingham, that he was the first who was drawn by six -horses, in 1619. To ridicule this pomp, the Earl of Northumberland put -eight horses to his carriage. - -Things are altered now when we have carriages of every description--for -the high and low, the rich and the poor. Vis-a-vis,--an open carriage -chiefly constructed for the benefit of conversation, as its name -implies. Landau, landaulets, phætons, chaises, whiskeys, cabs, -fiacres, &c., &c., are but names adapted to different purposes, and -constructed nearly upon the same principles as coaches, but some of -them close, others open, some to be opened or shut according to the -weather, or taste of the passengers, and calculated to contain an -indefinite number, from two to six persons; nay, there are the jolly -good omnibuses running in every town and village in the kingdom, the -generality of which are constructed to carry twelve inside and eight -outside passengers. - -The number of hackney coaches which ply in the streets of London have -been augmented from time to time, since their first establishment in -1625, when there were only twenty. Coaches, cabs, omnibuses, &c., now -plying, amount to nearly three thousand. - -To prevent imposition, the proprietors of these carriages are compelled -to have their names painted on some conspicuous place of the carriage, -and their number affixed in the inside, as well as the out. This -regulation has become absolutely necessary of late years, on account of -the numerous frauds practised by the coachmen. - -We read that in Russia there are employed clumsy, but very convenient -sorts of carriages, so constructed as to be either closed or open, -and to hold a bed or couch, called _brichka_, with which persons can -travel even for two or three thousand miles without much inconvenience, -except it be over the rough stones of their towns, owing to the -superior accommodations of either lying down or sitting; this change of -position renders a journey less irksome, without which it would prove -intolerable. In Russia, from Riga to the Crimea, at least, post horses -are furnished by the government, and entrusted to subalterns in the -Russian army to provide them. - -Coaches for hire were first established by public authority in France, -as early as 1671. There are employed in the streets of the capital no -fewer than three thousand hackney coaches. As early as the year 1650 -Charles Villerme paid into the royal treasury fifteen thousand livres, -for the exclusive privilege of keeping and using fiacres in Paris. - -Post chaises were introduced in the year 1664. - -Hackney coaches were established in Edinburgh in 1673, when the number -was only twenty. Public fiacres were introduced at Warsaw in 1778. In -Amsterdam the coaches have no wheels; nor have they any at Petersburg -in the winter--they are used as sledges. - -The state-coach of the city of London is a species of heir-loom, or -the hereditary property of the city; it is a very large and apparently -extremely heavy machine, but superbly decorated with large panels -of crystal glass, richly gilt, and elegantly painted with several -appropriate designs. In one of the centre panels, among a group of -figures, is one supporting a shield bearing the inscription “_Henry -Fitzalwin_, 1189,” in the old English, character; therefore we -conjecture that the coach was constructed at a period coeval with the -above date. - - - - -SADDLES, BRIDLES, AND STIRRUPS. - - -In the earliest ages it was customary to ride without either bridles -or saddles, if the poet be worthy of credit; for we observe Lucan, -speaking of the Massillians, says: - - “Without a saddle the Massilians ride, - And with a bending switch their horses guide.” - -They regulated the motion of the horses by a switch and their voice. -It has been observed, that the case was the same with the Numidians, -Getulians, Libyans, as well as most of the Grecian people. As the -reason of the thing appears to point out the superior expediency of -a bridle, they afterwards came into fashion among the Greeks, which -they called _lupi_; because it is said the bit of the bridle bore a -resemblance to the teeth of the wolf, whence Lucan says of it:-- - - “Nor with the sharper bits - Manage th’ unruly horse.” - -In the east it would appear that bridles, at least, were used at an -early period. For we have a great number of texts in the Scripture, -which definitely express as much: in the Psalms, and likewise in -Proverbs, the name and application of the bridle is often particularly -mentioned, and more frequently alluded to. Virgil, indeed, says, -referring to very early times: - - “The Lapithæ of Pelethronium rode - With bridles first,--and what their use was show’d.” - -The saddle is also of ancient origin, for we read in I. Kings, xiii., -13.,--“And he said unto his sons, _saddle_ me the ass. So they saddled -him the ass: and he rode thereon.” And before that period, in the -second generation after Noah, the Assyrian empire was established. In -its commencement, even as early as the days of Semiramis, the wife of -Ninus, the first Assyrian king, who built Ninevah, there were those -articles of horse furniture, called _packs_ and _fardles_; for in -ancient historians we find the following passage occur in this respect. -“Semiramis ascended from the plain to the top of the mountain, by -laying the packs and fardels of the beasts that followed her, one upon -another.” The same author informs us that this was Mount Bagistan, in -Medea, and that it was seventeen furlongs from the top to the bottom. - -In the first ages, among the Greeks and Romans, a cloth or mattrass, -a piece of leather or raw hide, was all they used for a saddle. Such -coverings afterwards became more costly: Silius Italicus says, they -were made of costly skins. - -It, however, appears, that after they were become common, it was -considered as effeminate to use them; hence the Romans despised them: -and in his old age, Varro boasts of having, when young, rode without a -covering to his horse. Xenophon reproaches the Persians, because they -put more clothes upon the backs of their horses than upon their beds. -From the aspect in which hardy people viewed this practice, the warlike -Teutones considered it most disgraceful, and despised the Roman cavalry. - -In the fifth century, saddles were so magnificent, that a prohibition -was issued by Leo I., that they should not be ornamented with pearls or -precious stones. In the sixth century, the Emperor Mauritas directed -that they should have coverings of fur, of large dimensions. - -From every information we have been able to collect, we believe that -the appendage of stirrups were not added to saddles before the sixth -century. It is said, that previous to the introduction of stirrups, -the young and agile used to mount their horses by vaulting upon them, -which many did in an expert and graceful manner; of course, practice -was essential to this perfection. That this should be afforded, wooden -horses were placed in the Campus Martius, where this exercise was -performed of mounting or dismounting on either side; first, without, -and next with arms. Cavalry had also, occasionally, a strap of leather, -or a metallic projection affixed to their spears, in or upon which the -foot being placed, the ascent became more practicable. Respecting the -period of this invention, Montfaucon has presumed that the invention -must have been subsequent to the use of saddles; however, opposed to -this opinion, an ingenious argument has been offered, that is possible -they might have been anterior to that invention; because, it is said, -they might have been appended to a girth round the body of the horse. -Both Hippocrates and Galen speak of a disease to which the feet and -ancles were subject, from long riding, occasioned by suspension of the -feet without a resting-place. Suetonius, the Roman, informs us that -Germanicus, the father of Caligula, was wont to ride after dinner, to -strengthen his ancles, by the action of riding affording the blood -freer circulation in the part. - -The Latin names assigned them have been various, among which is -_scalæ_; in which sense Mauritius, in his treatise on the art of war, -is said to have named them. Now, this writer is supposed to have lived -in the sixth century; but we conceive it is pretty evident they had an -earlier existence in Arabia, Turkey, and Persia, as there is an alto, -as well as bas-relief of this last country, still extant, which is -believed to have been as ancient as the days of Darius, because it was -brought from the city he built, Persepolis, having this representation. - -The invention and name of stirrup is supposed to have been borrowed -from the anatomy of the ear, where a band is found resembling it in -form. - - - - -HORSE-SHOES. - - -When we consider the vast importance of security to the feet of -that useful animal, the horse, we cannot but feel surprised that on -account of the very rough roads the ancients must occasionally had to -travel, that some metallic shoes had not been invented and introduced -previously to the period when they appeared. - -That the security of the rider necessarily depended upon the safety -of the animal he rode, cannot be questioned. Hence, then, we do not -wonder to observe, that the sagacious Aristotle and Pliny should -remark upon the covering placed upon the feet of those animals of -draught and burden. From what these authors have said, however, we -dare not conclude that the feet of horses or camels were faced or -shod with iron: but it should rather seem that in time of war, or -on long journeys, the feet of both kinds of beasts were prepared -with such species of shoes as the common people wore, and which were -generally made of strong ox-leather. We are told that when the hoofs -of cattle, particularly oxen, had sustained any injury or hurt, they -were furnished with shoes made of Spanish or African broom, with which -linen is often manufactured in the south of France and Italy; also -shoes of some of the plants of the hemp kind, which were woven or -plaited together. Although these may be considered as only a species of -surgical bandages with regard to oxen; but such shoes were particularly -given to mules, which in days of old were employed much more than at -present for riding; and from some instances of immoderate extravagance -in people of rank, it appears that they had for their animals very -costly shoes of some of the most valuable metals. Nero, when he -undertook short journeys, was drawn always by mules shod with silver, -and those of his wife were shod with gold. - -The circumstance being barely mentioned, without any particular detail, -we are anxious to afford any certain information on the mode in which -those shoes were constructed. From a passage in Dio Cassius, we have -reason to believe that it was only the upper part of the shoe that was -made of those costly metals, or that they were plaited from thin slips. - -Xenophon relates that a certain people in Asia were in the habit of -drawing socks over the feet of their horses, when the snow lay deep -on the ground. The Kamschatkian employs the same means to preserve -the feet of his dogs, which draw his sledge, or hunt the seals upon -the ice. Those species of shoes, according to Captain Cook, are so -ingeniously made as to be bound, and at the same time to admit the -claws of the animal through them. - -From a passage found in Suetonius, we may infer that the Roman -horse-shoes were put on in the manner we have mentioned; for that -author says, that the coachman of Vespasian once stopped to put on the -shoes of his mules: this being the case, the probability appears pretty -certain, that in deep roads and moist soils the animals must have -frequently lost their shoes. - -Artemedorus speaks of a shod horse, and uses the same kind of -expression whilst speaking of other cattle. Winkelman has described a -cut stone in the collection of Baron Stosch, on which is represented -the figure of a man holding one foot of a horse, whilst another, -kneeling, is employed in fastening a shoe. - -That it was not usual to shoe the war-horse, may be gathered from -this,--when Mithridates was besieging Cyzicus, he was obliged to send -his cavalry to Bythnia, because the hoofs of the horses were entirely -spoiled and worn out. Diodorus Siculus informs us, that Alexander, in -his expedition, proceeded with uninterrupted marches, until the feet -of his horses were entirely broken and destroyed. A like instance -occurs in Cinnamus, where the cavalry were obliged to be left behind, -because the horses had suffered considerably in their hoofs, to which -he adds, they were often liable. Hence it may, perhaps, appear, that -such horse-shoes as are now in use, were unknown to the ancients; and -Chardiu gives no representation of them in ancient Persian antiquities. -In the grave of Childeric, a northern chieftain and King of France, was -discovered a piece of iron, which the learned antiquarians who saw it, -pronounced, from that portion of it which the rust had left, to have -been an old horse-shoe; they saw, or thought they saw, four distinct -apertures for nails on each side; but whilst they were endeavouring -to remove the corrosive excrescence of rust, to ascertain with more -certainty, it broke under their hands. The reason why we mentioned -this here is, that if the relic discovered was really a horse-shoe, it -must have been one of the most ancient specimens known; because, we -find that monarch died in the year 481; his grave was discovered at -Tournay in 1683. The occasion of his having a horse-shoe in his grave, -was from the creed of his religion; the superstitious belief of the -Scandinavians taught them to place implicit confidence in the power -of this amulet, to prevent the ingress of evil spirits. The remains -of this belief is even now often seen in the obscure streets of the -British metropolis; and, indeed, throughout the country, where the -mystic shoe frequently appears as the faithful guardian of the domestic -threshold. - -It is, we understand, the opinion of the French historian, Daniel, -that, in the ninth century, horses were not shod always, but only in -the time of frost, and on some other very particular occasions. - -The practice of shoeing horses was introduced into England by William -I. We are told that this monarch gave the city of Northampton as a -fief to a certain person, one of his attendants, in consideration of -his paying a certain sum yearly for the shoeing of horses. And it is -also alleged, that Henry, or Hugh de Ferres, or de Ferrers, was the -same person who held this fief on the above condition, and who was the -ancestor of the family of that name, and who still bear six horse-shoes -in their coat of arms. This was the person whom William entrusted to -inspect his farriers. - -We should not omit to observe, that it is remarked, that horse-shoes -have been found, with other riding furniture, in the graves of some of -the old inhabitants of Germany, and also in those of the Vandals in the -North of Europe. - - - - -GUNPOWDER. - - -The express period when _nitrum_ was first discovered is extremely -uncertain; but that this nitrum is an alkaline salt, there is little -difficulty in proving. It has, indeed, been conjectured that it was a -component part of the _Greek fire_, invented about the year 678, which -has been generally believed to be the origin of gunpowder. From the -oldest prescriptions which have been found, and which is said to be -that given by the Princess Anna Commena, in which, however, only resin, -sulphur, and oil are mentioned, saltpetre does not appear. - -It is believed by an author very well qualified to form a judgment on -the question, that the first certain account we have of saltpetre by -that express name, occurs in the oldest account of the invention of -gunpowder, which, according to him (Professor Beckmann) occurred in -the thirteenth century. Dr. Rees, in his Cyclopedia, expressly says, -about the year 1320; and that it was first used by the Venetians -employed against the Genoese in 1380; also that it was first in Europe -at a place now known as Chrogia, against Laurence de Medicis; and the -last named authority adds, “That all Italy made complaint against it, -as a contravention of the law of arms.” Dr. Rees gives the following -recipe for its manufacture, without distinguishing the proportionate -parts:--“A composition of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together, -and usually granulated.” He describes its effects by observing, that -“it easily takes fire, and when fired, rarifies and expands with great -vehemence by means of its elastic force;” also that “it may be made -without _nitre_, by means of _marine acid_.” - -We have two accounts preserved to us of the original of this invention. -The first of which was given by our illustrious countryman, Roger -Bacon, called the Wonderful Doctor, who died A. D. 1278; previous to -which period, gunpowder must have existed. The other account is by -Albertus Magnus, in a work published in 1612. - -It is said to be doubted whether Albertus was the author of the book -which bears his name; but that he, whoever he may have been, and Bacon, -are presumed to have taken their information from the same identical -source. About the period of the invention of gunpowder, it appears -the art of making the Greek fire began to be lost. In the works of -Roger Bacon, the term occurs three times. According to Casiri, the -term _pulvis nitratus_, is to be found in an Arabic MS. the author of -which existed about 1249. If the work of Geber, _De Investigatione -Perfectionis_, be genuine, and if this writer lived, as has been -thought, in the eighth century, it would be the oldest where saltpetre -is mentioned, in a prescription for an _aqua solutiva_, which appears -to be almost _aqua regia_. - -We are inclined to believe, however, from various authorities, -that gunpowder was invented in India, as it was proved in a paper -read before the French National Institute, by M. Langles, that the -Arabians obtained a knowledge of gunpowder from the Indians, who had -been acquainted with it from the earliest periods. The use of it in -war is said to have been prohibited them in their sacred books. It -was employed in 690 at a battle near Mecca, by the Arabians. It was -brought by the Saracens from Africa to the Europeans, who improved -the preparation, and first discovered various ways of employing -it in war. In no country could saltpetre and its various uses be -more easily discovered than in India, where the soil is so rich in -nitrous particles that nothing is necessary but lixiviation to obtain -saltpetre; and where this substance is so abundant, that almost all the -gunpowder used in different wars, with which European sovereigns have -tormented themselves, burdened their subjects with intolerable taxes, -and cursed the world from its invention--has been made from Indian -saltpetre. Had not saltpetre been known previous to the thirteenth -century, neither could gunpowder or aquafortis have existed; and for -the best of all reasons, that neither of them could be made without -saltpetre or nitre. But should it appear that this neutral salt was -known in India long prior to that period, and used by Indians as well -as Arabians before they were employed by Europeans, and considering -the former to have practised chemistry previous to the latter; should -this have been proved, perhaps a similar proof will necessarily await -upon the articles aquafortis and gunpowder. Because if this affirmation -be established, it will be discovered that Europeans knew nothing of -aquafortis until after the Arabian chemists. - -Probability appears to favour the idea, that at or about the twelfth -century the accumulated number of consequents, from the improvement -in European science, the arts we now possess were introduced into our -catalogue, _i. e._, nitre, aquafortis, and gunpowder. - -After the period that saltpetre became necessary to governments for -the manufacture of gunpowder, they endeavoured to obtain it at a cheap -rate; and for that purpose were guilty in some countries of the most -violent and oppressive measures, intruding upon private property of -every description to furnish it, hunting for the effervescence even in -old walls, to the great annoyance of individuals. But after repeated -acts of the most flagrant oppression from the public officers, and from -farmers, to whom this iniquitous practice was entrusted, they could not -procure a sufficiency; but were obliged to have recourse to traffic in -India for that purpose. - - - - -GUNS. - - -That these dangerous weapons were not known in Europe previous to the -introduction of gunpowder may be safely inferred; as without that -substance their necessity or utility is wanting. - -At first the construction of this machine was characterised by that -awkward, rude, and cumbersome appearance which generally distinguished -all inventions in their infancy; reminding us of those very rude -instruments brought from the Sandwich Islands, and deposited in our -Museum. - -The first portable fire-arms were discharged by a match; in course of -time this was fastened to a cock, for the greater security of the hand -whilst discharging the piece. Afterwards a fire-stone was attached, -screwed into a cock, with a steel plate before it, and fixed in a small -wheel, which could be wound up by a key, affixed to the barrel. This -fire-stone was not at first of a vitreous nature, like that now in -use for striking fire, but a compact pyrites, long known as such, and -called a fire-stone. As an instrument so furnished was often liable -to miss fire, till a late period a match was still continued with the -wheel; and it was not till a considerable time after that, instead of -a friable pyrites, so much exposed to effloresce, a vitreous stone -was affixed to the improvement of the lock, somewhat resembling our -own gun-lock. But these progressive improvements advanced slowly, -because as recently as the early part of the last century these clumsy -contrivances were in use. During that period, those instruments were -denominated by various names, chiefly German and Dutch, such as -_buchse_, _hakenbuchse_, _arquebuss_, musket, martinet, pistol, &c. The -first of these names arose from the oldest portable kind of fire-arms -having a similarity to a box. There were long and short _buchse_, the -latter of which were peculiar to cavalry; the longest kind also, from -their resemblance to a pipe, were called in Germany, _rohr_. - -Large pieces, which were conveyed on carriages, were called _Karren -buchse_, from the action of conveyance. Soon afterwards cannon were -introduced, at first called _canna_; now known as artillery. However, -artillery-men, and others concerned in those employments, still use the -terms previously mentioned. The hackenbuchse were so very large and -unwieldy, that if carried in the hand, they could not be used manually -alone; they were, therefore, supported by a post or stay, called a -_bock_, because it had a forked end, somewhat resembling the horns of -the buck, between which the piece was fixed by a hook projecting from -the stock. There is still preserved in the Tower of London, an old -_buchse_; a specimen of every species of our national arms may be seen -in the same place. - -From those terms before-mentioned, it would appear, that not only the -English, but also the French, and most other European nations, took the -names of their fire-arms. - -It appears that pistols were first used in Germany; they had a wheel -attached to them. Bellay mentions them in the year 1544, in the -time of Francis I.; and under Henry II., the German horsemen were -called _pistoliers_. Several historians think that the name came from -Pistolia, in Tuscany, because there they were first made; and, if -we might hazard an opinion, we think this conjecture right. Hence, -although Germany might first have generally used them, we think they -were an Italian invention. - -Muskets are said to have received their name from either the French -_mouchet_, or else from the Latin _muschetus_; however, we are of -opinion that neither of these terms gave its original; and submit that -it is derived from the Latin _muscarium_,--the fall of men being as -sudden after the explosion of this deadly weapon, as the death of a -fly after it is flapped by that instrument, which was common in the -butcher’s shambles of ancient Rome. - -Daniel proves they were known in France as early as the period of -Francis I. Brandome, however, asserts they were introduced by the -Duke of Alva--that cruel monster in human shape--that tool of a -blood-thirsty tyrant--whose name has its full merit when it has eternal -execration, as the exploits of that diabolical character in the -Spanish Netherlands bear indubitable testimony: that wretch existed in -1507; and they were not known in France at that period, as Brandome -endeavours to prove, or we should have had more intelligence handed -down to posterity by the commentators of one who would so willingly -have used such an instrument. The _lock_ is said to have been invented -in the city of Nuremberg, in Germany, about 1517; but that cannot be -considered as the lock of the present day, as even in Germany the -fire-lock is known by the name of the French-lock, which certainly -militates against the previous assertion, the one giving the name -perhaps to the other. - -Beckmann says, “In the history of the Brunswick military it is stated, -that the soldiers of that Duchy first obtained flint-locks instead -of match-locks in 1687. It has often been asserted,” he continues, -“that fire-tubes which took fire of themselves were forbidden first in -Bohemia and Moravia, and afterwards in the whole German empire, under -a severe penalty, by the Emperor Maximilian I.; but I have not found -any allusion to this circumstance in the different police laws of that -emperor.” - -That the first fire-stones were pyrites appears from various sources, -and afterwards a vitreous kind of stone was introduced in its stead; -this circumstance is said to have produced some kind of confusion, as -in many instances the properties were applied to that stone which -were related by the Germans of antiquity as belonging to pyrites. In -Germany, this vitreous stone was called _vlint_; in Sweden and Denmark, -_flinta_; and in England, _flint_. This appellation is of great -antiquity. - -Anciently, in Germany, as it appears from the song of Hildebrand, a -metrical romance of very early date, that Hildebrand and Hudebrand, a -father and son, and, at the moment, ignorant of their affinity, agreed -to fight for each other’s armour; and it is said “They let fly their -ashen spears with such force, that they stuck in the shields, and they -thrust resounding axes of flint against each other, having uplifted -their shields previously; but the Lady Ulta rushed in between them--‘I -know the cross of gold,’ said she, ‘which I gave him for his shield; -this is my Hildebrand. You, Hudebrand, sheath your sword; this is your -father!’ Then she led both champions into the hall, and gave them meat -and wine with many embraces.” - -Besides these proofs that the ancient name of the stone was known -in Germany by the appellation _vlint_--which species of stone may, -perhaps, without hazarding the danger of error, be conceived to be the -same which Zipporah, the wife of Moses, is represented to have used, -in the 25th verse of the 4th chapter of Exodus: “Then Zipporah took a -sharp stone, and cut off the foreskin of her son, and cast it at his -feet, and said,--Surely a bloody husband thou art to me.” And it is -added she said so, on account of the circumcision. - -In addition to what has appeared, let us add, it cannot be doubted that -the instrument fired by this stone first obtained for it, in Germany, -the name of _vlint_; as the ancient name may, in general, be now lost, -it is commonly called flint-stone. Those people acquainted with the -northern, Scandinavian, and German antiquities, know that the knives -employed in ancient sacrifices, and other sharp instruments, were made -of this stone, as appears from the remains being yet discovered in old -barrows, and between urns. - -It is also presumed that the Ethiopian stone, mentioned as used by -one of the Egyptian embalmers, first to open the body to get at the -intestines, was a flint-stone. The soil being in some places siliceous -or chalky, naturally produces such stones in common with that earth. - -The flint is a stone indigenous in most European countries; they are -commonly collected and manufactured by people whose occupation allows -them much spare time. The easiest mode to shape them is with a species -of pillow of saw-dust, or some other soft material, sown up in coarse -cloth, held upon the knees, and with a hammer having a bevil edge, they -may be broken into almost any form or size by those accustomed to the -practice. - -The great quantity of the material from whence they are composed -allows for any waste which accident may produce. In several counties -of England they are so plentiful, that they are the common material -employed for mending the public roads. But we are informed that this -is not the case in France, where, in time of war, the people were -prohibited from exporting them. The Dutch are commonly large dealers in -this article. - -Flint is a large component in the manufacture of glass. - -Gun flints are now, however, comparatively little used, as percussion -caps are generally substituted, which act with more certainty, and -require a great deal less trouble. - - - - -ASTRONOMY. - - -Not being greedy of delusion ourselves, neither would we lead others -into error; but, on the contrary, are desirous to avoid all deception, -as we may be considered over studious to give the most rational -origin, and where we cannot get at the history of those objects which -engage our attention--whenever this is uncertain we resort to nature, -experience, and reason, and furnish the most correct explanation our -contracted circle of information will permit. Whenever we discover the -clue of history, we collect the most satisfactory detail our limits -will afford us to insert. Guided by the preceding notions, and directed -by those principles, we have endeavoured correctly to conceive, -and faithfully to portray our own conceptions in the best manner -our experience might enable us, to make a just distinction between -metaphorical allusion and literal application; ever endeavouring to -discriminate between serious assertion and studied fable. - -We fully coincide with the just remark of the learned author of “Indian -Antiquities,” who says “that in respect to the early ages of the world, -all the remains of genuine history, except that contained in the sacred -annals, is only to be obtained through the mazes of Mythology.” - -It must be confessed, that to sift this grain of corn from the bushel -of chaff with which it is surrounded, where every effort which the -ingenuity of Greece could devise to render fable as current as truth, -was resorted to, is no small task; that it requires the operation -of the best exercised reason, and the assistance of extraordinary -judgment, which is only to be attained through the medium of extensive -experience and the exercise of clear and discriminative powers: then -we pretend not to possess the best of possible acquisitions of this -kind, but the best in our power, we have endeavoured to collect, and -summoned to our assistance; and the value of our labours we will leave -the public to judge. - -If the application of observations like the preceding ever come -_apropos_, surely they apply to the present article; since from the -_sideral_ science, all the errors of an idolatrous race proceeded in -the major part of the population of the ancient world: from thence also -proceeded the most sublime imagery which embellishes the syren voice -of poetic song, the grandest metaphors, and the sweetest allegories, -which ornament the transendent eloquence of the most able rhetoricians -of Greece and Rome; the fire of exquisitely natural and most noble -allusions which enliven and embellish their historic pages. The -sweetest philosophical explications also flowed from thence, which -ornament the various immortal works of their most excellent poets, -orators, historians, natural and moral philosophers; and, in brief, of -every description of the sublimest genius of ancient Greece and Rome, -in their most divine effusions. - -It will appear, we believe, that the first astronomers of Chaldea, -Phœnicia, and Egypt, are not now known as astronomers, by name, if we -except the person of the royal Nimrod, the founder of the Chaldean -empire, which name is often confounded with Belus; sometimes one is -put for the other, and often Belus is called the son of Nimrod. How -the truth of this was, we shall not at present determine: be it as it -may, it is allowed on all hands that the sideral science claims for its -inventor no less a person than the founder of the first monarchy in the -world. That this science was first introduced by the founder of the -Tower of Babel is not questioned, because it is more evident, that in -that country there must have existed from necessity, the expediency of -the most approved observation, which could be made upon this eminently -useful science; where, on account of the excessive solar heat, people -generally travel by night: where, for hundreds of miles, are nothing -but pathless deserts, with a horizon as boundless and little impeded -as that of the ocean; assuredly under such circumstances, the local -situation of the site of the immense Observatory of Babel must point -out the expediency of procuring some intelligence from the position -which the inhabitants discovered the host of heaven to appear in at -the rising, setting, &c.; for from what will appear in the course of -this article, it will be very evident that the Tower of Babel was -constructed for the purpose of an astronomical observatory; farther, -that the climate of Chaldea was most favourable to the exercise of -that sublime art, will not admit of a question, when we consider the -atmosphere is so pure, so clear, so free from exhalation, that at -night the sky is said to resemble an immense canopy of black velvet -studded with embossed gold, from the appearance of the stars; and that -it was not only the appearance of the stars, their rising, setting, -and motion, by which they knew time was to be measured; but also the -distinction between one star and another could be correctly ascertained -from the usual colour--here it was the various planets, zodiacal -constellations, and the other asterisms in both hemispheres, received -their primary names. - -The preceding circumstance, it is conceived, fixes the local place -where the science had its origin. - -The Tower of Babel was a parallelogram, with sides of unequal length. -Herodotus thus describes it.--“The Temple of Jupiter Belus occupies the -other [square of the city], whose huge gates of brass may be seen. It -is a square building; in the midst rises a tower of the height of one -furlong, upon which resting as a base, seven other turrets are built in -regular succession. The ascent is on the outside, which, winding from -the ground, is continued to the highest tower: in the middle of the -whole structure there is a convenient resting place.” - -Diodorus Siculus says, this tower was decayed in his time; but, in his -description of Babylon, he thus speaks of it--describing it as the act -of Semiramis, who flourished two thousand nine hundred and forty-four -years before Christ:--“In the middle of the city, she built a temple to -Jupiter-Belus; of which, since writers differ amongst themselves, and -the work is now wholly decayed through length of time, there is nothing -that can with certainty be related concerning it; yet it is apparent -it was of an exceeding great height; and that, by the advantage of it, -the Chaldean astrologers exactly observed the rising and setting of the -stars. The whole was built of brick, cemented with bitumen, with great -art and cost. Upon the top she placed three statues of beaten gold, of -Jupiter, Juno, and Rhea: that of Jupiter stood upright, in the posture -as if he was walking; it was forty feet in height, and weighed one -thousand Babylonish talents. The statue of Rhea was of the same weight, -sitting on a golden throne, having two lions standing on either side, -one at her knees, and near to them were two exceeding great serpents -of silver, weighing thirty talents each. Here, too, the image of Juno -stood upright, and weighed eight hundred talents, grasping a serpent by -the head in her right hand, and holding a sceptre adorned with precious -stones in her left. For all these deities there was placed a table -made of beaten gold, forty feet long and fifteen broad, weighing five -hundred talents, upon which stood two cups, weighing thirty talents, -and near to them as many censers, weighing three hundred talents: there -were likewise placed three drinking bowls of gold--the one to Jupiter -weighed two hundred talents, and the others six hundred each.” - -We have been thus circumstantial in our description of Babylon, -for obvious reasons. First--that it was the first local situation -where, since the deluge, men had associated for civil purposes; and -secondly--because it was the original station where the astronomical -science was cultivated. From Chaldea, Astronomy travelled to Egypt, -where she was studied for many ages; she also went to Phœnicia, where -she was regarded with equal attention. But the peculiar occasion which -the Phœnician people had to improve their acquaintance with this -science, will appear, upon reflecting that these people occupied a -narrow and barren tract of land between the Mediterranean and Arabian -seas; therefore, they found it essentially necessary to improve their -situation by those means which Divine Providence had apparently marked -out for them to resort unto; we accordingly find them applying to -mercantile industry; as a commercial people, in this character, they -were the ready medium of communication between every part of the then -known world. In consequence, they had factories or mercantile stations -up the Mediterranean; but particularly on its European side, on the -shores of the Atlantic, and even in the British sea: we recognise their -occupying Marseilles, and others, on the coast of France; Cadiz, on -that of Spain; the Lizard Point, and other places, in Cornwall, where -they traded for tin in the British Isles. In brief, their commercial -spirit carried them to every part of the globe: by the by, admitting -that rational belief be allowed to Plato and Solon, we shall find that -they had, in the first ages, explored the Atlantic Ocean, and even -discovered America. A great variety of authorities may be adduced to -prove the assertion--that the Phœnicians made three descents on the -American coast; and others, who say that the inhabitants discovered -there by the Spaniards, gave the same names to the plants as had been -assigned them in Asia; that their religious rites were similar, and -general customs and manners the same,--we refer to Joseph Da Costa’s -“History of the Indies,” published in 1694. - -This author was an eye-witness, and wrote from actual observation. The -Phœnicians, in the exercise of their mercantile functions, had the most -obvious necessity to cultivate the sideral science. We find that they -accordingly did so, and made various improvements and very important -discoveries by their exercise. From the northern hemisphere being -more known to them than it was to the Chaldeans, they discovered that -splendid and beautiful asterism, _Cynosuræ_, or the polar-star,--an -asterism of the most singular service, before the properties of the -magnet were discovered, and which star was sometimes called, from them, -Phœnice. - -From Phœnicia and Egypt the celestial science of astronomy was brought -into Greece, with which people the Phœnicians were intimate; for they, -by trade, having occasion to converse with the Greeks, and also from -uniting in one national resemblance, the three opposite characteristics -of soldiers, sailors, and men of science, the communications between -the two people were very frequent. At every period, from the first -establishment of the Grecian states, that highly eminent and -intellectual people collected from all others every particular they -could obtain in all matters having relation to sciences and arts; those -they cultivated with a success worthy of the motive which first induced -them to make these collections.--Loving Knowledge for herself, they -succeeded beyond all others in obtaining her favours. - -The first Greek who appears on record to have cultivated the celestial -science with success, was Thales, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, six -hundred and forty one years before Christ; he explained the causes of -eclipses, and predicted one. He also taught that the earth was round, -and divided into five zones; he discovered the solstices and equinoxes, -and likewise divided the year into three hundred and sixty-five -days. He had travelled into Egypt in search of knowledge, where he -ascertained the height of one of the pyramids, from its shade. He -looked upon water as the principle of all things. From him the sect -called the Ionic had their origin. - -Anaximander, his pupil, followed him, and supported the opinions of his -great master; he was born before Christ six hundred and ten years; he -invented maps and dials, and is said to have constructed a sphere. His -ideas of the planets were, however, erroneous. - -Anaximenes was a scholar of Anaximander, and born five hundred and -fifty-four years before Christ. He taught that air was the origin of -all things, and many erroneous notions; among others, that the earth -was a plane, and the heavens a solid concave sphere, with the stars -affixed to it like nails. - -Anaxagoras of Clazomene, the pupil of, and successor to, Anaximenes, -born before Christ five hundred and sixty years. The doctrines he -supported are a strange association of important truths, mixed with -the most gross absurdities. He taught that the world was made by a -being of infinite power; that mind was the origin of motion; that the -upper regions, which he called ether, were filled with fire, that the -rapid revolution of this ether had raised large masses of stone from -the earth, which, being inflamed, formed the stars, which were kept -in their places, and prevented from falling by the velocity of their -motion. - -His ideas of the solar orb were extremely erroneous; alleging, -according to different authors, various uncertain positions respecting -the materials of which that planet is composed: one says, _he_ said -it was a vast mass of fire; another states _his_ opinion, that it -was red-hot iron; and a third, that it was of stone. He taught that -the comets are an assemblage of planets; that winds are produced in -consequence of highly rarified air; that thunder and lightning are a -collision of clouds; earthquakes, by subterraneous air forcing its -passage upwards; that the moon is inhabited, &c. - -This philosopher removed his school from Miletus to Athens, which was -thenceforth the grand seat of all learning. He had taught there for -thirty years, when he was prosecuted for his philosophical opinions, -particularly for his just ideas relative to the Deity, and condemned to -death. When sentence was pronounced, he said:--“It is long since Nature -condemned me to that.” However, according to the laws of Athens, he was -permitted an appeal to the people, in which his scholar, the immortal -Pericles, saved his life by his eloquence. His sentence of death -was changed into banishment. Whilst in prison he determined exactly -the proportion of the circumference of the circle to its diameter, -denominated “squaring the circle.” He died at Lampsacus. Archelaus, his -scholar, was the preceptor of the divine Socrates. - -Pythagoras was another scholar of Thales. The place of his nativity is -uncertain; but having settled in the island of Samos, he is generally -reckoned of that place. He travelled in search of knowledge through -Phœnicia, Chaldea, Egypt, and India; however, meeting with little -encouragement on his return to Samos, he passed over to Italy, in the -time of Tarquin the Proud, and opened a school at Croto, a city in the -Gulf of Tarentum, where he had a number of students, and gained much -reputation. His pupils were obliged to listen in silence for at least -two years; if talkative, longer; sometimes, for five years, before -they were permitted to ask him any questions; for which time they were -_mathematicoi_, because they were set to study geometry, dialling, -music, and other high sciences, called by the Greeks _mathemata_. But -the name of _mathematici_ was commonly applied to those who cultivated -the stellary science, and who predicted the fortunes of men, by -observing the stars under which they were born. - -This luminary of science first assumed the appellation of -_philosopher_; before him, those whose pursuits have now that title, -were called sages or wise men; he was the founder of the sect called -the Italic. He was so much honoured whilst living, and his memory -honoured when dead, by the Romans, that they attributed to him the -learning of Numa, who lived much earlier. About the year of the city -411, the Delphian oracle having directed the Romans to erect statues to -the bravest and wisest of the Greeks, they conferred that honour upon -Alcibiades and Pythagoras. - -He taught publicly that the earth is the centre of the universe; but -to his scholars he gave his real opinions; similar to those afterwards -adopted by Copernicus, that the earth and all the planets moved round -the sun, as their co-centre, and which doctrine he is presumed to have -derived from either the Chaldeans or Indians. He thought that the earth -is round, and everywhere inhabited. Hence, he admitted that we might -have antipodes, which name is said to have been invented by Plato. - -Pythagoras was distinguished for his skill in music, which he first -reduced to certain firm principles, and likewise for his discoveries -in geometry. He first proved, that in a right-angled triangle, the -square of the hypothenuse, or side subtending the right angle, is -equal to the two other sides; also that of all plain figures having -equal circumference, the circle is largest; and of all solids having -equal surfaces, the sphere is the largest. Pythagoras likewise taught -that all things were made of fire. That the Deity animated the -universe, as the soul does the body; which doctrine, with that of -the metempsychosis, or transmigration, he likewise taught; and which -thoughts were adopted by Plato, and are most beautifully expressed by -Virgil; that the sun, the moon, the planets, and fixed stars, are all -actuated by some divinity, and move each in a transparent solid sphere -in the order following:--next to the Earth, the Moon, then Mercury, -Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn; the sphere of the fixed stars -last of all; that those move with a sound inconceivably beautiful, -which ears cannot comprehend. Those eight spheres he imagined to be -analogous to the eight notes in music. - -Empedocles, the chief scholar of Pythagoras, entertained the same -sentiments with his teacher, concerning astronomy. He is said to have -thrown himself into the crater of Mount Etna, to make himself pass for -a god; or, perhaps, which may approach nearer the truth, because he -could not discover the cause of the eruption: or else in his endeavours -to discover the cause. One of his iron sandals being thrown up by the -volcano, revealed the mode in which he had perished. - -Philolaus, also a scholar of Pythagoras, first taught publicly the -diurnal motion of the earth upon its axis, and its annual motion round -the sun; which first suggested to Copernicus the idea of that system -which he established. - -Meteon, born at Leuconæ, a village near Athens, first introduced into -Europe the Lunar Cycle, consisting of nineteen solar years, or nineteen -lunar years, and seven intercalary months. It had been first adopted by -the Chaldeans. Meteon published it at the Olympic games, where it was -received with so great applause that it was then universally adopted -through the Grecian States, and their colonies, and got the name of the -Cycle, or Golden Number, to denote its excellence, which name it still -retains. - -It was also called the Great Year; which name was likewise applied to -various spaces of time by different authors; by Virgil, to the solar -year, to distinguish it from the monthly revolution of the moon; by -Cicero and others, to the revolution of six hundred years, or three -thousand six hundred years; called also several ages, when all the -stars shall come to the same position, with respect to one another, -as they were in at a certain time before; called likewise _Annus -Mundanus_, or _Vertens_. - -The lunar cycle begun four hundred and thirty-two years before the -commencement of our era, and according to it, the Greek calendars, -which determined the celebration of their annual feasts, &c. were -adjusted. Meteon is said to have derived his knowledge of this subject -from Chaldea. - -The opinions of the subsequently registered astronomer, Xonophanes, -founder of the Eleatic school, are so truly monstrous, that after -the light which had appeared, he must have travelled with his eyes -shut; or else the rage for novelty alike affected the scientific of -Greece, as it did their _literati_; choosing to travel a long way -for new thoughts, when they might have found much better at hand. -Xonophanes, among other whimsical opinions, maintained that the stars -were extinguished every morning, and illuminated every evening; that -the sun is an inflamed cloud; that eclipses happen by the extinction -of the sun, which is afterwards lighted up; that the moon is ten times -larger than the earth; that there are many suns and moons to illumine -different climates. - -The Eleatic school was chiefly famous for the study of logic, or the -art of ratiocination, first invented by Zeno. Those of this sect paid -but little attention to science, or the study of Nature. Philosophy -was anciently divided into three parts, natural, moral, and the art of -reasoning. Xonophanes was succeeded by Parmenides, his scholar, who, -in addition to his master’s absurdities, taught that the earth was -habitable in only the two temperate zones; that the earth was suspended -in the middle of the universe, in a fluid lighter than air; that all -bodies left to themselves light on its surface. This bore a slight -resemblance to the Newtonian doctrine of attraction. - -Democritus, of Abdera, a scholar of Leucippus, who flourished four -hundred and fifty-six years before Christ, was the first publisher -of the Atomic Cosmogony, invented by Mochus, the Phœnician, said to -have been received by his master Leucippus. Both admitted plurality -of worlds. Democritus was the first who taught that the milky way is -occasioned by the confused light of an infinite number of stars; which -doctrine is still maintained by the best informed of philosophers. He -also extended that idea to comets; the number of which Seneca says the -Greek philosophers did not know; and that Democritus suspected there -were more planets than we could see. This was also the opinion of many -others, the truth of which has been verified in the discoveries of -Pallas, Juno, Vesta, and the _Georgium Sidus_. - -Democritus is considered as the parent of experimental philosophy; the -greatest part of his time was devoted to it; and he is said to have -made many discoveries. He, like Meteon, and Newton, maintained the -absurd idea of the existence of a vacuum, which was denied by Thales -and Descartes. Democritus also maintained that the sea was constantly -diminishing. He declared that he would prefer the discovery of one of -the causes of the works of Nature, to the possession of the Persian -monarchy. Often laughing at the follies of mankind, he was thought by -the vulgar to be out of his mind; but Hippocrates, being sent to cure -him, soon found him to be the wisest man of the age; and Seneca reckons -him the most acute and ingenious of the ancients, on account of his -many useful inventions; particularly his ingenious making of artificial -emeralds, tinging them of any colour; of softening ivory, dissolving -stones, &c. - -Although the chief attention of Plato and Aristotle was directed to -other grand objects, yet they much contributed to the improvement of -astronomy. Notwithstanding the most famous in this respect was Eudoxus, -the scholar of Plato, who was famous for his skill in astrology, -natural and judicial, or the art of foretelling future events by -the relative situations of the stars, of their various influences, -an art which prevailed for many ages among the ancients, and is yet -assiduously cultivated by the modern Arabians and other orientals, -although in a great measure exploded in European nations. By the -former or which divisions in this science are foretold the changes of -seasons, rain, wind, thunder, cold, heat, famine, diseases, &c., from a -knowledge of the causes that are believed to act upon the earth and its -atmosphere; whilst the latter foretold the characters, fortunes, &c., -of men, from the stellary disposition at the moment of their respective -nativities. - -The philosopher, Eudoxus, spent much of his time on the top of a high -mountain, to observe the motion of the stars. He regulated the Greek -year as Cæsar did the Roman. Had the ancient Grecian astronomers been -equally attached to experiment with Democritus, they might have arrived -at more certain conclusions; but they were content with speculative -theory, and spoke rather from conjecture than observation; whence both -Strabio and Polybius treated as fabulous the since recognised assertion -of Pythius, a famous navigator to the north, who had sailed to a -country supposed to be Iceland, where he said the sun, in the middle of -summer, never set. - -The most important improvements in astronomy were made in the school -of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus; and which seminary -flourished for nine hundred and twenty-three years, till the invasion -of the Saracen army, under the command of Amrou. Those astronomers -were chiefly Greeks, or of Grecian extraction--the most learned men -being invited here by the liberality of the Ptolemies. The first -who distinguished themselves were Timocarus and Aristillus, prior to -the foundation of the library, which was founded three hundred years -before Christ. Those two men endeavoured to determine the places of the -different stars, and thus to trace the course of the planets. The next -and most eminent man was Aristarchus, about two hundred and sixty-four -years before Christ; who taught, that the sun was about nineteen times -further from the earth than the moon (which is not the twentieth part -of its real distance), although the philosophers of the Pythagorean -school did not consider it above three times, and perhaps only one -and a half further distant. Aristarchus also taught, that the moon -was fifty-six diameters of our earth from this globe, which opinion -comes near to the truth: he believed it to be scarcely one-third of -its real size. He was widely erroneous in his conception of the sun’s -dimensions. He also, in conformity to the doctrines of Pythagorus and -Philolaus, supposed the sun to be placed in the centre, and that the -earth moved round it; on which account he was accused of impiety, as -disturbing the repose of the Vesta and the Lares. This opinion was not, -however, retained by his successors in the Alexandrian school. Contrary -to the doctrine of the Greek philosophers, he taught that the stars -were at different distances, and that the orbit of the earth round the -sun was an insensible point, in consequence of the immense distance -of the stars. The only work of Aristarchus which remains, is on the -magnitude and distance of the sun and moon. - -Very nearly contemporary with Aristarchus was Euclid, the celebrated -geometrician of Alexandria; Manetho, an astrologer and historian; and -Aratus and Cleanthus, disciples of Zeno, the stoic philosopher; all -of whom contributed to the enlargement of astronomical knowledge; but -particularly the two first named. - -Eratosthenes, born at Cyrene, succeeded Aristarchus, being invited by -Ptolemy Euergetes. This professor is said to be the inventor of the -Armillary sphere, an instrument or machine composed of moveable sides, -representing the equator, the two colures, with the meridian; all of -which turned round on an axis directed to the two poles of the world, -each of which circles were anciently called armilla, and the whole -machine, astrolabus. All instruments which could be contrived for -the promotion of this science, were furnished at the public expense, -and placed within the observatory of Alexandria. Assisted by these -instruments, Eratosthenes first undertook to measure the obliquity of -the ecliptics, or rather the double of that obliquity, that is, the -distance from the tropics, which he made to be about 47 degrees; the -obliquity, or half of this distance, 23½ degrees. This grand attempt -was to ascertain the exact distance of a degree of the meridian, and -thus to determine the circumference of the earth; which he accomplished -with wonderful exactness, considering the period at which he lived; -and he performed this by the same method since adopted by the moderns -who have succeeded him. He is also said to have discovered the true -distance of the sun from the earth. - -The great Archimedes lived contemporary with Eratosthenes, that -eminent geometrician of Syracuse, whose inventive genius in mechanics -had constructed engines which protracted the fall of that capital, -with its Island Sicily, to the almost omnipotent power of Rome for a -considerable period. - -The most illustrious astronomer which had as yet appeared at Alexandria -was Hipparchus, who flourished between one hundred and sixty and one -hundred and twenty-five years before Christ. He first brought this -science into a tangible elementary form, rendering it systematic. He -discovered, or was the first who observed the difference between the -autumnal and the vernal equinox; the former being seven days longer -than the latter, which proceeds from the eccentricity of the earth’s -orbit, first discovered from observing the inequality of the solar -motion. He framed tables for what is called equation of time, or to -ascertain the difference between the shade on a well constructed dial -and a perfectly regulated clock. He made great progress in explaining -the motions and phases of the moon; however, he was not so successful -with respect to the planets. - -His greatest work was his ascertaining the number of the stars, marking -their distances, and arriving at the means by which their precise -places on the hemisphere of Alexandria could be known. He marked one -thousand six hundred stars, in seventy-two signs, into which the -heavens were divided. Pliny says this was a labour which must have been -difficult even to a god. The appearance of a new star induced him to -set about and accomplish this work, which he did in a catalogue for the -benefit of future observers. - -Hipparchus does not mention comets, whence it has been conjectured he -had never seen any; it has also been suggested, that he considered -them with meteors, which are not objects of astronomical observation. -He divided the heavens into forty-nine constellations, viz., twelve in -the ecliptic, twenty-one in the north, and sixteen in the south. To one -of these he gave the name of Berenice’s Hair, in honour of the wife of -Ptolemy Soter, who had consecrated her hair, which was very beautiful, -to Venus Urania, if her husband should return from a war in Asia -victorious; it being hung up in the temple of the goddess, soon after -disappeared, and is said to have been carried off by the gods. - -Hipparchus likewise constructed a sphere, or celestial globe, on which -all the stars visible at Alexandria were depicted; and thought to have -been similar to the Faranese globe at Rome, still extant. In his -observations on the stars, he discovered that, when viewed from the -same spot, their distance always appeared the same from each other; -but he discovered the distance of the moon to be different in various -parts of the heavens; for instance, in the horizon and zenith. This -he conceived to be owing to the extent of the globe; he, therefore, -contrived a method of reducing appearances of this kind, to what they -would be if viewed from the centre of the earth, which is called a -parallax; and the discovery of it was of the greatest importance to -astronomy. He took this idea from observing that a tree, in the middle -of a plain, appeared in different parts of the horizon, when viewed -from different situations; so does a star appear in the various points -of the heavens, when viewed in different parts of the globe. Hipparchus -was the first who connected geography with astronomy, and this fixed -both the sciences on certain principles. - -After the overthrow of the Roman empire, the first encourager of -learning was Charles the Great, or Charlemagne; but little could be -done in his time; after his death the former ignorance prevailed. -Beda, or Bede, from his piety and modesty termed _venerabilis_, and -his scholar, Alcinius, both Englishmen, greatly excelled in general -literature; among other qualifications they were eminent in the -astronomy of the preceding period. The first step towards the revival -of knowledge, or the translation of the Astronomical Elements of -Alfergan, the Arab, by order of Frederick II., chosen Emperor of -Germany in 1212. About the same time Alphonso X., King of Castile, -assembled from all parts the most famous astronomers, who at his -desire, composed what are called the Alphonsine Tables, founded on the -hypothesis of Ptolemy. - -About the same period John Sacrobosco, of Holywood, a native of -Halifax, in Yorkshire, who was educated at Oxford, and taught -mathematics and philosophy at Paris, made an abridgment of the -amalgamist of Ptolemy, and of the commentaries of the Arabs, which was -long famous as an elementary book under the title of “De Sphira Mundi.” -He died at Paris, in the year 1235. In the same year, Roger Bacon, an -English Franciscan friar, made astonishing discoveries in science for -the time he lived. He perceived the error in the Kalendar of Julius -Cæsar, and proposed a plan, for the correction of it, to Pope Clement -IV. in 1267. He is presumed from his writings to have known the use -of optical glasses, and the composition and effects of gunpowder. -He believed in planetary influence on men’s fortunes, and the -transmutation of metals. On account of his vast knowledge in astronomy, -mathematics, and chemistry, he was called Doctor _Mirabilis_; but, for -the same reason, he was suspected of magic. Under this pretext, whilst -at Paris, he was put in prison by order of the Pope’s legate; and -after a long and severe confinement, he was at last, by the interest -of several noble persons, liberated, returned to England, and died at -Oxford in 1292, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. - -In the fifteenth century two events happened which changed the face of -the sciences; the invention of printing, about 1440, and the taking -of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The learned men of that city -having escaped from the cruelty of the victors, fled into Italy, and -again introduced the taste for classical literature; which was greatly -promoted by the munificence of the Emperor Frederick III., Pope -Nicholas V., and particularly of Cosmo de Medici, who justly merited -the title of Father of his Country, and Patron of the Muses. - -The restoration of astronomy began in Germany. The first who -distinguished himself, was George Purbach, born at Purbach, on the -confines of Austria and Bavaria, in 1423, who was cut off in the -flower of his age--only thirty-eight years old. He was succeeded by -a scholar more skilful than himself, John Muller, born at Konigsberg, -in 1436, who taught mathematics and astronomy with great reputation at -Vienna. In February, 1471, appeared a comet, on which he published his -observations. Being called to Rome by Pope Sextus IV., to assist in -correcting the Kalender, he was cut off by the plague, in 1476. Bernard -Waltherus, a rich citizen of Nuremberg, his friend and associate, -succeeded him, who is said to have first made use of clocks in his -astronomical observations, in 1484, and to have been the first of the -moderns who perceived the effects of the refraction of light. - -Fracastorius, born at Verona, in 1483, was a celebrated astronomer, and -an eminent poet and good philosopher; he made considerable discoveries -in this science, and with all his abilities may be considered as the -precursor of the celebrated Copernicus. - -Nicholas Copernicus, the restorer of the Pythagorean philosophy, and -the modern discoverer of the rational and true system of astronomy, -as now universally received, under the title of his name, was born at -Thorn, a city of Royal Prussia, 19th February, 1473. Having learnt the -Latin and Greek Languages in his father’s house, he was sent to Cracow, -to be instructed in philosophy and physic, where he was honoured with -the degree of doctor; showing a greater predilection for mathematics -than medicine. His uncle by his mother’s side was a bishop, who gave -him a canonry upon his return from Italy, whither he had gone to -study astronomy, under Dominic Maria, at Bologna, and had afterwards -taught mathematics with success at Rome. In the repose and solitude of -an ecclesiastical life, he bent his chief attention to the study of -astronomy. Dissatisfied with the system of Ptolemy, which had prevailed -fourteen centuries, he laboured to form a juster one. What led him to -discover the mistakes of Ptolemy was his observations on the motions -of Venus; he is said to have derived his first notion on this subject -from various passages in the classics, which mention the opinions of -Pythagoras and his followers, as, indeed, he himself acknowledges in -his address to Pope Paul III. He established the rotation of the earth -round its axis, and its motion round the sun; but to explain certain -irregularities in the motion of the planets, he retained the epicicles -and eccentrics of Ptolemy. His work was first printed at Nuremberg, in -1543, a short time before his death. - -The doctrines of Copernicus were not at first generally adopted. The -most eminent professors in Europe adhered to the old opinions. - -Among the astronomers of this period, the Landgrave of Hesse deserves -particular praise, who erected a magnificent observatory at the top -of the Castle of Cassel, and made many observations himself, in -conjunction with Christopher Rothman and Justus Burge, concerning the -place of the sun, of the planets, and of the stars. - -But the person who enriched astronomy with the greatest number of facts -of any modern who had yet appeared, was Tycho Brahe, a Dane of noble -extraction, born in 1546, designed by his parents for the study of the -law; but attracted by an eclipse of the sun in 1560, at Copenhagen, -whither he had been sent to learn philosophy, he was struck with -astonishment in observing that the phenomenon happened at the very -moment it had been predicted. - -He admired the art of predicting eclipses, and wished to acquire it. At -first, for want of proper instruments, he fell into several mistakes, -which, however, he afterwards corrected. Having early perceived his -future improvements must depend on instruments, he caused some to be -constructed larger than usual, and thus rendered more exact. On the -11th November, 1572, he perceived a new star in Cassiopeia, which -continued without changing its place till spring 1574, equal in -splendour to Jupiter or Venus. It last it changed colours and entirely -disappeared. Nothing similar to this had been observed since the days -of Hipparchus. - -Tycho, in imitation of that illustrious astronomer, conceived a design -of forming a catalogue of the stars. To promote his views, the King of -Denmark ordered a castle to be built in Hueun, an island between Seonia -and Zealand, which Tycho called Uranibourg, “the city of heaven,” and -where he placed the finest collection of instruments that had ever -yet appeared; most of them invented or else improved by himself. He -composed a catalogue of seven hundred and seventy-seven stars, with -greater exactness than had ever been done before; and constructed -tables for finding the place of the most remarkable stars at any -given time. He was the first who determined the effect of refraction, -whereby we see the sun or any star above the horizon, before it is -so in reality; as we see the bottom of a vessel when filled with -water, standing at a distance, which we could not see when empty. He -made several other improvements and important discoveries, which he -published in a work entitled “Progymnasmata.” The labours of Tycho -attracted the attention of Europe; the learned went to consult him, and -the noble to see him. James VI. of Scotland, when he went to espouse -the sister of Frederic, King of Denmark, paid Tycho a visit, with all -his retinue, and wrote some Latin verses in his praise. - -But these honours were of short continuance. After the death of his -protector, King Frederic, the pension assigned him was withdrawn, and -he was compelled to exile himself from his native country. Having hired -a ship, he transported his furniture, books, and instruments to a small -place in Hamburgh, in 1597. The Emperor Rodolphus invited him into his -dominions, settled a large pension upon him, gave him a castle near -Prague, to prosecute his discoveries, and appointed him Longomatus, -a native of Jutland, and the celebrated Kepler, to assist him. But -Tycho was not happy in his new situation; he died 14th October, 1601, -repeating several times, “I have not lived in vain.” - -Kepler was one of the greatest philosophers that ever lived, and ought -to be considered as the discoverer of the _true_ system of the world. -He was born in Germany, at Wiel, near Wirtemberg, 27th December, -1571. He early imbibed the principles of Copernicus. After the death -of Tycho, he was employed to finish the tables which he had begun to -compose from his observations. Kepler took twenty years to finish them. -He dedicated them to the emperor, under the title of the “Rodolphine -Tables.” - -Kepler united optics with astronomy, and thus made the most important -discoveries. He was the first who discovered that the _planets move -not in a circle, but in an ellipse_; and that altogether they move -sometimes faster and sometimes slower, yet that they describe equal -areas in equal times; that is, that the spaces through which they -move in different parts of their orbit, are of equal times, though -of unequal length; yet when two straight lines are drawn from the -extremity of either space to the centre of the sun, they form triangles -which include equal areas. He likewise demonstrated that the squares of -the periodical times of the revolution of the planets round the sun, -are in proportion to the cubes of their distance from him; a theorem -of the greatest use in astronomical calculations: for having the -periodical times of two planets given, and if the distance of one of -them be known, by the rule of proportion, the distance of the other can -be ascertained. - -Kepler is said to have used logarithms in framing his “Rodolphine -Tables.” This great man died in poverty, 15th November, 1631, at -Ratisbon, whither he had gone to solicit the arrears of his pension, -which had been very ill paid: he left nothing to his wife and children -but the remembrance of his virtues. - -Contemporary with Kepler was Galileo, born at Pisa, in Italy, in 1564; -illustrious for his improvements in mechanics, for his application -of the effects of gravity, and for the invention, or at least, the -improvement of telescopes. - -The use of spectacles, or reading glasses (convex for long-sighted; and -concave for short-sighted persons,) had been invented by one Spina, a -monk at Pisa, in 1290; or, as some say, by our countryman Roger Bacon. -The use of telescopes or glasses for viewing objects at a distance, -was invented by Zachary Janssen, a spectacle-maker, at Middleburg, or -rather, as it is said, from the accidental discovery of a child. The -honour of this invention is also claimed by others. It is certain that -Galileo first improved them so as to answer astronomical purposes. -He also first made use of the single pendulum for measuring time in -making his observations; to which he was led, by considering one day -the vibrations of a lamp suspended from the vaulted roof of a church. -He likewise discovered the gravity of the atmosphere from the rising of -water in a pump, by the action of a piston, which led the way to the -invention of the barometer, by his scholar Toricelli. - -The use of telescopes opened, in a manner, a new world to Galileo. -He observed with astonishment the increased magnitude and splendour -of the planets and their satellites, formerly invisible: which -afforded additional proofs of the veracity of the Copernican system, -particularly the satellites of Jupiter, and the phasis of Venus. He -discovered an innumerable multitude of fixed stars, which the naked eye -could not discern, and what greatly excited his wonder, without the -least increase in their size or brightness. - -About the same time, John Napier, of Merchiston, in Scotland, invented -what are called “Logarithms,” first published at Edinburgh in 1614, -afterwards improved by Mr. Briggs, Professor of Geometry, at Oxford, -in which, by a very ingenious contrivance, addition is made to answer -for multiplication, and subtraction for division; an invention of the -greatest utility in astronomical calculations. - -Galileo was not afflicted with poverty, but with persecution. At -seventy years of age he was called before the Holy Inquisition, for -supporting opinions contrary to Scripture,--and was obliged, on the -11th of June, 1633, formally to abjure them, to avoid being burnt as -a heretic. The system of Copernicus had yet gained but few converts; -and the bulk of professions and learned men in Europe, attached to -the philosophy of Aristotle, supported the old doctrine. Galileo was -condemned to prison, and confined to the small city of Arcem, with its -territory, where he consoled himself by the study of astronomy. He -contrived a method of discovering the longitude by the satellites of -Jupiter, which, however, has not been productive of all the advantages -he expected. He died in prison, or rather in exile, in 1642. - -Although there were a great number of astronomers contemporary with -Kepler and Galileo, none made any conspicuous figure. John Bayer, -of Augsburg, introduced the Jewish method of marking the stars with -letters of the Greek and Latin alphabets; this the Jews use because -their law does not permit the use of figures, the produce of fancy. - -In 1732, astronomers were very attentive to observe the transit of -Venus over the disc of the sun, which Kepler had predicted, as a -confirmation of the system of Copernicus. Mercury was observed by -Gassendi in France, and some others; but the transit of Venus did not -then take place for their inspection. - -The transit of Venus was first seen by Jeremiah Horrox, of Hoole, -an obscure village, fifteen miles north of Liverpool, on the 24th of -November, 1639, and at the same time by his friend, William Crabtree, -at Manchester. Horrox was born in 1619, and died in 1641, in the -twenty-third year of his age. He wrote an account of his observations, -which were published after his death, under the title of “Venus in Sole -visa,” by Hevelius. - -The Copernican system was first publicly defended in England, by Dr. -Wilkins, in 1660; in France, by Gassendi, the son of a peasant in -Provence, who published many valuable works on Philosophy. He was born -in 1592, and died in 1655. He was violently opposed by Morin, a famous -astrologer. - -Descartes, descended from a noble family, the son of a counsellor of -Brittany, in France, born at Haye, in Tourraine, 31st of March, 1596, -early distinguished himself by his knowledge in algebra and geometry. -He attacked and overturned the philosophy of Aristotle, in his own -country. He attempted to establish certain principles, which, though -founded in theory, he took for granted, by which he accounted for all -appearances. Like Mochus and Democritus, he imagined all space to be -filled with corpuscules, or atoms, in continual agitation, and denied -the possibility of a vacuum. He explained everything by supposing -vortices, or motions round a centre, according to the opinions of -Democritus, and thus discovered the centrifugal force in the circular -motion of the planets. But the system of Descartes not being founded on -facts or experiments, did not subsist long: although at first it had -many followers. His astronomical opinions were much the same with those -of Copernicus. - -Although the lively notions of Descartes led him into error, yet his -exalted views greatly contributed to the improvement of science. Men -were led to observation and experiments, in order to overturn his -system, and astronomy was cultivated by persons of ability; viz., -Bouillard, at Paris; Ward, at Oxford, 1653; and by Helvelius, at -Dantzic, 1643, who constructed a fine observatory, and collected a -great many facts by his long assiduous observation, for fifty years, -during which he made many discoveries concerning the planets, fixed -stars, and particularly comets. Colbert, in the name of Louis XIV., -sent him a sum of money and a pension. Hevelius published a catalogue -of fixed stars, entitled, “Firmamentum Sobieskianum,” dedicated to -John Sobieski, King of Poland, at that time justly famous for having -raised the siege of Vienna, when attacked by the Turks, 1683. In honour -of whom Helvelius formed a new constellation between Antinonus and -Serpenterius, called _Sobieski’s Shield_. - -But the most distinguished astronomer of that time was Christian -Huygens, son to the secretary of the Prince of Orange, born at the -Hague, 14th of April, 1629, and educated at Leyden, under Schooten, the -commentator on Descartes,--famous for the application of pendulums to -clocks and springs to watches, for the improvement of telescopes and -microscopes, and for the great discoveries he made, in consequence of -these improvements in astronomy. - -The establishment of academies, or societies, at this time, contributed -greatly to the advancement of science. - -The Royal Society, in London, was begun in 1659, but did not assume a -regular form till 1662. Its transactions were first published in 1665. -The Academy of Sciences, at Paris, was founded in 1686, by Louis XIV., -who invited to it Rœmer, from Denmark, Huygens and Cassini from Italy. - -Cassini was born at Perinaldo, in the county of Nice, on the 8th of -June, 1625, and was appointed first professor in the Royal Observatory -at Paris, where he prosecuted his discoveries till his death, in 1712, -and was succeeded by his son. He was assisted by Picard, Auzoul, and La -Hire. - -By the direction of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, a voyage was -undertaken by Riecher and Meurisse, at the king’s expense, to the -island of Caienne, in South America, almost under the equator, in 1672, -to ascertain several philosophical facts;--the refraction of light, -the parallax of Mars, and of the Sun, the distance of the tropics, the -variation in the motion of the pendulum, &c. - -The parallax of the sun is the angle under which an observer at the -sun would see the earth: this Cassini fixed at 9½ seconds, and the -angle under which we see the sun, at 16 minutes and 6 seconds, or 966 -seconds; hence he concluded that these semi-diameters, are as 9½ to -966, or as 10 to 1932. So that, according to Cassini, the semi-diameter -of the earth is one hundred times less than that of the sun; and -consequently the sun is a million times larger than the earth. - -The parallax of the sun has since, from the transit of Venus, 6th of -June, 1761, and 3rd of June, 1769, been discovered to be but about 8 -seconds, consequently his comparative bulk to that of the earth, and -his distance from it, to be proportionably greater. The method of -finding the distance of the earth from the sun, and consequently of the -other planets, was first proposed by Dr. Halley, who had never seen, -and was morally certain he would never see, this appearance. - -Meurisse died during the voyage. Riecher returned in 1676. His answer -to the parallax of Mars was not satisfactory. Cassini calculated it at -15 seconds. - -The distance of the tropics was found to be 46 degrees, 57 minutes, 4 -seconds. The chief advantage resulting from the voyage was ascertaining -the vibration of the pendulum. In 1669, Placard remarked that clocks -went slower in summer than in winter, owing to, as since ascertained, -that it is the property of heat to dilate bodies, which consequently -lengthens the pendulum; that cold produces an opposite effect. Riecher -found that the pendulum made forty-eight vibrations less at Caienne -than at Paris; that it went two minutes and twenty seconds a day -slower; hence, to adjust, he was obliged to shorten the pendulum. - -The same fact was confirmed by Halley, while at St. Helena, 1676. But -an additional reason for this variation is presumed to exist, from the -machinery being further removed from the central axis of the earth; the -gravitating principle is presumed to be diminished at the equator more -than it is when nearer the poles. - -About this time the French Jesuit missionaries, having got admission -into China, contributed greatly to the improvement of their astronomy. -Father Schaal, one of their number, on account of his merit, and -particularly for his skill in astronomy, was so highly honoured by -the court of China, that the emperor, upon his death-bed, made him -preceptor to his son and successor. Schaal reformed the Kalendar, a -matter of great importance to that country. It was further improved -by Verbiest, who succeeded Schaal, about 1670. The most eminent -astronomers in England during this period were Flamstead, Halley, and -Hook. - -Sir Isaac Newton was born at Woolstrope, in Lincoln, December 25, 1642; -after due preparation he was admitted in the University of Cambridge. -The rapidity of his progress in mathematical knowledge was truly -astonishing. At the age of twenty-four, he had laid the foundation of -the most important mathematical discoveries. He is the first who gave -a rational and complete account of the laws which regulate planetary -motion, on the principles of attraction and gravitation. Newton was as -remarkable for a modest diffidence of his own abilities, as for the -superiority of his genius. In 1704, he published his “Optics;” in 1711, -his “Fluxions;” and in 1728, his “Chronology.” He received in his life -time the honour due to his singular merit. In 1703, he was elected -President of the Royal Society. In 1705, he received the honour of -knighthood by Queen Anne.--He was twice member of parliament. In 1669, -he was made master of the mint, which, with the presidency of the Royal -Society, he held till his death, in 1726. He was buried in Westminster -Abbey, where there is an appropriate monument to his memory. - -The system of Newton had an eminent supporter and able annotator in -the very eminent Scottish professor, Colin Mac Laurin, who was born -in the month of February, 1698. In 1719, he travelled to London, -where he was introduced to the illustrious Newton, whose notice and -friendship he obtained, and ever after reckoned as the greatest honour -and happiness of his life. In 1734, Dr. Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, -published his treatise, called “The Analyst,” in which he attempted -to charge mathematicians with infidelity in matters of religion. This -work was the occasion of Mac Laurin’s elaborate “Treatise on Fluxions,” -published at Edinburgh, in 1742, which is reckoned the most ample -treatise on that branch of novel mathematics which has yet appeared. So -very eminent was Mac Laurin’s skill in mathematics, and the principles -of anatomical science, and he possessed such excellent instruments for -these purposes, that a new theory never appeared, nor did anything -transpire in the scientific world, which was uncommon, but his friends -constantly resorted to him for explanation and experiment, and their -laudable curiosity was sure to be satisfactorily gratified. - -One of the greatest names in the modern history of astronomical -discovery is that of the late Sir William Herschel; and, much to his -praise, he was self-instructed in the science in which he earned his -high reputation. Herschel was born at Hanover, in 1736, and was the -son of a musician in humble circumstances. Brought up to his father’s -profession, at the age of fourteen he was placed in the band of the -Hanoverian Guards. A detachment of this regiment having been ordered -to England in the year 1757, he and his father accompanied it; but -the latter returned to Germany in a few months, and left his son to -try his fortune in London. For a long time he had many difficulties -to contend with, and he passed several years principally in giving -lessons in music in the different towns in the North of England. At -last, in 1765, through the interest of a gentleman to whom his merits -had become known, he obtained the situation of organist at Halifax; and -next year, having gone to fulfil a short engagement at Bath, he gave -so much satisfaction by his performances, that he was appointed to the -same office in the Octagon Chapel of that city, upon which he went to -reside there. The place which he now held was of some value; and from -the opportunities which he enjoyed of adding to its emoluments, by -engagements at the rooms and private concerts, as well as by taking -pupils, he had had the prospect of deriving a good income from his -profession, if he had made that his only or his chief object. - -During his residence at Bath, although greatly occupied with -professional engagements, the time he devoted to his mathematical -studies was surprising. Often, we are told, after a fatiguing day’s -work of fourteen or sixteen hours among his pupils, he would, on -returning home at night, repair for relaxation to what many would -deem these severer exercises. In this manner, in the course of time, -he attained a competent knowledge of geometry, and found himself in a -condition to proceed to the study of the different branches of physical -science which depend upon the mathematics. Among the first of the -latter that attracted his attention, were the kindred departments of -astronomy and optics. Having applied himself to these sciences, he -became desirous of beholding with his own eyes those wonders of the -heavens of which he had read so much, and for that purpose he borrowed -from an acquaintance a two-feet Gregorian telescope. This instrument -interested him so greatly, that he determined to procure one of his -own, and commissioned a friend in London to purchase one for him, of a -somewhat larger size. But he found the price was beyond what he could -afford. To make up for this disappointment, he resolved to construct a -telescope for himself; and after encountering innumerable difficulties -in the progress of his task, he at last succeeded, in the year 1774, in -completing a five-feet Newtonian reflector. This was the commencement -of a long and brilliant course of triumphs in the same walk of art, and -also in that of astronomical discovery. Herschel now became so much -more ardently attached to his philosophical pursuits, that, regardless -of the sacrifice of emolument he was making, he begun gradually to -limit his professional engagements, and the number of his pupils. - -Meanwhile he continued to employ his leisure in the fabrication of -still more powerful instruments than the one he had first constructed; -and in no long time he produced telescopes of seven, ten, and even -twenty feet focal distance. In fashioning the mirrors for these -instruments, his perseverance was indefatigable. For his seven-feet -reflector, we have been informed that he actually finished and made -trial of no fewer than two hundred mirrors before he found one that -satisfied him. When he sat down to prepare a mirror, his practice -was to work at it for twelve or fourteen hours, without quitting his -occupation for a moment. He would not even take his hand from what he -was about, to help himself to food; and the little he ate on such -occasions was put into his mouth by his sister. He gave the mirror a -proper shape, more by a certain natural tact than by rule; and when his -hand was once in, as the phrase is, he was afraid that the perfection -of the finish might be impaired by the least intermission of his -labours. - -It was on the 13th of March, 1781, that Herschel made the discovery to -which he owes, perhaps, most of his reputation. He had been engaged -for nearly a year and a half in making a survey of the heavens, when, -on the evening of the day that has been mentioned, having turned his -reflector (an excellent seven feet reflector of his own constructing) -to a particular part of the sky, he observed among the other stars one -which seemed to shine with a more steady radiance than those around it; -and on account of that and other peculiarities in its appearance, which -excited his suspicions, he determined to observe it more narrowly. On -reverting to it after some hours, he was a good deal surprised to find -that it had perceptibly changed its place--a fact which the next day -became more indisputable. At first he was somewhat in doubt whether -or not it was the same star which he had seen on these different -occasions; but, after continuing his observations for a few days -longer, all uncertainty upon that head vanished. He now communicated -what he had observed to the astronomer royal, who concluded the -luminary could be nothing else than a new comet. Continued observation -of it, however, for a few months, dissipated this error; and it became -evident that it was in reality a hitherto undiscovered planet. This new -world so unexpectedly found to form a part of the system to which our -own belongs, received from Herschel, the name of the _Georgium Sidus_, -or Georgian Star, in honour of the King of England; but by continental -astronomers it has been more generally called either _Herschel_, after -its discoverer, or _Uranus_. Subsequent observations, made chiefly by -Herschel himself, have ascertained many particulars regarding it, some -of which are well calculated to fill us with astonishment at the powers -of the sublime science which can wing its way so far into the immensity -of space, and bring us back information so precise and various. In -the first place, the diameter of this new globe has been found to be -nearly four and a half times larger than that of our own. Its size -altogether is about eighty times that of our earth. Its year is as long -as eighty-three of ours. - -Its distance from the sun is nearly eighteen hundred millions of miles, -or more than nineteen times that of the earth. Its density, as compared -with that of the earth, is nearly as twenty-two to one hundred; so -that its entire weight is more than eighteen times that of our planet. -Finally the force of gravitation near its surface is such, that falling -bodies descend only through fourteen feet during the first second, -instead of thirty-two feet as with us. Herschel afterwards discovered -no fewer than six satellites, or moons, belonging to his new planet. - -The announcement of the discovery of the Georgium Sidus at once made -Herschel’s name universally known. In the course of a few months the -king bestowed on him a pension of three hundred pounds a year, that -he might be able entirely to relinquish his engagements at Bath; and -upon this he came to reside at Slough, near Windsor. He now devoted -himself entirely to science; and the construction of telescopes, and -observations of the heavens, continued to form the occupations of the -remainder of his life. Astronomy is indebted to him for many other most -interesting discoveries besides the celebrated one of which we have -just given an account, as well as a variety of speculations of the most -ingenious, original, and profound character. But of these we cannot -here attempt any detail. He also introduced some important improvements -into the construction of the reflecting telescope--beside continuing -to fabricate that instrument of dimensions greatly exceeding any that -had been formerly attempted, with the powers surpassing in nearly a -corresponding degree, what had ever been before obtained. The largest -telescope which he ever made, was his famous one of forty feet long, -which he erected at Slough for the king. It was begun about the end -of the year 1785, and on the 28th of August, 1789, the enormous tube -was poised on the complicated but ingeniously contrived mechanism by -which its movements were to be regulated, and ready for use. On the -same day a new satellite of Saturn was detected by it, being the sixth -which had been observed attendant upon that planet. A seventh was -afterwards discovered by means of the same instrument. This telescope -has been taken down and replaced by another of only half the length, -constructed by Mr. J. Herschel, the distinguished son of the subject -of our present sketch. Herschel himself eventually became convinced -that no telescope could surpass, in magnifying power, one of from -twenty to twenty-five feet in length. The French astronomer, Lalande, -states that he was informed by George III. himself, that it was at his -desire that Herschel was induced to make the telescope at Slough of the -extraordinary length he did, his own wish being that it should not be -more than thirty feet long. - -So extraordinary was the ardour of this great astronomer in the study -of his favourite science, that for many years it has been asserted, -he never was in bed at any hour during which the stars were visible. -And he made almost all his observations, whatever was the season of -the year, not under cover, but in his garden, in the open air--and -generally without an attendant. There was much that was peculiar to -himself, not only in the process by which he fabricated his telescopes, -but also in his manner of using them. One of the attendants in the -king’s observatory at Richmond, who had formerly been a workman in -Ramsden’s establishment, was forcibly reminded, on seeing Herschel -take an observation, of a remark which his old master had made. -Having just completed one of his best telescopes, Ramsden, addressing -himself to his workman, said, “This, I believe, is the highest degree -of perfection we opticians by profession will ever arrive at; if any -improvement of importance shall ever after this be introduced in the -making of telescopes, it will be by some one who has not been taught by -us.” - -Some years before his death, the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon -Herschel by the University of Oxford; and in 1816, the Prince Regent -bestowed upon him the Hanoverian and Guelphic Order of Knighthood. He -died on the 23rd of August, 1822, when he was within a few months of -having completed his eighty-fourth year. - -We have been thus particular in the enumeration of particulars in the -lives of those great men, who have cultivated this sublime science, -for the purpose of availing ourselves of a suggestion furnished by Dr. -Priestly, who observed, “That we could only see Newton in two points of -his career: at the bottom of the ladder, and at the top; having left no -account of his progress, it appeared as though he had broken the steps -by which he had ascended, that none should follow.” - -From the facts collected by the many eminent men whose names have -ornamented our pages, we are enabled to state the following particulars -concerning that part of the universe denominated the Solar system. - -The _Sun_, a luminous body diffusing light and heat; whose diameter -is computed at 890,000 miles; diurnal rotation on axis 25 days 6 -hours; performs his annual revolution in orbit in 365 days 6 hours; -progressive equatorial motion in orbit per hour, 3818 miles. - -_Mercury_, whose diameter is 3,000 miles, revolves in an orbit -36,481,448 miles from that of the sun. He performs his annual period -round that planet in 87 days 23 hours; his hourly equatorial motion in -orbit is 109,699 miles. - -_Venus_,--her diameter is 9,330 miles; revolves in an orbit 68,891,486 -miles distant from the sun; performs her annual revolution in 224 days -17 hours; diurnal rotation on axis 24 days 8 hours: hourly equatorial -motion in orbit 80,295 miles. - -The _Earth_,--its diameter 7970 miles; distance of orbit from the sun -95,173,000 miles; revolves on its axis once in 24 hours; performs her -annual period round the sun in the same time the sun completes his -revolution; hourly equatorial and progressive motion in orbit 80,295 -miles. - -The _Moon_ is a satellite to the earth; her diameter is 2180 miles; her -diurnal rotation on axis is performed in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; -she performs her annual revolution round the sun in precisely the same -time as does the earth, her superior planet; her motion in orbit per -hour is 22,290 miles. - -_Mars_,--his diameter is 5400 miles; distance from the sun, 145,014,148 -miles; annual period round the sun 671 days, 17 hours; diurnal rotation -on axis 19 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; hourly motion in orbit 55,287 -miles. - -_Jupiter_,--his diameter 94,000 miles; distance from the sun -494,990,976 miles; annual period in 11 years, 314 days, 18 hours; -diurnal rotation on axis 9 hours, 56 minutes; hourly motion in orbit -29,803 miles. - -_Saturn_,--his diameter 78,000 miles; distance from the sun 907,956,130 -miles; annual revolution in orbit 22 years, 167 days, 6 hours; hourly -motion in orbit 22,101 miles. - -It should be observed that Jupiter has four moons, or satellites, with -a large and very luminous belt at a great distance from his surface. -Saturn also has seven moons, with a very luminous ring about 21,000 -miles broad, from its uppermost to its undermost edge; and about the -same distance from its surface. - -_Georgium Sidus_,--the distance of the orbit from the sun, -1,758,000,000 miles; annual revolution 28 years, 289 days; diameter -56,726 miles; has two satellites, or moons. - -About 1801, 2, and 4, there were discovered three other small planets -in the system of the sun, called _Vesta_, _Juno_, and _Pallas_. - -The fixed stars composing the _Zodiacal Signs_, are divided into twelve -constellations, one to each month; which asterisms were discovered by -Flamstead to consist of the following number of stars to each: - -_Aries_, the Ram, 66; _Taurus_, the Bull, 141; _Gemini_, the Twins, 85; -_Cancer_, the Crab, 83; _Leo_, the Lion, 95; _Virgo_, the Virgin, 110; -_Libra_, the Scales, 51; _Scorpio_, the Scorpion, 44; _Sagitarius_, the -Archer, 69; _Capricornus_, the Goat, 51; _Aquarius_, the Water-Carrier, -108; _Pisces_, the Fishes, 113. - -A comparative idea of the extent of the works of Omnipotence may be -perhaps collected, on our being informed, that the sphere where the -fixed stars appear, is presumed to be placed far beyond the most remote -planetary orbit; and that some of them are supposed to serve as suns to -illumine other systems, or worlds, to us unknown. - - - - -NAVIGATION. - - -The sacred records inform us that the ark of Noah was the first ship, -and produced by the invention of the great Architect of Nature himself; -and “though some men have so believed,” says the learned and ingenious -Sir Walter Raleigh, in his “History of the World,” “yet it is certain -the world was planted before the flood, which could not be performed -without some transporting vessels. It is true, and the success has -proved that there was not any so capacious, nor any so strong, as to -defend themselves against so violent and so continued a pouring down of -rain, as the ark of which Noah was the builder, from the invention of -God himself. Of what fashion or fabric soever were the rest, with all -men they perished according to the ordinance of God.” And it appears -extremely probable that those testimonials, whereof Ovid speaks of -former existence, were remains of ships wrecked at the general flood. - -There can be no question that the Syrians were the first maritime power -in the world, as well in point of time as importance;--but of what -species of construction their vessels were, we are not informed. Their -merchants trading to the Eastern Indies, as they did for Solomon; to -Ophir, whence they brought gold; and also to this country for tin, and -their having made three distinct descents upon America, will enable us -to maintain this our opinion. After them the Greeks, a people living -chiefly on the shores of the Hellespont and Ægean seas, with many -islands in the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Archipelagion Seas, besides -their possessions in Asia Minor, and their commerce with the European -Continent, obtained the next power by sea. We read indeed, that Minos, -the famous Cretan sovereign and legislator, who lived two descents -before the Trojan war, sent out shipping to free the Grecian seas of -pirates; which shows, as Sir Walter Raleigh ingeniously infers, that -there had been trade and war upon the waters before his time also. - -The next in point of time and importance on record was the highly -renowned expedition of the Argonauts for the golden fleece to Colchis, -a country of Asia, on the Euxine sea. Immediately after this was the -colonization of Cyrene, in Africa, by Battus, one of the companions -of Jason, in his Colchian expedition. Shortly afterwards, the Grecian -states united against Phrygian treachery and the abuse of Grecian -hospitality; forming another most memorable epoch in the history of the -world. We are informed the Grecian Neptune, or as mythology styles him -a God of the Saturnian family, for the great service he did his father, -Saturn, or Noah, against the Titans, had the seas given to him. History -informs us that the first inventor of rowing vessels was a citizen -of Corinth; and likewise that the first naval war was between the -Samians and Corcyrians. The history of Ithicus, translated into Latin -by St. Jerome, affirms that Griphon, the Scythian, was the inventor -of long-boats; and Strabo also gives the honour of the invention of -the anchor to another Scythian, the famous Anacharsis, whilst Greece -herself by her historians, ascribes its invention to Eupolemus. Also, -it is said, that Icarus invented the sail, and others, various other -pieces of the component parts of ships and boats. The specification of -such other imperfect memoirs, many of fabulous appearance, may be of no -great importance. - -It appears certain that among the four sons of Javan, the son of -Japhet, the grandson, and other the posterity of Noah, who peopled -the “Isles of the Gentiles,” the Grecian Islands must long before the -days of Minos have used those seas, from the insular nature of their -inhabitants. And it certainly does not appear extravagant to us, to -presume that this people were among the first who navigated the seas. -Mankind in various parts of the world, being stimulated by the same -necessities, urged by the same wants, and possessing the same means, -might probably produce similar inventions to each other. Most, indeed, -had occasion to navigate lakes, and cross rivers. They accordingly -constructed such machines as would answer their purpose of passage or -migration. So were rafts and canoes, formed of canes, osiers, twigs, -&c., where they grew, which they fashioned like boats, and then -covered with skins of various animals; others formed rafts of wood; -whilst some others fashioned canoes, having hollowed out trees for that -purpose. One way or other, each people thus possessed a marine, proper -for their purpose it is true, but in various degrees of excellence. -This was the case with Greeks as well as barbarians of all nations; -all these people, excepting the immediate descendants of Noah, might, -perhaps, lay a feasible claim to the honour of the original invention -of these articles; and, having never seen such, they virtually have -each a good title to the distinction. Indeed, many of them might have -taken the idea for such invention from the policy of certain animals, -and the nature of others; to instance the sagacity of the beaver and -his raft, and the little nautilus with his swelling sail: hence they -might have adopted from that animal, and that piscatory insect, the -idea of a raft, and also of a vessel with a sail. - -In latter days we find the Teutonic Saxons first came to this country, -according to Mr. Turner, the Anglo-Saxon historian, in vessels they -called _cyules-kells_ by Sir Walter Raleigh. Marine vessels have borne -a variety of names, as well as of numerous figures, from the gondola of -the Venetian to the canoe of the Esquimaux,--the British man-of-war to -the ponderous bonaventure in which the Doge annually espouses the sea. - -All those nations, too, through whose hands the maritime power has -passed, from time to time, as they have been instructed by experience, -or taught by necessity, might repeatedly have made additions and -improvements in naval architecture: some calculated for mercantile -utility, while others have only attended to warlike strength, and some -to answer both purposes, like our Indiamen. But now, the British navy, -being supplied with the best materials, and having as ingenious workmen -as any, with the addition of the warlike children of the soil, may -openly defy all nations, and proudly claim the sovereignty of the seas -where her flag has been flying ’midst the battle and the breeze for so -many years. - -But the most important improvement in Navigation--propelling vessels -by steam--has been left to our own times. The steam-engine was first -applied to small vessels for the coasting or river trade; but it has -now increased to vessels of the largest size,--in fact, the most -part of the British navy are steamships. In former times before the -introduction of this valuable auxiliary, the passage between England -and America was tedious and uncertain, sometimes taking months, but -rarely less than from four to six weeks, according to the state of -the weather; but now the case is altered. There are a regular line of -steamships, one of which leaves Liverpool every week, and the voyage -is performed with almost positive certainty in from twelve to fourteen -days, independent of the rude Boreas, or the boisterous Atlantic. -These vessels are of the largest size and handsomely fitted up for the -accommodation of passengers. - - - - -LIGHT-HOUSES. - - -A light-house, in marine architecture, is a building, or watch-tower, -erected on the sea-shore, to serve as a land-mark to mariners, on a low -coast, by day, and, in any situation, to inform them of their approach -to land in the night;--being of most essential utility in causing them -to take soundings, avoid shoals, rocks, &c.; or else it is a building -erected on a rock in the sea, which, from its situation, would be -extremely dangerous to vessels, were not some intimation given of the -existence of a rock, where it is locally situated. Of this latter -description is the celebrated Eddystone light-house, off Plymouth. - -Although this species of architecture is not likely to have been -so general in extreme antiquity, because it could not have been -essentially necessary to any except to those nations who, from the -proximity of their situation to the coast, or other circumstances, -pursued maritime concerns; or to those whose connexions rendered the -encouragement of the marine of other nations important. - -The oldest building of this description, which we believe to be upon -record, is the famous Pharos erected on the Egyptian coast, which, -being very low land, and exposed entirely to the almost constant west -winds coming up the Mediterranean from the vast Atlantic, must, of -necessity, have made the port of modern Alexandria, anciently called -Dalmietta, very dangerous. It was originally erected by Ptolemy -Philadelphus, for the encouragement and convenience of the Phœnicians, -who were accounted the foreign factors of that empire; as the Egyptians -possessed an unconquerable aversion to the sea, and therefore they -never obtained its sovereignty: whilst the former people were the first -who obtained the supremacy of that sea. - -The island upon which Pharos stood, in the time of Homer, in his simple -geography and estimation, was said to be one day’s sail from the -Delta; whereas, since the foundation of Alexandria, it was only a mile -in distance, and was even joined to the mainland by a mole, having a -bridge at each end; or according to some authors, in the middle. The -tower was, if report be true, justly entitled to the appellation it -obtained--one of the seven wonders of the world; and it is reported, -that the light from it has been seen at the distance of a hundred -miles; which, assuredly, appears improbable, because the convexity of -the earth, we think, would not permit. Its height must have been, at -least, 2,400 feet, or 800 yards from the base. - -We are enabled to furnish the following particulars of this famous -structure. It was built by order of that patron of learning and the -arts, Ptolemy Philadelphus, by that eminent architect, Sostrates, who -constructed many of the public buildings in Alexandria. It is said -to have cost Ptolemy eight hundred talents! Respecting its mode of -construction, it was raised several stories one above another; each -was decorated with columns, balustrades, and galleries of the finest -marble and most exquisite workmanship; and some have even said that -the architect had furnished the galleries with large mirrors, by which -shipping could be seen at a great distance. However, respecting this -edifice, once so famous, that its very name, Pharos, was considered -as a common term for all other constructions for the same purpose, it -is now said, from Saracenic ignorance and brutality, aided, perhaps, -by the assistance of the common leveller, Time, that nothing now -remains of this once elegant edifice, but an unsightly tower rising -out of a heap of ruins, the whole being accommodated to the inequality -of the ground on which it stands, and being, at present, no higher -than that which it should command. Such as it is, there is now a -light, we understand, usually maintained. There is also an island, -which was called Pharos, in the Adriatic sea, on the coast of Italy, -opposite Brundusium, for the same reason: likewise the celebrated -colossal statue of Apollo, at Rhodes, answered the same purpose, and -occasionally had the same appellation, as had a river of Asia, in the -environs of Cilicia and the Euphrates. This last consideration brings -us to the etymology of the word, as Ozanum says, “Pharos originally -signified a strait, as the Pharos of Messina.” Of every description of -light-houses yet known, there is none more famous than that called -Eddystone, with a description of which we shall conclude this article. - -Mr. Winstanley’s light-house was begun upon the Eddystone rock in -1696, and was more than four years in building, from the numerous -interruptions of the wind and the element he had to contend with, the -violence whereof is truly alarming, occasioned by that rock being -exposed to every wind which comes up the vast Atlantic, and that -tumultuous sea, the Bay of Biscay. These obstacles were considerably -increased by the shape of the rock itself, having a regular slope -to S.W., and from the very deep sea in its vicinity, it, therefore, -receives the uncontrolled fury of those seas: meeting with no other -object whereon to break their vehement force, the effect is so great -at high water with a S.W. wind, which continues for many days, though -a calm may have succeeded, the violent action of the waters has not -ceased, but break frightfully on Eddystone. An engraving of Mr. -Winstanley’s light-house was published at the period of its erection, -from which it appears to have been a stone tower of twelve sides, -rising forty-four feet above the highest point of the rock, which, in -the dimensions on which it was built, twenty-four feet in diameter, was -ten feet lower on one side than it was upon the other; at the top was -a balustrade and platform; upon this were erected eight pillars, which -supported a dome of the same dimensions as the tower; from the top of -which arose an octagon tower, of a diameter of fifteen feet, and seven -in height. On the summit was placed the lantern, ten feet in diameter, -and twelve in height: it had a gallery surrounding it, which gave -access to the windows. The whole was surrounded by fencible iron-work. -The entry was by a solid stone door at the bottom; the whole building -was of the same material, except the aperture for the staircase. At the -bottom was a room twelve feet high for a store-room; the next story -was of the same height, which was the stateroom; and the third was of -a similar height, which was the kitchen. Those compartments occupied -the whole height to the platform. The dome above this contained the -lodging-room; the octagon above it, the look-out. - -The reason why it occupied so much time in building was, because -the men could only work in the summer months. The first summer was -occupied in making holes in the rock, and fastening irons to hold the -future work. The second year was spent in erecting a solid pillar, -of fourteen feet diameter, and one hundred and twelve feet high, for -the future support of the building. The third year, it was augmented -in diameter and increased in height. This building was eventually -finished, within the time above-mentioned, at an enormous expense. It -stood the opposition of the elements. The violence of the sea was so -great, that Mr. Winstanley said it has been seen to rise upwards of -one hundred feet above the vane, whilst the sides of the building were -covered with surf as with a sheet, so that the whole house and lantern -were occasionally under water. This edifice withstood the conflict of -elements till 1703, when the architect, being at Plymouth, and desirous -of visiting it, for the purpose of inspecting some repairs, went to -it, but returned no more; for a storm arose, which left not a relic -of it standing, except the iron work, which had been fixed in the -rock. The Corporation of the Trinity House had then to erect another, -for which purpose they employed a Mr. John Rudyard, who was a silk -mercer, on Ludgate-hill. Mr. Rudyard’s mechanical ingenuity was said -to have qualified him well for the undertaking. It appears that he -erected a house made chiefly of wood, which presented many traits of -his genius. It was a conical frustrum, one hundred and fifty-six feet -in diameter at the base; its altitude sixty-two feet. At the top of -the building was a balcony, railed round; in the centre of its area -was the lantern. This building was made quite plain, excepting the -well for the staircase, which was solid for thirty-two feet. In the -centre a strong mast was erected. The building was admirably fixed to -the rock, from the very peculiar manner of making the holes to hold -iron cramps, they being made for the internal cavity to diverge on -each side, by an extreme of one inch at the depth of sixteen inches. -The cavity was first filled with tallow; the hot iron then dipped -in the same substance, put in the rock, and eventually filled with -pewter, which displaced the tallow, being heavier, the grease serving -to protect the iron from the corrosive acidity of the salt water. In -1708, it was finished so far as to receive a temporary light. It stood -forty-four years, and showed that it was liable to destruction from the -very perishable nature of its materials. However, on the 2nd December, -1755, the upper part of it taking fire, burnt downwards to its entire -consumption. The concern had been leased to a Captain Lovell; but at a -later period his possessions were distributed among a number of people, -when the care of rebuilding it was entrusted to Mr. Robert Weston, to -whom Mr. John Smeaton was recommended by the President of the Royal -Society, who appears to have been well qualified for the undertaking. -He accordingly furnished a plan for, and superintended the building -which now stands. Mr. Smeaton’s conjecture was quite different to that -of the late projector; he conceived that nothing could withstand the -action of the wind and water so well, and at the same time, prevent -such accidents as the past, as could a building whose gravity should -secure its most sure protection, He accordingly constructed his of -the most massy stones, all dovetailed into each other, formed of -Cornish-moor and Portland stone; all the joints breach each other, as -the masons term it, or on each joint occurs the central stone of the -next course. There are fourteen courses of these stones first laid in -this manner, of a great thickness each course. On the 12th June, 1757, -the first stone was laid in its place, each stone being pierced when -it was laid, a strong oak pin was driven through to pin it fast to its -place: the dovetails not fitting so close to each other, because it was -necessary to leave some space for the cement, this pin was calculated -to secure the stone till this could be applied and had fixed; the -cement used was composed of Watchet lime and _puzzolana_, or Dutch -terras, being made at the moment by mixing up in a pail, with water; -this mixture was poured upon the work, and run into every cavity and -crevice; this, however, was sometimes not exempt from the injury of the -sea; whenever it was injured, the defect was supplied by having some -oakum cut fine, and mixed with this cement, introduced into the joints; -then they were secured with a coat of plaster of Paris, _pro tempore_, -and this was never known to fail, if the work stood for one tide. In -this manner the platform was erected, all of the most solid materials, -and substantial workmanship. - -On the 30th of September, 1758, the work having been continued from -the 11th of the preceding May, had arrived at the store-room floor; -here an iron chain was let into the stone, as follows: the recess being -made and the chain being well oiled before insertion, the groove which -received it was divided into four separate dams by clay; two kettles -were used, to hold a sufficiency of melted lead, eleven hundred weight; -whilst the lead was in a state of fusion, two men with ladles filled -one quarter of the groove; as soon as it set, they removed one of the -clay dams, and then filled the next quarter, pouring the liquid on the -middle of the first quarter, it melted together into the second; the -dam at the opposite end was now filled, and then the fourth; by this -means the lead was associated into one solid mass. The centring for -the floor was next set up, the outward stones being first set, and -then the inner ones. Thus the base floor was finished. The men could -work no longer than till the 7th of October that year. The winter was -spent in preparing the iron, copper, and glass work for the lantern; -and the spring in unsuccessful endeavours to discover the moorings -for the vessel which attended the works, for the occasional retreat -of the workmen. On the 5th of July the work was resumed: the stones -for building had been hitherto raised from the boats by what are -called shears, formed of two poles, with the lowermost ends extended -to a sufficient width, whilst the upper ends met in a point; here was -fastened tackle, pulleys, &c., to raise them to a sufficient height to -be swung over the building; this course was now of necessity altered; -a block with pulleys being suspended from the top, projected to a -sufficient distance, supported by beams. After the base had been formed -as described, a different mode of operation was necessary to complete -the superstructure; the work being now advanced so high as to be out of -the constant wash of the sea. Instead of grooves being formed to fasten -the stones together, they were fixed by means of iron clamps and lead. -The stones to complete the superstructure were landed, and first drawn -up by machinery, called a _jack_, through the well, in the interior of -the building, being a cavity for the staircase. The work now proceeded -more rapidly, so that by the 26th of August, the stairs and all the -masonry were finished: the iron frame for the lantern was next screwed -together in its place, and the lantern soon completed. It should have -been noticed, that after the first entry was closed, the shears were -supported by a tackle called a _guy_, attached to the top of the -shears, and hooked so far on the outside of the building; the stone -being drawn up by a windlass, the guy was drawn in to swing the stone -over the building. The balcony rails and the stone basement for the -lantern having been completed, on the 17th of September the cupola was -set up by a particular kind of shears constructed purposely, the guy in -different places being fastened to booms projecting from the several -windows of the upper rooms; the next day the ball was screwed on, -and on the 11th of October, an electrical conductor was fixed, which -finished the edifice. A light was then exhibited, which has continued -to warn the mariner ever since. An ably constructed cornice throws the -spray from off the building, so that it is often seen at Plymouth with -the appearance of a white sheet, throwing itself to double the height -of the building, which from low water mark to the apex of the ball is -one hundred feet. - -We have been thus minute, because this pharos is considered to be the -best constructed of all our lighthouses. - - - - -ELECTRICITY. - - -Electricity was a property but imperfectly understood by the ancients; -indeed, it has been said, they were entirely unacquainted with it. But -we propose, shortly, to show the extent to which we are informed their -sphere of knowledge extended. This much cannot be denied, that they -were acquainted with the electrical properties of amber, of which fact -we are informed by Pliny. - -Even before Pliny, however, as early as the days of Thalis, who lived -near six hundred years anterior to the Roman historian, the Miletine -philosophers ascribed the attractive power of the magnet and of amber -to animation by a vital principle. Our word “electricity” appears to -be derived from the name the Latins gave to amber, _electrum_. It is -also evident that they were acquainted with the shock of the torpedo; -although they were ignorant, as are the moderns, of the concealed cause -of this effect. - -It has been asserted that the ancients knew how to collect the -electrical fire in the atmosphere; and it is also said, that it was -in an experiment of this nature that Tullus Hostilius lost his life. -Etymologists have carried us still farther back, and assert that it -was from the electrical property in the heavens that Jove obtained his -surname of Jupiter _Eliaus_. This, however, may be only conjectural. - -The first discoveries made of sufficient importance to demand the -appellation of “scientific” in the science of electricity, were -effected by Dr. W. Gilbert, the result of which he gave the world, in -the year 1660, in a book then published, entitled “De Magneto,” and -Dr. Gilbert was followed in his pursuits by that celebrated scientific -character, the honourable and illustrious Boyle, and other men eminent -for that species of information. - -This science was successfully cultivated in the last century by many -eminent philosophers, among whom we may mention Hawkesbee, Grey, -Muschenbrook, Doctors Franklin and Priestly, Bishop Watson, Mr. -Cavendish, and several other members of the Royal Society of England; -whilst those worthy of the true philosophic character in France did not -neglect its cultivation. - -Many fatal accidents have resulted from experiments made by people -ignorant of the science. On the 6th of August, 1753, at Petersburg, -Professor Richmann lost his life by endeavouring to draw the electric -fluid into his house. - -Electricity, like many others of the arcana of nature, still retains -almost as deeply shaded from human view as when its existence was first -made known. Nature appears to have certain secret operations, which -are not yet, perhaps, to be revealed. - - -ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. - -This is the most surprising invention of modern times, and of the -greatest importance to a commercial people; by means of it intelligence -is conveyed from one end of the kingdom to another, in the twinkling -of an eye. A company was fully organised for the carrying out this -invention, which commenced its operations in 1848, and established a -system of no ordinary complication and extent. Their wires stretch -from Glasgow on the north, to Dorchester, on the south, from the east -coast, at Yarmouth, to the west, at Liverpool. These have brought -upwards of one hundred and fifty towns into instant communication -with each other. The wires set up for the use of the public alone are -upwards of nine thousand eight hundred miles in length, and extend over -a distance of two thousand and sixty miles, and, exclusive of those -running underground, and through tunnels or rivers, are stretched on -no fewer than sixty-one thousand eight hundred posts, varying from -sixteen to thirty feet in height, and of an average square of eight -inches, with an expensive apparatus of insulators and winders attached -to each. As the most trifling derangement of the wires or apparatus -will stop the communication, it is obvious that the utmost care and -watchfulness is requisite to prevent and detect accidents. Accordingly, -the whole distance is divided into districts, each district having -a superintendent, and under him several inspectors, and a staff of -workmen, batterymen, and mechanics, more or less numerous, according to -the extent over which he presides.--When we consider these things, in -conjunction with the central staff of engineers, secretaries, &c., at -the head-establishment in London, a maximum charge of one penny per -mile cannot be considered an exorbitant demand for the accommodation -afforded to the public in keeping open so many receiving stations, -and the maintenance of the expensive establishments. The telegraphic -system is designed for important and urgent messages, and it may be -safely averred that not one despatch in a hundred has been as yet -forwarded by it, which has not been by many times worth more than the -sum paid by the sender. A commercial house in Liverpool will scarcely -grudge 8s. 6d. for a communication by which a necessary payment may be -made, an important order given, or a profitable operation facilitated -in London; and the message from Glasgow, which traverses a distance -of five hundred and twenty miles in an instant, to summon a son from -the metropolis, it may be, to the bedside of a dying parent, cannot -be judged exorbitant at a charge of 14s., considerably less than one -halfpenny per mile. - -Messrs. Wilmer and Smith, of Liverpool, publishers of the “European -Times,” have arranged the most admirable code of signals in the world; -and by the use of forty-eight letters are capable of transmitting -intelligence equal to half a column of an ordinary newspaper. The -telegraphic company disapprove of this species of short-hand, and, -therefore, charge for the forty-eight letters 13s. This Messrs. Wilmer -and Smith consider excessive, as they have forwarded similar messages -by telegraph, four thousand miles in America, for 8s., and from -Philadelphia to New York for 1s. These gentlemen, therefore, consider -they have cause to find fault with the company in reference to charges -for communications in cipher. - - - - -STEAM-ENGINES. - - -The Steam-Engine is one of the most important of human discoveries, and -is certainly one of those which afford the greatest portion of ease -and advantage to the human species, as well in the operation of its -cause, as in its ultimate effects. The most powerful of machines had -its origin from the single idea of one individual of our own nation. It -has been, from time to time, improved by different individuals, also -natives of Britain, the precise period of which improvements can be -traced, and their effects fortunately ascertained. - -Although we should observe, that the first principle of this mechanical -power was discovered by some of the ancient nations, many ages before -that which gave the origin to the present practised invention, but -from the state of information, it is conceived, to answer no purpose -of utility. It may be said to have occurred in a small machine which -the ancients called an _Æolipila_ (the bull of Æolus) consisting of -a hollow ball of metal, with a slender neck, or pipe, also of metal, -having a small orifice entering into the ball, by means of a screw; -this pipe being taken out, the ball being filled with water, and the -pipe again screwed in, the ball is heated--there issues from the -orifice, when sufficiently hot, a vapour, with great violence and -noise; care was required that this should not be by accident stopped, -if it were, the machine would infallibly burst, and perhaps, to the -danger of the lives of all in its vicinity, so immense is its power. - -Another way of introducing the water was first to heat the ball -when empty, and then suddenly to immerse it in water. Descartes, -in particular, has used this instrument to account for the natural -generation of winds. Chauvin thinks it might be employed instead of -bellows, to blow a fire. It would admirably serve to fumigate a room, -being filled with perfume instead of common water. It is said to have -been applied to clear chimneys of their soot, a practice still alleged -to be common in Italy. Dr. Plott, in his “History of Staffordshire,” -records this singular custom, where the Æolipila is used to blow the -fire. “The lord of the mannor of Essington is bound by his tenure to -drive a goose, every New Year’s day, three times round the hall of the -Lord of Hilton, while Jack of Hilton, a brazen Æolipila, blows the -fire.” The last circumstance we shall mention of this instrument, has -relation to an antique one, discovered whilst digging the Basingstoke -canal, representing a grotesque metallic figure, in which the blast -proceeded from the mouth. This figure is now in the possession of the -Society of Antiquaries of London. In this instrument, the uncommon -elastic force of steam was recognised before the suggestion of the -Marquis of Worcester, which follows: - -“In 1655, or subsequent thereto, the Marquis of Worcester published -the earliest account of the application of this power for the -purposes of utility, and suggested it as applicable to raising water. -‘Sixty-eight. An admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by -fire; not by drawing or sucking it upwards, for that would be what -the philosopher calleth it, _intra spherum actroctatis_, which is, -but at such a distance. But this way has no bounder, if the vessel be -strong enough; for I have taken a whole piece of cannon, whereof the -end was burst, stopping and screwing up the broken end, as also the -touch-hole; and making a constant fire under it, within twenty-four -hours it burst and made a great crack: so that having a way to make -my vessels, so that they are strengthened by the force within them, -and the one to fill after the other, I have seen the water run like a -constant fountain stream, forty feet high; one vessel of cold water -being consumed, another begins to force and refill with cold water, -and so successively; the fire being tended and kept constant, which -the self-same person may likewise abundantly perform, in the interim -between the necessity of turning the cocks.’” - -The marquis’s ingenuity did not, it appears, meet with that attention -which it deserved, from those to whom his communication was addressed. -In the article of steam it has been since very much improved, and -is acted upon for the most useful of purposes; also his ideas for -short-hand telegraphs, floating baths, escutcheons for locks, moulds -for candles, and a mode to disengage horses from a carriage, after they -have taken fright; which, with several others, proclaim the originality -and ingenuity of the mind of this nobleman--an honour which very few of -the British nobility aspire to. - -Since his time, another design upon the same principle has been -projected by Captain Thomas Savery, a commissioner of sick and -wounded, who in the year 1691 obtained a patent for “a new invention -for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work, -by the impellant force of fire.” This patent bears date the 25th of -July, sixteenth of William III., A. D. 1698. The patent states that the -invention will be of great use for drawing of mines, serving towns with -water, and working all sorts of mills. “Mr. Savery, June 14th, 1699, -entertained the Royal Society with showing a model of his engine for -raising water by help of fire, which he set to work before them; the -experiment succeeded according to expectation.” - -The above memoir is accompanied with a copperplate figure, with -references by way of description; from whence it appears, that the -engine then shown by Captain Savery was for raising water, not only by -the expansive force of steam, like the Marquis of Worcester’s, but also -by the condensation of steam, the water being raised by the pressure -of a rarified atmosphere to a given height, by the expansive force of -steam, in the same manner as the Marquis proposed. This action was -performed alternately in two receivers, so that while the vacuum formed -in one was drawing up water from the well, the pressure of steam in -the other was forcing up water into the reservoir; but both receivers -being supplied by one suction-pipe and one forcing-pipe, the engine -could be made to keep a continual stream, so as to suffer very little -interruption. This engine of Captain Savery’s displays much ingenuity, -and is almost as perfect in its contrivance as the same engine has been -made since his time. We regret, that without a figure we cannot supply -a perfect description of it. - -However, it appears that it was necessary to have two boilers, or -vessels of copper, one large and the other smaller: those boilers have -a gauge-pipe inserted into the smaller boiler, within about eight -inches of its bottom, and about the centre of the side of the larger -boiler; the small boiler must be quite full of water, and the larger -one only about two-thirds full. The fire is then to be lighted beneath -the larger boiler, to make the water boil, by which means the steam -being confined, will be greatly compressed, and will, therefore, on -opening a way for it to issue out (which is done by pushing the handle -of a regulator from the operator), rush with great violence through a -steam-pipe into a receiver, driving out all the air before it, sending -it up into a force-pipe through a clack, as may be perceived from its -noise; when the air is expelled, the receiver will be very much heated -by the steam. When it is thoroughly emptied of atmospheric air, and -grown very hot, which may be both seen and felt, then the handle of -the regulator is to be drawn towards the operator, by which means the -first steam-pipe will be stopped, so that no more steam can rise into -the first receiver, by which means a second receiver will be filled -in like manner. Whilst this is doing, some cold water must be poured -on the first receiver, by which means the steam in it will be cooled, -and thereby condensed into smaller room: consequently the pressure -in the valve, or cock, at the bottom of the receiver--there being -nothing to counterbalance the atmospheric pressure at the surface of -the receiver in the inner part of the sucking-pipe, it will be pressed -up into the receiver, driving up before it the valve at the bottom, -which afterwards falling again, prevents the descent of the water that -way. Then the first receiver being, at the same time, emptied of its -air, push the handle of the regulator, and the steam which rises from -the boiler will act upon the surface of the water contained in the -first receiver, where the force or pressure on it still increasing its -elasticity, till it exceeds the weight of a column of water in another -receiving-pipe, then it will necessarily drive up through the passage -into the force-pipe, and eventually discharge itself at the top of the -machinery. - -After the same manner, though alternately, is the first receiver -filled and emptied of water, and by this means a regular stream kept -continually running out of the top of a force-pipe, and so the water is -raised very often from the bottom of a mine, to the place where it is -meant to be discharged. - -It should be added, that after the machine begins to work, and the -water has risen into and filled the force-pipe, it fills also a -little cistern, and by that means fills another pipe, called the -condensing-pipe, which may be turned either way, over any of the -receivers, when either is thoroughly heated by, the steam, to condense -it within, thereby producing a vacuum, which absorbs the water out -of the well into the receiver, on the principle of a syphon. Also a -little above the cistern goes another pipe to convey the water from the -force-pipe into the lesser boiler, for the purpose of replenishing -the great boiler, when the water in it begins to be almost consumed. -Whenever there is occasion for this, the cock is to be turned which -communicates between the force-pipe and the lesser boiler, to close -it effectually; at the same time having put a little fire beneath the -small boiler, which will grow hot; its own steam, which has no vent to -escape, pressing on its surface, will force the water up another pipe, -through an aperture in the great boiler, and so long will it run, till -the surface of the water gets so low as to be beneath the bottom of the -pipe of communication--then the steam and water running together, will -cause the valve (called a clack) to strike, which will intimate to the -operator that it has discharged itself into the greater boiler, and -carried in as much water as is then necessary; after which, by turning -a cock, as much fresh water is let in as may be necessary; and then, by -turning another cock, new fresh water is let out of a recipient into -the less boiler as before; and thus the engine is supplied without fear -of decay, or any delay in the operations; and proper attention in the -workmen is only necessary to prevent disorder in a machine so expensive -and complicated. - -Also, to know when the great boiler wants replenishing, turn the -gauge-cock; if water comes out, it does not need a supply; but if steam -alone, then the want of water is certain. The like with the cock with -which the lesser boiler is prepared for the same purpose, when the -same state will be marked by like results. In working this engine, -very little skill, and less labour is required: _Attention_ is the -chief requisite; it is only to be injured by want of due care, extreme -stupidity, or wilful neglect. - -The engine described above, does not differ essentially from that first -designed by the inventor, Captain Savery; the chief alteration which -now occurs, is only in some few slight particulars. For example, the -original engine had only one boiler, and there was no ready means for -supplying it with water, to remedy the waste occasioned by evaporation -of steam, without stopping the action of the engine, whenever the -boiler was emptied to such a degree as to risk burning the vessel. -After it was replenished the machine had to remain idle till the steam -was raised, thus causing an immense loss of time; which is remedied by -the application of a second boiler. - -The description of the engine formerly mentioned is transcribed from -Mr. Savery’s publication, “The Miner’s Friend,” and which had a -subsidiary boiler, with water of a boiling heat, always ready to supply -the large boiler; and the power of steam raised in it is employed to -force the water into the larger boiler, to replace the waste occasioned -by evaporation from that boiler; by this means the transposition of -the feeding water is not only speedily performed, but being itself of -a boiling heat, it is instantly ready to produce steam for carrying -on the work. There is also one more grand improvement in the modern -machine: the first engine was worked by four separate cocks, which the -operator was compelled to turn separately at every change of stroke; -if he turned them wrong, he was not only liable to damage the engine, -but he prevented its effect, and, at the same time, lost a part of -the operation: whereas, in the improved engine, the communications -are made by a double sliding valve, or, as it has since been termed, -regulator; that is, a brass plate, shaped like a fan, and moving on a -centre within the boiler, so as to slide horizontally in contact with -the under surface of the cover of the boiler, to which it is accurately -fitted by grinding, and thus, at pleasure, opens or shuts the orifices, -or entries, to the steam pipes of the two receivers alternately. This -regulator acts with less friction than a cock of equal bore, and, by -the motion of a single handle backwards, at once opens the proper steam -pipe from one receiver, and closes that which belongs to the other -receiver. Captain Savery, in his publication before noticed, describes -the uses to which this machine may be applied, besides those before -described, viz.--1, to serve water for turning all sorts of mills; 2, -for supplying palaces, noblemen and gentlemen’s houses with water, and -affording the means for extinguishing fires therein, by the water so -raised; 3, the supplying cities and towns with water; 4, draining fens -and marshes; 5, for ships; 6, for draining mines of water; and 7, for -preventing damps in mines. - -Dr. Desaguliers, we conceive, ungenerously attacked Captain Savery’s -reputation, by alleging that this was not an original invention, and -that he was indebted for the first idea to the previously mentioned -plan of the Marquis of Worcester. Dr. Rees, with a generous liberality -worthy his great critical discrimination, scientific skill, and -general erudition, has, we think, ably defended the captain’s -character, by proving his ideas to have originated with himself; we -have only an opportunity to notice the most prominent features in this -justification, where Dr. Rees thus expresses himself. “We know that the -Marquis of Worcester gave no hint concerning the _contractibility or -condensation of steam, upon which all the merit of the modern engine -depends_. The Marquis of Worcester’s engine was actuated wholly by the -elastic power of steam, which he either found out, or proved by the -bursting of cannon in part filled with water; and not the least hint -that steam so expanded, is capable of being so far contracted in an -instant, as to leave the space it occupied in a vessel, and occasion, -in a great measure, a vacuum.” - -Subsequent to the Marquis of Worcester’s, and Captain Savery’s original -ideas, and also, subsequent to the perfection the captain had brought -his machine to, M. Amonton, a native of France, invented a machine -which he called a fire-wheel; but it does not appear that it was ever -brought to that perfection to be conducive to real utility, although -it was certainly very ingenious. - -Also, M. Papin, a native of Germany, made some pretensions to what -he alleged was an invention of his own, only it happened to appear, -unfortunately for his claim, that he was in London, and present at the -time when Captain Savery exhibited the model of his steam-engine to the -Royal Society. He made some unsuccessful experiments, by order of his -patron, the Landgrave of Hesse, which sufficiently proved that, if he -was the inventor, he did not understand the nature of his own machine. - -Not long after Savery had invented his engine, Thomas Newcomen, an -ironmonger, and John Calley, a glazier, began to direct their attention -to the employment of steam as a mechanic power. Their first engine -was constructed about the year 1711. This machine still acted on the -principle of condensing the steam by means of cold water, and the -pressure of the atmosphere on the piston. It was found of great value -in pumping water from deep mines; but the mode of its construction, the -great waste of fuel, the continued cooling and heating of the cylinder, -and the limited capacities of the atmosphere in impelling the piston -downward, all tended to circumscribe its utility. - -The steam-engine was in this state, when it happily attracted the -attention of Mr. Watt, to whom the merit and honour is due, of having -first rendered this invention available as a mechanical agent. We -cannot illustrate the improvements of this ingenious individual better -than by giving a short biographical sketch of him to whom the world is -so much indebted. - -James Watt was born at Greenock, an extensive seaport in the west of -Scotland, on the 19th of January, 1736. His father was a merchant, and -also one of the magistrates of that town. He received the rudiments of -his education in his native place; but his health being then extremely -delicate, as it continued to be to the end of his life, his attendance -at school was not always very regular. He amply made up, however, for -what he lost in this way, by the diligence with which he pursued his -studies at home, where, without any assistance, he succeeded, at a -very early age, in making considerable proficiency in various branches -of knowledge. Even at this time it is said his favourite study was -mechanical science, to a love of which he was probably in some degree -led by the example of his grandfather and his uncle, both of whom had -been teachers of mathematics, and had left a considerable reputation -for learning and ability in that department. Young Watt, however, was -not indebted to any instruction of theirs for his own acquirements in -science, the former having died two years before, and the latter one -year after he was born. At the age of eighteen he was sent to London, -to be apprenticed to a maker of mathematical instruments; but in -little more than a year the state of his health forced him to return -to Scotland; and he never received any further instruction in his -profession. A year or two after this, however, a visit which he paid -to some relations in Glasgow, suggested to him the plan of attempting -to establish himself in that city, in the line for which he had been -educated. In 1757, he accordingly removed thither, and was immediately -appointed mathematical instrument maker to the College. In this -situation he remained for some years, during which, notwithstanding -almost constant ill health, he continued both to prosecute his -profession, and to labour in the general cultivation of his mind, -with extraordinary ardour and perseverance. Here also he enjoyed the -intimacy and friendship of several distinguished persons, who were then -members of the University, especially of the celebrated Dr. Black, the -discoverer of the principle of latent heat, and Dr. Robison, so well -known by his treatises on mechanical science, who was then a student, -and about the same age as himself. Honourable, however as his present -appointment was, and important as were many of the advantages to -which it introduced him, he probably did not find it a very lucrative -one; and therefore, in 1763, when about to marry, he removed from his -apartments in the University, to a house in the city, and entered upon -the profession of a general engineer. - -For this his genius and scientific attainments most admirably -qualified him. Accordingly he soon acquired a high reputation, and -was extensively employed in making surveys and estimates for canals, -harbours, bridges, and other public works. His advice and assistance -were sought for in almost all the important improvements of this -description, which were now undertaken or proposed in his native -country. But another pursuit, in which he had been for some time -privately engaged, was destined ere long to withdraw him from this line -of exertion, and to occupy his whole mind with an object still more -worthy of its extraordinary powers. - -While yet residing in the College, his attention had been directed to -the employment of steam as a mechanical agent, by some speculations of -his friend Mr. Robison, with regard to the practicability of applying -it to the movement of wheel-carriages; and he had also himself made -some experiments with Papin’s digester, with the view of ascertaining -its expansive force. He had not prosecuted the inquiry, however, so -far as to have arrived at any determinate result, when the winter -of 1763-4, a small model of Newcomen’s engine was sent him by the -Professor of Natural Philosophy, to be repaired, and fitted for -exhibition in the class. The examination of this model set Watt upon -thinking anew, and with more interest than ever, on the powers of -steam. Struck with the radical imperfections of the atmospheric engine, -he began to turn in his mind the possibility of employing steam in -mechanics, in some new manner which should enable it to work with -much more powerful effect. This idea having got possession of him, -he engaged in an extensive course of experiments, for the purpose of -ascertaining as many facts as possible with regard to the properties -of steam; and the pains he took in this investigation were rewarded -with several valuable discoveries. The rapidity with which water -evaporates he found, for instance, depended simply upon the quantity -of heat which was made to enter it; and this again, on the extent of -the surface exposed to the fire. He also ascertained the quantity of -coals necessary for the evaporation of any given quantity of water, -the heat at which water boils, under various pressures, and many other -particulars of a similar kind, which had never before been accurately -determined. - -Thus prepared by a complete knowledge of the properties of the agent -with which he had to work, he next took into consideration, with a view -to their amendment, what he deemed the two great defects of Newcomen’s -engine. The first of these was the necessity arising from the method -employed to concentrate the steam, of cooling the cylinder, before -every stroke of the piston, by the water injected into it. On this -account, a much more powerful application of heat than would otherwise -have been requisite was demanded for the purpose of again heating that -vessel when it was to be refilled with steam. In fact, Watt ascertained -that there was thus occasioned, in the feeding of the machine, a waste -of not less than three-fourths of the whole fuel employed. If the -cylinder, instead of being thus cooled for every stroke of the piston, -could be permanently hot, a fourth part of the heat which had hitherto -been applied would be found sufficient to produce steam enough to fill -it. How then was this desideratum to be obtained? Savery, the first who -really constructed a working engine, and whose arrangements, as we have -already remarked, all showed a very superior ingenuity, employed the -method of throwing cold water over the outside of the vessel containing -the steam--a perfectly manageable process, but at the same time a very -wasteful one; inasmuch as every time it was repeated, it cooled not -only the steam, but the vessel also, which, therefore, had again to -be heated, by a large expenditure of fuel, before the steam could be -produced. Newcomen’s method of injecting the water into the cylinder -was a considerable improvement on this; but it was still objectionable -on the same ground, though not to the same degree; it still cooled not -only the steam, on which it was desired to produce that effect, but -also the cylinder itself, which, as the vessel in which more steam was -to be immediately manufactured, it was so important to keep hot. It -was also a very serious objection to this last mentioned plan, that -the injected water, itself, from the heat of the place into which it -was thrown, was very apt to be partly converted into steam; and the -more cold water was used, the more considerable did this creation of -new steam become. In fact, in the last of Newcomen’s engines, the -rarefaction of the vacuum was so greatly improved from this cause, -that the resistance experienced by the piston in its descent was found -to amount to about a fourth part of the whole atmospheric pressure by -which it was carried down, or, in other words, the working power of the -machine was thereby diminished one-fourth. - -After reflecting for some time upon all this, it at last occurred -to Watt to consider whether it might not be possible, instead of -continuing to condense the steam in the cylinder, to contrive that -method of drawing it off, to undergo that operation in some other -vessel. This fortunate idea having presented itself to his mind, it was -not long before his ingenuity suggested to him the means of realising -it. In the course of one or two days, according to his own account, he -had all the necessary apparatus arranged in his mind. The plan which -he devised was, indeed, an extremely simple one, and on that account -the more beautiful. He proposed to establish a communication by an -open pipe, between the cylinder and another vessel, the consequence of -which evidently would be, that when the steam was admitted into the -former, it would flow into the other to fill it also. If, then, the -portion in this latter vessel only should be subjected to a condensing -process, by being brought into contact with cold water, or any other -convenient means, what would follow? Why, a vacuum would be produced -here--into that, as a vent, more steam would immediately rush from the -cylinder--that likewise would be condensed--and so the process would -go on till all the steam had left the cylinder, and a perfect vacuum -had been effected in that vessel, without so much as a drop of cold -water having touched or entered it. The separate vessel alone, or the -condenser, as Watt called it, would be cooled by the water used to -condense the steam--and that, instead of being an evil, manifestly -tended to promote and quicken the condensation. When Watt reduced his -views to the test of experiment, he found the result to answer his most -sanguine expectations. The cylinder, although emptied of its steam -for every stroke of the piston as before, was now constantly kept at -the same temperature with the steam (or 212 deg. Fahrenheit); and -the consequence was, that one-fourth of the fuel formerly required, -sufficed to feed the engine. But besides this most important saving in -the expense of maintaining the engine, its power was greatly increased -by the most perfect vacuum produced in the new construction, in which -the condensing water, being no longer admitted within the cylinder, -could not, as before, create new steam there while displacing the old. - -Such, then, was the remedy by which the genius of this great inventor -effectually cured the first and most serious defect of the old -apparatus. In carrying his ideas into execution, he encountered, as -was to be expected, many difficulties, arising principally from the -impossibility of realising theoretical perfection of structure with -such materials as human art is obliged to work with; but his ingenuity -and perseverance overcame every obstacle. One of the things which cost -him the greatest trouble was, how to fit the piston so exactly to the -cylinder, as, without affecting the freedom of its motion, to prevent -the passage of the air between the two. In the old engine this end had -been obtained by covering the piston with a small quantity of water, -the dripping down of which into the space below, where it merely mixed -with the stream introduced to effect the condensation, was of little or -no consequence. But in the new construction, the superiority of which -consisted in keeping this receptacle for the steam always both hot and -dry, such an effusion of moisture, although in very small quantities, -would have occasioned material inconvenience. The air alone, besides, -which in the old engine followed the piston in its descent, acted with -considerable effect in cooling the lower part of the cylinder. His -attempts to overcome this difficulty, while they succeeded in that -object, conducted Watt also to another improvement, which effected the -complete removal of what we have called the second radical imperfection -of Newcomen’s engine, namely, its non-employment for a moving power, of -the expansive force of steam. The effectual way it occurred to him of -preventing any air from escaping into the part of the cylinder below -the piston, would be to dispense with the use of that element above -the piston, and to substitute there likewise the same contrivance as -below, of alternate steam and a vacuum. This was, of course, to be -accomplished by merely opening communications from the upper part of -the cylinder to the boiler on the one hand, and the condenser on the -other, and forming it at the same time into an air-tight chamber, by -means of a cover, with only a hole in it to admit the rod or shank -of the piston, which might, besides, without impeding its freedom of -action, be padded with hemp, the more completely to exclude the air. -It was so contrived accordingly, by a proper arrangement of the cocks -and the machinery connected with them; that, while there was a vacuum -in one end of the cylinder, there should be an admission of steam -into the other; and the steam so admitted now served, not only by its -susceptibility of sudden condensation to create the vacuum, but also, -by its expansive force, to impel the piston. - -These were the great improvements which Watt introduced in what may be -called the principle of the steam-engine, or, in other words, in the -manner of using and applying the steam. They constitute, therefore, the -grounds of his claim to be regarded as the true author of the conquest -that has been obtained by man over this powerful element. But original -and comprehensive as were the views out of which these fundamental -inventions arose, the exquisite and inexhaustible ingenuity which the -engine, as finally perfected by him, displays in every part of its -subordinate mechanism, is calculated to strike us perhaps with scarcely -less admiration. It forms undoubtedly the best exemplification that -has ever been afforded of the number and diversity of services which a -piece of machinery may be made to render to itself, by means solely of -the various application of its first moving power, when that has once -been called into action. Of these contrivances, however, we can only -notice one or two, by way of specimen. Perhaps the most singular is -that called the _governor_. This consists of an upright spindle, which -is kept constantly turning, by being connected with a certain part of -the machinery, and from which two balls are suspended, in opposite -directions, by rods, attached by joints, somewhat in the manner of -the legs of a pair of tongs. As long as the motion of the engine is -uniform, that of the spindle is so likewise, and the balls continue -steadily revolving at the same distance from each other. But as soon -as any alteration in the action of the piston takes place, the balls, -if it has become more rapid, fly further apart under the influence of -the increased centrifugal force which actuates them; or approach nearer -to each other in the opposite circumstances. This alone would have -served to indicate the state of matters to the eye; but Watt was not -to be so satisfied. He connected the rods with a valve in the tube by -which the steam is admitted to the cylinder from the boiler, in such a -way, that as they retreat from each other, they gradually narrow the -opening which is so guarded, or enlarge it as they tend to collapse; -thus diminishing the supply of steam when the engine is going too fast, -and when it is not going fast enough, enabling it to regain its proper -speed by allowing it an increase of aliment. - -Again the constant supply of a sufficiency of water to the boiler is -secured by an equally simple provision, namely, by a _float_ resting on -the surface of the water which, as soon as it is carried down by the -consumption of the water to a certain point opens a valve and admits -more. And so on through all the different parts of the apparatus, -the various wonders of which cannot be better summed up than in the -forcible and graphic language of a recent writer:--“In the present -perfect state of the engine it appears a thing almost endowed with -intelligence. It regulates, with perfect accuracy and uniformity, the -_number of its strokes_ in a given time, _counting_, or _recording_ -them moreover, to tell how much work it has done, as a clock records -the beats of its pendulum; it regulates the _quantity of steam_ -admitted to work; the _briskness of the fire_; the _supply of water_ -to the boiler; the _supply of coals_ to the fire; it _opens and shuts -its valves_ with absolute precision as to time and manner; it _oils -its joints_; it _takes out any air_ which may accidentally enter into -parts which should be vacuous; and when any thing goes wrong, which it -cannot of itself rectify, it _warns its attendants_ by ringing a bell; -yet, with all these talents and qualities, and even when exerting the -power of six hundred horses, it is obedient to the hand of a child; -its aliment is coal, wood, charcoal, or other combustible--it consumes -none when idle--it never tires, and wants no sleep; it is not subject -to malady when originally well made, and only refuses to work when worn -out with age; it is equally active in all climates, and will do work of -any kind; it is a water-pumper, a miner, a sailor, a cotton-spinner, -a weaver, a blacksmith, a miller, &c., &c.; and a small engine, in -the character of a _steam pony_, may be seen dragging after it on a -rail-road a hundred tons of merchandise, or a regiment of soldiers, -with greater speed than that of the fleetest coaches. It is the king of -machines, and a permanent realisation of the _Genii_ of Eastern fable, -whose supernatural powers were occasionally at the command of man.” - -In addition to those difficulties which his unrivalled mechanical -ingenuity enabled him to surmount, Watt, notwithstanding the merit -of his inventions, had to contend for some time with others of a -different nature, in his attempts to reduce them to practice. He had -no pecuniary resources of his own, and was at first without any friend -willing to run the risk of the outlay necessary for an experiment -on a sufficiently large scale. At last he applied to Dr. Roebuck, -an ingenious and spirited speculator, who had just established the -Carron iron-works, not far from Glasgow, and held also at the same -time a lease of the extensive coal-works at Kinneal, the property of -the Duke of Hamilton. Dr. Roebuck agreed to advance the requisite -funds, on having two-thirds of the profits made over to him; and -upon this Mr. Watt took out his first patent in the beginning of the -year 1769. An engine with a cylinder of eighteen inches diameter was -soon after erected at Kinneal; and although, as a first experiment, -it was necessarily, in some respects, of defective construction, its -working completely demonstrated the value of Watt’s improvements. But -Dr. Roebuck, whose undertakings were very numerous and various, in -no long time after forming this connexion, found himself involved in -such pecuniary difficulties, as to put it out of his power to make any -further advances in prosecution of its object. On this Watt applied -himself for some years almost entirely to the ordinary work of his -profession as a civil engineer; but at last, about the year 1774, -when all hopes of any farther assistance from Dr. Roebuck were at an -end, he resolved to close with a proposal which had been made to him -through his friend, Dr. Small, of Birmingham, that he should remove -to that town, and enter into partnership with the eminent hardware -manufacturer, Mr. Boulton, whose extensive establishments at Soho -had already become famous over Europe, and procured for England an -unrivalled reputation for the arts there carried on. Accordingly an -arrangement having been made with Dr. Roebuck, by which his share of -the patent was transferred to Mr. Boulton, the firm of Boulton and Watt -commenced the business of making steam-engines, in the year 1775. - -Mr. Watt now obtained from parliament an extension of his patent for -twenty-five years, in consideration of the acknowledged national -importance of his inventions. The first thing which he and his partner -did was to erect an engine at Soho, which they invited all persons -interested in such machines to inspect. They then proposed to erect -similar machines wherever required, on the very liberal principle of -receiving, as payment for each, only one-third of the saving in fuel -which it should effect, as compared with one of the old construction. - -But the draining of mines was only one of the many applications of the -steam-power now at his command, which Watt contemplated, and in course -of time accomplished. During the whole twenty-five years, indeed, over -which his renewed patent extended, the perfecting of his invention was -his chief occupation, and notwithstanding a delicate state of health, -and the depressing affliction of severe headaches, to which he was -extremely subject, he continued throughout this period to persevere -with unwearied diligence in adding new improvements to the mechanism of -the engine, and devising the means of applying it to new purposes of -usefulness. He devoted, in particular, the exertions of many years, to -the contriving of the best methods of making the action of the piston -communicate a rotary motion in various circumstances, and between the -years 1781 and 1785, he took out four different patents for inventions -having this in his view. - -It is gratifying to reflect, that even while he was yet alive, Watt -received from the most illustrious contemporaries, the honours due to -his genius. In 1785, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; the -degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon him by the University of -Glasgow, in 1806; and in 1808, he was elected a member of the French -Institute. He died on the 25th of August, 1819, in the 84th year of his -age. - -The beneficial results arising from the ingenuity of Watt have been -surprising. The steam-engine has already gone far to revolutionise the -whole domain of human industry; and almost every year is adding to its -power and its conquests. In our manufactures, our arts, our commerce, -our social accommodations, it is constantly achieving what, little -more than half a century ago, would have been accounted miraculous and -impossible. “The trunk of an elephant,” it has been finely and truly -said, “that can pick up a pin, or rend an oak, is as nothing to it. It -can engrave a seal, and crush masses of obdurate metal like wax before -it--draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as gossamer, and lift -a ship of war, like a bauble, in the air. It can embroider muslins, -and forge anchors; cut steel into ribbands, and impel loaded vessels -against the fury of the winds and waves.” - -Another application of it is perhaps destined to be productive of still -greater changes on the condition of society, than have resulted from -many of its previous achievements,--we refer to railroads. The first -great experiment was the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which was -opened, we believe, in 1831, and practically demonstrated, with what -hitherto almost undreamt of rapidity travelling by land may be carried -on through the aid of steam. Carriages, under the impetus communicated -by this the most potent, and at the same time the most perfectly -controllable of all our mechanical agencies, can be drawn forward at -the flying speed of thirty and thirty-five miles an hour. When so much -has been already done, it would be rash to conclude that even this is -to be our ultimate limit of attainment. In navigation, the resistance -of the water, which increases rapidly as the force opposed to it -increases, very soon set bounds to the rate at which even the power of -steam can impel a vessel forward. But on land, the thin medium of the -air presents no such insurmountable obstacles to a force making its -way through it; and a rapidity of movement may perhaps be eventually -attained here, which is to us even as yet inconceivable. But even when -the rate of land travelling already shown to be quite practicable shall -have become universal, in what a new state of society shall we find -ourselves! A nation will then, indeed, become a community; and all the -benefits of the highest civilization will be diffused equally over the -land, like the light of heaven. This invention, in short, when fully -consummated, will confer upon man as much new power and enjoyment as if -he were actually endowed with wings. - -The commerce of the kingdom has also greatly benefited by the -introduction of this valuable auxiliary, as will be seen from the -following extract from the “Working Man’s Companion:”-- - -“The establishment of steam-boats between England and Ireland has -greatly contributed to the prosperity of both countries. How have -steam boats done this? They have greatly increased the trade of both -countries. On the examination of Mr. Williams, before a Committee -of the House of Commons, he stated that ‘before steam-boats were -established, there was little trade in the smaller articles of farming -production, such as poultry and eggs. The first trading steam-boat -from Liverpool to Dublin, was set up in 1824; there are now (1832) -forty such boats between England and Ireland. The sailing vessels were -from one week to two or three weeks on the passage; the voyage from -Liverpool to Dublin is now performed in fourteen hours. Reckoning ten -mile, for an hour, Dublin and Liverpool are one hundred and forty miles -apart; with the old vessels taking twelve days as the average time of -the voyage, they were separated as completely as they would be by a -distance of two thousand eight hundred and eighty miles. What is the -consequence? Traders may now have, from any of the manufacturing towns -in England, within two or three days, even the smallest quantity of any -description of goods;’ and thus ‘one of the effects has been to give a -productive employment of the capital of persons in secondary lines of -business, that formerly could not have been brought into action.’” Mr. -Williams adds, ‘I am a daily witness to the intercourse by means of the -small traders themselves between England and Ireland. Those persons -find their way into the interior of England, and purchase manufactured -goods themselves. They are, of course, enabled to sell them upon much -better terms in Ireland; and I anticipate that this will shortly lead -to the creation of shops and other establishments in the interior of -Ireland for the sale of a great variety of articles which are not now -to be had there.’ - -“And how do the small dealers in English manufactured goods find -purchasers in the rude districts of Ireland for our cloths and our -hardware? Because the little farmers have sent us their butter and eggs -and poultry, and have either taken our manufactures in exchange, or -have taken back our money to purchase our manufactures, which is the -same thing. Many millions of eggs, collected amongst the very poorest -classes, by the industry of the women and children, are annually sent -from Dublin to Liverpool. Mr. Williams has known fifty tons, or eight -hundred and eighty thousand eggs, shipped in one day, as well as ten -tons of poultry; and he says this is quite a new creation of property. -It is a creation of property that has a direct tendency to act upon the -condition of the poorest classes in Ireland; for the produce is laid -out in providing clothes for the females and children of the families -who engage in rearing poultry and collecting eggs. Thus the English -manufacturer is bettered, for he has a new market for his manufactures, -which he exchanges for cheap provisions; and the dealer in eggs and -poultry has a new impulse to this branch of industry, because it -enables him to give clothes to his wife and children. This exchange -of benefits--this advancement in the condition of both parties--this -creation of produce and of profitable labour--this increase of the -number of labourers--could not have taken place without machinery. -That machinery is the carriage which conveys the produce to the river, -and the steam-boat which makes a port in another country much nearer -for practical purposes, than the market town of a thinly peopled -district. A new machinery is added; the steam-carriage running on -the railroad, as one of the witnesses truly says, ‘is like carrying -Liverpool forty miles into the interior, and thus extending the circle -to which the supply will be applicable.’ The last invention perfects -all the inventions which have preceded it. The village and the city are -brought close together in effort, and yet retain all the advantages of -their local situation; the port and the manufactory are divided only -by two hours distance in time, while their distance in space affords -room for all the various occupations which contribute to the perfection -of either. The whole territory of Great Britain and Ireland is more -compact, more closely united, more accessible than was a single county -two centuries ago.” - -The communication between England and Ireland has greatly increased -since the above remarks were written, in 1832. There are now upwards -of four hundred steam-boats sailing between Ireland and Great Britain, -and of late years the largest export from that unfortunate country -consists of her starving population, who, true enough, find their way -into the interior of England, but not with the intention of purchasing -manufactured goods, but of being employed in the manufacturing of them. -We believe that our mechanical readers, at least, will agree with -us, when we say that the benefit has not been reciprocal. England, -for her share, has been burthened with a pauper population, and her -sons deprived of their employment, by the immense immigration that -has of late years taken place. Poor rates are multiplied to an extent -hitherto unheard of, and our streets swarming with beggars--and those -of the most importunate class. So much was this the case, that in -1847 and 1848, Liverpool was inundated with paupers from the sister -country to such a degree, that her authorities were compelled to -petition government to put an end to the nuisance, and to grant -them assistance to prevent the death of so many thousands of their -fellow-men from dying for want; the poor-rates were so increased that -the ratepayers with justice complained. And we question much if ever -the English manufactures have been so much benefited by the commerce -as the foregoing quotation would lead us to believe. That we have been -supplied with enormous quantities of provisions we cannot deny; but -that the payment of these was taken back in our cloths and our hardware -is very questionable. That the money was taken back there can be little -doubt, not for the purpose, however, of buying clothes for the wives -and children of those families whose industry had supplied us with eggs -and poultry, but for supplying the insatiate wants of their profligate -landlords, who were squandering the subsistence of the needy peasantry -in another land. If any class of men have obtained benefit by means of -this increased and speedy communication between the two countries, it -assuredly is the absentee Irish landlord. - - - - -MILLS. - - -Corn Mills are of very ancient origin, and it may not be uninteresting -to our readers to learn something of the customs of our forefathers -with regard to them; to which we will subjoin such modern improvements -as the more advanced state of the arts have enabled the moderns to -achieve, and to excel the imperfect information of the ancients in -mechanical sciences. - -In support of the antiquity of grinding corn, we may go as for back -as the days of the patriarch Abraham, who, we are informed in Genesis -xviii. 6, “hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, Make ready -quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the -hearth.” To this we may add, that it appears in a subsequent text, -Numbers xi. 8, that manna was ground like corn. The earliest instrument -for this purpose seems to have been the mortar, which was retained long -after the introduction of mills, properly so called: because they were -most probably at first very imperfect. In process of time the mortar -was made ridged, and the pestle notched at the bottom, by which means -the grain was rather grated than pounded. - -A passage in Pliny, which has not as yet had a satisfactory -interpretation, renders this conjecture probable. In time a handle was -added to the top of the pestle, that it might be more easily driven -round in a circle, whence this machine at first was called _mortarium_, -by this means assuming the name of a hand-mill. Such a mill was so -called from rubbing backwards and forwards; and varied but little from -those used by our colour-grinders, apothecaries, potters, and other -artisans. From expressions in the sacred volume, we may rationally -infer that it was customary to have a mill of this sort in every -family. Moses having forbidden to take such instruments for a pledge; -for that, says he, “No man shall take the nether or the upper millstone -to pledge: for he taketh a man’s life.” It is observed by Michaelis, on -this passage, that a man could not then grind, consequently could not -bake the necessary daily bread for the family. - -Grinding was then the employment of the women, particularly of female -slaves, as at present in those countries which are uncivilised: the -portion of strength required for the operation, therefore, could not -have been great; but afterwards the mills were driven by bondsmen, -whose necks were placed in a circular machine of wood, so that they -could not put their hands to their mouths or eat of the meal. This must -have been an interesting link between the hand and the horse-mill. - -In course of time shafts were added to the mill, that it might be -driven by cattle, which were then blindfolded. The first cattle mills -were called _molae jumentaria_, which had, probably, only a heavy -pestle like the hand-mill; but it is conjectured, that it must have -been soon remarked, that the labour would be more easily accomplished, -if, instead of the pestle a large heavy cylinder was employed. A -competent judge has, however, believed that the first cattle mills -had not a spout or trough as ours have; at least those hand-mills -Tournefort saw at Nicaria, consisted only of two stones; but the meal -issued through an opening in the upper one, and fell upon a board or -table, on which the lower one rested. - -The upper millstone they called _meta_, or _turbo_; and the lower one -_catillus_: the name of the first also signified a cone with a blunt -apex, whence it has been thought by some, that corn was first rubbed -into meal, by rolling one stone upon another, as painters now grind -colours with a muller. This is not improbable, as present practice -among barbarous people fully proves. It is also apparent that the upper -millstone was substituted for the pestle, which action may have lent it -a name, when they called it _meta_. - -Professor Beckmann has followed Gori in his description of an antique -gem, engraved on red jasper, upon which appears “the naked figure of -a man, who in his left hand holds a sheaf of corn, and in the right -a machine that in all probability is a hand-mill. Gori considers the -figure as a representation of the god Eunostus, who was the god of -mills. The machine which Eunostus seems to exhibit, or to be surveying -himself, is, as far as one can distinguish, (for the stone is scarcely -half an inch in size), shaped like a chest, narrow at the top, and -wide at the bottom. It stands upon a table, and in the bottom there -is a perpendicular pipe, from which the meal, also represented by -the artist, appears to be issuing. Above, the chest or body of the -mill has either a top with an aperture, or perhaps a basket sunk into -it, from which the corn falls into the mill. On one side, nearly -about the middle of it, there projects a broken shank, which, without -overstraining the imagination, may be considered as a handle, or that -part of the mill which some call _mobile_. Though this figure is small, -and though it gives very little idea of the internal construction, -one may, however, conclude from it that the roller, whether it was of -wood or of iron, smooth or notched, did not stand perpendicularly, -like those of our coffee mills, but lay horizontally, which gives -us reason to conjecture a construction more ingenious than that of -the first invention. The axis of the handle had, perhaps, within the -body of the mill, a crown wheel, that turned a spindle, to the lower -end of the perpendicular axis of which the roller was fixed. Should -this be admitted, it must be allowed also, that the hand-mills of the -ancients had not so much a resemblance to the before-mentioned colour -mills as to the philosophical mills of our chemists; and Langelott, -consequently, will not be the real inventor of the latter. On the -other side, opposite to where the handle is, there arise from the mill -of Eunostus two shafts, which Gori considers as those of a besom and -shovel, two instruments used in grinding; but as the interior part -cannot be seen, it appears to me doubtful whether these may not be -parts of the mill itself.” - -In the commencement of the last century, the remains of a pair of Roman -millstones were found at Adel, in Yorkshire. One of these stones, -twenty inches in breadth, is thicker in the middle than at the edge, -consequently one side is convex; the other was of the same size, but -as thick at the sides as the other was in the centre; the traces of -notching were discoverable. - -Enough, may, perhaps, have been said concerning this original -invention; therefore this article will not be encumbered with -quotations of all those passages relative to mills, which are found -in ancient authors, as they would afford but little additional -information. Neither will mythological records be disturbed to inquire -to which deity or hero the invention was originally attributed; or to -ascertain the descent of Milantes, whom Stephanus distinguishes by that -honour, or how those millstones were constructed which are alleged to -have been built by Myletes, son of Lelex, King of Laconia; but we shall -proceed to the invention of Water-Mills. - -These appear to have been introduced about the period of Mithridates, -contemporary with Cæsar and Cicero. Strabo, relating that there was a -water-mill near the residence of the Pontian king, that honour has been -ascribed to him; but so far is this remote from certainty, that nothing -can be inferred from thence, other than that water-mills at that period -were known in Asia. Pomponius Sabinus informs us, that the first -water-mill seen at Rome was erected on the banks of the Tiber, a little -before the time of Augustus; but of this there is no other proof than -his simple assertion: he having taken the greater part of his remarks -from the illustrations of Servius, he must have had a more perfect copy -of that author than any now remaining, and from these his information -might have come. - -The most certain proof we have that Rome had water-mills in the time -of Augustus, is, that Vitruvius has told us so; but those mills were -not corn-mills, they were hydraulic engines, which he describes in -his works. From whence we learn that the ancients had wheels for -raising water, which were driven by being trod upon by men; the usual -employment for criminals, as may be learnt from Artemidorus. Also from -a pretty epigram of Antipater; “Cease your work, ye maids, ye who -laboured in the mill; sleep now, and let the birds sing to the ruddy -morning; for Ceres has commanded the water nymphs to perform your -task; these, obedient to her call, throw themselves on the wheel, force -round the axle-tree, and by these means the heavy mill.” Antipater -lived at the period of Cicero. Palladius, also, with equal clearness, -speaks of water-mills, which he advises to be built on estates where is -running water, in order to grind corn without men or cattle. - -It likewise appears that the water-wheels to which Heliogabalus -directed some of his friends and parasites to be tied, cannot be -considered to be mills for the purpose of grinding corn; for these, as -well as the _haustra_ of Lucretius were probably like those machines -for raising water, which are spoken of by Vitruvius as _hydraulic_. - -It is, however, on the authority of Pompinius Sabinus, before-cited, -that both wind and water mills were known to have been in Italy, and -even the latter in Rome, in the days of Augustus. However, about -twenty-three years after the death of Augustus, when Caligula seized -every horse from the mills, to convey effects he had in contemplation -to take from Rome, the public were much distressed for bread; whence -we must infer that water-mills must have been very rare. Even three -hundred years after Augustus, cattle mills were so common in that city, -that their number amounted to three hundred; mention of them, and of -the hand-mills, often occurs for a long time after. It is not their use -we inquire after, it is enough for us to know that they existed. - -We now come to another period, when we are informed that _public mills_ -were first introduced, which occurs in the year 398, mention being -made of them in that year, which also clearly shows that they were -then newly-established; which establishment was found necessary to be -protected by laws made in their favour. The orders for that purpose -were renewed more than once, and made more secure by Zeno, towards -the end of the fifth century. It may be properly remarked, that in the -whole code of Justinian, the least mention of wooden pales or posts is -not made, which occurs in all the new laws,--and which, it appears, -when there were several mills on the same stream, occasioned so many -disputes then, as well as in after times. The mills at Rome were -erected on those canals which conveyed water to the city; and because -these were employed in several arts, and for many purposes, it was -ordered that, by dividing the water, the mills should always be kept -going; but as they were driven by so small a quantity of water, they -probably executed very little work; and for this reason, but probably -on account of the great number of slaves, and the cheap rate at which -they were maintained, these noble machines were not so much used, -nor were so soon brought to perfection, as under other circumstances -they might have been. It appears, however, that after the abolition -of slavery, they were much improved, and more employed, and to this a -particular incident seems, in some degree, to have contributed. - -When Vitiges, King of the Goths, besieged Belisarius in Rome, in the -year 536, and caused the fourteen large expensive aqueducts to be -stopped, the city was reduced to great distress; not from want of -water, in general, because it was secured against that inconvenience -by the Tiber; but by the loss of that water which the baths required, -and, above all, of that necessary to drive the mills, which were all -situated on these canals. Horses and cattle, which might have been -employed upon grinding, were not to be found; but Belisarius fell upon -the ingenious contrivance of placing boats upon the Tiber, on which -he erected mills that were driven by the current. This experiment was -attended with complete success; and as many mills of this kind as were -necessary were constructed. To destroy these, the besiegers threw into -the stream logs of wood, dead bodies, &c., which floated down the river -into the city; but the besieged, by making use of booms to stop them, -were enabled to drag them out before they could do any mischief. This -seems to have been the origin of _floating-mills_, no record of them -appearing previously. By these means the use of water-mills became very -much extended; for floating-mills can be constructed almost upon any -stream, without forming an artificial fall; they may be stationed at -the most convenient places, and they rise and fall of themselves with -the water.--They are, however, attended with these inconveniences: they -require to be strongly secured; they often block up the stream too -much, and move slowly; and they often stop when the water is too high, -or when it is frozen. - -After this improvement, the use of water-mills was never laid aside -or forgotten, but was soon made known all over Europe; and passages -innumerable might be quoted, in every century, to prove their continued -use. The Roman, Salic, and other laws, constantly provided for the -security of these mills, and defined a punishment for such as destroyed -the sluices, or stole the mill-irons. It is said, however, that there -were water-mills in France and Germany a hundred years before these -laws had existence. - -At Venice, and other places, there were erected mills which regulated -themselves by the motion of the waters, and which were regulated by -the flowing and ebbing of the tide, and which every six hours changed -the motion of the wheels. Of this species of mills, a new invention, -or, perhaps, rather an improved one, was made in London, called a -tide-mill, an engraving of which may be seen in “The Advancement of -Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,” London, 1772. - -Zanetti is said to have shown, by some old charters, that such mills -existed about the year 1044; but with still more certainty in 1078, -1079, and 1107. - -It appears, however, that hand and cattle mills were in most places -retained, after the use of proper watermills, particularly in convents. -They were used, because the otherwise lazy monks found the exercise -they afforded beneficial to their health. Likewise the legends of -popish mythology are full of the miracles which have been wrought at -these mills. - -A modern author of credit impeaches the veracity of Pomponius Sabinus -after he had previously quoted his authority, and likewise after he -had said that he bore a good character, in a popular work, by charging -him with improbability, nay, positive falsehood, and alleging that -the Romans had no wind-mills. It should be noticed, without venturing -to decide upon the point, that he has adduced no authority for such -allegation, and that he only concludes so, by inference, as upon -the authority of Vitruvius; that mechanist, he says, in enumerating -all moving forces, does not mention wind-mills. But, for the sake -of candour, was not the one as liable to err as the other? He also -says, that neither Seneca nor St. Chrysostom mention wind-mills; and -is unmercifully severe upon an old Bohemian annalist who speaks of -wind-mills so early as 718. But he is all along bringing his forces -to prove, that wind-mills had first existence in his own district, -Germany; that they were then invented; and, perhaps, because he is of -that country. It is somewhat remarkable that scarcely any invention of -any consequence has occurred since that of printing, but the honour has -been claimed by the natives of Germany. - -Mabillon mentions a diploma of the year 1105, in which a convent in -France is allowed to erect water and wind-mills, _molendina ad ventum_. - -Bartolomeo Verde proposed to the Venetians in 1332, to build a -wind-mill. When his plan had been examined, he had a piece of ground -assigned him, which he was to retain if his undertaking succeeded -within a specified time. In 1373, the city of Spires caused a wind-mill -to be erected, and sent to the Netherlands for a person acquainted -with the method of grinding by it. A wind-mill was also constructed at -Frankfort, in 1442; but it does not appear to have been ascertained -whether there were any there before. - -About the twelfth century, in the pontificate of Gregory, when both -wind and water-mills became more general, a dispute arose whether mills -were titheable or not. The dispute existed for some time between the -persons possessed of mills and the clergy; when neither would yield. At -length, upon the matter being referred to the pope and sacred college, -the question was, (as might have been expected when interested persons -were made the arbitrators,) determined in favour of the claims of the -church. - -There was one inconvenience attending wind-mills, which might be -obviated in other mills: the mill was useless unless the wind was in -a particular direction. To remedy this, various modes were tried; at -first, the mill was fixed on a floating body in the water, which might -be turned to any wind. The next improvement consisted in turning the -body of the mill to meet the direction of the wind; this was effected -by two modes: first, the whole building is constructed in such a manner -as to turn on a pivot below; this method is said to have been invented -in Germany, and is called the German mode: second, the building is -formed so as to turn on the roof, with the shafts supporting the sails -only; this is called the Dutch mode, being invented by a Fleming about -the middle of the sixteenth century. This is the mode principally -adopted in England. - -Although in the earliest ages of the world men might have been, -perhaps, satisfied with having their corn reduced to a mealable form -alone; yet after this had been with care effected, then they thought -of improving upon this conveniency, and separating the farinaceous -part from the bran and husks. This was certainly desirable; therefore -they bolted it in a sieve with a long handle attached to it, with -a hair, or fine lawn lining; this was common in this country till -within the last sixty or eighty years; but by degrees, opportunities -of improvement in the mechanism of mills suggested to some mechanic -the idea of constructing what is now called bolting mills, applied to -the mill for grinding, and wrought at the same time by appropriate -machinery. - -It appears that sieves of horse-hair were first used by the Gauls, then -those of linen by the Spaniards. The mode of applying a sieve in the -form of an extending bag to catch the meal as it fell from the stones, -and of causing it to be turned and shaken, was first made known in the -beginning of the sixteenth century. - -The best bolting cloths are universally allowed to be manufactured -in England; they are made of wool of the longest and the best kind, -peculiarly prepared; being first well washed and spun to a fine and -equal thread; which, before it be scoured, must be scalded in hot water -to prevent its shrinking. The web must be then stiffened; it is in this -we possess an advantage which others cannot attain. Our bolting cloth -is stiffer, as well as much smoother, than any foreign manufacture. So -jealous are our German neighbours of this, that they have established -manufactories in several places at a great expense, and under very -peculiar regulations, for its fabrication. After all, they are -compelled to confess, that theirs will not wear above three weeks in -a flour manufactory, whereas ours will continue well three months in -equal exposure to friction and ordinary wear. - -For some years past, the French have been extolled for a mode of -grinding, called _mouture economique_; that were we not aware such -had been practised in ancient Rome, it might be conceived to form an -important epoch in the miller’s art. This process, however, is not -new; it consists in first grinding the wheat not so fine as might be -required for ordinary purposes; afterwards putting the meal several -times through the mill, and sifting it with various sieves. It should -seem this method was practised in ancient Rome; for Pliny, who took -care to inform himself of most things, tells us, that in his time they -had, at least, five different kinds of flour, all procured from the -same corn. It appears, that the ancient Romans had advanced very far in -this art, as well as in that of baking, &c., from what may be collected -from its economical polity preserved by Pliny and others. Whence it may -be fairly inferred, they knew how to prepare from corn more kinds of -meal, and from meal more kinds of bread, than the moderns even now are -acquainted with. - -Pliny reckons that bread should be one-third heavier than the meal -used for baking it: this proportion it appears, was known in Germany -nearly a century and a half ago, and discovered from experiments on -bread made at different times. German bakers, although they may have -been occasionally mistaken, have always undoubtedly given more bread -than meal. It appears that in latter periods, the art of grinding, -as well as baking, has declined very much in Italy; and their bread, -although produced from the finest grain in the world, is altogether bad -when manufactured by Italians. On this account, bakers from Germany -it seems, are generally employed in public baking-houses, as well at -Rome as in Venice. Bakers of that people are generally settled at those -places, where they have been in the habit of manufacturing that article -for the principal inhabitants, for upwards of three hundred years. - -From Beckmann’s History, it would appear that the _mouture economique_ -of the French has been known to the Germans for more than two hundred -years. Many were the attempts, repeatedly enforced, to deter the -experiments made, from time to time, by the French experimentalists, -to perfect this article previous to its being accomplished. In this, -the French suffered themselves to be taught by prejudice and directed -by ignorance. Numerous and judicious were the experiments made by -the scientific and philosophic of that people to produce the most in -quantity and best in quality from a definite quantity of grain, at -which the ignorant of their species suffered their prejudice to revolt, -and the powerful readily come into the mode of thinking of the vulgar, -to whom they lent their aid, to effect what Heaven in revelation had -commanded, viz: “Give not that which is holy unto dogs, neither cast ye -your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and -turn again and rend you.” Mat. vii. 6. - -It will, from the succeeding statement, that in using the language -which has just appeared, circumstances sanctioned us. The clergy of the -chapel royal, and parish church at Versailles, sent their wheat in the -beginning of last century to be ground at an adjacent mill: according -to custom, it was put through the mill only once, and the bran, which -yet contained much flour, was sold for fattening cattle. This miller -having, however, in process of time learnt the process of the _mouture -economique_, purchased the bran from these ecclesiastics, and found -that it yielded him as good flour as they had procured from the whole -wheat. The miller, at length, is presumed, in a qualm of conscience, -to have regretted cheating those holy men; he accordingly discovered -to them the secret, and gave them afterwards fourteen bushels of flour -from their wheat, instead of eight, which he had only furnished them -before. This voluntary discovery of the miller was made in 1760; and it -is probable the same discovery was made at the same time by others. - -A baker, named Malisset, proposed to the lieutenant-general of the -French police to teach a method by which people could grind their -corn with more advantage; and experiments were accordingly made and -succeeded. A mealman of Senlis, named Buquet, having the inspection -of the mill belonging to the large hospital at Paris, made the same -proposal: the result of his experiments, made under the direction -of the magistrates, was printed. The investigation of this art was -now taken up by men of learning and science, who gave it a suitable -denomination; explained it, made experiments and calculations upon -it, and at the same time recommended it so much, that the _mouture -economique_ engaged the attention of all magistrates throughout -France. Its government sent Buquet to Lyons in 1764, to Bourdeaux in -1766, to Dijon in 1767, and to Mondidier in 1768. The benefit which -France derived from that trouble, shows that it was not taken in vain. -Previous to that period, a Paris _setier_ yielded from eighty to -ninety pounds of meal, and from one hundred and fifty to one hundred -and sixty pounds of bran; but the same quantity now yields one hundred -and eighty-five pounds, and according to the latest improvements, one -hundred and ninety-five pounds of meal. In the time of St. Louis, -from four to five _setiers_ were reckoned necessary for the annual -maintenance of a man; these were scarcely sufficient; as many were -allowed to the patients in hospitals; and such were the calculations -made in the sixteenth century. When the miller’s art was everywhere -improved, the four _setiers_ were reduced to three and a half, and from -the latest improvements, they do not exceed two. - -From mills which only force the farinaceous parts from the husk, -thereby rounding the grain, the common denomination of _barley mills_ -comes, from such mills being used in the manufacture of pearl barley. -In their construction, these mills differ but little from wheat-mills, -and the machinery for the former is generally added to the latter. -The grand specific distinction is, that the millstone is rough hewn -round its circumference, and in the stead of a lower stone, there is -generally a wooden case; the middle lined with a plate of iron, pierced -like a grater with holes, the sharp edge of which turns upwards. The -barley is thrown upon the stone, which, as it turns round, frees it -from the husk, and rounds it; after which, it is put into sieves and -sifted. - -So long as the policy of governments was blind to the interests of -men, and so long as the griping avarice of a few was permitted to lay -the free-born of their species under the most severe contributions, -so long were permitted to build mills only, who had obtained a regal -license for that purpose. But, thank heaven! that ray of light it has -lent generally to man, has, in some sort, illuminated even the minds -of ministers and their tyrannical masters, to curtail that spirit -which had cast the fetters of vassalage given by feudal tyranny to its -upstart dependants. Men were left, at length, to improve their property -according to their pleasure: since which period, more mills have been -erected for the convenience of the species. This privilege, it appears, -was not prohibited by the Roman laws; those irradiations of superior -intellect well appreciated human rights. It was not till the darkness -of the middle ages had obscured the mental hemisphere, that any person -was presumed to possess a superiority over others, and to abridge the -small portion of general happiness that the favoured of fortune might -add to his satiety. During those days of universal darkness, numberless -were the evils which men suffered, and among them the present object of -our consideration was not the least; frequently having to travel for -miles to a mill to procure the necessary manufacture of so essential -an article to human life as bread. - -Let us not be decoyed, however, by the resentment produced by the -spirit of human oppression, beyond the bounds prescribed by reason, to -inveigh against such ordinance when public and general utility ever -was consulted; and certain public streams were by wise laws to be kept -free from individual encroachments with impunity. It is not against the -dictates of sober reason we declare hostility, but the gross abuse of -power. - -A time there was, when human baseness in princes and potentates, their -vassals doubtless aping the manners of their masters, claimed as their -right not only the common element of water, but also that of air! A -curious incident related by Jargow, and detailed by Professor Beckmann, -as follows, establishes the insolence of upstart men:--“In the end of -the fourteenth century, the monks of the celebrated but long since -destroyed monastery of Augustines, at Windshiem, in the province of -Overyssel, were desirous of erecting a wind-mill not far from Zwoll; -but a neighouring lord endeavoured to prevent them, declaring that the -wind in that quarter belonged to him. The monks, unwilling to give -up their point, had recourse to the Bishop of Utrecht, under whose -jurisdiction the province had continued since the tenth century. The -bishop, highly incensed against the pretender, who wished to usurp his -authority, affirmed, that the wind of the whole province belonged only -to him; and, in 1391, gave the convent express permission to build a -wind-mill wherever they thought proper.” - -Without the convenience of human ingenuity heaven had sent the blessing -of life in vain; we have, under this impression, therefore, bestowed -much time on this article, from a conviction of its vital importance to -the necessities of human existence. - - - - -SAW-MILLS. - - -The invention of the plumb-line and saw, with other useful articles in -mechanics, and handicrafts, are usually ascribed to that great--that -universal genius--Dædalus: although others give the merit to one -Talus, the nephew of Dædalus, and say, that the discovery was made -under the following circumstances:--Talus, they tell us, having found -the jaw-bone of a snake, cut a piece of wood in two with the teeth; -thence, they say, he invented the saw; his maternal uncle and master, -they add, was so jealous of this invention, that he murdered the young -man; and the mode of the discovery of the murder is accounted for in -this manner:--some persons saw Dædalus covering up the grave of his -victim, and asked what he was doing? “Oh,” says he, “I am only burying -a snake.” How much credit may be due to this relation, we do not take -upon ourselves to determine. Pliny, as well as Seneca, were of the -former opinion; whilst Diodorus Siculus, and others, hold the latter. -The youth is named by some Perdix. However, it appears to rest between -these two, no other claimant appearing. Ovid says, it was not the jaw -of a snake, but the back-bone of a fish. The former, however, appears -to be the most rational opinion as to its origin, as it is conjectured -that the vertebræ would not be sufficiently strong, and the joints are -too far apart, as well as too large. - -The Grecian saw is said to have been much the same as that instrument -which the moderns now use. This idea is corroborated by an ancient -painting discovered in Herculaneum; likewise from an antique -representation of this instrument, given by the celebrated Montfaucon. - -The preceding observations, however, have relation to the subject of -this article only, inasmuch as they are introductory to what follows. - -The most beneficial and ingenious improvement that has been made in -saws was the invention and introduction of machinery, called saw-mills, -which, in woody countries, as well as for delicate and fine veneers, -are of the greatest utility; in the former case, wood forms the chief -article of commerce where labourers are scarce; in the latter, it may -be cut nearly as thin as a sheet of paper. These saw-mills also finish -flooring deals, grooved, dovetailed, and planed on both sides, at the -rate of two deals, of twenty feet each, in a minute! They are commonly -worked in this country by means of steam-engines; in woody countries -they are generally erected on the banks of rivers, the water of which -propels the machinery. - -It is said they were invented in Germany, as far back as the fourth -century, upon the smaller river Roer; for, although Ansonius speaks of -water-mills, for cutting stone, he says nothing of mills to cut timber. -The art of cutting marble with a saw is very ancient; Pliny thinks -it was invented in Caria; at least, he knew of no place or building, -incrusted with marble, older than the palace of King Mausolus, at -Helicarnassus. Vitruvius also names the circumstances, although he uses -different terms for expressions of the same sense. He commends the -beauty of its marble, whilst Pliny speaks of its different kinds: the -former viewed it as an architect, whilst the latter inspected it as a -naturalist. It also does appear, from other writers, that the harder -and precious kinds of stones were cut in the same manner; as Pliny -speaks of a building adorned with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, and -amethysts. Yet there is no mention made of mills for cutting wood; or, -admitting they had been invented, it is probable they shared the fate -of many other useful inventions,--had been forgotten, or else some -considerable modern improvement had been made in their construction. - -Since the period of the first invention, they have been erected in -various parts of Europe and America. There appears to have been one -erected in the vicinity of Augsburg, as early as 1337; at Erlinger, in -1417. - -Upon the discovery of the island of Madeira, in 1420, the Infanta -Henry sent settlers there, and caused European fruits of every kind to -be carried there; and amongst other productions, saw-mills and other -machinery to cut the valuable timber found there into portable pieces, -which were afterwards transported to Portugal. In 1724, the city of -Breslau had a saw-mill which produced the yearly rent of three marks. -In 1490, the magistrates of Erfurt purchased a forest, and built a mill -of this description. In Norway, a country covered with wood, there -was one built in 1530. This mode of manufacture was called the new -art; and because the exportation of deals was by that means increased, -a royal impost was introduced by Christian III. in 1545, called the -deal-tythe. Soon after Henry Ranzau caused the first mill to be erected -at Holstein. In the year 1555, the Bishop of Ely, being ambassador from -the Princess Mary of England to the court of Rome, saw a saw-mill in -the neighbourhood of Lyons: the writer of his travels thought it worthy -of particular description:--“The saw-mill is driven by an upright -wheel; and the water that makes it go is gathered whole into a narrow -trough, which delivereth the same water to the wheels. This wheel -hath a piece of timber put to the axle-tree end, like the handle of a -brooch, and fastened to the end of the saw, which being turned with the -force of the water, hoisteth up and down the saw, that it continually -eateth in, and the handle of the same is kept in a rigall of wood from -swerving. Also the timber lieth as it were upon a ladder, which is -brought by little and little to the saw with another vice.” In the -sixteenth century, there was a grand improvement made in this machine -by having several saws affixed to one beam, by which timber could be -cut into several planks or boards, and of any thickness, at the same -time. There was one of these at Ratisbon, upon the Danube, in 1575. - -In England saw-mills were at first received with as little -encouragement as printing met with in Turkey, and from the same motive. -When the attempt was made to introduce them it was said the sawyers -would be deprived of bread. For this reason it was found necessary -to abandon a saw-mill erected by a Dutchman, near London, in 1663. -However, in the year 1700, a gentleman of the name of Houghton laid -before the nation the advantages to be derived from them; but he -expressed his apprehension that it might cause a commotion among the -people. What he feared, actually came to pass; for, on the erection -of one by a wealthy timber merchant, by the desire of the society -for the promotion of arts, in 1767, to be propelled by the wind, -under the direction of James Stansfield, who had learnt the method -of constructing them in Holland and Norway, a foolish mob assembled -and pulled it to pieces. Many years previous to this there had been -a similar mill erected in Scotland. There is now hardly a town of -any importance in the kingdom but what has one or more saw-mills in -operation. - - - - -FORKS. - - -The fork is an article of every-day use amongst us, and on that account -little thought of; still the short space we intend to occupy with this -subject may, perhaps, convey a little information to many of our -readers unknown to them before, or, at least, unthought of. - -There is not the least room to suppose the ancients were at all -acquainted with this little table utensil, now so necessary to our own -comfort and convenience, to say nothing of our ideas of cleanliness. -Pliny, who enumerated most things natural, physical, philosophical, and -economical, makes no mention of them; nor does it occur in any other -writer of antiquity; neither does Pollux speak of it in the very full -catalogue which he has given of things necessary for a table. - -Neither the Greeks or Romans had any name in the least applicable to -its use, either direct or by inference, where it can be asserted that -such an instrument was intended. The ancients had, it is true, in -Greece, their _creagra_. In Rome, their _furca_, _fuscina_, _furcilla_, -&c.: the Grecian instrument somewhat resembled a rake of an ordinary -construction, and calculated for the purpose of taking meat out of a -boiling pot, constructed in the shape of a hook, or rather the bent -fingers of the hand. - -With reference to the Roman names, the first two were undoubtedly -applied to instruments which approached nearer to our furnace and hay -forks.--The trident of Neptune is also called _fuscina_. The furcilla -was large enough to be employed as a weapon of defence. The present -Latin name for a fork, _fusinula_, is not to be found in any of the old -Latin writers. - -It is the opinion, we understand, of a learned Italian writer, that -the ancient Romans used the instruments they called _ligulæ_, instead -of forks. Now those instruments had some distant resemblance to our -teaspoons. Hence we must conclude that they and our ancestors used no -forks, because, had they had anything answering the purpose, even in -effect, it must undoubtedly have had a name. - -In the East, we understand it was, and still is, customary to dress -their victuals until they become so tender as to be easily pulled in -pieces. We are told by modern travellers, that if an animal be dressed -before it has lost its natural warmth, it becomes tender and very -savoury. This is the Oriental custom, and has been so from the most -remote antiquity. - -Fortunately, all articles of food were cut up in small pieces before -they were served up at table; the necessity for which practice will -appear, when we remember they usually took their meals in a recumbent -posture upon beds. Originally, persons of rank kept an officer for the -purpose of cutting the meat, who used a knife, the only one placed -at table, which, in opulent families, had an ivory handle, and was -ornamented with silver. - -The bread was never cut at table; it needed it not, being usually baked -thin, somewhat resembling the Passover cake of the Jews; this is not -understood, however, to have been universal. - -The Chinese use no forks; however, to supply them, they have small -sticks of ivory, often of very fine workmanship, inlaid with silver and -gold, which each guest employs to pick up the bits of meat, it being -previously cut small. The invention of forks was not known till about -two centuries ago in Europe, where people eat the same as they do now -in Turkey. - -In the New Testament we read of putting hands into the dish. Homer, as -well as Ovid, mention the same custom. - -In the quotation from the sacred writings, we observe that the guests -had, it is presumed, no instrument to help themselves out of the common -dish which contained the repast; for, upon the question being put of -who was to betray the Saviour, the answer was given in the following -quotation, “It is one of the twelve that dippeth with me in the dish.” - -In the passage cited from Homer, the phrase, according to the Latin -translation, implies the same sense. And had the Romans been apprised -of the utility of this instrument, or in fact of any substitute, there -could have been no occasion for the master of the amorous art to have -given his instructions to his pupils in nearly similar terms which we -now use to children. - -Although Count Caylus and Grignon both assert that ancient forks have -been found, we still want further testimony. The former says, one -with two prongs was found among some rubbish in the Appian Way, which -he alleges to be of beautiful workmanship, terminating in the handle -with a carved stag’s foot. Notwithstanding the high reputation of that -author, this assertion is not credited. The latter says, he found some -in the ruins of a Roman town in Champagne; but he does not describe -them, otherwise than to observe that one was of copper or brass, and -the others of iron: and speaking of the latter, says, they appear to be -table-forks, but are very coarsely made. - -The truth seems to be that table-forks were first used in Italy, as -appears from the book of Galeotus Martius, an Italian in the service -of Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, who reigned from 1458 to 1490. -Martius relates that at that period forks were not used at table in -Hungary as in Italy; but that at meals each person laid hold of the -meat with his fingers, and on that account they were much stained with -saffron, usually put into sauces and soups. He praises the king for -eating without a fork, conversing at the same time, and never dirtying -his clothes. - -In France, at the end of the sixteenth century, forks were quite -unknown even at the court of the monarch. Neither at that period were -they known in Sweden. - -From the history of the travels of our countryman, Coryate, entitled -“Crudities,” first published in 1611, and afterwards in 1776, the -author says he first saw them in Italy, and he was also the first -person who used them in England. As his account of them is curious, we -may be excused giving an extract, slightly altering the orthography. - -“Here I will mention a thing that might have been spoken of before in -discourse of the first Italian town. I observed a custom in all those -Italian cities and towns through which I passed, that is not used in -any other country I saw in my travels; neither do I think that any -other nation in Christendom doth use it, but only Italy. The Italian, -and also most strangers that are commorant in Italy, do always at -their meals, use a little fork when they cut their meat. For while -with their knife, which they hold in one hand, they cut the meat out -of the dish, they fasten the fork, which they hold in their other -hand, upon the same dish; so that whatsoever he be that, sitting in -the company of any others at meals, should unadvisedly touch the dish -of meat with his fingers, from which all at the table do cut, he will -give occasion of offence unto the company, as having transgressed -the laws of good manners, insomuch that for his error he shall be at -least brow-beaten if not reprehended in words. This form of feeding I -understand is generally used in all places of Italy; their fork being -for the most part made of iron or steel, and some of silver, but those -are used only by gentlemen. The reason of this their curiosity is, -because the Italian cannot by any means endure to have his dish touched -with fingers--seeing all men’s fingers are not alike clean. Hereupon -I myself thought good to imitate the Italian fashion by this forked -cutting of meat, not only while I was in Italy, but also in Germany, -and oftentime in England, since I came home, being once equipped for -that frequent using of my fork by a certain learned gentleman, a -familiar friend of mine, one Mr. Lawrence Whitaker, who in his merry -humour doubted not to call one at table _farsifer_, only for using a -fork at feeding, but for no other cause.” - -In many parts of Spain, we understand that, _at present_, -drinking-glasses, spoons, and forks are rarities. It is also said, -that even in taverns in many countries, particularly in France, knives -are not placed on the table, because it is expected that each person -should have one of his own. This custom the modern French appear to -have derived from their ancestors the ancient Gauls. But, as no person -will eat any longer without forks, the landlords are obliged to furnish -these, together with plates and spoons. - -Among the Highlanders in Scotland, Dr. Johnson asserts, that knives -have been introduced at table since the Revolution only. Before that -period the men were accustomed to cut their meat with a knife they -carry as a companion to their dirk. The men cut the meat into small -morsels for the women, who used their fingers to put it into their -mouths. - -The use of forks at table was first considered as a superfluous luxury, -and as such forbidden in convents, as appears from the records of the -congregation of St. Maur. - - - - -MUSIC. - - -The science of music, or rather of harmony, is extremely -ancient--insomuch that, with respect to the latter, it is said to be -coeval with Nature herself. But as it has relation to the science -now in use, this, like most other arts, whose origin is very remote, -is involved in obscurity; and in proportion to the astonishment and -wonder excited by its uncommon powers, in a commensurate ratio does -mystery, fable, and obscurity envelope its original. However, always -remembering that it was from harmony,-- - - --“from heavenly harmony, this universal frame began.” - -Proceeding step by step, it had eventually attained in Greece a very -early perfection. Collins, who is justly entitled to the distinguished -station held by all pupils of nature and of the muses, who is -peculiarly eminent for a just poetical spirit, thus speaks of the -heavenly science in his Ode on the Passions-- - - “Arise, as in that elder time, - Warm, energetic, chaste, sublime;-- - Thy wonders in that god-like age - Fill thy recording sisters’ page.-- - ’Tis said, and I believe the tale, - Thy humblest reed could more prevail, - Had more of strength, diviner rage - Than all that charms this laggard age, - Even all at once together found - Cecilia’s mingled world of sound.” - -It will be remembered, however, that the poet calculated as much upon -the infant simplicity of nature as upon the uncommon powers of harmony; -this consideration will certainly reconcile the apparent extravagance -of the thought. - -So great were the early powers of verse and harmony, that at one period -the votaries of the muses were regarded as persons divinely inspired; -they were the priests of man, his legislators, and his prophets. -Insomuch was the possessor of the art, and the art itself reverenced, -that the responses of the most eminent oracles were received in -measured verse. Witness the response of the Delphian oracle received by -the Athenian deputation, when Greece inquired for her wisest men, as -given by Xenophon:-- - - “Wise is Sophocles, more wise Euripides, - But the wisest of all men is Socrates.” - -Music eventually claimed the most unlimited control over the affections -of mankind, as could be proved by an infinity of instances; we shall -mention one only from a well authenticated fact, and finely illustrated -in that of Timotheus from “Alexander’s Feast,” by Dryden. We omit the -hyperbolic representation of the raising of the walls of Thebes by the -power of Amphion’s lute, and the apparently incredible relations of -the harmony of the harp of Orpheus, which are all personifications of -natural effects, and which we have neither room, time, nor opportunity -to explain in this place. - -If its origin was as previously suggested by Collins, there is occasion -to believe the shepherd’s simple life afforded it first existence; in -the native and wild notes of the pastoral reed, may be discovered the -germ of a science as various as its effects are beautiful. We shall for -the present presume the simple Pandean pipe was the first effort of -the construction of musical instruments; its soft tone being analogous -to the dulcet harmony of the voice. We are led to suppose this from -the evidence of ancient statuary, where those pipes are frequently -discovered; and this will, perhaps, deduce its origin from the -invention of the shepherd god, or oldest Pan. Nevertheless, the lyre, -or harp, is alleged from records the most ancient, having at first but -three strings, analogous to the three seasons of the primeval year; the -treble typical of spring, the tenor resembling summer, and the bass -representing winter. - -The invention of that instrument, and of music altogether, is claimed -in the pagan world by Amphion, a successor of Cadmus, the first king -of Thebes, in Bœtia, who is reported, by the music of his harp or lyre -to have built the walls of the city; Cadmus having erected the citadel -only. - -Flutes were first invented by Hyognis, the Phrygian, about the year -1506 before Christ, and first played on the flute the harmony, called -Phrygian, and other tunes of the mother of the gods, of Dionysius, of -Pan, and of the divinities of the country and the heroes. Terpander -also, who was the son of Derdineus, the Lesbian, directed the flute -players to reform the tunes of the ancients, and changed the old music, -about the year 645 before Christ, as we are informed by the Parian -Chronicle. The same Terpander, likewise, added three more strings to -the lyre. - -When Timotheus, the Spartan musician, was banished his native country -for having increased his strings to the number of ten, he sought refuge -at the court of Macedon, and accompanied his patron, Alexander, into -Persia, when that prince conquered Darius. - -From the sacred records of Judea, we may also infer the invention of -musical instruments at a date long prior to either of the periods above -mentioned, when they inform us in Genesis iv. 21, that Adah, one of the -wives of Lamech, had two sons, the name of one of whom was Jubal, who -is said to have been “the father of all such who handle the harp and -organ.” This infers the anterior invention of that instrument. - -Music consists of effects produced by the operation of certain sounds -proceeding from the dulcet voice, or musical instruments, regulated by -certain time, and a succession of harmonious notes, natural, grave, or -flat, _i. e._, half a note below its proper tone; and acute or sharp, -_i. e._, half a note above its proper key; and of such modulation -of various tones, and of different value, and also of manifold -denominations: the natural tones consisting of eight notes, with the -addition of octaves, in various keys, with flats and sharps introduced -to afford variety from the skill of the master, at different periods, -to produce the most agreeable diversity in his composition; and -sometimes according to the subject or words to which his music is -adapted. Those musical notes, though proceeding from so small a number -of radicals, are analogous to the incalculable, the endless forms, -which orthography and rhetoric can afford to a well-informed orator, or -elegant author, to embellish any subject. Thus from the definite number -of twenty-four notes, varied in different degrees, by sharps, flats, -semi-tones, &c., are produced all that is so magical, enthusiastic, -and transporting in the empire of omnipotent music. Like as the -alphabetic characters may be varied into myriads of forms suitable -to every multifarious species of conversation or composition; in a -word, a few musical notes in the hands of a master may be made by his -skill to produce, from agreeable interchanges of time, harmony, &c., -every variety of musical sentiment which can affect the human soul. A -stronger proof cannot be adduced than will be found in the before-cited -ode of “Alexander’s Feast,” by the truly poetic Dryden. In all which -harmony and melody form conspicuous characteristics. - -And of harmony, according to the learned Mr. Mason. The sense in -which the ancient Greeks viewed harmony is as follows:--“They by that -term understood the succession of simple sounds according to their -scale, with respect to acuteness or gravity.” Whilst it appears that -by harmony, the moderns understand--“The succession of simple sounds, -according to the laws of counterpoints.” From the same authority--“By -melody, the ancients understood the succession of simple sounds, -according to the laws of rhythm and metre, or in other words, according -to time, measure, or cadence. Whereas, the moderns understand by the -same term what the ancients meant by harmony, rhythm and metre being -excluded.” “And the modern air is what the ancients understood by -melody.” Hence, from the preceding definitions, it appears that what -is now called harmony was unknown to the ancients; and they viewed -that term as we now see simple melody, when we speak of it as a thing -distinguished from simple modulated air, and that their term, melody, -was applied to what we now call air or song. - -Should this be true, the long-contested difficulty, and that train of -endless disputes, which has existed among the learned and scientific -world so long, will instantly vanish. Should we suppose an ancient -flute-player used an improper tone or semi-tone, or had he transgressed -the mode or key in which he was playing, he committed an error in -harmony; yet his melody might have been perfect, with respect to the -laws of rhythm or metre; we should say of a modern musician, under -similar circumstances, that he played wrong notes, or was out of tune, -yet kept his _time_. Whoever made such a distinction would be allowed -to possess a good ear for music, though the moderns would be inclined -to call it an ear for melody or intonation. By the rules of musical -conversation, we should be justified when we call an instrument out of -tune inharmonious, although the intervals were nearly right. - -By _harmonica_, the Greeks implied nothing more than that proportion of -sound to sound, which mathematicians call _ratio_, or which would be -understood in general musical conversation, by an agreeable succession -of musical notes;--as ancient harmony consisted of the succession of -simple sounds, so does modern harmony consist of the succession of -chords. - -Whether the _diatonic_ scale be the effect of nature, or produced -by art, has occasioned disputation between many; but without losing -time or space, we are, we think, authorised, from general opinion, to -observe, that compositions formed on it, and on the plan recommended -by a lute organist, would produce sensations odiously disgusting to any -musical ear. - -The diatonic is the most simple genera in music, consisting of tones -and major semi-tones; in the scale of which genus the smallest interval -is a conjoint degree, which changes its name and place, that is, -passing from one to another; a prominent air in this species of modern -music is “God save the Queen,” entirely diatonic, without modulation, -by the intervention of a single flat or sharp. - -It may not be unacceptable to our readers to add a few particulars -of one of the greatest composers that ever existed; we allude to the -eminently illustrious GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL, a name dear to science, -and entitled to the grateful veneration of every amateur in this divine -art. He was born at Halle, in Upper Saxony, on the 24th of February -1684. Scarcely was he able to speak, before he articulated musical -sounds. His father was a professor of the healing art as a surgeon and -physician, then upwards of sixty, who intended his son for the study of -the law. Grieved at the child’s predeliction, he banished all musical -instruments from his house. But the spark which nature had kindled in -his bosom was not to be extinguished by the mistaken views of a blind -parent. The child by some means or other contrived to get a little -claverchord into a garret, where, applying himself after the family -had retired to rest, he discovered means to produce both melody and -harmony. Before he was seven years of age, the Duke of Weissenfells by -accident discovered his genius, and prevailed on his father to cherish -his inclination. He was accordingly placed with Zachan, organist of -the cathedral of Halle; when, from nine to twelve years of age, he -composed a church service every week. Losing his father whilst he was -in that city, he thought he could best support his mother by repairing -to Hamburgh, where he soon attracted general notice. This wonder of -the age was then only fourteen, when he composed “Almeria,” his -first opera. Having quitted Hamburgh, he travelled for six years in -Italy, where, at both Florence and Rome, he excited much attention: -at both which places he produced new operatic performances. In that -clime of the harmonious muse, he was introduced to, and cultivated -the friendship of, Dominico, Scarlatti, Gaspurini, and Zotti, with -other eminent scientific characters. He was particularly caressed and -patronised by Cardinal Ottoboni, in whose circle he became acquainted -with the elegant and natural Corelli. It was here he composed the -sonata “Il trionfo del tempo,” the original score of which is now in -the Royal Collection. After which he went to Naples, where he set -“Acis et Galatea,” in Italian, to music. Returning to Germany, he was -patronised by the Elector of Hanover, subsequently George the First. In -1710 he visited London, by permission of his patron, who had settled a -pension of £200 per annum on him. In London he produced the opera of -“Rinaldo,” universally admired--equal with all his other productions -that had preceded. He was compelled to leave, however reluctantly, -the British shore, consistent with his engagement to his patron the -Elector. He departed, not without exciting general regret, two years -after his first arrival in this country. He soon appeared here again, -however, and his return was welcomed like the rising of the genial -orb of day before the wrapt Ignicolist! But now seduced by the favour -which awaited him, he forgot to return. On the death of Queen Anne, -who had also settled an annual pension of £200 upon him--equal to what -he received from the Elector, his former patron--when that prince -ascended the throne, Handel was afraid to appear before his majesty, -till, by an ingenious contrivance of Baron Kilmarfyge, he was restored -to favour, Queen Anne’s bounty being doubled by the king; and the chief -nobility accepted an academy of music under Handel’s direction, which -flourished for ten years, till an unfortunate quarrel occurred between -him and Senesino, which dissolved the institution, and brought on a -contest ruinous to the fortune and the health of our musician. - -He was particularly patronised by the Earl of Burlington, the Duke of -Chandos, and most of the distinguished nobility of Great Britain. - -Having restored his health at the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle, he for the -future chose sacred subjects, which were performed at his theatre in -Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Covent Garden, and Westminster Abbey. He died in -April, 1759, aged seventy-five, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, -where he was honoured with a public funeral, six peers supporting the -pall; the very reverend and truly learned translator of “Longimus,” Dr. -Pearce, the Dean, and then Bishop of Rochester, performed the funeral -service with a full choir. - -He had been a great benefactor to numerous public charities. The funds -of the Foundling Hospital were improved through him with the amazing -sum of £10,299. The organ in its chapel, and the MS. score of his -“Messiah,” were a present and a donation to the foundation from him. He -left an amiable private as well as a good public character behind him. - -His character as a composer is too well appreciated by the British -public to require any remarks from our feeble and inharmonious pen. - - - - -SEALING-WAX, SEALS, &c. - - -Besides metals, five other mediums are enumerated by ancient -writers, wherewith letters and public acts were sealed, viz., _terra -sigillaris_, cement, paste, common wax and sealing-wax. That the -terra sigillaris was used by the Egyptians, we have the evidence of -Herodotus, and which, by inference, is strengthened by that of Moses -who speaks of seal-rings or signets, whence we may safely infer, that -they had a medium of some sort, wherewith they sealed. This _lacuna_ -Herodotus supplies, affirming it in direct terms, and assigning a name -to the substance they used for that purpose. - -This circumstance was only rendered questionable by Pliny, who alleges -the Egyptians did not use those things. - -Herodotus thus expresses himself: “The Egyptian priest bound to the -horns of cattle fit for sacrifice pieces of papyrus with sealing-earth, -on which they made an impression with the seal; and such cattle could -only be offered up as victims.” - -Lucian speaks of a fortune-teller who ordered those who came to consult -him, to write down on a bit of paper the questions they wished to ask, -to fold it up, and seal it with clay, or any other substance of a like -kind. - -Such earth appears to have been employed in sealing, by the Byzantyne -emperors; for we are told that, at the second Nicene Council, image -worship was defended by one saying, “No one believed that those who -received written orders from the Emperor, and venerated the seal, -worshipped on that account the sealing-earth, the paper, or the lead.” - -Cicero relates that Verres, having seen in the hands of his servants -a letter written to his son from Agrimentum, and observing on it an -impression in sealing-earth, he was so pleased with it that he caused -the seal-ring with which it was made to be taken from the possessor. - -Also, the same orator, in his defence of Flaccus, produced an -attestation sent from Asia, and proved its authenticity by its being -sealed with Asiatic sealing-earth; with which, he told the judges, -all public and private letters in Asia were sealed: and he showed on -the other hand, that the testimony brought by the accuser was false, -because it was sealed with _wax_, and for that reason could not have -come from Asia. The scholiast Servius relates, that a sybil received a -promise from Apollo, that she should live as long as she did not see -the earth of the island of the Erythræa, where she resided; that she -therefore quitted the place, and retired to Cumae, where she became old -and decrepid; but that having received a letter sealed with Erythræn -earth, when she saw the seal, she instantly expired. - -No one, however, will suppose that this earth was used without -preparation, as was that to which is given the name of _creta_ chalk; -for, if it was of a natural kind, it must have been of that kind -called _potter’s clay_, as that clay is susceptible of receiving an -impression, and of retaining it subsequent to hardening by drying. It -is believed that the Romans, under the indefinite term _creta_, often -understood to be a kind of potter’s earth, which can be proved by many -passages in their numerous writers. Columella speaks of a species -of chalk of which wine-jars and dishes were made, of which kind it -is conjectured Virgil speaks when he calls it adhesive. The ancient -writers on agriculture give precisely the same name to marl, which was -employed to manure land: now, both chalk and marl, in their natural -state, are extremely inapplicable to the purpose for which we are led -to believe the _terra sigillaris_ was used; therefore, admitting the -Roman _creta_ was composed of them, those substances must naturally -have undergone some laborious process, in order to render them proper -for the purpose to which they were applied. - -Notwithstanding none can feel a higher respect for Professor Beckmann, -to whom we are indebted for many of the preceding observations, than we -do, yet strongly as we are influenced with this impression, we cannot -help observing, consistent with that duty we owe to the public, that we -cannot divest ourselves of the opinion that he is only trifling with -the public feeling, perhaps for the ostentatious display of his own -learning: so many objections of so little weight are raised, that he -really appears to write for the purpose of raising new objections to -passages, which, in our comprehension, are extremely simple. We cannot -help applying to him a passage which occurs in a song of the Swan of -Twickenham, who sings:-- - - “Gnawed his pen, then dashed it on the ground, - Striking from thought to thought, a vast profound. - Plunged for the sense, but found no bottom there, - Yet wrote, and floundered on in mere despair.” - -We would not be illiberal or capricious, nor do we presume to any extra -portion of intelligence; yet, we think we can in a few words discuss -the topic, and perhaps, satisfactorily, on which he has employed so -many pages. Those terms which have troubled the professor with learned -difficulties really appear to us susceptible of an easy interpretation, -and applicable to both or either of the senses in which they are -used, as are any words in the language of ancient Rome. Accordingly, -we find the term _creta_ implies either chalk, fuller’s clay, loam, -white paint, or Asiatic earth, termed creta Asiatica; and, in brief it -appears a mere generic name for any kind of earth, raised from below -the surface of the soil: this is its true sense. But there cannot be a -question, from what is known of the preparation of clay and earth for -_terra cotta_ and other plastic purposes, which undergo a variety of -washings, kneadings, &c., that similar preparations were requisite, -in order to bring it to so curious, so delicate a purpose as that to -which the terra sagillaris was applied. And _fosse_, in the sense used -by Varre, admits of nearly a similar description, it appearing as a -pronomen for the same thing; and indicates either peat, marl, loam, -chalk, or any earthy substance which may be raised from below the -terrestrial surface. - -We have evidence every day in our fruit shops, that in certain -countries this kind of earth is yet employed for closing up jars of -dried fruits brought from Oporto, Smyrna, and other countries; as these -appear to be composed of white chalk of a texture somewhat similar to -common mortar. The warmth of the atmosphere, where it is used, soon -hardens and prevents the passage of air to the contents; the jars -themselves being oftentimes only dried in the sun. - -Thus it appears that prepared earths were first used for the purpose -of sealing; their adhesive, or, as Virgil has it, their tenacious -qualities, being wonderfully improved for manual labour. Next, paste -was employed, prepared from dough. - -To paste succeeded common wax, sometimes slightly tinctured with a -green tint, the effect of endeavouring to give it a blue colour, as -vegetable blues turn green by the process of heat employed in melting; -whilst mineral or earthy blues all sink to the bottom, from superior -gravity. This was the material employed in sealing public acts in -England, as early as the fifteenth century. We have an anecdote of the -Duke of Lancaster having no seal to ratify a deed between him and the -Duke of Burgoyne, but from what appears in the attestation, which, with -the instrument itself, according to the general custom of the day, runs -in rhyme thus: - - “I, John of Gaunt, - Doe gyve and do graunt, - To John of Burgoyne - And the heire of his loyne - Sutton and Putton - Untill the world’s rotten.” - -The attestation runs thus: - - “There being no seal within the roof, - In sooth, I seal it wyth my tooth.” - -A good example is this of the simple brevity of the time, and a severe -lecture upon the eternal repetitions of our modern lawyers, whereby the -limitations and special uses of deeds are made, perhaps, not according -to the necessities of the case, but are lengthened from selfish -purposes. - -The Great Charter, which gives an assurance of the rights of -Englishmen, is sealed with white wax; as may be seen in the British -Museum. - -The first arms used as a seal in England, were those of the tyrannical -subjugator of English rights, William, commonly called the Conqueror, -and they were brought from Normandy. - -Although Fenn, in his collection of original Letters of the last half -of the fifteenth century, published in London, 1787, has given the size -and shape of the seals, he does not apprise us of what substance they -were composed. Respecting a letter of 1455, he says only, that “the -seal is of red wax,” by which, it is presumed, he means common wax; and -though, perhaps not equal in quality to such as is now used, yet it was -made of nearly similar materials. Tavernier, in his Travels, says, that -in Surat gum-lac is melted and formed into sticks, like sealing-wax. -Wecker also gives directions to make an impression with calcined gypsum -and a solution of gum or isinglass. Porta, likewise, knew that this -might be done, and, perhaps, to greater perfection with amalgam of -quicksilver. - -Among the records of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, are some letters of -1563, sealed with red and black wax. In the family of the Rhingrave, -Philip Francis von Daun, the oldest letter sealed with wax, known in -Germany, is found, of the date of August 3, 1554; it was written from -London, by an agent of that family, of the name of Gerrard Herman. The -colour of the wax is dark red, and very shining. - -The oldest recipe known in Germany for making sealing-wax, was found -by M. Von Murr, in a work by Samuel Zimmerman, citizen of Augsburg, -published in 1759. The copy in the library of the university of -Gottingen is signed by the author himself.--“To make hard sealing-wax, -called Spanish wax, with which, if letters be sealed, they cannot be -opened without breaking the seal; take beautiful clear resin, the -whitest you can procure, and melt it over a slow coal fire. When it is -properly melted, take it from the fire, and for every pound of resin, -add two ounces of cinnabar, pounded very fine, stirring it about. Then -let the whole cool, or pour it into cold water. Thus you will have -beautiful red sealing-wax. - -“If you are desirous of having black wax, add lamp-black to it. With -smalt or azure, you may make blue: with white-lead, white; and with -orpiment, yellow. - -“If, instead of resin, you melt purified turpentine in a glass vessel, -and give it any colour you choose, you will have a harder kind of -sealing-wax, and not so brittle as the former.” - -It may be remarked, that in these recipes for the fabrication of -sealing-wax there is no mention of gum-lac, which is known at present -as a chief ingredient in the composition of this article. - -Zimmerman’s sealing-wax approaches very near to the quality of that -known as _maltha_, whence we may conclude, that the manufacture of it -did not originally come from the East Indies. The most ancient mention -of sealing-wax occurs in a botanical work, treating of the history of -aromatics and simples, by Garcia ab Horto, published at Antwerp in -1563, where the author, speaking of gum-lac says, that those sticks -used for sealing letters are made of it; at which time sealing-wax was -common among the Portuguese, and has since been manufactured chiefly in -Holland. - -M. Spiess, principal keeper of the Records at Plessenberg, says, -respecting the antiquity of _Wafers_, in Germany, that the most -ancient use of them he has known, occurs in a letter written by D. -Krapf, at Spires, in 1624, to the government of Bayreuth.--The same -authority informs us that some years after, the Brandenburg factor at -Nuremberg sent such wafers to a bailiff, at Osternohe. During the whole -of the seventeenth century, wafers were not used in the Chancery at -Brandenburg, and only by private persons there. - -Seals, it appears, from certain passages of Egyptian history, parallel -with, and perhaps anterior to the Israelitish ingress, were formed or -cut in emeralds, the native produce of that country. Other precious -stones, metals, steel, lead, and a variety of materials, but chiefly of -a hard and precious kind, have been always employed for that purpose. - - - - -BLACK-LEAD PENCILS. - - -The period when this semi-metallic substance was introduced, for -the purpose for which it is now applied, cannot with certainty be -ascertained, as no record is found of the transaction: by the common -expedient of inference, however, we certainly may conclude, it was in -very remote ages; for transcribers of MSS. upwards of one thousand -years ago, used a substance somewhat resembling it in effect. - -But, perhaps, the antiquity of the use of black-lead pencils cannot -be so well determined from diplomatiques, as their frequency might -be proved from mineralogical writers. The first mention of this -discovery occurs in the works of Gesner, who, in his “Book of -Fossils,” published in 1565, says that the British people had pencils -for writing, with wooden-handles inclosing a piece of lead, which he -believed to be an artificial composition; and it was called _stimmi -Anglicanum_; which seems to import that it was a British production; -and we should consider, from the name of British antimony being given -to it, that it might have been Cumberland black-lead. - -About thirty years afterwards, Cæsalpinus gave a more perfect account -of it:--he says it was a lead-coloured, shining stone, as smooth as -glass, and appeared as if rubbed over with oil; it gave to the fingers -an ash-grey tint, with a plumbeous brightness; and, he adds, pointed -pencils were made of it, for the use of painters and draughtsmen. A -closer description of the substance than this cannot be discovered. - -Somewhere about three years afterwards, a still more perfect -description was furnished by Imperatis; who says, “It is much more -convenient for drawing than pen and ink, because the marks made with -it appear distinct upon a white ground, also, in consequence of -its brightness, show themselves on black, and can be preserved or -rubbed out at pleasure. This mineral is smooth, appears greasy to the -touch, and has a leaden-colour, which it communicates with a metallic -brightness. It can resist, for a long time, the strongest fire, and -even from it requires more hardness; it has, in consequence, been -thought to be a species of _talc_. This, in the arts to which it -is applied, is a property which greatly enhanceth its value, being -manufactured into crucibles, &c., with clay. These vessels are capable -of enduring the strongest heat of a chemical furnace.” - -Sometimes this lead is foliaceous, and may be crumbled into small -pieces or scales; but frequently found denser and more strong. This -latter is what writing pencils should be made of; but the former being -more frequently found, and, also, coming from the refuse of the -workmen, is too often mixed up with some glutinous substance, and there -is every reason to suppose it to be enclosed in the groove in a plastic -state; these pencils are commonly hawked about our streets by pedlars -and Jews; of purchasing which people should be cautious, as they are, -in general, utterly worthless. - -Robinson, in his Essay towards a natural History of Westmoreland and -Cumberland states, that, at first, the country people round Keswick -marked their sheep with black-lead. Afterwards, they discovered the -art of employing it in their earthenware, and also to preserve iron -from rust. The same writer says, the Dutch use it in dyeing, to render -black more durable; and that they buy it in large quantities for that -purpose. But their application of it for dyeing, we should consider as -highly questionable. - -The mode of eradicating black-lead by means of an elastic gum, called -caoutchouc, or, Indian-rubber, was, we have been informed, first -discovered in England somewhere about sixty years ago. - - - - -COLOURED GLASS. - - -The manufacture of glass we find was quite common in Ethiopia, Syria, -Assyria, and other Eastern countries, in the earliest ages of the -world, as Diodorus Siculus informs us, who says, the Ethiopians -enclosed in glass, the bodies of their parents and friends; we -doubt, however, that on this point, the historian was deceived. But -it really appears probable that soon after the art of making glass -was discovered, the idea of communicating to it some colours would -easily present itself. This probability appears increased, when it -is recollected that much care is requisite to render glass perfectly -colourless. As the various metallic particles with which stone and -sand abound, (these being the chief ingredients of which glass is -composed, and which gradually give tints in fusion,) will almost -unavoidably communicate some hue or other, therefore the perfection of -glass is to have it perfectly colourless. - -But with respect to coloured glass; so frequently have people been -imposed upon by having coloured glass sold to them for valuable stones, -that some conscientious authors have very laudably and carefully -abstained from lending the benefit of instruction in its manufacture, -by publishing the method. - -The Egyptian artists were so famous in the manufacture of glass, that -the Romans were content to receive this article from the glass-houses -in Alexandria, and did not interfere in endeavouring to procure the art -themselves, until the latter part of the empire. - -We read that an Egyptian priest made a present to the Emperor Adrian -of several beautiful glass cups, which sparkled with many colours; and -such value did that august personage place upon these toys, that he -ordered them to be used only on high feasts and solemnities. - -Strabo relates, that a glass manufacturer of Alexandria informed him -that an earth was found in Egypt, without which the valuable coloured -glass could not be made. It has been thought by some, the glass earth -here meant was a mineral alkali which was readily found in Egypt, -serving to make glass; but this author speaking expressly of coloured -glass, it has been suggested as probable, the alkali above named could -not have reference to what the artisan intended to imply, but that it -must be referred to some metallic earth or manganese. - -One Democritus is named by Seneca, as having discovered an art of -making artificial emeralds; but it has been conjectured that what the -philosopher meant was the art of communicating colour to natural -rock crystal, or colouring glass already made, so as to resemble -stones, which is a process performed by cementation. Directions have -been furnished for this purpose by Porta, Neri, and others; but it is -discovered that the articles so coloured are liable to such accidents -in the process, that it is next to impossible to render things of any -size tolerably perfect, so as to bear cutting afterwards. - -In the Museum Victorium at Rome, there are shown a chrysolite and an -emerald, both perfectly well executed, and thoroughly transparent, -without a blemish. - -We have not from the ancients an account of what process they employed; -but it must be evident that nothing less than metallic calces could -have been used; and for this evident reason, that any other substance -could not have resisted the influence of the necessary heat. The last -century has, however, produced certain artists in northern European -nations, who have adopted a method of employing the precious metals, to -communicate a tincture to glass in the process of making, where iron, -&c. were originally only used; and their endeavours have been attended -with singular success. - -By means of an amalgam of gold, or a solution in _aqua regia_, and -precipitated with a solution of tin, the metal then assuming the -appearance of a rich purple coloured powder; so prepared, it is mixed -with the best _frit_, and then called the precipitate or gold calx of -Cassius, the inventor of gold purple, or mineral purple. - -This precipitate communicates a rich ruby coloured purple, so perfect -that it is impossible to discover the deception, without the substances -be tried by the usual means--cut with a diamond or a prepared file. - -We have had in England some very eminent artists in the practice of -staining glass, and also for making artificial representations of -various precious stones. - -Although the professed object of alchemy has now met with that -contempt it merited--because, notwithstanding the immense sums which -have been expended, the time lost, and unprofitable labour employed -in the unavailing search after what probably never will be found--yet -the labour lost and money expended has not been totally useless, since -it has served to open the seals which secured chemical science to the -modern world; and which is the chief, if not the sole advantage it can -claim over antiquity for superiority of information. - -Painting on glass, but, perhaps, staining had been a more appropriate -expression, or, properly speaking, in enamel, with the preparations -for colouring in mosaic work, may, to a certain extent, be justly -considered as branches of the art of colouring glass; in all which -there is no colour more difficult to be attained than a beautiful red; -it now is, and ever has been, most difficult, consequently the dearest -colour. The presumed ignorance of ancient artists in preparing this -colour has afforded some reason, it is said, to suppose the ancients -knew of no other substance proper for that purpose but calx of iron, -or manganese. To this we may reply, many specimens are found which -show they were not so ignorant in that art, and that it is more than -probable the same jealousy which is found to exist in modern days among -artizans might prevent our sagacious predecessors from publishing the -secrets of their respective professions to the world. We contend, that -as the materials must then have had existence, which have been since so -successfully employed, pray what was the reason the ancients should not -avail themselves of their benefit? In all the higher speculations of -science and arts, where the great and superior energies of genius were -requisite, this perfection in the ancients far surpassed any exertions -which have been since achieved by the moderns. To instance one artist -and one art solely, we name the great Praxiteles, so famous in the art -of statuary, whose works were a model of perfection. - - - - -ETCHING ON GLASS AND GLASS CUTTING. - - -Without entering into the history of the lapidary’s art, we only -propose to speak of those things which ancient and modern authors have -said upon the art of engraving on glass, observing, that it was an art -anciently known to both the Greeks and Romans; although it appears -extremely probable, that from their expressed ignorance of many of -those properties which modern chemistry has discovered to belong to -matter, they were ignorant of the art of etching on glass. - -From antique specimens still preserved, a doubt cannot for a moment -be suffered to exist on our minds, but that the art of engraving upon -glass was familiar to the Greek artists, who formed upon glass both -linear figures, and in relievo, by the same means as are now employed -for nearly the same purpose, if we can place any confidence in an able -and learned lapidary, Natter, who has established, that the ancients -employed the same kind of instruments for this purpose, or nearly such -as are now in use; abating, perhaps the use of diamonds, and the dust -of that precious material, for which it is conceived they used emery -powder, and the dust of glass. - -From what is related by Pliny, it certainly appears that they used the -lapidary’s wheel, an instrument moving in a horizontal direction over -the work-table. - -Some have thought that drinking cups and vessels may have been formed -from the glass whilst in a state of fusion, by means of this wheel; to -this they think those words of Martial refer, where he says, _calices -audaces_, having reference to the boldness of the artisan’s touch; -those vessels he was constructing often broke under the last touch he -bestowed upon his transparent labours, although, perhaps, of costly -value; these accidents must of necessity have rendered those articles -extremely expensive. - -There are not wanting many who affirm the art of glass-cutting, -with the instruments necessary for that operation, to be of modern -invention. Those assign it to the ingenuity of Caspar Lehmann, -originally an engraver on iron and steel, and who, as Beckmann -informs us, made an attempt, which succeeded, in cutting crystal, and -afterwards glass in the same manner. This artist, we are told, was in -the service of Rodolphus, the second emperor of that name, who, in -the year 1609, besides giving him valuable presents, conferred on him -the title of lapidary and glass-cutter to his court, and gave him a -patent, allowing him the exclusive privilege of exercising this new -art. He worked at Prague, where he had an assistant of the name of -Zacharias Belzer; but George Schwanhard, one of his pupils, carried -on the business to a much larger extent. The last named was a son of -Hans Schwanhard, a joiner at Rothenburg, and was born in 1601; at the -age of seventeen he went to Prague, to learn the art of cutting glass -from Lehmann. His good behaviour won so much upon the affections of -his master, that on his death in the year 1622, he left him his heir. -Schwanhard succeeded in obtaining a continuation of the patent from -the emperor, and removed to Nuremburg, where he wrought for many of -the nobility of that district. This was, we believe, the occasion of -that city claiming the honour of being the birth-place of this new -art. In the year 1652, he worked at Prague, and also at Ratisbon, by -command of the Emperor Ferdinand III.; and he died in 1676. He left -two sons, who both followed the lucrative employment of their father. -Afterwards Nuremburg produced many expert masters in the art, who, -from the improvement in the tools, and also from discovering more -economical modes of using them, were enabled to execute the orders of -the public at a more moderate rate than had been previously charged -for some articles. Those latter masters likewise brought this art to a -much greater degree of perfection. Notwithstanding Zahn was of the same -country, and must have been apprised of the facts previously stated, -yet he mentions it as a very recent invention at Nuremberg, at the time -he published his “Oculus Artificial.” He also furnishes a plate, giving -at the same time a description of the various instruments employed. -However, that this invention is not purely _novel_, may be perceived -from those facts we have already submitted. - -It should be stated that before this latter re-introduction, artists -used, with a diamond, to cut figures upon glass in almost every form, -as far as the representation by lines went. The history of diamonds has -been presented to the public by Mr. Mawe, in his observations on the -diamond districts of Brazil. It appears to be yet undetermined whether -the ancients used that stone for the purpose of cutting others; upon -this point Pliny appears to be satisfied that they did. - -Solinus and Isidore both express themselves in a manner the reverse. -But although this may leave us in some doubt, it appears pretty clear -that they did not attempt to cut that valuable production with its -own dust, or to give it different faces, or render it more brilliant -by the same means. If this point was settled, there could be no great -difficulty in affirming or negativing the fact of their engraving upon -that stone. Thus doubts appear to increase on this head, for Mariette -denies that they did; Natter appears uncertain; and Klotz asserts -with confidence it was certain. His authority, to be sure, has been -considered not to be of much weight. - -The proper question, however, appears to be, whether the Greeks and -Romans used diamonds for cutting and engraving other stones or glass. -Natter, in his work already noticed, thinks they were employed on some -antique engravings. His authority is deserving respect. But if they -were employed on other stones, the authority which at present directs -us, confidently alleges they did not employ them in cutting glass; but -he points out the mode in which that article was wont to be divided, in -the following terms: “They used for that purpose emery, sharp-pointed -instruments of the hardest steel, and a red-hot iron, by which they -directed the rents at their pleasure.” - -The first mention which appears to occur of the use of the diamond for -this purpose, is recorded of Francis I. of France, who, fond of the -arts, sciences, and new inventions, wrote a couple of lines with a -diamond, on a pane of glass in the Castle of Chambord, to let Anne de -Pisseleu, Duchess of Estampes, know that he was jealous. - -About 1652, festoons and other ornaments, cut with a diamond, were -made on Venetian glasses; then considered the best. Schwanhard was -a professed adept in that art; and since his time an artist of the -name of John Rost, of Augsburg, cut some drinking glasses, which were -purchased by the Emperor Charles VI., at an extravagant price. - - -ETCHING ON GLASS. - -An acid to dissolve siliceous earth was discovered as late as 1771, by -the celebrated chemist Scheele, in _sparry fluor_. It is conceived that -this cannot be of older date than that period; but it is alleged that -an acid was discovered as early as the year 1670, by Henry Schwanhard. -It being said that some aquafortis had dropped, by accident upon his -spectacles, the glass being corroded by it, he thence learned to -improve the liquid that he could etch figures and write upon glass. How -he prepared this liquid is a secret which has not been revealed. The -_Teutsche Akedemie_ says on this subject, that he, by the acuteness of -his genius, proved that which had been considered impossible could be -accomplished; and found out a corrosive so powerful that the hardest -crystal glass, which had hitherto withstood the force of the strongest -spirits, was obliged to yield to it, as well as metals and stones. By -these means he delineated and etched, on glass, figures of men, in -various situations, animals and plants, in a manner perfectly natural, -and brought them to the highest perfection. - -The glass proposed to be etched is made perfectly clean and free from -grease; then the figure is covered with a varnish; then an edge of wax -being raised round the glass, the acid is poured in, and the whole -ground on the exterior of the figures appears rough, whilst the figure -is preserved in its original beauty of outline, bright and smooth. This -is the mode the inventor adopted. - -Professor Beckmann says, he mentioned this ancient method of etching -upon glass, to an artist of the name of Klindworth, who possessed great -dexterity in such arts, and requested him to try it; he drew a tree -with oil varnish and colours on a plate of glass, applied the acid on -the plate in the usual manner; after it had been upon the plate for a -sufficient time, poured off, and the plate afterwards cleaned of the -varnish, a beautiful tree was left bright and smooth, with a rough -back-ground. It is conceived that many great improvements may yet be -made in this process. - -It appears that no other acid than that produced by the sparry fluor -is capable of corroding every kind of glass, though Baume, in his -“Chemique Experimentale,” says, that many kinds of glass may be -corroded by the marine and vitriolic acids. - -In this state of uncertainty was the public mind till the year -1725, when it was thought that a recipe, older than that previously -mentioned, might possibly be discovered. Accordingly, in that year, in -the month of January, the following is said to have been transmitted -to the publisher of the “Œkonomische Encyclopedie,” by Dr. John -George Weygand, of Goldingen, which is reported to have belonged to -Dr. Matthew Pauli, of Dresden, then deceased; with which the last -named gentleman had etched, on glass, arms, landscapes, and figures -of various kinds. We find, that in it, very strong acid of nitre was -used, which entirely disengages the acid of sparry fluor, though the -vitriolic acid has been commonly employed, and figures thus produced -will appear as if raised above the plane of the glass. - -This sparry fluor is found abundantly in Derbyshire, as well as in the -mines of Germany. Theophrastus is the first who notices the effect of -sparry fluor, by observing that there are certain stones which, when -added to silver, copper, and iron ores, become fluid. It appears that -Cronstedt was the first systematic writer who gave it a name. - -When _spiritus nitri per distillationem_ has passed into the recipient, -ply it with a strong fire, and when well dephlegmated, pour it, (as -it corrodes ordinary glass,) into a Waldenburg flask; then throw into -it a pulverised green Bohemian emerald, otherwise called _hesphorus_, -(which, when reduced to powder and heated, emits in the dark a green -light,) and place it in warm sand for twenty-four hours. Take a piece -of glass, well cleaned, and freed from all grease by means of a ley; -put a border of wax round it, about an inch in height, and cover it -equally all over with the above acid. The longer you let it stand, -so much the better; and at the end of some time the glass will be -corroded, and the figures which have been traced out with sulphur and -oil varnish will appear as if raised above the plane of the glass. - - - - -HYDROMETERS. - - -The Hydrometer is an instrument for admeasuring liquids; by it the -strength or specific gravity of different fluids is discovered, by -the depth to which it sinks in them. It has been chiefly used for -discovering the contents of different salt waters, without analysis, -and is now almost entirely used by persons connected with the -spirit-trade, to ascertain the different degrees of strength, and what -alloy they will bear; hence its utility to the manufacturer and the -excise-officer is apparent. - -The laws respecting the comparative weight of different fluids, as well -as of solid bodies immersed in them, was first discovered by that great -geometrician Archimedes. It may be far from improbable that Archimedes -constructed that instrument himself; and if it should appear that he -did, it must have happened two hundred and twelve years before the -Christian era. - -The most ancient mention of this instrument by its specific name, -occurs in the fifth century of our era, upon the following occasion. -The anecdote is very singular and affecting, and also evinces the -incapacity of humanity to act consistent and as it ought, when we -suffer ourselves to be directed by passions unworthy of the human -character. - -It is first discovered in those letters of Synesius to the philosophic -and beautiful Hypatia. We trust we may be excused the liberty we -propose to take in detailing this circumstance, which is comparatively -little known; and as its interest also recommends it, this furnishes an -additional motive. - -Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, an eminent mathematician of -Alexandria, some of whose writings are still extant. By her father -she was instructed in the mathematics, and from other great men, -who at that period abounded in Alexandria, she learned the Platonic -and Aristotelian philosophy, and acquired such a knowledge of these -sciences, that she taught them publicly, with the greatest applause. -She was young and beautiful, had a personable figure, was sprightly -and agreeable in conversation, though, at the same time, modest; and -she possessed the most rigid virtue, which was proof against every -temptation. She conducted herself with so much propriety towards -her lovers, that they never could obtain more than the pleasure of -her company, and hearing her discourse; and with this, which they -considered as an honour, they were contented. Those who were so daring -as to desire further communion she dismissed; and even destroyed -the appetite of one of her admirers, who would not suffer her to -philosophise, by means of some strong preparation, which others appear -not to have since imitated. - -She suffered so cruel a death, that had she been a Christian, and -suffered from Pagan error, her name would have been ranked among its -most honoured victims in the list of martyrology; but being a Pagan, -and suffering from the persecution of superstitious and anti-Christian -zeal, she is honoured among the foremost of martyrs to celestial -philosophy. - -The name of the Christian patriarch, at that period in Alexandria, was -Cyrill, whose family had, for upwards of a hundred years before his -time, produced bishops, who had been much more serviceable to their own -family connections than they had ever been towards the propagation of -the Christian faith. The present was proud, litigious, and revengeful, -vindictive and intolerant to the last degree; his ignorance debasing -his own character as a man, and scandalising the religion of which he -was so unworthy a minister. He stupidly conceived himself sanctioned -in everything which his foolish and mistaken ideas might dictate to be -for the glory of God, and acted as a persecutor, prosecutor, judge, and -executioner: he had condemned Nestorias without hearing his defence. -As the city of Alexandria was then very flourishing on account of its -extended commerce, the emperor had there allowed greater toleration and -more peculiar privileges to all religions, than in any other place: -it consequently contained, among others, a great number of Jews, who -carried on a most extensive trade, as well as a great many Pagan -families. In the eyes of the bigot Cyrill this was wrong; he would have -the sheep-fold clean, and the Jews must be banished. The governor, -however, who was a man of prudence and sober discretion, much better -acquainted with the real interests of the city, opposed a measure he -saw replete with mischief, and even caused to be condemned to death a -Christian profligate, who had injured the Jews. This malefactor was, by -the express order of Cyrill, buried in the church as a martyr; and he -collected an army of five hundred lazy monks, who abused the governor -in the public streets, and excited an insurrection among the people -against the Jews, so that the debased race of Abraham was expelled from -the city where they had so long existed unmolested from the time of -Alexander the Great. - -Cyrill, one day, whilst looking for objects of persecution, saw a -number of carriages, attended with servants, belonging to the first -families in the city, before a certain house. Inquiring what was the -cause of the assembly, he was informed that it was the habitation of -the lovely Hypatia, who, on account of her extensive learning and very -eminent talents, was visited by people of the first respectability. -This afforded to the malignant priest a sufficient object for the -exercise of his jealousy against the meritorious, the unoffending, the -beautiful Hypatia. He from that moment resolved upon her destruction. -Accordingly he lost no time in exciting his myrmidons, the monks and -priests, those who should have been the ministers of that religion -which they professed to teach, to destroy the fair philosopher. -They accordingly, with diabolical rage, and instigated by infernal -cruelty, took the earliest opportunity to seize her, hurried her to the -church--the temple of peace and good-will--which they violated by an -offence at which humanity must shudder; having torn the clothes from -her delicate form, they tore the flesh from her bones with potsherds, -then dragged her mangled body about the city, and afterwards burnt it. - -This demoniacal tragedy took place in the year 415, and was perpetrated -by the professed servants of Him who came into world to save those -which were lost--to preach peace and good-will to all men. The -impressions which such an event made upon people of every persuasion -may be conceived; they admit not of description from a feeble pen: but -we may ask the question, was it such a transaction as was calculated to -make converts to the doctrines of Christianity?--whose avowed motive -and maxim is, in the words of Milton, - - “By winning words, to conquer willing hearts, - And make persuasion do the work of fear.” - -All historians are not agreed in some circumstances of the preceding -relation; but they generally unite in bestowing praise upon Hypatia, -whose memory was long honoured by her grateful and affectionate -scholars, among whom was Synesius, of a noble Pagan family, who had -cultivated philosophy and the mathematics with the utmost ardour, -and who had been one of her most intimate friends and followers. On -account of his learning and virtues, many eminent talents, and open -disposition, the inhabitants of Ptolemais were desirous he should be -bishop, having been previously employed on many public and important -concerns with success. After modestly desiring, for a long period, -that they would fix their choice upon a more worthy object, they still -persisting, he assented, upon condition that he was not to believe -in the resurrection, to which he could not at that time bring his -internal conviction: he suffered himself to be baptised, and became -their bishop; he was confirmed by the orthodox patriarch Theophilus, -the predecessor of Cyrill, to whose jurisdiction Ptolemais belonged: -he afterwards renounced his error respecting the resurrection. This -learned man evinced his gratitude to Hypatia, by the honourable mention -which he made of her in some of his writings, still preserved. - -In his fifteenth letter to her, he tells Hypatia, that he was so -unfortunate, or found himself so ill, that he wished to use an -hydroscopium (the Greek for hydrometer), and he requests that -she would cause one to be constructed for him. He says, “It is a -cylindrical tube, of the size of a reed or pipe; a line is drawn upon -it lengthways, which is intersected by others, and these point out the -weight of water. At the end of the tube is a cone, the base of which -is joined to that of the tube, so that they have both only one base. -This part of the instrument is called _baryllion_. If it be placed in -water, it remains in a perpendicular direction, so that one can readily -discover by it the weight of the fluid.” - -Petau, who published the works of Synesius, in the year 1640, -acknowledges that he did not understand this passage. An old scoliast, -he says, who had added some illegible words, thought it was a -water-clock; but the ellepsydra was not immersed in water, but filled -with it. He therefore thought that it might allude to the chorobates, -which Vitruvius describes as an instrument employed in levelling; but -it appears that Synesius, who complained of ill health, could have no -occasion for such an instrument. Besides, no part of that instrument he -describes, has any resemblance to the one described by Synesius. - -From the works of Fermat, an excellent mathematician, and a very -learned man, well acquainted with antiquities and the works of the -ancients, we give the following explanation concerning the hydroscopium -of Archimedes, as this article would be incomplete without it:-- - -“It is impossible,” says he, “that the _hydroscopium_ could be the -level or _chorobates_ of Vitruvius, for the lines on the latter were -perpendicular to the horizon, whereas the lines on the former were -parallel to it. The hydroscopium was undoubtedly a hydrometer of the -simplest construction. The tube may be made of copper, and open at the -top; but at the other end, which, when used, is the lowest, it must -terminate with a cone, the base of which is added to that of the tube. -Lengthwise, along the tube, are drawn two lines, which are intersected -by others, and the more numerous these divisions are, the instrument -will be so much the more correct.--When placed in water it sinks to a -certain depth, which will be marked by the cross-lines, and which will -be greater, according to the lightness of the water.” A figure which is -added, might have been dispensed with. When a common friend of Fermat -and Petau showed it to the latter, he considered it to be so just, -and explanatory of the real meaning of Synesius, that he wished to be -allowed the opportunity of introducing it in a new edition of the works -of Synesius. - - -_FINIS._ - - -J. S. Pratt, Stokesley, Yorkshire. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Many typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Text uses both “Guttenberg” and “Guttenburg”, “Helvelius” and -“Hevelius”; both versions retained. - -Page 18: “documentary” was printed as “documentry”; changed here. - -Page 33: “transcendant” was printed that way. - -Page 33: The opening quotation mark preceding “A complete Course of -Lithography” was added by Transcriber. Other punctuation and spelling -within that title has not been changed, but some of it differs from -what was printed in the English translation of the cited book. - -Page 54: The period after “Deity” in “offensive to the Deity. that the -great majority” probably should be a semi-colon. - -Pages 63 and 249: A question mark is followed by a lower-case word. - -Page 109: “Chardiu” was printed that way. - -Page 139: “It last it changed colours” should begin with “At”. - -Page 171: “the bull of Æolus” probably is a misprint for “ball”. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Historical Account of Useful -Inventions and Scientific Disc, by George Grant - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL ACCOUNT--USEFUL INVENTIONS *** - -***** This file should be named 53613-0.txt or 53613-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/6/1/53613/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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