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diff --git a/old/54051-0.txt b/old/54051-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 69c2842..0000000 --- a/old/54051-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5871 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of the Sailboat, by A. Hyatt Verrill - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Book of the Sailboat - How to rig, sail and handle small boats - -Author: A. Hyatt Verrill - -Release Date: January 25, 2017 [EBook #54051] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF THE SAILBOAT *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - THE BOOK OF - THE SAILBOAT - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - By A. Hyatt Verrill - - The Real Story of the Whaler - - The Book of the Sailboat - - The Book of the Motor Boat - - Isles of Spice and Palm - - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - Publishers New York - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -[Illustration: FORE-AND-AFT SAILS AND RIGS] - - 1—Leg-o’-mutton sail. 2—Gunter sail. 3—Lateen sail. 4—Sprit - sail. 5—Lug sail. 6—Boom-and-gaff sail. 7—Cat rig. - 8—Jib-and-mainsail rig. 9—Sloop rig. 10—Yawl rig - (Polemast). 11—Schooner rig (Polemast). - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE BOOK OF - THE SAILBOAT - - _HOW TO RIG, SAIL AND - HANDLE SMALL BOATS_ - - - BY - A. HYATT VERRILL - - AUTHOR OF “THE BOOK OF THE MOTOR BOAT” - “ISLES OF SPICE AND PALM,” “THE REAL - STORY OF THE WHALER” - - [Illustration] - - ILLUSTRATED - - - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - NEW YORK LONDON - 1916 - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - - - Printed in the United States of America - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. A SHORT HISTORY OF BOATS 1 - The first boat. Rafts and canoes. Catamarans. - Early forms of boats. Coracles and goofahs. The - evolution of the sailboat. Types of modern boats. - Schooners, sloops, ketches, catboats, round- and - flat-bottomed boats. - - II. WHAT BOAT TO USE 10 - Speed, stability and seaworthiness. Boats for - various uses. Whale-boats, surf-boats, life-boats, - fishing boats, oyster-boats, pilot-boats, - spongers, skiffs, dories, skip-jacks, etc. - - III. PARTS OF BOATS 19 - Various parts of a boat’s hull. Masts and spars. - Blocks and tackle. Anchors and cables. Deck - fittings. Cleats, chocks. Rudders, tillers, - wheels, etc. Keels and centerboards. Leeboards. - Ropes and standing rigging. What each is for. - - IV. VARIOUS RIGS 39 - Square-rigged vessels. Ships, barks, barkentines, - brigs, brigantines, topsail-schooners, schooners. - Ketch and yawl rigs. Sloop rigs. Catboats. Types - of fore and aft sails. Lateen, lug, gunter, sprit, - leg-o’-mutton and other sails. What rig to use. - - V. HOW TO SAIL A SMALL BOAT 59 - First steps in learning to sail. Handling and - sailing small boats. Getting under way. Sailing on - the wind, tacking. Coming about. Sailing before - the wind. Wearing ship. Jibing. Luffing. Reefing. - Coming to a landing. Coming to anchor. - - VI. THE CARE OF BOATS 87 - Equipment. Anchors and safety appliances. - Moorings. Sea anchors. Stowing sail. Care of boats - and sails. Caulking, painting, etc. - - VII. MARLINSPIKE SEAMANSHIP 102 - Ropes and their parts. Simple and useful knots. - Splices. Bends and hitches. Ornamental knots. - - VIII. SIMPLE NAVIGATION 125 - Rules of the road at sea. Lights, beacons and - signals. Buoys and lighthouses. Channels. Use of - compass. Charts and their use. Dead reckoning. - Logs. Sounding. Landmarks. Bearings. Currents and - tides. Fogs. Stars. Winds and waves. Storms. - Sailing in heavy weather. What to do in case of - accident. - - IX. BUILDING SMALL BOATS 164 - The simplest boat to build. How to build a - round-bottomed boat. Building from patterns. - - X. WHAT NOT TO DO 180 - - NAUTICAL TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGS 187 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - Fore-and-aft sails and rigs _Frontispiece_ - Primitive boats 2 - Types of small boats adapted to special uses 12 - Types of bows and sterns 22 - Keels, centerboards, leeboards and rudders 27 - Boat fittings and parts of boats 30 - Running rigging of fore-and-aft rig 34 - Standing rigging, masts, etc. 36 - Various rigs 41 - Parts of rails, spars, etc., of fore-and-aft rig 43 - Ketch rig. Cat yawl rig 45 - Sails of square-rigged vessels 48 - Hull, spars and rigging of a ship 52 - Effect of wind on boats of various forms 63 - Sailing 71 - Reefing a sail 84 - Caulking tools 93 - Anchors 96 - Useful knots and splices 105 - Ornamental knots 116 - Ropework 121 - Rules of the road and buoys 129 - Harbor chart showing lights, buoys, channels, - soundings, bearings, bottom, etc. 136 - Use of compass in boat 140 - Compasses 143 - Effect of waves on stability 151 - Building a flat-bottomed boat 171 - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE BOOK OF - THE SAILBOAT - - - - - CHAPTER I - - A SHORT HISTORY OF BOATS - - -No one knows who first invented boats. Probably they were used by -primitive man long before he discovered how to use bows and arrows or -had even learned to chip stones into simple tools and weapons. But those -early boats were not boats as we know them today, for it has taken -untold centuries for mankind to improve and develop boats to their -present state of perfection. It was a natural and easy matter for a -savage to straddle a floating log and, thus supported, cross some pond -or stream, and when some member of the tribe discovered that two logs -lashed together were more comfortable and less likely to roll over and -dump their passengers into the water than a single log, he no doubt felt -as if he had made a marvelous invention and was probably looked upon as -a prehistoric Fulton by his fellowmen. - -Later on some man found that a hollowed log was more buoyant and stable -than an ordinary tree trunk and from this crude beginning rude dugout -canoes were developed. Even today many races have never progressed -beyond the hollowed-log state of boat-building and dugouts, forty or -fifty feet in length and capable of carrying great weights, are in daily -use in many lands. Some of these are very crude, heavy craft, while -others are beautifully made, are light in weight and are very speedy and -seaworthy. - -[Illustration: PRIMITIVE BOATS] - - 1—Dugout made from a log. 2—Birch bark canoe. 3—Eskimo kyak - made of skins. 4—Catamaran. 5—Turkish goofah. 6—East - Indian balsa. 7—Malay proa. - -Quite a different type of savage craft were the canoes of bark or skins. -These may have been evolved from dugouts but it is more likely that -accident or chance led to their discovery. A piece of floating bark -bearing some wild animal or bird may have pointed the way toward the -graceful birchbark canoes of the American Indians, while a stiff piece -of dried hide may have given the first hint of a kyak to the Eskimos. - -However, it is useless to speculate upon the incidents that led our -primitive and savage ancestors along the path to the shipyard for such -matters are shrouded in the impenetrable mists of the dim and distant -past. We know, however, that nearly every race possessed boats of one -kind or another as long ago as there was any history and we know that -the boats used thousands of years ago varied as greatly in construction, -form, materials and other details as boats of today. - -Strangely enough, many of the most primitive forms of boats are still in -daily use. I have already mentioned dugouts, but birchbark canoes and -kyaks are also used at the present time as widely as ever. It is evident -that some of these prehistoric craft had been developed to the utmost -point of perfection before the advent of civilization for many of them -have never been improved upon. With all our knowledge we have never -found any boat so well adapted to its purpose as the red man’s canoe, -and while we now make them of canvas instead of bark, we follow the same -models as those used by the Indians centuries ago. - -In certain parts of Great Britain the people still use the queer craft -called _coracles_ which Cæsar found the Britons using when his Roman -legions invaded Albion, and although these curious boats, that look like -the shell of a turtle or half of a walnut shell and are made of plaited -willow, are among the most ancient forms of boats, yet the Welsh find -them superior to modern boats in many ways. Somewhat similar are the -_goofahs_ of the Orient, circular, basket-like craft made of willow -wands and covered with pitch which are used upon the Tigris and -Euphrates and have not changed in the least since Bible days. - -In the South Seas and other places the natives still use _catamarans_ -and _proas_ which are really nothing but two logs fastened together, and -yet the most efficient and safest of life rafts used by our greatest -steamships are merely modifications of these same catamarans. - -The purpose of any boat is to float and support its occupants while -traveling across the water, and while it seems a far cry from the -coracle or the dugout to a palatial steamship or a stately, four-masted, -sailing ship, yet the principle of each is identical and each serves the -purpose for which it was designed equally well; it is merely a matter of -improvement, and many of the terms and names of parts which were used by -the earliest sailors are still retained on our greatest liners and -largest sailing vessels. - -_Starboard_ and _larboard_, for example, are merely corruptions or -_steerboard_ and _leeboard_, terms applied to the two sides of the ships -of the Vikings and referring to the great steering oar on the right-hand -side of the vessel and the board dropped over the opposite side to -prevent the craft from making _leeway_ or sliding sideways through the -water. The _bowsprit_ was originally a small spritsail spread to the -vessel’s bow; the _stern_ was once the _steering_; the name _forecastle_ -was given to the sailors’ quarters when the deckhouses were literally -_castles_ in form, and we still speak of _cockpits_ though we seldom -stop to remember that the term was originally bestowed because this open -portion of a boat resembled the circular areas wherein cockfights were -held. - -The enormous steel frames which support the great plates of a -steamship’s sides are still as much _ribs_ to the sailor as the flimsy -bits of wood bent into place by the naked savage building his frail -canoe, and scores of the ropes, sails, rigging and other portions of a -ship’s fabric retain their ancient names in a similar manner. The seaman -is the most conservative of beings and adheres to every time-honored -custom, belief and habit and when the last sailor and the last wooden -ship have disappeared many of the terms and ways that were dear to the -heart of Jack Tar will still live on and be perpetuated for all time. - -It is partly owing to this unwillingness on the part of the sailor to -adopt anything new or unusual which has led to the survival of distinct -forms of boats, for the seaman and boatman of every country believed the -craft of his own waters to be superior to those of any other place. In -rig, sail and other details each race of maritime people has preserved -the traditions of their ancestors and even in neighboring localities we -find boats which in form of hull, sails and rigging are absolutely -distinct. Many of these are used only in one locality, one harbor or on -one small island, but many others have been carried hither and thither -and one can almost trace the history of a country or the wanderings of -its people by the types of boats used. - -Of course, the first boats were propelled by hand, either by pushing -them along with poles or by rough paddles, but even naked savages soon -learned that they could let the wind work for them and raised mats, -skins or even bushes to catch the breeze and waft them across the water. -But it was many, many centuries before man learned that he could do away -with oars entirely and could sail in any direction, regardless of the -way the wind blew. - -Even in the time of Columbus the ships could scarcely make headway -against the wind and were more or less at the mercy of every passing -breeze, but once sailors discovered the secret of sailing to windward -the advance and improvement of ships and rigging was very rapid. The -great, cumbersome, square sails of the earlier ships were divided into -many pieces so as to be more readily handled and trimmed; triangular -sails took the place of the picturesque spritsails on the vessels’ bows; -hulls were built lower and deeper and while the number of masts varied -they were reduced until two- and three-masted, square-rigged vessels, -known as _brigs_ and _ships_, were the standard types of ocean-going -craft. - -Among smaller vessels there were sloops, luggers, ketches and other -types of fore-and-aft-rigged craft, and as these sails had many -advantages over the square sails and their awkward yards they replaced -the latter in some cases and thus _barks_, _brigs_ and _brigantines_ -came into use. - -Then some brilliant sailor genius did away with the square sails -altogether and a new type of vessel came into existence which was called -a “schooner.” But conservative, croaking Jack still pinned his faith to -yards and square sails and for many years schooners carried lofty -topsails of the same form as the upper sails of square-rigged ships. - -Today the fore-and-aft-rigged vessels are more numerous than all other -rigs combined and the square-riggers, stately and beautiful as they -were—the handsomest vessels ever built by man—have been almost driven -from the seas. With the outbreak of the European War and the demand for -ocean-going cargo-carriers the old square-riggers have once more come to -the fore, and in ports and harbors where a crossyard mast had not been -seen for many years, barks, ships and square-rigged vessels now line the -docks and are an everyday sight. But they are only temporary and every -boy and man who loves the sea and its ships should take advantage of -this opportunity to view a passing type of vessels and should learn all -about them, their rigging and their sails, for to them we owe much of -our commerce and prosperity, our independence and our progress. - -Although the cheaper, more easily handled and more simple schooners -forced the square-rigged ships into the background, and while these in -turn have been largely superseded by steam for deep-water voyages, yet -the small boat has held its own throughout the centuries. In form, rig -and other details the small boats of today vary as widely as ever, for -small boats are designed and used for specific purposes and no one can -say which is the _best_ boat or the _handiest_ rig. - -Steam and motor boats have taken the place of sailboats for business -purposes in many places, but as long as men love the sea, as long as -they enjoy the sting of the salt spray and the thrill of a plunging bow, -as long as our eyes brighten and our pulses quicken as we grasp tiller -and sheet and lee rails are awash, so long will the small boat hold its -own. We may conquer distance by steam, we may annihilate time by -paper-like hulls loaded with roaring motors of gigantic power, we may -travel in floating palaces called yachts, but nothing will ever be made -by man to take the place of the small boat for the out-and-out pleasure -and perfect enjoyment it gives the true boat-lover. - -Although there is an endless variety of hulls and rigs among small boats -they may all be divided into a few general classes. In form of hull most -boats may be grouped under two broad types: round-bottomed and -flat-bottomed boats, but there _are_ intermediate forms and there are -also some kinds of boats which are a sort of hybrid or combination of -both. - -In rig we have the schooner, ketch, yawl, sloop and cat and while these -cover the matter in a general way there is a wonderful variety in the -sails, rigging and other details, and many boats which possess great -advantages cannot be properly classed in any of these groups. - -The best boat to use and the best rig to adopt depend largely upon the -purpose of the boat and its rig, the place where it is to be used, the -owner’s ability as a sailor, the weather likely to be encountered, the -character of the neighboring shores and waters and various other -conditions. - -In order to select intelligently the best boat for your use it is -necessary to consider the various types of hull and rig, their -advantages and disadvantages and the purposes for which they are -intended, and then, knowing these things, select the one which you think -best adapted to your own requirements. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER II - - WHAT BOAT TO USE - - -Through countless centuries since man first made and used boats, an -almost infinite variety of craft has been developed. In every land where -boats of any sort are used the inhabitants have gradually evolved boats -adapted to their special needs, the conditions of their seas or water -courses and the work in which the boats are to be used. - -In a great many countries the types of boats in use today have not -changed or altered for hundreds of years, but in many other places -forms, construction and other details of the boats have been changed, -ideas from other lands or races have been adopted and we now find a -great many different kinds of boats used for the same purpose. Moreover, -with the migration of man from one place to another, boats of one nation -have been introduced to the people of other lands and sometimes, in one -locality, we may find boats from widely separated parts of the world -being used daily side by side. - -Of course these remarks apply mainly to boats used for commercial or -business purposes for wherever boats are used for pleasure one may find -an infinite variety of craft whose models have been culled from every -corner of the maritime world. - -In every case, however, there are certain definite reasons for one type -of boat being more generally used than another, and every boat-builder -and user, since boats were first invented, has aimed to combine certain -qualities in the construction of boats. - -The three most important matters to be considered in any boat are -seaworthiness, stability and speed. Which of these is of the greatest -importance depends very largely upon the local conditions, the purposes -for which the boat is to be used and the ideas of its builder or owner. - -In some places speed is the prime consideration, in other places -seaworthiness is the most important factor, while in still other -localities the ability to carry heavy loads and not sink or upset is of -more value than either speed or the power to resist winds and waves -safely. - -Thus the men who depend upon piloting vessels to an anchorage and whose -earnings are large or small according to whether or not they reach the -incoming vessels first, must have fast boats and seaworthiness may be a -secondary consideration. Again the toilers of the sea who spend days -upon the stormiest oceans fishing, lobstering or in similar pursuits -must have boats which are safe in any weather and speed is of little -importance, while those who use boats for transporting heavy cargoes or -many passengers from place to place in fairly smooth waters, find -stability of greater value than either speed or seaworthiness. - -Many times, however, in fact, as a general rule, the most seaworthy -boats are the most stable, while usually both stability and -seaworthiness must be sacrificed to a certain degree in order to obtain -great speed. But there are exceptions to all rules and many boats have -become world-famous because they combine all these three qualifications -to a remarkable degree. - -[Illustration: TYPES OF SMALL BOATS ADAPTED TO SPECIAL USES] - - 1—Whaleboat. 2—Lifeboat. 3—Dory. 4—Sharpie. 5—Skipjack. - 6—Block Island boat. - -The _whaleboats_ used by the Yankee whalemen for chasing and capturing -whales, are splendid examples of this. These boats are light, strong, -stable, seaworthy and very fast and in these respects are probably the -most perfect type of small craft ever designed. They are thirty feet in -length and six feet wide, barely two feet in depth amidships and yet are -capable of breasting the heaviest waves of midocean, withstanding the -most terrific gales and weathering the most severe storms of any seas. -Pulled by five oars they attain the speed of a motor boat; they are -light enough to be pulled upon a beach or easily hoisted to a ship’s -davits. They sail rapidly, are easily handled and hold together when -towed at express-train speed by a harpooned whale. - -Moreover, their construction is so simple that even when smashed or -“stove” by a whale they can be repaired easily by a carpenter and best -of all they are very cheap, a new whaleboat costing complete only one -hundred and twenty-five dollars. In these boats shipwrecked whalers have -made some marvelous voyages and several instances are on record of men -navigating the stormiest parts of the ocean for six thousand miles in -these boats in perfect safety. - -Somewhat similar to the whaleboats in shape are the _surfboats_ used on -the coasts of many sea-girt localities, notably on the Atlantic seaboard -of our Middle States, and while not as speedy, light or staunch as the -whaleboats, they ride the roaring surf and towering waves as buoyantly -as seabirds and are ideal boats for use where there are heavy seas. - -_Lifeboats_, such as those used on steamships and by the coast guard, -are really modified whaleboats and surfboats, combining the good points -of both and with slight alterations in proportions and construction to -enable them to carry large loads with safety. - -They are not as easily handled or as speedy as the whaleboats, but they -are far more roomy; they are almost non-capsizable, are unsinkable and -are built both of metal and of wood. The are rather heavy, however, and -expensive. - -For one who wishes a perfectly safe, roomy, strong boat capable of -withstanding almost any weather and with good sailing qualities it is -hard to find anything better than a standard lifeboat. - -At Block Island, off the tip of Long Island, there is a peculiar sort of -boat used by the native fishermen, which is known as the _Block Island -boat_. In some ways this craft resembles a whaleboat and in some ways it -reminds one of a surfboat, while in many of its characters it is much -like a lifeboat and yet it is totally different from all. They are -wonderfully staunch and seaworthy, they have great carrying capacity and -sail very well. Formerly a great many were used as small cruising -yachts, but of late years they have almost disappeared. - -Somewhat similar to the whaleboats are the big _seine boats_ used by the -New England fishermen for pulling the great, heavy seines when catching -mackerel, herring, menhaden, etc. They are very stable boats with -immense carrying capacity, are easily handled and are seaworthy, but -have no advantages over the whaleboats except in point of size. They do -not sail as well nor are they are as seaworthy as the whaleboats. - -All of the above are round-bottomed boats of the double-ended type in -which both bow and stern are sharp. One would therefore assume that this -style was the most seaworthy, especially as the spongers of the -Mediterranean, the pilot boats of many islands and the typical -fishing-boats of the European countries are also double-ended. Such, -however, is not necessarily the case for the fishermen, pilots and other -inhabitants of other countries use round-bottomed boats with broad -sterns and some even use flat-bottomed boats and brave as heavy weather, -as hard storms and as tumultuous seas as their fellows in the -round-bottomed, double-ended craft. - -Probably no men in the world ply their trade in rougher seas and in -stormier weather than the Gloucester fishermen who fish for halibut and -cod on the banks of Newfoundland and on George’s Banks. The boats used -by these hardy fishermen are known as _dories_ and are flat-bottomed, -high-sided, odd-looking craft which one would never imagine were -seaworthy, yet in them the Gloucester fishermen ride out terrific storms -and mountainous waves; they haul halibut weighing hundreds of pounds -over the boats’ sides without capsizing, and they sail or row them -safely through winter storms in midocean when laden with fish until the -gunwales are almost level with the water. Dories used by the fishermen -are not beautiful nor graceful boats, but they are wonderfully well -adapted to their use, and many builders have adopted so-called dory -models for pleasure craft, both for motor boats and sailboats. As a -rule, however, there is little resemblance between these “improved” -dories and those of the banks, and the stability and other qualities of -the real dories are usually lost in altering the lines for the sake of -appearances. - -Still another type of flat-bottomed boat which is used all along the -Atlantic coast is the _sharpie_. The sharpie is merely a modified skiff -equipped with a centerboard, but when properly handled these boats will -stand a great deal of rough weather and knocking about and, moreover, -they sail remarkably well. One usually thinks of sharpies as small boats -but they are often forty or fifty feet in length and are sometimes built -as large as small schooners and of twenty to fifty tons capacity. The -great objection to sharpies and other flat-bottomed boats is that they -“pound” or slap the water when in a heavy sea or among choppy waves, and -to overcome this a type of boat known as a _skipjack_ was evolved. -Skipjacks are a sort of connecting link between true flat-bottomed and -round-bottomed boats, for the after part of the bottom is flat while the -forward portion is V-shaped and thus they cut through the seas instead -of pounding on them while at the same time they slip over the surface of -the water rather than through it. Many of the fastest racing boats and -the fastest motor speed boats are nothing more nor less than modified -skipjacks, and for all-around use, especially in shallow waters, there -are few better boats where roominess and sea-going qualities are not -essential. - -Just as the men whose living depends upon their boats have agreed upon -the craft best suited to their needs, so the man or boy who is selecting -a sailboat for pleasure should consider all the types and should choose -that which best fulfills all of his requirements. - -If you want a roomy boat or a boat on which to live or sleep you should -choose a round-bottomed craft, for only in these can you obtain much -depth or “head room” unless a very high cabin is built above the deck -which always makes a boat top-heavy and unseaworthy. If the waters in -which you are to use your boat are stormy, if heavy seas are common, or -if you expect to make long trips out to sea or from place to place, -select a boat which is noted for its seaworthy qualities, such as a -_whaleboat_, _seine boat_, _lifeboat_ or _Block Island model_. - -If you are obliged to run ashore or to pull your boat upon a rocky or -sandy beach select a flat-bottomed craft which can be hauled out readily -without injury; while, if you want a boat for general utility, to use in -bays and harbors and in sheltered waters and yet capable of standing any -reasonable seas and ordinary storms, select a fairly deep, beamy, -round-bottomed hull such as the _Cape Cod_ or _Block Island catboat_, or -a similar model. - -If your boat is merely an open boat for day sailing and short trips -almost any type will serve, such as a _dory_, a _sharpie_, a _skipjack_ -or a round-bottomed or _yawl_ boat. As a rule, however, you should avoid -the true “open” boat for sailing, for in a boat without any deck it only -takes a slight puff of wind, an instant’s carelessness or a small sea to -bring the rail under water and swamp the boat. - -Even a very narrow deck is far better than none at all and if the deck -has a good high “combing” or raised inner edge, the safety will be -increased a hundredfold. - -Very few boats will capsize if decently handled and not equipped with -too much sail unless “tripped” by getting water over the side; but once -the rail of an open boat _is_ under water the boat will upset very -quickly, for each pound of water taken in stays on the lowest side of -the boat and has a tendency to carry the craft over still further. - -A great deal depends upon the construction of the boat itself and still -more depends upon the rig or sails to be used, and before selecting or -using any boat you should be thoroughly familiar with the various parts -of a boat, its construction, its fittings and its rig and should know -what each and every part is for, as well as how to use, repair and care -for it. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER III - - PARTS OF BOATS - - -Nearly everyone knows that the body of the boat is called the hull, but -a great many people, even those who live by the sea or who are -accustomed to the use of boats, know very little about the various parts -of the hull or the proper names for the different portions of it. - -The principal parts of a small boat’s hull are: the _bow_, the _stern_, -the _deck_ (if not an open boat); the _keel_, the _thwarts_, the -_bilge_, the _bottom_, the _topsides_ and the _gunwales_. Each of these -is made up of various pieces or parts, and to portions of each different -names are given. The _bow_ is the forward end of the boat; the _stern_ -is the rear end; the _deck_ is the portion on top or the part which -covers the open portion; the _keel_ is the very bottom piece which -extends from bow to stern; the _thwarts_ are the seats; the _bilge_ is -the bottom close to the keel on either side; the _bottom_ proper is the -portion between the keel and the sides of the boat; the _topsides_ are -the sides above the curve of the bottom; the _gunwales_ are the upper -edges of the topsides. - -The extreme forward edge of the bow is known as the _cutwater_; the -extreme end of the stern is known as the _counter_ or _transom_; the -curve from bow to stern, horizontally, is called the _sheer_; the sides -above the water are known as _freeboard_; the inner edge of the decks -when provided with a perpendicular edge is the _combing_; the open space -within the edge of the decks is known as the _cockpit_; the extreme -forward portion of the boat is called the _peak_; the central part of -the craft is the _waist_; the forward part of the hull near the stem and -below the water line is the _entrance_; the after part, on the sides -beneath the water is the _run_. In every boat, no matter how large or -small she may be, these parts are always the same. - -The various parts used in building a boat are very numerous in some -craft and are few in others, depending upon the size and model of the -boat, but in every case similar parts have the same names and are used -for the same purposes. - -The upright piece, to which the sides are attached at the bow is the -_stem_ and when this is made in two parts, as is often the case on large -boats, the outer piece is known as the _false stem_. This stem is -attached to the keel by a _knee_ and when a second piece is attached to -the keel to thicken and strengthen it, the piece is called the -_keelson_. At the stern the upright timber is called the _sternpost_ and -to this the transom, the broad flat piece at the end of the stern, is -fastened. From the stem to the transom extends the _planking_, the plank -next to the keel on each side being called the _garboard strake_ and the -ones at the top of the sides being known as _top strakes_, _sheer -strakes_ or _upper strakes_. From keel to the tops of the sides curved -or bent pieces are fastened which are known as _ribs_ and these are -attached to the keel-piece and the decks by _knees_. Sometimes an inner -lining is placed on top of the ribs to make the inside of the boat -smooth and this is known as the _ceiling_ while the pieces that extend -across from side to side and which support the decks are called _deck -timbers_. These are the principal parts found in every boat of -round-bottomed construction, but in flat-bottomed boats there are no -real ribs, no bilge nor garboard strakes, no keel and no real sternpost, -owing to the form and method of construction. - -In a flat-bottomed boat the bottom runs across from side to side without -any bilge; the entire sides are practically freeboard; straight braces -or timbers replace ribs; the keel is replaced by a false keel or -_rubbing strake_ and, except in large sized boats, the transom is held -in position by the sides and bottom and no stern post is required. - -In form and design the various parts of boats vary as much, or even -more, than the boats themselves and there is an almost endless variety -of bows, sterns, counters, etc., not to mention the forms of rudders, -the variations in sheer, and other proportions of form, lines, run, -freeboard, etc. - -Even in one type of boat there may be a great many forms of bows or -sterns in use, many designed merely to add to the appearance of the -craft, others to add speed, others to make the boat drier, others to -adapt it better to sailing or rowing, as the case may be; and still -others to afford better facilities for using certain types of rig, gear -or fishing-tackle. - -The forms of bows and sterns are so numerous that to name or describe -them all would require a volume, but they may all be grouped under a -comparatively limited number of types, the others being merely -modifications or combinations of these. - -[Illustration: TYPES OF BOWS AND STERNS] - - 1—Straight bow. 2—Round bow. 3—Clipper bow. 4—Dory bow. - 5—Whaleboat bow. 6—Canoe bow. 7—Spoon bow. 8—Square - stern. 9—Overhanging stern. 10—Whaleboat stern. 11—Dory - stern. 12—Round stern. 13—Sharp or “pinkey” stern. - -The commonest and most important forms of bows are as follows: - -_Straight bows_, in which the stem is perpendicular to the keel; _round -bows_, in which the stem is curved or rounded from keel to deck; -_clipper bows_, in which the stem is concave or hollowed in outline; -_raking_ or _dory bows_ in which the stem is set at an angle to the -keel; _whaleboat bows_ which are rounded or curved and are also at an -angle; _canoe bows_ which are like the round bows but more convex, and -_spoon bows_ which have no true stem but sweep in a gradual curve from -the bottom of the boat to the deck. - -Among the more typical sterns we find: _Square_ or _straight sterns_, in -which the sternpost is perpendicular and the counter is broad and flat; -_overhanging sterns_, in which the counter is carried out beyond the -sternpost and overhangs the water; _dory sterns_, in which the sternpost -is at an angle and has a V-shaped counter; _whaleboat sterns_ which are -sharp and shaped like the bow; _round sterns_, in which the sides are -carried around in a curve or half-circle with no transom; and _sharp -sterns_ or _pinkey sterns_ which are sharp like the stern of a -whaleboat, but instead of being curved are merely angular or -perpendicular. - -Each of these forms of bows and sterns possesses qualities which adapt -it to one purpose more than another and in selecting a boat you should -bear this in mind. Straight or round bows throw a larger bow wave than -the whaleboat or clipper types and have a tendency to bury the bows in -heavy seas; whaleboat or dory bows cut through the waves, but give great -buoyancy or lifting power to the craft, thus preventing it from burying -the forward part in the water; while spoon bows pound and slap in heavy -seas and are principally of value for racing boats or for use in calm -waters. - -Even the sterns have an important effect upon a boat’s abilities and -seaworthiness. A square stern will drag a great deal of water behind it -when traveling rapidly and with a following sea is liable to take in -water, or to be “pooped,” as the sailors would say. Round sterns with an -overhang are also bad in a seaway and often make a boat slow in coming -about or turning; transom sterns with an overhang are better, while the -sharp-pointed pinkey or whaleboat sterns prevent a following sea from -entering the boat and leave a clean wake, but owing to the fact that -there is no overhang and that the entire height of the boat is brought -broadside to the water when turning, they are not so quick in -maneuvering as a stern with a good overhang. Perhaps the best all-around -stern is one with a good overhang, a sharp run and a small counter: in -other words, a sort of combination of the common overhand stern and the -whaleboat type. - -In the planking, boats vary a great deal, and there are many different -methods of making the sides and bottom. Even boats of the same form, for -the same uses and with the same style of bow and stern may be made in -very different ways. One method is to place the planks so that the edges -join and there is a uniform, smooth surface, with all the planks running -from bow to stern. This is known as _smooth-skin_ or _carvel planking_. -Another style is to let the boards overlap slightly; this is known as -_clinker construction_ or _lap-streak_ planking. Other boats are planked -with very narrow strips fastened one above the other, edge to edge, -while still others are covered with two or more layers of thin boards -placed diagonally from keel to gunwales and known as _diagonal -planking_. For light racing boats the latter type is admirable for it is -strong, light, tight and stiff, but it is difficult to repair, it is -expensive and for ordinary use has no advantages. Clinker-built boats -are excellent when new, but a broken or injured plank is difficult to -replace, leaks are hard to stop and it has no advantages over the carvel -planking which is the commonest of all forms of boat-building. - -Still another matter to be considered when selecting a boat is whether -you should use a keel or a centerboard craft. Every boat, in order to -sail well, must have a portion which projects below the bottom and which -will prevent the craft from sliding sideways or making “leeway” on the -water when the wind is from the side or when sailing against the wind. -This projection may be a _keel_, which is an immovable portion of the -boat itself; it may be a _centerboard_ which is a board which can be -raised or lowered at will from the center of the boat, or it may be a -_leeboard_ which is merely hung over the side opposite the wind and is -shifted as the boat tacks or goes about. - -Leeboards are clumsy makeshifts and while they are used on large vessels -in some countries, as in Holland and Scandinavia, they are a great -nuisance and very unsatisfactory on anything but canoes and rowboats -which are sailed occasionally and on which either keels or centerboards -would be inconvenient. - -No one has yet decided definitely whether or not keels or centerboards -are the better, although the matter has been discussed, tried and -thrashed out for years. As a matter of fact each has its advantages and -disadvantages, each is adapted to certain types of boats and to certain -conditions and each has its adherents who have no faith in the other -type. - -Personally, I think the keel boat the better for deep water use where -there is a likelihood of heavy weather and yet many of the Gloucester -fishing-smacks and many yachts which have won ocean races are of the -centerboard type. For shallow waters or where there are reefs, sandbars, -shoals or mud-flats keel boats are a nuisance and centerboards are -practically a necessity. Where boats are to be hauled on beaches -centerboard boats are really the only kind to use, for keel boats will -not stand upright and cut deeply into the sand. Flat-bottomed boats are -nearly always of the centerboard type; whaleboats have centerboards, and -yet catboats and other round-bottomed boats are made in both types. - -Keel boats are roomier than those with centerboards for there is no -space occupied by the centerboard and its case; they are less liable to -capsize, and if made with the same proportions as centerboard boats they -are as dry, seaworthy and handy. As a rule, however, the keel craft are -much narrower and deeper than those equipped with centerboards and many -of them are almost like a plank set on edge. These are stable enough, -but they are wet, uncomfortable and hard to handle. - -The advantages of the centerboard are that when sailing before the wind -or when rowing the board may be lifted and much less resistance to the -water will then result and consequently more speed may be gained. When -in shallow water the centerboard may be raised or lowered according to -the depth of the water, and if a sandbar or reef is struck little injury -will result, as the board is free to move up when it strikes an -obstruction, whereas a keel boat under the same conditions might be -badly injured. - -The objections to a centerboard are the difficulties in keeping the case -and trunk of the board from leaking, the space it occupies, the -necessity of raising or lowering it according to varying conditions and -the slight, very slight, chance of losing the board and thus becoming -helpless. - -[Illustration: KEELS, CENTERBOARDS, LEEBOARDS AND RUDDERS] - - 1—Section of a keel boat. 2—Section of a centerboard boat. - 3—Section of a fin keel boat. 4—Portion of a keel boat’s - hull. 5—Boat with centerboard. 6—Boat with leeboard. - 7-9—Forms of rudders for keel boats. 8-10—Forms of - rudders for centerboard boats. - -Centerboards are not confined to small boats as many think, but large -coasting vessels and even three-masted schooners are often built with -them, which proves that they have many great advantages. Some boats are -built in a sort of combination keel and centerboard method, in which a -moderate keel is provided and a centerboard is used as well, while -within comparatively recent years the _fin-keel_ type of boat has been -evolved. In these the hull is proportioned like that of a centerboard -boat but the keel is merely a large fin or sheet of metal carrying a -mass of lead or iron at its lower edge. All things being equal, the best -boat for ordinary use is the centerboard type and for small boats, or -the amateur’s use, they are far superior to keel boats of any sort. - -Most small boats are steered by means of a rudder and tiller, the rudder -being a wooden or metal affair submerged at the stern and the tiller -consisting of a handle at the rudder’s upper end. Some rudders are hung -or fastened to the counter and can be easily taken off or “unshipped,” -while others are under the counter and are fastened to the sternpost -with the upper end coming up through the boat or the deck. There are -various forms of rudders: some long and extending out for a considerable -distance in the rear of the boat, and others high and narrow, but the -purpose of all is the same and the rudder is always designed to present -an area sufficient to swing the boat around readily or to steer it -without using too great force. Large boats are usually steered by gears -connecting the rudder to a wheel; as the handling of a tiller connected -directly to the rudder of a large vessel would be a very difficult task -indeed. - -As, in order to turn a boat to the right, the tiller must be moved to -the left, the terms used by sailors in steering boats are often -confusing to landsmen. For example, if a sailor wants a boat turned to -the left, or to _port_, as it’s called, he will say, “Starboard the -helm,” or, in other words, push the tiller to the _starboard_ or -right-hand side, and vice versa. It is not so bad when steering with a -tiller, but when steering with a wheel the beginner is very apt to do -the wrong thing and turn the wheel _to the right_ when he wants to go -_to the right_ and _to the left_, or _port_, when he wants to go to that -direction, and to simplify matters many boats are now arranged so that -the wheel is turned in the direction one really wants to go. - -This makes it very easy when steering for oneself, but if someone is -directing the course and sings out the orders in true sailor fashion the -steersman has to remember and _port_ his helm when he is told to -_starboard_ it and thus the confusion is just as bad as ever. For this -reason the beginner should use a tiller if possible; for that matter, -there is no advantage in a wheel in boats less than thirty or forty feet -in length. - -[Illustration: BOAT FITTINGS AND PARTS OF BOATS] - - 1—Eyebolt. 2—Block. 3—Hook block. 4—Ring block. 5—Sister or - fiddle block. 6—Snatch block. 7—Cheek block. 8, - 9—Fairleaders. 10—Whip purchase. 11—Whip and runner. - 12—Long tackle. 13—Gun tackle. 14—Luff tackle. 15—Watch - tackle. 16—Cleats. 17—Chocks. 18—Bitts. 19—Turnbuckles. - 20—Travelers. 21—Dead eyes. 22—Section of boat to show - parts (round bottom). 23—Section of boat to show parts - (flat bottom). 24—External parts of boat. 25—Parts of - boat (top view). 26—Carvel planking. 27—Clinker - planking. 28—Strip planking. 29—Flat bottom planking. - 30—V-bottom planking. 31—Diagonal planking. - -On every sailboat there are a certain number of appliances which are -unfamiliar to landsmen but which you should become accustomed to before -attempting to handle a boat. There are _blocks_, _tackle_, _chocks_, -_fairleaders_, _cleats_, _turnbuckles_, _eyebolts_ and _travelers_ among -the deck fittings. Each of these has its use and one should be perfectly -familiar with them. _Blocks_ are wooden or metal objects containing -rollers or wheels known as _sheaves_ through which ropes are run to -enable them to be hauled tight without great friction. _Cheek-blocks_ -are half blocks which bolt or attach to a mast, spar, or other object. -_Sister-blocks_ have two sheaves, one above the other, in a single -shell. _Tail-blocks_ are blocks with a rope or hook at one end by which -they may be hung to spars, etc. _Snatch-blocks_ are blocks arranged so -that one side may be opened to allow a rope to be passed over the sheave -without running it through and there are _patent-blocks_ which will hold -a rope securely in any position by means of a grip. - -Blocks and ropes together are known as _tackles_ and the blocks used may -be single, double, triple or fourfold, according to the number of -sheaves they contain. A _luff-tackle_ has a single and a double block -with one end of the rope fast to the single block and the hauling end -leading from the double block. - -A _gun-tackle_ consists of two single blocks with one end of the rope -fast to the upper block and the hauling part passing down from the upper -block. - -A _watch-tackle_ is a tackle used to haul the rope which is rove through -another tackle and a _whip-purchase_ has a single block only. - -The purpose of the tackle is to increase one’s power and the more -sheaves there are and the more times the rope is passed through the -blocks the more the power obtained; but as in every case where power is -increased, speed is lost and to hoist a sail with a tackle with several -sheaves requires more time than to do the same work with a single-sheave -block. For this reason the simplest tackle which will enable you to -perform the work without undue exertion is the one you should use. - -_Fairleaders_ are sheaves or rollers which are screwed or bolted to the -decks or other parts of the boat and through which ropes are run in -order that the ropes may be carried around curves or at right angles. -_Chocks_ are metal or wooden appliances in the form of notches and are -used where ropes pass over the edge of a boat to hold them in one -position. _Cleats_ are devices for holding a rope without tying it and -are very useful and numerous on boats. They are either of metal or wood -and by winding the rope over them it may be held securely and yet can be -thrown off at a moment’s notice. _Turnbuckles_ are metal arrangements -for tightening ropes, wires or chains and have hooks or eyes at the ends -with screw-threads which may be drawn together or separated by turning -the central portion of the turnbuckle. On small boats they are seldom -used, but on large and medium-sized craft they are very necessary. -_Eyebolts_ are eyes bolted or screwed in position and to them -turnbuckles, ropes, blocks or other objects are fastened, while -_travelers_ are metal rods over which blocks, rings or things slide or -“travel.” _Travelers_ are usually placed at the stern of single-sailed -boats for the tackle of the sheet, the rope which controls the sail, to -slide on, and they are also used on masts for the sail to slide up and -down upon when it is raised or lowered, as well as in many other places. - -A great many people who have used boats or have traveled on them speak -of a vessel’s _rigging_ without knowing what the rigging really is. In -the same way they speak of the “ropes” of a ship and while both terms -may be correct in a way, yet to a sailor the terms would mean nothing -definite. _Rigging_ comprises all the ropes, sails, stays, halyards and -in fact, everything above the decks which has anything to do with the -sail plan or _rig_ of a boat, but to sailors there are two definite -types of rigging, even in the smallest craft. These are the standing -rigging and the running rigging. The latter comprises only the various -ropes, lines, etc., which move when the vessel is in use, while the -_standing rigging_ consists of all the permanent ropes, stays and other -things which remain stationary. To enumerate the various individual -parts of the standing and running rigging of a large vessel would -require a great deal of space and would be of little value to the person -who is interested only in small boats, but there are certain portions of -the rigging which occur on every boat and which every boatman should -know by heart. - -As a matter of fact, there are very few “ropes” so-called, even on a -full-rigged ship, for what appear as ropes to a landsman are known by -specific names to sailors. Even on a small boat there are few ropes -which are spoken of as such and nothing so loudly proclaims the -landlubber as to speak of a _stay_, _halyard_ or _sheet_ as a “rope.” - -The _halyards_ are the ropes which hoist the sails and they vary in -number and name according to the type of sails used. As a rule there are -two to each sail and known as the _throat halyards_ and _peak halyards_. -(This refers only to fore-and-aft sails, see Chapter IV). The _throat -halyard_ being the one which hoists the edge of the sail nearest the -mast, while the _peak halyard_ raises the outer edge of the sail. Where -sails have no gaff or piece of wood at the upper edge only one halyard -is used. - -[Illustration: RUNNING RIGGING OF FORE-AND-AFT RIG] - - A—Jib halyard. B—Downhaul. C—Throat halyard. D—Peak halyard. - E—Topping lift. F—Main sheet. G—Jib sheet. - -The _sheet_ is the line which is attached to the outer extremity of the -sail and is controlled by the man sailing the boat and its purpose is to -hold the sail in any desired position and to enable the sailor to pull -the sail in or to let it out, according to the direction of the wind and -the course sailed. - -_Downhauls_ are ropes used in pulling down sails and are just the -opposite of halyards and on small boats they are seldom necessary. -_Topping lifts_ are ropes which lead from the masthead to the end of -boom to support the latter when the sail is lowered and they are usually -so arranged that they may be hauled up or let down to raise or lower or -_top_ the boom. _Lazy jacks_ are light lines extending from the mast -head, or near it, to the boom and are used to prevent the sail from -falling or bagging loose when lowered. They are seldom used on very -small boats. _Brails_ are ropes extending to the after edge of the sail -by means of which the sail may be gathered close to the mast ready for -furling. - -[Illustration: STANDING RIGGING, MASTS, ETC.] - - 1—Polemast. 2—Mast with topmast. 3—Mast with topmast and - topgallant mast. 4—Bowsprit with jib boom. 5—Pole - bowsprit. 6—Foremast. 7—Mainmast. 8—Mizzen mast. - 9—Jigger or spanker mast. - - A—Forestay. B—Backstays. C—Shrouds or side stays. D—Topmast - stay. E—Fore topmast stay. F—Jib stay. F′—Foretopgallant - stay. G—Flying jib stay. H—Fore royal stay. I—Mast or - lower mast. J—Trestle or cross trees. K—Top mast. - L—Topgallant mast. M—Topmast cap. N—Topmast trestle or - cross trees. O—Lowermast cap. P—Royal mast. Q—Futtock - shrouds. R—Ratlines. S—Spreader. - - BT—Bowsprit. JB—Jib boom. FJB—Flying jib boom. BS—Bobstays. - DS—Martingale or dolphin striker. MBR—Martingale back - ropes. JBS—Jib boom martingale stays. FJBS—Flying jib - boom martingale stays. - -All these are parts of the _running rigging_ while the _standing -rigging_, in its simplest form, consists of _stays_ which are ropes or -wires stretched from the top of the mast to the hull to keep the mast in -position, or which extend from the top of the mast to the bowsprit and -from the bowsprit to the stem to keep the bowsprit in its proper place. -The stays from the mast to the bowsprit are known as _forestays_ and -upon them small sails are run up or down which are known as _jibs_, -_forestaysails_, etc. (Chapter IV). Many boats which do not have -bowsprits or jibs nevertheless have forestays running from the top of -the mast to the bow, to keep the mast in one position, while many boats -with bowsprits have stays running from the end of the bowsprit to the -sides of the boat, their purpose being to keep the bowsprit from bending -sideways. - -On large vessels the stays are very numerous and there are _backstays_ -to keep the masts from bending forward, stays between the masts and many -other kinds of stays, but most of these are never necessary on small -boats. If the boat has a _topmast_, however, there are always -_topmast-stays_ and usually _backstays_, the former being spread apart, -where the topmast and lowermast join, by means of a wooden or metal -crosspiece known as a _spreader_. So also on boats with a long bowsprit, -or where a second piece known as a _jib boom_, extends beyond the -bowsprit, there are stays known as _bobstays_ which are spread down -toward the water by means of a metal or iron piece known as the _dolphin -striker_ or _martingale boom_. - -In mentioning these various parts of the rigging I have used the terms -“masts,” “bowsprit,” etc., and while I suppose that nearly every reader -will know what a _mast_ and a _bowsprit_ is, yet it may be well to add a -few words about them and their names. The _masts_, of course, are the -sticks which carry the sails and rigging, and if there are more than one -used, the forward mast is _always_ the _foremast_. The one back of this -is the _mainmast_; the third from the bow is the _mizzen_, while in -four-masted vessels there is the _spanker mast_ or _jigger mast_. Where -the front mast is very high and there is another very small mast at the -stern the latter is also known as the _jigger_ or _mizzen_ and the -forward mast becomes the _mainmast_. Masts may be made in one or more -sections according to the rig of the vessel. If the mast is all in one -piece it is known as a _polemast_ and if another piece is placed above -it this is known as the _topmast_, while in square-rigged vessels there -are still other pieces known as _topgallant masts_, _royal masts_, etc. - -The _bowsprit_ is the stick which projects forward from the bow of a -vessel and it may be either a _pole bowsprit_ in one piece, or it may -have a second piece attached to it and known as a _jib boom_, while on -very large vessels there may be still a third part known as the _flying -jib boom_. In addition to all these there are the various sticks or -timbers which help spread the sails and which are known as _spars_, but -as these vary in number and name according to the rig and sails used it -is best to consider them in connection with the sails themselves. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - VARIOUS RIGS - - -Probably the first sail ever placed upon a boat was merely a piece of -hide or skin, lashed to a sapling and kept spread open by a rough stick -lashed across it. Through all the countless centuries this first form of -sail has been retained and while the skin has been replaced by cloth and -the rough saplings have given place to well-finished poles or spars, the -spritsail, as it is called, still remains one of the simplest, handiest -and most widely used of sails. - -The true spritsail is a square, or nearly square, piece of canvas laced -by one edge to the mast and kept stretched flat by means of a pole known -as a _sprit_ which extends from the lower part of the mast diagonally -across the sail to the upper, outer corner. - -Sometimes the sail is attached to hoops or rings which run up and down -the mast and a halyard is used in hoisting the sail but, in order to -spread the sail well, the sprit must be pulled out by hand and cannot be -arranged to rise or fall with the sail. The ordinary method of securing -the sprit is to place the tip in a small loop, or eye of rope made at -the corner of the sail and then heave the sprit out until the sail is -taut by means of a rope known as a _lanyard_ which is attached to the -mast and is passed through a hole or a notch in the lower end of the -sprit. - -Another very simple sail, which is really a modification of the -spritsail, is the _leg-o’-mutton_. This differs mainly from the -spritsail in form, for instead of being rectangular it is three-cornered -and the sprit, instead of extending from the mast to the upper, outer -corner of the sail, extends almost horizontally across it. Leg-o’-mutton -sails, like the spritsails, are often arranged to be raised or lowered -by a halyard and owing to the position of the sprit it is not necessary -to remove it when lowering a leg-o’-mutton sail. - -Some spritsails have two sprits, but this is a nuisance and for most -purposes the leg-o’-mutton is the far better sail of the two. In the -first place it stays flatter and thus enables one to sail closer to the -wind; it does not have the tendency to “kick up” and wrap itself about -the mast, like the spritsail, when sailing before the wind, and finally -it is not so liable to capsize a boat in a heavy wind as the greatest -area is low, whereas in the spritsail the upper portion presents the -largest surface to the wind. - -[Illustration: VARIOUS RIGS] - - 1—Felucca. 2—Lugger. 3—Nonpareil. 4—Dandy. 5—Bermuda boat. - 6—French gunter. 7—Batten sail. 8—Settee sail. - -Somewhat similar to the leg-o’-mutton sail in form is the _gunter sail_ -or _sliding gunter_, which is a great favorite in many parts of Europe -but which has never been widely introduced in America, although it has a -great many advantages over other sails for small boats. The gunter sail -is a very easy one to raise or lower, for there is no sprit to remove -and it is very easy to reef. In the gunter sail the mast is made in two -sections with the upper portion sliding by travellers over the lower -portion, and to this movable part the single halyard is attached. In -order to reef sail it is only necessary to lower the sliding mast a -trifle, tie the reef points to the boom and again hoist the sail taut. - -Another form of rig, which is seen everywhere in Oriental waters, and is -the prime favorite with all Latin races, is the _lateen_. Like the -leg-o’-mutton and the gunter rigs the lateen is triangular, but unlike -the two former it is longer than high, or in other words, is placed -horizontally, instead of perpendicularly. The lateen is a particularly -good sail for small boats as the greatest area is low and why it has not -been more generally adopted is something of a mystery. As used in the -West Indies the lateen is rigged on a single, short mast which points or -“rakes” slightly towards the bow of the boat. It has two yards and is -raised and lowered by one halyard. It is kept taut and flat by a crotch, -or ring, passed around the mast and fastened to the lower yard. Properly -made the lateen will set very flat and smooth, it is easily and quickly -raised or lowered, readily reefed and is the most graceful and -picturesque of all rigs. - -Somewhat like the lateen, but with the forward end cut off, is the -_lugsail_ which is the sail most often used by the fishermen of northern -Europe and the British Isles. Personally I could never see any advantage -which this sail possesses over the common and much more simple spritsail -or the ordinary boom-and-gaff sail and on large boats it is heavy, -clumsy and far less to be recommended than several other forms. - -The common _boom-and-gaff_ sail is the one so familiar to everyone who -lives on or near the water or who has ever seen sailing boats or -vessels, for it is more widely used than any other form and is the basis -of all fore-and-aft rigs in most localities. - -[Illustration: PARTS OF SAILS, SPARS, ETC., OF FORE-AND-AFT RIG] - -The true fore-and-aft sail or boom-and-gaff sail is really an adaptation -of the older lugsail and is a vast improvement over it. It is attached -to the mast by means of rings or travelers and has two spars; the one at -the top known as the _gaff_ and the one at the bottom known as the -_boom_. There are two halyards used, known as the peak halyard and -throat halyard; the latter being used to hoist the sail and the former -to spread it tight and flat. This rig is noted for its ability to sail -close to the wind; it is easy to handle and in case of a sudden storm or -squall the peak may be dropped and the area of the sail thus reduced -without stopping to reef. For very small boats it has the disadvantage -of requiring rather heavy spars and mast and a multiplicity of ropes, -blocks, etc., and hence for this purpose the sprit, leg-o’-mutton, -gunter or lateen rigs are preferable. - -Aside from the shape or type of sails there are various rigs which are -well recognized as standards and which are combinations of several -sails. Thus the rig known as the _cat rig_ is a single fore-and-aft sail -near the bow of the boat. The _jib-and-mainsail_ rig has a boom-and-gaff -sail and a small triangular sail known as a _jib_, which is set on a -stay running from the masthead to the bow, or to the end of the -bowsprit. The _sloop_ rig is like the jib-and-mainsail rig but in -addition has a small sail known as a _topsail_ between the gaff and the -topmast; it may also have two or three other small triangular sails on -the forestays. When there are two of these the lowest is known as the -_fore staysail_, the next is the _jib_ and the third is the _flying -jib_. _Schooners_ are two-, three-, four-, five-, six- or even -seven-masted vessels with the masts fore-and-aft rigged and with jibs -like a sloop and with staysails between the various topmasts. In -schooners the various fore-and-aft sails are all of nearly the same size -with the sail on the rear mast the largest. - -[Illustration: 1—KETCH RIG. 2—CAT YAWL RIG] - -Two other rigs which have two masts and carry fore-and-aft sails are the -_ketch_ and the _yawl_. The ketch has a foremast rigged like that of a -sloop, or schooner, with a much smaller boom-and-gaff sail on a mast -near the stern, while the _yawl_ is practically the same with a still -smaller rear sail. If the rear mast or mizzen is placed _in front of the -sternpost_ the rig is the _ketch_ whereas if placed _behind the -sternpost_ it is a _yawl_ rig. There are also _cat yawls_ which have no -jibs and some ketches and yawls carry lugsails on both masts, or have a -boom and gaff mainsail and a lugsail mizzen or even a sprit, lateen, -leg-o’-mutton, gunter or other type of mizzen sail. Yawls and ketches -are at times rigged with leg-o’-mutton, lug, gunter or lateen sails on -both masts, but when thus rigged the crafts are not, properly speaking, -either yawls or ketches. If lugsails are used the rig is really a -_lugger_; if both masts carry leg-o’-mutton or gunter sails the rig is -known as the _nonpareil_; if the mizzen is a leg-o’-mutton sail the boat -is _dandy-rigged_ and if both main and mizzen sails are of the lateen -type the boat becomes a _felucca_, which is one of the favorite -Mediterranean rigs and is familiar to every reader of sea tales as the -typical rig of the Eastern corsairs. - -All of the sails mentioned on these various rigs are those known as -_working sails_, but in addition there are numerous light sails used -when there is little wind or when racing, such as _spinnakers_, _jib -topsails_, _balloon jibs_, etc., but which are of little interest in -connection with small boats or boats for the amateur sailor. -Nevertheless some knowledge of such matters never comes amiss and it is -well to know the names and uses of these racing sails. - -_Spinnakers_ are immense triangular sails used when running before the -wind and which are spread out from the side of the boat by means of a -spar known as a spinnaker boom. _Balloon jibs_ are huge, jib-like sails -of very light cotton or silk used in place of the smaller head sails -when running on, or before, the wind, while _jib topsails_ are -triangular sails run up on the stay which extends from the topmast to -the bowsprit. - -Nowadays fore-and-aft-rigged vessels form the bulk of all sailing craft, -many of which are of immense size and capable of carrying many hundreds -of tons of cargo. The use of fore-and-aft sails on any but small boats -is comparatively recent, however, and formerly all large craft were what -are known as _square-riggers_. Although far more beautiful and stately -than the schooners the square-rigged vessels gradually gave way to the -more economical and handy fore-and-aft rigs and a few years ago one -seldom saw a square-rigged vessel, save in out-of-the-way places. With -the tremendous demand for ocean-going vessels, brought about by the -European War, the square-riggers once more came into their own and today -one may see ships, barks and brigs everywhere in the important ports of -the world. - -Although small boats are seldom square-rigged yet everyone who is fond -of the sea and of boats should know something of square-rigged craft and -should be familiar with the various rigs and their sails and should know -the proper names and terms to use in speaking of them. To the landsman, -and to many sailors as well, the rigging of a square-rigged vessel -appears most complicated and confusing, but in reality it is very -simple. - -A great many people call every large vessel a “ship” and many more who -can distinguish a sloop from a schooner, and a schooner from a yawl, -fail to note the differences between the various square-rigs and call -all square-rigged vessels “ships.” As a matter of fact “ships” are only -one type of square-rigged craft and it is just as erroneous to call a -bark a “ship” as to call a sloop a “schooner.” - -[Illustration: SAILS OF SQUARE-RIGGED VESSELS] - - 1—Topsail schooner. 2—Brigantine. 3—Brig (main course in - dotted lines). 4—Barkentine (with double topsails). - 5—Bark (with double topsails). 6—Ship (with double - topsails, fore and main skysails (mizzen course in - dotted lines)). Staysails are omitted in Figs. 3, 4, 5, - 6. - -Oddly enough one may trace the transition from the original -square-riggers to the modern fore-and-aft schooners by the various rigs, -for the old square sails died hard and even after the many advantages of -fore-and-aft sails were proven sailors still held tenaciously to certain -square sails and thus many types of square-rigged vessels are -combinations of the two forms and are really connecting links between -true square-riggers and fore-and-aft rigs. - -This is the case with the so-called “topsail schooners” which are almost -a thing of the past in most countries but are still used in -Newfoundland, the Canadian provinces and in parts of Europe. The topsail -schooner is essentially a two-masted, fore-and-aft schooner, but the -foretopmast is equipped with yards bearing square sails, the lower sail -being known as the _foretopsail_ and the upper one as the -_foretopgallantsail_. Another step backward and we find the foremast -equipped entirely with square sails, the fore-and-aft sail on the -foremast missing and a fourth square sail above the foretopgallantsail. -This rig is known as the _brigantine_, while in the rig known as a -_brig_ both masts carry square sails and in addition the mainmast is -furnished with a fore-and-aft sail known as the _spanker_. In every -square-rigged vessel there are a definite number of square sails on each -mast and these always have the same name, although some vessels do not -carry all of them. Thus, the lowest sail is the _course_, the next is -the _topsail_, the next the _topgallantsail_, the next the _royal_ and -the highest of all is the _skysail_. - -Formerly each of these sails was in one large piece, but in order to -make it easier to handle them _double topsails_ and _double -topgallantsails_ were invented and are now in general use. Thus one may -see square-rigged vessels with _seven_ instead of _five_ square sails on -each mast, but the names remain the same, the second and third sails -above the deck becoming _lower_ and _upper topsails_, and the two above -these being _lower_ and _upper topgallantsails_. Many other vessels -carry double topsails and single topgallantsails, but one can always -recognize these _double_ sails as they are much narrower than the full -sails. Comparatively few vessels carry skysails, many do not even carry -royals and still others carry more on one mast than on another. - -Just as brigantines form a sort of connecting link between brigs and -two-masted schooners so _barkentines_ and _barks_ are connecting links -between three-masted schooners and real ships. The barkentine has the -forward mast square-rigged with the main and mizzen masts fore-and-aft -rigged, while the _bark_ has the fore and mainmast square-rigged and -only the mizzen fore-and-aft rigged. Finally there is the true _ship_ or -“full rigged ship,” as it is often called, in which all three masts are -square-rigged with a small fore-and-aft spanker on the last, or mizzen, -mast. - -In former years barks and ships never had more than three masts, but -with the advent of steel hulls, and donkey engines to hoist and trim -sails, four-, five- and even six-masted barks and ships came into use. -It is sometimes difficult to tell whether these vessels are barks or -ships, but if there is _more than one mast fore-and-aft rigged_ they are -properly _barkentines_, if _only one_ mast is _without square sails_ the -vessel is a bark and if square sails are on all masts it is a -ship;—regardless of how many masts there are. Just as fore-and-aft -rigged vessels carry light sails to supplement the ordinary working -sails, so square-rigged vessels often spread additional canvas when the -winds are light or when greater speed is desired. Between the various -masts _staysails_, shaped like jibs, are extended, while at times small -sails known as _studding sails_ or _stunsails_ are set at the outer ends -of the square sails. These light sails take the names of the masts or -yards from which they are set and thus there are _main_ and _mizzen -topmast_ and _topgallant staysails_; _fore_, _main_ and _mizzen -topgallant_ and _royal studding sails_, etc. - -These great steel and iron square-riggers often have each of their masts -in one piece or _polemasts_, but the older and typical square-rigged -vessels had their masts made up of several pieces, each of which carried -a sail, and the names of each section corresponded to the sail which it -carried. Thus the lowest section was the _mast_ proper, the piece above -was the _topmast_, the next was the _topgallant mast_, the next the -_royal mast_ and the slenderest, uppermost part was the _skysail pole_. - -Each of these masts had its own stays and shrouds and between the masts -triangular, jib-like sails known as _staysails_ were set. These were -named after the masts to which the _upper ends_ were attached and thus -the staysail which extended downward from the top of the _topgallant_ -mast was a _topgallant staysail_, etc. - -[Illustration: HULL, SPARS AND RIGGING OF A SHIP] - - 1—Jib boom. 2—Bowsprit. 3—Dolphin-striker or martingale. - 4—Cathead. 5—Capstan. 6—Cable. 7—Stem or Cutwater. - 8—Hawse-pipe or hawse-hole. 9—Starboard bow. - 10—Starboard beam. 11—Water line. 12—Starboard - quarter. 13—Rudder. 14—Rudder post. 15—Counter. - 16—Deck house or cuddy. 17—Fore royalmast. 18—Main - royalmast. 19—Mizzen royalmast. 20—Fore royalyard. - 21—Main royalyard. 22—Mizzen royalyard. 23—Fore - topgallantmast. 24—Main topgallantmast. 25—Mizzen - topgallantmast. 26—Fore topgallantyard. 27—Main - topgallantyard. 28—Mizzen topgallantyard. 29—Fore - topmast. 30—Main topmast. 31—Mizzen topmast. 32—Fore - topsailyard. 33—Main topsailyard. 34—Mizzen - topsailyard. 35—Foretop. 36—Maintop. 37—Mizzentop. - 38—Foreyard. 39—Mainyard. 40—Mizzen, or Cross-jack, - yard. 41—Foremast. 42—Mainmast. 43—Mizzenmast. - 44—Foregaff, or fore-spencer-gaff. 45—Trysail-gaff, or - Main-spencer-gaff. 46—Spanker-gaff. 47—Spanker-boom. - 48—Bulwark, or rail. 49—Starboard ports. 50—Starboard - scupper-holes. 51—Starboard chain-plates. - - A, A, A—Fore, main and mizzen royal-stays. - B—Flying-jib-stay. C, C, C—Fore, main and mizzen - topgallant-stays. D—Jib-stay. E, E, E—Fore, main and - mizzen topmast-stays. F, F, F—Fore, main and - mizzen-stays. G, G—Fore and main-tacks. H, H, H—Fore, - main and mizzen royal-lifts. I, I, I—Fore, main and - mizzen topgallant-lifts. J, J, J—Fore, main and mizzen - topsail-lifts. K, K, K—Fore, main and mizzen, or - cross-jack, lifts. L, L, L—Fore, main and mizzen - royal-braces. M, M, M—Fore, main and mizzen - topgallant-braces. N, N, N—Fore, main and mizzen - topsail-braces. O, O, O—Fore, main and mizzen, or - cross-jack, braces. P, P, P—Fore, main and mizzen - starboard shrouds. Q, Q, Q—Fore, main and mizzen - backstays. R, R, R—Peak halyards. S, S, S—Trysail and - spanker vangs. T, T—Fore and main sheets. U—Spanker - topping-lift. V—Spanker sheet. W—Flying martingale. - W′—Martingale stay. X—Bobstays. Y—Chafing gear. - - NOTE—Modern vessels carry double-topsails and often - double topgallantsails also, in which case the words - “upper” or “lower” are prefixed to the sails, spars and - rigging of these sails. Skysails also are carried at - times. These are small sails set on the skysail poles - above the royal masts and their rigging takes the prefix - “skysail.” Spencers and trysails are often omitted and - are obsolete, as are studding sails. - -It will thus be seen that in order to know the names of all the sails on -a square-rigged vessel it is only necessary to learn the names of the -five parts of each mast, for every sail has the same name with the -addition of fore, main, or mizzen as the case may be. The same is true -of the yards, the stays, the halyards and every other part of a ship’s -rigging and so the seemingly complicated maze becomes very simple, for -all you have to do is to learn the names of the various parts on one -mast and prefix _fore_, _main_ or _mizzen_ to them for those on the -other masts. - -Just as the little catboat has its stays, halyards and sheet, so the -huge, towering ship has its stays and shrouds, sheets and halyards and -the use of each is exactly the same as on the catboat with its single -sail. The stays or shrouds always hold the masts in position and -strengthen them. There are _backstays_, _forestays_ and _bobstays_ on -every vessel, and each is designated by the proper prefix of _fore_, -_main_ or _mizzen_, _top_, _topgallant_, _royal_, etc. - -The halyards are to hoist the sails and they take their names from the -sails to which they are attached. The sheets are used to haul the sails -flat and tight and they extend from the corners of the sails to the tips -of the yards, but in addition there are many parts of the rigging which -have no counterpart on fore-and-aft-rigged vessels. For example, the -_braces_ are used to swing or set the yards in various positions, the -_clewlines_ are used to gather up the sails ready for furling and there -are _buntlines_, _garnet-lines_ and many other _lines_ which are only -used on square-riggers and are of little interest, unless you expect to -use a square rig or are interested in all things pertaining to sailing -craft. - -It may sound foolish to speak of using a square rig, but one can have a -lot of fun and can learn a great deal about ships and sailing by fitting -up a small boat as a brig, bark, or ship. I once had a twenty-foot -sharpie rigged as a miniature full-rigged ship. Of course there is no -practical advantage in this, for the square rigs require a great deal of -care, they do not sail as well as fore-and-aft rigs when tacking to -windward, and they should never be used, save as a means of recreation -and for sailing on smooth waters, on a small boat. - -As to which is the best fore-and-aft rig to use on small boats there is -a great diversity of opinion, for every boat sailor has his own ideas -and his own favorite rig and what may prove very satisfactory to one -person may not be at all satisfactory to another. - -The best method to follow in determining your rig is to weigh the -advantages and disadvantages of each, adopt the one you think best -suited to your special requirements and your boat and if this doesn’t -fulfill expectations try another. No two boats, even of the same model, -sail just alike and often one rig will give far better results on one -type of boat than on another while the character of the waters sailed, -the prevalent winds, the size of the boat, its form, the purpose for -which it is used and many other factors must be considered when deciding -upon a rig. - -If you are a beginner and your boat is small and open, a leg-o’-mutton -or gunter sail will probably be as good as any, whereas if your boat is -very stable or heavy, or if you sail where there are light winds, a lug, -sprit or boom-and-gaff sail will be better. - -It is a great mistake to place too much sail on a boat for nothing is -gained by it and the dangers of sailing are vastly increased. Too much -sail on a boat will invariably and inevitably result in one of three -things. If the boat is not wonderfully stable she will capsize, or will -lean over until she swamps; if so heavy or stable that she still stands -up, the wind will rip the sail or tear out the masts and if neither of -these casualties occur she will simply “drag” sail and will handle -badly. Every boat will sail to the very best advantage with a definite -amount of sail and the amount will vary according to the breeze. Hence -it is no economy to carry on with all sail in a heavy wind, for if the -sail used is adapted to the boat for light winds it stands to reason it -will be far too much in heavy weather. - -Flat-bottomed boats are usually very safe if properly handled and not -provided with too much sail, but owing to their shape they capsize very -quickly once they are tipped a trifle too far. For this reason -leg-o’-mutton or gunter sails should be selected for this type of boat, -partly because they offer a small area to the wind near their tops and -because they have the quality of “spilling” the wind when at an angle -and thus preventing the boat from being tipped dangerously. A -flat-bottomed boat may be sailed in perfect safety with these sails when -lug or boom-and-gaff sails of the same area would be extremely -dangerous. - -Another matter to remember is that a greater amount of sail may be -safely carried as two or more sails than would be possible in a single -sail, but for boats less than twenty feet over all a multiplicity of -sails is a nuisance. The question of just how much sail should be -carried is a very difficult one to answer, for boats vary in their -stability and a great deal depends upon how they are handled and the -skill of the sailor. For ordinary open boats used for pleasure where a -single sail is carried, the sail area should not greatly exceed one and -one-half times the number of square feet obtained by multiplying the -boat’s length by its extreme breadth. Thus a boat twenty feet long by -five feet wide could safely carry one hundred and fifty square feet of -canvas, but for safety this should be as low as possible. A sail fifteen -feet high and seven feet wide might upset the boat before it would drive -it along and yet a sail ten feet high and twelve feet wide might serve -to sail the boat very well and without any danger of capsizing. At any -rate, until you are thoroughly familiar with handling your boat and with -the rudiments of sailing under all conditions, you should confine -yourself to a small amount of sail and should make haste slowly. - -In addition to the fore-and-aft sails described there are many which are -combinations, adaptations or improvements and which are known by -different names. Among these are the _French gunter_ in which the upper -portion of the mast not only slides on the lower part but may be lowered -like a gaff as well; the leg-o’-mutton with a boom at the lower edge in -place of the sprit; the various _battened_ sails which are really -lugsails fitted with light wooden strips, or battens, across them to -keep the sails flatter and to make reefing easier; the old-fashioned -lugsails which have no spar or boom at the lower edge; the _settee_ -sails which have a boom and a much curved and very long upper yard like -a _lateen_, and finally the _Bermuda_ sails which are different from -all. - -The Bermudians consider a boat’s ability to carry sail in heavy weather -and to sail close to the wind of the greatest importance and their boats -and sails are designed primarily for these objects. The true Bermuda -sail is like a leg-o’-mutton with a curved lower edge and with the top -point cut off and attached to a short piece of wood or _club_ to which -the halyard is fastened. In place of a boom there is a sprit-like pole -which is provided with a small tackle on the mast end and the sail is -set very flat by hauling out on this tackle, very much as in the -leg-o’-mutton sail. The greatest peculiarity of the Bermuda rig is that -the mast is set very far forward and leans or _rakes_ sharply backward -and a good-sized jib is carried. It is a splendid rig for windward work, -but is a bad rig before the wind and for amateur use is not to be -recommended. - -For boats over twenty-five feet long nothing is handier or better than -the yawl rig. In the first place it is just as easy to sail as a sloop -or jib-and-mainsail rig, for the tiny mizzen practically takes care of -itself. When coming to a mooring or to anchor the mainsail may be -lowered and the boat handled under jib and mizzen and by hauling the -mizzen close in and lowering the other sails the boat will lie right in -the wind’s eye when at moorings or riding out a gale. If in a narrow -channel a yawl may actually be _backed_ out by swinging the mizzen -across the boat and lowering the other sails and when tacking or coming -about in a seaway or where there is a strong current the mizzen helps -wonderfully and the boat’s head may be quickly brought about by hauling -the mizzen to windward. In case of a sudden squall or a heavy wind the -boat may be sailed safely under jib and mizzen and, best of all, when -one is obliged to reef, it is not necessary to anchor or toss about -helplessly and drift down the wind, for the mainsail may be lowered and -reefed in comfort while holding on the course under jib and mizzen. - -Nevertheless the beginner should never attempt to learn to sail or -handle a boat with a yawl, schooner, sloop or even a jib-and-mainsail -rig. Commence with a single, simple sail, such as a sprit, a -leg-o’-mutton, a gunter, a lug, a lateen or a gaff-and-boom sail and -when you have become thoroughly accustomed to this, when you know how to -sail and handle your simple boat and sail under all conditions, then and -not until then, you may try your hand at craft with more sails and -rigging. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER V - - HOW TO SAIL A SMALL BOAT - - -The first thing you should learn to do if you expect to use a boat, is -to learn to swim. A sailboat, properly rigged, well built and -intelligently handled, is as safe as a rowboat or a launch and is far -safer than any canoe ever built, but under the best of conditions and -even with experienced sailors, accidents will at times happen and then -the fellow who can swim stands a far better chance than the chap who -cannot. - -Excellent swimmers are drowned it is true, but that’s in spite of their -knowledge, not because of it. Even if you are never upset, never have an -accident and are never called upon to save yourself or others, yet the -knowledge of how to swim will be mighty valuable. In the first place it -will give you and your companions greater confidence, and confidence and -self-reliance are big assets when sailing a boat, especially under -trying conditions. - -But because you _can_ swim it doesn’t follow that you should take to the -water whenever an accident occurs. A good sailor always sticks to his -ship and you should _never_ forsake your boat, no matter what condition -she’s in, until compelled to desert her by her actually sinking under -you. A water-logged or capsized boat will float for hours or days and -will support several persons and when clinging to an upset or wrecked -boat you stand a much better chance of being seen and rescued than when -swimming. - -Many a man has been drowned by leaving his upset boat and attempting to -swim ashore when, by clinging to the craft, he would have been saved. -This was the case with two friends of the author. There were three in -the boat, all splendid swimmers, and they were capsized in a sudden -squall several miles from shore. The occupants easily clambered upon the -overturned hull and gave little heed to their predicament, as they knew -that several boats and steamers were due to pass the spot where they -were shipwrecked within a few hours. - -About half-a-mile distant a schooner, which was used as a temporary -lightship, was anchored and finally one of the men suggested swimming to -it. Feeling confident that he would have no difficulty in reaching the -schooner he plunged overboard and swam rapidly away. Presently he turned -and called to the others to follow and one of his companions did so, -while the other wisely remained on the bottom of the boat. - -When about halfway to the schooner the foremost of the two swimmers -threw up his hands and went down and a few moments later the other sank, -but the sensible one of the trio, who stuck to the boat, was sighted and -rescued by a passing craft an hour or two later and was none the worse -for his experience. - -No matter how well you can swim always remember that any solid object is -far safer than the water and _don’t_ resort to swimming unless actually -compelled to do so. _Always_ bear in mind that it takes but a very -little to support a person in the water—an old pail or bucket held -perpendicularly and bottomside up, an open umbrella, an oar, a thwart, a -spar, a grating or even a high hat or a derby will serve to keep a human -being afloat for a long time. - -Almost as important as the ability to swim is the ability to keep one’s -head and not get rattled under any and all conditions. The sailor should -be able to move and act rapidly, surely and intelligently; he should -possess decisiveness and judgment and should know just what to do and -how to do it on the spur of the moment. When things go wrong is just the -time for you to go right and many a trivial accident has become a -tragedy through people losing their heads, tangling ropes or gear, -jumping about heedlessly and forgetting just what to do under the -circumstances. - -In boat sailing of all things make haste slowly and NEVER TAKE CHANCES. -You can’t be overcautious in a boat and it is far wiser to run for -shelter or to shorten sail too soon or in a moderate wind than to wait -too long or to carry too much sail in a hard blow. Wherever sailboats -are used for pleasure one may see foolhardy men and boys sailing under -full canvas in reefing weather and trying to show off but to the man who -knows, such actions do not speak of skill or ability but merely of -ignorance and bravado. Don’t mind if such reckless fools laugh at your -caution and think you are timid; the chances are that you’ll be sailing -about safely long after they are food for the fishes. - -Before attempting to learn to sail it is well to know something of the -principles of sailing and just why a boat under sail does certain -things. Many landsmen cannot understand how a boat can sail _against_ -the wind or how it can sail with the wind abeam or blowing from the side -without tipping over, but it’s really a very simple matter and if you -understand why and how these things are accomplished you’ll be able to -handle your boat far better than if you merely learn to do certain -things without understanding the reasons for them. - -Whenever the wind blows against a boat’s sails it has two distinct -effects; one tending to push the boat sideways and ahead, the other to -push it over or upset it. The former tendency is desirable and must be -encouraged whereas the latter must be overcome or resisted. - -The resistance which a boat offers to the upsetting or “heeling” force -is termed _stability_ and the amount of stability which a boat possesses -depends upon its model, its proportions, its weight and many other -factors. Many boats have enough stability to overcome the tendency to -upset without any artificial aid, but as a rule sufficient stability can -only be obtained by adding some weight or _ballast_ at the bottom of the -boat. This may take the form of lead or iron on the keel, a weighted -centerboard, or lead, sandbags or other weights in the bottom of the -hull. - -When a boat is heeled over by the wind the sails act like a lever, with -the fulcrum at the water line, while the hull below the water line -represents the weight to be pried up. Of course you know that the longer -the lever, beyond the fulcrum, as compared to the short end on the other -side of the fulcrum, the greater is the power obtained. - -[Illustration: EFFECT OF WIND ON BOATS OF VARIOUS FORMS] - - Shaded portions indicate leverage of hull against sail. - Outlined rectangles show relative stability areas. - -Thus the farther a boat tips over the less force can the wind on the -sails exert, for with every inch that the boat heels the length of the -lever decreases, as will be seen by the accompanying diagram. For this -reason a boat tips much more easily when upright than after it has -heeled over a bit and for the same reason a shallow or flat-bottomed -boat tips more readily than a deep hull. - -It would be perfectly feasible to build a boat so deep that it would not -tip at all, and likewise a boat could be built so heavy, or with so much -ballast, that the leverage of the sails would be unable to heel it in -the least. But neither of these schemes would be practical. If the boat -was built too deep it would offer so much resistance to the water that -the sails could not drive it forward and if built too heavy or if it -carried too much ballast, it would be slow, clumsy and the sails and -masts might be carried away before the boat moved. - -Moreover it is not desirable to prevent a boat from tipping to a certain -extent. Many boats sail at their best while heeled at a sharp angle and -the tendency to tip also serves as a sort of safety valve by spilling -the wind from the sails and warning the sailor that too much sail is -being carried and thus serving a very useful purpose. Hence, in order to -make boats safely stable without making them heavy, slow or clumsy, -various forms of hulls and various methods of ballasting are adopted. - -For example, if a boat is made very broad and shallow the result, when -tipped, will be almost the same as if the hull was made very deep and -narrow but the resistance to the water will be overcome. As the hull is -tipped up by the leverage of the masts the upper side acts as a weight -which must be lifted, and exerts just as great a counter-leverage as if -the weight was under water. But instead of presenting a large surface -with its attendant friction to the water the area of the boat’s surface -is reduced the more it is tipped. - -Such broad, flat hulls are very stiff, up to a certain point, and boats -built in this manner are usually very fast when heeling far over, but -when they are tipped a single inch beyond a _certain_ point the weight -of the raised side acts _with_ the lever and flops the boat over in an -instant. When a hull thus shaped is provided with a centerboard or a -weighted keel it becomes far more stable. Many of the fastest racing -boats are of this type, a form designed to sail the very best when -heeled far over with half the bottom out of water. To add to the -stability under such conditions the bows and sterns are cut away for a -long distance so that when sailing on a level keel the surface in -contact with the water is very small, while the further they tip to one -side or the other the greater the length is increased. - -But in every case, whether stability is obtained by great breadth or -_beam_, by extreme depth from deck to keel, by ballast inside or -outside, by fin-keel or otherwise, you should remember that the _further -under water the ballast is placed the less will be required_. Always -bear in mind that ballast or weight on the downward or _lee_ side aids -the boat in tipping, whereas the same weight, on the upper side, -prevents it and that the weight placed on the high side will exert many -times the force of the same weight in the center of the boat. - -Often by sitting far out on the upper or _weather_ edge of a boat, she -may be sailed in safety through winds that would capsize her if you sat -inside the cockpit. If a plank or board was extended out from the -weather side and you perched upon that the boat would be still harder to -upset and it is by such methods that the natives of the South Seas sail -their catamarans and proas at terrific speed and with huge sails out of -all proportion to the hulls. Sometimes one may see a “flying proa” -tearing along in a perfect gale with half a dozen persons hanging on to -the slender _outrigger_ extending from the weather side, and by their -weight alone preventing the queer craft from turning turtle. - -All the above remarks refer to stability, but there is another factor -which must be considered and which is known as _lateral resistance_, or -in other words, the resistance offered to the water when moving -sideways. A boat might be very stable and yet it might be worthless if -it did not possess lateral resistance, for in that case it would merely -slide sideways instead of going ahead and a properly designed boat must -combine both stability and lateral resistance to the highest possible -degree. - -When sailing in any direction, save directly before the wind, there is a -strong sideways pressure against the sails and unless the boat is -provided with some means of overcoming this she will slip sideways or -diagonally or will make “leeway,” as a sailor would say. Deep, narrow -boats have great lateral resistance but their resistance to the water -when moving forward is also great and hence the lateral resistance is -usually obtained by means of deep, narrow keels, centerboard or -leeboards. The knife-like keel offers little resistance to the water -when moving forward but great resistance when moving sideways, while the -centerboard may be pulled up entirely when moving forward with a wind -from the rear, thus still further reducing the friction against the -water. - -If the boat possesses stability and lateral resistance and is properly -rigged the wind blowing against the sails will have a tendency to force -the stern of the craft away from the wind and the bow towards it. To -overcome this the rudder must be turned until the pressure of the water -against it has enough force to balance the action of the wind on the -sails. - -A properly rigged boat, if left to herself with rudder loose and sails -set, will swing up into the wind of her own accord; in a few moments she -will fall off, sail a short distance and again come into the wind and -lose headway and will repeat this operation over and over again without -danger of upsetting. - -If, on the other hand, her sails are not adapted to her, if she is badly -designed or improperly rigged, she will sail faster and faster, will -fall more and more away from the wind and finally the sail will flop -over to the other side and the boat will be upset or mast, sails and -rigging will be carried away. Such a boat is a perfect deathtrap and -should be avoided by all means. - -Always try a new boat or a new rig to see how it will act if the helm is -left when sails are set. If the boat comes up in the wind quickly of her -own accord you may be sure she will come about readily when required and -that she will take care of herself if at any time you are compelled to -leave the tiller for a few moments. But don’t condemn the boat if she -falls off and sails away as I have described. As a rule this fault lies -in the rig rather than in the boat itself and often a slight alteration -in the shape or size of the sails or even the position of the mast will -make all the difference between a safe and a dangerous boat. - -If the sails are too far forward a boat may have a tendency to fall off -and take a hard _lee helm_, whereas if too far aft the boat may have -such a hard _weather helm_ that it is impossible to prevent her from -swinging up into the wind. Then again, the mast and sail may be in the -right position and the sail may have its greatest area too far forward -or too far aft, or the rudder may be too small. Try various adjustments -before deciding the craft is hopeless and strive to have your boat so -arranged that when sailing close-hauled a slight pressure must be -exerted on the tiller to prevent her from coming into the wind or -_luffing_, while just the instant this pressure is released she will -swing up in the wind’s eye with the sail fluttering and will hang there -indefinitely, merely falling off, coming up again and remaining -practically stationary in one place. - -To a great many people it appears remarkable that a boat can sail -against the wind, but it is a very simple matter indeed and depends upon -the same principles which make a kite fly, an aeroplane rise or a -windmill turn. In every case the result is brought about by the pressure -of the wind upon a curved or angular surface and while the boat and -windmill depend upon the wind to move them and the aeroplane produces -the wind by moving rapidly through still air, yet the results in each -case are identical and the object, unable to move away from the wind -moves against it or at right angles to it. - -Whenever a moving mass of matter, such as air or water, strikes a curved -surface two effects result, the first being to force the object aside, -the other to force it ahead by what is known as “reaction.” If a solid -object, such as a bullet, strikes a slanting surface it glances off and -frequently it loses very little of its force in doing so. The wind, when -striking a curved surface, glances off and exerts its force at an angle. - -The pressure of this glancing blow and the force exerted by the wind -against the surrounding air as it slides off the sail, has a tendency to -force the sail, or other surface, ahead. The direction in which the -object is forced and the power required to move it depend upon the curve -or angle which is presented to the wind. - -The broader the angle at which the wind strikes, the less loss of force -there is and the greater the power which the wind exerts upon the sail. -Thus, when the wind is directly _against_ the sail, very little power is -wasted and the whole force drives the boat ahead as none of the wind can -glance off. If the boat is brought around until the wind blows from one -side and the sail is pulled in until it is at an angle, the wind exerts -a combined sideways and forward pressure and the boat sails at right -angles to the wind; whereas if the sail is drawn still closer towards -the center of the boat and the craft is headed nearer to the wind, the -wind skips off the sail producing but little forward or sideways -pressure but forcing the boat almost _against_ the direction from which -the wind blows. But if the boat is headed _too_ close to the wind and -the sail hauled in _too_ near the center of the boat no headway will be -made for the wind will then slip off the sail without exerting enough -force to move the boat forward. If you will _always_ bear these facts in -mind you will find it far easier to learn to sail and you will also -understand why you should _always_ let your sail out as far as possible -without letting it flutter or “spill” the wind. - -[Illustration: SAILING] - - 1—Before the wind or running free. 2—With wind on the - quarter. 3—Beam wind or reaching. 4—Head wind or close - hauled. 5—Tacking or beating to windward. 6—Going about - with boat carrying a jib. 7—Making a long and short leg. - 8—How a wind acts on a boat close hauled. 9—Jibing. - 10—Wearing ship. 11—Tacking off the wind to avoid beam - seas. - -Having thoroughly mastered these simple principles of why a boat sails -you can safely start to learn how to handle your boat. If possible, have -an experienced sailor go with you when learning; you will find his -advice worth more than all the printed directions in the world, but even -alone you’ll have no trouble in learning to sail if you take plenty of -time, master one thing thoroughly before trying another and use common -sense and judgment. Before leaving shore or the anchorage be sure that -everything is in the boat and in the proper place. There should be oars -and oarlocks, a bailer, an anchor and plenty of line and all ropes -should be neatly coiled where they are free to run out without becoming -kinked, caught or tangled. - -Make it a point _always_ to keep the sheet clear and _never tie it or -make it fast when sailing_. More accidents to sailboats have resulted -from a tangled or fast sheet than from any other one cause. - -When hoisting sail the sheet should be left slack enough to allow the -sail to swing freely from side to side, but it should not be entirely -free or the sail may swing out at right angles and strike some -neighboring boat or obstruction, or it may even wrap itself about the -mast and cause no end of trouble. - -It is best to commence sailing “on the wind” or with the wind from one -side or partly over the stern, for this is the easiest and safest kind -of sailing. In this position most boats sail their best and obtain their -greatest speed. If the wind is directly from one side the sail should be -eased off until the forward edge commences to flutter, but if the wind -is over the quarter the sail must be trimmed in order to be at as nearly -a right angle to the wind as possible, as shown in the diagrams. - -If, when sailing with a beam or quarter wind, you wish to turn about you -should always haul in your sheet, push the tiller to leeward—away from -the wind—and bring the boat up into the wind until the sail swings to -the other side, when you may gradually ease-off the sheet until sailing -as before. - -If you attempt to turn about without doing this the sail will swing -violently across from one side to the other, or in sailors’ parlance, -will _jibe_ and while an experienced hand will jibe a boat with perfect -safety an amateur is very likely to capsize or to carry away masts and -rigging. - -It may seem at first as if sailing right before the wind would be the -easiest thing to accomplish, but this is a great mistake. To sail before -the wind, save in very light airs and with a small sail, requires a -great deal of care and not a little skill. - -A great many boats have a tendency to _yaw_ or to swing wildly from side -to side when thus sailing and when this is the case the sail is very -likely to jibe with serious results. Even if this does not happen the -sail may bag out and make the boat steer hard or the boom may “kick up” -and become almost unmanageable. If allowed to swing out too far the boat -may refuse to obey its helm and will swing around to the wind, -regardless of your efforts to keep it on its course, while if kept in -too closely the wind may catch it on the wrong side and jibe it -suddenly. - -In a heavy sea there is the added danger of the boom catching in a wave -and “tripping” and either upsetting the boat or jibing as a result. If -your boat yaws, if the boom kicks up badly, or if there is much of a -wind, don’t try to sail before the wind but sail partly side to it and -go about every little while and thus zigzag towards your destination as -shown in the sketch. If, while sailing before the wind or with a beam -wind, you should desire to alter your course and bring the sail over the -opposite side, _don’t_ turn _away_ from the wind and jibe the sail, but -haul in the sheet, turn into the wind and swing about in a circle until -the sail is on the opposite side and you are headed in the desired -direction. This manner of turning about when sailing _free_ or before -the wind, is called _wearing ship_ and to perform the evolution neatly -and in a sailor-like manner will require some practice, for the sail -must be hauled in and the helm put over at the same time and in perfect -unison. - -If the helm is put down too quickly the sail will flap and thrash and -the boat may not come about, whereas if the sail is hauled in too -rapidly and the helm is not thrown over promptly the boat may be tipped -dangerously. Sometimes, however, it becomes necessary to jibe, while at -other times a sudden shift of wind or some other cause may make a boat -jibe despite every effort to prevent it. - -When it becomes necessary to jibe, or if it is seen that it cannot be -avoided, haul in the sheet just as rapidly as possible and just as soon -as the boom passes the center of the boat pay out the sheet smoothly and -quickly so that there will be no sudden jerk or pull as the wind swings -the sail over. If there is much wind blowing it is a wise plan to lower -the peak of the sail before jibing and when sailing before the wind -dropping the peak will often make the boat sail better. - -In sailing before the wind it is very important to have the boat -ballasted or “trimmed” correctly. If there is too much weight near the -bow the boat will invariably yaw and may bury her nose and swamp -herself. On the other hand, if there is too much weight near the stern -she may steer badly, but this is never as bad nor as dangerous as having -her _down by the head_. If the boom has a tendency to jibe, to swing -badly or to kick up, it often helps a great deal to bring down the side -over which the boom swings, by placing passengers, cargo or ballast on -that side. If you are using a centerboard boat the board should be -hauled up when before the wind and many boats will sail better with a -beam or quarter wind when the board is half up, but the only way to -determine when the board should be partly up, fully up, or down is to -experiment. Some boats come about more quickly with the board up; others -refuse to come round unless it is down, and some sail better with the -board down, even when dead before the wind. When tacking or sailing on -the wind the board should _always_ be down, however. - -As a rule a boat should be trimmed so that the stern is a little deeper -than the bow and while the effect of a badly trimmed boat is more -evident when sailing before the wind, yet in sailing on the wind a -little fault in the proper distribution of weight may make a vast -difference in the behavior of the boat. - -When you have become thoroughly accustomed to handling your boat on the -wind you may try tacking or sailing to windward or against the wind. As -I have already explained no boat will sail _directly against_ the wind, -but by sailing as close to it as possible in one direction, then turning -and sailing as close as you can in the opposite direction and repeating -the operation at intervals progress may be made directly towards the -wind. - -This is known as “tacking” or “beating” and while it requires -considerable skill and practice to beat to windward to the best -advantage yet it is not difficult to learn to tack and one can only -become proficient by practice and by becoming thoroughly familiar with -the boat. - -Some boats will sail far closer to the wind than others and every boat -has a certain point at which she will sail to windward to the best -advantage. The nearer the boat is headed into the wind the closer or -“flatter” the sail must be “trimmed” or hauled in and there is _always_ -a point at which the vessel loses headway and falls off the wind. For -this reason it is a waste of time to try to sail too close to the wind -and the objective point will be reached far quicker by heading off more -and obtaining greater speed and making frequent tacks, than by -attempting to head nearer the direction you desire to go and then losing -almost as much as you gain by the boat’s sliding to leeward. - -The idea is to keep your boat pointed as near the wind as she will sail -well and the sails should be trimmed in until quite flat each time you -tack. Then, as the boat swings over on the other tack, the sail should -be eased off a bit to obtain headway and the boat should be again headed -towards the wind until the edge of the sail begins to flutter and -wrinkle. This shows you are sailing as close to the wind as advisable -and to sailors it is known as sailing _full and by_. Every few moments -the boat may be brought a trifle closer to the wind and then eased off -so that the sail is always filled and yet the edge, by its fluttering, -shows the helmsman that the sheet is trimmed properly. - -Some boats have a remarkable power of “eating into” the wind in this way -and although headed quite a bit off the wind will progress almost -directly into the wind’s eye. If the wind is quite stiff a great deal -may also be gained by _luffing up_ from time to time, or in other words -bringing the boat directly into the wind, allowing her to shoot ahead -for a short distance and before she loses headway bringing her off until -she catches the wind again. - -A great deal of the skill in tacking depends upon one’s ability to judge -just when to come about on the other tack. Very few boats will sail -equally well on both tacks and as soon as you find on which tack your -boat sails best you can make your longest tacks or “lays” on that tack -and make shorter tacks when sailing with the wind on the other bow. - -To make too many short tacks is a mistake for each time you go about you -lose a trifle of what you have gained, but to make tacks which are too -long is also a mistake, for you travel a great deal further than is -necessary in this way. As a rule a _long and a short leg_ is the best -method to follow. This consists of making long tacks, or lays, close to -the wind and then going about and making shorter and quicker reaches in -the other direction a little farther off the wind. All of these -maneuvers are illustrated in the diagrams and by studying these you will -readily see just how the boat may be sailed directly to windward. - -When ready to go about on a new tack the boat should always be eased off -a little, the sails loosened lightly and as soon as the speed increases -the rudder should be thrown hard over, the _tiller being pushed away -from the wind_. As the boat wheels about the sheet should be hauled in -briskly until it begins to fill on the opposite side. Then ease it off -gradually until good headway is made and trim in and head up to the wind -as before. - -When tacking with other persons in the boat you should always signal -before going about or tacking by crying, “_Ready about_” and as the boat -is brought into the wind, call, “_Hard-a-lee_” and at these words your -passengers should duck their heads as the boom swings over or should -shift their seats to the other side of the boat if she heels over very -much. - -Some boats have a tendency to remain hanging in the wind when brought -about or else come into the wind and fall off on the same tack again. -This is known as _missing stays_ and when it occurs you should swing the -boat’s head around by an oar over the stern or hold the boom or sail far -over to windward until the bow swings around. If the boat has a -centerboard she may often be brought about quickly by raising the board -as you swing her into the wind and then dropping it again as the sail -fills away on the other tack. - -If the boat carries a jib she will seldom miss stays if the jib is -hauled flat as you go about and is kept sheeted to windward until the -other sails fill away on the other tack. Then the windward sheet of the -jib should be eased off and the leeward sheet should be trimmed in as -shown in the illustration. - -Usually a well built boat, if properly trimmed and rigged, will seldom -miss stays except in heavy seas or in a very light wind or a strong -current and often a boat under reefed sails will come about more easily -and will sail to windward far better than under full canvas. - -Remember that a boat’s sheets can be trimmed flatter in light winds and -smooth waters than in rough seas and strong winds and that even a -comparatively small sea will cause the sail to swing and spill the wind -and thus lose headway. - -Don’t forget that when a boat, sailing close-hauled is to be turned so -as to sail off the wind the sheets must be eased off as she swings about -and in the same way a boat sailing free must have her sheets hauled in -as you bring her up into the wind. - -The foregoing directions apply to boats with one sail only and it is -best to learn to sail with such a craft and then you will find it much -easier to learn to handle a boat with headsails or jibs. - -Many small boats have the jib sheet attached to a sliding block or ring -which can move from side to side on a traveler and when thus arranged -the jib requires little or no attention when tacking. - -As a rule, however, the jib has two sheets, one on either side, which -lead aft and in tacking these require attention. As the boat is turned -into the wind the lee sheet is let go, the jib flutters and the instant -the mainsail begins to fill on the other tack the jib sheet should be -trimmed flat as before, and then, as the boat pays off on the new tack -the sheets may be trimmed to obtain the best results. - -One advantage of a jib is that in case the boat misses stays, or fails -to come about readily, her head may be brought around by keeping the lee -jib sheet trimmed until the boat swings around and if the main boom is -held far towards the lee side at the same time the boat will be almost -certain to pay off. - -If for any reason she refuses and commences to move backwards don’t -forget that the tiller _must be turned in the same direction as that in -which you wish the head of the boat to go_, or in other words, in -exactly the opposite direction to that in which you would turn it if -moving ahead. - -If a boat misses stays in heavy wind or squalls, ease off the main -sheet, lower the peak a little and trim the jib to the windward. Then if -the boat does not gather headway but heels, lower the mainsail at once. -When sailing on the wind with a jib and mainsail, trim the lee jib sheet -to get the full benefit of the sail and if running before the wind -either lower the jib or “wing it out” on the opposite side to the -mainsail by means of a light sprit, a boat-hook or an oar, so it will -catch the wind. - -When you are thoroughly familiar with sailing before the wind, on the -wind and against the wind in light breezes and smooth water, you should -practice coming to a mooring or a landing. The ability to make a good -landing marks a good sailor and nothing looks worse or bespeaks poorer -seamanship than to make a clumsy landing. - -Never attempt to make a landing or a mooring until you have learned just -how far your boat will luff or “shoot” ahead when brought into the wind. -By trying a number of times you can soon determine this and a mighty -good plan is to practice luffing up to a stake or a float in the water. - -When approaching a mooring or landing try to approach it from the -leeward side; sail as nearly into the wind as possible and when you are -near enough so that you think the boat will shoot to the mooring by her -own momentum, bring her right into the wind’s eye and ease off the sheet -so that the sail flutters and then steer the boat as close to the -mooring as you can. - -_Never_ attempt to shoot the boat to the windward side of a mooring or -landing if it can be avoided, but come up with the mooring or landing -_on your windward side_. - -If conditions are such that you cannot approach the mooring or landing -from the lee side and you are _compelled_ to run for it before the wind -or with a beam wind, there are two methods which may be followed. One is -to lower sail and let the boat run to the mooring under bare poles and -the other is to ease off the sheet until the sail offers no surface to -the wind. When coming _before_ the wind the former method is the only -right one and in order not to approach too rapidly it is a good plan to -drop most of the sail long before the landing is reached and leave just -the upper portion raised so as to catch the wind and carry the boat -along very slowly. Then, when close to the mooring, drop this and drift -slowly to the spot where you are to make fast. - -If you are using a boat with a jib that sail should be lowered as you -approach your moorings and you should come to the place under mainsail -alone, as a jib as always in the way when going forward to make fast, -and, moreover, it will frequently catch a puff of wind and force the -head of the boat off at just the wrong instant. - -If you are coming up to a dock or wharf don’t run to it head-on if it -can be avoided, but run slanting towards it or alongside, for in that -case if your boat has too much headway it will merely strike the dock a -glancing blow and do little, if any, damage, whereas the same blow -head-on might start a plank or timber or cause other serious damage. - -These remarks apply to fairly good sized sailboats and if you are -sailing in a very small open boat it is often easier to take in sail and -row to a mooring than to sail to it. - -When getting away from a mooring or dock some skill and practice are -required, especially if in waters where there are numerous other boats. -If you are on the lee side of a dock it is very easy to hoist sail, trim -the sheets flat, shove off the bow and start away; but if on the -windward side and you hoist sail the wind will force your craft against -the dock and make getting under way very difficult. At such times the -best plan is to row or pole your boat out from the dock before hoisting -sail and then get under way in open water. - -If at a mooring or an anchorage the boat’s head may be swung off the -wind by hauling in the anchor from the _lee_ side or by holding the sail -far over to windward, but in every case you should look about, decide on -your course and make a mental note of the position of neighboring craft -before getting away from your moorings. - -When coming to an anchorage have the anchor ready to drop and the anchor -line coiled so it will run out readily. When you reach the spot -selected, luff up, allow the boat to lose her headway and then drop your -anchor by _casting_ it _ahead_ of the boat. - -If you cast your anchor out while the boat is still moving ahead your -boat will overrun it and it may not get a good hold on the bottom, to -say nothing of the danger of getting the line entangled with the flukes. -If coming to an anchorage _before_ the wind, drop the sails, and wait -until the boat loses headway and if _on the wind_ either lower sails or -let the sheet flow. - -_Never_, under any circumstances, allow the sheet to run out entirely -for there is never any necessity of allowing the sail to swing out -beyond right angles to the boat. If it swings farther it becomes a -source of danger. - -_Never_ walk along the lee side of the boat when the sheet is loose and -the sail is swinging, but move on the windward side and avoid any danger -of being knocked overboard by the swinging boom and flapping sail. - -When you have learned to sail in all directions in smooth weather and -have learned how to get under way and how to come to moorings you should -put in some time learning how to reef quickly. - -Reefing consists in shortening sail by tying a portion of it to the mast -or spar and small ropes known as _reef points_ are sewed into the sail -for this purpose. Some boats have sails with only one set of reef -points; others have two, and others have three or more, but when a sail -is reefed the reefs should be taken one at a time beginning with the one -nearest the mast or spar. - -At the end of the row of _reef points_ near the free edge of the sail -there is a hole or eyelet known as a _cringle_ and as this is on the -_leech_ of the sail it is called the _leech cringle_. A similar cringle -is on the opposite edge or _luff_ of the sail. This applies to -boom-and-gaff, lug or other sails with a boom or spar at the lower edge. -Through these cringles lines known as _earrings_ are passed and these -may be left in the cringles permanently or they may be taken out when -not in use, as you prefer. - -[Illustration: REEFING A SAIL] - - A—Sail before reefing. B—Sail after reefing. - -To reef the sail bring the boat into the wind, trim the sheet in until -the boom cannot swing beyond the sides of the boat, lower the sail about -halfway and then lash the first luff cringle to the boom with the -earring, tying it in a reefing knot which can be readily cast off. Then -pass the luff earring through its cringle, pass it through the hole in -the boom made for that purpose and haul the sail out as taut as possible -and make the earring fast. - -Then beginning at the luff cringle, roll the sail neatly to the first -reef points and tie each reef point in turn around the bottom of the -sail where it is fastened to the boom or, if there is no space to pass -the points between sail and boom, tie them around the boom, being very -careful to use square or reef knots when doing so. - -When all the points are tied hoist away the sail and you are ready to -proceed. If a second reef is required repeat the operation with the -second row of points and cringles. Then, when the wind lulls, one reef -after another can be shaken out by untying the reef points, casting off -the leech earring and then casting off the luff earring and hoisting the -sail until taut. - -Don’t wait too long before reefing. If the boat heels badly on the wind, -if it labors, if it takes a hard helm or if the wind is puffy, squally -or strong, reef at once. It’s far easier to shake out your reefs if the -wind falls than it is to take in a reef when the wind is blowing hard -and a heavy sea is running. - -Finally, when you come to your moorings, to your landing-place or to an -anchorage, never leave your boat with the sails loose, slovenly and -unfurled. In the first place it looks badly and stamps you as a poor -sailor; in the second place it soon ruins the sail and finally, if a -hard wind comes up, the sail is liable to become loose, to catch the -wind and either tear the sail to pieces or capsize the boat. - -Make it an invariable rule to do things in a regular routine every time -you come to a mooring or leave it. As soon as you are fast to your -mooring lower the sails, trim the boom amidships, roll the sail neatly -and tie it to the boom by short pieces of line or by one long rope -wrapped around and around it. _Don’t_ commence furling the sail at the -outer end of the boom, but place the first line or “stop” close to the -mast and keep pulling out the excess slack as you work outwards along -the boom and you will soon find it a very simple, easy thing to furl -your sails very neatly. - -When all is snugly furled, hoist away until the sail is lifted slightly -and either place a _crotch_ under it, lower it and draw the sheet taut, -or else fasten a rope from the boom to both sides of the boat so the -sail cannot swing as the boat sways and rolls to the waves. - -It is a good plan to have a sail cover of waterproof cloth or heavy -canvas with which to cover the furled sail and by using this your sails -will always be protected from rain and mildew and will remain strong, -white and in good shape. - -Finally, see that everything about the boat is in its place, that all -lines and ropes are neatly coiled and that nothing is left to swing, -rattle or work loose; that the centerboard, if the boat has one, is -pulled up in its case and secured; that the tiller is lashed amidships, -or is slipped out of the rudder head and that everything is snug and -shipshape. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - THE CARE OF BOATS - - -Every boat, no matter how small, requires a certain amount of care and -attention and this is a matter which is all too often neglected. - -The larger the boat the more care it will require, while boats in salt -water need far more attention than those in fresh water. - -If a boat is pulled up on shore, or is placed in a boathouse when not in -use, it will require less care than a craft kept in the water at an -anchorage or moorings, but even when thus hauled out there are a certain -number of things which must be attended to. - -Boats in the water are subject to the action of the water, the -depredations of marine animals, the growth of marine plants and to the -dangers from storms. Unless these are guarded against and overcome a -boat will soon be worthless. In fresh water the effect of the water upon -wood and metal is far less injurious than in salt water and the troubles -from animal life and water plants are almost negligible. When in salt -water these things are among the most important matters to be guarded -against and constant care and watchfulness are necessary if a boat is to -be kept in good condition. - -Salt water corrodes and rusts iron very rapidly and hence boats with -plain iron fastenings and fittings should be avoided for salt water use. -Copper or brass fastenings and brass or bronze fittings are far better, -but these are expensive. Galvanized iron is therefore adopted very -generally for salt water use on boats. - -Even when a boat is well painted and the iron parts are thus protected, -the salt water will corrode and destroy the iron work and just as soon -as the paint becomes old, thin, worn or chipped off, the parts go to -pieces very rapidly. For this reason boats should always be kept well -painted and varnished at all times, and whenever a bit of paint is -rubbed or knocked off, it should immediately be touched up with fresh -paint. - -In salt water, too, marine animals and seaweeds attach themselves to -every submerged portion of a boat’s hull and grow very rapidly. - -Not only do these growths hinder a boat from sailing well and rapidly, -but they also destroy the paint and injure the wood beneath it. This -paves the way for the water to soak into the planks and timbers and rot -them and corrode the metal fastenings which hold the various parts of -the boat together. - -Still more injurious are the shipworms or _teredos_. These are marine -animals which are not really worms at all, but are a species of mollusc -related to the common clam. They do not _eat_ the wood, as many people -think, but merely bore into it to form their homes or burrows, and -wherever they go they line their holes with a thin coating of lime or -shell. - -The shipworms are very small when they first enter the wood and as they -increase in size they bore larger and larger holes until they riddle the -wood with burrows and completely destroy it. No signs, however, save a -few tiny holes, may be visible externally. So rapidly do they work if -unchecked that large ships have been sunk by them in less than a year -and there are several records of such catastrophes occurring. - -Teredos seldom attack wood which is far below the surface but work -mostly at or near the water line. For that reason small boats of shallow -draft are often more seriously and rapidly injured by these pests than -larger and deeper boats. - -Moreover the shipworms seek spots which are out of sight for their -depredations and unless the boat-owner is very careful he may overlook -very serious injuries by the teredos without dreaming that they exist. -The cracks between keels and sternposts, between keels and garboard -planks and the interior or centerboard trunks and cases are favorite -spots for teredos to bore and quite often the timbers in such situations -are completely destroyed and the boat is rendered worthless before one -realizes that teredos have attacked the boat at all. - -But even without marine growths and teredos the planks and timbers of a -boat may become rotten and useless through the action of the water. This -is particularly the case where a boat rests upon a muddy bottom at low -tide, for the mud contains gases and chemicals which destroy the paint -and this allows the water to penetrate and rot the wood. - -To guard against these three principal dangers every boat should be -hauled out at frequent intervals, the bottom should be scrubbed, scraped -and cleaned, and should then be allowed to dry thoroughly, after which -it should be freshly painted with some reliable and good anti-fouling -bottom paint such as the various copper paints. Large boats are usually -sheathed or covered with copper plates below the water line in order to -protect the wood, but small boats depend upon a coating of copper paint. - -Whenever a boat is hauled out to be scraped and painted it should be -examined carefully for rot or worms and the various planks, the keel, -stem, sternpost, centerboard, centerboard trunk and case and in fact, -all the woodwork below water should be tested for teredos or rot by -probing with the tip of a knife blade. If the wood is sound the blade -will not penetrate readily, whereas if the wood has been injured by -worms or is rotten the blade will enter very easily. When this occurs a -thorough investigation should be made to determine the extent of the -damage. - -If the spot is small it may be dug out by a chisel or gouge and the -cavity may be filled with white lead or marine glue and painted over, -whereas if there is a large area damaged a new plank or a new piece of -timber must be fitted. In any case every hole, crack or crevice should -be carefully plugged with white lead or marine glue before painting, for -if this is not done rot and worms will be almost certain to find the -unprotected spots and will commence to destroy the wood. - -If there is a stream or body of fresh water near at hand a great deal of -time and trouble may be avoided by running your boat into fresh water -and allowing her to remain there for a day or two at a time. Marine -growths and teredos cannot live in fresh water and any which have become -attached to the boat will die and drop off when the craft is left for a -short time in fresh water. To be efficacious the water must be really -fresh and _not_ brackish, for many marine plants and animals _will_ live -and thrive in brackish water. - -When boats are first placed in the water they are dry and often leak -badly, but as the wood swells with the action of the water the seams -tighten up and often a boat which leaks like a sieve when first launched -will be perfectly tight after a few days’ immersion. For this reason you -should not be discouraged if your boat leaks when you first put her in -the water, but if she still leaks after two or three days you may be -sure there is something wrong which should be attended to at once. By -bailing out the water and wiping the inside dry with a sponge you can -usually find the leak, and if it is small it may be stopped by pushing -caulking cotton into the seam or crack with a thin knife blade or a -putty knife. Very often a small leak may be caused by a nail hole and -this may be stopped completely by driving in a tiny wooden plug. - -If there is difficulty in locating the leak from inside the boat, if the -leak is large or if there are several, the boat should be hauled out on -shore and partly filled with water. Then, by watching the outside of the -hull, you can easily find where the water runs out. The spots should -then be marked, the water drawn out by means of the boat plug (a wooden -plug driven into a hole through the planks near the keel), and the seams -where the leaks occur should be cleaned free of all putty, paint and old -caulking and should be recaulked. - -It is an easy matter to caulk a seam if a little care is used, the only -implements and tools required being a small caulking iron, some caulking -cotton and a hammer. Unravel a strand of the cotton, roll it between -your palms until it forms a strand a trifle larger than the width of the -crack to be caulked and then press the end into the seam with a corner -of the caulking iron or a knife blade. Catch the strand of cotton -lightly into the seam in this way all along the seam and then with the -caulking iron and hammer drive the cotton well into the opening. It is -impossible to describe just how to use the iron, but it is a knack soon -acquired and is accomplished by a sort of rocking motion with the iron -as the tool is struck lightly with the hammer. - -Drive the cotton well below the surface of the wood but _don’t_ try to -force in too much and _don’t_ drive it in so hard that it spreads or -starts the plank. When the seams are well filled with cotton press white -lead or marine glue over the caulking and paint thoroughly. _Never_ use -putty on a boat, especially below the water line, for it will crumble -and fall out very soon and is no better than nothing at all. Use pure, -thick white lead and linseed oil or the best marine glue. The white lead -may be pressed in with a putty knife but marine glue must be run in by -means of a hot iron; full directions accompany the glue when purchased. - -[Illustration: CAULKING TOOLS] - - 1—Caulking mallet. 2, 3, 4, 5—Caulking irons. 6—Caulking - hammer. - -Before launching your boat in the spring all the seams should be cleaned -free of old paint and lead, and if any of the old caulking is loose or -hanging out it should be removed and replaced with new and all seams, -rough spots and nail head holes should then be filled with white lead or -marine glue before painting. - -_Don’t_ drive the caulking too tightly into the seams when the boat is -dry and _don’t_ fill the seams flush with the glue or lead. Leave a -little hollow along every seam as otherwise, when the boat swells in the -water, the caulking and filling will be forced out and will either flake -off or will present rough, irregular surfaces to the water and will thus -take a great deal from the speed of the boat. - -It is a good plan to pour a quantity of water into the boat a few days -before launching as this will swell the planks and if any leaks exist -you can find them before placing the boat overboard. - -Before painting any part of the boat, all the old, loose, dry or rough -paint should be scraped and sandpapered smooth and if it is in very bad -shape it should be burned off by a torch, or removed by some good paint- -and varnish-remover until the smooth surface of the wood is exposed. - -Use only the very best paint and varnish for the boat, for cheap, poor -paints and varnishes are worse than nothing on a boat, and the very best -is the cheapest in the end. Use very little turpentine and still less -dryer in the paint, for while paint mixed with oil alone may dry slowly, -it will last far longer than paint with a great deal of turpentine or -dryer. Haste makes waste in everything connected with a boat. - -Aside from the care of the hull there are the masts, sails and rigging -to be looked after. The masts and spars should be scraped and -sandpapered, varnished with two coats of the best spar-varnish and -allowed to dry thoroughly. - -Standing rigging should be overhauled. Any frayed or worn parts should -be renewed, the metal parts should be cleaned free of rust or corrosion -and painted and new running rigging should be rove through the blocks if -the old ropes are frayed, rotten, worn or weak. The blocks should all be -looked over; broken ones should be replaced and sheaves should be oiled -and turned until they move easily on their bearings. - -The sails should be spread out; all torn or frayed spots mended and if -reef points, earrings or other ropes on the sails are ravelled, frayed -or worn, they should be replaced. - -If the sails are mildewed, dirty or discolored, they should be scrubbed -with good soap and water and bleached in the sun. Finally all stays and -other rigging should be tightened up. - -The boat’s equipment should also be overhauled and put in first-class -shape. A good time to attend to this is while the paint and varnish are -drying. - -Every boat, no matter how small, should _always_ have an anchor on board -with enough anchor line to allow you to anchor in fairly deep -water—usually from fifty to one hundred feet of line according to the -size of the boat and the depth of the waters where you sail. If the boat -is small and a long anchor line is in the way the anchor may be attached -to a comparatively short line and another line may be coiled and tied -neatly and stored away where it can readily be reached if needed. - -There are many kinds of anchors, but the commonest form is the ordinary -two-fluke pattern with a sliding “stock.” When not in use the -cross-piece, or stock, is folded along the shank and thus occupies -little space and when it is to be used the stock is held in position at -right angles to the shank by a metal key. It is a good plan to seize the -stock in position with a bit of line as well as by means of the key for -the latter often works loose and allows the anchor to drag. There are -also several good designs of folding anchors and for very small boats -grapnels may be used if desired. - -There is no use in carrying an anchor unless it is large enough to hold -the boat in a reasonable wind and sea and for small boats the anchors -should weigh at least two pounds for every foot of the boat’s water line -length. Every boat over twenty-five feet in length should have at least -two anchors, and one of these should be at least one-and-one-half times -as heavy as the other. In addition to these real anchors there should be -a _sea-anchor_ or _drogue_ in the boat if you ever expect to sail in any -but the smoothest waters and lightest winds. - -[Illustration: ANCHORS] - - 1—Common anchor. 2—Grapnel. 3—Drogue or sea-anchor. 4—Keg - mooring buoy. 5—Iron mooring buoy. 6—Spar mooring buoy. - 7—Mushroom anchor. - -A drogue or sea-anchor consists of an iron ring or a strong wooden hoop -from one to two feet in diameter which is often hinged or jointed so it -may be folded up, and to this a conical canvas bag is sewn. If the -drogue is to be used on a fairly large boat it should be strengthened by -ropes, as shown in the illustration, and in any case the ring or hoop -should be provided with a four-rope “bridle” as illustrated (_A_). To -the small end a light line (_B_) should be fastened to “trip” the drogue -when you wish to draw it in, and a cork float (_C_) is attached at the -end of a line three or four feet in length (_D_) to prevent the -sea-anchor from sinking or “diving.” Some people prefer a drogue with -the lower or smaller end left open, but the form shown will serve for -all-around purposes as well as any. - -The drogue is used when “riding-out” a gale or “lying-to” in a storm or -heavy sea and its purpose is to hold the boat’s bow to the wind and -waves and also to prevent the boat from drifting too rapidly to leeward. -It should be attached to a stout line twenty-five to forty feet in -length and passed over the bows and if there is no sea-anchor at hand a -bucket, a couple of oars lashed crosswise, thwarts, spare sails, -cushions, or, in fact, anything which will float and will offer a -considerable resistance to the water, may be used in place of a drogue. - -Not only will a drogue hold a boat’s head on to wind and sea but it will -also form a “smooth” for the boat and will often prevent the waves from -breaking over the bow. - -When riding to a drogue a close-reefed sail, or the upper part of the -sail may be set to keep the boat steady if necessary, but most boats -will ride very well to a drogue without any sail whatever. - -Be sure that your boat has oars, oarlocks, a boat-hook, a compass and a -lantern on board, for these simple things may save your life and they -will come in useful scores of times. If you go on long cruises or sail -any distance from shore you should also have a keg of fresh water in the -boat at all times, for one never knows when an accident may happen and -the boat may be kept out to sea for many hours at a time and if such an -event _does_ occur you will give heartfelt thanks for your foresight in -providing drinking-water. - -Finally there is the ballast. If the boat carries inside ballast it may -be in the form of iron or lead bars, cobble stones or sandbags and these -should be looked over, cleaned and put in good shape. If the sandbags -leak, mend them with strong thread and give them a good coat of paint; -if stones are used wash them in fresh water and let them dry before -placing in the boat, and if iron bars are used, chip off the rust and -give them a coat of asphaltum varnish, or some good metal paint. - -When pulling up the boat for the winter or placing her “out of -commission” _always_ drain all the water out of the hull. All weeds, -shells and marine growths should be removed from the bottom and the -planks should be scrubbed off and the keel blocked up so that it rests -on a firm support at several points, as otherwise it may bend or buckle -from the boat’s weight. - -The inside ballast should be taken out and placed aside; the running -rigging should be taken down, coiled and hung in a safe dry spot; all -the equipment should be taken from the boat and stored away and the -sails should be soaked in fresh water, dried thoroughly, rolled up and -stored in a dry loft or similar place. - -A little care and trouble taken in such matters will save a vast amount -of time, trouble and expense when ready to put the boat in the water, -for dampness, dirt and rust will play havoc with the woodwork, ropes, -sails and other parts of the boat if left alone over winter, while -marine growths and old paint are far easier to remove from the bottom -when wet and fresh than after they have dried and hardened during the -months in which the boat is hauled out. - -If you use a mooring this should be taken up in the fall and stored over -winter, for ice will often carry away a mooring buoy and chain which -will resist the most severe storms. If the stone, anchor or other object -used as a mooring is too heavy to be taken up the mooring buoy should be -taken from the chain and a cheap wooden spar or pole should be -substituted. This will resist the action of ice and winter storms better -than the keg or can buoy, and if it is lost it doesn’t amount to much -and the chain can usually be picked up again by a grapnel. - -In order that you may be able to locate your mooring, if the buoy is -sunk or carried away, you should make a note of cross bearings (see -Chapter VII) so that you will know the exact spot where the mooring is -located. - -There are many forms of moorings for small boats, among them large -stones, heavy pieces of iron or metal, such as old furnace-pots, old -car-wheels, old railroad-rails and discarded machinery, while large -anchors, and especially “mushroom” anchors, are widely used. - -It doesn’t make the least difference what is used for a mooring as long -as it is heavy enough to hold the boat securely, but it must be borne in -mind that an object under water weighs far less than when out of water -and hence you should always use an object which you are sure is large -and heavy enough to hold your boat in any wind or weather. A mooring -should weigh at least three times as much as an anchor and six or eight -times as much is none too heavy. - -From the mooring a heavy iron chain should lead to a buoy and the chain -should be long enough to allow for the rise and fall of tide and yet -have some slack at all times. - -Galvanized chain should be used and the buoy at its upper end should be -large and buoyant enough to support the entire weight of the chain. - -There are metal buoys, made for the purpose; a strong keg, such as a -beer keg, makes a good buoy; a spar buoy or a cork float may be used. If -a keg is used it should be provided with brass or galvanized hoops and -should be kept well painted and spars, metal buoys or cork floats should -also be taken up, dried and painted at frequent intervals to prevent -them from becoming overgrown with marine plants, waterlogged or -destroyed by teredos. - -The buoy is intended to support the chain and to make the location of -the mooring plain. You are _not_ supposed to make your boat fast to it. -For fastening the boat a ring should be provided on the chain below the -buoy and the buoy left floating or it may be placed on the deck or -inside the boat when the mooring is in use. Have your mooring buoy -painted in bright colors so as to be easily visible and see that it is -always kept in such good shape that it floats high and plain above the -water. It’s a very easy matter to miss a buoy in a fog, at night, or -even with a sea running, and the higher it floats and the more brilliant -the colors, the more readily you can “pick it up.” - -When you come to the mooring you may catch the buoy by hand or by a -boat-hook. To make this easier a large loop of rope or a ring should be -provided on the buoy and the buoy left floating or it may be and you use -a boat-hook, be very careful not to punch a hole in the buoy as you -reach for it with the hook. - -While getting your boat ready for the water, while sailing her, and, in -fact, whenever you are handling or working about boats, you will find it -necessary to tie many knots. - -Everyone can tie some sort of a knot, but comparatively few can tie -really good knots and as they are very important and useful, you should -learn how to tie all the common, and some of the fancy, knots and should -know how to splice. There is a good portion of the year when you cannot -use your boat and during this season you can employ a great deal of your -time to good advantage in studying the next chapter and following the -directions for making knots, ties and splices. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - MARLINSPIKE SEAMANSHIP - - -To sailors the ability to tie knots, make splices and do other ropework -is known as marlinspike seamanship. The name “marlinspike” refers to a -metal instrument used in making knots and splices and this tool, or a -somewhat similar but smaller implement known as a _fid_, is the only -article except the ropes which is required in making any knot, tie or -splice. - -There is a vast difference between tying a _knot_ and tying a _good -knot_, and while the one is an abomination, the other is a thing to -admire. To be a good knot a knot must combine a number of important -points. It must be of such a character that it can be quickly and easily -tied; it must hold securely without danger of slipping or loosening; it -must be free from the danger of “jamming”; it must be easy to untie or -cast off, and it must be perfectly adapted to the particular purpose for -which it is used. - -The advent of wire rigging and steamships marked the decline of -marlinspike seamanship and today a great many so-called sailors are -woefully ignorant of any but the simplest knots and ropework. On the old -square-riggers and in the days when sailing vessels were supreme upon -the seas, the sailors prided themselves upon their knowledge of knots -and splices. Today one may now and then find an old deep-water tar who -can tie every knot and make every splice ever used aboard ship, but each -year these men are becoming fewer and marlinspike seamanship, unless -kept alive by those who sail boats for pleasure, will soon be a thing of -the past. - -Before commencing to tie knots or to make splices one should learn about -the various kinds of rope and the names of the rope’s parts. - -Ordinary rope is known as _three-stranded_ and is made of three pieces, -or strands, twisted together. These run from _left to right_ in a spiral -and each of these several strands is made up of smaller pieces known as -_yarns_, which are twisted together from right to left or _left-handed_. -Other ropes are made of four strands, while _bolt-rope_ has a central -strand around which the other strands are _laid_ or twisted. Some ropes -are laid up _left-handed_ with each strand composed of yarns twisted -_right-handed_, but when made in this way the rope becomes a _cable_ or -a _cable-laid_ rope. - -The ropes ordinarily used are the three-stranded, right-hand kinds and -they may be made of cotton, jute, Manilla or hemp, the Manilla being the -best and most widely used. - -Small ropes are usually termed _lines_ by sailors, and one never hears a -seaman speak of “string.” Instead he says “twine,” “line,” “yarn,” or -“marline.” _Twine_ is small right-handed line. _Spun-yarn_, or yarn, is -loosely laid, left-handed hemp, tarred and rubbed down. _Marline_ is -line made of two finely dressed hemp yarns laid left-handed and usually -tarred. - -Whenever a rope is used for tying a knot or making a splice certain -terms are employed to designate the various parts and as these names are -used in the directions for making knots you should become familiar with -them. - -The principal portion or longest part of the rope is called the -_standing part_; the portion bent or curved is the _bight_, and the -shorter portion used in making the knot or splice is the _end_. Fig. 1. - -There are various types of knots, some employed for everyday useful -purposes and some for purely ornamental uses. As the former are the -easiest to make and are most important, it is a wise plan to learn how -to tie them before attempting to master the more difficult ornamental -knots. - -[Illustration: USEFUL KNOTS AND SPLICES] - -Before commencing to work with a rope the loose strands at the ends -should be _whipped_ to prevent the rope from unraveling. To _whip_ the -rope take a piece of soft, strong twine, lay it on the rope an inch or -two from the end, pass the twine several times around the rope, keeping -the ends of the twine under the first few turns to hold it in position, -and then make a large loop with the free end of the twine. Bring this -back to the rope, continue winding it for a few turns around the rope -and the end of the twine and finally finish by drawing the loop snug by -pulling on the free end as shown in Fig. 2. This is the true sailor -fashion of whipping a rope’s end, but for mere temporary purposes when -practising ropework, twine wrapped a few times around the rope and tied -will be sufficient. - -_Cuckold’s necks_ are loops or rings of rope such as are illustrated in -Fig. 3. They are very easily made by bringing the end of a rope around -in a circular bight and then seizing the bight to the standing part by -means of twine or yarn. As soon as the two parts are thus bound together -or seized the _cuckold’s neck_ becomes a _clinch_ which is often very -useful about a boat, while the loop or cuckold’s neck itself is the -foundation of many useful knots. - -Of all true knots perhaps the simplest is the _overhand knot_ (Fig. 4). -To make this knot merely pass the end of the rope over the standing part -and through the bight or cuckold’s neck thus formed (Fig. 4 A). When -drawn tight the knot appears as in Fig. 4 B and is often used in making -splices, grommets and fancy knots. - -Another useful and very simple knot is the _figure eight_ which is shown -commenced in Fig. 5 A and completed in Fig. 5 B, but the most useful and -important of all is the _square knot_ or _reef knot_ shown in Fig. 6. -This is the knot used to tie reef points, to furl sails, to fasten two -lines together and for many other purposes, and it is doubtless the best -all-around knot known. It has the advantages of being easy to tie and -untie, of holding fast under tremendous strain and of never becoming -jammed. - -To tie a reef knot take one end of the rope in each hand, pass the -_left_ over and under the _right_ and then pass the _right over and -under the left_. If you will always remember this formula, _left over_, -_right over_, you will never make a mistake and tie a granny (Fig. 7). -To make a granny knot stamps you as a landlubber, for the granny is a -useless, troublesome knot which can never be depended upon and which is -unfit for any purpose. It will not hold a strain, it is liable to slip -and it soon becomes jammed and hard to untie. - -If when tying a reef knot, the bight of one end is used instead of the -end itself, a _slippery reefer_ is made and this is far better for tying -reef points than the true square knot as it may be cast off by merely -pulling on the free end of the loop (Fig. 8). - -When fastening a boat or any other object where it may be necessary to -cast off quickly, a _lark’s head_ is a good fastening to use (Fig. 9). -To make this knot pass the bight of a rope through the ring or other -object to which you are making fast and then slip a piece of wood, a -marlinspike, or some other object through the sides of the bight and -under or behind the standing part as shown in Fig. 9 at A. The end of -the rope is then laid over and under the standing part and back over -itself. This knot may be instantly unfastened by merely pulling out the -bit of wood or _toggle_ (_A_). - -Another knot, which is easy to cast off and is very useful in many -places, is the _slippery-hitch_ (Fig. 10). To make this knot run the end -of the rope through the ring or eye, then back over the standing part -and pull the loop or bight back through the cuckold’s neck thus formed. -To untie merely pull on the free end. - -A better knot for fastening a boat or other object quickly and securely -is that shown in Fig. 11. This is made of two half-hitches and is widely -used by sailors and is the easiest of all reliable and secure knots to -tie. It is made by passing the end of a rope around a post or other -object, then carrying the end over and around the standing part between -itself and the post and then under and around the standing part between -its own loop and the one first made. It is easier to learn this knot by -studying the diagram than by a description, and as soon as you get the -“hang” of it you can tie it in an instant in the darkest night. It will -hold forever without working loose and even on a smooth stick or spar it -will stand a great strain without slipping along. - -A better knot for fastening to such an object as a smooth stick, where -there is a longitudinal strain or to another rope, is the _clove hitch_ -(Fig. 12). To make this, pass the end of the rope around the stick or -other object, then over itself, then over and around the spar and pass -the end under itself and between the rope and spar as shown in the -diagram. - -If you have occasion to fasten a rope to a hook for hoisting anything -you should use the _blackwall hitch_ (Fig. 13), which is very secure and -easily made. To make this hitch form a loop or cuckold’s neck with the -end of the rope underneath and then pass it over the hook so that the -standing part bears against the end and jams it fast. - -Still another strong knot for attaching a rope to a hook is shown in -Fig. 14. This is called a _catspaw_ and is made as follows: Lay the -bight of the rope over the end and standing part; then, with a bight in -each hand take three twists _away from you_; then bring the two bights -side by side and hook them over the hook as shown. - -For towing a spar, mast or a piece of timber, or for fastening to a log, -the best knot to use is the _timber hitch_ (Fig. 15). This is made by -passing the end of the rope around the object, then around the standing -part and then twisting it three times under and over its own part. If -you wish to have this still more secure, a half-hitch may be taken with -the line a foot or two farther along the spar (Fig. 15 A). - -It often happens that one needs to fasten two very heavy or stiff ropes -or hawsers together and this may be impossible with any ordinary knots. -In such cases there is nothing better than the _carrick bend_ (Fig. 16). -To make this bend, form a bight by laying the end of the hawser on top -of and across the standing part. Then take the end of the other hawser -and pass it through this bight, first down and then up over the cross -and then down through the bight again, so that it comes out on the -opposite side from the other end thus bringing _one end on top_ and the -_other below_ as illustrated. If the lines are very heavy or stiff the -ends may be seized to the standing parts by twine or marline. - -Heavy hawsers can seldom be handled like small ropes and there are -several bends or knots which are especially designed for these large -ropes. Among them are the _anchor bends_ shown in Fig. 16 A and the -_fisherman’s bend_ (Fig. 16 B), both of which are so simple that an -explanation is not necessary as they can readily be mastered by looking -at the diagrams. - -But of all knots perhaps the most perfect is the _bowline_ (Fig. 17). -This is preëminently _the_ sailor’s knot and every person who uses or -owns boats should learn to tie a bowline quickly and readily for it is -the strongest, most secure and best of all useful knots and can be used -for a thousand and one different purposes. - -It is very simple and by following the various stages as illustrated you -will have no difficulty in learning to tie it. In A the rope is shown -with the bight or cuckold’s neck formed with the end over the standing -part. Pass A back through the bight, under, then over, then under again, -as shown in B; then over and down through the bight, as shown at C and -D. Then draw tight as at E. - -While for most purposes knots serve every purpose for fastening two -ropes together or for attaching a rope to some other object, yet a tied -rope is never as strong as a whole rope and moreover where two ropes are -thus fastened together, the knot will not pass through blocks, eyes or -other openings which will admit the rope itself. For this reason it is -often necessary to join two ropes so that there is scarcely any increase -in the size of the ropes. This is accomplished by making what is known -as a _splice_. - -A splice, if well made, is as strong as the rest of the rope; it will -run through a block or eye readily and moreover it is not difficult to -make. There are various kinds of splices, known as _short splices_, _eye -splices_, _cut splices_, _long splices_, etc., and everyone who has -occasion to use ropes should be able to make any or all of these. - -The simplest splice, and the one you should learn first, is the _short -splice_ (Fig. 18). To make this untwist or _unlay_ the ends of the two -ropes to be joined for a few inches and wrap a few turns of twine or -yarn around them to prevent the strands from untwisting any farther, as -shown at A, A. The end of each strand should also be whipped or seized -to prevent unravelling, but after you are adept at splicing you can omit -these seizings as you will be able to splice just as well, but while -learning you will find them quite necessary. - -You will also find it far easier to learn how to splice if you wax or -grease the strands and this applies to ropes which are used when -practising simple or fancy knots also. - -When you have the ropes ready, place them end to end, as shown in B, B, -and with a marlinspike, a pointed stick, or some smooth, round, sharp -tool open the strand 1 C and through this push the strand A of the other -rope. Next open strand 2 and pass the next strand of the other rope -through the opening and treat the third strand in the same way. Now open -the strands of the second, or right-hand, rope below the seizings and -push the strands of the first, or left-hand, rope through the apertures. -The two ropes will now appear as in D, D. Next untwist each strand, cut -off about one-half of the yarns, twist the strands tightly and seize -with twine. Each of the reduced strands must now be poked under the -whole strands of the opposite rope in the same manner as you passed the -whole strands before cutting them down. After drawing each strand tight, -pass them once more under the whole strands and finally trim them off -close to the rope. - -If a really fine, neat splice is desired, you may trim off a few of the -yarns in each strand every time they are passed under the others, thus -gradually tapering the ends and in this way forming a splice which is -scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the rope. - -An _eye splice_ (Fig. 19), is made in the same manner as the short -splice but instead of splicing the two ends of separate ropes together -the end of the rope is unlaid and then bent around in a loop and the -ends are spliced into the strands of the standing part as shown in the -illustration. - -A _cut splice_ (Fig. 20), is made in a very similar manner but instead -of bending the rope around in a bight two ropes are spliced together -overlapping, or a short rope may be spliced into another rope at both -its ends. - -Where a very strong splice the same diameter as the rope is required a -_long splice_ must be used (Fig. 21). This is the most difficult of all -splices to make and it is even harder to describe than to make, but when -well spliced it will pass through a block or eye as readily as a plain -rope and the splice cannot be distinguished from the rope itself. - -To make a long splice unlay the strands of the ropes about four times as -much as for a short splice, or from four to five feet, and unlay one -strand in each rope for half as much again. Place the center strands -together, as at A, so that the long strands appear as at B and C and the -spiral groove, left where they were unlaid, will look like D, E. Take -off the two middle strands F, G, and lay them into the grooves D, E, -until they meet B, C, and be sure to keep them tightly twisted while -doing this. Then take the strands H, J, cut off half the yarns in each, -make an overhand knot in them and stick the ends in as in making a short -splice. Do the same with strands B, C, and F, G, dividing, knotting and -sticking in the ends. Finally stretch the rope, pound and roll it until -smooth and trim off any loose bits and ends of yarn close to the rope. - -While making any splice or knot where the strands are unlaid and are -again laid up, be sure to keep the strands tightly twisted by turning -them _from right to left_. Then when they are laid in place they will -hold their position snugly by their tendency to untwist. If you examine -a rope carefully you will discover that the various strands are _not_ -merely twisted together, but that two of them are twisted and that the -third is then laid into the groove between the other two. In laying up a -rope after making a knot or splice this should be borne in mind. - -Sometimes a ring of rope is required and this can be quickly and easily -obtained by making a _grommet_ (Fig. 22). To make a grommet unlay and -cut a long strand from a common rope, bend it around in a circle of the -desired size, lay one end over the other and with the long end follow -the grooves or _lay_ of the strand until it comes back to where it -started, thus forming a ring of two strands. Continue laying the free -end into the groove between the two strands until the ring is completed -with three strands all around and then finish by dividing the yarns of -the two ends where they meet, making overhand knots in them and then -passing them underneath the nearest strands, as when making a splice, -and finally trim off all loose, projecting yarns. - -These grommets make very good quoits and they may also be used as -handles to chests and boxes, rings for masts of small boats and for many -other purposes. - -After the common useful knots and splices have been thoroughly mastered -it is well to learn how to make a few ornamental knots and ropework. -Many of these are really useful about a boat while others add greatly to -the neat, yachty appearance of ropes, rigging, etc. - -At first sight most ornamental knots appear very complicated and -difficult, but they are really no harder to tie than a bowline or a reef -knot, once you know how. - -In tying fancy knots you will find cotton rope or very fine hemp better -than Manilla, but after you are really skillful you will find no trouble -in forming any knot in any old rope that is handy. - -The two most important of fancy knots and those which are the foundation -of many others are the _crown_, (Figs. 23, 24) and the _wall_, (Figs. -25, 26). The _Matthew Walker_, (Fig. 32) and the _Turk’s head_, (Fig. -33) are also very beautiful and useful knots and by the use of these -four and their various combinations an endless number of fancy knots may -be devised. Many of these combinations of two or more knots have become -so generally used that they have received specific names and are now -recognized as regular knots. Such are the _wall and crown_, _double wall -and crown_, etc. - -In addition to true ornamental knots there are various other forms of -fancy ropework, such as _worming_, _parcelling_, _serving_, _sennett -work_, _thumming_, etc., while _four-stranded and crown-braids_ are used -in making ornamental lanyards, hand lines, rope fenders, etc. - -[Illustration: ORNAMENTAL KNOTS] - -The simplest of ornamental knots is the _crown_ and it is well to -commence with this. Unlay the strands of the rope for a few inches. -Seize or whip the ends of the rope as when making a short splice. Now -while holding the rope in your left hand, fold one strand over and away -from you as in A, Fig. 23; then fold B over A and while holding these in -place with your thumb and finger pass C over B and through the bight of -A, as shown in the cut. Now pull the ends tight and work the bights up -snugly and your knot will be the _single crown_, but as this is a poor -knot to stay tied and is not very ornamental, it should be finished by -tucking the free ends under and over the strands of the rope as shown in -Fig. 24, meanwhile tapering them down as described in the directions for -making an eye splice. - -This results in a very neat and ship shape finish for a rope’s end and -as it will never work loose like a seizing and can be tied in a very few -moments, it can be recommended as the handiest and best of all methods -for finishing the ends of ropes to prevent unravelling. - -As simple as the crown and far more attractive, is the _wall knot_, -Figs. 25, 26. In making this knot unlay and whip the rope as for the -crown and make a bight in the strand C by bringing the end down and -across the standing part. Then bring strand A over C and around the -standing part, and finally bring B over A and up through the bight of C. -Draw all the ends tight and snug and the _single wall_ will be finished. -As in the case with the _crown knot_, this is mainly of value as a basis -for other knots, or for ending rope by tucking in the ends as shown in -Fig. 26. - -By “doubling” the wall or crown, the knots are made far more ornamental. -This is done by _following the lay_ of the single knot, or in other -words, after the single wall or crown is made the strands are carried -around side by side of themselves. To make a _double wall knot_ make the -single knot and then, before drawing it tight, bring the strand A up -through its own bight beside the end of C. Then bring B up through its -own bight beside A and carry C up through its own bight beside B. When -drawn tight it will be very neat. The ends may be trimmed off or tucked -through the strands of the standing part as preferred. (Fig. 26.) - -A still more ornamental knot may be formed by _crowning_ a wall knot. -This is done by first making a plain wall knot and then bringing A up -over the top, laying B across A and bringing C over B and through the -bight of A, or in other words, tying a crown knot on top of a wall knot, -(Fig. 27). - -This is the foundation for one of the most beautiful of rope-end knots -which is known as the _double wall and crown_ or _manrope knot_. (Fig. -28.) To make this, tie the single wall, crown it and leave the strands -slack. Then pass the ends under and up through the bights of the single -wall knot and then push the ends alongside of the strands which form the -single crown knot, passing them through the bights in the crown and down -through the walling. - -If you have learned the single wall and single crown, you will find this -very simple, for it consists in merely following the lay of the strands -of the single wall and crown. When well done and worked up tight and -snug with the ends trimmed off closely it makes a highly ornamental -knot, (Fig. 28), and if the ends are tucked into the standing part, as -directed for tying the single crown, there should be no sign of a -beginning or ending to this knot, the finished result appearing like an -ornamental knob of rope. - -This is a useful as well as an ornamental knot and is handy in many -places on a boat. It is often used in finishing the ends of rope -railings, the ends of manropes (hence its name) for the ends of yoke -lines for steering small boats, to form _stoppers_ or _toggles_ to -bucket-handles, slings, etc., and in fact, wherever a large ornamental -end to a rope is required or where a knot is desired to prevent a rope -from slipping through any aperture. - -Its use for such purposes is shown in Figs. 29, 30 and 31 which -represent topsail halyard toggles, formed by turning an eye splice in a -short length of rope with a double wall and crown at the end. Such -toggles are useful for many purposes other than for topsail halyards. -They may be used as stops for furling sails, for slings around gaffs or -booms, for attaching blocks when hoisting and in many other places which -will suggest themselves to the user of a small boat. - -Another very beautiful end knot, and the most difficult of all to make -is the _Matthew Walker_ or _stopper knot_ (Fig. 32). To tie this knot -pass one strand around the standing part and through its own bight, then -pass B underneath and through the bight of A and through its own bight -as well. Then pass C underneath, around and through the bights of A, B -and its own bight. The knot will not appear as at Fig. 32 A, but by -carefully hauling the ends around and working the bights up tight—a -little at a time, the knot will assume the shape shown in Fig. 32 B. -This is a splendid knot for the ends of ropes to prevent them from -slipping through holes, as it is hard, close and presents an almost flat -shoulder on its lower side. It is because of its adaption to such -purposes that the name “stopper knot” has been given to it. - -All of the preceding are end knots, but a knot of a very different sort, -which is widely used for ornamenting ropes, is the _Turk’s head_ (Fig. -33). Turk’s heads are used in decorating lower standing rigging, for -rings or shoulders on shrouds or ropes, to secure other rigging in -position, to ornament yoke lines, for forming sliding collars on knife -lanyards and for collars around stanchions, spars, oars, etc., and when -placed around a rope close beneath a manrope or Matthew Walker knot it -gives a very beautiful and elaborate finish to a rope. - -Although so handsome and apparently intricate, the Turk’s head is a very -simple and easy knot to make and while you may have some difficulty in -mastering it at the first a little practice and perseverance will enable -you to become proficient and you will be able to tie this beautiful knot -at any time and in any position. - -To learn to make this knot obtain a smooth, round stick and some closely -twisted, or braided, small line. Pass two turns with the line around the -rod, as at A, Fig. 33, pass the upper bight down through the lower bight -and reeve the upper end down through it, as at B, Fig. 33. Then pass the -bight up again and pass the end over the lower bight and up between it -and the upper bight. Dip the upper bight again through the lower bight -and pass the end over what is now the upper bight and between it and the -lower one, as at C, Fig. 33. Continue to work around in this manner to -the right until the other end is met when the other part should be -followed around until a plait of two or more lays is complete as shown -in the cut. - -[Illustration: ROPEWORK] - -The various bights should then be drawn snugly until there is no slack -and the completed knot fits tightly about the rod. A variation of this -knot may be formed by making the first part as directed and then by -slipping the knot to the end of the rod work one side tighter than the -other until the plaits form a complete cap (Fig. 33 D). This makes a -fine finish for the ends of stanchions, poles, flagstaffs, etc., and it -may be kept in position by a few tacks or small nails driven through the -inner strands into the woodwork. - -Ropes that are to be used as handlines, stanchions, manropes, lifelines, -shrouds or, in fact, for any purpose where appearances count, are -usually _wormed_, _served_ and _parcelled_. _Worming_ consists of -twisting a small line or filler into the grooves and making the rope -smooth and ready for parcelling or serving. _Parcelling_ is done by -wrapping the wormed line with a narrow strip of canvas (Fig. 34 B), and -finally the whole is _served_ by being wrapped tightly with marline or -spun yarn (Fig. 34 C). - -Although all this may be done by hand the serving is usually -accomplished by means of a tool known as a serving mallet (Fig. 34 D). -This instrument enables one to work much more evenly and tightly than is -possible by hand serving, but whether a mallet is used or you depend -upon hand serving, the rope to be treated must be stretched tightly -between two uprights or the result will never be satisfactory. Sometimes -a rope is served without either worming or parcelling and for ordinary -purposes the parcelling is not necessary; although the results obtained -by performing all these operations are very much more satisfactory. - -A variation in serving is made by means of _half-hitch_ work as shown in -Fig. 35. This is very ornamental when well done and is very simple and -easy to accomplish. To make this covering, take a half-hitch with the -small line about the rope, then another below it, draw snug, take -another half-hitch and continue in this way until the rope or other -object, is covered and the half-hitches form a spiral row of knots -running around the covered object. Bottles, jugs, ropes, stanchions, -fenders and many other articles may be covered with this half-hitch work -and as you become expert you will be able to cover objects with several -alternating rows of half-hitches. - -_Four-strand braiding_ is also highly ornamental and is very simple. To -do this (Fig. 36), merely cross the opposite strands of small lines as -illustrated in A, B, Fig. 36 B, first crossing A to the left of B, then -crossing C and D above A and B and continue in this way until the braid -is the desired length. - -Still more decorative is a _crown braid_, which is made by forming one -crown knot over another. - -A _wall braid_ may be made by forming a series of single wall knots in -the same way and either the crown or wall braiding may be done with any -number of strands or lines desired; the more strands used the finer and -more ornamental will be the braid produced. - -Sometimes the _monkey chain_, Fig. 38, is used for ornamental work, but -it is more useful as a means of shortening rope in such a manner that it -may be quickly lengthened out for use. To make the _monkey chain_ draw a -loop of the rope through its own bight as at A, B, Fig. 38; draw another -loop through this (C, Fig. 38), another through this (D, Fig. 38), and -continue in this way until the rope is shortened as much as desired, -when the end may then be passed through the last bight as shown at E, -Fig. 38. If left in this way the chain will never come loose and yet the -rope may be lengthened instantly by slipping out the end and pulling -upon it whereupon the entire chain will ravel. - -Once having mastered these various knots and splices you will find -little difficulty in selecting and tying the best knot for any purpose -which may arise, but no description of knots would be complete without a -few hints on slinging barrels, casks or other objects. - -Three of the best and simplest slings are shown in Figs. 39, 40 and 41. -The first, Fig. 39, shows a handy and useful sling for bags or bales and -consists of a strap or length of rope with the two ends spliced together -and slipnoosed around the object as shown. A large grommet also makes a -good sling of this type. Fig. 40 shows how to sling a cask or barrel in -an upright position when it contains water or other contents, while in -Fig. 41, a sling for hoisting barrels, boxes or other articles is -illustrated. In this case the rope may be used with an eye splice at one -end as shown, or it may be merely tied with a bowline or other good -knot. Sometimes a sling is used which has an eye splice at each end and -if you have one or two slings readymade with finished ends, or with eye -splices turned in them, you will find they are very useful and will save -a lot of time and trouble, for they can be used for many purposes other -than as slings. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SIMPLE NAVIGATION - - -Among the first things that the amateur sailor should learn are the -rules of the road at sea, for there are just as strict and definite -rules for boats traversing maritime highways as are in force for -vehicles using highways on the land. - -But whereas traffic rules ashore vary in different countries, and even -in the various states and cities, the rules of the road on the water are -alike throughout all the world, and if you learn the rules in force in -American waters, the knowledge will serve just as well in the waters of -any other country. - -The first and principal rule is to _turn to the right when meeting -another boat_. At times this may be impossible and hence signals and -rules have been arranged which provide for turning to the left when -necessary, but sailing boats _always_ have the right of way over -steamers and power boats. It does not follow, because this is the case, -however, that a man in a small sailboat should compel a larger vessel to -give way to him and endanger the other ship for it may be impossible for -the larger craft to turn out, owing to the narrow channel or some -similar reason, and hence you should know what the various lights and -signals mean and should be prepared for any unusual condition which may -arise. - -In order that sailors may know in which direction a vessel is proceeding -at night, as well as the character of the vessel, all vessels carry what -are known as _side lights_, the one on the right or starboard side being -green, while that on the port or left side is red. If you remember that -the _port_ light is _red_ like _port wine_, you will never become -confused as to which color is port and which starboard. These lights are -only used when vessels are sailing or under way and when at anchor or at -moorings, a white light or _riding-light_ is placed in the rigging. - -Steamers and power boats carry a white light near the stern and another -white light forward. The rear white light is visible from all directions -and is high up, while the forward white light is visible only from one -side around a half-circle to the other side of the bow, while the side -lights can only be seen from ahead or from either side. - -By these lights you can always determine the direction in which a vessel -is moving and can thus keep clear. If she is approaching bow-on, you -will see _both_ the side lights and you can be sure she is a power boat -or steamer if you see the two white lights. If the two white lights are -not in exact line, you will know that she is turning and the direction -she is heading is easily determined, for if the _low bow light_ is to -the _right_ of the high stern light she is turning to your _right_, -while if it appears at the _left_ of the higher stern light she is -heading to your _left_. If only one side light is seen you may be sure -the vessel is moving at right angles, or at nearly right angles to your -course, and if she is a power-propelled vessel you can easily tell the -angle at which she is moving by the position of the white lights. If a -steamer or power boat is ahead of you and moving in the same direction, -you can see only the high white stern light and the instant she turns -you will know it by the other lights becoming visible. - -Steamers and power boats also have signals which are given by the -whistles to show which way they wish to proceed and the steamer which -signals first dictates the direction. One blast means the vessel is -turning to her _starboard_ or _right_ hand and _two blasts_ signifies -she is going to her _left_ or _port_, and while such signals should be -answered by other power or steam boats, sailing craft are not supposed -to reply. Unless there is some unusual reason for not following the -ordinary rules of the road, a steamer or power boat will never signal to -a sailboat and hence, if a steamer is approaching or overtaking you, and -whistles, you should look about and be sure she is not signalling some -other steamer for _all_ power and steam vessels are supposed to keep -clear of sailing craft. Naturally they expect the sailing boats’ -helmsmen to know the rules of the road and, therefore, if you think -their signals are intended for you and change your course the steamer -may not know why you are doing such an unexpected thing and a collision -may result. If you adhere strictly to the rules of the road there is no -reason why you should _ever_ have an accident through your own fault, -but if a power boat or steamer is approaching and does not show signs of -giving way to your right of way you should blow a horn, halloo, shout or -do something to attract attention and if necessary go about and get out -of the way as soon as possible. - -During thick weather, in fogs, mists, snow and heavy rain, sailing -vessels signal the direction in which they are moving by means of blasts -on a foghorn. If they are on the _starboard_ tack, that is, with the -wind on the right or starboard side, _one_ blast is blown at intervals -of about a minute, if on the _port_ tack, _two_ blasts are blown at -intervals, while if running _before_ the wind _three_ blasts are -sounded. As you can always tell the direction of the wind by your own -sails, you can easily determine the direction in which the other boats -are headed by their signals and can thus avoid them. - -Always remember that a sailing vessel on the _starboard tack has the -right of way over a vessel on the port tack_, and that a vessel sailing -_close hauled or against the wind has the right of way over a vessel -running free or on the wind_ regardless of their size, the direction in -which they are moving or anything else. - -In order to make the primary rules of the road easier to remember they -have been made into verse and some of these simple verses, if memorized, -will prove a great help. - -[Illustration: RULES OF THE ROAD AND BUOYS] - - 1—Meeting head-on, turn to starboard. 2—Crossing, boat to - starboard has right of way. 3—Crossing, boat to - starboard has right of way. 4—Passing. 5—Meeting, Green - to green, hold course. 6—Meeting at angle, boat to - starboard has right of way. 7—Meeting at angle, boat to - starboard has right of way. 8—Boat on wind has right of - way over boat sailing free. 9—Boat on starboard tack has - right of way. 10—Red spar buoy, pass on starboard when - entering harbor, on port when leaving harbors. 11—Black - spar buoy. Leave on port when entering and on starboard - when leaving harbors. 12—Horizontal red and black buoy. - Danger, keep clear. 13—White and black striped buoy. - Midchannel, keep close to it. 14—Anchorage buoy. - 15—Nun buoy. 16—Can buoy. 17—Gas buoy. 18—Bell buoy. - 19—Whistling buoy. 20—Perch and ball. 21-22—Beacons. - 23—Lighthouse. 24—Lightship. 25—Light beacon. 26—Keg - beacon. 27—Channel mark. 28—Range marks. - -When meeting a vessel head-on you are supposed to turn to the right as -the following verse shows: - - When two lights you see ahead - Port your helm and show your red, - -or in other words, put your tiller to port and turn your boat to the -right. - -If, on the other hand, a vessel is passing side-to you will see but one -light and the following verse tells you that - - Green to green, or red to red - Perfect safety—go ahead, - -or, in other words, if you see a _green_ light on your _green_ or -_starboard_ side or a _red_ or _port_ light on your _red_ or _port_ -side, the other boat is parallel to you and your course should be kept. - -The greatest danger is in approaching another vessel at right angles, -but in this case remember that the _boat that has the other on the -starboard or right-hand side must keep clear of the other_, or, as the -verse says: - - If to your starboard red appear - ’Tis your duty to keep clear, - Act as judgment says is proper, - Port or starboard, back or stop her. - But when on your port is seen - A vessel with a light of green - There’s not much for you to do - The green light must keep clear of you - -But more important perhaps than all is the universal rule that _all_ -boats must keep a _good lookout_, and the following verse indicates -this: - - Both in safety and in doubt - Always keep a good lookout - Should there not be room to turn - Shift your helm and pass astern. - -The last line is most important. _Never_ under _any_ circumstances -attempt to _cross the bows_ of another moving vessel. If you do and -accident occurs it will be your own fault. A boat crossing another’s -bows _always does so at her own risk_. No matter how you are heading, no -matter how much of a hurry you may be in, no matter how much trouble it -may involve, if you are approaching another boat of any kind so that -your course will cross hers, remember the last verse and _shift your -helm and pass astern_. - -Another very important matter for all boat sailors to learn is the -meaning of the various buoys, beacons, lights and other guide-boards of -the sea. In small boats these are often of little importance for one may -sail hither and thither without paying much attention to channels, but -even in the smallest of sailboats there is a danger of running on reefs, -rocks or shoals if one does not know what the guiding marks mean. - -In nearly every port, harbor, or other navigable body of water, except -in the open ocean, there are buoys. To the landsman these appear as so -many red, black or parti-colored sticks or metal cylinders, but to the -sailor every one has a definite meaning and he knows that if he proceeds -according to the route marked by the buoys he is perfectly safe. - -There are two general classes of buoys, known as _channel buoys_ and -_danger buoys_. The first are used to mark lanes or channels for boats -and are always black or red in color. _All_ the red buoys are placed on -one side of the channel and _all_ the black buoys on the other side and -every boat, when coming in from sea or _moving towards the land should -keep the red buoys on her right or starboard side_ and all the _black -buoys on her port or left hand_. When going _out_ of the harbor or _away -from land, the red buoys are passed on the left and the black ones on -the right_. - -In other words, in _leaving_ a harbor all the _red buoys_ should be -passed on the _red light side of your boat_. Moreover, all the channel -buoys are numbered, the black buoys bearing odd numbers, while the red -ones are marked with even numbers, so that even if the colors are -indistinct you can tell whether they are to be passed on right or left. -But all channel buoys are not alike for there are _spar buoys_, _can -buoys_ and _nun buoys_, each of which serves a definite purpose and -means a certain thing. - -_Can buoys_ are cylindrical, like giant tin cans, and are painted black -and marked with odd numbers, while _nun buoys_ are tapered on the top, -are painted red and bear even numbers. - -_Spar buoys_ are merely huge, wooden poles painted red or black and -bearing odd numbers on the black ones and even numbers on those which -are red. - -In some places the _can_ and _nun buoys_ are used to mark the main ship -channels and the spar buoys are used to show smaller or less important -channels, while in other places only one kind is used or _can_ or _nun_ -buoys may be placed among the spar buoys to mark turning points or to -aid mariners in locating their position in the channel. All the buoys’ -numbers commence at the one farthest out, which is number 1, for buoys -are of more importance to vessels entering a harbor than to those going -out to sea. - -Danger buoys differ from channel buoys in color and are not numbered and -they may be either of the spar, can or nun type. A buoy painted _red and -black in horizontal stripes_ running round the buoy indicates that there -is some small reef, rock or other obstruction close to it and that -vessels must keep clear, _but can pass on either side_. A buoy painted -with _vertical stripes of black and white_ means exactly the opposite -and shows that in order to avoid danger vessels must _pass as closely to -the buoy as possible_ and that there are shoals or obstructions on one -or both sides of the buoy a short distance away. This _striped buoy_ -also is used to mark the _center of a channel_ and is known as a -_midchannel buoy_. - -_Bell buoys_ and _whistling buoys_ are also used to mark danger spots -and turning-points in channels. Whistling buoys are metal buoys fitted -with whistles which are blown by air forced up by the motion of the -waves and are sometimes called _grunters_ as the sound is more like a -grunt than a whistle. _Bell buoys_ are provided with a bell which is -rung by the swaying of the buoy. In many places they are located well -out to sea to indicate the beginning of a channel; in other spots they -are placed on reefs, rocks or other obstructions as warnings, and in -still other places they serve to show where a channel turns sharply or -where another channel branches off. - -Still another sort of buoy is the _gas buoy_. These serve as miniature -lighthouses or lightships and are furnished with lamps which burn -compressed acetylene or other gas. They are usually placed on outlying -reefs or rocks or in spots where it would not pay to keep a regular -lightship. - -In many places, where ordinary buoys cannot be used, a large sphere is -set up on the end of a pole and painted red or black, according to the -side on which it should be passed. This is known to seamen as a _perch -and ball_. Often a square, boxlike affair or a cone made of iron or -wooden slats is used in the same manner. - -In still other localities the government does not think it worth while -to establish regular buoys and local fishermen or others use channel -marks in the form of kegs set on posts or rods in place of danger buoys -and cedar trees fastened on tall posts to indicate the channels. - -In many parts of the country _beacons_ are used which are tripods or -platforms of wood or iron on which lanterns are suspended. Sometimes the -beacons are built of stone or concrete. - -On navigable rivers and inland waters and in some places on the coasts -_range marks_ are used. These are square or diamond-shaped frames of -boards painted white with a square or circle of black in the center and -set on posts. They are placed so that when two come directly in line the -boatman knows he is in the center of the channel. At night lanterns are -often hung upon them. - -Sometimes one sees a large spar buoy painted _white_ and with a _little -black anchor_ painted upon it. This shows the anchorage for large -vessels and indicates that vessels cannot anchor further than the buoy -without obstructing a channel or endangering cables, submarine works or -other things. - -Just as buoys tell the sailor which way to steer in harbors or when -close to shore so _lightships_ and _lighthouses_ show mariners how to -sail along the coasts. Lightships are vessels carrying lights at their -mastheads and are anchored out at sea on shoals or off harbors to show -where the channels begin. - -Lighthouses are usually built on shore close to the sea, but they are -often built on stone, masonry or slender steel supports quite a distance -from the land. Each lighthouse has a different light, many are painted -in stripes or other distinctive patterns and lightships are numbered and -named to enable sailors to identify them easily. - -[Illustration: HARBOR CHART SHOWING LIGHTS, BUOYS, CHANNELS, SOUNDINGS, -BEARINGS, BOTTOM, ETC.] - -Some lighthouses throw a steady red light, others a steady white light, -others flashes of white, others flashes of red, others alternate flashes -of red and white, and in many places they are arranged so that a white -light is visible from vessels in the channels or in safe waters, while a -red sector causes a red light to be thrown over the shallow or dangerous -waters. Moreover, the flashing lights have various intervals between -flashes and thus, by knowing the colors of the various lights and the -duration of their flashes, a sailor can determine just where he is by -the lighthouses he sights. - -All of these safeguards of the sea would be of little value to mariners, -however, if it were not for charts, for no man could remember _all_ the -various buoys, beacons, range marks, lightships and lighthouses of the -coasts and the various harbors. - -To enable the seaman to know just what every one of these means, and to -help him find his way in places where he has never been, charts are -furnished by the government. These are maps which show all the buoys, -lights, signals and other guides and also indicate the depth of the -water, the kind of bottom, the points of the compass, the prominent -landmarks, the rise and fall of tides and the outlines of the shores. - -With the aid of a chart a sailor can safely find his way into any harbor -or along any coast, and even if it is some remote place where there are -no lights or buoys, or if the weather is too thick to enable him to see -the buoys or lights, the charts will tell him where he is by the -character of the bottom and the depth of the water. - -It may seem queer to think of a sailor navigating a vessel by the bottom -of the sea, but it is a method very widely used and of great importance. - -In nearly every place the bottom varies more or less and the waters -shoal in a certain way and by finding the kind of bottom there is and -the depth of the water the seaman identifies the locality he is in. -Thus, if the bottom is white sand and the depth is five fathoms, he -looks upon the chart and finds the spot where a similar depth and bottom -is indicated. Perhaps there are several such spots and the sailor is not -sure which one he is on. In that case, he looks in the direction he is -sailing and finds that on the chart the water shoals very gradually and -that blue mud exists just beyond the spot where he _thinks_ he should -be. If his next sounding shows blue mud and only a little less depth -than before he knows he is right, whereas if it shows deeper water and -gravel, or much shallower water and sand, he knows he is off his course -and by comparing his soundings with the chart he can tell just where he -is. - -To determine the depth of water, a sounding line is used with a heavy -lead weight at the end and with the fathoms marked upon the line and -every time the lead is dropped to the bottom a tiny sample of the bottom -is brought up sticking to a little tallow which fills a recess in the -end of the lead. - -Nowadays there are many improved forms of sounding lines and leads, some -of which have very cleverly arranged appliances for bringing up samples -of the bottom, but the old-fashioned line and lead is still widely used. - -Still other important items which are indicated on the chart are -bearings or landfalls. Often some prominent cliff, hill, mountain or -other object is visible long before the shores themselves or any lights -can be seen, and by bringing certain such marks in line, or by obtaining -the direction which they bear to the ship and then referring to the -charts, the sailor can tell just what part of the shore he is -approaching and how he should steer to enter a harbor or channel. - -But charts, bearings or landmarks would be almost useless without that -most important of all mariners’ guides, the compass. - -Everyone who uses a boat should know how to use a compass and every -boat, save the very smallest open boats, should invariably have a -compass on board. Even if you never expect to sail far from shore you -may some day be caught in a thick fog or blown off to sea for several -miles and a compass may save your life and the lives of others. But -unless you know how to use a compass this useful instrument will be of -little aid. It may seem strange to speak of learning to use a compass -for everyone knows that a compass points toward the north, but when an -ordinary compass is used on a boat the conditions are very different -from using a compass on land. In the first place it is not enough to -know the cardinal points of north, south, east and west, for while such -general directions may serve on the land, a very slight variation of the -course may result in running on a reef or in missing a harbor, when -sailing. For this reason you should become thoroughly familiar with -_all_ the points of a compass and should be able to _box the compass_ or -repeat all the thirty-two points from north around the circle to north -and back again without looking at the compass. Then you should learn the -quarter points and should be able to tell at a glance whether the boat -is heading north-one-quarter-east or is a quarter of a point off her -course in any direction, for a quarter-point error in sailing may make a -vast difference at the end of a few hours’ run. - -There are two general types of compasses in use: one known as the -_pocket compass_ or _movable-needle compass_, the other as the -_mariner’s compass or floating-card compass_. The former is generally -used on land and has a fixed card with the various points marked upon it -and a movable needle which points to the north, while the mariner’s -compass has a card with the points which revolves and there is a notch -or _lubber’s mark_ on one side of the case which should be so placed -that when facing north the north mark on the card is exactly in line -with the lubber’s mark. - -[Illustration: USE OF COMPASS IN BOAT] - - A—Mariner’s compass. B-C—Pocket compass. - -In a boat the floating-card or mariner’s compass is almost a necessity, -for with it the boat’s bow may be headed in the direction or course -desired, whereas with a pocket compass the dial remains stationary and -the needle moves about and as a result some mental calculation is -necessary in order to steer a course correctly. - -This will be better understood by studying the accompanying -illustration. In this you will see that at A a boat with a mariner’s -compass is headed _northeast_, and that if the course is to be altered -to any given point of the compass it is merely necessary to turn until -the desired mark is in line with the lubber’s mark. - -In the diagram B, however, the boat is apparently headed north although -the same course is being steered as in A. This is because the compass -used is a fixed-card compass with a movable needle and the needle moves -as the boat’s course is changed, while the card remains stationary, and -although the boat is really headed _northeast_ the needle points to the -_northwest_. In other words, when using such a compass it is necessary -to read it backwards and if you wish to steer _northeast_ swing the boat -until the needle points _northwest_, and so on, for every direction. -This, of course, is very confusing and it can be avoided only by -shifting the position of the compass so as to bring the needle directly -over “north” each time the boat’s course is altered as shown at C. By -doing this the boat’s bow will correspond to the direction being -steered, as indicated on the compass card, but it is often very -inconvenient, if not impossible, to move a compass constantly while -bobbing about in a sea or tacking, although on land it is no trouble to -turn the compass until the needle and “north” are in line and then -proceed in the desired direction. - -Moreover, a pivoted needle is often very erratic and swings wildly when -in a boat and for these reasons a floating-dial compass should always be -used. Many pocket compasses are made with moving dials, or cards, and -these will serve very well for small boats, but they are not to be -compared to the true boat compasses for steadiness, accuracy and -convenience. - -Sometimes one may find oneself without a compass and may wish to obtain -a general idea of direction and in such a case it is of great value to -know that an ordinary watch or clock may be made to serve as a compass. - -To use a watch as a compass, place it horizontally, with the hour hand -pointing directly towards the sun, or until the shadow of the hour hand -falls directly beneath the hand itself. When this position is attained -south will be exactly halfway between the point of the hour hand and the -figure 12; counting from left to right, or southward, if _before_ noon -and from right to left if _after_ noon. - -This will prove very accurate for our latitudes during most of the year -and the method will be clearly understood by referring to the -illustrations in which the watch is shown with the hour hand pointing -towards the sun at six A. M. when the figure 9 indicates south, while in -the afternoon, with the hour hand pointing at the sun at four o’clock, -the figure 2 indicates south. - -This method of determining direction is only useful on sunny or bright -days, however, and one often needs to know the points of the compass at -night, when the watch would be useless. - -In any spot north of the equator the North Star, or Pole Star, serves as -a guide, while south of the equator the Southern Cross indicates the -true south. But the Southern Cross becomes visible long before the -equator is reached, in about twenty degrees north latitude, and hence -there is a wide area in which both of these stellar guides serve the -mariner. - -[Illustration: COMPASSES] - - 1—Pocket compass. 2—Mariner’s compass. 3—Points of compass. - 4—How to use a watch as a compass. 5—How to find the - North Star. - -It is a very easy matter to locate the North Star by finding the -constellation known as the Great Dipper or the Great Bear. Then by -following in a straight line from the two outer stars of the Dipper, the -upper one of which would form the lip of the Dipper, or the breast of -the Bear, the North Star will be the first bright star in range of these -two stars in the constellation and which are known as _the Pointers_. - -As the Great Dipper revolves around the North Star the latter may be -either above or below the Dipper, but by carrying your imaginary line -through the pointers, from the foot or bottom of the constellation and -beyond the top, the star may always be located if the night is clear and -even if the Pole Star is _not_ visible the Dipper itself will serve as a -guide to enable you to steer a fairly straight course. - -Captains of large vessels, sailing out of sight of land, determine their -positions and steer their course by taking observations by means of -instruments called _sextants_ and by _chronometers_. - -The chronometer is merely an extremely accurate clock which is set by -standard time with Greenwich, and by comparing the actual time with this -at noon, the mariner can work out the distance east or west of -Greenwich, or in other words, obtain his _longitude_. - -By means of the sextant he determines the exact moment at which the sun -crosses the meridian, or the exact noon hour at his locality and he also -learns the angle or _declination_ of the sun above the horizon. By means -of tables he is thus enabled to work out his _latitude_, or his distance -north or south of the equator, and then by marking the spot on his chart -where the longitude and latitude cross, he indicates the exact position -of his ship. - -It is an easy matter to learn to “shoot the sun” and to compute latitude -and longitude. Every amateur sailor will do well to acquire this -knowledge, even if it never becomes necessary to use it. - -For all ordinary purposes, however, _dead reckoning_ will serve and many -sailors, and not a few captains of large vessels find dead reckoning -sufficiently accurate for their needs if near land or only sailing for -comparatively short distances out at sea. - -Dead reckoning consists of computing a vessel’s position by the distance -sailed from one time to another; the drift or leeway made and the -directions in which the boat has sailed. - -To find the distance sailed it is necessary to multiply the number of -hours by the speed per hour. To determine this an instrument called a -_log_ is used. In former days the log was in reality a log, and -consisted of a drag of wood attached to a marked line on a reel. The log -was thrown over the vessel’s stern and as the line ran out it was timed -by a _sandglass_ and the number of _knots_ on the line which ran out -while the sand fell through the glass gave the speed of the ship. Today -instruments known as _patent logs_ are used which are like small -propellers attached to a line connected with a clocklike arrangement, -and as the log whirls around by being dragged through the water the -hands on the dials indicate the speed of the vessel. - -But while the log has been changed to a metal whirler and the line and -sandglass have given place to an accurate and complicated mechanism of -wheels and cogs, yet the name _log_ is still retained and sailors always -speak of knots instead of miles. - -By marking off the number of knots sailed in the proper direction the -sailor might easily tell where he was, provided there were no currents -or tides and the vessel moved at a uniform speed and made no leeway. As -a matter of fact the ocean is full of currents, streams and tides and -moreover a vessel, when sailing, or steaming for that matter, is carried -to one side or the other and forwards and backwards by these as well as -by the wind. - -Besides a sailing vessel moves more slowly or faster according to the -strength of the wind and is often obliged to tack or to alter its course -to suit the winds. - -All of these matters must be considered in working out a position by -dead reckoning and the course of a sailing vessel when thus _pricked -out_ on a chart often looks like the track made by a drunken man, as it -zigzags hither and thither, swings about, and varies widely from one -side or the other of its true course. - -In order to come anywhere near accuracy by means of dead reckoning a -mariner must be thoroughly familiar with the tides and currents through -which he is sailing. He must be able to judge the strength of the wind; -he must know just what his vessel will do under varying conditions; he -must be able to guess very closely the leeway she makes, and he must -bear in mind all the changes of course, all the tacks and all the -shifting of sails which have been made. Only by such knowledge and by -long practice can a sailor determine where he is by dead reckoning and -even then he can only locate his position approximately. It seems -remarkable that any man can come anywhere near the truth by such means -but many sea captains have become so expert that they can figure out -their position by dead reckoning and come within a very few miles of the -right result every time. - -Very few amateur sailors will ever need to go into the details of dead -reckoning, but it is often convenient to be able to determine roughly -where you are and you should strive to become so accustomed to your -boat’s speed under various conditions that you can guess very closely -how far and how fast she has sailed. You should also study the charts of -your vicinity and learn all about the tides and currents and should be -able to judge of the leeway you are making, as well as to form an -accurate idea of the weight of the wind or the speed at which it is -blowing. All these things are a part of knowing how to sail and handling -a boat and they will come in mighty handy sooner or later. - -Many a race has been won by a man or boy knowing the currents and tides -and taking advantage of them. If you are out in a fog or in darkness -your knowledge of winds, currents and other conditions will enable you -to steer a true course and reach port, whereas, if ignorant of these -simple matters, you might be compelled to drift about for hours until -you could see your surroundings. - -Until you have tried you can have no idea of how much you can learn -about such matters or what a keen sense of location and direction you -can develop. The fishermen on the coast of Maine and other parts of New -England know the currents, winds and tides of their waters so well that -thick fogs or the darkest nights have no terrors for them. I have seen a -Maine fisherman sail his schooner straight for the rocky, reef-fringed -coast through the thickest fog and drive into a narrow harbor entrance -as surely as if he was following a well marked lane of buoys. Yet -nothing could be seen and the roar of surf was deafening and to make a -mistake of a hundred feet in his course meant certain death and the loss -of the vessel. - -These men don’t know _how_ they know where they are or _how_ they are -able to find their way blindly on these dangerous coasts when nothing -can be seen. They will tell you it’s “by the lay of the land,” although -the land cannot be seen, or they may say they “smell where they are,” -but as a matter of fact it is owing to their intimate knowledge of -conditions and surroundings which has become such a part of their daily -life that they are perfectly unconscious of it. - -Of course the amateur sailor can scarcely hope to become as expert as -these old shellbacks who have spent their lives knocking about in boats, -but you can readily learn the bearings of certain places, the location -of certain tide-rips and the direction and flow of certain currents in -the waters where you sail and these will all help to guide you when -sailing in darkness or in fog. - -Fog is perhaps the greatest danger that menaces sailors along the -coasts, for a thick fog not only hides all objects and surroundings, but -when something _is_ seen it is often so distorted, so spectral or so -unusual in appearance that it is hard to recognize the most familiar -landmarks. Moreover it is next to impossible to judge of distance in a -fog and an object, seen dimly through the mist and apparently far away, -may be close at hand or again something which looms seemingly near may -really be far away. Sound also is distorted by fogs and even old hands -are often woefully deceived as to the direction and distance of sounds -heard through fog. - -Sometimes, too, a fog may settle low and high objects may be visible -above it, or again it may lift and hide all objects above a certain -height and yet leave things close to the water within plain sight. - -In most places the approach of fogs may be readily seen, but quite -frequently a fog will come on very suddenly or a light mist may suddenly -shut in as a dense fog, while in some places fogs almost always occur at -certain seasons or at certain hours and can be expected at such times. - -If a fog is seen approaching, or a light mist commences to thicken up, -always try to make port before it becomes dense. If you have a compass -make a note of the direction you must steer, look about for vessels that -may be in your course and note the direction of the wind, the waves and -the courses other craft are sailing, if any can be seen. - -If you have no compass note the direction of the waves and wind as -compared with the course you wish to take, pick out some prominent -landmark or beacon for which you can steer and when the fog shuts in -guide your course by the waves and _not by the wind_, for a wind often -shifts about when the fog arrives. - -If you have no compass and are in any doubt as to how you are heading, -drop your sails and anchor at once, or if you can reach a buoy, moor to -that until the fog lifts. - -There is nothing much more perilous than sailing about blindly in a fog, -for you are liable to sail in a circle, or far off your course, and when -the fog lifts, if you haven’t run aground or into another vessel, you -may find yourself out of sight of land or many miles from your -destination. - -Always have a foghorn when sailing in localities where fogs occur and if -for any reason you have no horn, shout halloo or beat on a bucket or a -tin pan at intervals to warn other vessels of your presence. - -Sometimes, if you climb to the masthead, you may be able to see above -the fog or through it, for fogs are often thin a few feet above the -water, and if you find this is the case your companion may be able to -stay aloft and direct you, or you may be able to locate some landmark -and to discover in which direction to proceed. If you see that the water -is visible for quite a distance about and yet the fog is thick, you may -be able to see a long way by leaning over the boat’s side and peering -ahead close to the surface of the sea, while if there are whistling or -bell buoys in the vicinity these may serve to guide you. - -Always proceed slowly and cautiously in a fog, for a reef or a vessel is -likely to loom up close aboard at any moment and you must be ever alert -and have your boat under perfect control ready for any emergency. If -there is someone with you, have him stand in the bow and report anything -which he sees and _above all sound fog signals of some sort at intervals -of not more than a minute_ and if you hear another vessel’s signals veer -off and be sure you understand whether she is on the port or the -starboard tack or is running before the wind. - -[Illustration: EFFECT OF WAVES ON STABILITY] - -Sailing in heavy weather or in large seas is very different from sailing -in smooth water and no one should attempt sailing a boat in strong winds -or heavy seas unless thoroughly expert in handling a boat, or unless -compelled to do so by necessity. - -More accidents happen when running in a seaway than under any other -conditions, for a boat which may be perfectly safe and stable in an -ordinary sea, may capsize quickly if not handled with the utmost care -and skill in large waves. - -The effect of waves upon a boat’s stability is seldom realized even by -fairly competent sailors. This may be better understood by the -accompanying diagram which represents a boat in waves as viewed in -section and supposedly sailing with a beam wind in a sea running -broadside on, A. If she is heeled to an angle of fifteen degrees, as -shown, she would be perfectly safe, provided the surface of the water -remained constant, but if a wave came from the leeward, or right, as -indicated by the dotted line B, the angle would be suddenly increased to -thirty degrees in relation to the waves’ surface. Under normal -conditions she might recover herself and swing back to fifteen degrees, -or until her mast assumed the position shown by the vertical line, but -long before she could so recover herself among the waves she probably -would be swamped. - -Moreover, in a sea a boat always rolls and if she is sailing at an -angle, or heel, of fifteen degrees and rolls an additional fifteen -degrees she is liable to capsize, and if her extreme roll occurs in -unison with such a position as indicated in the diagram C, she would -inevitably upset. - -Even if neither of these occurrences took place there is the danger of a -sea underrunning her and leaving the lee side unsupported, as indicated -by the line D, and the wind, which has force enough to heel her fifteen -degrees when properly immersed in water, would then force her to the -capsizing angle as shown. - -Aside from these dangers of the seas there is the added peril of a -sudden gust or squall and if such a sudden increase of wind strikes the -sails when the hull is at its extreme leeward roll she will be certain -to blow over. In this connection it should always be borne in mind that -a wind which will only heel a boat to fifteen degrees when it blows -steadily, may heel her to the upsetting point if applied suddenly. In -other words, it is not so much the actual force of the wind which must -be guarded against as the suddenness of its application. - -Many amateur sailors seem to think that when sailing among waves danger -may be guarded against by sitting on the upper, or windward, side of the -boat or by shifting ballast to the windward side. This is a very grave -mistake, for, as the boat rolls to windward when the waves run under her -keel, the weight on the windward side may cause her to roll far enough -to be swamped or it may prevent her from recovering quickly and the next -wave may strike her bottom and turn her completely over. In addition -there is the danger that she may swing her sail to windward, be caught -aback and upset in a flash. - -For these reasons _always_ keep ballast, whether passengers or real -ballast, as near the center of the boat and as near the bottom as -possible when sailing among waves and decrease the canvas until she -cannot heel at a dangerous angle. A boat may be sailed among waves many -times and not upset merely because the conditions described do not -happen to occur conjointly and yet the very next time she may capsize -under apparently identical conditions. Hence, you should always use the -greatest care when among waves and should invariably shorten sail until -you are sure you are safe. - -Always try to avoid sailing with a beam sea, especially if the wind is -also from the side, for this is the most dangerous of all conditions. A -heavy sea may cause the boat to roll over, the sail may swing and spill -the wind and allow her to be caught aback with her weather roll and to -avoid a breaking sea which may swamp her, it will be necessary to swing -her about for eight points, or at right angles, which cannot be done in -a seaway in time to avoid swamping. - -_Never_ try to luff a boat up to a sea when in this position, but ease -the sheet, swing her off and let the sea run diagonally under her keel. -Remember that in waves a deep keel or a centerboard may prevent a great -deal of the roll and even if running free keep your centerboard down, -unless you find it causes her to steer badly. - -If in order to reach your destination, it is necessary to run across a -heavy sea with a beam wind you can avoid the danger of doing so by -_quartering_ or zigzagging—first heading up into the wind for a time and -then turning and running with the wind on the quarter as shown by the -diagram. - -When running up the wind in this way you should luff right up into any -heavy sea as it approaches, so as to take it bow-on, and the instant it -has passed put the helm up, let the sails fill well and gather good -headway to meet the next sea. Finally, when ready to go about choose a -time when riding on the top of a long, easy sea; swing her about -quickly, ease off the sheets and use great care not to let the boat -swing beam-on to the seas. - -In puffs or squalls, and as you rise towards the crests of the waves, -when running in seas, the boat should be luffed up and sheets eased -before she is heeled rail-under, for if you wait too long she will -answer her helm sluggishly and may capsize before she will luff to meet -the sudden gust. _Don’t_ let her lose headway but as soon as the squall -has passed or the craft has righted bear off again until the next puff -comes along. - -Almost as dangerous as sailing in a beam sea is running before wind and -sea or “scudding” among waves, and many a good craft and many a valuable -life has been sacrificed to carelessness or ignorance when scudding in a -seaway. - -The two greatest perils are _getting brought by the lee_ and -_broaching-to_. The former occurs when the boat’s bow falls off to -leeward by her stern being thrown to windward as a wave runs under her, -while the latter is brought about by the head swinging into the wind and -her stern off, thus causing her sail to “spill” with the result that she -loses headway, swings broadside to the waves and upsets. Only the -quickest and most expert handling can save a boat under these conditions -and frequently she will refuse to come about or to answer her helm as -she is raced along on the crest of a wave. If it is absolutely necessary -to run before a sea, reduce sail, top the boom up well by the -topping-lift or the peak halyards and stand ready to haul in the sheet -and to swing her into the wind or to ease her off instantly. - -Keep the centerboard up, or halfway up is better, and devote every -energy, every attention and every sense to handling your boat and pay -heed to nothing else. - -Even then there are many dangers to be guarded against. If sail is too -greatly reduced your boat may lag between seas and a following wave may -run over her stern and poop her; if there is a trifle too much sail or -even if the sail is of the right area, she may scud off a wave and bury -her bow in a preceding sea and be swamped, or her boom may catch in a -sea as she yaws and thus capsize her. - -If she shows signs of running too fast a drag, such as an oar, a thwart, -a floorboard or even a cushion may be attached to a fairly long line -over the stern and this will not only hold the boat back, but it will -keep her steadier and will serve to prevent seas from breaking as well. - -Oil thrown or dropped over the stern will also aid greatly in preventing -a following sea from breaking over a boat’s stern. Oil should always be -on hand. It doesn’t make much difference what kind of oil is used, but -the heavier it is the better and only a very little is necessary; a wad -of oil-soaked rag or cotton waste, or even oil squeezed from a sponge -will often produce really marvelous results. - -But the best and safest method is to avoid running before wind and sea -by heading into the wind and running fairly free and then wearing ship -and sailing with a quartering wind and thus zigzagging over the course -to be covered. - -When sailing to windward against a sea there is comparatively little -danger, if the boat is luffed up to meet the seas and is not allowed to -lose headway. Then when ready to go about, if tacking, wait for an -opportunity when there is a long, smooth-topped sea and swing the boat -on the other tack quickly and stand ready to bring her about with an oar -if she misses stays, for if she does this serious results may follow and -she may be caught without headway, swung about and upset before you can -get her under way again. - -It is far less dangerous to handle a boat in a gale than in a seaway, -but of course if the gale continues for any length of time the seas will -rise. It is often far safer to ride out a gale than to attempt sailing -in it, for few boats will fail to weather even a hard and prolonged gale -and heavy seas if properly handled. If you have a sea-anchor or drogue -aboard cast this over, lower or snug down sails, keep low down in the -boat and if you have oil aboard allow it to drip over the bows. Under -such conditions the drogue will break the force of the seas and keep the -craft head to the wind and seas and the oil will prevent the crests from -breaking over the boat. While she may rise and fall and pitch about -tremendously there will be little real danger. - -If the wind is blowing in a different direction from the seas or across -them, lower and stow the sails, but if the wind is in the same direction -as the seas a bit of canvas will often keep her steady and make her ride -more easily. With a boom-and-gaff sail the sail may be lowered until a -very small portion remains and the rest of the sail should then be -secured about the boom and the sheets trimmed flat. Sometimes a small -triangular sail, such as a spare jib, may be set aft above the furled -sail, while with a yawl or ketch rig the mizzen may be set and trimmed -flat. - -Above all things do _not_ allow anyone to move about, to stand on the -deck or to sit upon the gunwales of a boat in a heavy sea or in a -squall, but keep all the weight as low and as stationary as possible. -Always make everything snug and fasten all loose ropes and lines when -riding out a gale or a squall, for trailing ropes, flapping sails and -swinging lines are liable to cause trouble, aside from the fact that -they will become tangled and will not run freely when wanted. - -As a rule it will not be necessary to ride out a gale in a small boat -for severe storms seldom come so quickly that sails cannot be reefed and -shelter reached before the wind and seas rise until dangerous. Thunder -storms and squalls, however, are often so sudden and unexpected that the -amateur sailor has no time to run for a harbor and sometimes, when off a -lee shore, it is dangerous to heave a boat to in order to reef. Under -such circumstances great care and skill are required to weather the -sudden blow in safety, especially when off a lee shore and everyone who -handles a sailboat should be prepared for such events. - -Have the sheet ready to let go instantly and drop the peak of the sail, -if a boom-and-gaff rig, and if the boat carries a jib drop that. - -If the squalls are light they may be seen approaching by watching the -surface of the water, while if heavy or if they come when there is quite -a sea running, the approach of the gusts will be indicated by white, -scudding crests to the waves. Don’t try to bear away or ease off the -sheets to avoid these squalls but luff up slightly to meet them, -allowing the luff of the sail to tremble but keeping the after part of -the sail filled and by doing this and bearing off between squalls to -gather headway a boat may be safely sailed through very heavy and -frequent puffs. - -If close to shore, however, or among reefs where there is little space -for maneuvering, it is often impossible to luff into the squalls without -danger of running aground and in such situations it will be necessary to -ease off the sheet and flow the sail until the luff trembles, but _under -no circumstances_ should you turn and _run before_ the wind when it’s -squally. As soon as your sail is before the wind you cannot prevent the -full force of the puffs from hitting it without swinging broadside to -the squall and if this is done there is a very great chance of upsetting -the boat. - -If on a lee shore you should of course luff up, for you must use every -endeavor to “_claw-off_” the land. If you always remember the following -simple rule you will seldom have trouble in weathering reasonable -squalls. _Off a lee shore or where there is ample sea room, luff up to -squalls. If off a weather shore or with obstructions to windward ease -off for squalls._ - -Finally, if you lower sails in a squall, be sure to spill the sail -before lowering away, as otherwise it may catch a puff of wind, balloon -out and capsize the boat. If you wish to reef in squalls either anchor -or throw out a drogue to keep head-on to the puffs. - -If the squalls are very heavy and there is plenty of space to leeward -lower the sails, throw out a drogue or anchor or scud before the wind -under bare poles until the squalls decrease sufficiently to permit you -to reef. - -In handling boats an ounce of prevention is worth many tons of cure, and -if you keep your weather eye open, as sailors say, there will seldom be -occasion for you to face difficulties unprepared. Changes of wind or -weather are almost invariably presaged by certain signs or symptoms -which may readily be noticed and understood and everyone who sails a -boat should learn to recognize the signs which indicate certain -conditions. - -Of course if one has a barometer the approaching weather conditions may -be determined very easily, but even without this instrument a person who -is weatherwise may usually foretell the approach of good or bad weather -or of rain or wind many hours in advance. - -Among the commonest and most noticeable indications are the following, -and only in very rare instances will these signs fail: - - Unusual twinkling of stars, - Double horns to the moon, - Halos around stars or Increasing wind, or rain with - moon, “Wind dogs” a liability of wind. - - Wind shifting from west to Increase of wind from the - east other direction. - - Rosy sky at sunset Fine weather. - - Sickly, greenish-colored - sunset Wind and rain. - - Dark red or crimson sunset Rain. - - Bright-yellow sky at sunset Wind. - - Pale-yellow, or saffron, - sunset Rain. - - Mixed red and yellow sunset Rain and squally weather. - - Remarkably clear atmosphere - with distant objects - standing above the water Wind, usually from the - and seemingly in air northwest, and often rain. - - Heavy dews Fine weather. - - Fogs Change in weather and little - wind. - - Misty clouds on hills, - remaining stationary, - increasing or descending Rain and wind. - - Misty clouds on hills, - rising or dispersing Fairer weather. - - Red morning sky Bad weather and wind. - - Gray morning sky Fine weather. - - High dawn (dawn seen above a - bank of clouds) Wind. - - Low dawn (daylight breaking - close to the horizon) Fair. - - Soft, delicate clouds Fair and light winds. - - Hard-edged, oily clouds Wind. - - Dark, gloomy sky Windy. - - Light, bright sky Fine weather. - - Small, inky clouds Rain. - - Light “scud,” or small - clouds moving across - heavier clouds Wind and rain. - - Light, scudding clouds by - themselves Wind and dry weather. - - High, upper clouds scudding - past moon or stars in a - different direction from - the lower cloud-masses Change of wind. - - After fine weather a change - is indicated by light - streaks, wisps, or mottled - patches of distant clouds - which increase and join. A - haze which becomes murky - and clouds the sky also - indicates a change to bad - weather. - - Light, delicate colors, with - soft-edged clouds Fine weather. - - Brilliant, or gaudy, colors - and sharp, hard-edged - clouds Rain and wind. - - A mackerel sky (small, - separate, white clouds - covering the sky) Wet weather. - - “Mares’ tails” (long, wispy, - curved, isolated clouds - against a blue sky) Wind. - - Rainbow early in the morning Bad weather. - - Rainbows in afternoon Fair. - -Many of these weather indications have become so widely known and -universally recognized by seamen that they have been put into doggerel -verse to make them more easily remembered and every boat sailor should -learn these, for nine times out of ten they will prove true. - - If wind shifts against the sun, - Trust it not, for back ’twill run. - - * * * - - Mackerels’ scales and Mares’ tails, - Cautious sailors shorten sails. - - * * * - - A mackerel sky - Seldom passes over dry. - - * * * - - Rainbow in the morning, sailors take warning. - Rainbow at night, sailor’s delight. - - * * * - - Sun rising low and clear, - Bad weather do not fear. - Sunrise hidden, light on high, - Reef your sails for wind is nigh. - - * * * - - When the sun sinks bathed in gold, - Strong winds surely are foretold, - But if red the sun should set, - Then the morrow will be wet, - While if pink shows in the West, - Weather will be of the best. - - * * * - - If a ring surrounds the moon, - Wind and rain are coming soon. - Twinkling stars that brightly glow - Show that there will be a blow. - - * * * - - Sunrise red, bad weather ahead, - Sunrise gray, a pleasant day. - - * * * - - When the sea’s against the wind, - Then your topsail halliards mind. - -There are many more of these known to mariners, but the above are the -most important and familiar and while the signs may fail at times yet it -must be borne in mind that even the government experts, with their -highly perfected and delicate instruments, are often at fault in their -forecasts of the weather. With all our knowledge and scientific -research, we really know very little about atmospheric conditions and -changes and many an old sailor or fisherman can foretell fair or foul -weather, wind or rain, almost as accurately as the trained observers of -the Weather Bureau. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - BUILDING SMALL BOATS - - -Very few men or boys are capable of planning, drafting, laying down and -building a round-bottomed boat. Even if you are expert enough to do -this, the finished product will not compare to a boat built by a -professional and it will cost far more, especially if time and -satisfaction count for anything, than a readymade craft or one built to -order. - -There are many reliable firms which furnish patterns for all sorts of -boats, from canoes and skiffs to schooner yachts and big power-cruisers. -By means of these patterns and the directions which accompany them, any -person who has patience and is handy with woodworking tools can build a -boat. It is only necessary to mark off the patterns on the proper -lumber, work the planks and timbers to shape and put them together -according to directions, but even then you’ll find some difficulties to -be overcome. - -These same firms also sell “knock-down” boats which have all the planks, -timbers and other parts sawed and formed, and by purchasing these it is -a very simple matter to build a boat. Full directions accompany these -knock-down boats and even the nails, screws, rivets and other fastenings -and all the hardware and fittings are furnished if desired. - -If you really _must_ build a boat, the best plan is to look over the -catalogs of these firms, select the model and size that suits you and -then purchase the patterns or the ready-cut materials. You will no doubt -obtain a great deal of pleasure and satisfaction by thus constructing -your own boat, but your first attempts will not approach the boats built -by men who have spent years at boat-building and have learned every -little “kink” and trick of their trade. - -In most places the cost of a readymade boat will be very little, if any, -more than the one built at home by an amateur, but the fun of making it, -the experience gained and the knowledge of using tools which you will -acquire may make it worth while. - -As a rule, however, it is not advisable to attempt to build a large, or -even a medium-sized, boat and your first efforts at least should be -confined to boats less than twenty feet in length. Even in craft of such -small dimensions you will find there is plenty of hard, heavy work to be -done. Planks and timbers must be steamed and bent; tough, hard oak must -be cut, planed, chiselled and worked accurately and neatly. Many of the -processes used in boat-building are different from those employed in any -other form of carpentry and as a result a previous knowledge of -woodworking may be of little value when constructing a boat. - -But there are many boats which any handy man or boy can build easily and -cheaply and which will prove safe, seaworthy and excellent sailing -craft. These are the flat-bottomed boats, known as skiffs or sharpies, -for a sharpie is really nothing more than a large skiff provided with a -centerboard and with dimensions and lines designed to adapt it to -sailing. - -Before commencing to build any sort of a boat, however, you should have -the proper tools with which to work, for without good tools it is -impossible for a person to build even a simple flat-bottomed boat. - -The tools required for building a boat are neither numerous nor -expensive, but only tools of high grade should be purchased for a cheap -or poor tool is an abomination and is almost as bad as none at all. - -Of course, many people will have most of the required tools on hand, but -for the benefit of those who do not the entire list is given as follows: -A large ripsaw; a coarse crosscut saw; a fine crosscut or panel saw; a -compass saw; a tenon saw; a hack saw. - -The ripsaw should have about six teeth to the inch. The compass saw -should be rather fine, about eight teeth to the inch. A miter saw and -miter box will prove very useful in addition to the above. - -Keep the saws bright and clean and when using them in gummy, pitchy or -fibrous wood rub them with hard soap or chalk to prevent them from -binding, but _do not_ use oil as it will only make matters worse. -_Never_ stand a saw up so the blade bends and under no circumstances -should you twist or bend the saw when sawing in order to pry or split -off the wood. A saw which is out of true, bent or sprung will bind and -catch and will _not_ saw straight. - -You will also require several planes, such as a jack plane; a smoothing -plane; a block plane; a rabbit plane. These may be of wood or iron as -preferred and in addition you will find a bull-nosed plane, for planing -in corners; a pair of matching planes and some beading or moulding -planes very useful. - -There should be several mortising chisels of 1 inch, 3/4 inch, 1/2 inch -and 1/4 inch sizes, and also two or three gouges varying from 1-1/2 to -3/4 inch in size. - -A good drawknife is almost essential, and a spoke-shave will prove very -convenient. - -A ratchet bitstock, or brace, is necessary and you should provide a good -assortment of bits and augers to go with it. The best bits to use are -those of twist-drill pattern, for these will not split the wood like -ordinary gimlet-bits, and if you bore against a knot, a nail, a screw or -any other metal object you can bore through it without injuring the bit. -The bits should range in size from 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch in diameter, and -the augers, which should be of the ship-auger pattern, should range from -1/2 to 1 inch in diameter. - -A breast, or hand, drill with assorted twist-drills will be useful and -you should have several gimlets; at least two brad-awls; a countersink; -a reamer, and a bit-brace screwdriver. - -Extension bits, which can be adjusted to various sizes, are exceedingly -useful and convenient, but are not absolutely necessary. - -A medium-sized mallet; a claw-hammer; a small hammer; two screwdrivers; -a spirit level; a steel square; cutting pliers; compasses; a bevel -gauge; a carpenter’s gauge; a yardstick; a folding two-foot rule; an oil -stone; wood rasps; flat or bastard files; a saw file; a carpenter’s -pencil; some iron carpenter’s clamps; an old flatiron; a bench vise and -a caulking-iron complete the list of tools. - -In addition to all these you will need some benches or horses, a good -workbench, screws, rivets, nails, etc. - -Copper or galvanized iron nails and brass or galvanized iron screws -should be used exclusively. Round “wire” nails will serve very well. -Boat nails rivetted over burrs, clout-nails which are clinched, or plain -copper nails will serve equally well, according to the purpose for which -they are to be used. Where a nail is used to hold two pieces of wood -together and does _not_ pass entirely through, wire nails can be used to -advantage, but if the nail goes entirely through both pieces, which is -necessary to insure great strength, or where two thin pieces of wood are -fastened together, rivets and burrs or clout-nails should be used. - -Screws are to be avoided, for they require rather large holes, they -often work loose and after getting them part way in they are liable to -twist off or the slots may become so scarred that you cannot turn them -out or in. - -Next comes the question of material. If you purchase patterns or -ready-cut material, the wood to be used will be determined by the -directions furnished; but if you expect to plan and build a boat by -yourself you will have to select and buy the lumber which is best -adapted to your boat and which can be most readily obtained. - -For planking, white cedar, white pine, mahogany, yellow pine, basswood -or cypress may be used. For frames, knees, stems and sternposts, -transoms and ribs there is nothing better than good, clear white oak. - -For making a flat-bottomed boat or sharpie, clear white pine or cypress -is the best material for the planks; cypress or white cedar should be -used for the bottom, and all the timbers, frames, transom and stem -should be of oak. - -The size and thickness of the various pieces of lumber will vary -according to the dimensions of your boat, but for boats up to twenty -feet in length, 3/4 inch planking, 1 inch bottom boards and ribs, -gunwales, deck timbers, etc., of oak 1 inch square will be strong -enough. The transom should be of 1 inch oak, the deadwood may be of -1-1/2 or 2 inch oak or two 1 inch pieces bolted together; the keel -should be of 1-1/2 inch oak, and the centerboard should be of 1 inch oak -or yellow pine. - -These are the extremes and the dimensions of timbers, ribs, centerboard -and such parts may be reduced for smaller boats. Side planks 5/8 or even -1/2 inch thick will be very strong if more numerous ribs are used, and -for small skiffs the bottom can be made of 3/4 inch stuff and the ribs -may be reduced to 1/2 inch square. - -It is a mistake, however, to make a boat too light, if it is to be used -for sailing, for a reasonably heavy boat will have more headway, will -handle better and will be more stable and seaworthy than a very light -craft. - -Before commencing your boat you should determine the exact dimensions. -Until you are familiar with the principles of boat designing and have -learned to figure out displacements, load-water lines, centers of -efforts and resistance and many other technical details your best plan -is to find some other boat that suits your ideas and copy her -measurements. - -Once you have determined on the measurements you should mark them full, -or at least half, size on a smooth, flat floor or some similar surface, -as you will find it far more convenient to get out the various parts -from such large plans than to work from small scale drawings. - -As soon as you have these rough outlines and measurements ready you must -make forms or molds. These may be sawed from planks or may be formed by -nailing several pieces together, but in either case they must conform -perfectly to the shape of the boat you have planned and both sides must -be absolutely alike, for a very slight variation may ruin the sailing -qualities of the boat. - -These forms represent the section of the boat at amidships, near the bow -and half-way between stern and amidships and their shape can easily be -determined from your plans. - -[Illustration: BUILDING A FLAT-BOTTOMED BOAT] - - 1-2—Boat fastenings. 3, 4, 5—Molds. 6—Transom. 7—Stem. - 8—Stem and throat knee. 9—Stern fastened to keel. - 10—Transom fastened to keel. 11—Lining up sides. - 12—Molds in position. 13—Ribs. 14—Mast thwart. - 15—Section showing construction. 16—Centerboard. - 17—Rudder and post. - -The transom or sternpiece should then be gotten out and the next work is -to make the stem. - -This will require care and time, for the sides must be cut away by -chisel and plane until they will just receive the ends of the side -planks neatly, and the angle of these depressions, or rabbits, must be -determined by the angle at which the sides meet at the bow on the plan -you have drawn. - -When the stem, transom and molds are ready, take the piece to be used as -a keel, cut the slit for the centerboard in it, and fasten the deadwood -or “skeg” in place by means of bolts, screws and nails driven in from -the upper side of the keel. Place the keel on the horses, with blocks -beneath it to hold it at the proper curve, tacking them lightly to both -keel and horses. - -Fasten the keel in place by clamps and by tacking it lightly and secure -the stem in position by means of a block or a knee. Fasten the transom -at the opposite, or stern, end and set your molds at the points where -they belong with the lower edges flush with the bottom of the keel. - -Line up the center of the stem, molds and transom by a line stretched -along them, arrange all the molds and the transom so they are parallel -and exactly at right angles to the keel and secure them rigidly by means -of light strips, or battens, tacked along their tops and brace them very -securely by pieces running to the benches and keel. - -Then take one of the side planks, clamp one end fast to the stem, so it -fits snugly in the rabbit, and bend it slowly around the various molds -to the transom and clamp it to each mold and to the transom. If you have -someone to help you while doing this it will be far easier, for while -one person holds or bends the board the other can secure it by the -clamps. - -Here, too, you will find why it was necessary to fasten stem, molds and -transom firmly, for the entire strain of the bending plank will come -against them, and unless they are absolutely rigid the stem will swing -to one side and throw the boat out of true. To prevent this it is a good -plan to fasten braces from the top of the stem to the sides of the -building where you are working, so that the stem cannot by any -possibility be moved. When the plank is in position take a thin, -straight strip, or batten, of wood, lay it along the upper edge of the -plank—tacking it in position at the stem, at each mold and at the -transom and mark along this to give the sheer curve at the top of the -plank. Remove the batten and use it in the same way at the bottom of the -molds. - -Then take off the side plank, saw carefully along the marks made by the -batten, cut the other plank exactly like it and replace it, securing it -first by clamps, and then by boat nails driven through it into stem and -transom and tack it lightly to each mold. In driving the nails be sure -to drill holes through the plank first, as otherwise it may be split. - -When both planks are in place, lay a straight stick across from side to -side and plane down the upper edges of the planks until the stick rests -squarely upon the edges of both planks, instead of on one corner of -each, as it will do at first. When both sides are bevelled place the -various frame or rib pieces on the insides of the planks, spacing them -about 1 foot apart, measuring along the curve of the sides, and being -sure to keep them parallel and leaving a space of 1-1/2 inches between -their lower ends and the bottom edges of the planks. Secure them by -means of rivets and burrs, with the burrs on the inside, or by means of -clout-nails clinched over on the inside and use the old flatiron, held -against the head of each nail or rivet as you burr or clinch them with -the hammer. - -Saw each rib off at the top, just even with the planks, and then fit a -good stout piece of oak or _throat knee_ between the planks and stem at -the bow and fit two other knees at the corners of the planks where they -join the transom. - -At the spot where the mast is to be stepped secure a strong, oak -crosspiece, or thwart, with the mast hole cut in it, across from one -plank to the other by nailing, or bolting, pieces across the ribs just -the thickness of the mast thwart _below_ the upper edges of the planks. -Bolt or screw the mast thwarts to these and then secure a block, with a -hole in it, to the keel directly under the mast hole in the thwart. - -If the boat is to be open you can place another thwart across the stern, -but if it is to be decked, or partly decked, the other thwarts can be -put in just as well later on. The next step is to make the centerboard -and its case and place the latter in position. - -The centerboard case is made by securing two pieces, known as -_trunk-logs_, to the keel, using white lead and strips of canton flannel -or thin felt under them and drawing them tight to the keel by means of -long screws run up from below. Of course, it will be necessary to curve -the lower edges of these pieces to fit the keel snugly before putting -them in place. - -Then rivet the ends of these to the upright posts at the ends, which -should also be set in white lead and screwed to the keel, and then build -up the case by other boards to a height well above the water line. The -board itself may be made either of several pieces of wood or a single -piece. In the former case the strips should be dowelled together and a -transverse strip should be placed at each end to prevent the pieces from -separating, while if one piece is used, end pieces should be fastened on -to prevent the plank from warping or splitting. The board should be -pivotted by running a brass bolt through the two sides of the case and -the board with a piece of pipe, an old rowlock socket, or some similar -“bushing” in the board to prevent the hole in the wood from wearing. - -The board should be hung so it can be raised and lowered easily. In -order to do this, the pivot should be near the lower front corner, and -the upper rear end of the board must be rounded or slanted off so it -will swing up into the case. - -The top of the case may be left open or a piece of board may be fitted -over it with a hole for the rope or chain which is used to control the -board to pass through. Be careful to adjust this chain, or rope, so the -board cannot drop too far as it should not fall beyond the -perpendicular. - -The next step is to place light, diagonal braces across from side to -side and from molds to side planks, tacking them lightly in position, -and then remove the braces and clamps from the keel. Lift the boat from -the benches, turn it upside down and plane off the lower edges of the -planks until square as you did the upper edges. - -Then fit a piece of oak along the lower edge of each side plank, cutting -little notches in it to fit around the end of each rib. Rivet these to -the sides, plane off the bevel to bring these pieces true with the edges -of the planks and you are ready to put on the bottom planking. - -The bottom may be run either lengthwise, or crosswise, on a -flat-bottomed boat, but if run lengthwise cross timbers are required, -which are a nuisance, and the crosswise planking does just as well and -is far easier to make. - -Place a piece of the bottom planking across the bow, covering the stem -and extending a short distance on either side of the side planks. Smear -the lower end of the stem, the keel and the side planks with thick white -lead and nail the piece securely into the stem, the keel and the two oak -pieces along the sides and to the side planks also. In driving these -nails be sure and set them at an angle to correspond with the slope of -the sides, or else they will split out and cause your boat to leak. - -Fit another cross plank behind this with plenty of white lead between -the edges and secure it in place. Continue in this way until the slot -for the centerboard is reached. Here the planks must be run from each -side of the slots to the side planks, and where the deadwood, or skeg, -is fastened the same method must be followed. - -When the bottom is fully planked saw off the projecting ends close to -the sides, being careful to keep the same angle and not to scar or cut -the side planks, and then, with the block plane, smooth the ends evenly -with the side planks. - -When this is done fit a false keel, or rubbing-strake, along the center -of the bottom with a slot cut in it to correspond with the centerboard -slot and taper it at the rear to fit the lower surface of the deadwood. -Smear the under surface of this, as well as the bottom where it rests, -with thick copper paint and nail firmly in place. And _don’t_ forget to -paint _all_ the inside portions and joints of the centerboard case, as -well as the board itself and the inside edges and slot in the keel, with -copper paint before putting them together. - -You can now turn your boat over, knock out the molds and finish with the -decking or other interior arrangements, but before taking out the molds -you should put the deck beams in place, if a deck is to be used, or -should place thwarts across from side to side, if the boat is to be left -open. - -For a small, simple boat the deck beams may be run straight across from -side to side and the cockpit may be made rectangular, with the forward -end pointed or V-shaped. The deck may be made by nailing narrow strips -along the timbers and following the curve of the sides, or wider planks -may be nailed lengthwise and trimmed off to make a smooth, even edge -with the sides, after which a covering board should be nailed over the -joint and a strip of half-round molding should then be run along to -protect the edges from being injured, as well as to give a good finish -to the boat. - -The edges of the cockpit should be finished by oak combing nailed to the -deck and timbers, and a quarter-round molding should then be run around -the outside where the combing and the decks join. - -If the deck is carefully made and laid in white lead, it will be tight, -but if desired it may be covered with canvas laid in paint and with the -edges folded down over the sides, trimmed closely and concealed by the -molding. - -The rudder should be made of either wood or metal. For a small boat, -brass or galvanized iron is the best. It should be hung _under_ the -stern by means of a post run up through the keel and after deck. To -prevent water from entering, a piece of brass tube, or pipe, threaded at -both ends, is run through the hole, and set up closely by means of -“waste-nuts,” after which the ends of the pipe should be filed off -smoothly and slightly rivetted or burred over to prevent the nuts from -coming loose. - -If you succeed in building a sharpie, as directed, you can attempt a -V-bottomed, or skipjack, boat or a dory, for the principles involved are -the same in all, but space will not permit a full description of how to -construct these. You can obtain a far better idea of how they are built -by examining a boat and studying its various parts than by reading many -pages of text. - -Finally let me warn you not to attempt to build any boat, not even a -small, flat-bottomed skiff, unless you possess patience and perseverance -and are willing to take plenty of time and painstaking care. No boat -that is worth building can be made by slap-bang, careless, slack -methods. Boat-building is something which cannot be hurried, for the -finished result depends very largely upon little things and attention to -details. To watch a boat-builder, one would think that he did his work -by guess and took little care, but in reality he does everything in a -certain order and a certain way. His apparent carelessness is really -expertness, for he has done exactly the same thing so many times that it -becomes second nature and is almost involuntary. - -If there is a boat-builder in your vicinity visit his shop, watch him by -the hour, note the way he handles his tools and the order in which he -shapes the parts and puts them together and your time will be well -spent. It’s the best possible way to learn the details of boat-building. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER X - - WHAT NOT TO DO - - -In learning to sail a boat or when handling a boat after you have -learned to sail, there are certain things you _should_ do and many other -things you _should not_ do and of these the latter are perhaps the most -important. - -In the first place _don’t_ try to learn to sail by using several -different boats. Every boat has its peculiarities. If you use one boat -on one day and another the next you will be confused and will be unable -to make rapid progress, for one craft will sail to best advantage with -the sails trimmed in one way and the very next boat you use may require -very different treatment. One boat will sail closer to the wind than -another, one will luff more quickly than another and one will come about -readily every time, while the next may miss stays under the same -conditions. Still other boats require special arrangements of ballast, a -certain amount of centerboard or a definite trim in order to behave well -and you must learn every whim and caprice of your craft to become expert -in handling her. - -_Don’t_ try to learn to sail in a large boat or one with many sails or -complicated rigging. Begin with a small craft with a single sail of the -simplest pattern. When you are thoroughly familiar with this you can -attempt handling larger boats with head-sails. - -_Don’t_ take your first lessons in a strong wind, in rough weather, or -when there are signs of thunder storms, squalls or fogs. Select the very -best weather for you’ll have plenty to attend to without looking after -the elements. - -Above all, _don’t be afraid to be afraid_. Many a man is considered -brave merely because he doesn’t know enough to be afraid, but real -bravery consists in realizing danger, being afraid of it and yet facing -it calmly, deliberately and with intelligence. - -_Don’t_ be afraid of the opinions of others, if you think you should -shorten sail reef at once, even if everyone else is carrying full sail -and people laugh at your caution. - -_Don’t_ be afraid to fear squalls, fogs, gales or heavy seas for they -are all treacherous and the more you fear them the more likely you’ll be -to safeguard yourself, your passengers and your boat. - -_Don’t_ be afraid to refuse to go sailing if you think a squall, storm, -or fog is coming up, or if you think the weather too bad. It’s better to -be scoffed at and called a coward than to be shipwrecked or drowned. A -live coward’s better than a dead bravado any day. - -_Don’t_ be afraid to assert your authority. The captain of any craft is -supreme aboard his boat and there should be no questioning of his orders -or decisions. - -_Don’t_ take anyone with you who is nervous, cranky, hysterical, -overbearing, grouchy or a “know it all.” Such people spoil all the -pleasure of a sail, they are a nuisance and in times of danger they -often become a real menace to others. If they know more than you do, or -think they do, they should be handling their own boats, not going as -passengers in yours. - -_Don’t_ take anyone with you as a passenger until you are competent to -handle your craft under any and all conditions. You have no right to -imperil the lives of others. - -_Don’t_ take out a party unless there are life-preservers enough for -all. Accidents happen to the best of sailors. - -_Don’t_ try to sail or handle a boat until you know how to swim. - -_Don’t_ set out on a sail without oars, compass, water, anchor and at -least one life-preserver on board. - -_Don’t_ jump, run, wrestle or skylark in a sailboat. - -_Don’t_ allow anyone to sit upon a rope or line which may be used at any -moment. - -_Don’t_ permit passengers to sit or stand on the bow or bowsprit unless -for the express purpose of keeping a lookout. - -_Don’t_ tie or make the mainsheet fast. Hold it in your hand with a -single turn about a cleat, so it can be released instantly. - -_Don’t_ try to show off by carrying all sail in a blow or in squalls. -Reef before it’s too late. It’s easier to shake out a reef than to put -one in. - -_Don’t_ sail across or close to the wake of steamers to “get” their -waves. It may result in the boat capsizing and only shows you are a -landlubber and a fool. - -_Don’t_ start out in the face of a storm, gale or squall. Wait until you -are sure of what is going to happen and then reef close if you must go -forth in a blow. - -_Don’t_ forget that you cannot judge the force of the wind or the size -of waves from the shore. - -_Don’t_ brag about “liking to sail in storms.” Real sailors cannot have -weather too fair. - -_Don’t_ sail in fogs unless you have a compass and are sure of your -course. - -_Don’t_ try to sail too close to reefs, to other vessels or any other -obstructions; something may fail at the last moment and a collision or -wreck may result. - -_Don’t_ forget that when sailing close to land sudden puffs or squalls -are more frequent than in open water. - -_Don’t_ forget that another vessel, a rock, or the shore cuts off the -wind and may cause you to lose headway and then when beyond the object -the wind will strike you suddenly and perhaps with dangerous force. - -_Don’t_ fail to keep everything shipshape and orderly about the boat. A -snarled or kinked line is a menace to life and limb. - -_Don’t_ sail with water in the boat. Water is so much shifting ballast -and is dangerous, besides being unpleasant and unnecessary. Bail the -water out and keep it out. - -_Don’t_ try to save a few cents by using old, rotten, or frayed ropes. -New rope is cheaper than human lives. - -_Don’t_ use a leaky boat. If a boat leaks a little in smooth water it -may leak fast enough to sink when in a seaway. - -_Don’t_ sail at night without lights. You are endangering yourself and -other sailors as well. - -_Don’t_ assume that the “other fellow” knows how to sail and is familiar -“with the rules of the road.” He may be more ignorant than yourself. - -_Don’t_ wait too long before turning aside for another boat. Shift your -helm to show your intentions. - -_Don’t_ try to sail too close to the wind. You’ll reach your destination -more quickly by sailing a few points off and thus traveling faster. - -_Don’t_ run dead before the wind if it can be avoided, especially in a -seaway. - -_Don’t_ sit on the lee side when sailing on the wind. - -_Don’t_ climb up on the masts or into the rigging unless it is -necessary. A man’s weight at the top of a mast may cause the boat to -capsize. - -_Don’t_ lash or tie the helm under any circumstances. - -_Don’t_ leave a lowered sail unfurled. It ruins the sail and is -dangerous. - -_Don’t_ try to run to a mooring or a landing before the wind when under -sail. Lower the sail and run in under bare poles or row in. - -_Don’t_ fail to take the advice and suggestions of more experienced -boatmen. - -_Don’t_ take others sailing until you are thoroughly familiar with the -boat and know how to handle it under all conditions. - -_Don’t_ anchor or moor a boat where she will rest on a hard, rocky or -uneven bottom at low water. - -_Don’t_ overload your boat. - -_Don’t_ sail in strange waters without a chart or a pilot. - -_Don’t_ lose your head or get “rattled.” Keep cool and use your brains -and common sense. - -_Don’t_ fail to keep your gaze to windward. Seas and wind puffs come -from that side. - -_Don’t_ neglect the boat or allow your attention to be distracted by -your companions. - -_Don’t_ attempt to tack or go about with a large wave rolling on your -weather bow. Wait for a smooth, or when on the summit of a long, easy -roller. - -_Don’t_ jibe if it can be helped. It’s just as easy and far safer to -wear ship. - -_Don’t_ luff a boat sufficiently to stop her headway. Keep steerage-way -at all times. - -_Don’t_ try to cross another boat’s bows if she is under way. - -_Don’t_ get frightened if the boat upsets. Crawl up on the bottom over -the weather side. A capsized boat will support a number of people in -perfect safety. - -_Don’t_ take to the water if there is any floating object to cling to. -Even an oar will support a person. - -_Don’t_ let go of the helm and run about. - -_Don’t_ let sails, ropes or garments trail in the water. - -_Don’t_ forget that a loaded or heavy boat has more momentum or headway -than a light or empty boat. - -_Don’t_ trust a squall which you cannot see through. - -_Don’t_ use a brand new rope for any part of the running rigging. -Stretch it and work it through tackles or over a beam before reeving it -through the blocks of your boat. - -_Don’t_ sail in a beam wind and sea if it can possibly be avoided. - -_Don’t_ forget that if you are obliged to ride out a gale that oars, -cushions, thwarts and spare canvas lashed together and attached to a -line over the bow will hold the craft to the wind and seas and will also -form a “smooth” for the boat. - -_Don’t_ under any circumstances allow liquor aboard your boat. If your -friends _must_ drink spirits let them stay ashore to indulge themselves. -They have no place in a boat. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - SOME NAUTICAL TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGS - - - =Aback.= A sail is said to be aback when its forward side is acted - upon by the wind. - - =Abaft.= A position toward the stern from any stated point. - - =Abeam.= At right angles to the line of the keel. - - =About.= To go from one tack to the other. - - =Adrift.= Broken loose or uncontrolled. - - =Aft.= Towards the stern. - - =A-lee.= To the side of the craft opposite the wind. To the - leeward side. - - =All in the wind.= When the sails have the wind edge-on and shake. - - =Amidships.= In the middle. In line with the keel. - - =Athwartships.= Across the boat. At right angles to the keel. - - =Avast.= An order to stop or discontinue anything. - - =A-weather.= The side towards the wind; to the windward side. - - - =Backstays.= Stays or shrouds leading aft to support a mast or - topmast. - - =Bear up.= To turn from the wind. - - =Belay.= To secure a rope about a cleat or pin. - - =Bend.= To make fast. A kind of knot. - - =Berth.= An anchorage or mooring. A slip or place where a boat - rests at a dock. A sleeping place. - - =Bight.= A curve, noose or slack portion of rope. - - =Bitts.= Upright pieces of timber or metal to which ropes or - cables are fastened. - - =Blocks.= Contrivances with sheaves or rollers through which ropes - are passed to make them move readily. - - =Block and block.= When two blocks of a tackle are brought as - close together as possible. - - =Block and tackle.= Blocks with the ropes rove through them. - - =Board.= The distance made on a tack. - - =Bobstay.= A stay from the cutwater to the bowsprit-end. - - =Bolt rope.= The rope sewn around the edges of sails. - - =Boom.= A spar at the bottom or foot of a sail. A spar extended - from a vessel’s side to which small boats are fastened. A raft - of logs in a river fastened together to hold other logs in - place. - - =Bowline.= A line used on square sails to extend the forward edge - of the sail when running close to the wind. To Sail on a Bowline - is to sail close to the wind. - - =Bowse.= To haul upon. - - =Bowsprit.= A spar extending forward from the bow. - - =Brails.= Ropes for drawing up a sail to the mast in order to furl - it. - - =Bring to.= To come to an anchor or mooring. - - =Bull’s eye.= A piece of wood with a hole in the center through - which a rope may be passed. - - =By the head.= To be deeper in the water at the bow than at the - stern. - - =By the wind.= As near the wind as the boat will sail without the - sails shaking; also called Full and By. - - - =Cable.= A line or chain by which a vessel is anchored or moored. - A left-handed-laid rope. - - =Capsize.= To upset. To loosen a knot. - - =Carry away.= To break or tear loose. - - =Cast off.= To untie; to free. - - =Casting.= To pay a vessel off on the desired tack. - - =Cat’s paw.= A light puff or current of wind seen on the surface - of the water. A kind of knot or bend. - - =Chock a block.= See Block and Block. Also used to denote fully - laden. - - =Cleat.= A metal or wooden object to which ropes are fastened. - - =Clew.= The after corner of a fore-and-aft sail. The two lower - corners of a square sail. - - =Close hauled.= Sailing as nearly as possible into the wind. - - =Cockpit.= The open after part of a boat. - - =Course.= The direction in which a boat is to proceed. The lower - sails on square-rigged vessels. - - =Crank or cranky.= Not stable. Unable to carry sail well. To tip - easily. Unsteady. - - =Cringle.= A thimble or eye worked in a sail and through which a - rope may be passed. - - =Crotch.= A support of crossed pieces of wood, or metal, in which - the boom rests when the sail is furled. - - =Cutwater.= The extreme forward edge of the bow. - - - =Davits.= Curved iron or wooden objects to which boats are - hoisted. - - =Downhaul.= Rope used to haul down sails. - - =Dowse.= To lower rapidly. Also to extinguish. - - =Draught or draft.= The amount of water in which a boat is - immersed when afloat. - - - =Earrings.= Lines passed through cringles. - - =Ease off.= To slacken. - - =Ensign.= The national flag of any country. - - =Entrance.= The lower part of a vessel’s stem. - - - =Fag end.= The end that is frayed. - - =Fall off.= To move away from the wind. - - =Fathom.= Six feet. - - =Fid.= A sharp, tapered tool used in splicing rope. - - =Fill away.= To have the wind fill the after surfaces of the sails - and the vessel proceed on her course. - - =Fore reach.= To pass to windward of another vessel when close - hauled. - - =Foul.= Anything entangled. To come into contact. - - =Furl.= To stow a sail. - - - =Gaff.= The spar that supports the top of a fore-and-aft sail. A - pole with a sharp hook on the end. - - =Gangway.= The place where people come aboard. An opening in a - vessel’s side. Room to pass. - - =Garboard strakes.= The planks next to the keel on a boat’s - bottom. - - =Gasket.= A lashing of rope or a strip of canvas used to secure - sails, etc. - - =Go about.= To tack. To alter the course so the sail fills on the - other side. - - =Grapnel.= A four-pronged anchor. - - =Griping.= Carrying a hard weather helm. - - =Grommet.= A ring of rope. A metal ring used in place of an eyelet - in a sail. - - =Ground tackle.= The anchor, cable and fittings. - - - =Halyards or Halliards.= Ropes used to hoist sails. - - =Handsomely.= Carefully, smartly. - - =Handy billy.= A small tackle used in hauling on a rope. - - =Hanks.= Metal rings for attaching sails to stays so they will - slide easily. - - =Heave to.= To stop a vessel’s movement by so arranging sails that - she will lie head to the wind and almost stationary. - - =Heeling.= Tipping to one side. - - =Hitch.= A kind of knot. - - - =In irons.= When headway is lost and the boat will not answer her - helm. - - - =Jammed.= Any rope or other object caught so it will not move or - cannot be readily freed. - - =Jib.= A triangular sail set between the mast and bowsprit. - - =Jibe or Gybe.= To let the mainsail swing from one side to the - other when running free. - - =Jury mast.= A temporary mast to replace a mast which has been - carried away. - - =Jury rig.= Sails set on jury masts. - - - =Kedge.= A small anchor. - - - =Leech.= The after edge of a fore-and-aft sail. The ends of a - square sail. - - =Lee helm.= When a tiller or helm must be held to leeward to - prevent the boat from falling off the wind. - - =Leeward.= The direction toward which the wind is blowing. Away - from the wind. - - =Leg.= The distance sailed on a tack in one direction. - - =Log.= An instrument used to measure a boat’s speed or the - distance travelled. A record of the ship’s travel and what has - been done each day. A book in which the log is kept. - - =Long leg.= The longest course sailed when tacking. - - =Luff.= To bring the boat’s head to the wind. The forward edge of - a fore-and-aft sail. - - =Lying to.= Heading close into the wind under reduced sail so as - to remain practically stationary. - - - =Missing stays.= Failure to come about when tacking. - - =Moor.= To secure by anchors or cables. - - =Moorings.= A spot where a vessel is kept when at anchor. - - =Mouse.= To secure by means of spun yarn or line to prevent its - becoming detached. A seizing about a hook. - - - =Off and on.= Approaching on one tack and bearing off on the other - especially when approaching or near land. - - =Offing.= Out to sea. Sea room. - - =Overhaul.= To slack up a rope and haul it through blocks. To - straighten out a line and arrange it. To examine and make right. - To overtake. - - - =Painter.= The line by which a boat is made fast and which is - attached to the bow. - - =Part.= To break or pull apart. - - =Pay.= To coat with pitch or tar. To let out rope or cable. - - =Pay off.= To recede from the wind. To bring a boat’s head around - to catch the wind. - - =Pendant.= A short piece of rope. - - =Pennant.= A narrow flag or streamer. - - =Pooped.= To be struck by a sea which comes over the stern. - - =Port.= Left hand. Also sometimes called Larboard. - - =Preventer sheet.= A sheet used to relieve unusual strain. - - =Preventer stay.= A temporary or movable stay set up to relieve a - strain on the rigging under certain conditions. - - - =Quarter.= Part between beam and stern. - - - =Rake.= The lean or cant of a mast or other object from the - perpendicular. - - =Reaching.= Sailing with wind abeam. - - =Reef.= To reduce the area of a sail. A line or group of sunken - rocks. - - =Reeve.= To run a rope through anything. - - =Rooting.= Burying by the head. - - =Run.= The submerged after-part of the hull. - - - =Scud.= To run before a wind. A kind of cloud. - - =Seize.= To make fast or bind. - - =Selvage.= A strap made of yarns loosely bound together. - - =Sheave.= The wheel within a block or any wheel over which a rope - runs. - - =Sheer.= To vary from a direct course. The curve from bow to stern - horizontally. - - =Sheet.= A rope attached to a sail and by which the sail is held - and worked. On a square sail, ropes which spread the sails. - - =Snorter or snotter.= A rope strap into which the heel of a sprit - is slipped. - - =Soldier’s wind.= A beam wind. - - =Spill.= To throw the wind out of a sail. - - =Splice.= A method of joining two objects together so the joint is - no larger than the rest of the object. - - =Spring.= To crack or bend a spar. A rope made fast to a cable, to - some spot ashore, to a buoy or mooring, or to another vessel and - then led aft in order to swing a vessel’s stern in any desired - direction. To start a plank. To start a leak. - - =Sprit.= A light spar used to extend a sail. - - =Squatting.= Settling down by the stern. - - =Starboard.= The right-hand side. - - =Stay.= A rope or wire used as a support to a spar. - - =Sternboard.= To move backward stern first. - - - =Tack.= To proceed against the wind by zigzags. The forward corner - of a fore-and-aft sail. - - =Tackle.= Any arrangement of ropes and blocks. - - =Taut.= Tight. - - =Truck.= The top of a mast. - - - =Unbend.= To cast off; to unfasten. - - - =Veer.= To turn. To pay out cable. - - - =Wake.= The track left by a vessel in the water. - - =Watch.= A division of the crew. The length of time a man is on - duty. - - =Wear.= To turn a boat’s head into the wind and then around until - she has the wind on the opposite side. - - =Weather helm.= When a tiller or helm must be kept to windward to - prevent a boat from flying into the wind. - - =Weathering.= Surviving anything, such as a gale or storm. Getting - to windward of anything. - - =Weigh.= To hoist or lift, especially to lift the anchor. - - =Wind’s eye.= The exact direction from which the wind blows. - - - =Yaw.= To swerve wildly or violently from a true course despite - the action of the rudder. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s note: - -All figure references in the text have been regularized. - -Table of Contents, ‘Latteen’ changed to ‘Lateen,’ “sails. Lateen, lug, -gunter” - -Page 29, full stop changed to comma after ‘say,’ “he will say, -“Starboard” - -Page 44, semicolon inserted after ‘topmast,’ “the topmast; it may also” - -Page 46, ‘leg-o’mutton’ changed to ‘leg-o’-mutton,’ “is a leg-o’-mutton -sail” - -Page 48, closing parenthesis added after ‘lines),’ “course in dotted -lines))” - -Page 52, ‘Waterline’ changed to ‘Water line,’ “11—Water line. -12—Starboard quarter.” - -Page 53, ‘it’ changed to ‘is,’ “have to do is to learn” - -Page 70, ‘SAILING’ diagrams 12, depicting approaches to moorings, and -13, depicting approaches to and departures from docks, are absent from -original caption. - -Page 92, ‘water-line’ changed to ‘water line,’ “especially below the -water line” - -Page 112, ‘show’ changed to ‘shown,’ “as shown in the illustration” - -Page 118, ‘whch’ changed to ‘which,’ “the strands which form the” - -Page 133, comma struck after ‘small,’ “is some small reef” - -Page 147, full stop inserted after ‘blowing,’ “which it is blowing. All -these” - -Page 152, second ‘and’ struck, “underrunning her and leaving” - -Page 167, ‘diamter’ changed to ‘diameter,’ “from 1/2 to 1 inch in -diameter” - -Page 169, ‘certerboard’ changed to ‘centerboard,’ “and the centerboard -should be” - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Book of the Sailboat, by A. 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