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diff --git a/old/53624-0.txt b/old/53624-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index be749e8..0000000 --- a/old/53624-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5433 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Art-Studies from Nature, as applied to -Design, by F. E. Hulme and S. J. Mackie and J. Glaisher and Robert Hunt - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Art-Studies from Nature, as applied to Design - -Author: F. E. Hulme - S. J. Mackie - J. Glaisher - Robert Hunt - -Release Date: November 28, 2016 [EBook #53624] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART-STUDIES FROM NATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - ART-STUDIES FROM NATURE, - - As applied to Design: - - _FOR THE USE OF_ - - ARCHITECTS, DESIGNERS, AND MANUFACTURERS. - - - COMPRISED IN FOUR PAPERS BY - - F. E. HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A.; - - J. GLAISHER, F.R.S.; - - S. J. MACKIE, F.G.S., F.S.A.; - - ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S. - - - REPRINTED FROM THE ART-JOURNAL. - - - _WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS ON WOOD._ - - - LONDON: - VIRTUE & CO., 26, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. - 1872. - - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., - CITY ROAD. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Nature may be studied in many aspects; her wealth of service and beauty -is freely open to all who seek; and while the man of science, by patient -study and assiduous toil, may learn something of her mystery, and gather -from her not unwilling hands rich treasure of knowledge for the benefit -of humanity (for without the midnight watch and the elaborate -calculation of the astronomer navigation would yet be in its infancy; -without the enthusiasm of the botanist as he toils in the tropic forest -the virtues of many a healing plant would be unknown; without the keen -perception of the geologist the miner’s task would be in vain), so the -man of art in no less degree may find in her study richest elements of -beauty, loveliest suggestions of colour, forms of infinite grace. A -delight in the study of Nature, a desire to realise something of its -grandeur, is a source of unbounded pleasure to its possessor, for to him -no walk can be a weariness, no season of the year dreary, no soil so -sterile as to be barren of interest:-- - - “The meanest flow’ret of the vale, - The simplest note that swells the gale, - The common sun, the air, the skies, - To him are opening Paradise.” - -The lichen on the rock, the wayside grass, the many-coloured fungi, are -no less full of beauty than the forms that more ordinarily attract -attention, and are no less worthy of study. “The works of the Lord are -great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein;” and Nature -has ever to the devout mind, from its own inherent beauty and its -testimony to Him its creator and sustainer, been a study of the deepest -interest. Some who glance over these opening remarks before entering -upon the search for such material in the body of the book as may seem -available for their immediate purpose, may consider that this view of -the subject is unpractical; but we would remind such that all art, -pictorial, sculptural, decorative, or what not, is only noble and worthy -of the name so far as it affords food for thought in the spectator, and -testifies to thought in the artist, and that the nobility of the work is -in direct proportion to such evidence of inner life. Art that is -æsthetic and sensuous, though pleasing to the eye, must ever in the -nature of things hold a subordinate place to that art which is symbolic, -to those forms in which an inner meaning may be traced; and though one -work of art may perhaps necessarily contain less of this reflected -thought than another, yet this proposition we think will hold good, that -no work of art that does not in some way testify to this can be -altogether satisfactory, for while pleasing for a time to the eye, it -yet leaves the mind unsatisfied: the reverse will equally hold good, and -we may safely repeat that in proportion to the thought bestowed and -expressed by the artist will be the enjoyment and profit to be derived -by others from it. The true artist will not consider with how small -expenditure of trouble he may attain his end; he will, on the contrary, -have a heart full of sympathy with all that is beautiful. This will -become a wealth of knowledge, will prove a precious possession to -himself, and the result must be visible in his work, and stamp it with -Promethean fire. To the artist then who is worthy of the name, nothing -can be too petty for regard, nothing that the Creator has pronounced -“very good” too insignificant for notice; for in Nature beauty is -scattered with a lavish hand, and the fungus that passes through all the -stages of its existence during a summer’s night, and the snow-flake -still more transient in its duration-- - - “Frail, but a work divine: - Made so fairily well, - So exquisitely minute, - A miracle of design”-- - -have a charm of their own no less than the higher forms, while to give -but one other example from the many that present themselves, the -_Foraminifera_--animal remains met with in chalk cliffs--though only -visible with high microscopic power, have the curves of their shells as -graceful, designs as varied, markings as intricate, as perhaps any other -natural objects whatsoever. We therefore appreciate the quaint fancy, -the studied thought of the designer who in some old glass that we have -noticed at Ockham Church, in Surrey, while making some of his quarry -designs of columbine, rose, and other lovely forms, chose for one of -them a little fungus surrounded by cup moss, and springing from the -turf; frail creatures of a day, meet emblems--like the withering grass, -the fading flower--of the short estate of man, the transience of all -his glory. - -In the endeavour to suggest something of these humbler types of beauty -to the artist, the designer, the architect, and the manufacturer, the -following papers have been collected from the pages of the -_Art-Journal_, the periodical in which they originally appeared, and -after careful revision by their several writers, have been published in -this detached form, in order that they may be still more commonly -accessible. - -The first article is an endeavour on the part of the author to indicate -something of the profusion of beautiful form that may be met with in our -hedges and skirting our roadsides, to point out the source from whence -the mediæval artists gathered their inspiration, and to plead for its -greater use by their successors, that by a like loving appreciation we -too may create like forms of beauty. - -The second essay deals with marine forms of vegetable life, and dwells -on the immense variety of form that may be met with in the sea-weeds -that surround our shores, and the applicability of many of the species -to the varied purposes of the designer. It is curious that these -wonderful forms should not have been employed more largely in the -decorative work of any people. With the exception of the singularly -waved and bossed foliage seen in the stone carving and metal-work of the -later years of the Decorated period of Gothic, and which may possibly -have been originally suggested by the _Fucus vesiculosus_, one of our -commonest shore weeds, we know of no instance of their introduction into -ornamental art. Hence here at once a wide field is open to the -designer, and this essay cannot fail to be full of valuable material. - -As the first and second articles have striven to illustrate the -beautiful forms that inhabit the land and the sea respectively, so the -third article, leaving - - “The deep’s untrampled floor - With green and purple sea-weeds strewn,” - -and the more familiar forms of earth, deals with those delicate forms of -the air, the flakes of falling snow, and points out the immense variety -of graceful forms afforded by their crystals. - -Symmetry and geometry are both so commonly met with in ornamental art, -and are also so conspicuously present in the forms of snow crystals, -that the application of those forms to design cannot fail to follow when -once their beauties are brought under the notice of the designer and -manufacturer. - -Symmetry shows itself in a general beauty of proportion, and balance of -masses in a composition; or, in the more limited sense in which we now -use the word, in the likeness of one half or part to another in the unit -of design. We speak of a design being bi-symmetrical or tri-symmetrical, -or if it goes beyond this, as in snow crystals and in many other cases -where the ornament may be bounded by a circle, it is termed -multi-symmetrical. Bi-symmetrical arrangements will be found most -appropriate for the decoration of upright surfaces, as wall-papers or -curtains, which will always be seen one way, while multi-symmetrical -star-like forms are more suitable for floor-cloth or carpet patterns, -because a star-like pattern on the floor looks equally well from all -parts of the room; while a design having its halves merely alike can -only be viewed to advantage from one point. It is curious to observe -that in Nature the rule seems to be that the lower forms shall be -multi-symmetrical, made up of several similar parts, while the higher -forms of life are bi-symmetrical: thus in the first class we get snow -crystals, sea-anemones, star-fishes; and in the second, the more -advanced forms of animal life--insects, birds, quadrupeds, and man -himself. There are numerous exceptions, however, to this: thus we have -flowers multi-symmetrical, and their leaves only alike in their halves, -though undoubtedly the flower, in view of its functions in vegetable -physiology, and also from the ornamentist’s stand-point, cannot be -considered lower in the scale of creation than the leaf. The charm -produced by the mere repetition of parts may be well seen in the -kaleidoscope, where a series of irregular pieces of glass develop into -various ornamental forms, owing to their symmetrical arrangement and -radiation from one centre--an effect still more clearly and beautifully -seen in the crystals of snow, where the unit is itself of pleasing form. - -The influence of geometry upon design has in almost all periods of art -been very marked--in some styles, as the Early English Gothic, and the -Italian of the thirteenth century, much more so than in others; but in -no style is it altogether ignored. Whether we study the examples of -decorative art produced in our midst, the result of modern skill; or -turn to the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian ornament, the brain-work -and handiwork of men who toiled thousands of years ago, or whether we -contrast the delicacy of much of our English work with the rude carving -or pottery of the South Sea Islander, we still cannot fail to notice -that amidst much that is very marked and distinctive in comparing one -period with another, or the handiwork of one race or nation with -another, this one great principle of the adaptation of geometry to -ornament is exhibited more or less prominently in all. Where a sense of -flatness is desirable, as in designs for floor-coverings--as mosaic, -tile-work, carpeting, &c.--the use of geometrical forms appears -especially appropriate, since the feeling of flatness is easily -obtainable, and yet, accompanying this essential feature, almost any -degree of complexity and richness of effect. These remarks upon the use -of geometry must, however, be considered to apply more especially to the -simpler kinds of design, to those intended to fill but a subordinate -place. As we rise higher, geometry, though still valuable in the setting -out and defining of leading lines and masses, gives place to higher -forms, those based on animal or vegetable life. In a fourteenth-century -diaper the part we admire is not the geometric basis of the design, but -the delicate filling in of oak or maple, buttercup or ivy, though we -unconsciously admire this the more on account of the enclosing straight -lines--lines that we should at once miss if they were removed as -superfluous. - -The fourth essay of our series deals with the suggestive ornamental -forms so freely met with in organic remains. As in the previous essay we -found in the clouds above forms of beauty well adapted for our needs as -ornamentists, so in this one we delve beneath the surface of our earth, -and again have the lesson impressed upon us, that in every situation -forms of beauty abound, that the world is full of suggestive material -for the student of ornamental art, and that in what at first sight -appears a barren and profitless waste, fresh proof is given of the -universal reign of law, order, and beauty throughout the whole range of -creation. These four essays, then, should prove a welcome addition to -the ornamentist’s store of material, since (though no book-work can take -the place of actual observation) they may at least suggest to him other -forms, and cause him to turn his attention in fresh directions. With -this hope, then, we conclude, trusting that our efforts thus to -illustrate in some degree the wealth of Nature may not have been -altogether in vain. - -F. E. H. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -I. PAGE - -THE ADAPTABILITY OF OUR NATIVE PLANTS TO THE -PURPOSES OF ORNAMENTAL ART. By F. EDWARD -HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A. 1 - -II. - -SEA-WEEDS AS OBJECTS OF DESIGN. By S. J. MACKIE, -F.G.S., F.S.A. 91 - -III. - -THE CRYSTALS OF SNOW AS APPLIED TO THE PURPOSES -OF DESIGN. By JAMES GLAISHER, F.R.S. 133 - -IV. - -THE SYMMETRICAL AND ORNAMENTAL FORMS OF ORGANIC -REMAINS. By ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S. 177 - - - - -I. - -THE ADAPTABILITY OF OUR NATIVE PLANTS TO THE PURPOSES OF ORNAMENTAL ART. - -BY EDWARD HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A. - - -In this series of papers it will be our desire to direct the attention -of the architect, manufacturer, and designer, to some of the beautiful -forms of nature, which, though easily accessible, seem to have scarcely -received the consideration they deserve; to give a brief account of the -habits, peculiarities, and localities of the plants as they come before -us; to cite from time to time examples, either English or foreign, of -their use in the ornament of the past; and generally to add such details -as may directly or indirectly tend to create an interest in the plant in -question. We find, on looking back at the past history and practice of -ornamental art, in the midst of many marked differences of style, one -principle very generally observed--the use in the ornament of any given -country of the plants familiar to the people. Hence, the Egyptians -exclusively used in their ornament the plants of their own land; we see -the palm branch, the papyrus, and the beautiful lily of the Nile -constantly recurring. We find the Greeks and Romans employing the -acanthus, olive, and vine; the Japanese, the light and graceful bamboo; -and in our own Gothic styles and those of the Continent--French, German, -or Spanish--we meet with more or less conventionalised representations -in the carvings, paintings, illuminations, fabrics for dress, hangings, -&c., of the familiar forms of our hedgerows, streams, and meadows, such -as the wild rose, oak, maple, iris, buttercup, and many others. It is -then with the desire to awaken our decorators to the fact, that -beautiful as the Greek _anthemion_ and other allied forms are, they by -no means represent the limit available in ornamental art, that the -following papers have been prepared, since we are persuaded that if once -the inexhaustible riches of nature were sought after by our architects, -and their beauties brought before the eyes of the people in their work, -architecture would thus be taking one long step nearer to the sympathies -and appreciation of many to whom it is now a matter of indifference. The -works of a few of our leading architects owe at least some of their -beauty to their recognition of this truth; and we would desire, while -acknowledging the services rendered to architecture by such men as -Pugin, Collings, Street, and Gilbert Scott, to add our mite to the -revival going on around us. - -Botany, or the study of plants (Gr. _botane_, a plant), is capable of -many subdivisions: thus we have one department which, from its dealing -with the vital functions of the plant, we term physiology (Gr. _physis_, -nature--_logos_, science); another which, from its more especially -dealing with the organization and structure of the plant, is called -organography, or structural botany; while a third great division, -systematic botany, derives its name from its teaching how the -multifarious forms of vegetable life may yet be classified into genera, -and these again into orders and species from certain points of -resemblance in the plants thus classed together. Botany, in itself a -science in the ordinary use of the term, may, however, render valuable -service to art; and it is this phase of the subject which we more -especially propose to develop, treating only of the more exclusively -scientific points so far as we find them necessary for our present -purpose; and in this we think we are fully justified, for though numbers -of excellent works are accessible to the student who desires to study -botany as a science, but few fully recognise its importance in a -modified form to the art-student, and more especially to the designer. -To the ornamentist a knowledge of the laws of plant growth is of really -the same importance as the study of anatomy to the figure-painter or -sculptor, and the absence of this knowledge is to the initiated, in -either case, as readily detected. Many who are now content to forego -this precise knowledge are no doubt partly debarred by the -technicalities which meet them at every sentence in ordinary botanical -works. Bearing in mind, therefore, the special requirements of our -readers, we shall endeavour to avoid as far as possible the use of terms -which, though scientifically valuable, and in fact essential to correct -and true description, are not such as we may reasonably assume our -readers, without special botanical study, to be familiar with. A -knowledge of these terms is, however, very desirable, since their -conciseness renders them valuable, and more especially, also, because -many excellent works, which it will be of advantage to the student to -consult, largely employ them. We trust that in the few cases where such -terms are in the present work introduced, a clear explanation of their -force and utility will be found to accompany them; we shall also, as a -further assistance, add the source from whence the term is derived, -wherever the introduction will tend to throw additional light on the -meaning of the word. - -As we cannot hope, in the limited space at our command, to supply every -requirement, give every detail, or bring forward more than a few of the -more common plants, the present work must be considered rather as a -suggestive list of the more striking plants which, from their ornamental -characteristics, will, we trust, be found of service to designers, than -an exhaustive catalogue. It is very far indeed from being a complete -list. - -To render the work as practically useful as possible, we add to each -plant mentioned the names of some standard books in which reliable -drawings of the plant in question may be found; for though nature should -always, if possible, be consulted, it may not at all times be within the -power of the student to do so, owing to press of work, the season of the -year, and many other disturbing causes. - -The following books are thus referred to, the illustrations in them -being of a trustworthy character. After the name of each book is the -abbreviation used in the present work when it is necessary to quote -it:-- - - The Flora Londinensis of Curtis. First Edition F. L. - Medical Botany. Woodville. First Edition M. B. - Medical Botany. Stephenson and Churchill. First Edition S. C. - Illustrations of Natural Orders of Plants. E. Twining T. N. O. - English Botany. Sowerby. Third Edition E. B. - Vegetable World. Figuier V. W. - School Botany. Lindley S. B. - Woodlands, Heaths, and Hedges. Coleman W. H. H. - Grammar of Ornament. Owen Jones G. O. - -The first five on this list have coloured plates. To these we may be -allowed to add Plant Form (P. F.), a work prepared by the author for the -especial use of designers. - -The plants described in the following pages are, to facilitate -reference, arranged in regular alphabetical sequence, according to their -English names, since most of my readers will more readily recognise a -plant by its familiar title than by its botanical appellation. Thousands -are familiar with the little daisy who would never recognise it in any -description headed _Bellis perennis_. At the same time, we in every case -give the scientific nomenclature as well, since in most works you may -desire to consult, that will be of greater prominence than the one used -colloquially. A difficulty here arises from the fact that several of our -English flowers have numerous synonyms given to them; we have, however, -chosen the name which we believe to be most commonly used, referring -also to the others in the course of our remarks on the plant. - -In the introduction of vegetable growth into any ornamental composition, -we must be careful to remember that what is wanted is not so much a -direct imitation of nature, which after all can only be faulty at the -best, as a due adaptation of the natural form to the purpose of our -design--a recognition of the impossibility of a close copy of nature, -together with a feeling of its undesirableness even if it could be -accomplished. Our representations must therefore be more or less -conventional: in a flower-painting we naturally expect to see a direct -transcript of nature, while in decorative art a direct transcript -offends us. - -“In the multitude of counsellors there is safety;” we will, therefore, -here quote some few passages from the works of those whom we think we -can all agree are entitled to speak with authority and to be heard with -respect. Ruskin, in speaking on this subject, says,--“All noble -ornamentation is the expression of man’s delight in God’s work;” and -again, “Ornamentation should be natural, that is to say, should in some -degree express or adopt the beauty of natural objects; it does not hence -follow that it should be an exact imitation of, or endeavour to -supersede, God’s work; it may consist only in a partial adoption of, and -compliance with, the usual forms of natural things, without at all going -to the point of imitation, and it is possible that the point of -imitation may be closely reached by ornaments which nevertheless are -entirely unfit for their place, and are the signs only of a degraded -ambition and an ignorant dexterity. Bad decorators err as easily on the -side of imitating nature as of forgetting her, and the question of the -exact degree in which imitation should be attempted under given -circumstances is one of the most subtle and difficult in the whole range -of criticism.” Wornum thus defines the difference between naturalism and -conventionalism: “A natural treatment implies natural imitation and -arrangement, but an ornamental treatment does not necessarily exclude -imitation in the parts, as, for instance, a scroll may be composed of -strictly natural parts, but as no plant would grow in an exactly spiral -direction, the scroll form constitutes the ornamental or conventional -arrangement; we may, however, have conventionalism of details as well as -conventionalism of arrangement.” Hudson says,--“There is a great -difference between the terms applied and adapted; they, in fact, express -the wrong and the right use of vegetable forms. All natural forms -require certain modifications to adapt them for other than their own -natural situations, and it is the neglect of this, and the simple -application of these forms without adapting them, which constitute a -false principle.” Dresser thus illustrates the difference: “Mere -imitation is not ornamentation, and is no more art in the higher sense -of the term than writing is itself literature. Vegetable nature treated -conventionally will not be found to be far removed from truth, but will -be merely a natural form, or a series of natural forms, neither marred -by blights nor disturbed by winds, adapted to the fulfilment of a -special purpose, and suited to a particular position--for the most -perfect examples of what is usually termed conventionalised nature are -those which express the intention of nature, if we may thus speak, or -are manifestations of natural objects as undisturbed by surrounding -influences and unmarred by casualties.” In the same way we might bring -forward passages from the works of Owen Jones, Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, -and many others, in illustration of our remarks; enough, however, has, -we trust, been brought forward to confirm the position taken up. - -We will now, without further prelude, proceed to the brief -consideration of the few representative plants we have selected for our -remarks. - -The AGRIMONY. This plant, the _Agrimonia Eupatoria_ of botanists, and -the Agremoine of old writers, is ordinarily met with in hedgerows and -waste places by the roadside. The flowers are bright yellow, and are -arranged in what is termed botanically a spike (Lat. _spica_, an ear of -corn; when the flowers grow in succession direct from a central stem). -The leaves are very ornamental in character, the central line giving off -large side leaflets, and the intermediate spaces being filled by smaller -ones. The edges of all the leaves are deeply serrate (Lat. _serra_, a -saw; notched like the teeth of a saw). Very suitable and suggestive for -lace or wall-papers, where a somewhat delicate form with a decidedly -upright mode of growth is desirable. Drawings of the plant may be seen -in S. B. 126; E. B. 417; F. L. vol. v. 32; and M. B. 258. The natural -plant will be found in flower during July and August. - -The WHITE or WOOD ANEMONE (_Anemone nemorosa_), or, as it is often -termed in old botanical works, the Wind-flower. This older name refers -to the same fact alluded to in its generic name, _Anemone_, the -fragility and delicacy of the flowers, and their exposure to the bleak -and boisterous winds that sweep through the almost leafless woods in -early spring, or, as others believe, from an old fancy that the flowers -will not open until buffeted by the gales of March, _anemone_ being -derived from the Greek word, _anemos_, the wind. The second name, -_nemorosa_, signifies woody, and bears obvious reference to the -localities most favourable to - -[Illustration: _Anemone._] - -the growth of the anemone. The plant may be found in flower during the -months of March, April, and May, the blossoms being pure white, with a -bright yellow centre, and the outer surface of the sepals of a delicate -purple tinge. It abounds in moist woods throughout the country, -generally in such profusion as to cover large tracts of ground with a -snowy whiteness; and the plant being perennial, we shall, when it is -once established in any spot, find it regularly recurring as each -spring-time comes round. The manner of growth of the anemone is very -distinct and characteristic, and not being subject to any variation, -cannot well be modified in the employment of the plant in ornamental -art without destroying its individuality, as from the single stem thrown -up from the ground three equal-sized leaves, identical in form, are -produced from a point about six inches from the soil, and the stalk is -then continued for about the same distance again before bearing at its -summit its single flower; each and every plant, therefore, consists of a -central stem, a terminal flower, and about midway up the stem a group of -three leaves. This rigid law, though extremely beautiful in itself, and -admirably adapted for treatment for some ornamental purposes, may, -perhaps, somewhat restrict its use in decorative art. We are not aware -of any examples of its employment in past art. In our illustration, the -plan of the plant, the view with which we are most familiar, as we see -it in its natural position, is shown, having the single central flower, -and below it the three leaves radiating from the stem. It will be found -that this strong individuality of growth more especially adapts itself -to the trefoil, or any other form based on the figure three.[A] The -garden-anemone (_A. coronaria_) is an allied species of the same family, -modified by cultivation: in its wild state it is a native of the South -of Europe. - -The ARROW-HEAD (_Sagittaria sagittifolia_), one of our most beautiful -aquatic plants, must be so well known to our readers that any lengthened -description of it will be superfluous. Its generic, specific, and -English names all alike point out its leading characteristic, the -beautiful arrow-headed shape of its leaves;--_sagitta_, Lat., an arrow. -The calyx and corolla are each composed of three parts, the petals being -a brilliant white, with a pale pink irregular blotch at their bases. The -forms of the flowers, fruit, and leaves are all equally adapted for -decorative purposes, though it does not appear to have received in the -past the attention which its merits might very fairly claim, the only -instances of its application in ornamental art with which we are -acquainted being in a running band of ornament round a tomb, fourteenth -century, in the cloisters, Burgos. The flowers are incorrectly -represented in that example as having four petals, but the general -effect is, nevertheless, very good. See E. B. 1436 and P. F. 72 for -drawings of the natural plant. - -[Illustration: _Arrow-head._] - -The ARUM (_Arum maculatum_) is a plant of very common occurrence -throughout England, though rarely to be found either in Scotland or -Ireland. It may be met with in shady groves and thickets, and nestled -among the long grass and other herbage upon our hedge-banks. The plant -will be found in flower during April and May; but from the mode of -growth, and also from the pale green colour of the spathe surrounding -the central organs, it is by no means conspicuous among the surrounding -foliage. The upper portion of the central body or spadix--that part of -it which is seen in our illustration--is generally of a dark crimson -colour. The plant is far more likely to attract attention in the autumn -and winter than during its season of flowering, as towards the close of -the year the leaves of the arum die away, and the hedgerows also being -stripped of the greater part of their - -[Illustration: _Arum._] - -foliage, we notice the brilliant scarlet berries of the present plant -rising in a dense mass to the height of some three or four inches from -the ground. If the fresh root of the plant be tasted, it excites a -burning and pricking sensation in the mouth that will remain for several -hours; and if sliced and applied to the skin, it will frequently produce -blisters. This virulence, however, like the acrimonious principle met -with in the leaves, yields to the influence of heat, and in former times -an excellent starch was prepared from the root. In the writings of the -old medical authors and poets we meet with the wild arum under a great -variety of names, many of them, through the lapse of time and from -disuse, being now meaningless to us; such, for example, as abron, janus, -barba-aron, calf’s-foot, ramp, and wake-robin. A very common name for -the plant at the present day with country children is lords-and-ladies; -and an equally familiar name, both with children and also in -descriptions of the plant in botanical works, is the cuckoo-pint: this -may possibly allude to the slight resemblance of the enclosing spathe to -a measure for liquids. Another old name for the plant is the starchwort, -in obvious allusion to its domestic use. Like most other plants, it was -held by the medical practitioners of the Middle Ages to possess very -considerable and valuable remedial qualities. A small portion of the -leaf, either dried or in the green state, was esteemed a sure remedy for -the plague or any poison. “The water wherein the root hath been boiled, -dropped into the eyes, cleanseth them from any film or mists which begin -to hinder the sight,” or under circumstances to which the writer -delicately hints, “when, by some chance, they become black and blue.” -Though the bold, simple forms of the flower and bud and the rich -arrow-headed shape of the leaves appear, in an especial manner, to fit -it for valuable service in ornamental art, it has been but very rarely -thus employed. Illustrations of the natural growth of the plant will be -found in F. L. vol. ii. 63; S. C. 22; and P. F. 41. - -The AVENS (_Geum urbanum_), belonging to the same natural order, -_Rosaceæ_, as the tormentil and wood-strawberry, possesses also the same -peculiarity of flower, the petals being five in number, while the calyx -is composed of five large segments, alternating with five others of a -much smaller size. The root is very astringent in its nature, and of -sufficient value to be included in the Materia Medica. The avens may be -generally found growing in hedges and woods, flowering during June and -July, and attaining to a height of from one to two feet. The leaves are -very ornamental in character, and will, equally with the flowers, prove -of valuable service to the designer. For illustrations of the growth of -the plant refer to F. L. vol. ii. 36, and P. F. 81. - -[Illustration: _Avens._] - -BEDSTRAW (_Galium verum_). This is also known as cheese rennet, gallion, -and maid-hair. The word bedstraw is in allusion to the former use of the -dried plant as a cheap material in forming beds. The name cheese-rennet -is derived from a bygone employment of the plant for curdling milk: we -see this same use of the plant referred to in the generic term _Galium_, -that name being derived from the Greek word for milk. Gallion is -evidently a herbalist’s corruption of _Galium_, while the fourth name, -maid-hair, has obvious reference to the lightness and delicacy of the -plant. The minute yellow flowers grow in dense heads of blossom, while -the leaves are in whorls, that is to say, several starting from the same -level, and thus growing in a succession of rings round the stems. The -number of the leaves in a ring is very variable; from eight to twelve -is, however, the usual number. Dry banks are the ordinary habitat of the -plant. It will be found in flower throughout June, July, and August. -Its lightness and graceful mode of growth admirably fit it for the -purposes of the designer. For illustrations of the bedstraw refer to E. -B. 648, or F. L. vol. vi. 13. The old herb-doctors, ever ready to find -or make a medicinal use, speak in high commendation of the present plant -for its reputed efficacy in relieving pains from burns, inward wounds, -&c., while “a decoction of the herb is good to bathe the feet of -travellers and lacquies, whose long running causeth weariness and -stiffness in their sinews.” - -[Illustration: _Bindweed._] - -The BINDWEED, botanically known as the _Calystegia sepium_, is one of -our most familiar plants; large surfaces of our hedgerows (Lat. _sepe_, -a hedge) being covered by its graceful leaves and tubular flowers. It is -a curious fact that, though abundant throughout England and Ireland, it -is very local in Scotland. The so-called convolvulus major of the -garden is the _Ipomæa purpurea_, a species very widely spread over the -tropical and temperate regions of the earth. Many of the family possess -active medicinal qualities, and preparations from them are found in the -Pharmacopœia. The English species also were at one time thus -employed; but Gerarde, the great medical botanist of Queen Elizabeth’s -reign, will not admit that they possess any virtue at all, but rather -the contrary. “They are not fit for medicine, and unprofitable weeds, -and hurtful to each thing that groweth next them, and were only -administered by runnegate physick-mongers, quacksalvers, old women -leeches, abusers of physick, and deceivers of people.” For study of the -natural appearance of the flower we would refer you, if you are unable -to meet with the plant itself, to E. B. 924; S. C. 2; T. N. O. 97; G. O. -99; and P. F. 76. - -BITTER-SWEET. The Bitter-sweet (_Solanum Dulcamara_) is so called from -the bitter flavour of the stems when first tasted, a flavour which is -speedily followed by a peculiar sweetness somewhat resembling liquorice -root. In not only the familiar English name, but the specific botanical -appellation as well, we see this peculiarity of the plant referred to, -_Dulcamara_ having the same meaning as bitter-sweet. The continental -names have also this curious reference in them, the plant in France -being called Douce-amère; in Italy, Dulcamara; in Spain, Amaradulcis; -and in Germany, Bittersusstangel. The plant is frequently called woody -nightshade, while the old herbalists, in addition to the names already -given, call it felonwort. _Solanum_ is derived from _solamen_, in -reference to the soothing effect of some species of the Solanaceæ. The -bitter-sweet has small flowers of a deep purple colour, the petals being -very much reflexed. The berries are of a deep red when ripe, but change -considerably in their colour before reaching maturity; thus on the same -bunch we may frequently see green, yellow, orange, and crimson fruit. -Thirty of these berries administered to a large dog killed it in less -than three hours. Refer to E. B. 930; F. L. vol. i. 14; M. B. 33; S. C. -17; T. N. O. 100; and P. F. 19, for illustrations of the natural growth -of the plant. This shrub is frequently confounded with the deadly -nightshade, from the slight similarity of name; but there is no other -point of resemblance. The two plants are totally distinct. The woody -nightshade, though common in most parts of England, is comparatively -scarce in Scotland and Ireland. It is a hedgerow plant, flowering during -June, July, and August. A variety with white flowers is sometimes met -with. - -The BLACK-THORN or SLOE (_Prunus spinosa_) is curious and suggestive -from an ornamentist’s point of view, from the flowers, unlike most other -plants, appearing in profusion before the leaves are developed. We see a -plant strongly resembling the black-thorn very largely used in their -ornament by the Japanese, a plant with numerous spreading branches, -leafless, but thickly clustered with flowers. The black-thorn may -commonly be met with in coppices and hedgerows, the blossoms appearing -in March or April, and the rich purple fruit in August. The name sloe is -derived from the Anglo-Saxon _sla_, and refers to the extreme acidity of -the tempting-looking fruit. The natural growth may be seen on reference -to E. B. 408, or M. B. 84. The black-thorn possesses a certain value -ornamentally, as being, like the primrose and snowdrop, a characteristic -flower of the spring. - - “Flowers, as the changing seasons roll along, - Still wait on earth, and added beauties lend; - Around the smiling Spring a lovely throng - With eager rivalry her steps attend; - Others with Summer’s brighter glories blend; - Some grace mild Autumn’s more majestic mien; - While some few lingering blooms the brow befriend - Of hoary Winter, and with grace serene - Enwreath the king of storms with mercy’s tender sheen.” - BARTON. - -[Illustration: _Borage._] - -The BORAGE (_Borago officinalis_), though widely distributed, is by no -means a common plant; and though mentioned by several old writers, must -be considered as but a doubtful native. The generic name has been -corrupted from two Latin words, _cor_, the heart, and _ago_, I act, from -a belief, as old as the time of Pliny, in its exhilarating effects; -hence the old saying, _Ego borago gaudia semper ago_, “I borage give -always courage.” The borage, like the comfrey and forget-me-not, belongs -to the order _Boraginaceæ_, and, in common with most of the species of -that order, is marked by the gyrate or scorpoid arrangement of its -flowers, the stem being coiled round like the mainspring of a watch. It -may be met with occasionally in the ornament of the past--its large and -striking-looking stellate (Latin, _stella_, a star) flowers, and the -general growth of the plant, being admirably adapted to the purposes of -design. As an example we may instance the MS. Hours of Henry VII. in the -British Museum, where the borage is introduced upon a golden ground on -one of the pages. Drawings of this plant will be found in E. B. 1114; M. -B. 217; T. N. O. 98; and P. F. 36. - -In studying the application of natural vegetable forms to the various -requirements of ornamental art--such, for instance, as the employment of -bold, vigorous plants to stone or wood carving, and the more graceful -and delicate growths to such fabrics as muslin and lace--we speedily -find that in some cases we are unable to treat the whole of the plant we -have selected for our purpose, owing to the limitations placed upon us -by the requirements of the work, the exigencies of manufacture, or the -nature of the materials in which our design is to be embodied. In some -cases the flowers are too small in detail, or in the general mass, to -accord well from the ornamentist’s point of view with the foliage of the -plant; the white bryony (_Bryonia dioica_), for instance, though -excellently adapted for muslins, could not in its flowering stage be -satisfactorily treated for stonework on this account, though the foliage -by itself is admirably suited for such purpose. In other instances we -find the case reversed, the flower being large and beautiful in form, -and the leaves unsuited, either from their insignificant size or want of -beauty, to the purpose of the ornamentist; thus, while the leaves of the -stonecrop (_Sedum acre_) are, from their minuteness, scarcely available -for the purposes of design, the stellate flower is exceedingly beautiful -in form, and admirably adapted for diapering and many other uses, when -isolated from the rest of the plant. Where both leaf and flower are from -their beauty and relative scale equally adapted for art-treatment, we -are still, when circumstances require it, quite justified in employing -either the one or the other by itself: where a monochrome arrangement is -necessary, the leaves alone may, for example, be used; where a central -radiate form, the flower may be introduced. The rosette or patera, so -freely introduced both in ancient and mediæval art, is an example of -this use of isolated floral forms. - -The BRAMBLE or BLACKBERRY (_Rubus fruticosus_), a more familiar plant -than the last, has, so far as we are aware, been but little used in -ornamental art, though the _Rubus idæus_, or wild raspberry, may -occasionally be seen in MSS. of the sixteenth century. The generic name -is highly expressive of the prickly nature of the plant, being derived -from an old Celtic verb, _reub_, to lacerate or tear away; while its -English name, bramble, attests its indigenous nature, descending as it -does from the Anglo-Saxon name for it, _bremel_. The stems, ordinarily -of a pale purple colour and with a grey bloom upon them, are pentangular -in section, the numerous prickles almost entirely confined to the ridges -formed by the angles, and not occurring in the intermediate furrows; the -leaves generally with five deeply serrated leaflets, a rich green on the -upper surface, and covered with close white down on the lower; the -petals of the blossom varying from pure white or delicate pink to a deep -red; and the fruit of a rich crimson, so intense in colour as to appear -almost black. The mode of growth - -[Illustration: _Blackberry._] - -admirably fits it for the service of the designer, the leaves being very -ornamental in form, and the long trailing stems admitting of great -freedom of curve, while for its use in decorative art a further great -recommendation exists in the power of representing the plant under -several phases of growth without violating natural truth, as at one and -the same time we find the opening bud, the fully-expanded flower, and -the fruit of all sizes and stages of development, varying in colour from -green, light red, and crimson, to deep purplish black in its progress to -maturity. We thus gain great variety of form, and also, when admissible, -of colour. The bramble appears to be of especial value in ornament -where large surfaces require to be covered by forms at once suitable in -scale, interesting in their details, and varied in their character; -hence it would seem admirably adapted to muslins and lace, though, so -far as we have had opportunity of observation, it has not been thus -employed. Reliable drawings of the blackberry will be found in W. H. H., -Plate E, Fig. 1.; in T. N. O. 51; G. O. 96; and P. F. 57. - -Some plants, beautiful in themselves, possess an increased importance in -the eyes of the followers of ornamental art, from their being used -heraldically; such, for example, are the rose, the shamrock, the broom, -and the thistle. BROOM (_Sarothamnus scoparius_) is thus used as the -badge of the Scottish clan Forbes, and, as all readers of history will -remember, was also chosen as the device of the Plantagenets. A very good -example of its use in past art--though scarcely, from its being found in -a Tudor monument, having any heraldic meaning--will be seen in a glass -quarry in Henry VII.’s Chapel. _Sarothamnus_ is derived from two Greek -verbs, signifying a shrub, and to sweep. The English name has the same -force of meaning. In an old work we have consulted, the author deems it -useless to go into a long account of the plant, so well known was it in -his time from this domestic use:--“To spend time in writing a -description hereof is altogether needless, it being so generally used by -all the good housewives almost throughout this land to sweep their -houses with, and, therefore, very well known to all sorts of people.” -The broom may ordinarily be found on sandy commons, railway banks, and -dry hillsides. The large yellow pea-shaped flowers appear in great -profusion throughout May and June, and are succeeded in due course by -the black seed-pods. The plant grows from three to six feet high, and -when covered with its brilliant blossoms is a very striking object. -Leaves very inconspicuous. Drawings of this very beautiful plant may be -seen on referring to S. B. 121; E. B. 329; M. B. 89; F. L. vol. v. 31; -S. C. 67; T. N. O. 49. - -BULBOUS CROWFOOT. We have selected the present plant (_Ranunculus -bulbosus_) as a good representative of the numerous species of plants -familiarly termed buttercups, partly because it is the most striking in -effect, partly because it is the one that will most readily be met with -under ordinary circumstances; for while its fine flowers and -beautifully-cut leaves render it singularly well suited to the purposes -of ornament, the abundance of it in every meadow throughout the country -places it within the reach of all who would desire to adapt it to any -artistic purpose. From the commonness of the plant, and its general -distribution throughout England, it has received many other names: -goldknob, goldcup, baffiner, troil-flower, polt, kingcup, buttercup, -butter-flower, cuckoo-bud, are all synonyms. The term _Ranunculus_ is -derived from _rana_, a frog, many of the species being found in wet, -swampy places; while the specific name, _bulbosus_, alludes to the -bulb-like swelling of the lower part of the stem in this particular -species. The name crowfoot has been given to the plant from the -radiating character of the segments of the leaf, spreading as they do -like the divisions of a bird’s foot; while the use of the word buttercup -points to the old belief that the rich yellowness of spring butter is -owing to the eating of this plant by the cows; the effect must rather, -however, be ascribed to the tender grass, as any one who will take the -trouble to notice the fact will find that cows in a meadow will, as far -as possible, avoid the buttercups. The leaves of the bulbous crowfoot, -like, with one exception, those of the rest of the family, are very -acrid, and will, if applied to the skin, speedily blister it. The plant -will be found in flower throughout the spring and summer: a variety is -sometimes met with having cream-coloured flowers. The crowfoot is one of -the favourite plants in the ornament of the Decorated period of Gothic. -Representations of the natural plant may be seen on consulting E. B. 35, -or F. L. vol. i. 38; refer also to “Water Crowfoot” in the present work, -page 84. - -CELANDINE (_Chelidonium majus_). The Celandine, though, so far as we are -aware, not to be met with in ornamental art, is a plant in every way -fitted for the purposes of the designer, whether we consider the form of -the flower, of the pods which succeed the blossoms, or the rich outline -of the leaf. The inflorescence is umbellate (Lat. _umbella_, an -umbrella), that is to say, all the flower-stalks start from the same -point in the stem, as in the case of the hemlock, the cowslip, flowering -rush, and many other plants. _Chelidonium_ is derived from the Greek -word _chelidon_, a swallow, from an old belief that the plant came into -flower on the arrival of those birds, and withered when they took their -departure; hence in old writings we frequently find the Celandine termed -swallow-wort. The plant will commonly be found in waste places, and more -especially near human habitations. It attains to a height of about two -feet, and flowers throughout May, June, July, and August. Consult S. B. -95; E. B. 67; M. B. 263; S. C. 86, for drawings of the natural growth of -the celandine. - -The CINQUEFOIL (_Potentilla reptans_). This graceful little plant may -generally be met with in abundance, a very favourite habitat being in -the low grass and coarse herbage we so frequently find skirting the -pathways in country districts. When it has once taken root upon any -favourable spot, it speedily throws out long running stems, which, in -turn, develop roots from the points whence the leaves spring; in a very -short space of time a large extent of ground is covered with a dense -mass of the plant, and, from its habit of rooting at each joint, it is -with great difficulty eradicated, since if one root alone be overlooked, -the labour spent will speedily prove to have been but of little more -than temporary use. Regarding the cinquefoil, however, rather from the -stand-point of the ornamentist than of the agriculturist, we are struck -by the beauty of its growth, the forms of the individual parts, and the -general fitness of the plant for employment in Decorative art. The -familiar name cinquefoil clearly alludes to the division of the leaves -into five conspicuous leaflets, though when the plant is growing under -exceptionably favourable circumstances these are very frequently seven -in number. The generic name is derived from the Latin _potens_, -powerful, and refers to the strong medicinal qualities possessed by some -of the species of _Potentilla_. The root of the tormentil (_P. -tormentilla_), an allied species, is very powerfully astringent; it has -occasionally been substituted for oak-bark in tanning, and with equal -success, the leather being found to be in - -[Illustration: _Cinquefoil._] - -no way inferior in quality. The properties possessed by the roots of the -cinquefoil are very similar, but, from being less powerful in their -operation, are now rarely used, their value being naturally greater at a -time when stronger foreign astringents were not so readily procurable. -Tormentil root is still, however, retained in the Pharmacopœia. The -distinctive specific name of the present plant, _reptans_, has evident -allusion to the marked feature in its growth already referred to, being -derived from the Latin _reptare_, to creep. We are not aware of any -examples of the use of the cinquefoil in the art of any past period, -though from the size and beauty of form of the leaves and blossoms, and -from the grace and freedom of the curves of which the main stem is -capable, it appears to be well adapted to ornamental art. Refer to E. B. -432; F. L. vol. i. 37; M. B. 59; and P. F. 46, for the natural growth. - -COCKLE. This, though now so frequently met with in the midst of the -corn, being in fact so common as to be classed amongst the farmer’s -pests, is not an indigenous plant; it has, however, been established so -long that it may very fairly be comprehended in our list. The botanical -name of the plant is _Lychnis githago_. The whole plant is closely -covered with soft hairs, giving it a woolly appearance. The large purple -flowers are very conspicuous, and have a curious effect, from the -segments of the calyx being so much longer than the petals of the -corolla. (_Calyx_, Gr., a cup, the outer and generally green portions of -a flower, the protecting member for the delicate organs within the -flower. When the calyx is cut up into several divisions each segment is -termed a _sepal_. _Corolla_, the floral ring next within the calyx, -ordinarily of a brilliant colour, the part which, for instance, in a -rose is pink: this, though sometimes in one piece, as in a blue-bell, is -ordinarily, as in the buttercup, composed of several similar members; -these are called _petals_.) The cockle will be found in flower during -the months of June, July, and August. Though admirably adapted for -service in ornamental art, the only example we can quote occurs in a -sixteenth-century MS., a missal, in the British Museum: the treatment is -very naturalistic. Drawings of the plant will be found in F. L. vol. -iii. 27; E. B. 215. - -COLUMBINE (_Aquilegia vulgaris_), one of our most beautiful wild -flowers, derives, like the broom, an additional importance to the -ornamentist from its heraldic associations, the columbine being adopted -as a badge by the House of Lancaster, and also by the Derby family at a -time when every important house adopted some such symbol. The petals -bear a strong resemblance to birds; hence _Aquilegia_ is derived from -the Latin _aquila_, an eagle, while the English name is derived from -Lat. _columba_, a dove. An old English name for the plant is culverwort, -_culfre_ being the Anglo-Saxon word for pigeon. It will be found in -hedges and thickets, thriving more especially where the soil is -calcareous. Both the flower and leaf are very rich in character, and -well suited for the requirements of ornamental art. Examples may be seen -in the church of Shearbourne, Dorset, and in the spandrels of the canopy -of a brass in Exeter Cathedral, in memory of Sir Peter Courteney, one of -the adherents of the Lancastrian king, Henry IV. The columbine is a -favourite flower in cottage-gardens, and may be much more generally thus -met with than as a wild plant. It is in flower from May to July. A very -beautiful gradation of form is seen in the leaves, the lower ones being -of a very complex form, while the upper ones are very simple in outline. -Refer to E. B. 46, V. W. 367, for drawings. - -The COMFREY (_Symphytum officinale_). This plant may be very commonly -found by the sides of streams, ditches, and other moist - -[Illustration: _Comfrey._] - -situations. The corolla of the flower is generally of a yellowish white, -but a variety having purple flowers is not uncommon in many localities; -we have seen it, for instance, growing in profusion on the banks of the -East Yar, between Brading and Sandown, in the Isle of Wight. The generic -name, _Symphytum_ is derived from a Greek verb signifying to unite, from -an old belief in the efficacy of the Comfrey in the healing of wounds. -A very marked peculiarity in the growth of the plant is the circinate, -or, as it is frequently termed, scorpoid arrangement of the flowers, -from a supposed resemblance between the spiral form of the inflorescence -and the tail of the scorpion; hence, in the same way, scorpion-grass is -one of the old English names of the familiar forget-me-not, a plant -belonging to the same natural order, the _Boraginaceæ_, and having the -same peculiarity of growth. We need scarcely say that in the Middle Ages -the favourite dogma that each plant had its undoubted value as a -remedial agent, and generally by its form or colour indicated its -medicinal use, was firmly held; thus the colour and shape of the flower -of the foxglove, formerly called the throatwort, were considered as -indications of its service in complaints affecting the throat, as its -older name implies; and the deep red colour often assumed, as the summer -advances, by the leaves of the herb-robert and others of the cranesbill -family, was deemed conclusive proof of the value of the plants in -stanching the flow of blood from a wound; hence, in the case of the -forget-me-not, we find an old writer on medicine referring to the -healing virtues of the plant as shown by its mode of growth: “The whole -branche of floures do turne themselves round like the taile of the -scorpion. The leaves of scorpion-grass applied to the place are a -present remedy against the stinging of scorpions, and likewise boyled in -wine and drunke, prevaile against the said bitings, as also of adders, -snakes, and such venomous beasts.” Drawings of the comfrey may be seen -on referring to F. L. vol. iv. 18; V. W. 432. - -The FIELD CONVOLVULUS (_Convolvulus arvensis_). This pretty little plant -is very commonly found on grassy banks, open downs, or in our -corn-fields, running up the stems of the standing corn, and flowering -during June, July, and August. It is one of the enemies of the farmer, -from its spreading, to the detriment of the crops, over so large an area -of ground; and owing to the great depth to which the roots descend, it -is exceedingly difficult to get rid of it when it has once taken -possession. Its generic name, derived from the Latin _convolvo_, I -entwine, is very descriptive of the nature of the plant, and its English -name, bindweed, evidently embodies the same idea. Another of its old -English names, the withwinde, very beautifully expresses its lightness -and delicacy, unable to resist the force of the wind, but conquering by -yielding to its power. Where the plant occurs, it will generally be very -common, many square feet of ground being often covered by its long -trailing stems. When any suitable object, such as a grass stem, is met -with, the convolvulus, too weak to rise by itself, ceases to trail along -the ground, and twines round the support thus afforded, always ascending -in a spiral direction to the left, as do also the _C. major_ of the -flower-garden, the scarlet-runner bean, and many others; while others, -as the hop, invariably ascend in a spiral direction from left to right. -It may at first sight seem difficult to establish this, but if the -reader will imagine the plant in question turning round his own body, he -will at once be able to determine whether the plant in ascending would -cross in front of him from right to left, or from left to right. In -introducing this plant in ornament, it will be - -[Illustration: _Convolvulus._] - -[Illustration: _Convolvulus._] - -necessary to remember, that though frequently represented as possessing -tendrils, it does not in nature acquire the needed support by such -means, the stalk itself being the part of the plant that entwines round -other plants. The means thus employed by climbing plants are very -varied; the ivy, for instance, throwing out root-like forms from the -stems, which, by their grasp and penetration into the hollows of -brickwork or the bark of other trees, amply suffice to support the -plant; the bryony, passion-flower, and many other plants throw out true -tendrils from the stem; the goose-grass clings by means of the small -hook-like appendages with which the stems and under sides of the leaves -are furnished; while in the pea the tendrils spring from the end of the -leaf-petiole. The _C. arvensis_, like the silver-weed, the pimpernel, -and many other equally familiar plants, seem to be cosmopolitan. De -Candolle, in his “Géographie Botanique,” records its occurrence in a -truly indigenous state in localities so widely differing in temperature, -soil, &c., as Sweden, Siberia, China, India, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, -Abyssinia, New Holland, Mauritius, the Azores, Canada, Mexico, and -Chili. The only instances of the use of the plant in mediæval ornament -with which we are acquainted are in wood-carving on the ends of the -stalls in Wells Cathedral, and in a similar position in the Church of -St. Gereon, Cologne; in each case the leaves only are represented. -Illustrations of the natural growth will be seen in S. B. 166; E. B. -923; T. N. O. 97; and P. F. 93. - -The CORN BLUE-BOTTLE (_Centaurea Cyanus_) from its delicacy of growth, -and the beauty of the flower-heads, would be a valuable plant for the -decoration of surfaces requiring a delicate treatment, such as muslins -and lace. It is one of the characteristic flowers of the corn-field, -and, in conjunction with the poppy, would be valuable in any floral -grouping symbolic of autumn. The plant was at one time held to possess -great remedial virtue, though its use is now abandoned. The generic -name, _Centaurea_, refers to an old legend that the Centaur Chiron, when -wounded by Hercules, recovered his strength by the use of this herb. A -very characteristic name in some parts of the country is hurt-sickle, -in allusion to its hard and wiry stems. An example of its use in -ornamental art will be found in a sixteenth-century MS. in the Library -of the British Museum. The treatment, as is usual at that period of the -illuminator’s art, is very naturalistic. Drawings of the natural plant -may be seen in S. B. 159; E. B. 709; F. L. vol. vi. 62; and P. F. 8. - -The CORN MARIGOLD (_Chrysanthemum segetum_) is, like the last, one of -the characteristic and striking plants of the harvest-field, the intense -scarlet of the poppy, the rich blue of the blue-bottle, and the -brilliant yellow of the present flower, forming a very beautiful trio. -The generic name, _Chrysanthemum_, alludes to this brilliancy of colour -seen in several of the species, being derived from two Greek words -signifying golden flower. There is considerable quaintness in the forms -of the leaves, and the general growth of the plant renders it well -adapted for art-treatment. We are unable to refer you to any examples of -its introduction in the ornament of the past, but any of our readers -desiring to remedy a neglect so unjustifiable will find reliable -drawings of it in E. B. 713; F. L. vol. vi. 60; P. F. 28. - -The DAFFODIL (_Narcissus pseudo-narcissus_). This beautiful flower will -be found of value to the designer, both from its own inherent beauty, -and also more especially in combination with the primrose, wild -hyacinth, or cowslip, in any design where it is desirable to embody the -idea of spring, since it is one of the most striking plants of that -season of the year. The daffodil may be found in meadows and copses, and -is generally abundant throughout England, though in many cases probably -as an escape from the cottage-garden. In Ireland and Scotland it is -never met with except under such circumstances. Where the daffodil has -once established itself it grows with great freedom, and will generally -be met with in profusion, though it is so local in its growth, that even -if abundant in any one spot, it may frequently be sought for in vain -throughout the rest of a district. The flowers, of a pure and brilliant -yellow, grow singly upon the stalks, each rising directly from the root. -The daffodil has a very wide area of distribution, being met with -throughout the greater part of Europe, and more especially in the -south-west; it is, for instance, one of the characteristic plants of the -meadows and hillside pastures of Spain, together with the two-flowered -narcissus (_N. biflorus_), a plant which, though abundant in Southern -Europe, has never been naturalised in England. It may be frequently met -with in cultivation, and will easily be distinguished from the daffodil -from the flowers being generally in pairs upon the stem, and from their -creamy white or straw colour. The generic name, _Narcissus_, is derived -from a Greek word signifying stupor, in allusion to the heavy and -powerful odour of another species, the _N. poeticus_. - -Drawings of the daffodil will be met with in E. B. 1501, and P. F. 89. -The daffodil being like the daisy and eglantine, what we may perhaps be -allowed to term a poet’s flower, a further reason for intimacy with it -is furnished to the designer, as he may possibly be required to make a -design for a page border to some _édition de luxe_ of Wordsworth or -Herrick. - -The DAISY (_Bellis perennis_). So many rural and poetic associations -cluster around this “wee, modest, crimson-tipped flower,” that our list -would be sadly incomplete did it not find a place in it. Leaving the -consideration of these associations, however, we would desire to point -out that on its own inherent merits it is a plant admirably adapted for -art-work, the forms of the leaves, buds, and flowers being all very -ornamental in character, and well suited to the decoration of any light -fabric. The generic name, _Bellis_, testifies to the general -appreciation, being derived from the Lat. _bellus_, pretty. Daisy is a -corruption of its old English name, day’s eye. - - “As soon as ever the sunne ginneth west - To sene this flower, how it will go to rest, - For fear of night, so hateth she darkness. - Well by reason men it call maie - The Daisie, or else the Eye of the Daie.” - -In France it is called _Marguerite_, from Lat. _margarita_, a -pearl,--hence ladies of gentle birth, of that name, frequently chose it -in the days of chivalry as their device. It may be seen carved in stone -on the gateway of St. John’s College, Cambridge, founded by Margaret, -Countess of Richmond. It also occurs in carvings at Cubberley, -Gloucestershire; Coton, in Cambridgeshire; and Culham, in Oxfordshire. - - “The daisie, or flower white and rede, - And in French called la belle Marguerite, - To herne I have so great affectioun - As I sayd erst, when comen is the Maie, - That in my bedde there dawneth me no daie - That I n’am up and walking in the mede - To see this floure ayenst the sunne sprede, - So glad am I, that when I have presence - Of it to doue it all reverence, - As she that is of all floures the floure, - Fulfilled of all vertue and honoure; - And ever ylike faire and fresh of hewe; - And ever I love it, and ever ylike newe.” - CHAUCER. - - -The family of Parr bore as one of their devices a tuft of daisies. The -daisy may be met with abundantly in pasture land and the grassy borders -of country roads, blooming freely from April to October. Illustrations -may be seen in E. B. 772; F. L. vol. i. 62; T. N. O. 76; P. F. 63. - -The DOG-ROSE (_Rosa canina_). This is one of the commonest of our -numerous species of English wild rose--a family which, like the -brambles, willows, and others, has by some botanists been cut up into -several species from more or less obvious botanical marks, frequently of -a nature, however, which subjects them to be by other observers -considered as mere variations depending upon chance external influences; -thus, while one writer reduces the various rose forms to five specific -types, another, of equally high standing, mentions nineteen species as -occurring in Britain. This refinement of scientific observation will, -however, be of no real service to the designer: for his purpose the -dog-rose, the most familiar of our English species, may be accepted as a -fairly typical flower. The garden varieties of roses are derived from -the _Rosa sempervirens_ of Southern Europe, the _R. Indica_, an Asiatic -species, and many others. The sweet-briar, _R. rubiginosa_, one of our -wild English species, is also a favourite in many gardens from the -fragrance of its leaves when pressed in the hand. The - -[Illustration: _Dog-Rose._] - -word rose is derived, according to some authors, from the Celtic _rhos_, -which is in turn derived from the adjective _rhodd_, red; while others -affirm that it descends to us from the Latin _rosa_, itself deduced from -the Greek _rodon_, derived from _erythros_, red; but we are unable to -give any satisfactory clue to the meaning of the prefix “dog” in the -familiar English name, the same idea being also evidently expressed in -the specific word _canina_, in the French _rose de chien_, and the -German _Hundrose_. Some writers, however, imagine it to refer to the -uselessness of the plant, and quote the scentless or dog-violet as -another illustration in support of their theory. Even on the lowest -utilitarian ground this theory is scarcely tenable, since the plant is -largely used by gardeners as a stock for grafting, while the fruit is -also considerably employed in medicine. The rose, though commonly met -with in ornament throughout the whole of the Decorated and Perpendicular -periods of Gothic, is more especially found in the latter, since it was -then employed not merely on its own merits, but also as the badge of the -Tudors; hence, as an heraldic form, we frequently meet with it in -secular no less than in ecclesiastical work. It is also, we need -scarcely say, the badge of England, as the shamrock and thistle are of -Ireland and Scotland respectively. It was also the personal badge of -Edward I., and the family device of the De la Warres. Examples of the -heraldic use of the rose are very numerous; it may merely suffice to -mention Hampton Court and Henry VII.’s Chapel at Westminster as -abounding in illustrations. In the church at Hawton, Nottinghamshire, in -a sculptured representation of the Resurrection, there is as a -background a very elaborate and beautiful diaper of the rose--its -leaves, flowers, and buds being all employed; this, as the Rose of -Sharon, may be considered as introduced in a symbolic sense, though we -must here mention that the plant ordinarily known as the Rose of Sharon -is not a true rose at all botanically. It is one of the Hypericums. A -golden rose has from time to time been given by the popes to those whom -they more especially desired to reward for services rendered to the -Church: Henry VIII. of England received, together with his title -“Defender of the Faith,” this mark of honour from Pope Alexander VI. The -dog-rose will be found in flower in early summer, the colour of the -blossoms varying on different shrubs from pure white to a deep pink; -the brilliant scarlet fruit, an equally ornamental feature, being met -with as the season advances. Illustrations of the natural growth of the -plant will be seen in M. B. 139, S. C. 100, P. F. 7, 90, 96; and T. N. -O. 51. - -Examples of its use in decorative art occur at Winchester, where a -hollow moulding is filled with a waved line of rose leaves and flowers; -in a boss in Beverley Minster; in a glass quarry at Yaxley, Suffolk; in -a more conventionalised treatment in a panel of Perpendicular period, -East Harling Church, Norfolk; a very good example as a glass quarry, -Milton Church, Cambridge; in a piece of oak-carving in the stalls at -Wells; in the carving of a tomb in Bourges Cathedral; a capital at -Miraflores; a hollow moulding wreathed with alternate flowers and leaves -in one of the doorways of Notre Dame, Paris. Many other instances might -be given, but these will suffice to show how favourite a plant the rose -has been in past ornament. The following extract from the old herbalist -Gerarde, though the adulation is, from its implied reference to -Elizabeth, somewhat fulsome, is a further illustration of its -association heraldically with the Tudors: “The plant of roses, though it -be a shrub full of prickles, yet it had bin more fit and convenient to -have placed it with the most glorious flowers of the world, than to -insert the same here among base and thorny shrubs” (this allusion refers -to Gerarde’s system of classification), “for the rose doth deserve the -chief and prime place among all flowers whatsoever, being not only -esteemed for his beauty, vertues, and his fragrant and odoriferous -smell, but also because it is the honour and ornament of our English -Scepter, in the uniting of those two most Royall Houses of Lancaster and -Yorke.” - -[Illustration: _Feverfew._] - -The subject of our next illustration is derived from the FEVERFEW -(_Chrysanthemum parthenium_), a plant widely distributed over Britain, -but at the same time with doubtful claims to be considered a true -native; it is, however, thoroughly at home in those places in which it -is to be met with, and from the clear white daisy-like flowers and the -delicate green of its handsome foliage it merits the attention of -designers of ornamental art. From its lightness and the deep cutting of -the leaves, the feverfew would be found of more service in painted or -engraved ornament than in any kind of relief work. The feverfew has a -reputation among herbalists as a bitter and tonic; and no doubt, before -the introduction of quinine and such-like more powerful remedies, would -possess a valued and considerable remedial virtue. The familiar English -name implies this, and is one of the numerous class of names, as -eyebright, goutweed, lungroot, livelong, wormwood, &c., given to plants -in recognition of their real or fancied medicinal use. Drawings of the -natural growth of the feverfew may be seen in E. B. 715; M. B. 249; P. -F. 39. - -FOOL’S PARSLEY. We have selected this plant, the _Æthusa cynapium_, as a -good representative of the very large order of plants known botanically -as the _Umbelliferæ_. The whole of the plants of this order, as the name -implies, have their flowers growing in umbels, that is to say, all the -flower-stalks start from one point on the stem, and radiate from the -common centre. Many of the _Umbelliferæ_, as the parsley, carrot, -fennel, and celery, must be familiar to our readers, though they may not -have noticed particularly this umbellate mode of flowering. Several of -the species are exceedingly poisonous: of these we may instance the -hemlock, the water-dropwort, and the present plant. With very few -exceptions, the flowers of the whole of the plants of this order are -either white or yellow. The fool’s parsley is so called from a slight -resemblance which the plant bears to the common parsley of the -kitchen-garden. Though the differences are not difficult to detect--the -flowers, for instance, of the fool’s parsley being white, and those of -garden-parsley yellow; the leaves of the first giving a disagreeable -odour when bruised, and those of the second a rich aromatic scent--the -want of a little circumspection has frequently led to serious and even -fatal results. The plant is the more dangerous from its being rarely met -with except on cultivated ground. The generic name, _Æthusa_, is given -to it in allusion to its acrid nature, being derived from a Greek word -signifying to burn, while _cynapium_ means dog’s parsley. Though as yet -we have said nothing but evil of it, it is but just to add in its -favour that, ornamentally, it is a very desirable plant for insertion in -our list, the leaves, flower-buds, and general growth being very -graceful, and well suited for the decoration of any delicate fabric. For -illustrations of the plant we would refer you to F. L. vol. i. 18; S. C. -8; S. B. 139. It will be found in flower during July and August. - -The GROUND-IVY (_Nepeta glechoma_), the subject of our next two -illustrations, is so commonly distributed throughout Britain, that there -can be but little need of our dwelling at any great length upon a -description of it, though, from its habit of trailing on the ground and -among the roots of larger plants, it is not so conspicuous to the eye as -many others. Its English name, ground-ivy, refers to its slight -resemblance in mode of growth to the common ivy, though in every other -respect they are very dissimilar, the ground-ivy having rounded or -reniform leaves growing in pairs up the stem, the flowers large and of a -brilliant colour, tubular and bisymmetrical, while in the ivy the leaves -terminate in an acute point, and spring singly from the stem, the -flowers small, pale green, multisymmetrical in form, and composed of -five distinct petals. The generic name, _Nepeta_, is derived from -_nepa_, a scorpion, from an old belief that the bite of the scorpion was -rendered harmless if treated by means of a recipe of which a preparation -of our present plant was the leading ingredient. The flower of the -ground-ivy, though generally of a deep purplish blue, may sometimes be -met with of a pure white. This variation from a given colour to white is -comparatively not uncommon in many of our wild plants, though more -especially noticeable in - -[Illustration: _Ground-Ivy._] - -plants of normally blue or purple flowers: thus the purple foxglove, -blue Jacob’s ladder, pink herb-robert, purple snapdragon, blue harebell, -and many others, are occasionally to be found with white blossoms. The -ground-ivy, from its abundance, and also from its past and present -medicinal use, may be met with in the works of various authors under a -great choice of synonyms: of these alehoof is the most common; others, -almost equally familiar, being creep-by-ground and cat’s-foot. When not -in flower the general appearance of the marsh pennywort (_Hydrocotyle -vulgaris_) is, to a casual observer, not altogether unlike that of the -ground-ivy; but the pennywort is only met with on swampy ground, the -leaves are peltate or shield-like, the stalk rising from the centre of -the under side of the leaf, as we see it in the more familiar garden -nasturtium (_Tropæolum majus_), differing in these respects from the -ground-ivy. When in blossom, the contrast between the greenish-yellow -flower of the pennywort and the deep purple of the flowers of the -ground-ivy is too marked to permit of any chance of error. The only -examples of the use of the ground-ivy - -[Illustration: _Ground-Ivy._] - -with which we are acquainted in the ornament of the past are in a small -spandrel in one of the doorways at Rheims Cathedral, and on some of the -flooring tiles from the ruins of the Abbey of Chertsey, Surrey. In the -latter case the leaves are four in number, in a cruciform arrangement -within a quatrefoil--a very simple yet true and effective treatment of -the plant; for as the leaves grow, as we have already mentioned, in -pairs, and as each pair of leaves is placed upon the stem at right -angles to the pairs immediately above and beneath it, the effect -produced in looking down upon the plant is necessarily cruciform in -character. A great variety of these Chertsey tiles may be seen in the -South Kensington Museum: though very simple in design, they afford -excellent examples of the true application of the principles which -should govern the introduction of natural forms, and are well worthy of -the attention of the student of decorative art. In both these cases, -Rheims and Chertsey, the leaves alone are employed, as the flowers, from -their intricacy of detail and position upon the plant, would require the -aid of colour to bring them out with due effect; hence, while the -ground-ivy, during its period of flowering, is admirably adapted for -surface decoration, muslins, wall-papers, and many other such-like -purposes, it is but ill suited to relief-work in stone or wood. Refer to -S. B. 172; E. B. 1055; F. L. vol. ii. 44; M. B. 28, for illustrations of -the natural growth of the ground-ivy. - -GROUNDSEL, though a plant exceedingly likely to be overlooked, is on -that account the more deserving of a place in our list, as it really -possesses qualities which fully entitle it to the consideration of the -student of ornamental art, the general growth of a good specimen being -very vigorous and characteristic, and the variety of beautiful forms -seen in the leaves a further recommendation. The botanical name is -_Senecio vulgaris_. _Senecio_ is derived from _senex_, an old man, in -allusion to the grey heads of seed-down which succeed the blossoms. The -groundsel may be met with abundantly almost everywhere, and may at all -times of the year be found in flower. Drawings of the plant may be seen -in E. B. 749; F. L. vol. i. 61; P. F. 2. - -The HAREBELL (_Campanula rotundifolia_). This graceful little plant may -generally be found in profusion on dry and hilly pastures and heaths, -though by no means in such localities exclusively, as the roadside -hedge-bank is another favourite spot. There are ten species indigenous -to England, most of them of great beauty and adaptability to -art-requirements: of these we may in particular mention the _C. -hederacea_, the ivy-leaved campanula, a little plant by no means -uncommon in moist shady pastures and swampy low-lying ground. The -present species is abundant everywhere throughout Europe and Northern -Asia. The Canterbury bell (_C. medium_) is an allied and familiar garden -species. - -[Illustration: _Harebell._] - -The generic name, _Campanula_, means a little bell, and from the shape -of the corolla is aptly applied to these plants. _Rotundifolia_, meaning -round-leaved, seems at first sight a misnomer, as the leaves most easily -visible on a cursory glance at the plant are thin and strap-shaped. The -lower leaves of the plant, however, are rounded in form; and, as we -study the foliage, we shall see a delicate ascending gradation of form, -from the rounded leaves at the lower end of the stem, to the thin, -almost grass-like leaves of the upper part. Drawings of the harebell -will be found in T. N. O. 80; P. F. 12. - -The HAZEL-NUT (_Corylus avellana_) is so familiar a shrub that any -lengthened description of it must be needless, or, to quote our old -writer, Gerarde: “Our hedge-nut, or hazel-nut tree, which is very well -knowne, and therefore needeth not any description, whereof there are -also sundry sorts, some great, some little, as also one that is in our -gardens, which is very - -[Illustration: _Nut._] - -great, bigger than any filberd, and yet a kinde of hedge-nut; this then -that hath beene said shall suffice for hedge-nuts.” The smaller twigs of -the hazel afford an excellent charcoal for artistic purposes, and the -long straight shoots, thrown up with such rapidity and vigour, are -largely employed in the manufacture of the crates in which earthenware -is packed--a use for which their size and flexibility combined with -great strength admirably fit them, as the rods, when the wood is still -green, may be bent almost double before they will give way. There is a -pleasing appropriateness in its English name, hazel-nut, derived from -the Anglo-Saxon _haesel_, a hat, and _hnut_, a nut or ball, which we -notice and appreciate when we see the fruit in its natural state, -surrounded by the foliaceous and cap-like partial envelope formed by the -scales of the involucre. The generic name also, _Corylus_, refers to -this peculiarity of growth, being derived from a Greek word signifying a -covering for the head. The natural order to which the hazel belongs -includes several trees of great value to man, either on account of their -timber or their fruit--such, for example, as the beech, Spanish -chestnut, and the oak; and in the olden time, when a belief in the use -of the divining-rod, as an indicator of subterranean springs, was -common, the mystic virtue was sought in the forked twigs of the hazel. -The size of the leaves and the striking character of the fruit alike -combine to render it a plant admirably fitted for the purposes of -ornamental art, though the only example of its use, so far as we are -aware, may be seen in a hollow moulding in the cathedral at Winchester, -where, upon a continuous scroll running along the centre of the -moulding, both foliage and fruit are introduced. The leaves are deeply -serrated, and the nuts grow in clusters of two, three, or four, the -general treatment being very naturalistic. Among the many extraordinary -remedies in use by our ancestors, hazel-nuts occupied a place, being -employed in complaints affecting the chest, though, even then, when -scarcely any reputed remedy seems to have been thought too fanciful and -absurd, some appear to have ventured to doubt the efficacy of the -medicine, bringing down upon themselves the scathing rebuke of the -faculty, as we find in the following extract from an old medical work, -where, after the setting forth of the benefits to be derived from the -use of the hazel as a remedial agent, he goes on to say:--“And if this -be true, as it is, then why should the vulgar so familiarly affirm that -eating nuts causeth shortness of breath? than which nothing is falser. -For how can that which strengthens the lungs cause shortness of breath? -I confess the opinion is far older than I am; I know tradition was a -friend to error before, but never that he was the father of slander; or -are men’s tongues so given to slandering one another, that they must -slander nuts too to keep their tongues in use? And so thus have I made -an apology for nuts, which cannot speak for themselves.” For -illustrations of the growth of the nut, see W. H. H., Plate B, Fig. 1; -T. N. O. 127. - -Our next illustration is derived from the HAWTHORN, WHITETHORN, or MAY -(_Cratægus oxycantha_), a plant familiar to every one, from its being so -extensively used for hedgerows; its strength, closeness of growth, and -spiny character, admirably adapting it to the purpose. The wood is very -hard, and will take a high polish; the generic name, _Cratægus_, from a -Greek word signifying strength, being an allusion to this characteristic -of the plant. Its use as a hedgerow plant in England dates, according to -Sowerby, from the time of the Romans, and of this there can be but -little doubt, as its most common name--hawthorn--is, literally, -the hedge-thorn, from the Saxon word _hage_. The second -name--white-thorn--has been given to it in contradistinction to the -black-thorn (_Prunus spinosa_), a somewhat similar, and, in a wild -state, almost equally common plant; the - -[Illustration: _Hawthorn._] - -stems of the latter being very dark in colour, while in the hawthorn or -white-thorn they are comparatively light. The third name, May, has -obvious reference to the time of flowering. The leaves of the plant are -exceedingly varied in form, affording a great choice for the selection -of the ornamentist; some being very simple in character, while others -are deeply cut, and very rich and beautiful in outline. A permanent -variety may be occasionally met with, in which the leaves, instead of -being of the ordinary deep and bluish green, are in addition irregularly -blotched with varying and intermingling tones of yellow. The flowers -also of the hawthorn are subject to considerable variation in colour: -the typical state is a pure milky white; but owing to the nature of the -soil in which the plant is found, the blossoms may occasionally be seen -varying from a pale pink to almost crimson. The berries, also, though -generally of a deep crimson colour, are sometimes of an intensely golden -yellow. An old writer, Culpepper, in his “British Herbal,” a treatise -partly astrological and partly medicinal, having first stated that the -plant is under the dominion of Mars, thus defines the medicinal -properties of the hawthorn:--“The seeds in the berries, beaten to -powder, being drank in wine, are held singular good against the dropsy. -The seed, cleared from the down, bruised and boiled in wine, and drank, -is good for inward tormenting pains. If cloths and sponges be wet in the -distilled water, and applied to any place wherein thorns and splinters, -or the like, do abide in the flesh, it will notably draw them forth. And -thus you see the thorn gives a medicine for its own pricking, and so -doth almost everything else.” - -Though to a certain extent foreign to our subject, we may perhaps be -permitted to say that, to the naturalist, as well as to the botanist and -the designer of ornamental art, the tree possesses considerable -attractions, the berries being the favourite fruit of many of our birds, -and the foliage being sometimes completely stripped by the larvæ of -various butterflies and moths, such as the small Ermine, the Brimstone -moth, and many others; while among the poets, Chaucer, Milton, -Shakspeare, Wordsworth, Goldsmith, Bampfylde, and Tennyson, have all -found in it a source of beauty and inspiration. It has also been one of -the favourite plants of the ornamentists, occurring very commonly in the -works of the Middle Ages. It would be both tedious and unnecessary to -give anything like an exhaustive catalogue of its use in past art: as -good examples out of many, we would merely cite its occurrence in a -finial in the Lady Chapel, Exeter; as a stone-diaper alternating with -oak, at Lincoln; in two fine spandrels, and a beautiful capital, very -full and rich in its wreathing, in the Chapter-house, Southwell. Other -examples occur in the cathedrals at Ely, Wells, and Winchester. Wherever -met with in ornamental art, the leaves and berries are the parts -selected: to the best of our knowledge the flowers have never, in any -instance, been introduced, no doubt from the fact of the minuteness and -delicacy of each individual blossom, and its habit of growing in -clusters, which, though extremely beautiful in nature, are, from their -intricacy of detail, unsuited to the purposes of the ornamentist. -Similarly, though the plant in its natural growth is often exceedingly -spiny, it is, in ornamental art, represented as almost or entirely -without this characteristic feature, as there would be a great practical -difficulty, in any kind of relief-work at least, in the satisfactory -introduction of forms so minute and fragile, yet requiring so high a -relief. Drawings of hawthorn will be found in P. F. 68; T. N. O. 52. - -The HERB-ROBERT (_Geranium Robertianum_) is one of the numerous family -of cranesbills, so called from a supposed resemblance between the form -of the fruit and the bill of that bird, a resemblance also indicated in -the generic name, _Geranium_, derived - -[Illustration: _Herb-Robert._] - -from the Greek _geranos_, a crane. The herb-robert is one of the most -abundantly distributed plants of the genus, being met with throughout -the whole of Britain and in many other parts of the world, growing upon -all kinds of soils, and flourishing equally well upon hedge-banks, waste -ground, and old walls. Owing to the foliage turning a brilliant crimson -in autumn, the plant becomes very striking and conspicuous as the year -advances, a peculiarity which will greatly aid its identification by -those of our readers who are not acquainted with it. The flowers are of -a delicate pink colour, though they may occasionally be met with of a -pure white: this variety grows abundantly near Nutfield, in Surrey, for -instance. The whole of the cranesbill family will well repay the -attention and study of the ornamentist, the dove’s-foot cranesbill (_G. -molle_), and the blue meadow cranesbill (_G. pratense_), being -especially suited to the requirements of the designer. The latter is a -very striking plant, and when once seen cannot well be mistaken, each -flower being almost two inches in diameter, of a deep purple blue, and -veined with lines of reddish purple: the leaves also are very deeply -cut, and of a highly ornamental character. An illustration of the -ornamental treatment of the herb-robert may be seen in an elaborate -specimen of embroidery, last-century work, in the South Kensington -Museum; while drawings of the natural plant can be referred to in T. N. -O. 38; V. W. 412; F. L. vol. i. 52; P. F. 34. - -HOLLY (_Ilex aquifolium_). This plant, from its association with winter, -should be one of those familiar to the student of ornamental art. -Drawings of it may be found in S. B. 184; W. H. H., Plate A, Fig. 4; P. -F. 27; G. O. 95. The holly is indigenous to most parts of Europe. Its -influence may be traced in the names of several places, as for example -Holmwood, near Dorking; the holly by old writers being also termed Holm -and Hulver. Though ordinarily met with as a hedgerow shrub, it will, if -allowed to grow, attain to no inconsiderable height--often thirty to -forty feet; while a particularly fine specimen at Claremont, in Surrey, -is a little over eighty feet high, and has a trunk six feet in -circumference. The growth is very slow, the timber close-grained and -hard, the annual layers of woody fibre being exceedingly compact. This -fineness of grain, its whiteness and its beauty when polished, render it -of great service in carving and inlay work. It has also been extensively -used in the place of box for wood-engraving, and for the blocks used for -engraving the patterns of calicoes and wall-papers. It would no doubt be -still more extensively used than it is did not its rarity render it so -costly, as, though holly bushes are plentiful enough, the owner of a -fine tree is generally loath to have it cut down. The chief use of the -holly is in the formation of hedges, as its formidable spines, evergreen -foliage, its slight attraction for insects, and closeness of growth, are -all valuable recommendations; we often thus meet with it in -old-fashioned gardens. “Is there under heaven a more glorious and -refreshing object of the kind than an impregnable hedge, of 160 feet in -length, 7 feet high, and 5 in diameter, which I can show in my poor -gardens at any time of the year, glittering with its armed and varnished -leaves? It mocks at the rudest assaults of the weather, beasts, or -hedge-breakers.” This hedge, the pride of John Evelyn’s garden, did not -prove so impregnable to the hedge-breaker as its owner fondly thought, -since one of the great amusements of the Czar Peter, during his stay -with Evelyn, was to trundle a wheelbarrow through it, to the ultimate -ruin of the hedge and the no small sorrow of its hospitable owner. - -A variety of holly having yellow berries is sometimes met with. Some -little while ago, a branch with bright orange-coloured berries was -exhibited at one of the meetings of the Linnæan Society, a scion of the -yellow-fruited variety having been grafted on a scarlet-berried stock, -with this curious result. The holly may also sometimes be met with -having variegated leaves, the normal dark glossy green being blotched -with a clear yellow or white. The lower leaves of the tree are edged -with sharp spines, while the upper branches have the foliage quite free -from these:-- - - “Below, a circling fence, its leaves are seen - Wrinkled and keen; - No grazing cattle, through their prickly round, - Can reach to wound; - But as they grow where nothing is to fear, - Smooth and unarmed the pointless leaves appear.” - SOUTHEY. - -Ornamentally, the holly may be met with in a glass quarry in Brandeston -Church, Suffolk; also on a mediæval flooring-tile in the British Museum. -We are not aware of any other ancient examples of its use, though -doubtless those given do not exhaust the list. We trust, should another -edition be called for, to be able, by further investigation, to remedy -this shortcoming. The name holly is a corruption of holy, and alludes to -its connection with Christmas. In some of the old herbals it is written -“holy tree,” while in some countries this connection is rendered still -more emphatic, the German name being _Christdorn_, the Danish and -Swedish, _Christorn_. - -The next subject we have chosen as an illustration of the adaptability -of our native plants to the purposes of the ornamentist is the HOP -(_Humulus lupulus_). Though we do not recall any example of its use in -the ornament of the past, except in one of the capitals at Southwell -Minster, it nevertheless appears to us a plant well deserving of a place -in our columns. Its climbing habit, the beauty of the leaves, and the -size of the cones, are all features which in an especial manner seem to -fit it for the service of the designer; and it appears curious that, -while so great a choice was at the disposal of the old carvers, they -practically left so large a field untouched. Our architecture, for -instance, abounds with details of oak, maple, and hawthorn; yet the nut -and the wild rose, plants at least as striking and as common, occur but -rarely, while the hop, bindweed, blackberry, and many others, seem to -have been almost entirely neglected. The hop is found in a truly wild -state in our hedgerows and copses, its weak stems, - -[Illustration: _Hop_.] - -powerless to support themselves, trailing a long distance, and running -up any tree or other support with which they may come in contact, and -wreathing it with their beautiful clusters of foliage and fruit. It is -also largely cultivated in England, France, Belgium, and Germany; its -tonic properties, and the fragrant bitter principle found in it, -chemically termed lupuline, being, it is almost needless to say, -utilised in the making of beer. It was thus first used in the reign of -Henry VIII., before that time the fresh top shoots of broom being -employed to give the desired bitterness. The young shoots are in some -parts of the country cooked and eaten like asparagus. Gerarde, writing -in the reign of Elizabeth, says, “The hop joyeth in a fat and fruitfull -ground, also it groweth amongst briers and thornes about the borders of -fields. The flowers are used to season beere or ale with, and too many -do cause bitternesse thereof, and are ill for the head. The manifold -vertues of hops do manifest argue the wholesomnesse of beere, for the -hops rather make it a physicall drinke to keep the body in health, than -an ordinary drinke for the quenching of our thirst.” The leaves of the -hop are sometimes heart-shaped, at others divided into three very -distinctly marked lobes, in either case the margins being deeply -serrate. The order to which the hop belongs includes many plants useful -to man, as, for instance, among several others, the hemp, mulberry, fig, -the _Urostigma elasticum_, yielding india-rubber, and the bread-fruit -tree. - -About forty million pounds weight of hops are annually employed in -brewing in England. Kent and Surrey are the chief means of supply, -though those grown in the rich soil of the Vale of Severn, in the -neighbourhood of Worcester, are by no means inferior to the best -Kentish. The crop is a very speculative one, the dangers which surround -it being legion; the profits are, however, so great that the grower is -reimbursed if one crop in three should turn out well. The hops grown in -the neighbourhood of Farnham command the highest prices. The etymology -of the word is unknown; the Germans term it _Hopfen_. Hops have been -cultivated in Germany from time immemorial, and it is from thence that -we derive both the plant and its name. Drawings of the natural growth -will be found in E. B. 1284, S. C. 41; T. N. O. 125; and P. F. 4. - -[Illustration: Yellow-horned Poppy.] - -The YELLOW-HORNED POPPY (_Glaucium luteum_) will no doubt have attracted -the attention of many from the peculiarity of its habitat, growing and -flourishing as it does by the seashore, where little else appears to -thrive, and by the delicate green of its foliage, the brilliant yellow -of its blossom, and its spreading growth, covering large expanses of the -shingly beach with a very striking and beautiful carpet. The pods, a -highly ornamental feature, may occasionally be found almost a foot in -length, and, together with the form of leaf and locality of growth, -effectually distinguish it from the yellow Welsh poppy (_Meconopsis -Cambrica_). The scarlet-horned and the violet-horned poppies, allied -species, are both exceedingly rare in England: the latter, from its -finely-cut leaves and size of the flowers, is well adapted to -art-purposes. The yellow-horned poppy will be found in flower from June -to October. Drawings of it occur in E. B. 66; P. F. 91. - -[Illustration: _Ivy._] - -IVY (_Hedera helix_). We have already, in speaking of the ground-ivy, -dwelt to a certain extent upon the characteristics of the present plant, -and, from its abundance and conspicuous appearance, any lengthened -descriptive details must be unnecessary, as there can be but few to whom -the ivy is not perfectly familiar. We meet with it upon old buildings, -rocks, and in the woods and hedgerows, running over the surface of the -ground, or covering the trunks and main branches of the trees with its -interlacing stems and masses of rich foliage. Opinions have been very -varied as to whether the luxuriant growth of the ivy is detrimental or -not to the trees which it embraces; for while some have considered that -its presence is a benefit, and particularly in severe winters, others -have held that the compression caused by the long and closely adhering -branches impairs the vigour and stunts the growth of the tree. The -belief that the ivy, like the mistletoe, draws its nourishment from the -tree is now no longer held, as it has been satisfactorily proved that -the so-called rootlets (or, as they are perhaps more expressively termed -by De Candolle, _crampons_) which we see thrown out from the clinging -stems do not drain the sap of the supporting tree, but must be regarded -as a beautiful mechanical contrivance to aid, by their support and -grasp, the ascent of the ivy. We find that these little bodies are -equally developed where masses of rock - -[Illustration: _Ivy_.] - -have to be scaled, and that the plant thrives with equal vigour where -support is clearly their sole function; and if, on the other hand, the -ivy runs upon the ground, the _crampons_ are not developed, as no such -supporting members are then needed. The ivy is one of the plants -indigenous to Britain, and derives its familiar name from the -Anglo-Saxon _ifig_. Considerable differences of opinion have been held -as to the meaning of the generic name, _Hedera_: the best derivation -appears to us to be that which assigns as its origin the old Celtic word -for rope or cord, _hedra_, as it exactly expresses the characteristic -appearance of the growth. The ivy flowers during October and November, a -time of the year when but few other plants are in blossom; hence it -becomes the favourite resort of various insects, while the berries are -fully ripe by March, and afford a welcome food for the blackbird, -missal-thrush, wood-pigeon, and many others, at a season when, from the -scarcity of other food, they become peculiarly acceptable. The Romans -dedicated the ivy to Bacchus, and in their sculpture he is generally -represented as crowned by an ivy wreath, from an old belief, mentioned -by Pliny and others, that the plant thus worn neutralised the -intoxicating effects of wine. The leaves of the ivy vary very -considerably in form, a feature which the ornamentist will appreciate. -The leaves upon the flowering branches are somewhat egg or heart shaped, -with a very acute point, the more familiar ornamental form of the -five-lobed leaf not being found upon this portion of the plant; hence it -is perhaps scarcely legitimate to employ the berries with the -five-pointed form of leaf, though in the introduction of the plant in -the ornament of the Middle Ages this was entirely disregarded. The ivy -was one of the favourite plants of the mediæval ornamentist. Examples of -its use are very numerous: of these we need mention but a few. We find -the leaves and branches alone introduced, for instance, in wood-carving -in the stalls of the choir of St. Margaret’s Church, Lynn; in stonework, -as a crocket, in the Chapter-house, Wells; as the foliage of one of the -capitals in the choir of Lincoln Cathedral; and in a beautiful example -at the springing of an arch at the Minster, Southwell. We find the -berries introduced with the leaves (in every case the leaf having five -points) in a hollow moulding in the cloisters at Burgos in a -particularly beautiful manner; and in Paris on one of the capitals of -the Sainte Chapelle, and again in a similar position in the chancel of -Notre Dame--the first of these being twelfth-century work, and curious -from the very acute form of leaf employed; the second dating from the -fourteenth century. A very good English example may be seen in a -spandrel in the Chapter-house, Southwell. In ancient art we find the -Egyptians representing Osiris as bearing an ivy-wreathed _thyrsus_; and -upon the Greek and Etruscan vases preserved in the British Museum we -frequently see running bands of ornament which we can have little doubt -are based upon the ivy: in most of the examples the berries are -introduced together with the heart-shaped form of leaf, though in a few -cases a three-pointed or a rounded form of leaf, still distinctly -ivy-like in character, is substituted. Refer to T. N. O. 71; G. O. 93. - -Our next illustration is derived from the IVY-LEAVED SPEEDWELL -(_Veronica hederifolia_), a plant of frequent occurrence, but which, -from its weak trailing habit and small size, may very easily be -overlooked. It may generally be met with on hedge-banks, and flowers -freely from March to August with a delicate pale blue bi-symmetrical -blossom. Drawings of the ivy-leaved speedwell will be found in E. B. -970; S. B. 184. - -Several of the veronicas are well adapted, from their grace and delicacy -of form, to the purposes of ornamental art, the brooklime (_V. -beccabunga_) and the germander speedwell (_V. chamædrys_) being -especially good. The flowers of all the species are bisymmetrical in -form. The germander speedwell is by some writers supposed to be the true -forget-me-not. - -[Illustration: _Ivy-leaved Speedwell._] - -The MUSK MALLOW (_Malva moschata_), and the COMMON MALLOW (_M. -sylvestris_), the subjects of our next illustrations, are both common -plants, the musk mallow being frequently met with, and more especially -on gravelly soils, while the common mallow, though rare in Scotland, is -abundant throughout England on all kinds of ground. The flower of the -common mallow is of a pale purplish tint, with the veins of a darker -purple: a very rare variety has been met with, having the flowers of a -pure blue. The leaves are round in general outline, but deeply lobed -into five or seven divisions, and in olden time, before the introduction -of many of our present vegetables into England, were a common article of -diet. This, together with the musk mallow and the marsh mallow (_Althæa -officinalis_), possesses considerable medicinal repute, the whole plant -being mucilaginous and demulcent in character. The roots of the Althæa, -boiled in water, will yield - -[Illustration: _Common Mallow._] - -[Illustration: _Musk Mallow._] - -one half their weight of a glutinous matter, of great value from its -emollient qualities; the leaves and fruit will also yield it, but in a -lesser degree. The virtues of the family have long been recognised. -Pliny held that whosoever should take a little of the extract should -throughout that day be free from all fear of disease. Dioscorides -considered it a sure antidote in cases of poisoning; while Hippocrates -taught that its soothing action especially fitted it as a vulnerary. The -flowers of the musk mallow are very large, and of a pure and delicate -pink, the leaves very deeply divided, a feature distinguishing it from -all the other British species of mallow. Its English name is suggested -by the slight musky smell of the foliage if pressed in the hand. The -_Malvaceæ_ are chiefly tropical plants; about six hundred species are -known, almost all possessing the mucilaginous character of our British -species, many yielding in addition a valuable fibre, and some American -and Asiatic species producing the well-known cotton, a filamentous -substance enveloping the seeds. The hollyhock of our gardens also -belongs to this family. The generic name, _Malva_, is derived from a -Greek word signifying to soften, in allusion to the soothing effect of -the greater number of the genus, while the English name has clearly -descended from the Anglo-Saxon _malu_. Drawings of the common mallow may -be seen in F. L. vol. ii. 51; M. B. 54; P. F. 1; V. W. 393. The musk -mallow will be found in F. L. vol. iv. 50; T. N. O. 23. - -[Illustration: _Maple._] - -The MAPLE (_Acer campestre_) is generally met with as a small hedgerow -tree throughout England, but it is not common in either Scotland or -Ireland. The wood, though small in section, is often very beautifully -veined, and thus becomes of service for furniture, inlay, &c. The bark -is exceedingly rough, full of deep furrows, and very much resembling -cork in its appearance. The fruit is winged. The specific name, -_campestre_, refers to the localities in which the plant may be found, -the open fields; while the generic name, _Acer_, sharp or hard, in -Celtic _ac_, has been bestowed upon it from the toughness of the wood. -It was extensively used by the ancient Britons in the fabrication of -weapons of war--spikes, spears, and lance handles. The English name -evidently descends from the Saxon _mapul-dre_. We thus in these few -words, _Acer campestre_, the maple, learn where the plant is to be -found; one of its striking features, the hardness of the wood; and also, -from its Saxon name, the fact of its being one of our indigenous shrubs. -This has, from the beautiful forms of the leaves and fruit, been largely -introduced in mediæval work. It occurs, for instance, very beautifully -treated, as one of a series of small spandrels in the stalls of Lincoln -Cathedral, and again in a spandrel in the choir of Winchester. On the -Continent two very beautiful examples of it are seen in hollow mouldings -in the cathedrals of Evreux, and of Notre Dame, Paris. All these -specimens are of the fourteenth century. Drawings of the natural growth -may be seen in T. N. O. 30; P. F. 26; G. O. 94. - -KING-CUP, or MARSH MARIGOLD (_Caltha palustris_), a plant by no means -uncommonly met with in marshy ground, water-courses, and such-like -localities. It may frequently be found in tidal streams, growing in such -a position that at high tide it is completely covered; we have thus seen -it by the side of the Thames, flourishing in great vigour and beauty, -and at full tide swaying with the force of the stream at a depth of from -one to two feet from the surface. In such situations the plant grows -with luxuriance, and from the large size and brilliant yellow of its -star-like flowers, the vigorous growth of the rich green foliage, and -the long succulent stems, it becomes a striking feature even in the mass -of bold healthy vegetation so commonly found by the edges of a -water-course: these, therefore, are the characters which, in embodying -the plant in any design, we must endeavour to enforce. We are -unacquainted with any early examples of the use of the marsh marigold, -except in one page of a fifteenth-century illustration. This is the more -curious since the name marigold has reference to its use in the -church-decorations of the Middle Ages, upon those days more especially -devoted to the festivals associated with the Virgin Mary; we should -naturally, therefore, have thought that, thus brought before the -attention, its ornamental features would have been perceived and -permanently embodied in some capital or spandrel. The generic name, -_Caltha_, is derived from a Greek word signifying cup, and expressively -points out a beautiful feature in the form of the flower; while the -specific name, _palustris_, is drawn from the Latin _palus_, a marsh, -and clearly indicates the localities naturally chosen by the plant. The -plant will be found in flower in the spring, remaining for a -considerable time in full bloom, and from its perennial nature will, -when once established in any locality, soon become a permanent addition -to the flora of the district. Representations of the natural growth of -the marsh marigold will be found in E. B. 40; P. F. 54. - -The MISTLETOE--Anglo-Saxon, _mistelta_ (_Viscum album_)--is so well -known that it would appear strange that so familiar a plant has been but -little employed in mediæval art, did we not remember that its pagan -associations had placed it under a ban. The only example of its use that -has come under our observation is in one of the spandrels of a tomb in -Bristol Cathedral. The natural growth will be found portrayed in M. B. -270; W. H. H., Plate A, Fig. 3; P. F. 88. The lightness of the plant, -and its association with Christmas, seem features that render a -knowledge of it desirable to the ornamentist. It appears to us a plant -capable of very extensive use in the various developments of decorative -art. We need only mention a few--the backs of playing-cards, -earthenware, muslins, chintzes, wall-papers. Many other uses will, no -doubt, readily suggest themselves to our readers. - -[Illustration: _Mistletoe._] - -The OAK (_Quercus robur_), while perhaps our best-known indigenous tree, -from its wealth of legendary, religious, and historic associations, has -also been one of the favourite subjects of the ornamentist, being -abundantly found in carving, stencilling, draperies, glass, &c., both in -England and on the Continent, - -[Illustration: _Oak._] - -throughout the whole range of the Decorated and Perpendicular styles of -Gothic, and the corresponding periods in France, Spain, and Germany, and -also afterwards in the various modifications of the Renaissance. To -refer at any length to the varied associations surrounding it would be -foreign to our present purpose, though its sacred character in the -Druidical rites of the ancient Britons, the importance of its timber for -the purposes of the shipwright and architect, the commercial value of -the bark for use in tanning, leading to the felling of thousands of -trees every year, its use in medicine, the bark being a powerful -astringent, and an infusion from the galls so frequently found upon the -oak being an excellent antidote in cases of poisoning by the tartrate of -antimony, are all points of interest or utility in connection with it. -It has also been one of the favourite trees of the poets--Dryden, Pope, -Cowper, Wordsworth, and many others, having referred to it in their -writings; while to the artist the rugged majesty and vigour of the -branches in winter, the brilliant bronze red of the early spring -foliage, the deep mass of dark green leaves in summer-time, or the fiery -glow it bears when touched by the frosts of advancing winter, render it -at all times a beautiful and striking object in the landscape. The galls -so generally met with upon the leaves of the oak are caused by a small -insect, the _Cynips Quercus-folii_, which, by puncturing the leaf and -laying an egg in the wound, causes a diseased and abnormal growth of the -part: on cutting one of these galls open the grub will generally be -found within. The galls chiefly used in medicine and commerce, though -similar in their origin, are the work of another little insect on a -different and foreign species of oak. - -Though the oak is so familiar a tree in our woods and hedgerows, it must -at one time, when England was extensively covered by forests, have been -still more abundant. We are led to this conclusion from the great number -of places whose names, handed down to us from our early history, derive -their force and meaning from this abundance: thus Ockham, in Surrey, is -literally Ocham, the place of oaks, a title which it still well -deserves. Ockley, Acton, Acworth, and many more examples, might be -cited. Superstition, too, with its usual fertility of invention, has not -failed to detect the strange and marvellous in the oak. Of this, did -space permit, and were it not somewhat foreign to our subject, we could -quote many curious instances. - -In the works of the ornamentist, to the best of our knowledge, the _Q. -robur_ form of the oak has been exclusively used. To give an extended -list of the places where illustrations of its use in design occur would -be to devote far more space to it than is really needful: as an example -of its use in stonework, we would instance a small, but good capital at -Ely, where one pleasing, natural, and ornamental feature, the empty cup -of the acorn contrasting with the other forms, is very well introduced. -We see this same attention to natural detail in some flowing foliage in -a hollow moulding at Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster: the leaves are so -deeply cut into lobes, and so modified in form, that except for the -presence of the acorns, we should not recognise the foliage as being -that of the oak at all. A very clear and good piece of oak is introduced -in some wood-carvings at the ends of the stalls at Wells Cathedral; -again, in crockets at Exeter, in the Lady Chapel; in a stone boss, St. -Cuthbert’s screen, St. Alban’s Abbey Church; in wooden spandrels at -Winchester, and Northfleet Church, Kent; as a diaper in glass quarries -at Fulbourne and Waterbeach Churches, in Cambridgeshire; and as a -carving at the arch-springing at Southwell Minster, Nottinghamshire. On -the Continent, in Burgos Cathedral, we meet with several exceedingly -beautiful carvings of the maple, plane, vine, and many other -plants--among them a square panel filled with oak, and a very graceful -running band of leaves and acorns round the tomb of Don Juan II.; and in -Paris, in the Sainte Chapelle, we also find a hollow moulding filled -with running oak foliage. In the South Kensington Museum many excellent -fragments of wood-carving are preserved, and among these the oak is very -often visible; while in the ceramic collection we frequently see the -borders of the Majolica dishes and plates entirely composed of -interlaced branches of oak. The oak is, in this latter series of -examples, of heraldic significance as the badge of the Dukes of Urbino. -Representations of the natural growth of the oak may be seen in E. B. -1288; M. B. 126; P. F. 9; S. C. 151; G. O. 95; T. N. O. 127. - -OX-EYE DAISY (_Chrysanthemum leucanthemum_). The impressions we at once -derive on seeing the natural plant are--first, the size and brilliant -star-like character of the flowers, as we view it growing amidst the -long grass; secondly, the beautiful contrast of form, colour, and light -and shade between the deep yellow, convex central portion and the -brilliant white and concave rays surrounding it; and thirdly, the -comparative smallness and insignificance of the leaves: hence it appears -to us that in any adaptation of the plant to the purposes of the -designer, these are salient points to be observed. We find it growing -very freely in meadows, on the sunny side of railway banks, &c., and, -where found at all, generally in great profusion. During the past -summer, by the side of the river Wey, we came across a plant that had -firmly established itself, and was growing and flowering in full health -and vigour in the crown of a pollard willow tree, about eight feet from -the ground. It is one of the plants regarded by the farmer with dislike, -as it generally indicates great dryness of soil, and, - -[Illustration: _Ox-eye Daisy._] - -from its abundance and the perennial nature of the root, can scarcely be -dislodged where it has once fairly taken possession. The whole plant -varies from one to two feet in height, blossoming in June and July. The -garden chrysanthemum is a Japanese allied species, considerably modified -by cultivation. It may be seen painted on Japanese plates, screens, &c. -So far as we are aware, the ox-eye seems to have been but little used in -ornamental art, the following examples being the only cases of its -occurrence with which we are acquainted:--On a label termination to one -of the windows in the presbytery, Winchester, where we find the flower -in the centre of the boss very clearly and unmistakably rendered, but -surrounded by the ordinary type of leaf of the Early English Gothic -period; in some twelfth-century glass at Rheims, where it is introduced -as the flower dedicated to St. John, and where, by a poetical symbolism, -all the flowers turn towards our Saviour on the cross, as the Sun of -Righteousness, the true Light of the world; again met with in the -celebrated MS., “The Hours of Anne of Brittany,” now in the -_Bibliothèque du Roi_, Paris. This illumination dates from the close of -the fifteenth century, the flowers introduced being very naturalistic in -character, and with their shadows thrown upon a golden ground--a marked -characteristic of the illumination of that time. It also occurs in a -missal in the Library of the Arsenal, Paris, where, on a golden ground -similar to that last cited, detached flowers are scattered over the -borders--the pea, iris, heartsease, and many others being represented, -and among them the ox-eye daisy. Drawings of the natural plant will be -found in S. B. 158; E. B. 714; P. F. 42. - -The CAMPION (_Lychnis diurna_) is another plant well adapted to the need -of the ornamentist, the form of the flower and the sheathing of the stem -by the pairs of leaves being valuable and characteristic ornamental -features. The _Lychnis diurna_ is to be met with in moist hedge-banks, -and more especially those that are shaded by overhanging trees; the -flowers are of a delicate pink, scentless, and opening in the early -morning; differing in all these respects from the _Lychnis vespertina_, -a very similar plant in general appearance, but having the flowers -white, with a slight odour, and opening in the evening. The white -campion has generally a more robust and coarser character of growth than -the pink campion, and appears to delight in more open situations. By -many botanists, however, these two plants are considered as closely -allied, the pink campion being regarded as merely a variety of the -white, and both referred to as the _Lychnis dioica_. The specific names, -_diurna_ and _vespertina_, refer to the times of flowering, the morning -and evening respectively; while the generic name, _Lychnis_, common to -all the species, is derived from the Greek word for lamps, the thick -downy covering on the leaves of the white campion having at one time -been employed in the manufacture of wicks for use in lamps. Refer to F. -L. vol. ii. 32; T. N. O. 69; P. F. 53. - -[Illustration: _Campion._] - -SORREL (_Rumex acetosa_). Though from its inconspicuous character the -sorrel may very readily be passed over, it will, we think, be found to -repay the attention of the ornamentist, since the lightness and grace of -its growth, its brilliant colour, and the rich form of the leaf, are all -characteristics that should render it valuable to those engaged in -decorative art. The leaves have a pleasant acid flavour, and are -occasionally employed in salads. The English name is derived from the -Anglo-Saxon _sur_, sour. The present plant must not, from similarity of -name, be confused with the wood-sorrel (_Oxalis acetosella_), as the two -plants are very different in appearance, the wood-sorrel having large -white flowers, and a beautiful trefoil character of leaf. Illustrations -of the natural growth of _R. acetosa_ may be seen in E. B. 1223; F. L. -vol. v. 29; M. B. 69. - -[Illustration: _Sorrel._] - -The SPEAR-PLUME THISTLE (_Carduus lanceolatus_) has been selected as the -subject of our next example. It may very commonly be met with in -hedge-banks and waste ground, attaining to a height of from three to -four feet, and forming a very ornamental and conspicuous object. Its -employment in heraldry with the motto NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSIT, as the -badge of Scotland, is so well known that the mere mention of the fact -will suffice to recall it to the memory of our readers; but this -application of it, and its frequent recurrence in all circumstances -where the national emblems are introduced, render it necessary that the -designer should be familiar with the plant he will thus have to treat. -There are several indigenous species of thistle, some one or two of them -laying claim to their right to be considered the true Scottish badge, -but the balance of evidence will, we think, be found to point to the -spear-plume thistle as that most entitled to the honour. The _C. -marianus_, or milk-thistle, one of our rarer native, or at least -naturalised species, has a particularly ornamental effect from the veins -upon the leaves being of a clear milky white, the rest of the leaf being -of the normal green colour. A drawing of the spear-plume thistle may be -seen in E. B. 686. - -[Illustration: _Thistle._] - -The THORN-APPLE, though not a common wild plant, may occasionally be met -with, growing on waste spots, rubbish heaps by the roadside, and similar -places. The large size and brilliant whiteness of the flowers, the bulk -and peculiar character of the spiny fruit, make it a very striking -object, and admirably fitted for a share of the ornamentist’s regard. It -is a plant of Eastern origin, and was unknown here until the reign of -Elizabeth; we therefore do not find it in any of the art-work before -that date, nor, indeed, do we remember to have ever seen it - -[Illustration: _Thorn-apple._] - -in any way introduced in later designs: this, no doubt, is partly owing -to the comparative rarity of the plant. Its scientific name is _Datura -stramonium_, the generic name being derived from _tatorah_, the name of -the plant in Arabic. The whole plant is powerfully narcotic in its -effects. In the quaint pages of Gerarde, published A.D. 1636, we learn -the history of its introduction into England. Gerarde was the director -of the botanical garden of Lord Burleigh; hence he received many rare -plants from abroad for cultivation. In speaking of the _Datura_, he -says, “whose seeds I have received of the Right Honourable the Lord -Edward Zouch, which he brought from Constantinople, and of his -liberalitie did bestow them vpon me; and it is that thorn-apple that I -have disposed through this land.” In some botanical works we find it -asserted that the thorn-apple was introduced into Europe in the Middle -Ages by the gypsies, who, in their wanderings, brought it from Asia; but -the declaration of Gerarde is so positive and explicit, that it seems -difficult to admit any other belief, more especially as he accompanies -his statement by an illustration which, though very rough and quaint, is -quite sufficiently like the natural plant to prove that it was not some -other species introduced by him and wrongly named. Drawings of the -thorn-apple may be consulted in E. B. 935; F. L. vol. vi. 17; M. B. 124; -S. C. 6; P. F. 13. - -The TORMENTIL (_Potentilla tormentilla_) has already, to some extent, -been referred to when speaking of an allied species, the cinquefoil. The -flowers, though typically composed of four petals, are frequently to be -found with the petals five in number, the calyx in that case being cleft -into ten segments instead of the normal arrangement. We are not -acquainted with any example of the use of the tormentil in ornament, but -the wood-strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_), an allied genus of the same -natural order, has a similar form of calyx, the segments being -alternately large and small, and twice as numerous as the petals; and -this beautiful ornamental feature is very carefully shown in a -sixteenth-century MS. at the British Museum, where the plant is -introduced in one of the borders. Consult E. B. 430; F. L. vol. v. 35; -or P. F. 94, for illustrations of the natural growth of the tormentil. - -Our remaining illustration has been suggested by the WATER CROWFOOT -(_Ranunculus aquatilis_), one of the numerous species of buttercups, but -distinguished from its allies by the petals of the flowers being white, -not yellow, as in the case of the other members of the family, and also -from the habitat of the plant, the blossoms being found floating upon -the surface of quiet water-courses. The crowfoot may be met with in -flower throughout the summer, and, where seen at all, is ordinarily very -abundant, so that at a little distance the whole surface of a large pond -will tell upon the eye as a mass of white, from the innumerable blossoms -thickly scattered over the water. The English name crowfoot has arisen, -like many similar names, from the supposed resemblance of the plant, or -some portion of it, to some other natural object; thus we get -crane’s-bill, cock’s-foot grass, lark’s-spur, bee-orchis, -pheasant’s-eye, and many other such examples among our common names for -plants. As a family, the buttercups must be regarded with suspicion on -account of their strongly developed acrid qualities; thus the leaves of -the _R. flammula_, if applied to the skin, will, in a very short time, -cause large and painful blisters. The _R. acris_ is equally poisonous; -and the _R. arvensis_, or corn crowfoot, is extremely injurious to -cattle and sheep. The _R. aquatilis_ does not possess these dangerous -qualities; on the contrary, it may be collected and given as fodder in -times of scarcity or drought, and the animals will not only eat it, but -thrive upon it. It is a very - -[Illustration: _Water Crowfoot._] - -widely spread species: the placid waters of regions so different from -each other in climate as Lapland and Abyssinia are equally favourable to -its growth, and the lakes and slowly running streams of California are -powdered over with its brilliant blossoms, as we see them in our English -pools. The water crowfoot affords us also a beautiful example of that -adaptability of form to the circumstances of the plant’s existence which -we may so frequently trace in the works of nature. It will be noticed in -the illustration that two very distinct forms of leaf are represented; -and, on examining the natural plant, it will be found that the simpler -form of leaf floats upon the surface of the water, while the lower and -more minutely divided leaves are submerged. Imagine the respective -positions of these leaves reversed, and it would speedily be apparent -that the finely cut leaves were unable to support the blossoms, and to -expose them to the vivifying rays of the sun, while the simpler form of -leaf would, by the action of the water, speedily be torn into long -shreds, the principal veins alone remaining, and very much resembling -the actual form that we meet with in the case of the submerged leaves. -In employing the water crowfoot in ornamental art, it appears to us that -the two great features most highly characteristic of it, and therefore -to be embodied in a design, are, first, the number of its blossoms; and, -secondly, the two distinct kinds of leaf; the simpler form being the -most prominent, but the other, though subordinate, as in the case of the -natural plant, to be indicated, and its presence felt. The _R. bulbosus_ -is the species so frequently met with in the carvings of the Decorated -period of Gothic art, an especially beautiful example of its use being -seen in a capital in the doorway in the Chapter-house at Southwell -Minster, Notts. The _R. aquatilis_, so far as we have had opportunity of -observation, appears to have been entirely overlooked. Illustrations of -the water crowfoot will be met with in V. W. 95; E. B. 18. - -Having thus briefly indicated some few points of interest in the -foregoing British plants, we draw our remarks to a close; it must not, -however, be supposed that all the material at our disposal was -exhausted. We fear rather to weary the reader than to exhaust the stores -which nature affords; hence we limit our remarks to fifty plants, -leaving many equally valuable ones untouched; such plants as the -bird’s-foot trefoil, chicory, cowslip, forget-me-not, meadow vetchling, -silver-weed, and stork’s-bill, being fully as well adapted to the -various purposes of ornamental art as those we have, in the body of our -text, referred to; in fact, the whole of those just mentioned were, -together with many more, indexed as a portion of our plan, and were only -cut out when it was found that a catalogue thus amplified would stretch -to an inordinate length. Though we have, in the course of our remarks on -each plant, been careful to indicate to our readers the books he should -consult for illustrations of the natural growth of the flower in -question, we cannot conclude without again strongly advising the -designer, wherever it is at all practicable, to go direct to nature, as -a series of sketches of even the roughest character has an ornamental -value and variety which are not always found in book-illustrations, and, -moreover, the knowledge of the plant acquired in actually delineating it -is worth far more than any study of the written descriptions of others. -These sketches should of course be made when the plant is available, and -not left till an emergency arises, and when, very possibly, the plant, -if found at all, may not be in satisfactory condition for ornamental -work. Whenever, therefore, a plant possessing valuable properties for -decorative work is met with, a drawing of the general growth and -enlarged details of its more artistically valuable parts should be made -and stored up for future use. A designer cannot have too many such -reserves of material, though he may very easily have too few. Those who -have never fairly searched may, however, be under the impression that -but little practical good could come of any such seeking, as, for want -of experience, they unknowingly underrate the wealth that, at the -expense of a short railway journey into the country, is theirs for the -gathering. To test this we set out one day in June, and the result of a -stroll of barely two and a half hours was conclusive on this point. In -addition to many plants in seed, or which, from their foliage, were -worthy of introduction into art-work, no less than seventy-four were met -with in flower; many of these, as the dog-rose, blackberry, white -bryony, comfrey, mallow, hawthorn, and silver-weed, being excellent for -carving; while the bladder campion, forget-me-not, meadow cranesbill, -ground-ivy, meadow vetchling, cinquefoil, oxalis, and honeysuckle, would -be valuable for lighter work--muslins, papers, or lace. We cannot doubt -that the interest thus evolved from a direct study of nature would be a -growing one; that not only would the actual result in art-work be the -better for it, but also that the enjoyment derived from the study would -be such as to render the pursuit one of far more interest than those who -have not yet experienced it can realise. - - “Happy is he who lives to understand, - Not human nature only, but explores - All natures--to the end that he may find - The law that governs each; and where begins - The union, the partition where, that makes - Kind and degree, among all visible beings; - The constitutions, powers, and faculties, - Which they inherit--cannot step beyond, - And cannot fall beneath; that do assign - To every class its station and its office, - Through all the mighty commonwealth of things; - Up from the creeping plant to sovereign man. - Such converse, if directed by a meek, - Sincere, and humble spirit, teaches love: - For knowledge is delight; and such delight - Breeds love; yet, suited as it rather is - For thought and to the climbing intellect, - It teaches less to love than to adore: - If that be not indeed the highest love.” - WORDSWORTH. - - - - -II. - -SEA-WEEDS AS OBJECTS OF DESIGN. - -BY S. J. MACKIE, F.G.S., F.S.A. - - -I. - -As in the world of human life, so in the world of nature--from the -humblest and meekest the greatest lessons may be learned; and there is -often as much worthy of admiration and study in the neglected as in the -known and appreciated. The pure metal lies not on the surface, but the -gold is extracted from the solid rock, or picked up, after much labour, -among the common sands; and many things lie out of the beaten path from -which the artist and the student might gather fresh fancies. Twice a day -rises and falls the great tide of ocean, and its heavings were not less -constant when the trilobite and astrolepis were inhabitants of -primordial depths; still twice a day it ebbs and flows, and the stony -mountains have treasured the fragments of the weeds it plucked from -pre-Adamic shores in memory of its ancient toil. - -Bright are the flowers of the earth, the first and choicest of -ornaments. Pure, simple, and holy, their charms can never decay, though -familiarity and inconsistency may vulgarise, and innumerable -misappropriations make us sometimes wish for the contrasts that other -less showy objects would afford. While the fields are radiant with -their beauty, and the gentle zephyrs fragrant with their scented odours, -the great tide ebbs and flows over the flowerless plants of the sea. -Around the huge rocks the perennial fringes of olive fuci undulate in -graceful folds among the swelling waves, and the tall tangle bows its -pliant stem as - - “The ocean old,-- - Centuries old,-- - Strong as youth, and as uncontrolled, - Paces restless to and fro, - Up and down the sands of gold.” - -For ages have the weeds of the sea been heedlessly disregarded or -despised. The vilest epithet the polished Roman knew was _alga projecta -vilior_. Horace, too, wrote _alga inutilis_; and there may yet be many -to exclaim with the Scotch professor of the last century, “Pooh, pooh, -sir! only a bundle of sea-weeds!” But when the apostle Peter slept at -the house of Simon the tanner he dreamt a great dream--a dream memorable -to the end of time--a dream that was a waking truth to be set in golden -letters, and engraven on the hearts of rich and poor, wise and -unwise--“There is nothing common nor unclean.” - -The Chinese believe there is one word expressive of all excellence, so -exquisite that no one can pronounce it, although it can be written and -perceived by the eyes. That word is stamped alike on “the vile sea-weed” -and on the lovely flower. I do not claim for both an equal rank,--the -cottage may be charming, and not vie with the palace; and “the pride of -the village” may want the grace of “the ladye of high degree,”--but I do -claim for the neglected vegetation of the seaside an elegance of form, -and structure, a suggestiveness of mathematical designs, a poetry of -association and typical expression, a simplicity and modest -gracefulness, which will entitle it to the best consideration of the -designer. - -World-wide in distribution, the sea-weeds are accessible to every one; -and it is not the rarest that are, for ornamental purposes, the most -valuable. The beauty of a manuscript tempted England’s greatest monarch -to the acquirement of letters, and the commonest weed may be the -incentive to the perusal of one of Nature’s choicest books. Wherever the -briny waters wash the coasts, in marshes even where the salt sea -penetrates but seldom in the year, on rocks and stones, and piers and -piles, winter or summer, from the land of gold to the Canaries, from the -soil of the Hottentot and Caffre to the ice-bound country of the Lapp, -from the floating meadows of the tropics to the snowy regions of the -poles--there grow the crisp sea-weeds--there may be gathered in endless -variety the chastest patterns of simplicity. All the associations of the -sea are grand and glorious, and the goddess of beauty came from the foam -of its waves. In the sublime language of ancient mythology, the Ocean -was the first-born of Heaven and Earth, that was wedded to the child of -the land and the sky. Are there no gems of classic imagery in the -bronzed belt that girdles its giant form? Have the thousand daughters of -Atlas and Tethys all taken to groves and cities, and have the Nereides -become the attendants of Flora? Are the tears of Calypso and the loves -of Amphitrite forgotten? Has the memory of Sappho passed for ever away, -and have the green and olive nurslings of the surge no affinity with the -crystal phœnix that arose from their ashes in the Phœnicians’ -fire? - -There is a point whence life and vegetation seem to diverge--the simple -cell; where the algæ meet the monads, and most mysterious processes and -elaborations are carried on by means the simplest but most astounding. -Of cell upon cell are the sea-weeds built, and by cells or spores cast -loose from their substance are their species reproduced, as certainly -and as surely as plants by the marriage of the flowers. Of cellular -tissue entirely does the sea-weed consist; of cell upon cell alone is -woven all the varied drapery of the deep. A mere sac, empty, or -containing a fluid or granular substance, absorbs the surrounding -fluids, assimilates them in its membranous walls, consolidates their -carbon and nutritious substances, grows, divides, each portion swells -again to its parent size, each again divides, and so the splitting cells -increase and multiply. The rapidity with which some of the common -confervæ of our ponds are thus developed is well known; and it is not -unusual to find loathsome pools, that were black at dawn with -decomposing filth, covered at eve with a floating verdure rapidly and -energetically extracting its nutriment out of the pollution, and -liberating the gas of animal life--oxygen--into the atmosphere, in lieu -of pestilential effluvia. The snow-plant, the _Protococcus nivalis_, is -perhaps the best-known instance of the rapid development of cell-plants -properly so called. In a few hours whole tracts of the white snow of -northern lands will assume the hue of the battle-field; and from another -species the waters of the Arabian Gulf have acquired their memorable -name of Red Sea. - -Above the limits of the lichen incrusting the peaks of mountains, and in -the unplumbed abysses of the deep below the region of the nullipore, -there the cell-plants swarm by myriads; and even the air powders the -ropes of ships at sea with the atomic dust that had vegetated among the -clouds. - -I have claimed for the sea-weeds the attractions of simplicity, and I -claim beauty of outlines and gracefulness of forms even for the simplest -of the simple--the cell-plants. Forms! outlines of cell-plants! Would -not a single species content the naturalist? The ever-varying Hand that -is traced in all around has touched these lowly objects with charms and -wonders in the most exquisite modifications of form and the most -delicate sculpture. The invisible is not the less beautiful that it is -unseen; the physician owes much to these little things--why not the -artist? Are there no laws of symmetry in natural objects, as there are -of mechanics and of force? no sympathetic principles of harmony of -colour with form, as of structure with locomotion or fixity? Even in -these humble plants there are traces of that divine delicacy which may -be observed and appreciated--an expression of that one word which cannot -be spoken. - -For the present attention is confined to those forms of algæ which -exhibit the second stage in the development of vegetation--the linking -of these cells, or cell-plants, together, which is naturally effected by -their self-division and growth, without actual separation of the parts. -And here the transitions exhibit those almost insensible gradations -which have led some powerful minds to view the highest structures, and -even intellectual man, as the consummation only of previous states and -changes. But whatever ideas may be entertained of the manner by which -the creative energy has worked, the results and the power, the ends and -the means, are alike astounding, whether the monad or the cell were -elaborated into the animal or the plant, or both were produced by a -thought to fulfil their purposes in the economy of life. The globular -membranous sacs or cells divide in a linear direction, and a string of -the tiniest beads results. In the cylindrical cell--for the forms of the -cells are in themselves various, both naturally as well as by the -exercise of mutual pressure and other influences--a transverse partition -is formed; the two ends are produced; in each of these again the same -process is repeated, and a thread-like species is formed. Other globules -adhere side by side, developing the membranous expansions of cellular -tissue, in which we recognise the first appearance of the leaf. In the -clinging together of the cylindrical fibres we perceive likewise the -first rudiments of the branch and stem: in such cases, when the -elongated cells of the fibres are of an unequal length, a continuous -stem or cord is produced, varied only as it is enlarged or swollen by -the methodical aggregation of greater numbers, or tapering by the -prolongation of the central threads beyond the rest, or by the less -robust condition of the young cells. - -If the cell-cylinders are of _equal_ length, nodes and internodes, like -the joints of a reed, are produced; and by the bifurcation of the cells -of the extremities branching fronds and ramuli result. Thus by this -cell-splitting are formed the delicate branching forms of the -rhodosperms (red sea-weeds), the paper-like membranous expansions of the -ulvaceæ, the jagged fronds of the fuci, and the stout trunk of the -gigantic lessonia. Thus the progress of the general plan, from the -conception within the ovule, is traced, species by species, and genus by -genus, until we pass ashore with the zostera and a few other similar -borderers, and ascend through the mosses, ferns, and grasses, to the -flowering plants and trees, and reach the summit of the second organic -kingdom, where mind alone seems wanting to complete the conditions of -life. Indeed, were it not for the perfection of all things around us, we -might regard the formation of beautiful flowers and massive trees as -arising from an imperfection--namely, the incomplete separation of the -primitive cells in their self-division--and that Nature had turned the -hint to most admirable and wonderful account, that she had improved upon -it, and not only joined firmly together the sides of the connected -cells, but in many of the thread-like species had enclosed them, for -their better protection from disjunction, in gelatinous or mucous -cylindrical sheaths, which may be fancifully, if not really, regarded as -the first symptoms of the cuticle or bark. Most of the filiform algals -are fresh water, but many of them are marine; and among the tufts of -confervæ in brackish pools, or the floating scum on the surface of -polluted water, along the muddy sides of ditches, as well as coating -damp rocks and spray-splashed cliffs, upon decaying heaps of sea-wrack, -on floating planks drifting ashore - -[Illustration: _Oscillatoria nigro-viridis._] - -[Illustration: _Oscillatoria spiralis._] - -[Illustration: _Calothrix semiplena._] - -in fleecy masses, or bearding with silky hairs the fronds of the -sea-weeds themselves, we shall find abundant illustrations of such -primitive types for our present purpose--that of slightly tracing some -of the variations and adaptations of particular parts and organs by -which Nature effects the beautification of the objects themselves. Nor -as we regard these objects under the microscope--for it will require the -high powers of that instrument to develop their minute structure--can we -avoid being struck with the elegance of the twistings and contortions, -the lacings and interlacings, of even the most simple threads, as they -congregate and combine to form those dense masses, velvety tufts, or -hazy films by which their myriads are made evident to the human eye. The -development of certain cells into spores, and the wonderful generative -processes by which the algæ are propagated, belong, however interesting, -more to the domains of natural history than to our present inquiry. -Suffice it to say that, by the impregnation of the endochrome of one -cell by that of another, the spores--or seeds, as for expressiveness -they may here be termed--are produced by the granulation of the mixed -matter. Now, in the different aspects and conditions of these -spore-cells arises that first divergence from the mere thread of beads -by which Nature, while she retains the principle and object of the organ -itself in its adaptation to special conditions, seems to vary in every -possible manner and way, not only in form and sculpture, but often in -colour, her most primitive organizations. Even the contraction of the -endochrome itself, in the granulating process, by the production of -intermittent vacant spaces, adds a pleasing variation to many of these -moniliform filaments. - -[Illustration: _Sphærozyga Berkeleyana._] - -[Illustration: _Spermosira Harveyana._] - -[Illustration: _Sphærozyga Carmichaelii._] - -[Illustration: _Sphærozyga Thwaitesii._] - -In some species of this class the continuity of the congregated cells is -interrupted, besides by the spore cells, by a connecting cell, or -heterocyst, differing in form from either, and not unusually of an -entirely opposite and contrasting colour. Such is the case with the -_Spermosira Harveyana_, a very minute species of nostoc, found on dead -leaves in the summer month of June. The rudimentary cells of its -exquisite curved filaments are small cylinders, the spore capsules -completely spherical, and the heterocysts subquadrate, inclining to -oval. The colours vary in each, and are in the first of a translucent -bluish green,--of course, therefore, the prevailing hue,--which is -charmingly relieved by the deep brown of the second and the pale pink of -the last. - -These constitutional forms, in their varieties and adaptations, their -manner of growth and development, constitute the entire structure of the -whole tribe of sea-weeds; and therefore we ought to find the chief -features of any elegance these humble forms possess continued and -elaborated, as they really are, in the more complex conditions of the -higher fuci. In the sections of the sea-weeds, therefore, even as made -for the scientific elucidation of their structure, we may expect to -find, as we undoubtedly shall do, many hints and lessons. - -The true form of the cell is perhaps the globe, but it is more commonly -presented to us as the cylinder, the conditions and outlines of which -are varied almost _ad infinitum_, as by the various effects of growth -and pressure the cells are forced into hexagons, pentagons, and other -mathematical shapes, or their lines of junction are disposed in -undulating tracery of the most elegant and intricate patterns. - -[Illustration: - - _Magnified Transverse Section of Arthrocladia villosa._ -] - -Of the few sections we have engraved as illustrations, the first is that -of a pretty knotted sea-weed, rather rare, but still not uncommon on the -southern coasts of our island in the summer and autumn seasons--the -_Arthrocladia villosa_. Around the tubular axis the larger rings are -disposed,--to which circle upon circle of the smaller succeed to the -verge of the periphery, yielding to the forms of the intermediate -cavities in numerous appropriate shapes. In the second we have given a -cross section of the compressed frond of the _Desmarestia ligulata_, an -inhabitant of the tidal pools at extreme low water on most parts of our -coasts. An internal jointed tube passes up the centre of the frond, and -gives rise to the obscure midrib perceptible on the surfaces of the -sides; on either side the larger cells are disposed in two opposing flat -arcs, and compressed into shapes more or less hexagonal, outside of -which, in the second row, the pentagonal form prevails, and then the -intermediate exterior and interior spaces are filled by smaller cellules -of more irregular outlines. - -[Illustration: _Magnified Transverse Section of Frond of Desmarestia -ligulata._] - -[Illustration: _Magnified Transverse Section of Spore-bearing Receptacle -of Fucus vesiculosus._] - -The third section is made across one of the spore-bearing receptacles -which tip--as yellow warty excrescences--the flat olive fronds of the -common bladder-weed, _Fucus vesiculosus_, so common in dense meadows -everywhere on our shores. The interior, filled with mucus, is traversed -by a network of jointed fibres, which communicate with the spherical -conceptacles immersed in the outer substance, and containing the spores -and the antheridia. That there are other and many sections far more -intricate and beautiful any one can testify who has ever turned over the -fine plates of Professor Harvey’s “Phycologia Britannica,” his -admirable papers in the publications of the Smithsonian Society, or the -noble folio volume of Postel and Ruprecht; but in these simple ones here -given--and selected on that very account--we find Nature contriving -elegant and pleasing devices by the mere repetition and combination of -the circle, the hexagon, or the pentagon, and producing by such means a -pleasing unity and richness of effect instead of a sameness or a -poverty. At any rate, whenever Nature does produce a beautiful object, -we shall never be the worse for examining the principles by which she -has worked, and it is in the least complicated that we must first hope -to find the rudimentary laws of her beauty-building. With rule and -compass we can excel her in accuracy--with reason, experience, and -remembrance, we can improve upon her labours in our artificial -productions; but, notwithstanding the many exquisite objects of art -produced by our modern jewellers, there is by far too much -conventionality and routine in the more ordinary bijouterie of every-day -wear; and we might from such sections alone acquire many novelties in -the setting of gems, pearls, and pebbles, as well as gain many -advantages over the arbitrary whims of an unguided, although it may be a -cultivated, mind. Not only might the real be thus improved by adopting -the mathematical solids or traceries thus suggested, but there are -numerous articles of mock jewellery in which shells, fictitious agates, -and inferior cameos are largely used, the designers for which might be -advantageously employed for a season by the seaside, where their eyes -would become accustomed to the sober olive of the weeds; and it might -then be found that a bronze setting would not only be more truthful, -but more useful and chaste, than a hypocritical gilt surface, that -reveals at every touch the baser metal beneath. And here, with these few -words of explanation and suggestion, for the present let me leave this -unworked vein--merely adding that the longitudinal sections are as -fanciful as the transverse, and in viewing the latter we may oftentimes -imagine we are examining fairy ribands and laces of the most delicate -texture. - -But however complicated the combinations of the cellular and vascular -tissues become as we ascend in the scale of creation, the development of -forms and tints in every natural object is as dependent upon fixed laws -as the beauty and colouring of a picture on the skill and innate genius -of the artist. Few artists, however, if any, work by rule; in their -studies they attain instinctively, as it were, a conceptive knowledge of -the beautiful; they find Nature ever varying, and they find variety the -source of beauty; they find that an object composed of lines contrasts -pleasantly with circles; that the upraised hands of a speaker should be -opposed by the folded arms of the listeners--the energetic by the -prostrate; and so they go on, acquiring a science by perception, of -which the more ethereal portion has never yet been reduced to written -rules, and is so subtle that perhaps it never will be. That designers -work more usually by their innate taste and their manual skill is -evinced by the many elegant absurdities that one constantly meets. - -And now I would arrest the first objection that could be raised against -the sea-weeds as objects of design--their inapplicability on the ground -of appropriateness. There is an appropriateness, the world will say, -about flowers; they have a language of their own, in which they speak -the rarest poetry; the saints of all the days of the year have their -dedications of these gems of the fields; the nymphs of the forest and -dell, the Naiades and mythological celestials without end have -patronised them; besides, it is so natural to paper our walls with -roses, to have garlands woven in our dresses; and our maidens only deck -their hair with the artificial because the real will fade. What more -proper than a plate of leaves for fruit, or a decanter ornamented with -grapes? True; but what more absurd than a vase of cabbage-leaves -supported on the flourishing tails of twisted dolphins; or a jug -composed of a gigantic head, from which we pour the contents through the -perforated body of a swan, with its neck immersed in a sturdy flag, and -of such reversed proportions and of such diminutive size that a whole -flock might roost in the interior of an egg, without any of them -experiencing that unpleasant inconvenience which nursery rhymes -attribute to the old lady who lived in the shoe? These are broad -absurdities, although the objects themselves may be elegant and of -costly ware: thus showing at once that the grace of natural objects is -dependent upon the laws of mathematical form, for there is nothing in -the subjects we have noticed to interest--no hidden allusion--and all -that is pleasing arises from the lines of contour. But there are more -subtle misapplications, which ordinarily escape detection. Is it quite -correct to bind the tendrils of the vine round the unpretending jugs -which are dedicated to the pure fluid of the teetotaler, or those that -are charged with foaming ale? to defend our butter with a belt of -hissing snakes, or pass jets of sweet water through fountains of -gigantic cockle-shells and marine monsters? And yet many of these things -we constantly forgive; then surely we might extend some of that mercy, -if they required it, to the sea-weeds, which we do not withhold from -reptiles, especially if it can be shown that they are available for more -artistic purposes than for pretty picture-making in albums and herbaria, -or for fancy baskets, with a hackneyed apologetic legend, in bazaars. - -[Illustration: _Ulva linza._] - -It cannot be expected that the designer should carry on the laborious -researches of the man of science, or make the delicate sections which -the naturalist finds necessary for the determination of species and the -comprehension of the phenomena of structure and vitality; that he -should have one eye for the microscope, and the other for his pencil; -nor that the philosopher should have all the accomplishments of the -artist; but as the boundless universe is dependent upon everything that -exists for its unity and harmony, so art cannot neglect even natural -sciences with impunity, for, at least, every branch is capable of adding -an expression or a charm. Pardon, therefore, the simple belief that even -the rudiments of vegetable structure and the section of a sea-weed or a -plant are not unworthy of inspection for artistic purposes, and that -they may _suggest_, if not actually exhibit, exquisite combinations of -mathematical figures which are not inappropriate decorative ornaments -for most varied purposes. - -[Illustration: _Fucus nodosus._] - -Along high-water mark, as high as the spray bedews the rugged beds of -stone, grow the green confervæ; within the tidal zone is the territory -of the olive fuci; and the deep is the home of the red weeds, sometimes -to be found at dead low water, and even higher on the shore, in like -manner as algæ of vivid green are traced to depths of thirty, forty, and -even fifty fathoms; for although the rules hold generally good, there -are exceptions--as it is said there must be to all rules, to prevent -their becoming axioms. Such, too, of olive, red, and green, is the -artificial arrangement by which botanists have classified the algæ, the -colours and characters being sufficiently associated and distinctive for -even scientific grouping. - -Having glanced already at the species of lowest organization, let us -take one other instance of the applicability of sea-weeds as objects of -design. A dozen collected at random, in one’s walk from the edge of the -beach to the rim of the tide, would more than suffice for many different -applications and manufactures; and the very commonest are equally -valuable, and often better than the rarest. Take, then, the first -handful you can collect. Among the gatherings of such a parcel are sure -to be found some very applicable forms, such as the _Ulva linza_, -represented at page 107; the _Fucus nodosus_, page 108; the _Fucus -vesiculosus_, page 103; the _Fucus serratus_, here given; _Halidrys -siliquosa_, page 110; _Dictyota dichotoma_; _Laminaria Phyllitis_; _L. -digitata_; _L. saccharina_, &c. - -[Illustration: _Fucus serratus._] - -[Illustration: _Halidrys siliquosa._] - -It is not in the herbarium, not in drawings, not when dried and -shrivelled, and black and contorted, that we can see the beauty of -sea-weeds; such are no more than the bleared and withered mummies of -Egyptian men to the fresh vigour of youth: it is while free and waving -in the waters that we must search for the best elucidations of their -habits and gracefulness. Years ago Ray wrote in his earnest and noble -manner:--“Let us then consider the works of God, and observe the -operations of his hands. Let us take notice of, and admire, his infinite -wisdom and goodness in the formation of them: no creature in this -sublunary world is capable of so doing besides man, and yet we are -deficient herein: we content ourselves with the knowledge of the -tongues, or a little skill in philology, or history perhaps, and -antiquity, and neglect that which to me seems more material--I mean -natural history, and the works of creation. I do not discommend or -derogate from those other studies; I should betray mine own ignorance -and weakness should I do so: I only wish that _this_ might be brought -into fashion among us. I wish men would be so equal and civil as not to -disparage, deride, and villify those studies which themselves skill not -of, or are not conversant in; no knowledge can be more pleasant than -this, none that doth so satisfie and feed the soul, in comparison -whereto that of words and phrases seem to me insipid and jejune.” How he -would have rejoiced at the popular movement introduced by Mr. Mitchell -at the Zoological Gardens, and since so powerfully backed up by other -colossal vivaria of the day; the aquaria at the Crystal Palace, -Brighton, Ramsgate, and other places; and what results would he not have -predicted when, in walking through the mammontainted streets of our -great metropolis, he passed dozens of shops for the sale of aquaria, -vivaria, glass jars, siphons, prawns, mussels, anemones, efts, and -sticklebacks! All these and many more living things cannot be kept and -nourished, watched and fed, without the spread of that knowledge which -is known, and the acquirement of a vast deal that is new. Naturalists -will no longer be able to write books on things they have never seen; -and hasty jumpings to conclusions, and closet speculations, will be -rarer as the chance of detection becomes the greater, and the spirit in -which all true men of science do labour, and ever have done, is the more -rightly appreciated. The Merry Monarch’s little spaniel has its collar -of red morocco, with its silver plate, and the imprisoned songster of a -warmer clime is confined in a pretty cage. The love of natural history -is not the cherished taste of the poor--it is not bounded by the -circumscribed limits of the middle ranks, who find in a glass jar of -living objects from the pond or sea a refreshing pastime from the heavy -cares of daily bread, and a cooling relief from toil, or the feverish -anxieties of money-making; but the love of natural history lives no less -in high places and delicate minds, whose susceptibilities have been -heightened by every kind of culture, gaze with delight on the glittering -armour of the scaly fish, and watch with interest the actions, motions, -and habits of the thousand instructive objects to be collected at any -time in a single tide. How charming to give a little elegance to the -transparent homes to which we consign our new-made pets! We no longer -confine ourselves to cheap glass and zinc fountains. White marble and -bronze have brought our favourites into the boudoir and the -drawing-room. Look at the festoons of fuci on the rugged rocks: have not -worse things been chiselled and cast? and at that tall bundle of crisp -_Laminaria Phyllitis_, as it stands erect in the transparent water. How -charmingly a crystal vase would rest upon its slightly diverging crests, -like the abacus on the leaves of a Corinthian pillar! how delicate the -slight frillings of the margins of its translucent fronds! - -Various other applications are at once suggested by the little group we -have figured; such are mouldings, beadings, tracery, and cornices, and -for the sculpture of mahogany and other dark woods; and in our progress -through the more elaborate forms of sea-weeds we shall find very much to -admire as elegant, and as applicable to manufactures and to the -ornamentation of various objects--often of opposite purposes. - - -II. - -As one coming in a strange land for the first time, on a junction of -many roads, finds himself bewildered, and hesitating in his choice which -to take, being ignorant which leads to the fairest places, and not -knowing what beauties he may miss by selecting the one or the other, so -in displaying the attractions of sea-weeds for artistic purposes--a -field where so little has been attempted--it is not easy to decide, -where so many courses appear to be open. It is not the difficulty of a -beginning, for the start has been made; nor of the end, for a -precipitate retreat has happened to more than one illustrious character; -and if these pages could prove as entertaining as the immortal Sam’s -valentine, even “a sudden pull up” might only make the reader “wish -there was more.” But the difficulty is in adopting that order of -narration which shall be most attractive in securing for the neglected -sea-weeds their due meed of recognition and reward. - -In the former chapter are figured some of those prevalent species which -no one could fail to find in a walk along the shore: in this, which is -devoted to the olive weeds or true fuci, the illustrations are drawn -chiefly from among others of those common forms which are accessible to -everybody, about which there are no considerations of rarity, pains, or -price, and which indeed are always to be had for the trouble of picking -them up. - -These _Melanosperms_ are characterized by naturalists as plants of an -olive green or brown colour, and as being in their fructification either -monœcious or diœcious, that is, having the distinctive organs on -the same or on different plants. They are propagated by spores, either -developed externally, or singly, or in groups in proper conceptacles, -each spore being enveloped in a pellucid skin called a perispore, and -being in some cases simple, and in others ultimately dividing into two, -four, or eight sporules. Antheridia--a term admitted as indicative only, -and by courtesy in the case of algæ, the actual propriety of the term -being still contested--appear in some; in others are transparent cells -filled with orange-coloured vivacious corpuscles, possessed of free -motion by means of vibratile cilia. The whole group is marine. If any -take objection to the word “plants,” the botanist will tell them that -algæ have a double respiration, like their higher sisters of the -land,--that by day they absorb carbonic-acid gas, and give out the -life-supporting oxygen, and that in the silent hours of the night they -reverse the process, and emit carbonic-acid gas. - -To point out their relations and concordances with terrestrial -vegetation is, however, a very easy task; but not so is it to draw the -line between animality and vegetation. Some authors, indeed, and those -not despicable ones, have gone so far as to assert that the germs of -some sea-weeds, in their first condition, are actually endowed with -life. Be this as it may, no line has yet been drawn which separates -either distinctly or decisively the animal from the plant; and, as Dr. -Lindley truly observes, “whatever errors of observation may have -occurred, those very errors, to say nothing of the true ones, show the -extreme difficulty, not to say impossibility, of pointing out the exact -frontier of either kingdom.” We commence our present division--and shall -follow the like course with the others--with its higher forms, and, -proceeding in descending order, shall in each conclude with those humble -rudimentary forms in which the rigid divisions of classification are -obliterated, and the only differences which can be assigned are, at -best, but little more than arbitrary. - -To me how welcome and how dear are the olive algals of the rocky shores! -Born within sound of the surging waves, for ever singing “their unrhymed -lyric lays”--from infancy to manhood living on the margin of the briny -deep--how fresh and dear to me these much-neglected things! “What -pleasant visions haunt me” of childish hopes and fears; and as again I -seem to - - “Gaze upon the sea, - All the old romantic legends, - All my dreams come back to me.” - -And in Fancy’s realms my drooping thoughts pass on to those homeless -wanderers over the face of the earth, for whom never more the scenes of -their first homes will wear a charm--who, torn from all familiar ties, -and tossed and buffeted on the sea of life, may perish unregarded in -some far-distant land. The surging crests of the great ocean’s waves oft -cast, to moulder on our shores, the weeds and plants of other climes. We -have figured one of these fragments, which, after its long and -boisterous wanderings from the Azores to the eastern shores of the new -world, across the wide Atlantic to our own boreal coasts of the old, has -lost but little of its beauty. In the days of old adventure the matted -cords of this charming species stopped the famous Spaniard’s ships; and -still the long and narrow floating isles of Gulf-weeds--shunned by the -sailor--are the resting-places of myriads of crabs, and other hosts of -ocean’s progenies hide and nestle in its watery bowers. - -But charming as the _Sargassum bacciferum_ is in its gracefulness, and -attractive as it may be in its historic associations, naturalists would -not, of course, admit either itself or its congener, the _Sargassum -vulgare_, as a truly British kind, but would properly regard them as -stray waifs from tropical climes. The generic name is a Latinisation of -the term sargazo, given to the Gulf-weeds by the companions of Columbus, -and will for ever preserve the memory of its first discoverer; while the -ancient specific additamentum of _natans_, or swimming, was highly -characteristic of the habits of the species. - -Next in the ranks, and foremost of the really British weeds, stands the -common, but elegant, _Halidrys siliquosa_, already figured at page 110, -distinguished from all other fuci by the compound structure of its -air-vessels--a character peculiar to it, and to the beautiful _Fucus -osmundaceus_, of the western shores of North America. In the last the -structure is slightly different, the vesicles being constricted at the -joints like strings of beads. The air-vessels of the _Halidrys -siliquosa_ are those pea-pod-like expansions of the frond, divided into -chambers, which seem almost to take the place of leaves in the engraving -(p. 110). - -[Illustration: _Sargassum bacciferum, or Gulf-weed._] - -Intermediate between Halidrys and the true fuci is placed the genus -_Cystoceira_. One of the most elegant of this charming genus is the -heath-like species, _Cystoceira ericoides_. On the shores of the south -of England especially, and over a very considerable geographical range, -extending even to the north of Africa, it may be gathered at almost any -period of the summer or autumn. Under the water it glows with prismatic -colours, and as each twig waves to and fro, the hues vary as the light -glances on its fronds; and while some “seem covered with sky-blue -flowers, others remain dark.” In the air it presents only a glossy -yellow, and in the herbarium all its enchanting beauties of colour are -gone, and unless very great pains and skill have been exercised in the -manipulation, it will have shrunk in drying, and turned black. - -[Illustration: _Magnified View of Receptacle and Vesicle at Apex of -Branch of Cystoceira ericoides._] - -In passing, it will be as well to gather specimens of the rather stiff -and cylindrical _Pycnophycus tuberculatus_, standing alone as it does -_sui generis_. - -Of the true fuci, at page 108 is already figured the knotted one, of -which Scotch boys make whistles (_Fucus nodosus_), and that with the -saw-like edges (_Fucus serratus_), p. 109; but the ordinary -bladder-bearing sort, the _Fucus vesiculosus_, and the more translucent -and bladderless or smooth kind, the _Fucus ceranoides_, and indeed the -whole genus, though common in the extreme, have high claims to the -attention of designers, not alone in the elegance of their outlines and -the disposition of their fronds, but as being the very types and models -of sea-weeds. - -The _Fucus vesiculosus_ was at one time, particularly in the Orkney -Isles, regularly cropped for the manufacture of kelp, and it is also -known to contain a valuable portion of the sweet principle called -mannite. In the cold and inhospitable regions of the polar lands, where -the thick snow has buried the scanty herbage of the fields, the rocks -furnish in their meadows of fuci abundant fodder for the hungry kine, -which regularly, at the retreat of the tide, come down to graze; and if -these pages were not devoted to other arts than the culinary, one might -not unentertainingly give a disquisition on edible sea-weeds, and on the -various means by which they are made subservient to the luxuries or -necessities of man. - -The Icelanders, Greenlanders, the Chinese, and the East Indians have -already made some progress in this department; and nearer home, the -_Chondrus crispus_, “carrageen,” or Irish moss, figured at page 120, has -long ago been placed on the table, in soup, jellies, and blanc-manges. - -Or, if the natural history of the class were the object, one might with -equal pleasure dwell on the marvellous exhibition of the strange -animal-like motions of the troops of zoospores which issue from the -thick yellow slime exuded from the ripe receptacles of the _Fucus -serratus_--motions apparently so voluntary that it is difficult to -consider them as concordant with mere vegetation. - -[Illustration: _Chondrus crispus._] - -I have already hinted at the capabilities of these weeds as suggestive -models for the carver in wood. Now few modern structures are fitted up -with more elegance than our first-class ships, and in them no one will -contend there is not a great and appropriate field for the display of -the ornamental or decorative capabilities of sea-weeds. Here they are at -once appropriate and reminiscent of those shores the voyagers have left -behind--speaking to them, whilst gliding over the sea, of those lands -whence they had departed, and of those other lands which they are -seeking. Around and beneath figure-heads, as scrolls upon the bows or -stern, bordering the panels of the cabin, and modelled to suit the -various machinery on deck, the designer might create a marine -ornamentation as characteristic and as pleasing, and as elaborate, if he -chose, as Corinthian skill developed from the tile-covered plant for the -architecture of the land. - -In bronze or in iron, indeed in all dark metal-work, the fuci could not -fail to be elegant objects, and rich in their grouping and in the -effects produced. In many of those objects, too, which the gilder -prepares, the cockle-shells, or cockle-like scrolls and cups so -prominently displayed might be as elegantly and more appropriately -supported by well-devised groups of algæ than by lilies, fleurs-de-lys, -or traceries of meaningless design. - -One very pretty diminutive species of _Fucus_ (_F. canaliculatus_) grows -on the very edge of the tide, and often where the waves wet the rocks -only with their spray. The chief crop grows certainly above the level of -half-tide, and these plants show a preference for droughty situations; -not unfrequently in the hot days of the summer we find them quite crisp -and dry, but on the return of the tide they again absorb the aqueous -fluid, and recover life and flexibility. So sea-weeds which have long -been shrivelled up in the house will recover in appearance all their -freshness and verdancy on being merely immersed in a glass of salt or -spring water; and the virtues of the former are now brought from the -sea into our homes in the form of Tidman’s Crystals. I make this -allusion because it is important that the artist, living perhaps in some -inland town or city, should know that the natural models he may bring -from the seaside on his holiday trip may be in reality, though not -apparently, usefully retained for future studies. Many of the more -leathery kinds will submit to several resuscitations of this nature, -although, as might be expected, a deterioration and loss of colour, more -or less, take place in each successive instance. The ordinary method of -preserving sea-weeds for natural-history purposes is, as is familiarly -known, to press them between folds of linen and blotting-paper on to -stout drawing-paper, to which by their glutinous substance they firmly -adhere, forming, under the skilfulness of the manipulator, the most -exquisite natural pictures. In all these, however, the very act of -compression, and the spreading out of the object on a flat surface, -gives an unnatural aspect, very different from their free condition. It -may be well, therefore, to state that in some few experiments I have -made I have found that pure glycerine will preserve even the more pulpy -and plump sorts--if I may use that expressive adjective--without even -the slightest change for at least considerable periods. Some of my -specimens have been kept in glycerine for more than eight months, and -are as fresh in substance and in colour as when they were first -collected. Choice samples seem thus capable of being indefinitely -preserved in proper glass or earthen vessels for use at any time by the -designer. - -In a visit to the art-museums at South Kensington I observed two -instances of the introduction of sea-weed: one in Mr. H. Weekes’s noble -statue of a “Young Naturalist,” where, though sparingly made use of, -they can but be regarded as successful innovations; the other in the -collection of imitation Majolica ware, where a large vase has in relief -some fronds of the _Fucus serratus_, which, from their unnaturally -bright green and the want of strict attention to the natural model, are -not so attractive as could have been desired. That sea-weeds, both -painted or impressed upon china and earthenware, are capable of -producing fine results, can scarcely be doubted; and although it cannot -be written of me, as it was of an eminent statesman,-- - - “China’s the passion of his soul-- - A cup, a plate, a dish, a bowl, - Can kindle wishes in his breast, - Inflame with joy, or break his rest,”-- - -I shall not willingly give up the potter’s art as intractable to my -purpose. - -The genus _Desmarestia_, which follows the fuci in natural order, offers -some neat patterns for the painting of pottery and china ware, -especially in the long oval fronds of the _Desmarestia ligulata_, a -microscopic section of which is given at page 103. Its branching fronds, -so leaf-like in their development, and yet so unleaf-like in reality, -tempted me to figure a single branch of one of these plants, as an -example of its peculiar characters, which, in their pale olive-green and -purple hues, could scarcely fail of showing to advantage on the white -translucent ground of aluminous materials. We have plates of a -particularly small size dedicated to the curdled produce of the -dairy--in plain English, we have - -[Illustration: _Portion of Desmarestia ligulata._] - -cheese-plates, we have soup-tureens and vegetable-dishes, meat-plates -and dessert-plates; and why might we not have articles appropriated to -the service of fish, and decorated with sea-weeds? I have frequently -seen, in drying these objects, their forms impressed through the thick -blotting-paper, and forming very beautiful tracery in low relief on the -opposite side. Such impressions have always suggested the idea of a -similarly simple, chaste, and elegant ornamentation of the plainer and -commoner wares. The impressions left by the _Chondrus crispus_, -_Dictyota dichotoma_, and other flat and interlacing forms, are most -admirable for such a process. Simple accidents may often lead to -unexpected results; and Grecian legends even attribute the discovery of -modelling in relief to the tracing upon the wall, by a potter’s -daughter, of the shadow of her departing lover’s face, which her father -modelled afterwards in clay. - -[Illustration: _Root of Laminaria._] - -Passing by the genera _Arthrocladia_, _Sporochnus_, and _Carpomitra_, -which all, in a greater or lesser degree, offer pleasing running -patterns for the painting of porcelain or earthenware, and of flat -surfaces in general, we come to the noble family of the _Laminariæ_, so -well and ordinarily known under the names of sea-girdles and tangle. The -size and expanse of the fronds of the various species of _Laminariæ_ -exposed, in the bleak and unprotected situations in which they grow, to -the full fury of the waves, are provided for in their leathery -toughness, the rope-like stem, and the numerous attaching discs of their -branching roots. The root of the sea-weed differs very materially from -the root of a plant: through it no nutritious sustenance is conveyed to -the algal; it draws nothing from the soil; it is furnished with no -organs; it is merely an adhesive holdfast, similar in principle to the -sucker by which street-boys lift bricks and stones; it sends down no -ramifying fibres into crevices of the rocks, but merely adheres to the -surface. How far their peculiar characters could be elegantly made use -of for the handles of vases, covers, lids, and other objects and parts -of articles which require to be lifted or raised, must remain to be -developed by the practical designer and manufacturer. - -The mussels and shell-fish which attach themselves to the firm rootlets -of the tangle, or which spin together or nestle in the meandering fronds -of the smaller kinds, often produce groupings worthy of much admiration, -and which would form material aids in the elaboration of practical -patterns. - -As there is much difficulty in expressing in a greatly reduced drawing a -long and narrow form like that of the common tangle, I have contented -myself with giving a figure of one of the roots, to show how applicable -they are for art-purposes. - -The North American and Kamtschatkan species--the _Laminaria -longicrucis_--has a frond as large as a table-cloth, and a stem of -proportionate length. The English species attain very frequently to six -or eight feet, although in their native habitats they may be gathered of -every size, and in every stage of growth; and to reduce such giants to -the scale of a few inches would give no idea of their grandeur or -beauty. - -Of those immensely long and slender sea-weeds, placed by algologists in -a distinct genus, with the expressive name of _Chorda_, little use, I -think, can be made in the way of design. The mere collector has to wind -them assiduously into a coil in his herbarium; and in their native -element the only purpose they seem to serve is to stop the passage of -boats, or to drown unfortunate swimmers by entanglement about their -legs; for, although often thirty or forty feet in length even on British -shores, and not thicker at their base than a whipcord, they are -extremely tough and tenacious. - -[Illustration: _Dictyota atomaria._] - -The case is very different with the beautiful _Dictyotaccæ_, in which -family is included the splendid _Padina pavonia_, with hues nearly as -bright and as rich as the “eye-spots” on the tail of the glorious bird -from which its specific name is taken. Such a marine beauty was not -likely to escape the attention of even early naturalists, and we -accordingly find it mentioned in the writings of Bauchin and others. -Ellis, although he has no business with it, cannot resist the temptation -to figure it in his famous book on Corallines. - -In the genus _Cutleria_ we are presented with some attractive novelties, -but the typical genus _Dictyota_ merits special attention. - -If the number and variety of names by which an algal was known had any -connection with its charms or its rarity, one - -[Illustration: _Stilophora rhizodes._] - -[Illustration: _Section of a Sorus of Stilophora rhizodes._] - -member at least of the characteristic group, the _Dictyota atomaria_ -ought to be--as it really is--both rare and beautiful. The ancient -_nomen triviale_ of _Phasiana_ expresses well, in its allusion to the -plumage of that handsome bird, the barred and zigzag markings caused by -the scattering in the substance of the frond--almost as one would cast -grains of sand or seeds by the hand--of the dark-coloured spores or -germs. The whole plant, too, exhibits those most delicate gradations of -the primitive hue which are not the least remarkable characteristic of -all sea-weeds. And in what are our designers more deficient--especially -those employed in the decoration of our houses--than in simple and -delicate contrasts, or more especially in those almost insensible -gradations of colours which are so admirable in their effect, and which -are so invariably presented to us alike in the sombre olive and in the -bright greens and reds of the sea-weeds? We have no power to express -these natural gradations in our woodcuts, but there is certainly much in -this way worthy of patient study. In this large and extensive family -there are yet more instances of how various sections and magnificent -portions may possess artistic value. The section of a sorus of -_Stilophora rhizodes_ seems, for example, so like the representation of -a fragment of jewellery, that it cannot fail to excite wonder that a -source so prolific should have been neglected by our workers in gold and -silver, and our setters of pearls and precious stones. - -The _Mesogloia vermicularis_, one of the gelatinous _Chordariaceæ_, is -an ugly weed, but the filaments of the fronds are worthy, -notwithstanding, of being placed under the power of the microscope and -viewed by an artist. - -[Illustration: _Portion of Filaments, Axial and Peripherical, of -Mesogloia vermicularis._] - -So, too, with the hollow cottony _Leathesia_, looking like a macerated -walnut tufting the surface of the rock: only peer into it with -microscopic vision, and a forest of crystal fibres, composed of divided -cells, the lower ones long and slender, the upper shorter, and -supporting little hyaline half-moons on their cusps, springs into -existence. The tiny tufts of the _Elachista_ and _Myrionema_ abound in -bead-chain fibres, while the genera _Cladostephus_ and _Sphacelaria_ -offer more visible patterns of a kind at once unleaf-like and novel. The -_Sphacelaria plumosa_, so wiry and feathery, resembles those curious -members of the animal kingdom, the _Sertulariæ_, as which it is almost -as rigid and as elegant; while the small tufts of the rare _Sphacelaria -ramosa_ are again charming microscopic objects. - -The family _Ectocarpaceæ_ contains a fund of marvellous ideas. One more -genus of British olive weeds alone remains to be mentioned, consisting -of two little parasitic species not uncommon on the fronds of _Chorda -lomentaria_; but though curious and singular in construction, they offer -nothing so tempting as many of those we have been compelled to pass over -in silence. - -[Illustration: _Cladostephus verticillatus._ - -_Portion of a branch._ _One of the ramuli._] - -For the purpose of study, the _Melanosperms_ offer a never-failing -supply, always accessible at low water; but should opportunity arise of -acquiring a knowledge of the _Rhodosperms_, with their fairy forms and -brilliant hues, it should not be neglected, for these deep-water algals -seldom reach us but in broken plants washed ashore; and dried specimens, -flattened and faded, cease to be models for study. As to the -_Chlorosperms_, the _Ulvæ_ are full of grace and beauty, and in the -south of England they are served at table as a relish to roast meat, -under the title of laver, and which is now sold in many London shops. -The _Ulva linza_, figured at p. 107, is a good type of the graceful -outline of this elegant family of sea-weeds. - -[Illustration: _Portion of Sphacelaria plumosa._] - -Oft beneath the warm and brilliant rays of summer’s sun, in shallow -skiff, I have glided on the calm and polished surface of the sea--the -mirror of the glowing sky and heavens beyond--over the dark forests of -tangle waving in the tide, and plucked the pellucid limpets browsing on -their stems; and, peering down into the rugged dells below, have seen -the star-fish crawl with sucker-arms along the rocks, where whelks drill -holes in shells of stone-clad molluscs, to feed upon their soft and -luscious flesh; where sea-anemones, with outspread tentacles, make -gardens of living flowers; and awkward crabs peep out from darksome -nooks at glittering fish, then scramble sidelong back again into their -holes. - -In winter, by the raging waves--when skaters swift o’er slippery ice -with rapid pace were gliding; when ears were tingling with the biting -cold, and tender people roasting over blazing fires--I have paced along -the congealed sands to see the shell-fish frozen hard and fast, glued to -the rocks; and sea-weeds, crisp and rigid, recover life and elasticity -in the flowing tide. - -In time of spring I have hunted over the slippery meadows of our shores -for the instinct-led travellers from the deep, coming to the shallow -tidal zone to propagate their tribes. And in the golden season I have -watched the sportive play, in rocky pools o’ershadowed by these graceful -weeds, of iridescent annelide and cilia-paddled beroe--have tracked the -skipping shrimps along the silvery sands, or have patiently followed the -_Patella vulgaris_ in its solemn march to graze upon the verdant ulvæ, -and again returning at the change of tide to adjust its conical house -with stately nicety on its proper site. - - - - -III. - -ON THE CRYSTALS OF SNOW AS APPLIED TO THE PURPOSES OF DESIGN. - -BY JAMES GLAISHER, F.R.S. - - -I. - -Snow, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, is suggestive of a soft -flocculent matter of considerable opacity, falling in flakes, and, as -compared with water, of little density--a foot of fresh-fallen snow -producing but from a tenth to a twelfth part of water. Snow, however, -does not always fall in flakes; under certain conditions of atmosphere -and temperature it occasionally falls in groups of slender needle-like -particles or spiculæ, which under the microscope exhibit no structural -detail worthy of remark, but are irregular and jagged in outline. This -is one of the most imperfect forms of snow crystallization, and occurs -generally at a temperature but little above freezing, and at the -commencement of a severe and continued frost, or immediately preceding a -general thaw. - -At other times a light feathery snow may be seen to fall, composed -almost entirely of stars of six spiculæ or radii, united in the centre -by a white molecule. These are seldom less than from four to five tenths -of an inch in diameter, and are generally collected in tufts of -half-a-dozen or more together, which in calm weather waft uninjured to -the ground. Sometimes these are mixed with other stars of more intricate -figure, to be spoken of presently. Fig. 1 illustrates this variety, and -is enlarged to double the proportions of the original. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -Sometimes a heavy fall of ordinary snow may be accompanied by a number -of minute specks, glistening among the flakes like fragments of talc or -mica, as seen sparkling in a mass of granite. On careful investigation -these prove to be thin laminated hexagons of the most perfect delicacy -and symmetry of form, as shown in Fig. 2. - -The hexagon and star being the base of all the crystals of snow yet -observed, we will proceed to show how the more elaborate figures are -compounded of these two primary elements. - -To explain various peculiarities of structure which occur in several of -the larger drawings, we will refer to the process of crystallization as -carried on at low temperatures on the surface of still or gently-moving -water. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.] - -Water freezes at an angle of 60°. On its first congelation, under -favourable circumstances for observation, we perceive in parts, -generally about the centre and around the margin, a corrugation of its -surface. This corrugation presently discovers a series of distinct -figures, needle-like in form, and analogous to the spiculæ of snow. As -the process continues, to each of these needles, while yet forming, a -serrated incrustation of leafy or arborescent character is attaching -itself, so that in time the greater number of them become each the -centre of a crystalline pinna, not unlike a frond of the lady fern. -Fig. 25 (page 140) is a sketch of one, the size of the original, as -observed by T. G. Rylands, Esq., of Warrington, and sent to us during -the severe winter of 1855. The overlapping observable on one side of the -pinna is a peculiarity generally to be found in three out of the six -leaves forming the entire crystal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.] - -Fig. 26 (page 141) represents the crystal when complete; the drawing was -made by ourselves, and gives with great exactitude the figure of the -needles, which, it will be observed, diverge from the main stem -uniformly at an angle of 60°. The position maintained by them around the -centre of the crystal is beautifully adaptive, and well worth -examination. - -It is not always that the primitive spiculæ are divergent in groups of -six. At times they arrange themselves irregularly in clusters, and -crystallization proceeds with results of a character - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -somewhat different, but scarcely less beautiful, of which Fig. 27 (page -142) may be considered a type. This is analogous to the fanciful forms -of frost seen on the interior of a pane of glass, and is frequently to -be found where the water is very shallow, and where its mixture with -some gritty substance, or blade of grass, or other obstruction, has in -all probability interfered with a more geometric arrangement. By degrees -the whole surface of the water becomes interlaced with needles and -pinnæ, whether singly or in groups, and thin laminated surfaces of ice -which cover all interstices. Then, according to external influences, the -ice either thickens, obliterating all this beautiful tracery, or it -melts away before the rising temperature of the day. It often happens, -however, that these processes occur after dark, or that the water -freezes so rapidly as to disappoint the wishes of the observer. At -moderate temperatures these changes are best observed; but, in our -opinion, they are somewhat dependent on other atmospheric conditions. -The formation of the needles is common to the freezing of water under -all circumstances, and they vary from a few inches to a few feet in -length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -To return to the crystals of snow. Fig. 3 (page 136) is another -elementary figure, common to temperatures about the freezing-point; it -is not often less than half an inch in diameter, and is a miniature copy -of the water crystal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -Another simple order of figures, and containing within themselves the -germ of the most symmetrical combinations, is that of which Figs. 4 and -5 (page 136) are types; they exhibit secondary spiculæ diverging from -the principal radii at an angle of 60°. - -Around the simple it frequently happens that a secondary and smaller -star is arranged, as in Fig. 6 (page 136), the radii of which are -intermediate between those of the former. An angle of 30° is, however, -of unfrequent occurrence, and it seems probable that in this and similar -cases it is the union of two crystals of distinct hexagonal formation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -Sometimes it happens that the secondary spiculæ, which we see in Figs. 4 -and 5, are continued down the main radii until they form a contact with -each other, as in Fig. 7 (page 137). The star thus enclosed about the -centre generally becomes laminated and of great transparency. In other -varieties, as in Fig. 8 (page 137), it is intersected by the rays of the -secondary or intermediate crystal. - -Having traced the elementary principles of these figures to the first -formation of a simple nucleus, we will proceed to the consideration of -the more compound varieties, in which the nucleus is a conspicuous -element of construction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -The figures we have been considering, although possessed of unity of -design in a high degree, are found to exhibit no great perfection of -structural detail when examined beneath a lens; those that we are about -to inquire into belong to a more perfect order, much more minute and -very compound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -Fig. 28 is a figure of this class, much enlarged and drawn as seen -beneath a microscope. It was highly crystallized, and the angles and -planes of which it is composed were sharply and well defined. The prisms -at the end of the radii were cut into facets, and glistened with -brilliancy, as did the six prisms around the centre. The radial arms -were sharply cut, six-sided shafts, very different from the snowy -rounded spiculæ of the elementary figures. It was easily discernible to -the naked eye, and principally those parts which are white in the -engraving, and which communicate to the copy very much the effect of the -original when under the full influence of direct light. The centre is -laminated, hexagonal in form, and within it we perceive the secondary -star of prisms; also that each addition to the radii diverges at an -angle of 60°. - -Fig. 29 is another, highly crystallized, and composed of parallel -prisms, divergent from the radial arms at an angle of 60°, and without -nucleus. The irregular blade-like terminations arise from an ill-advised -eagerness in the observation of their originally very complicated -structure, by which they were in a moment dissolved, without injury, -however, to the symmetry of the figure. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -Fig. 30 is a beautiful compound of the higher order of crystallized -bodies with the more elementary, the nucleus belonging to the former, -and the radii at their extremities to the - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -latter. This at first sight appears an anomaly; but we explain it on the -supposition that the entire structure of the original crystal has been -of a high order, the shafts six-sided, as they remain still at their -base, and the leafy incrustrations to have been regularly distributed -prisms, as in the preceding figure; that the crystal, in its descent, -has passed through various temperatures of intense cold, probably -exchanged for a warmer at one instant of time, in which it has partially -thawed, and again passing into a cold stratum in approaching the ground, -has been once more congealed, giving rise to the white opacity and -irregular form of its terminations. And this explanation is the more -reasonable, as will be gathered from a description of the dissolving or -thawing of these bodies. - -Fig. 31 is a crystal seen just previous to its returning to the -primitive drop of water. Originally composed of the ordinary radial -arms, each supporting prisms of the form seen in Fig. 29, and with a -simple hexagonal nucleus, under the influence of a very slightly -increased temperature the rigidity of each line has become relaxed, -whilst the crystalline matter, all but fluid and no longer heaped up -into prisms, is distributed over a wider area, according to the laws of -attraction and corresponding area of surface. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -A very different order of figures are those of which Figs. 32, 33, 34, -and 35 are types. The originals were exceedingly small--so minute, -indeed, that the specks containing all these beauties of detail were -almost inappreciable to the naked eye. It will readily be perceived that -they differ greatly from the order arising out of the primitive star or -its secondary radii. The base of these must be referred to the hexagon, -as shown at Fig. 2. The most highly elaborate of our illustrations, -shown at Fig. 33, exhibited a succession of planes raised one above -another, the centre of each radial arm intersected by a slender -crystalline shaft laden with delicate prisms. Fig. 35 preserves more the -form of the ordinary hexagon, and was cut very regularly into facets. -Of Figs. 34 and 35 we were unable to observe the exact disposition of -the raised surfaces, and have delineated the outline only: these figures -fell, with several others far more complicated, during the continuance -of a very unusual degree of cold for these latitudes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - - -II. - -We have thus far endeavoured to show the true bases of construction, and -how that crystallization proceeds onwards from the simple forms to the -more complex, and have selected from numerous varieties a few of the -best types illustrative of this progress. Our limits will scarcely -permit us further to individualise these beautiful creations; yet, not -to mislead, it is necessary to refer to an intermediate order, in which -the hexagon star is laden with divergent spiculæ between groups of -prisms. Fig. 36, selected from this very numerous class of figures, was -one of several observed during the cold weather, following upon the -general thaw, which terminated the long-continued and severe frost of -1855. The spiculæ were icicle-like, of the utmost delicacy, opaque, and -well defined; the prisms, on the contrary, were watery, almost rounded, -and, as it seemed, on the verge of dissolution. The entire figure had -the appearance of two distinct orders of formation--the prisms which -belong to a very low temperature, and the spiculæ which are commonly -formed at and about the freezing-point. Fig. 37 is another of the same -class, and in a very intermediate state; the additions to the main radii -are neither prisms nor spiculæ, yet partaking of the character of both: -its peculiarity consists in the tertiary incrustations being placed -downwards towards the centre. This form has been observed only during -very severe cold. - -Fig. 38 is somewhat analogous to the crystals of water; its centre is -hexagonal, but the prisms are irregular crystalline incrustations of the -utmost delicacy and transparency; it was of large size, fully half an -inch in diameter, and glistening like a fragment of talc among the -snow-flakes, was discernible at a considerable distance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -Fig. 39 (page 156) is a specimen of a double crystal; that is, two -similar crystals united by an axis at right angles to the plane of each. -It is highly complex, and the effect of each is more than doubled by the -arrangement. Crystals so united are not unfrequent in severe weather. - -During one winter our observations numbered nearly two hundred -varieties. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.] - -The series of small drawings given on pages 137, 138, and 139, were made -with a lens of moderate power, but they are not equal in value or -structural detail to those drawn beneath the microscope. They are among -the most elementary figures observed; and, as illustrative of the first -principles of formation, are chiefly worthy of consideration. Of more -elaborate figures drawn beneath the microscope, besides those more -immediately referred to in the text, examples are given in Figs. 40, 41, -and 42. - -The idea of observing snow crystals is by no means original. We know for -certain that Aristotle observed them; also Descartes, Greu, Kepler, and -Drs. Nettes and Scoresby of modern times. Sir Edward Belcher also -devoted a considerable degree of attention to the study of the crystals -of snow in the Arctic regions. There the radial arms were seldom less -than an inch in length, and might be seen, according to Sir Edward -Belcher, drifted in heaps into the crannies and recesses of the ice. -They were seldom to be obtained in a perfect condition, generally -separating, by reason of their weight and size, on descending to the -ground. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.] - - -III. - -Having brought to a close all that is here necessary to say respecting -the formation of these bodies, and the position they occupy in regard to -scientific inquiry, we may now turn to a consideration of their -capabilities to suggest new forms in decorative design, as applied to -the industrial arts. Being ourselves desirous to promote the adoption of -the appropriate as well as the simple beauty of truth in ornament, we -will first inquire how far these figures are in accordance with those -general principles of arrangement of form which in all ages and -countries have constituted the truly beautiful in art. - -These are summed up briefly in the propositions contained in the opening -chapter of Mr. Owen Jones’s “Grammar of Ornament.” We extract the -following:-- - -“Proposition 3.--As Architecture, so all works of the Decorative Arts -should possess fitness, proportion, harmony, the result of all which is -repose. - -“Proposition 5.--Decoration should never be purposely constructed: that -which is beautiful is true, that which is true is beautiful. - -“Proposition 8.--All ornament should be based upon a geometrical -construction. - -“Proposition 9.--As in Architecture, so in the Decorative Arts, every -assemblage of forms should be arranged on certain definite proportions; -the whole and each particular member should be a multiple of some -particular unit. - -“Proposition 10.--Harmony of form consists in the proper balancing and -contrast of the straight, the inclined, and the curved.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - -Further on, from the same high authority, we receive as an axiom--“That -there can be no perfect composition where either of the three primary -elements is wanting--the straight, the inclined, and the curved, or -where they are not so harmonized that the one preponderates over the -other two.” In the crystals of snow we perceive these last conditions -are implicitly fulfilled, inasmuch as they include the varieties, -straight, angular, and curved, of which the angular has a decided -preponderance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - -With regard to the proportions of number on which these figures are -based, we shall find them almost all deficient in the maintenance of a -ratio, water crystallizing at an angle of 60°, a fact exemplified in the -radial arms and the secondary and tertiary additions, which, always -produced at the same angle, are characteristic of the greater number of -these crystals. Thus they can be considered suggestive only of more -complete designs--the centre, in fact, of a bordering or pattern-work, -to be completed round them according to the intended application, and -with due reference to those ratios of number which are found most -acceptable in composition. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -Founded upon a strictly geometric base, and a uniform repetition of a -certain concordant irregularity of parts, bound together in one -harmonious unity by the laws of circular composition, which serve to -lend beauty to their constructive details, and constitute the archeus of -the figure, we are impressed with a conviction of their truth and -conformity to the natural principles of beauty. - -The impulse created in their favour is thus subsequently confirmed on -rational and acknowledged grounds of admiration. This is the more -satisfactory that, belonging to no school of architecture or design, -they may be considered as originating a new order of forms for the -further supply or extension of those so long acknowledged and admired. -We do not, however, consider that they will equally well assimilate with -all or any of the orders of decorative art. It appears to us, according -to the means placed at our disposal for arriving at a conclusion, that -they are analogous in many respects to the numerous specimens of angular -composition which belong to the mediæval period of Byzantine art. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -It may not be altogether foreign to the subject briefly to consider the -united power of geometric figures, in conjunction with colour, to -produce the striking and beautiful effects which form so important a -feature in Byzantine and Moresque mosaic (but particularly the former) -specimens of art. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -The base of Byzantine mosaic is principally the relation of the hexagon -to the triangle, upon which base almost innumerable combinations have -been constructed. These Byzantine mosaics are always extremely simple in -structure, some being made up entirely of the triangle, others of stars -either six or eight rayed, singly or enclosed in a hexagon or octagon -placed at intervals, and united by the more simple figure of the -triangle, which, arranged in groups, serve as connecting links from one -to the other. The whole composition is rendered either sparkling or -monotonous according to the employment of contrasted effects or a -limited and uniform range of colour, and is admirably illustrative of -how the uniformity of the geometric figure may be broken up and -destroyed, its very character changed, indeed, according to the system -of colouring adopted--an illustration still further confirmed by a study -of the varied and evolved designs on a part of the encaustic pavement of -the Byzantine Court at the Crystal Palace, which, described in shades of -neutral tint throughout, upon a ground of the same colour, renders it -difficult for the eye to detect any variation of pattern. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -The specimens of Moresque mosaic with which we are acquainted differ -somewhat in character from that which we have been considering. Based -upon the square and its affinities, it is constructed mainly with -reference to the ratios of eight, four, and twelve. It is less -glittering in colour than the Byzantine, and attracts the eye more to -masses than to fragments. - -The figures of snow are nearly allied to the principles of these -decorative styles of art, based as they are upon a system of angular -geometry. We perceive, also, that the primitive base of the crystals is -the leading figure of mosaic, founded, as most of it is, upon the -hexagon and its combinations, though occasionally admitting, with great -effect, the employment of the octagon. Thus they seem naturally -suggestive of an extension of the forms common to mosaic, and may be the -means of eliciting fresh combinations scarcely less beautiful than those -transmitted to us from the past. - -The fitness of mosaic for the purposes of decoration is evident, on the -ground of its conformity to certain fixed principles of truth which -scarcely permit of deviation. One of the oldest of the mechanical arts, -originating in experimental combinations with cubes solid and -transparent, subsequently improving as the science of geometry became -more generally understood, it is now, in the hands of some of our most -eminent manufacturers, not the least important among the industrial -agents of the present day, as may be seen in the beautiful encaustic and -painted tiles for pavements and decorative purposes generally, executed -by Messrs. Minton & Co., of Stoke-upon-Trent. - -One great fault of the decorative designs of the present day is the -want of “appropriate” ornament to the purposes in view, and the mixture -of schools or styles of art, which characterize so many of the patterns -commonly produced for domestic and even higher applications--a mixture -too often involving the entire destruction of truth, fitness, and -proportion, the three essential elements of beauty. In the magnificent -work on the “Principles of Ornament,” by Mr. Jones, we have an entire -history of the past in architectural design, classified into schools, -the origin and progress of each, either traced or traceable in -connection with the period at which it flourished, and the people who -gave it birth. We may therefore anticipate that the pure and beautiful -so made known amongst us may exercise an important and beneficial -influence on design, from its highest to its lowest applications. - -We do not forget, however, that the art of mosaic, taking its rise -beneath the sunny skies of Italy and Greece, and glittering even now on -the walls and beneath the cloisters of the Byzantine churches of Italy -and Sicily, and within the mosques and palaces of the East, accords -rather with the genius of the South and the gorgeous taste of the East -than with the less florid tone of more northern lands; and a thorough -understanding of the conditions under which it so long assimilated with, -and continued to constitute a dazzling feature in, the decoration of -two, if not three, of the highest styles of architecture--the Moresque, -Byzantine, and Arabian--is necessary to enable us to profit to the full -by its capabilities as an industrial agent. Nor do we forget that the -rise of mosaic (we are speaking of its conventional varieties) was -accompanied by, or was rather the result of, the decline of art, when -for a period a mechanical process usurped the place of higher efforts of -design and fancy. - -For the very reason, however, that the art and its imitations must be to -a great extent mechanical, we could wish to see its range of utility -still further extended. Not admitting of wide deviations from fixed -principles, we would prefer to see it substituted for the large mass of -nondescript patterns to which we have already made allusion. And our -facilities are great for introducing it into more general use; for in -the same way that the painter’s art has, with the utmost truthfulness of -effect, reproduced for our study and admiration representations of the -elaborate inlayings of marble and glass, with which the originals, -centuries ago, were constructed, we may carry its imitation successfully -into almost every branch of manufacture or decoration; and, whilst -preserving the spirit of the combinations, unfettered by the -constructive difficulties of the original work, we may engraft new -figures, and originate new styles of pattern, perhaps available for a -variety of applications. - - -IV. - -An attempt to adapt a revival of Byzantine glass mosaic to various -household elegancies has within the last few years been made by Mr. -George Stephens, of Pimlico, who, after considerable study of the -mosaics of antiquity, has designed a large variety of elaborate and -beautifully executed patterns for tables, stands, panellings, -candelabra, &c. In the specimens that we have seen his combinations have -been based, many of them upon the hexagon and its varieties, and several -upon the octagon, which is necessarily more removed from the simplicity -of the Byzantine school. In the opinion of Mr. Stephens the figures of -snow are highly suggestive of a still further extension of the forms -known in mosaic, and he considers that they will materially aid in the -construction of new figures. We believe that it is his intention shortly -to attempt an adaptation of some of them to the purposes of his art. - -We feel that we cannot sufficiently admire the structural detail of the -greater number of these productions, and the rich effects of colour -united in their composition. But here we may remark, that to render the -ancient Byzantine mosaic an appropriate decorative agent, it is -necessary that the artist should not copy implicitly from the works of -the past, but seek most to maintain between it and surrounding -influences the same relation that formerly existed between it and the -people under whose hands it attained such distinguished pre-eminence. As -we have already said, the art originated beneath the skies of Italy and -Greece, and with it the system of bright and glittering colours which -rendered it so perfect in itself, and in its relation to all surrounding -things. Deprived of these bright influences of climate, we find it in -our own country no less beautiful in itself, but wanting in a due -harmonious relation to the tone of colour it is brought in contact with. -To remedy this--to naturalise the art, in fact--the artist should be -content to trust rather to harmony of design than to chromatic effects; -so that the eye, uncaught by a general sensation of brilliancy and -glitter, may repose upon the quiet harmony of the design; and this -remark we make as applying more or less to all mosaic, and entering as a -matter of consideration into every application of which it is capable in -this country, though more particularly in reference to the especial -description executed by Mr. Stephens. - -In rejecting strong chromatic effects, however, we would not be -understood to sanction neglect of the very material aid afforded by -colour in giving life and purpose to mosaic; but we would have it -studied with a view to its creating as many varieties of pattern as can -possibly result from the introduction of a limited range of colour upon -a uniform series of designs. For instance, how many varieties of pattern -the eye is able to trace from the simple repetition of a six-rayed star -of uniform colour upon a ground broken into triangles by the -introduction of two other colours to complete the triple harmony! This -is an unfailing charm in mosaic: however simple or however complex the -construction of the design, viewed from a distance, the eye is -constantly discovering, without mental effort, fresh combinations -which, arising out of natural and fixed laws, communicate pleasure to -the beholder. - -To encaustic tile-work and its imitations the figures of snow appear -peculiarly suggestive; and it is remarkable that a few of the patterns -preserved to us from antiquity are exactly similar to the nuclei of some -of the snow crystals. In this application, far more than in the -conventional glass mosaic and its imitations of which we have been -speaking, we are compelled to seek effect in symmetry of design. -Necessarily excluded from imparting the idea of raised surfaces, such -being inconsistent with the intention of flooring, which is to present a -level surface to the eye and feet, we are also confined to a very -limited range of colour, in order not to interfere with the decorations -of the walls and ceilings, and the manufacture of encaustic tiles being -in itself limited to the employment of but few colours. Thus excluded -from the rich and subtle harmonies of colour, and the relievo of light -and shade, our attention is principally directed to the design which, in -regard to this application, should combine simplicity with uniformity of -outline, and be easily referable to a purely geometric base. And here we -may add, in regard to the figures of snow, that, whether in outline or -in relievo, they are equally symmetrical. In the one case they are -simply enlarged copies of the general effect to the naked eye; in the -other they present to us structural details only visible by the -employment of a high-power lens, or as seen by the aid of a microscope. - -An equal range of adaptation is likewise open to them in regard to -floor-cloth, which involves attention to the conditions above mentioned -as referring to tile-work, but in a less degree, inasmuch as its more -household and domestic applications allow a somewhat greater latitude in -fancy and colour. As suitable for canvas, they will admit of various -supplementary borderings and intricacies of pattern, conceived around -them in the spirit of the original design, and serving as a means for -the introduction of the colours most commonly employed in this branch of -manufacture. - -In regard to the figures of snow we have two distinct suggestive ideas -in reference to their application,--the one, that of ingrafting them -into different styles of ornament for their further extension into new -forms; the other, that of their adoption to various decorative purposes -now usurped by designs or patterns which, in part sanctioned by use, are -greatly censurable on the grounds of fitness and taste. In the latter -spirit we consider that they may be most usefully applied to -paper-hangings, although of late in this branch of design there has been -a manifest improvement. Not long ago the “artist” who presided over this -department, and whose influence was felt more or less in every home of -the kingdom, had no guide but his own ill-educated and distorted will; -he threw things together without the least regard to harmony of colour, -fitness of proportion, or form of any kind, and called the heterogeneous -mass “a design.” Latterly he has had better opportunities for the -acquisition of knowledge; but what is of far more importance, he has had -better-informed critics. In some instances his task has preceded, in -others it has followed, that of his customers; but assuredly we do not -now often see upon our walls the monstrous perpetrations which disgraced -those of our childhood. If the paper-hanger will examine this collection -of suggestions from Nature--from Nature as she exhibits only one phase -of grace and beauty--we feel sure that he will be at once convinced that -their adoption will be of immense value to him. - -There is one application yet to mention, which we have reserved to this -place as involving somewhat lengthy consideration--that of their -adaptation to the manufacture of earthenware and porcelain. The ungainly -and unmeaning spots that are so often put upon plates, and the distorted -ornament which so frequently degrades cups and saucers and jugs for -ordinary domestic use, we hope may, to a great extent, be displaced by -these snow crystals, which, varied to infinity, would cause the eye and -mind to receive that refreshment which arises from the true and -beautiful; nor are we without hope that they may ultimately be received -into the higher application to porcelain. We all know that porcelain has -long enjoyed a monopoly of the most tasteful designs that art could -suggest, whether of birds, flowers, medallions of figures, or -arabesques; but we are in hopes that they may suggest a few novelties of -designs to this the most favoured medium for the display of the natural -and beautiful in art. This hope of itself suggests the question, How far -have the beauty and symmetry of the geometric figure been acknowledged -and employed hitherto in their designs? The answer to this question -involves an inquiry into the history of designs as applied to pottery, -from its first crude attempts at the delineation of natural objects to -the present time, when, both in England and abroad, it has attained to -such great perfection. As a distinct inquiry this is scarcely less -interesting than instructive, leading, as it does, the student in design -to a correct knowledge of that which is beautiful and appropriate rather -than conventional. As an important aid to such knowledge, the Ceramic -collection at the South Kensington Museum offers a means of study to the -student in ceramic design. The most crude attempts, dating from the -conclusion of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth -centuries, are easily distinguishable by the rude outlines they exhibit -of men and animals and flowers: in some cases strictly imitative, so far -as the skill of the workman has permitted; in others, fanciful and -grotesque. In some specimens belonging to this period of art are -attempts at creative design in the geometric precision with which -similar forms of leaves and interlaced patterns are represented, chiefly -described in shades of the same colour upon a uniform ground, and -differing much in regard to the accuracy with which they are executed. -Some of the subjects chosen are religious, including representations of -our Saviour; some allegorical; and others, again, heraldic devices. The -rude, but flowing, and sometimes evolved, designs of the interlaced and -outline patterns are chiefly borrowed from leaves and flowers, rather -than based on principles of geometry; the colouring also is bold and -prominent, in conformity with the spirit of the design, and exhibits the -primaries blue, red, and yellow, but slightly tempered by the milder -and subsidiary tints, upon which, at a later time, the painters of -Majolica knew so well how to rest their most soft and agreeable effects. - -Of the Raphael ware, so well known and so highly prized by connoisseurs, -little here need be said. Raphael, in his early youth, is supposed to -have devoted some time to the painting of Majolica, and hence its name -at this period and for some time beyond. Whether or not the easy grace -and spirited style of these paintings, chiefly allegorical, though -representing sometimes passages from history, and the harmonious -softness of the colouring, give intrinsic value to the most trifling -specimens of the art, whether for ornament or domestic use (and many -rich specimens still remain to attest their value, and the exuberant -taste and imagination of those painters who were content to trust their -creations of fancy to so brittle a medium), to them the designers of the -present day remain indebted for a certain freedom and unconventional -display of art, which, restrained and modified, long exercised an -influence on design, and is traceable even now. - -A few years later an entirely new class of designs was originated by -Palissy, master potter to Francis I. This eminent ceramic artist, born -in France, was the originator of the Palissy ware, scarcely less known -than that of Raphael. His works are executed in relievo, and are -distinguished from others of the period in the choice of subjects, which -are chiefly drawn from natural objects, such as plants, reptiles, -fishes, &c. Among the specimens known by the name of Palissy ware are -rustic baskets designed on a strictly geometric base of divergent lines -from the centre to the circumference, partly in relievo, and very -effective in style and composition. The chief merit of this artist -consists in his fidelity to Nature, and an original whimsicality of -conception. Passing on from Palissy, we come, many years later, to -specimens of china of a tasteful degree of ornament, that would do no -discredit to the porcelain works of the present day. Here, in the -central medallion, is a group of figures, Raphaelesque in their easy -grace of outline, yet highly studied, and claiming the rank of a -finished picture. - -The Berlin porcelain illustrates the perfection of that union which -combines the imitation of the beautiful in Nature with the less sensuous -beauty of the geometric figure. In the Sèvres porcelain, in the same -collection, the geometric figure rises to higher importance, forming in -the beautiful “Versailles Service” a framework for the jewels which -enrich the exquisite centre medallions. - -The impression we derive from retracing the history of the past is, that -the geometric figure has rarely been employed as a principal agent in -decoration. We are speaking still in reference to the period we have -been considering, and which is one calculated to trace with effect the -progress we have in view. Prominent among the earlier specimens is the -delineation of simple forms borrowed from Nature, repeated with -indifferent fidelity of execution, and spread over the entire surface of -the piece; whilst in later times, when the mechanical processes improved -and admitted of greater accuracy, we find it restricted to light and -artificially constructed borderings, so arranged as to lend additional -beauty to the freedom of colour and design elsewhere displayed; and we -gather, also, that if in the works of high art we find it nowhere -unmixed with designs of a less formal character, there is scarcely a -work that is not indebted to the grave and conventional arrangement of -pattern founded upon a genuine knowledge and elucidation of its -principles. - -It has ever been greatly against the very general adoption of -geometrically constructed figures to the purposes of porcelain, that the -unaided hand of the draftsman is insufficient to insure the requisite -accuracy of outline--a difficulty which even at the present day limits -to a very great extent their employment in this department of art. -Still, we are led to hope that the figures of snow may prove suggestive -of a new basis on which to construct designs no less symmetrical than -those which we have seen to proceed from other and better-known sources; -whilst the rate of modern improvement in most branches of industry leads -us to hope that this difficulty before long may become less formidable, -and that improvements in printing will enable manufacturers to repeat -with tolerable cheapness patterns which have been confined to the more -costly articles of luxury. Of modern applications one in particular -occurs to us--it is that they may aid in the formation of a set of -ice-plates for the dessert or supper table. We can imagine the ground of -the plates a clear light blue; in the centre may be the crystal, -selecting in preference from those forms which are most crystalline and -arborescent; among them, that most graceful of all, the water crystal, -distinguishing it from the ground by shades of grey, which should be so -distributed as to impart to the copy the frosted effect of the original. -Around the centre, and immediately beneath or upon the raised margin of -the plate, might be arranged a circular bordering, similar to that we -have described as surrounding the margin of a pond on its first -congelation, when the needles, becoming incrusted with crystalline -deposit, assume the appearance of frosted ferns. - -There is yet another application that suggests itself to us, although -the beautiful designs on porcelain executed by Messrs. Copeland & Co. -scarcely leave anything to be desired by the most fastidious; we refer -to the painting of tiles or slabs of porcelain, to be mounted in frames -of silver, or wood, for ornamental or domestic purposes, and for which, -of late, there has been a large and increasing demand. Fig. 44 (page -174) is designed for this application from one of the snow crystals. - -To turn to yet another and far wider scope which may hence be given to -the cotton-printer, millions of “dresses” issue every year from -Manchester. For those which are intended to clothe “the masses” there is -usually little attempt at design. A simple form of a single colour is -all that is sought for, and the puzzle is, how to obtain variety. Here -is a book of patterns, no one of which has ever been used; leaf after -leaf may be turned over, “and still find something new”--something that -may be copied as it presents itself, something that will be suggestive. - -Our references have been made to but a few of the arts which may -be--which must be--largely influenced by this power to - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - -resort to another means of teaching; but it is obvious that there is no -branch of manufacture which may not, to some extent, be benefited by it. -Let the student give the subject a moment’s thought, and he will be -convinced of this; let him look down to his carpet, or up at his -ceiling; let him turn to the cover of the book he is perusing, notice -any part of a lady’s dress, or of his own, where ornamentation is -admissible; let him, in short, consider any object, anywhere, under any -circumstances, and then examine the few examples we set before him in -these pages, and he will at once perceive how much of harmony, of truth, -of beauty, may be obtained by an intellectual study of these forms, -which are neither more nor less than Nature’s teachings from a book -hitherto unopened. - - - - -IV. - -THE SYMMETRICAL AND ORNAMENTAL FORMS OF ORGANIC REMAINS. - -BY ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S. - - -I. - -The most useful as well as the most ornamental devices which have sprung -from the exercise of human ingenuity have all been founded upon the -varied and beautiful creations which Nature has presented to us. It is -not within the limits of human power to create, but from the impressions -made upon the mind an unlimited variety of combinations may be formed. -By the mental kaleidoscope an infinite change of form is produced by the -re-arrangement of a few simple elements of beauty. The ideal head of the -Grecian sculptures is but a refined reproduction of the lines of grace -and beauty which the observant artists had seen in, and selected from, -the intellectual features of the educated Athenians. Architecture, too, -has liberally borrowed from the perfections of the human form. In the -symmetry of the Ionic columns, and in the graceful strength and grouped -elegance of the Caryatides, we trace the best proportions of the perfect -woman; and in the flowing beauty of their ornamentations we may discover -a reproduction of some of those caprices which are the spontaneous -growth of the female mind. Architecture has no less liberally borrowed -its styles and ornaments from other natural sources: from the arched -cavern and the bowery forest tradition draws the form of the Egyptian -temple and the Gothic fane. The chalice-like flower of the lotus of the -Nile ornaments the columns of Luxor; the acanthus foliage decorates -those of Corinth; and in numerous other instances the artist has sought -to weave the simplicity of vegetable forms into the texture of his work, -for the purpose of insuring a general character of lightness and -elegance. - -Whether the ancient potter selected the shapes of his fictile -manufactures from the foliage of the forests of his land has been -frequently discussed. It is sufficient, at present, to know that the -elegant curves of the Athenian and Etrurian vases, which have through -all periods been regarded as beautiful, owe this high appreciation to -the simple fact that they are true to the lines which Nature has herself -adopted. The true is always beautiful, and in whatever form it may -address itself to the mind, it exerts over it an uncontrollable power -for good. The impulses of Nature are ever in the direction of -perfection, and we find, even in the exercise of the mysterious physical -forces which bind the atoms of matter into a mass, that a constant -tendency is exhibited towards an arrangement which shall observe the -utmost symmetry. In the inorganic world we have crystalline forms -exhibiting an obedience to the most perfect geometrical laws; and in -organic creation--from the lowly lichen to the stateliest tree, from the -infusorial inhabitants of a drop of water up to man--we have molecule -combining with molecule in a myriad ways, but in all of them producing -results which charm by their adaptation to circumstances, and in the -perfection of every organ. - -The efforts of man to convey to the canvas the resemblance of -humanity--to impress, by the agency of a few colours upon his tablet, a -reflection of the mental operation as it is seen “breathing through the -face” in love and sympathy, or disturbing the features with agony or -sorrow--is but an exalted effort of that desire which moves the entire -race to copy the phenomena of Nature as they present themselves to our -senses. It is the prevailing character, and, indeed, the distinguishing -feature, of the human race, that it delights in imitation: the child in -its play, and the man of talent in his studio, are equally -exemplifications of this fact. Man has ever gone to Nature for his -inspirations. If we examine the rude productions of the savage who is -awaking from his merely animal existence, and over whom mind is -beginning to assert its power, we discover that his first impulses are -to gleam from the organized forms around him such objects as he -conceives will add something to the adornment of his body. When he -commences to produce any of those aids to existence which are the -earliest efforts of technical art, we still see he rudely attempts to -copy some familiar natural form. Whether we select from Greece “those -faultless productions whose very fragments are the despair of modern -art,” the almost breathing marbles of Phydias--whether we take the -sun-baked pottery of ancient Egypt or of Central America, the -“art-manufactures” of a primitive people, or those manifestations of an -educated taste which Greece, Rome, and modern Europe afford, we shall -find that in all alike the effort to imitate the works of Nature is the -prevailing tendency. And, beyond this, we shall learn, too, that where -the simple beauties of Nature have been approached--seldom have they -been realised--the art-production has become the glory of the age and -the boast of the country to which it belongs. We sometimes find that -human intellect, proud of its comparatively high achievements, quits -that almost stern simplicity which distinguishes Nature, and aspires to -produce effects by violent contrasts and glaring characteristics; but -the result is invariably the fate of Dædalus, whose flight on waxen -wings was punished by a fearful fall. The departure from Nature in the -works of art marks, like a widespreading mildew, the decay of nations; -and this is readily accounted for. As good taste invariably indicates a -feeling of the presence of that intellectual beauty, - - “The awful shadow of some unseen power,” - -which consecrates all that it shines upon, and gains an ascendancy over -the gross sensualities of life, so a departure from it exhibits the -operations of those feelings which have their origin in the depravity of -the race. - -Our artists and our artisans have sought busily over the surface of the -earth for subjects on which to labour. Herb, shrub, and tree, leaf and -flower, have been copied to ornament the works of their hands. The sea -has yielded its organic forms, and the workman has sought, amidst the -finny tribes and the shelly wonders of the great deep, for subjects to -aid his decorative designs. The insect, the bird, and the beast have -equally ministered to the exercise of fancy; and the inventive powers -of the imaginative have not unfrequently attempted to blend the three -kingdoms of Nature in one device, in the eager search for that novelty -which generally gains a host of admirers. Leigh Hunt with truth -exclaims, “We know not a millionth part of the wonders of this beautiful -world;” and it is but slowly that science is discovering to us new -subjects of admiration; but though slowly, science is steadily doing so. -The truths of science are constantly serving the progress of art, and -the more we free the labours of the philosopher and the experimentalist -from the technicalities which are too frequently only retained to give a -false appearance of learning, the more certain will be the advantages to -be derived by the student of beauty from the labours of stern induction. -The union of Vulcan and Venus tends to the diffusion of peace and -happiness. - -Although Natural History is found giving its aid to almost every -division of ornamental art, there is one branch of it, Geology, which -has rendered but little service to the artist. Yet here is a vast field, -spread over an earth-wide space and comprehending almost infinite time, -teeming with forms the result of the most varied organizations, which -has scarcely yet been touched. This arises from the circumstance that -the study of organic remains is itself a science of very recent date. -Palæontology is but of yesterday; yet it has achieved important results. -The study of the forms of animal life which existed in the earth -previous to the creation of the present races which inhabit it is -replete with the highest interest. As Astronomy penetrates the -mysteries of space, so Geology pierces the arcana of time. The rock -formations tell of the earth’s mutations, and the remains which they -hold, as histories of former ages, show that the beings which possessed -the earth as a dwelling were as perfectly adapted to their conditions of -existence as any living examples of creative intelligence can be. Nor -were they wanting in beauty. A study of the cabinets of the curious--or -of the metropolitan and many local museums--would at once carry -conviction to the mind, that amidst the host of fossil remains with -which we are now acquainted is to be found a new variety of forms -admirably adapted, by their symmetry and general character, for the -purposes of ornament. - -It will be found that stored in the rocks are creations which lived and -breathed ere yet the great mutations had occurred which give to the -earth its present physical features. From the coral-like structures of -the Laurentian rocks--probably the earliest evidences existing of any -organized structure--we may pursue our studies over the infinite variety -of form which the Cambrian and the Silurian rocks preserve, until we -arrive at that period when the Old Red Sandstone sea, teeming with life, -washed the rock of that archipelago which has grown into the British -Isles. Advancing to the study of yet more recent rocks, we may select -the inhabitants of inland seas and the immense savannahs of an early -world, which for delicacy of structure and elegance of design are not to -be surpassed by any of the productions of organic life now existing. -Here, then, is a yet unploughed field from which the art-manufacturer -may cull fresh forms. We can only direct attention to the source, and -give a few illustrations in proof of our assertions: having done this, -we must leave the industrious artist to search for himself in geological -cabinets and palæontological plates for those forms which may suit his -purposes and please his taste. With the exception of two highly -imaginative pictures by John Martin, of “The Country of the Iguanodon,” -illustrating Dr. Mantell’s “Wonders of Geology,” and “The Book of the -Great Sea-Dragons,” by Mr. Thomas Hawkins, in which a realisation of the -condition of the earth during the period when it was the abode of those -monstrous reptiles whose fossilised bones tell the tale of their -ferocity and power, is attempted and ably conceived, art has not -ventured into this abyss of time. - -Whether the hydras of superstition or the griffins and dragons which are -preserved in heraldic bearings are dim outshadowings of those ancient -days, preserved like a myth amongst men, it were vain to speculate, -although the speculation is fraught with interest. It is, however, -curious that we find those strange remains of the old world linked to -superstitions which have their origin since the introduction of -Christianity. - -It is therefore evident that those remarkable fossil forms must have -excited the wonder of man ere yet science bent to the task of studying -them. The graceful form of the Nautilus, which now enjoys existence in -our tropical seas, is familiar to all. A large variety of molluscous -animals of the same genera have existed through all time; and their -remains found in the fossil state prove them to have been among the -earliest inhabitants of the ancient ocean. In nearly all the rocks of a -limestone character the remains of Ammonites--the ancient -Nautilus--have been found. In the Oolite, the Lias, and the Chalk, -varieties of these elegant shells are constantly discovered, and nearly -three hundred species have been named. From these we select a few, which -will, we think, show that they are well adapted for ornamental purposes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -The first we give is the _Ammonites Eudesianus_ (Fig. 1), which is found -in the inferior Oolite, a variety of the sandstone rocks; the specimen -from which our illustration is taken being from the sandstone rocks of -Caen, so well known in this country from the great quantity employed in -our architectural ornaments. This example is remarkable for the -perfection of the spiral lines and the beautiful disposition of the ribs -or elevated portions, which serve to strengthen the delicate chambered -shell. - -The _Ammonites cordatus_ of Sowerby (Fig. 2) is distinguished by a -spiral of a different order from that of _Eudesianus_. Its ribs forming -graceful waving lines, and terminating in a denticulated edge, give a -very symmetrical character to the architecture of this variety. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -The _Ammonites cristagalli_ (Fig. 3), in which we have an arrangement of -the convolutions not very unlike the last-named species, differs from it -in the disposition of those folds which form the supports of the arch of -the shell, by which a very charming though simple character is -obtained. - -The _Ammonites muticus_ (Fig. 4), found in great abundance in the marls -of the Lias, is remarkable for the very curious arrangement of tubercles -or spines, which are formed by the elongation of the folds of the shell. -Notwithstanding the general defect which arises from the repetition of -angular lines, we have in this shell an example of the harmony which may -be produced by them when arranged upon a uniform system. The radiating -effect of these tubercles ranged around the involutions of the shell is -very pleasing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -The _Ammonites Grenouilloxi_ (Fig. 5) offers another variety, which -shows the folds gradually being elevated, as these approach the mouth of -the shell, into bosses, by which, of course, increased strength is -secured where the shell becomes more open, and consequently weaker; at -the same time they give a pleasing variety to the form of the shell -itself. - -The _Ammonites contrarius_ (Fig. 6) presents many distinguishing -characteristics, which are important to the naturalist as distinctive -markings, and furnish the artist with a variety of simple elegance which -deserves his study. The peculiar arrangement of the ribs, curving off -right and left from a line running along the centre of the shell, gives -rise to the formation of a series of festoon-like ribs, which add much -to the general beauty of this species. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -“The general principle,” remarks Dr. Buckland, “of dividing and -subdividing the ribs, in order to multiply supports as the vault -enlarges, is conducted nearly on the same plan, and for the same -purpose, as the divisions and subdivisions of the ribs beneath the -_groin work_ in the flat vaulted roofs of the florid Gothic -architecture.” In all these arrangements, and also in the bosses or -tubercles, we have varieties giving both additional strength and beauty. -A striking uniformity is found to prevail in even those shells of the -Ammonites which seem the most complicated; and the elegance of their -general appearance will be found to be due to the repetition, at regular -intervals, of one symmetrical system of forms. In many of these fossil -shells the pearly plates are dovetailed together in a curious and -beautiful manner, the regular disposition of the sutures producing a -very elegant foliated appearance. The charm of all these forms, and also -of those fossil shells which are allied to the Ammonites, consists in -the pleasing impression which is given by the gracefully curved outline, -and the waving lines by which the shells are banded. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -Among the Pectens--a class of shells common to the Sussex chalk--will -also be found a great number of forms which, although not unlike many -modern species, differ from them in some striking features, and which, -independently of their novelty, are so very elegant that they seem -peculiarly fitted for ornamental purposes. It has been with much -difficulty that we have chosen two or three illustrations from this -class, and we still feel doubtful if our selections exhibit the most -favourable samples of their symmetry. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -The _Pecten quinquccostatus_ of Forbes, the _Janira Atava_ of D’Orbigny -(Fig. 7), is a beautiful semicircular shell, with a regularly -denticulated edge, its surface being covered with fine transverse striæ. -The woodcuts of the _Pecten_ or _Janira striatacostata_ and the _Pecten -Dujardinii_ (Figs. 8 and 9), serve to exhibit other varieties of these -fossils, and at the same time to show the elegant curvatures of these -shells, when viewed in different positions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.] - -The _Trigonia carinata_ (Figs. 10 and 11), one of a class of fossils -which has particularly engaged the attention of Agassiz, is also found -in the Cretacean series. It is figured in two different positions, that -the elegant outline and the ornamental radiating striæ, regular -tubercles, and denticulated margin may be fully seen. - -In the _Cardita_ we have the same heart-shaped form, but the ornamental -surface is in many respects different. The regular curved lines -proceeding from the hinge of the shell, which is itself most delicately -formed, present in the _Cardium mutonianum_ (Fig. 12), the _tuberculata_ -of Sowerby, a most pleasing arrangement of striations. The regularity of -these, as shown in the woodcut, particularly recommends this specimen -and others of its class as admirably adapted for ornamental purposes, -where very delicate and elaborate workmanship can be admitted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.] - -The _Opis Sabandiana_ (Fig. 13) is another of these elegant shells more -remarkable for the regular form of its outline than for any elaboration -of the striæ which traverse it, in this respect standing in pleasing -contrast with the preceding figure. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -Among the _Trigonia_ will be found a vast variety of the most -symmetrical forms, most of which are elegantly ornamented. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.] - -The two representations which we have given of the _Trigonia scabra_ -(Figs. 14 and 15) will convey a general idea of the more striking -characteristics of this class of fossils, which are found distributed -abundantly over the Portland rocks. The manner in which the folds of the -shells overlap each other is singular, and gives to them often a very -striking resemblance to the foldings of leaves in the leaf-bud of -plants. The curved lines, formed by the small bosses regularly elevated -from the striæ, running transversely to these lines in many species, -give an exceedingly pleasing outline, which certainly adapts these -Trigonia, from the variety of forms thus produced, to the purposes of -the art-manufacturer in a peculiar manner. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -By the wonderful transmutation of organic structures, by those natural -processes - - “Which turned the ocean-bed to rock, - And changed its myriad living swarms - To the marble’s veined forms,” - -we have preserved specimens of the early creations, rivalling in beauty -any of those which now exist. - -If we can but show that a series of novelties for art may be found by -searching over the charnel-houses of the ancient world, possessing the -charm of symmetry and that beauty of arrangement and decoration which -adapts them, as we believe, to numerous ornamental purposes, we shall be -satisfied. We do but suggest an examination. We have confined ourselves -to a few of the numerous remains of animal life. “The sermons in stones” -are varied beyond the conception of those who have not attempted to read -them. Between the earliest attempts of Nature to form a cell in which -life should exert its mysteries, up to the most elaborated and gigantic -form which ever swam in the ancient waters or roamed in the wide -savannahs, there is one unceasing, never-failing effort to multiply the -beautiful, and to make it conformable to the useful. In conclusion, we -may again remark that whether we seek to copy from Nature her older or -her more recent works, we shall find in them all that peculiar charm -which - - “Can so inform - The mind that is within us--so impress - With quietness and beauty--and so feed - With lofty thoughts,” - -that the results of that study will be the production of beautiful -works, all tending, by their spells, to elevate humanity. - - -II. - - -In the previous chapter we confined ourselves to a selection of a few -fossil shells, with the hope of drawing the attention of the -art-manufacturer to a source whence he may gather, from thousands of -examples, forms of the utmost symmetry, which appear to fit themselves -in a peculiar manner for his especial purposes. The beauty of vegetable -forms has, through all time, won the attention of the artist. The lotus -and the acanthus are rendered classical by their numerous adaptations to -ornamental uses. The ivy and the laurel, the nepenthe and the -convolvulus, with numerous other plants and flowers, are to be found -moulded and painted on works of ornament and utensils for domestic use -through all ages. - -Numerous and ever graceful as are the forms of the living vegetable -world--and these have been extensively copied--there is a vast field -within which diligent search will discover a great variety of plants, -which are no less beautiful and far less common than their living -analogues, in the bygone flora preserved so strangely in those strata -which mark the mutations of our mysterious world. - -The flora of the Carboniferous period was of a most extraordinary -character, and luxuriant to an extent far exceeding even that which is -now exhibited in the forests of equatorial climes. Growing most rapidly -and of a lax tissue, these plants were of short duration, and were after -death rapidly converted into a mass of uniform structure, such as we -have now exhibited in every bed of fossil fuel. Three hundred species -of plants belong to the Coal formations of Great Britain alone; and it -is found that local causes, with which we are not acquainted, have -modified in a strange manner the plastic vegetation of this period; and -in what appear to be analogous positions we find whole genera and even -orders of plants of very opposite botanical character, presenting a -greater disparity of vegetation than countries the most remote in -geographical position.[B] Thus within a small area we have a variety of -strange forms, few of which do not adapt themselves for ornamental -purposes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.] - -Fig. 16 is the _Pecopteris lonchitica_ or _Mantelli_, a fern abundantly -found in the coal-beds of Newcastle-on-Tyne, which is indeed allied to -some of the existing ferns of New Zealand, but differing from them in -many of its markings. The graceful arrangement of the frond particularly -distinguishes this species. - -Our next figure, the _Pecopteris orcopteridius_ (Fig. 17), is copied -from a specimen found in the coal shale of France, as is also Fig. 18, -the _Asplenites nodosus_, although this singularly and prettily marked -plant is frequently found in other coal districts. In the ferns of the -present period we have none which exactly resemble these varieties, and -they appear capable of being arranged by the artist into ornaments of an -exquisitely graceful character. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.] - -Of these kinds numerous varieties exist in the fossil state, in which -the alternating arrangements of the fronds, and the systems of -venation, present many pleasing differences. These petrified plants, -which grew in the enormous deltas of our island and the Continent which -now form the known coal-fields, are often preserved with a delicacy -which we could scarcely have expected from the conditions of -putrefaction and rapid disintegration which must have gone on around -them. And not unfrequently we have singularly beautiful remains of the -dissected leaves of these plants (Fig. 19), this being effected -doubtless by the action of water on the softer portions of the leaf. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.] - -The _Sphenopteris tridactylites_, which exhibits in the arrangement of -its fronds one of the most symmetrical forms to be found among this -elegant class of plants, can scarcely be sufficiently exhibited in the -space we are enabled to afford. It is abundant in the shales of the -mines of Montrelais. In the same district is also found the _Neuropteris -Heterophylla_ (Fig. 20), which is remarkable for the arrangement of its -fleshy leaves and the regularity of its venations. It must be remembered -that our drawing only represents one of the fronds. The grouping of the -whole on the straight and slender stem is very beautiful. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -The _Pecopteris Whitbiensis_ (Fig. 21), which presents many differences -from the other forms, is copied from a specimen found in a nodule of -argillaceous ironstone from the lower shale at Cloughton, and certainly -it presents many points of interest. - -Among the most remarkable and characteristic plants of the coal -formation is the _Sigillaria_, of which extraordinary trailing plant -upwards of sixty species have been described. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -These plants are generally but a few feet in height, though sometimes -two yards broad. - -Although of universal occurrence, it is singular that it is -unaccompanied by any evidence of branches, leaves, flowers, or fruit. -The peculiarly lax condition of this enormous tree fern has prevented -the preservation of many of the beautiful markings by which the trunk -must have been distinguished. - -In our selection from such as have been discovered we have given two -striking varieties, the first the _Sigillaria elegans_ (Fig. 22), as it -is figured by Brongniart, and the _Sigillaria Defrancii_ (Fig. 23) from -St. Ambroise, both of them distinguished by the beauty of their -markings. It will be evident upon examination that these strange -vegetable wonders of an early world bear a relation to the recent -Coniferæ; but this subject, which is one of anxious dispute among fossil -botanists, need not detain us. Amid the many varieties of Sigillariæ and -Lepidodendrons which are associated with them numerous exquisitely -delicate markings occur. The sections of these plants too present, in -their medullary rays and slender vascular tissue, systems of arrangement -which are curious and ornamental. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -Having suggested--and we aim at nothing more--that the fossil flora -might furnish many tasteful ornaments to the art-manufacturer, we pass -hastily to an equally brief and merely - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -suggestive notice if the immense variety of fossil forms allied to those -of the coral formations now progressing in the Pacific. The modern -corals present to us a great diversity of structure, but they are -excelled in all respects by those of the old world. The remains of these -labours of insect life are exceedingly numerous; entire mountains are -built, for the most part, with them; and the coral animals appear to -have been as busy in the ocean which washed the cliffs of the Silurian -boundary as it is at the present time on the reefs of Torres Straits and -over the Indian Seas. Figs. 24 and 25 represent the external appearance -and the interior arrangement of the _Calamopora polymorphus_ or -_Favosites_, which is found at Combe Martin, Ilfracombe, and Plymouth. -The arrangement of the tubes or cells, giving to the whole the -character of some of the vegetable productions of the tropics, is very -graceful. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -The _Pleurodictyum problematicum_ (Fig. 26), from the ironstone bands on -the banks of the Rhine, is singularly elegant. The disposition of the -denticulated channels presenting the appearance of a delicate bead-like -tracery, marking out a series of leaf-shaped divisions, gives great -beauty to this variety. In the figure copied the _Serpyllum_ curved in -the centre adds too, rather than detracts from, the beauty of the -fossil. Indeed, the manner in which Serpylla dispose themselves over -many of the corals is singularly graceful and capable of many -applications. - -The following figures of the _Astræa geminata_ (Fig. 27) and the _Astræa -rotula_ (Fig. 28), showing their external character and the radiations -as exhibited in section, are only intended to display the novel and -elegant character which prevails through an almost infinite variety of -these coralline forms. - -These beautiful creations are produced by animals of the polyp kind, -which, possessed of a power of separating the carbonate of lime from -sea-water, are constantly engaged in building up around themselves those -stone structures which, if not geometrical in all their arrangements, -are strikingly varied and beautiful. The coral animal has left traces of -its work on the earliest fossil rocks, but in the more recent or Oolitic -series the corals are most abundant. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -It is almost impossible to select a specimen from any cabinet of the -corals of the Oolitic period without being struck with the regularity of -arrangement and the variety of beautiful forms produced. It is true that -our existing corals bear a strong resemblance to those of the seas of -the ancient world, but they differ in specific, and often in generic -character, and the fossil remains present forms and dispositions of -parts widely varied from those of the recent coral. It is curious and -interesting to observe, however, in both species, the same contrivances -adapted to provide that resistance to the waves so necessary for the -protection of the coral animal, and which especially marks its work. - -The extent to which these coralline formations have gone on will be -indicated by the fact that the coralline crag at Oxford is exposed at -the surface, and the bottom of it has not been reached at the depth of -fifty feet. One of the limestone beds of the middle Oolite series of -England is a continuous bed of petrified corals, retaining the position -in which they grew at the bottom of the sea; and beside these we find -scattered through our Oolitic formations an immense quantity of coral -remains. Indeed, if we examine the stones of which some of our most -admired churches are built, as at Oxford and Cambridge, we shall find -that the firmly integrated mass is little else than shells and corals. -Thus the labours of hosts of insect architects, working in the ocean -which overflowed this island myriads of ages since, are now employed to -form those temples which religion consecrates to the Creator of all -things. - -The elegance of these fossil remains is still further illustrated by -the three cuts of the _Pentacrinites subangularis_, the sections of the -_Pentacrinites dubius_, and of the _Encrinites moniliformis_ (Fig. 29). - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -An examination of the numerous _Cystideæ_--the class of fossils which -are allied to the sea-urchins of our own seas--will convince any one of -the constant tendency towards the beautiful in all natural objects. The -arrangements of the plates of the Cystideans, ornamented as they are -with grooves, striæ, and pores, presenting a very highly ornamented -system of sculpture, cannot be excelled by any imaginary design. The -_Echino-encrinites_, with their curious plate ornaments and radiating -bands, are all in the highest degree symmetrical, as are also the -star-fishes found in a fossil state, and the numerous animal and -vegetable remains of a former world, to which we cannot do more than -thus cursorily allude. Many hundreds of similar creations possessing the -utmost variety in their arrangements, and rivalling in geometric -regularity and beauty the images of the kaleidoscope, are to be found -locked within the stony structure of our fossiliferous rocks. - -The _Cidaris Blumenbachii_ (Fig. 30), found in the Jura, is the only -specimen of either of those classes of fossil forms which our space will -allow of our giving. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -The elegant form of the Lily Encrinites, as they have been called, is -well illustrated by the drawing of the _Encrinites moniliformis_ (Fig. -31), the sections of the stems of which have been already shown (Fig. -29), and the _Bourgueticrionis crinoidalis_ (Fig. 32), which at once -unites the perfection of lightness and elegance in the disposition of -its jointed stem and its crowning inflorescence. These curious links -between the animal and the vegetable kingdoms, presenting in their -singularly delicate structures the most desirable forms for ornamental -disposition, are to be found in great abundance and diversity. - -Distributed through every phase of being, the creations of Nature -present a chain, each link of which is symmetrical in form and -beautiful in its arrangement. If we commence our examination with these -forms of the lowest organization, which appear to mark the dawn of -vitality on this planet, and trace series after series through the -distinguishing strata--each one marking a new epoch in the order of -animal existence, and exhibiting new and constantly varied forms--we -shall find that order and elegance mark the whole. Many of those strange -creations, the Trilobites--and indeed those monsters of that ocean which -appears to have prevailed over the dry land, the Saurians--do not -appear, upon the first inspection, to bear out this assertion; but an -examination of their wonderful armour will at once show that Nature, in -her works, never neglects to add to their adornment after she has -provided for the necessities of each condition. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -The influence of the study of Nature in refining and purifying the human -mind has been often insisted on, and its truth is evident. No effort of -human thought, which is of a merely terrestrial character, can ever rise -to the truly beautiful. Whether the artist desires to paint upon his -canvas, to chisel out of marble, to mould in clay, or to cast in metal, -forms which shall possess the charm, the secret of inspiring a feeling -of the beautiful, he must go to Nature for his inspiration. Looking into -the mirror of her works, like the influence of gazing into loving eyes, -he draws from it a pure, a holy inspiration, which he may, if his -practised hand be obedient to his creative mind, transfer to the gross -element which is to express to mankind the power of the true. - -Persuaded that but few of those who are engaged on works of art or of -art-manufacture have had their attention directed to any of the results -of palæontological studies, and feeling confident that an immense store -of novelties was to be found amongst the fossil remnants of those days -when man was not, the remarks now submitted for their consideration, -with every feeling of their imperfections and necessarily sketchy -character, will not, it is thought, be without interest. - -While dealing with the applications of science to the economic purposes -of life, it was thought that a step beyond this mere utilitarian purpose -might be allowed, and that the studies of the natural philosopher might -be made to minister to the - - “Spirit of Beauty, that does consecrate - With its own hues all that it shines upon - Of human thought or form.” - - * * * * * - -These essays were produced twenty-four years since. They were written to -serve a special purpose--the subject of art manufacture; being, in 1848, -one which was engaging general attention. With a few verbal corrections -the essays remain in the condition in which they were first published. -They indicate, however--and they aim at nothing more--with sufficient -clearness, a source from which the ingenious artist might multiply his -forms for ornamentation. It must not be forgotten that during the past -twenty-four years the science of geology has achieved wonders, and the -cabinets of the palæontologist have been crowded with the most beautiful -forms of organic creation. If _then_ there existed a store of choice and -rare forms, these are multiplied by thousands _now_. - - -THE END. - - -PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD, LONDON. - - * * * * * - -VIRTUE AND CO.’S NEW BOOKS. - -SEASON 1872-3. - - -OUR BRITISH LANDSCAPE PAINTERS, - - FROM SAMUEL SCOTT TO DAVID COX. With a Preliminary Essay and - Biographical Notices by WILLIAM B. 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Doyle, printed on - Toned Paper, 3s. 6d. - - -FAMOUS LONDON MERCHANTS. - - With Life-Portraits of George Peabody--Sir Richard Whittington--Sir - Thomas Gresham--Sir Hugh Myddelton--Sir Josiah Child--Paterson, - Founder of the Bank of England--Coutts, the Banker--and Seventeen - other Illustrations. By H. R. FOX BOURNE, Author of “Merchant - Princes of England,” &c. Small crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. - - -WOMEN OF WORTH. - - A BOOK FOR GIRLS. With Eight Illustrations by William Dickes. - Printed on Toned Paper. Small crown 8vo, elegantly bound, 3s. 6d. - - The “Women of Worth” selected include Charlotte Bronté, Elizabeth - Fry, Lady Russell, Lady Hutchinson, the Lady Jane Grey, the Empress - Maria Theresa, and Caroline Herschel. - - -THE HABITS OF GOOD SOCIETY. - - A HANDBOOK OF ETIQUETTE for Ladies and Gentlemen. With Thoughts, - Hints, and Anecdotes concerning Social Observances, Nice Points of - Taste and Good Manners, and the Art of making One’s self agreeable. - The whole interspersed with humorous Illustrations of Social - Predicaments, Remarks on the History and Changes of Fashion, and - the Differences of English and Continental Etiquette. - (Frontispiece.) Small crown 8vo, in elegant binding, 3s. 6d. - - The unanimous opinion of the press has pronounced this accurate, - racy, and elegant volume the most complete and trustworthy of all - books upon Social Etiquette. - - * * * * * - - JUST PUBLISHED. - - THE FINE ART ANNUAL, - - _IN MEDIUM 4to, PRICE 2s._ - - CONTAINING - - Three Steel Plates and more than Thirty Wood Engravings. - - -MESSRS. VIRTUE & CO. have the pleasure to announce that they have -determined, in compliance with the suggestions and wishes of many -friends, to undertake the publication of a FINE ART ANNUAL. - -The object that the publishers have in view is to bring before the -public a CHRISTMAS ANNUAL worthy in every way of a place upon the -Drawing-room Table, and also of a place in the hands of those who -frequent the Drawing-room. - -The FINE ART ANNUAL will contain Three Steel Plates and more than Thirty -Wood Engravings, in illustration of a careful selection of Stories, -Sketches, Poems, and Essays, made with a view to contributing, in more -ways than one, to the pleasure of the Christmas Season. - -A handsome CALENDAR, forming a record of facts relating to Literature -and Art, will accompany the Annual. - - - CONTENTS. - - _PREAMBLE._ By the EDITOR. With Two Illustrations. - - =Story.=--_CISSIE’S COMING HOME._ By the Author of “The Blacksmith of - Holsby,” “Spenser’s Wife,” &c., &c. With Four Illustrations. - - =Poem.=--_MAMMY’S AIN BAIRN._ By MATTHIAS BARR. With an Illustration. - - =Sketch.=--_PICKED UP ON THE COAST: A LITTLE PICTURE IN WORDS._ By an - Obscure Artist. With Two Illustrations. - - =Story.=--_UNCLE ARCHIE’S BANKRUPTCY: THE STORY OF A YEAR’S - PROBATION._ By the Author of “His by Right,” “John Hesketh’s - Charge,” &c., &c. With Two Illustrations. - - =Humorous Poem.=--_MY SCHOOLFELLOWS._ By J. D. P. - - =Essay.=--_SOME MOONLIGHT REFLECTIONS--OF TREES, STEEPLES, AND MEN._ - A RIGMAROLE. By SAWER KRAWT, Author of a Considerable Quantity of - Unpublished MSS. With Three Illustrations. - - =Poem.=--_NIGHT ADVENTURE._ By J. D. P. - - =Story.=--_TRUE STORY OF CINDERELLA--WITHOUT THE GLASS SLIPPER._ By - G. J. PROCTOR. With Two Illustrations. - - =Poem.=--_A VISION OF TOYS._ By ASTLEY H. BALDWIN. With an - Illustration. - - =Sketch.=--_A MERRIE CHRISTMAS: A VERY SMALL-BEER CHRONICLE FOR THE - YOUNGSTERS._ By an ELDER BROTHER. With Two Illustrations. - - _THE CALENDAR_, comprised within TWELVE pages, with beautifully - designed and engraved Borders, illustrating the Months. - - - VIRTUE & CO., 26, IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [A] For drawings of the anemone see S. B. 87, E. B. 11, and P. F. 66. - - [B] See Dr. Hooker “On the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period,” - _Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, &c._, vol. ii. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Art-Studies from Nature, as applied to -Design, by F. E. Hulme and S. J. Mackie and J. 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