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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #54077 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54077)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Certain Tendencies in
-Modern Opera, by Kathryn Eleanor Browne
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Development of Certain Tendencies in Modern Opera
-       Thesis for the degree of Bachelor of Music
-
-Author: Kathryn Eleanor Browne
-
-Release Date: January 31, 2017 [EBook #54077]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-generously made available by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Note: This e-text is reproduced from the original
-typescript submitted by the author for her bachelor’s degree. Whilst
-undoubtedly she would have liked it to be error-free, it wasn’t, and
-for authenticity the typos etc. have been left in situ--save for the
-incorporation of her handwritten corrections, and some attention to
-missing/extraneous punctuation/spacing.
-
-
-
-
-                  THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES
-                             IN MODERN OPERA
-
-                                   BY
-                         KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE
-
-                                 THESIS
-                                 FOR THE
-                       DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF MUSIC
-                                   IN
-                                  MUSIC
-
-                             SCHOOL OF MUSIC
-                         UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
-                                  1917
-
-
-
-
-UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
-
-
-                                                             June 1, 1907
-
-THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY
-
-                         KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE
-
-ENTITLED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.
-
-IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
-DEGREE OF
-
-                            BACHELOR OF MUSIC
-
-    George F. Schwartz
-    Instructor in Charge
-
-    APPROVED: J Lawrence Erb
-
-                       HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Music
-
-
-
-
-THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.
-
-
-
-
-Table of Contents.
-
-
-  Introduction                                                Page 3.
-
-  I    The Beginnings of Opera to Gluck                       Page 5.
-
-  II   Gluck                                                  Page 14.
-
-  III  Rossini and His School up to Wagner                    Page 20.
-
-  IV   Wagner                                                 Page 27.
-
-  V    Post Wagnerian School--Including Modern Russian,
-       French, Italian, German and American Composers.        Page 34.
-
-  VI   Appendix of Tables                                     Page 44.
-
-       Table I,   General                                     Page 46.
-
-       Table II,  Number and Kind of Characters               Page 48.
-
-       Table III, Orchestration                               Page 50.
-
-       Table IV,  Solos                                       Page 52.
-
-       Table V,   Recitative                                  Page 54.
-
-       Table VI,  Ensemble                                    Page 56.
-
-       Table VII, Chorus                                      Page 58.
-
-    VII  Bibliography                                         Page 60.
-
-
-
-
-THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-
-In this thesis there has been an attempt made to trace the origin, growth
-and development, and modification of various tendencies in the Opera. The
-form only of the opera has been considered and no attempt has been made
-towards the harmonic analysis of the various operas. The main tendencies
-that have been discussed are, the differences in regard to; (1) the
-number of acts employed; (2) the number and kind of characters; (3) a
-comparison; (a) of the proportion of orchestral work, overtures, ballets
-and ritornelli; (b) of solo work and the various voices employed; (c) of
-recitative, spoken, accompanied and unaccompanied; (d) of ensemble work,
-duets, trios, quartets, quintets and sextets; and (e) separate from this
-last, a consideration of the proportion of chorus work, mixed, and that
-sung by the men and the women alone.
-
-A study has been made of thirty-four operas and in order to accurately
-consider these proportions, tables have been prepared, showing the
-percentage of the factors portrayed. These percentages have been
-obtained by actual count of the measures devoted to the solos, choruses,
-ensembles, etc. There are seven tables.
-
-Table I is a general table showing the number of characters, acts,
-percentage of orchestra, solo, recitative, ensemble and chorus.
-
-Table II shows the distribution and number of characters.
-
-Table III shows the percentage of orchestral work, and also that of the
-divisions of the orchestral work into overture, ballet and ritornelli.
-
-Table IV shows the percentage of solo work and its distribution to the
-various voices.
-
-Table V shows the percentage of recitative and its distribution to the
-various voices.
-
-Table VI shows the percentage of ensemble work and the various kinds.
-
-Table VII shows the percentage of the chorus work and its distribution as
-to mixed choruses and those sung by the men and women alone.
-
-"Rappresentatione de Anima" by Cavalieri is generally classed as an
-oratorio but many authorities consider it an opera, as he was one of
-Peri's contemporaries, and worked with the little band of Florentine
-nobles, and this was the first work which resulted from their meetings.
-However, whether it is an opera or an oratorio, the forms in those days
-were very vague, hence, the component factors are interesting as compared
-to the later operas, and inasmuch as no score could be obtained earlier
-than 1675, it will suffice as a type of that time. In studying the operas
-from Wagner on, the solos have been very difficult to distinguish from
-the recitative, and consequently any stretch of solo singing over twenty
-or twenty-five measures in length, with any sort of tune, has been
-considered as a solo.
-
-
-
-
-I. THE BEGINNINGS OF OPERA TO GLUCK.
-
-
-Before beginning the survey of modern operas and before tracing the
-development of the different tendencies, it will be interesting to
-consider briefly the historic source of the opera, and the part that
-music played in the various dramas, madrigals, ballets, church services,
-etc.
-
-It is an acknowledged fact that Peri and his little band of Florentine
-reformers went back to the old Greek dramas for their models and forms.
-However, it is not to be supposed that opera was developed spontaneously
-among these reformers. Like every other world wide movement, it was the
-culmination of tendencies and customs from various sources. We have
-no reason to accept the Greek dramas as the only models which served,
-although they were considered seriously by the first opera writers.
-
-The Egyptians sang jubilations to their Gods. These consisted of florid
-cadences on prolonged vowel sounds. In the old Greek dramas, music played
-an important part. The Greek tragedy and comedy developed from the hymns,
-choral dances and chants sung by a chorus of singers disguised as satyrs,
-at the festivals of Bacchus. The chorus often addressed the audience on
-topical subjects. The various actors intoned or chanted their words,
-and were often accompanied by a lyre and other instruments of the day.
-The chorus chanted their parts. This would not be termed music by us
-today, but was more of a recitative. Later the chorus chanted while the
-principals sang, forming a sort of background accompaniment. The slow
-developement of the music in the mass must not be forgotten, but there is
-nothing which definitely resembles opera until the thirteenth century.
-"Noel" was supposed to be a song which the angels sang, and is found in
-many festivals. Perhaps this may be termed one of the sources of Wagner's
-ideas, the association of a particular song with one group of people. In
-the "Three Maries" the chorus sang words in Latin, Gabriel and the three
-virgins sang, but the words of the Savior had no music. The "Fete of the
-Ass" was quite an elaborate festival and here the various characters sang
-quite definitely, and the congregation was urged at stated intervals
-to join in the singing. Part of the words and music were symbolical,
-especially those imitating the braying of the ass. "The Passion", in
-1264, enacted by the Fraternity of the Gonfalone, lasted for several
-days, and contained scenes which were sung, choruses and a trio.
-
-At this period, we must consider the vaudeville plays which were plays
-interspersed with song. "Li gieus de Robin et de Marion", given at the
-court of Charles d'Artois in Naples in 1285, was an operatic symptom
-and was divided into songs, spoken dialogue, dialogue songs in which
-two voices alternated, and popular ballad tunes, although the music
-was not appropriate since it consisted of such complex counterpoint.
-The Madrigal plays, although comic in character, influenced in the
-introduction of village gossip related by chorus. The "Ballet de la
-Reine" was a brilliant ballet with elaborate scenery, costumes, music,
-etc. It contained solos, duets, choruses and instrumental interludes. The
-melody, however, was only loosely associated with the play. In 1554 "Il
-Sagrifigio", a pastoral drama, arose, in which the priest sang solos,
-accompanied by lyre and the chorus. The first solo singing was in the
-Madrigal of Corteccia in 1539. In "Aminta", 1573, the choruses separated
-acts, and introduced the action danced to the chorus behind the scenes.
-There was no attempt at the complete setting of the text in these plays,
-and no union of the lyrics by any sort of recitative. In "Decameron"
-one or another of the personages sang to the company, and they all sang
-and danced. The lyric solo resembled somewhat the dramatic recitative
-of Peri and Caccini. The vocal melody was simple in melodic structure.
-Cecchi's "Esaltazione delle Croce", 1589, a sacred representation, had an
-orchestra of viols, lutes, horns and the orchestra played an interlude
-with special music. There was an accompanied solo allotted to the Deity
-and a dance of David. The orchestras were composed of lutes, trombones,
-which accomapnied the dancing, etc., but were usually silent after the
-entrance of the various characters, excepting the lyres. In the English
-masque the words and song were written for an actor but sung behind the
-scenes by a chorus.
-
-The Madrigal dramas became comedies which exhibited a variety of style
-and expressive power. When a single character spoke, the chorus sang in
-madrigals, while the actors were on the stage. The music was from behind
-the curtain. These Madrigal dramas began to degenerate, however, as the
-spectacle disappeared, and the comic element became preeminent.
-
-Then came the band of Florentine nobles who were not originators, but
-merely revived certain musical practices and traditions of the 14th
-century and modeled these on the early Greek tragedies. "Eurydice"
-was accompanied by a large orchestra for those days consisting of a
-chitarone, viola di gamba, theorba, three flutes and smaller trombones.
-There was a brief entr'acte, and a trio of two sopranos and a tenor. The
-chorus was in five parts. Previous to this the solo without harmony or
-harmonic support was unknown. The instrumental music was of course in
-its infancy and expressive melody was out of the question. This first
-operatic orchestra was concealed--perhaps this suggested the idea to
-Wagner--perhaps not. There were no set tunes, nor any sort of formal
-melody divided into periods, balancing each other symmetrically, but a
-sort of recitative which observed the inflection of the spoken words was
-created.
-
-Peri developed this principle to a great extent. He expressed soft gentle
-speech by half spoken, half sung tones on a sustained instrumental bass.
-Feelings of deeper emotional kind, he expressed by melody with greater
-intervals and a lively tempo, accompanied by instrumental harmonies
-changing frequently, sometimes using dissonance. His prologue was in
-verse and he gave short metrical passages for the chorus which were rich
-in harmony. An instrumental episode in the first act and dancing in the
-end are effective.
-
-Vecchi's "L'Amfiparnasso" and "Commedia Armonica" are really only a
-series of madrigals for five voices. There was no overture, no orchestral
-accompaniment, nor ritornello of any kind. When the stage was occupied
-by a single character, four voices were made to sing behind the scenes,
-foretelling the modern orchestra. In "Orfeo" the accompaniment was a
-figured bass. "Dafne" and "Arianna" were written in this newly invented
-"Stilo rappresentatino" with a larger orchestra. "Dafne" consisted of
-an imitation of speech, a sort of melodious recitative accompanied only
-with a sustained bass. The instruments were really so contrasted and
-combined as to invest each character and scene with marked individuality.
-The introductory toccata (founded on a single chord) was followed by a
-ritornello, the recitative was accompanied by a figured bass, sometimes
-by two or more instruments indicated at the beginning.
-
-These reformers really resuscitated a style of musical declamation, and
-their music better expressed passion and the like. There was a monodic
-exchanging of contrapuntal richness for the simplest of melodies,
-confined to a single part, and accompanied by bass of the rudest
-type and construction. The melodies were destitute of figure and the
-composers really aimed at exact oratorical rendering of the words. The
-possibilities of orchestral coloring were limited and the dry style of
-recitative really dramatically untruthful. There was little variety of
-contrast. This weakened the true power of the drama by the introduction
-of measured melody and formally constructed movements. The libbrettos
-were carefully considered at first, but finally declined, and more and
-more attention was paid to the aria and the various concerted music
-introduced without regard to the dramatic tendencies. The rules became
-strict, and it is not difficult to see how the operas became a concert in
-costume. We find a quotation of the rules:--
-
-1. A woman always took a man's part.
-
-2. Characters were stereotyped.
-
-3. Position of the aria was determined to give entrance impressiveness.
-
-4. The solos, duets, choruses and ballets were arranged artificially
-to suit the convenience of the performers and without regard for the
-dramatic context.
-
-Monteverde has been termed "the Italian Wagner". He never ventured to
-introduce flowing melody save in the ritornello. His music was dramatic
-and he increased the dramatic scope of the recitative. His "Orfeo", 1607,
-contains the first dramatic duet. He was an innovator and gave a new
-developement to the harmonic system. His influence may be summed up as
-follows;
-
-I. He made operatic recitative more melodious and expressive.
-
-II. He boldly used unprepared discord to express dramatic emotions.
-
-III. He greatly enlarged the orchestra, used special, appropriate
-groups of instruments to accompany characters, and employed separate
-combinations to announce the return and entry of persons. In his
-"Arianna" the widening influence of his orchestra developed to thirty-six
-instruments, including violins, trombones, trumpets and three small
-organs. He invented the pizzicato and tremolo on the violin. In his
-"Orfeo" there are parts for the harpsichords, lyres, violas, double
-basses, double harps with two rows of strings, two violins, guitars,
-organs, flutes, clarions and trombones. The apportionment of the
-instruments was as follows:--
-
-The bass viols accompanied Orpheus.
-
-The violas, Eurydice.
-
-Four Trombones, Pluto.
-
-The organs, Apollo.
-
-The guitars, Charon.
-
-The flute registers of the organs, the chorus of sprites.
-
-Scarlatti's genius for melody modified the still though dramatically
-correct recitative, and substituted airs in its place. He introduced
-measured recitative for the first time, and invented the "de capo aria",
-his singers thus distracting attention from the important dramatic
-meaning. His knowledge of counterpoint aided him in the construction of
-the bass, and elaboration of accompaniments. He tired of the monotony of
-uninterrupted recitative, and organized three forms:--
-
-1. Recitative secco for ordinary business.
-
-2. Recitative stromentato which was accompanied and used for violent
-emotion, and used the "thorough bass" by the harpsichord to aid this
-passionate form of declamation. The sense of the verbal text was enforced
-by continual interposition of orchestral symphonies.
-
-3. The aria, to which he added the "de capo"--that is, the repetition of
-the second part following the first.
-
-Cavalli employed the ritornello constantly to relieve the monotony of
-continuous recitative, and introduced repetition in his ariettas, which
-was disapproved by the Florentine Caccini, who was the father of a new
-order of music, a style of melody which is not melody; a recitative
-melody, noble in character and surpassing the songs of the people, not
-altering the words nor depriving them of life, but augmenting them and
-giving them meaning and force.
-
-Purcell had true dramatic instinct and a declamatory recitative second
-only to that of Wagner, and his airs show unfettered melody. The laws of
-his time, which he chose to disregard and modify, are interesting.
-
-I. The number of characters was six, three women and three men.
-
-a. Prima Donna (soprano).
-
-b. A contralto.
-
-c. An artificial or male soprano.
-
-d. An artificial alto.
-
-e. A tenor.
-
-f. A bass.
-
-II. (a) "Aria Cantabile" was quiet and slow with opportunities of
-ornamentation, accompanied by a figured bass under pathos.
-
-(b) "Aria di portamento" in slow movement and marked rythm was sometimes
-accompanied only by one or two violins.
-
-(c) "Aria di mezzo carattere" had the second part faster than the first,
-and the accompaniment was rich and varied.
-
-(d) "Aria Parlante" was elaborately declamatory.
-
-(e) "Aria di bravura" was allegro with brilliant divisions.
-
-III. There were three acts and every scene terminated with an air. Every
-member sang one air but no one sang two airs in succession and no two
-airs of the same type followed each other. The most important ones came
-at the conclusion of the first and second act and here the hero and
-heroine claimed a grand scene, with accompanied recitative followed by
-"aria d'agilita" and then united in a grand duet. The third act ended
-with a chorus of lively movement frequently accompanied by a dance. There
-were no trios, quartets or other concentrated movements allowed, though
-three characters could join in harmonized exclamation at close of the
-recitative.
-
-Handel broke away from these rules in "Radamisto" with an elaborate
-quartet and "Teseo" in five acts with two airs in succession to each
-character. His operas have been termed a ballad concert in costume,
-although he did a great deal toward faithful reproduction of the embodied
-sentiments of the text. Purcell rebelled against the idea of succession
-of songs and dances and in a tuneful chorus with dramatic spoken
-action, he introduced a decided dramatic feeling. The English opera was
-advertised to be performed after the Italian manner, with recitative
-in place of dialogue and measured melody for airs. Purcell's "Dido and
-Aeneus" contains not one spoken word, and his drawn out aria foreshadowed
-the dramatic aria of Gluck and Wagner. Balfe and Benedict raised the
-standard of the old ballad operas by using better music although Balfe
-only appealed to the ear. Tallis, Byrde and Purcell are tolerated for
-their voice parts only.
-
-
-
-
-II. GLUCK.
-
-
-"In the early 18th century the condition of opera was very 'low'". The
-accepted number of characters was six, three of each sex. There were
-three acts of a given number of verses based on Greek drama. The chorus
-stood motionless except for the leader, in a double row with the sexes
-separated and masked. The same libretti were used time and time again.
-The poets became as stilted as the composers. There were five types of
-melody whose sequence and distribution were regulated by rules, and
-not by dramatic requirements. Though varied in other ways, the songs
-consisted of two parts, the first repeated "de capo" after the second,
-notwithstanding the histronic result. The vocalist tyrannized over the
-performance, displaying no musical feeling, nothing but vocal agility.
-In England and Germany the singers sang their own language during the
-performance, for every thing except the formal arias, which were sung in
-Italian. Each act had to close with an elaborate finale, and each singer
-had to have an aria.
-
-Sammartini in Milan gave prominence to string quartets. There was much
-stress laid on technical proficiency and arias. The dances became
-better than the vocal music, for the arias especially were monotonous
-and forced, and overloaded with ornament and contained practically no
-counterpoint. The overture, customarily in three parts, was separated
-from the opera itself. The arias were in bravura style with long
-and prolix ritornelli. The dramatic airs were absolutely spoiled by
-florishes.
-
-Gluck freed the opera from many of these forms. He maintained that the
-function of the music was to support the poetry without interrupting
-action or disfiguring by superfluous ornament. The dramatic action was
-given more importance and the concerted pieces with stereotyped de
-capo were discarded. He was criticized for sacrificing music to drama,
-which would often have been better without it. This has also been said
-of Debussy's "Pelleas and Melisande." Gluck colored his music and
-avoided interrupting the actor in the warmth of the dialogue to wait for
-ritornello, flourishes and repetitions. He maintained that the overture
-should prepare specifically for the character of action and indication of
-the subject. Instruments should be employed in proportion to the degree
-of interest and passion. Above all he worked for simplicity; that opera
-must express life in aria and in recitative, and in similarity between
-the passion and the object called forth. His melody was supported by
-harmony and was varied in rythm. He strove for pictorial representation
-in his airs and accompanied his recitatives by figured bass and chords of
-the harpsichord, and employed several airs preceded by long instrumental
-solos. He changed and consolidated the structure of the opera on the
-verbal basis, and repressed the vanity and egotism of the singers. He
-galvanized the lazy languid orchestra into life and made the recitative
-play a more important part, making his opera dignified, overture
-elucidatory, accompaniment significant, and emphasized the coherent
-principle of unity.
-
-In "Telemaco" Gluck imitated aspects of nature in several of the arias
-with greater unity of handling, truer dramatic expression, and
-continuous interest in the recitative. There are nine numbers following
-in dramatic sequence. He abandoned the symphony in three pieces making
-his overture lead into the opening aria. His two themes begin finely in
-contra-distinction but they degenerate into bravura style. Gluck studied
-literature and filled in the void for recitative so that the audience
-could-not play chess in between numbers.
-
-"Orpheus" is lyrical and noticeable for the dramatic interest of the
-recitative, and the importance of the work given to the chorus. His
-duo-thematic treatment of the orchestra here is not successful. In his
-short orchestral prelude he breaks away from the spirit of the overture.
-The chorus takes up the broad sad theme. Orpheus cries, "Eurydice",
-twice, the third time he sings a note higher and stands against chords
-of diminished intervals, instead of blending with the chord of the minor
-third of the dominant, making a striking dramatic effect. The theme of
-the aria is echoed behind the scenes. In the accompanied recitative the
-orchestra has a share in producing the effect. In one aria when the sense
-of the words changes, the whole character of the music changes. Three
-fourth time, in the key of G, is used to depict the happiness of man.
-Where Cupid relates to Orpheus, an andante in three eighth time in the
-key of D is used.
-
-Gluck has too many contrasts of slow and fast to be effective. His
-overtures and finales are weak, and he could not quite effect a
-compromise between the musical and the dramatic.
-
-He improved the old antagonism between the aria and the recitative by
-giving the orchestra the function of adding some sort of color to
-the mere vocal padding. He insisted on acting, instead of mere singing
-by posturing sopranos and a chorus of wax figures. He insisted also on
-his music being sung as written. His bold stroke was uneven, but such a
-dramatic genius has never been surpassed.
-
-In "Alceste" his overture assumed a new significance. It had no formal
-end but was broken into by the chorus. In "Armide" each character had
-music personally distinctive. "Iphigenie en Tauride" combined dramatic
-sincerity, superb use of recitative, natural and telling though simple
-choruses, throbbing height of passion, unification of parts of soloists,
-chorus and orchestra. He is termed a "creator of dramatic music".
-Orchestration was his specialty although he introduced it subservient to
-action. However, Gluck never employed trill passages or cadenzas, for
-he wanted to accentuate nature and strengthen declamation. His choruses
-are treated as "an additional acting character", and his recitative is
-true to the dramatic import. Rameau's and Lulli's operas were crabbed and
-rigid in comparison. Gluck alone gives each personage a style that is
-proper. The musicians who would not, or could not sing, except from the
-wings, were ignored by Gluck, and he refused the undramatic demands of
-the manager. In "Iphigenia en Tauris" the chorus works into a background
-which appropriately and dramatically supports the singer. The two
-tendencies in Gluck are, to neglect all sensuous aesthetic pleasure for
-attainment of dramatic intensity through declamation, and to realize his
-purpose through emotional pleasure, harmony of color, greater unity of
-scenes, the carrying out of one dramatic idea from the beginning to the
-end, making each individual part stronger.
-
-Piccini was the innovator of the dramatic treatment of the duet and
-extended development of the finale. He was the first to turn choral
-masses to account on the stage. He used "Recitative instrumento" in
-pale of the ordinary "Recitative secco." Mozart enlarged on his ideas,
-for his command of the orchestra was unrivalled as a dramatic factor.
-Cimarosa placed a statue on the stage, with a pedestal in the orchestra,
-while Mozart placed the staue in the orchestra, using the work of the
-stage as the pedestal. Cimarosa uses the accompaniment for the support
-while Mozart intensifies the voice. Cimarosa was the first to introduce
-quartets and other concerted pieces in the midst of dramatic action, and
-not as an ornament at the end of the act, but he was outdistanced by
-Mozart. Before this, opera was merely a recitative, with a chorus at the
-end of each act, and then occasional airs were introduced, but not before
-the middle of the 18th century do we find trios, etc.
-
-Beethoven and Weber followed Gluck. Beethoven gave to the orchestra the
-explanatory character of the chorus. He employs twenty phrases for a
-single character in "Fidelio". Weber used spoken dialogue and recitative
-sparingly but when neccessary composed with originality and dramatic
-vividness. He tried to construct drama by means of melody and failed. The
-first example of a grand orchestral prelude is written in six-fourth time
-to "Der Beberrscher der Geister." The overture to "Der Freischutz", by
-the use of leading themes, relates the entire story.
-
-In the Italian and French school, "a la Sopontini" the orchestra lifted
-and balanced the words and the spirit of the orchestra reveals the
-innermost emotions of the dramatic personae. The Mythical manner is
-chosen, and a use of alliterative verse with a peculiar use of the
-orchestra as preparing, supporting, commenting upon, enforcing and
-recalling the various situations of the text.
-
-
-
-
-III. ROSSINI AND HIS SCHOOL UP TO WAGNER.
-
-
-In 1814 the operatic conditions were deplorable. Vocalists were masters
-over the composers. They accepted the mere skeleton of a tune, and so
-adorned it with their own trills and flourishes that the poor composer
-could scarcely recognize it. The solos were placed to suit their
-convenience, whether or not they were suited dramatically. The tenor
-singers were very prominent and the bass singers had not as yet emerged
-from the background.
-
-Rossini expelled the male soprani from the stage, directed and
-controlled his own operas. His music was sensuous and, as shown in
-"William Tell", of a simple dramatic style. The operas were of two
-acts and scarcely conducive to the maintenance of dramatic action,
-separated by a ballet. His "Elizabetha" contained an overture, a duet
-and the finale had involved motives in the orchestra. There were two
-tenors, for the bass was still in the background. This was the first
-opera in which the recitative was accompanied by a stringed quartet and
-double bass. He supported the declamation by brilliant themes for the
-orchestra. "The Barber of Seville" is a series of melodies, continuous,
-and the characters only ceased to sing for strains executed by the
-instrumentalists. The transfer of the current of the melody from the
-voices to the orchestra was an entirely new idea. He also introduced new
-instruments into the orchestra.
-
-Mozart was indebted to the Italians for the sweetness of his melodies
-and gave to Italy, through Rossini, new instrumental combinations, new
-dramatic methods and new operatic forms. The horn, eighty years ago, was
-not very important in Italy and the orchestration played in the operatic
-band probably had a part in developing the taste for wind instruments and
-especially for horns. Rossini was a student of Haydn's symphonies and
-quartets.
-
-In the opera-buffo "L'Equivaco Stravagante" the concerted pieces are
-good, and the final rondo a type of final airs. "L'Inganno Felice"
-was the first to make an impression. "Ciro in Babilonia" was given to
-accomodate a woman, who sustained one tone while the orchetra played
-the melody. With "Tancredi" came the commencement of reforms and the
-character of the easily comprehended melodies was fascinating. Rossini
-substituted singing for declamation, for monologues supported by chords,
-and concerted pieces connected with and supported by a brilliant
-orchestral accompaniment. In "Tancredi" the bass was given prominence,
-in fact he was as prominent as the tenor. In "Semiramide" the principal
-is a bass. The action is sustained, the number of formal airs decreased,
-the number of characters increased and a free use made of the chorus,
-which previous to this time had been merely a subordinate part with no
-dramatic functions. In "Otello" the recitative is used more sparingly and
-accompanied by a full band, from which the piano was banished. This had
-been expelled before in Germany, and by Gluck in France. The two leading
-parts are assigned to bass voices, and the interminable recitative
-accompanied by double piano or piano and double bass, is done away with.
-The most beautiful airs for the prima donna are in "La Cenercatola".
-
-Rossini was now bringing his operas to a brilliant termination, and
-beginning to emphasize the alto and mezzo voice. It was only toward the
-end of his Italian career in "Matilda di Shubrun" that he assigned the
-leading part to a soprano. We find now that there are no leading parts
-written for contralto and whether this is due the fact that the soprano
-has bean forced into activity to suit new tastes, or because contraltos
-are rare, we can not say. Of course Meyerbeer's "L'Africaine" and
-Donnizetti's "La Favorita" are exceptions. The orchestration of "La Gazza
-Ladrone" is more brilliant and sonorous than that of its predecessors
-and introduces new instruments, new combinations, a new distribution of
-voice parts, and of orchestral melodies with declamatory phrases for the
-singers instead of the endless recitative accompanied only by chords for
-the cellos or piano.
-
-He introduced cornets and ophicleides in the overture to "William Tell",
-as the nearest approach to the actual instruments used by the cowherders
-of Switzerland. In "Semiramide" he brought an entire band onto the
-stage and wrote beautifully harmonized music which suggests the chase.
-He began the overture to "La Gazza Ladrona" with a duet for the drums,
-and did away with the extemporaneous attempts at orchestration by solo
-instrumentalists in the accompaniment, who were every bit as disagreeable
-and authoritative os the vocal soloists.
-
-Berlioz charged that Rossini's music was heartless, unemotional and
-written entirely for the singer, utterly disregarding the vocal effect.
-His particular attention to orchestral and choral effects may be traced
-to the Parisian influence of his fine experience in hearing their
-choruses and orchestras. His music changed from the soft voluptuous
-melodies of "Semiramide" to simple emotional dramatic ones in "William
-Tell".
-
-Rossini, as mentioned before, was the first Italian to accompany
-recitative with a full band, assign leading parts to the bass, make each
-dramatic scene one continuous piece of music, and bring to perfection the
-highly varied, amply developed, concerted finales.
-
-Donizetti wrote from sixty to seventy operas, but his "Don Pasquale" is
-in a light style as compared to the "Barber of Seville" and does not
-approach "Semeramide" for melody, nor "William Tell" for dramatic value.
-Stendhal foretold that the florid music of Rossini would be followed by a
-master of simple melodies and we find Bellini to be the one. Donizetti's
-work is not well balanced and he sways from one extreme to the other. His
-tenor air in "Anne Bolena" is attractive for it possesses more dramatic
-significance than most of his. He counted on the pure musical effect,
-which is naturally more effective in spoken drama than in opera, which is
-sung through out. For instance, the horn of "Hermani" is terrifying when
-heard in the play, but merely ordinary when heard in the opera. He seldom
-wrote a tune, or scored a half dozen measures of simple accompaniment,
-without burying the voice under ponderous chords for the wood winds.
-"Lucrezia Borgia" contains less recitative than was customary with
-Rossini. Notice must be taken of the brilliancy of the introduction,
-the series of dramatic scenes and the large number of tuneful themes
-distributed judiciously for the four leading personages. "Lucia" is
-broadly conceived, well constructed and highly dramatic, especially
-where the chorus informs Lucia of the end of Edgar. In "La Favorita"
-there is passionate impulsiveness in the final duet, the choruses are
-impressive, and the music appropriate to the various personages and
-situations of the piece.
-
-Bellini had true melody and his creative power was more effective than
-Donizetti's, as was his use of the orchestra. He abandoned trills and for
-ornamentation delivered simple phrases. "La Somnambula" is an endless
-flow of melodies full of true emotion and thoroughly dramatic, for he
-gave attention to the orchestration and concerted melodies. Rossini
-emphasized the necessity of introducing choruses, which he maintained
-were indispensable for dramatic effect, and we find his ideas developed
-by these men. However, these, and Paisiello's form of long scenes of
-recitative are old now.
-
-Mozart's introduction to "Figaro" first introduces the air by the
-orchestra, then transcribed for the solo voice and finally sung by the
-chorus. The melody of his "Zitti Zitti" trio was take I from Hayden's
-"Seasons". He has adapted also an air from a Russian dance to aid in
-the dramatic effect. He reached the highest perfection of expression
-of melody with the strings, woodwinds and voice. His librettos are
-weak, however, although he rewrote the less important ones himself. His
-recitative is barren, for in his operas one had only to sing beautifully,
-while in Wagner one must declaim beautifully. Mozart knew music as the
-art of expression and gave this in its fullest sense to airs, duets and
-ensemble pieces, yet he left opera forms as he found them. He spoke
-of and depicted scenes, animals, etc. in his music. "Magic Flute" is
-a primma donna opera. Mozart considered first music, then the book
-and lastly the performance. In "Figaro" the psychological handling of
-the characters is unconvincing. He has applied one invariable musical
-formula to every character. He repeats one or two chords ad infinitum
-in the orchestra. The voice trips along on top of these in semi speed. He
-sanctioned formulas for cadences used in every situation. Even in "Don
-Giovanni" the formulas for the cadences are used in this manner. He uses
-the same method for light scenes as well as tragic situations, depicting
-indignant heroines and chorus in the same manner. He was more musical but
-he did not realize the dramatic situations.
-
-Bellini was a pure melodist, but his instrumentation was faulty, and he
-objected to ornamentation.
-
-The French opera helps to develop the tendency of individual expression
-while the German crushes it in striving for a whole general effect.
-Rameau's "Hyppolyte et Aricie" is the most highly developed study of
-character. Lulli's work is an amplification of Ramean's work. He combined
-simplicity, natural melody and dramatic intentions. He developed his
-attention to the orchestra, and employed the chorus as an integral
-factor in the situation. He invented the overture using a slow movement,
-followed by a quick fugal style with the third division, a short
-dance. He developed the style of the French ballet. Both he and Ramean
-considered accompanied recitative a matter of more importance than a
-continuous flow of melodies. He reduced music to a minimum in this and
-did not dominate it in time, rythm nor musical feeling. He characterized
-it by accentuating the metrical and prosodial elements of the words
-themselves, and followed closely the accent of the words, changing
-rapidly from four-four rythm to three-four, and back again.
-
-There is no feeling in his arias for he was restricted to conventional
-forms, and his melodies are characterless. In his "Comique de la
-Rayne", arranged by Baltazan de Beaujoyeaux, with dance, tunes, chorus,
-musical dialogues and ritornelli he exhibits a bold and highly cultivated
-taste for instrumental music which led him to mold the overture into a
-more perfect form.
-
-The serious opera, however, was becoming a mass of absurdities,
-emphasizing the spectacle as superior to the music, with bad libretti,
-degenerating under aristocratic patronage. The overture was to anticipate
-the opera and a better recitative was wanted. Gluck wished to minimize
-the disparity between opera and recitative and protested against the
-frequent use of the de capo and repetition of words, maintaining that the
-words should only be repeated where required by circumstances of passion.
-
-Meyerbeer was feeble in harmonic invention with no psychological grip but
-with a talent for manipulating broad contrasts and climaxes of sound. He
-is a creator of modern stage technique, merging scenes and music into
-unity, a school of dramatic effects closely studied by Berlioz and Wagner.
-
-Bizet's "Carmen" is the most brilliant and best to convey the romance
-of the nomadic desire in the gypsy. The ballets and operas of Delibes
-are like the fashioning of a piece of Sevres china. Cesar Franck's veil
-of harmonies envelops a multitude of themes so that the tragic ending
-almost gives one a sense of peace. Auber was the last to represent the
-Opera Comique and is noted for his simple melodies, and the rythm and
-brilliancy of his orchestral effects. Bizet's operas are notable for
-their abundance of local color, but Meyerbeer was the most influential
-except Wagner. He opened up a new epoch in French opera.
-
-
-
-
-IV. WAGNER.
-
-
-Wagner objected to the sentimental Italian music. He considered Gluck
-only a musician of airs, and himself insisted on absolute equality of
-words and music. His "Trilogy" is the longest musical work in the world,
-containing 984,033 notes. He discarded formal arias, finales, separate
-movements, to a great extent choruses, whereever histrionic delineation
-did not demand them. He considered a full close or final cadence quaint
-and for usual formal melodies substituted declamatory recitative or
-speech song.
-
-Gluck and Wagner brought back undying principles of dramatic worth. In
-the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody was supreme. The
-dramatic truth was lost sight of and the melody was not appropriate. In
-"William Tell" and "Der Freischutz" there was a step onwards towards the
-Wagner reform and a return to the first principles of dramatic art as
-applied to opera by the Bardi coterie. There was recitative, declamation
-and melody. Individualism was the prevailing tendency, and the success
-depends on the forcibleness of character development by means of the
-leitmotiv. Operatic art was here swaying between Wagnerism and the
-ancient Greek drama. This union of drama and music does away with the
-old absurd Italian form, in which the libretto was a mere skeleton, the
-situations unnatural and the music inappropriate and undramatic.
-
-The Wagner texts were better and abolished concerted music which was
-unnatural, and he demanded distinctness in ennunciation, musical
-embodiment of emotional speech, melodic independence of the orchestra and
-rapid and natural action. The Italian libretto was merely an excuse for
-musical adornment, but the Wagnerian opera was a source of inspiration.
-Wagner translated every character, emotion, dramatic action, symbolic
-idea by a series of characteristic phrases. He joined motive to motive,
-developed with artistic skill a musical current rolling along in the
-orchestral accompaniment and ample in every word.
-
-In his earlier works Wagner adhered to the lyrical conception of the
-opera. Speech was raised by stress of emotion into song with the
-orchestra used only as an accompaniment and, under this new system,
-effected an organization of instrumental and vocal forces. In "Das
-Rheingold" the orchestra is exalted to symphonic dignity with the
-traditional alternations of the formal song and recitative merged into
-free declamation. The symphonic treatment of the orchestra led to
-increased developmentt of leading motives. As symphonic music presupposes
-the use of musical themes, Wagner drew his themes not from the words sung
-by the characters but from the characters themselves, their thoughts,
-feelings and aspirations. In the love duet in "Die Walküre" the most
-delicious harmony is expressed.
-
-Wagner was both a poet and a musician and combined poetry, music and
-pantomine painting. He is called the "reformer of opera", a "regenerator
-of modern drama". Wagner's great work aside from the leitmotiv was his
-work with recitative. Up to this time the recitative and the arias were
-dry, weak, barren and hampered every composer and poet. Up to his time
-the recitative aria and the ballet had undergone no organic change,
-though the aria had suffered many changes of fashion. He did not mean to
-sacrifice the beauty of sound in the Italian operas, but this had so far
-usurped the first place, while the dramatic motive which had inspired
-the invention of the opera. His works are not conspicuous for pure
-melody, for he considered the dramatic effect of chords and discords. He
-paid deference to the language employed and the vocal peculiarities of
-the people, for the German words were unintelligible when sung to the
-florid Italian tunes. He wrote the vocal parts of his lyric dramas to
-bring out the force of his poetry.
-
-He gave new expression to new ideas. Peri, in "Eurydice", concealed
-an orchestra behind the scenes. In Monteverde's "Orfeo", thirty-six
-different instruments were relegated to each personage. Wagner assigned
-an instrument or set of instruments to each person. His typical phrases
-are most interesting. He pictures the giants, in "Das Rheingold", with
-loud heavy octaves, the Nibelung, tricksters and schemers, with music of
-a descending figure, twothirds the interval of a seventh, the melodies of
-the Rhine with characteristic figures depicting slow undulation of water
-in its depths, flux and reflux of element, ripples on the surface and the
-motion of the swimmers.
-
-His "Rheingold" music is truly scenic. It begins with a single deep
-tone and then introduces instruments of a lighter color. The graduated
-augmentation of the wavy accompaniment and the doubly delineative
-spirit reflects the sinless quiet of the Golden Age. There are themes
-for mental states and the evil Alberich is represented by abrupt jerky
-music. The orchestra discourses mournfully of the renunciation of love.
-Loga is depicted by fitful chromatic phrases which crackle and flash
-thru the orchestra. The sword phrase consists of major harmonies over
-sustained pedal point, and the thunderstorm of rushing figures in bass,
-and staccato lightning in short rapid figures in lighter instruments,
-crashing of the wind in chromatic phrases, a hammering rythm for
-the Nibelung. Siegfried's boyhood is pictured as a wild forest lad
-with a hunting call, and when he gathers pieces of the spear the music
-accompaniment is in broken rythm.
-
-In "Parsifal" the music depicts little of external things. In
-"Tannhaüser" there are fancies which Wagner wished to float thru the
-minds of the audience and the Pilgrim's Chant swells and disappears. In
-"Tristan and Isolde" the prelude represents the spiritual progress of
-the tragedy. The suffering of the wounded Tristan is shown by a theme of
-descending half steps and a closing cadence of short phrases which stand
-for the love glance is a downward leap of the seventh. The symbol of
-death is expressed with a sudden and unprepared change from A flat to A.
-The music consists of a few phrases which unfold themselves over and over
-again in a variety of combinations with continually changing instrumental
-color. "Die Meistersinger" prelude delineates the characteristic traits
-of the personages, and the symphonic introduction indicates the elements
-of the plot, the progress in its developement and the outcome. The two
-classes of melodies are broadly distinguished in external physiognomy and
-emotional essence, at first consecutively, then in conflict and finally
-in harmonious and contented union. The solid old burghers of Nuremburg,
-a little vain, are pictured by strong simple tunes with sequences of the
-intervals of the simple diatonic scale, strongly and simply harmonized,
-a trifle pompous in opposition to the passion of the lovers displayed.
-These themes differ in every respect, melodic, rythmic, and harmonic,
-and also in their treatment. The lover's theme is chromatic, the rythme
-are less regular and more eager by syncopation. This is harmonized with
-greater warmth and set for the instruments with greater passion.
-
-Wagner's orchestra acquired gradually the functions of the Greek chorus,
-in that it takes part in the action to publish that which is beyond the
-capacity of the personages alone to utter. He unfolds thoughts, emotions,
-motives and passions by means of mode, harmony, rythm, time and the
-orchestration. By applying the principles of augmentation to a phrase
-in the three phases of melodic, harmonic and instrumental structure, he
-illustrates the tragic growth of Siegfried. He wrote his own librettos
-so that his works would be consistent. "Tristan and Isolde", "Die
-Meistersinger", "Der Ring des Nibelunger" and "Parsifal" realized his
-conception of what a poet composer should be. Music had usurped the place
-in lyric drama and music is a medium only and not an end of dramatic
-expression. His leitmotiv, infinite melody and symbolical themes gave
-his orchestra color. He used musical declamation for recitative secco,
-employed choruses with intelligent regard, and originated arias from
-the situations. Wagner lived for pure singing and did not make abnormal
-demands upon the voice like those of Strauss' "Electra". He has long solo
-passages and orderly development of orchestral themes, as different from
-Debussy whose sounds are not connected. Wagner elevated the orchestra
-from a mere accompanying force to an essential factor. He maintained that
-formal song should be abolished, that the dialogue should be musical
-and that the orchestra should have an orderly development of melodic
-material save when the climaxes justify an apparently disconnected
-dramatic melodramatic method. Damrosch criticizes Wagner because he says
-everything in his orchestra, and his singer is too little considered.
-
-However, his operas are a tableaux of gorgeous glowing pictures, and he
-has had no successful imitation. His scheme of thematic identification
-and development in its union of calculation and reflection and musical
-inspiration, is beyond the capacities of those who have come after him.
-Musical critics and historians have been occupied with the question as
-to whether or not the progress in operatic composition is possible on
-the lines laid down, although his influence is a modification of the old
-method rather than the invention of new ideas. We look to the theatres of
-Paris for his influence in corrections and technical finish. The clear
-musical phrases of the "Flying Dutchman" are presented in symphonic
-way and there is an introduction, aria, scene, duet and chorus. The
-commencement of each of the three acts with a chorus was a mannerism, but
-Wagner scarcely ever employed it. In "Tannhauser" there is only one duet.
-He advanced individualism of the dramatic mood by banishing the aria. He
-made the orchetra the chief sustainer of the musical framework with the
-voice for the dramatic organ. The lyric recitative is reechoed at times
-by melodic phrases and developed motives. The extreme limit of Wagner's
-methods is "Salome", which is really a symphonic poem for a gigantic
-orchestra to the accompaniment of dramatic action with a voice obligato.
-
-Gounod did not use prolonged themes unless for a dramatic or purely
-ethical reason. "Faust" is the best suited for the human voice. The
-orchestra never submerges the voice and is only a factor and not a sum
-total. At this time the Italian school was at the height where flimsy
-librettos only served to string together duets, quartets or choruses. In
-"Faust" there is the first artistic union of score and words.
-
-Verdi had a keen dramatic vision and assigned greater importance to the
-orchestra than his Italian predecessors. There is an absence, for the
-most part, of set airs, and there is a continuity of musical structure.
-The orchestration is wonderful, but the voice still remains the centre of
-the musical system. The style is more that of Donizetti's than Bellini's,
-although critics declare the music of "Ernani" noisy and commonplace,
-with too much brass in the orchestra. His chorus was written in unison,
-and passed too abruptly from one piece to another, and his effects were
-not sufficiently prepared, but under his direction the brassiness was
-kept down, and a proper balance maintained. There is genuine emotion in
-his strains, significance in his melodies, characterization of personages
-and forcible construction of scenes, though he did not surpass "William
-Tell". He neglected concerted music and does not include one separate
-regularly constructed piece. His solo melodies are beautiful. His
-"Aida" is saturated with local color, Egyptian music, with a masterly
-combination of strings, woodwind and voice. "Il Trovatore" is not an
-opera but a set of detached pieces held in loose contact on a string.
-There was little action and we find page after page to be sung at the
-footlights with only mechanical gestures. Verdi avoided the "leitmotiv",
-and relegated mere tune to the background. In "Falstaff" there is a
-complete independence of restrictive formalism that modern music drama
-requires to illustrate the play, which enhances the significance of the
-situations.
-
-
-
-
-V. POST WAGNERIAN SCHOOL--INCLUDING MODERN RUSSIAN, FRENCH, ITALIAN,
-GERMAN, AND AMERICAN COMPOSERS.
-
-
-Michael Ivanovitch Glinka is called the "Father of Russian Opera". He
-combined the technique, forms and counterpoint of Italy and Germany
-with the Russian folksong and rythm. He was choice of his subjects, and
-thought that the management of the plots ought to be more simple, and the
-music in the style of natural song. There is energy and also vitality in
-"La Vie pour le Tsar" and "Russlau et Ludmille". In Russian folk songs we
-find the music suitable to the words.
-
-The Russian folk like acting and their customs in their wedding
-ceremonies, etc., are an ideal basis for an opera school. Glinka used
-the fierce struggle of the contending nations for a background, and let
-the story be related and enacted by four central figures. His realism
-surpassed the trivial impossibilities of the Italian school. He did not
-combine involved themes in a pot-pourri style so that none could be
-distinguished, but rather created atmosphere. His instrumentalism is
-sonorous and uses five-four, six-four and seven-four time.
-
-The "Pique Dame" of Tschaikovsky has a style like that of other composers
-beyond set forms of the older operas though not of the music drama. The
-arias, duets, choruses and ballets are dramatically appropriate, and
-the orchestra is more of a function than an accompaniment. In "Boris
-Godonnow" there is no principle tenor part, no principle contralto part
-and no principle soprano part. If it is a singer's opera at all it is
-a basso's, but it really is more for chorus. The writing for solo
-declamatory passages occassioned the use of the lyric passages in the
-orchestra, which was made the purveyor of color. The atmosphere is not
-symphonic, though the development is important and we find a remarkable
-use of the leitmotiv but the composer never even heard of Wagner.
-
-Nicolai Andreyevitch Rimski-Korsakov was a serious student of Russian
-folk lore. His music is free and expressive--so much so that when he
-studied technique seriously, it was almost impaired. His operas are
-versatile, but his "Snow Maiden" is a trifle old-fashioned, although
-he fails to express pathos, delicate tenderness etc. The stage
-phantasmoriga, of "Christmas Eve or Vakoul the Smith", especially at
-the transformation scenes is accompanied with music wild and bizarre,
-yet consummate in its descriptive finesse. He was dissatisfied with
-the foreign elements of the Italian form of opera which Glinka and
-Tschaikovsky could assimilate to excellent purpose. He cannot seem to
-decide whether opera is lyrical or symphonic. His orchestra suggests
-the soft freshness of a May night atmosphere in the steppes of Russia,
-the aroma of flowers, the enchanting long drawn notes of a nightingale
-interspersed with the love element, and the vocal characterization of
-the Mayor and the Bailiff in this "A May Night" is extremely clever.
-Like Strauss, he uses certain themes for certain instruments and has the
-Russian desire to mingle meaning and sound.
-
-Wagner laid down the theories but his imitators have failed because they
-did not have his genius. Rimski-Korsakov is noted for his brilliant
-orchestration and the ugly and cruel music leading up to his situations,
-but he combines dignity and simplicity with realism and not with the
-romantic. The protogonists of his drama are, the Russian people, and
-that is the reason for the extended use of the chorus. There is no
-central situation, as the people and one character, or sometimes two,
-make up the drama. It is easy to omit or transpose a scene thus showing
-the loosenes of the dramatic construction, which is a merit in a musical
-play, for the composer can express the central ideas of the drama
-without being bound hand and foot by dramatic situations. In the modern
-music drama the orchestra expresses all that cannot be expressed by the
-dramatic action and the singers. Rimski-Korsakov's is mainly a subjective
-expression of composition, while Moussorgsky's orchestra is never
-subjective, but always objective. Borodini's "Prince Igor" is a colorful
-barbaric ballet while in Dargomysky's "The Water Sprite", "The Stone
-Guest" there are interesting intermediary recitative sections, although
-the recitative of "La Pskovitaine" is dry.
-
-Xaver Schwarwenka'a opera "Mataswinthe" resembles those of Wagner of the
-"Lohengrin" period. They are thoroughly modern. The muted horns in the
-orchestra give dramatic expressiveness in harmony and the composer uses
-the free arioso style. There is not the set form of the Italian school,
-but the modern declamatory arioso, monologues and duets, discarding
-recitative, and introducing massive ensembles with key complexity, but
-never smothering them with the orchestra.
-
-Balakirew and Borodini employ good airs, especially in the ballet, and
-color their orchestra wonderfully. Cesar Cui used melodic recitative with
-the interdiction of the repetitions of words, and there is an absence of
-duets and trios and every piece of ensemble, and every one affecting a
-definite and complete character. "Angelo" and "The Filibuster" are too
-extreme, for the three acts of recitaive become monotonous. This school's
-form is vague except for the audacious harmonization.
-
-Puccini adds to Wagner's reform, with the peculiar style of modern French
-and Italian composers which alternates light and varied orchestration and
-melody, with harsh, almost crude instrumentation. He demonstrates that
-the orchestra may be made to interpret shades and transitions of rapid
-and subtle emotion, and he produced an actual musical diction with some
-of the finest passages for the orchestra alone. His sense of melody is
-supreme in his combination of Italian and German methods. His impressive
-manner of intensifying and underscoring dramatic moments in the action is
-unparalleled as is also his capacity for forceful and succinct orchestral
-commentary. He uses his music to paint scenes and makes continuous use of
-distinctive and rythmic melody and there is an absence of any definite
-characterization by means of a leitmotiv, for his work is lighter than
-that of Wagner's. He maintains that opera must have local color, so
-therefore we find an interweaving of American airs in his "Girl of the
-Golden West" and American and Japanese airs in "Madame Butterfly". His
-score is genuinely Puccinean and an influence of Debussy is betrayed in
-an harmonic way.
-
-The prelude to "Madame Butterfly" Is not an overture, though it does
-state some motives. His songs constantly contain one melody in the
-instrumental against the unrelated vocal part, and he reflects the
-modern moods and ideas in a score intricate in counterpoint, rich in
-embellishment, full of the melodic fluency of the Italian temperament
-and strength of the German school. The Japanese effects give beautiful
-lyric movements but they are not as great as Verdi's. There is intense
-dramatic vigor in "Manon Lescaut" which has spoken dialogue with running
-orchestral accompaniment and motives. "La Boheme" has neither overture
-nor intermezzo, and lacks sustained melody. Puccini is termed the only
-one with as much genius as Wagner, for he agrees that too much realism
-is cramping to good music, and he proves that music drama can be loosely
-constructed and need not conform to spoken drama standards.
-
-Debussy, in "Pelleas and Melisande" places a statue on a stage, not
-a musical one, but one of dramatic action and declamation. The vocal
-parts are reduced to a minimum of musical expressiveness and the music,
-a sort of rythmless chant, is subordinate to action. He is about the
-only composer who makes music dependent entirely on the drama. Wagner's
-orchestra is a bug driving force, while Strauss' delicate shifting of the
-background of the polyphony does not drown the voices. Debussy does not
-compose with the aim of orchestral composition as do Wagner and Strauss.
-With Puccini, Debussy and Charpentier, the human voice counts as a real
-medium. In "Pelleas and Melisande" there is a tress on the naturalness
-of the recitative. Debussy makes music the servant of the drama and
-makes a symphonic use of motives which are not developed formally, but
-manipulated in an undercurrent of musical thought. He declares melody
-anti-dramatic, and in recitative with the orchestra there is freedom for
-individual interpretation. His "L'Enfant Prodigue" is composed along the
-regular lines and is his best work. He follows Cesar Franck's method
-of scattering a number of disconnected themes and leaving them to sort
-themselves.
-
-In Dukas' "Ariane and Bluebeard", set melodies are avoided and
-everything is in plastic style of music drama, with shimmering tone color
-and a wealth of orchestral touches. Louis Aubert's "The Blue Forest",
-is an effective combination of modernity and simplicity with much use
-of leading motives and some fairly definite numbers. "Les Heretiques"
-displays enervating voluptuousness and languor in the duet. There are
-grave and large accents for the invocation to Venus by Daphne. The
-orchestral lamentation at the close is graceful and the choruses are
-charming, but the dialogue is wearisome. He is a disciple of Massenet in
-his correct portrayal of the suavity, sweetnes and fascination of women.
-In "Le Petite Boheme" the orchestration is rich and effective and the
-dramatic action is developed.
-
-Franchetti's "Germania" is a lyric two act drama with a prologue and
-an epilogue, aping Wagner, Verdi, Puccini and Tschaikovski. Delibes, a
-new dramatist, uses unusual discretion in the color expression of the
-orchestra but with very little acting. His modulation scheme is rich and
-more melodic, but it is almost as declamatory as that of Strauss. Saint
-Saens and Massenet are less radical with a light melodic orchestra.
-Massenet's music in "Le Jongleur" and "Griselidis" is not strong enough
-to atone for tiresome episodes in the plot. The chorus plays an important
-but invisible part, throughout.
-
-The Charpentier orchestra and neither Strauss-like nor Wagnerian. His
-"Louise" is constructed according to Wagner but creates an atmosphere
-rather emphasizing themes. It has musical originality, dramatic
-novelty and picturesque reproductions of life, style, and a blend of
-romanticism and reality. He is influenced by Massenet in musical speech
-and orchestral style. He emphasizes the lyrical element by the use
-of melodic recitative rather than by aria. He develops motives for
-descriptive importance with polyphonic style. The individual sonority of
-the orchestra reduses the stress on the orchestra's departure from the
-Wagnerian ideas. He reduced the dependence of these ideas to a minimum,
-and asserted the value of reliance on the native sources of music and
-drama.
-
-Bruneau was a pupil of Massenet with undistinguished melodic patterns.
-He followed Wagner in the close continuity of drama and accurate
-characterization in music, fitting a characterization for varying
-dramatic atmospheres. His "Kerim" displays militarism and is a contrast
-to the pastoral elements in "L'Attaque du Moulin". His thematic
-manipulation is not flexible enough but his harmonic idiom is ingenuous
-and true to the qualities of race and time. D'Albert's "Tiefland" has
-a prologue and two acts, and combines the Wagner and Puccini swift and
-pliant orchestra, which colors and intensifies, but dispenses with the
-elaboration of Wagner's symphonic chorus. Chenier's "Liberia", strange
-to say, has one strain repeated and repeated. Chabrier is noted for
-his delicate expression and his fidelity and vigor of delineation. In
-"Briseis" the fresh aroma of the sea is suggested by the soft singing of
-the sailors without any overture or prelude. Bruneau in "Zola" writes
-flexible music and has a capacity for unmetred prose used for vocal
-purposes, a caustic rugged sincerity with an element of passion and
-little tenderness. Charpentier's "Louise" has the quick lithe movement of
-the Parisian character; gay, amused and amusing.
-
-Richard Strauss uses a more complex orchestra than Wagner and we find
-leading motives as in Wagner. He is one of the most severely criticized
-composers of modern times. He has been accused of outrageous infraction
-of every musical law. The mood in "Electra" is implicit in the play,
-but it is reinforced by Strauss' orchestration. Where Beethoven or
-Wagner entrances are splendid, the instrumental equivalent of Strauss
-grates. He is typical to the moods, etc., of the play. He uses discords
-to represent a mad woman, but is musically beautiful in the recognition
-of brother and sister and love. The chief characters are depicted by
-leading motives, dissonance and orchestral bewilderments, and his power
-of characterization is extraordinary. There are forty-five themes in
-"Electra". He uses different instruments to represent the different
-animals, etc. For instance, the grunting of the pigs is represented by
-six bassoons and a flute.
-
-There are one hundred and four musicians in "Salome", with sixty strings
-and an organ celeste. Three men carry on an excited conversation, one in
-seven eighth time, one in five eighth time and one in four four time,
-while the orchestra continues its original tempo.
-
-Puccini, Humperdinck and Mascagni are considered by many to be the
-best living composers. "Königskinder" is chiefly declamatory and
-never sacrfices the human voice for the orchestra, and expounds and
-illustrates, but never fails to support the shapely arioso by rarely
-defined melody.
-
-"Conchita" by Riccardo Zandonai embraces a few fragmentary themes
-and the voice parts are declamatory without a melodic line or the
-shapeliness of an arioso. Mascagni's "Cavalleria Rusticana" shows the
-introduction of a new device with the performance of the orchestral
-interlude and division of the work into two parts, with the curtain
-remaining up and showing the empty stage. Both he and Leoncavello have
-written short operas with effective librettos, and they stand for
-dramatic verities. Our American composers seem to follow different
-schools and styles without establishing one of their own. "Mona" by
-Horatio Parker assigns not a motive for a label to each character but
-a tonality, though only one blessed with absolute pitch can appreciate
-this. Walter Damrosch's "Cyrano" is in a post-Wagnerian style, a sort of
-melodious arioso frequently broadening into definitely shaped airs, with
-numerous ensembles, trios, quartets and choruses and the orchestra plays
-an important part, being continuously melodious, but not monopolizing
-melodic interest with leading motives attached to characters. "The Pipe
-of Desire", by F. S. Converse, has passages in a later Wagnerian style,
-and there are four prominent motives while the orchestra is exceedingly
-good, especially in depicting the "Naioa" theme. Victor Herbert's music
-is replete with local color and drama, and the representative themes are
-not developed, although his music is rather light and better suited for
-the operetta and the salon.
-
-Thus we see how the musical forms of the opera have changed from the
-older more vocal feats to the newer well developed music drama. Gluck
-and Wagner brought back the undying principles of dramatic truth. In
-the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody was supreme and the
-dramatic truth was lost sight of. In "William Tell" and "Der Freischütz"
-there was a step onward, and with Wagner we find a return to, or reform,
-of the first principles of true dramatic art as applied to the opera by
-the Bardi coterie. Individualism is the prevailing tendency and succes
-depends on the forcibleness of the characters and the development of the
-leitmotiv.
-
-In our consideration of the operas, from "Rappresentatione di Anima"
-to "Madeleine" we find the number of characters growing larger, the
-orchestra more complex and perhaps usurping more time, the solo work
-increasing considerably, recitative increasing, ensemble almost vanishing
-and chorus work reduced to a minmum. The opera of the future will be
-a medium between Wagner and Strauss, orchestral music drama, and the
-Debussy incidental music, and the melodiousness of the Italian school.
-The most vital music dramas of the day do not abandon nor drown out
-the voice, nor do they cast aside all musical connections, but combine
-orchestra, voice and dramatic action in an artistic way.
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX OF TABLES.
-
-
-Table I. This table is general, comparing, by means of a percentage
-system, the amount of space devoted to the orchestra solo, recitative,
-ensemble and chorus work in the thirty-four operas considered. The date,
-name, composer, number of acts and number of characters is shown.
-
-Table II. This develops column "D" of table I and shows the first
-the entire number of characters, and then the number of sopranos,
-mezzo-sopranos, altos, tenors, baritones and bass in these same
-thirty-four operas.
-
-Table III. This table develops "F" of Table I showing the entire
-percentage of orchestration in each of the thirty-four operas, and
-further the division of this percentage into that devoted to overtures,
-ballets and interludes.
-
-Table IV. This table develops column "G" of Table I concerning solo
-works. The percentage of the entire solo work is given and this is then
-divided into the percentage devoted to that of soprano, mezzo-soprano,
-alto, tenor, baritone and bass.
-
-Table V. In this table column "H" of Table I is developed. A record
-is shown of the operas which contain accompanied and unaccompanied
-recitative of the thirty-four operas is shown, and this, in turn, is
-divided into that of soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone
-and bass.
-
-Table VI. Column "I" of Table I is considered here. The entire percentage
-of ensemble work is shown, and this is divided into that of duets, trios,
-quartets, quintets and sextets.
-
-Table VII. This table develops column "J" of Table I and shows the
-percentage of the opera devoted to chorus work and further, the division
-into mixed chorus and men's and women's choruses.
-
-
-
-
-TABLE I.
-
-
-      A         B                           C              D
-
-    Date.      Name.                     Composer.      No. of
-                                                      Characters.
-
-    1600    Rappresebtatione de Anima    Cavalieri         5
-    1675    King Arthur                  Purcell          13
-    1731    La Serva Padrona             Pergolese         2
-    1762    Orfeus                       Gluck             3
-    1767    Alceste                      Gluck             8
-    1784    Le Domine Noir               Auber             9
-    1787    Don Giovanni                 Mozart            8
-    1762    L'Amant Jaloux               Gretry            7
-    1800    Les Deux Journees            Cherubini         6
-    1805    Fidelio                      Beethoven         7
-    1816    The Barber of Seville        Rossini           8
-    1821    Der Freischütz               Weber             6
-    1831    La Somnambula                Bellini           7
-    1832    Le Postilion Lonjuneaux      Adam              7
-    1835    Lucia di Lammermoor          Donizetti         7
-    1843    The Bohemian Girl            Balfe             9
-    1847    Martha                       Flotow           10
-    1866    Mignon                       Thomas            8
-    1867    Romeo and Juliet             Gounod           12
-    1874    Aida                         Verdi             6
-    1875    Carmen                       Bizet            10
-    1882    Parsifal                     Wagner            6
-    1887    Samson and Delilah           Saint-Saens       8
-    1890    Cavalleria Rusticana         Mascagni          5
-    1892    Il Pagliacci                 Leoncavello       5
-    1893    Le Cid                       Massenet         10
-    1894    Hansel and Gretel            Humperdinck       7
-    1896    Cricket on the Hearth        Goldmark          6
-    1900    Louise                       Charpentier       8
-    1904    Madame Butterfly             Puccini          10
-    1905    Eugene Onegin                Tschaikovski     10
-    1905    Salome                       Strauss           6
-    1913    L'Amour dei Tre Re           Montemezzi       10
-    1914    Madeleine                    Herbert           5
-
-GENERAL.
-
-        E          F          G         H           I          J
-
-      No. of     % of       % of      % of        % of       % of
-       Acts    Orchestra    Solo    Recitative   Ensemble   Chorus
-
-       3         11.6      14.21     30.2         11.6      14.39
-       5         30.1      21.3       9.73        17.27     21.6
-       2         14.35     25.73     30.30        19.50     10.2
-       3         26.85     15.27     11.87        33.13     12.88
-       3         32.92     23.5      23.82         3.163    18.71
-       3         23.6      18.68     18.62        15.91     23.19
-       2         15.91     30.13     31.43        29.31      1.582
-       3          4.17      6.53       .92        83.4       6.2
-       3         22.56     13.5      22.8          7.2      36.94
-       2         26        35.17     10.11        14.66     14.06
-       2         22.15     17.28     10.00        38.57     12.00
-       3         51.03     18.9       9.06         4.7      16.31
-       2         19.61     15.19     30.33         7.523    30.6
-       3         19.6      12.76     33.8         23.32     26.17
-       3          8.92     39.83      5.62        10.23     35.4
-       3         32.6      23.7      10.42         8.38     25.7
-       4         18.85      8.73     24.03        28.77     25.95
-       5         19.7      21.42     33.75         9.76     14.74
-       5         29.6      32.71     17            6.97     13.72
-       4         29.82     17.405    15.6          7.075    30.1
-       4         31.6      26.71     15.32        15.05      9.32
-       3         31.2      28.67     19.82          --      10.31
-       3         35.6      25.43     19.71         4.3      15.07
-       1         31.6      12.3      11.9         12.56     31.64
-       2         15.77     40.2      11.97         9.18     19.88
-       4         36.31     25.83     19.78         8.33      9.75
-       3         36.2      25.47     18.1         14.91     15.38
-       3         33.6      16.86     38.40         5.54      5.6
-       4         25.6      23.97     20.32        15.6      15.51
-       2         33.4      12.87     24.85         4.75     10.03
-       3         32.4      33.96     15.42         2.93     15.29
-       1         19.89     46.2      31.62          .93     11.36
-       3         24.6      32.24     39.62          .07      3.51
-       1         22.41     50.19     23.04         4.36       --
-
-
-
-
-TABLE II.
-
-
-      A         B                           C                  D
-
-    Date.      Name.                     Composer.          No. of
-                                                          Characters.
-
-    1600    Rappresentatione de Anima    Cavalieri             5
-    1675    King Arthur                  Purcell              13
-    1731    La Serva Padrona             Pergolese             2
-    1762    Orfeus                       Gluck                 3
-    1767    Alceste                      Gluck                 8
-    1784    Le Domine Noir               Auber                 9
-    1787    Don Giovanni                 Mozart                8
-    1762    L'Amant Jaloux               Gretry                7
-    1800    Les Deux Journees            Cherubini             6
-    1805    Fidelio                      Beethoven             7
-    1816    The Barber of Seville        Rossini               8
-    1821    Der Freischütz               Weber                 6
-    1831    La Somnambula                Bellini               7
-    1832    Le Postilion Lonjuneaux      Adam                  7
-    1835    Lucia di Lammermoor          Donizetti             7
-    1843    The Bohemian Girl            Balfe                 9
-    1847    Martha                       Flotow               10
-    1866    Mignon                       Thomas                8
-    1867    Romeo and Juliet             Gounod               12
-    1874    Aida                         Verdi                 6
-    1875    Carmen                       Bizet                10
-    1882    Parsifal                     Wagner                6
-    1887    Samson and Delilah           Saint-Saens           8
-    1890    Cavalleria Rusticana         Mascagni              5
-    1892    Il Pagliacci                 Leoncavello           5
-    1893    Le Cid                       Massenet             10
-    1894    Hansel and Gretel            Humperdinck           7
-    1896    Cricket on the Hearth        Goldmark              6
-    1900    Louise                       Charpentier           8
-    1904    Madame Butterfly             Puccini              10
-    1905    Eugene Onegin                Tschaikovski         10
-    1905    Salome                       Strauss               6
-    1913    L'Amour dei Tre Re           Montemezzi           10
-    1914    Madeleine                    Herbert               5
-
-NUMBER AND KIND OF CHARACTERS.
-
-       E          F              G        H         I          J
-
-    No. of     No. of Mezzo    No. of   No. of    No. of     No. of
-    Soprano    Soprano         Alto     Tenor     Baritone   Bass
-
-    2              --            --      2          --        1
-    7              --            --      1          --        5
-    1              --            --       --        --        1
-    2              --            1        --        --        --
-    1              --            --      2          --        5
-    2              3             --      1          --        3
-    3              --            --      1          1         3
-    3              --            --      2          --        1
-    1              --            --      3          --        2
-    2              --            --      2          --        3
-    1              --            1       1          1         4
-    2              --            --      1          1         4
-    2              1             --      2          1         1
-    1              --            --      4          --        3
-    1              1             --      3          1         1
-    3              --            --      3          1         2
-    2              3             --      2          --        3
-    1              1             1       2          --        3
-    2              1             --      3          3         3
-    1              1             --      2          --        2
-    3              1             --      2          1         3
-    1              --            --      1          1         3
-     --            1             --      3          1         3
-    1              1             1       1          1         --
-    1              --            --      2          --        2
-    2              --            --      2          3         3
-    3              3             --      --         1         --
-    3              --            --      1          1         1
-    1              1             3       1          2         --
-    1              2             --      2          3         2
-    1              2             1       2          1         3
-    1              2             --      2          1         --
-    3              1             --      4          2         --
-    1              1             --      1          1         1
-
-
-
-
-TABLE III.
-
-
-     A              B                     C               D
-
-    Date.         Name.                Composer.   % of Entire
-                                                   Orchestration.
-
-    1600    Rappresentatione de Anima  Cavalieri        14.39
-    1675    King Arthur                Purcell          30.1
-    1731    La Serva Padrona           Pergolese        14.35
-    1762    Orfeus                     Gluck            26.85
-    1767    Alceste                    Gluck            32.92
-    1784    Le Domine Noir             Auber            23.6
-    1787    Don Giovanni               Mozart           15.91
-    1762    L'Amant Jaloux             Gretry            4.17
-    1800    Les Deux Journees          Cherubini        22.56
-    1805    Fidelio                    Beethoven        26.00
-    1816    The Barber of Seville      Rossini          22.15
-    1821    Der Freischütz             Weber            51.03
-    1831    La Somnambula              Bellini          19.61
-    1832    Le Postilion Lonjuneaux    Adam             19.6
-    1835    Lucia di Lammermoor        Donizetti         8.92
-    1843    The Bohemian Girl          Balfe            32.6
-    1847    Martha                     Flotow           18.85
-    1866    Mignon                     Thomas           19.7
-    1867    Romeo and Juliet           Gounod           29.6
-    1874    Aida                       Verdi            29.82
-    1875    Carmen                     Bizet            31.6
-    1882    Parsifal                   Wagner           31.2
-    1887    Samson and Delilah         Saint-Saens      35.6
-    1890    Cavalleria Rusticana       Mascagni         31.6
-    1892    Il Pagliacci               Leoncavello      25.77
-    1893    Le Cid                     Massenet         36.31
-    1894    Hansel and Gretel          Humperdinck      36.2
-    1896    Cricket on the Hearth      Goldmark         33.6
-    1900    Louise                     Charpentier      25.6
-    1904    Madame Butterfly           Puccini          33.4
-    1905    Eugene Onegin              Tschaikovski     32.4
-    1905    Salome                     Strauss          19.89
-    1913    L'Amour dei Tre Re         Montemezzi       24.6
-    1914    Madeleine                  Herbert          22.41
-
-ORCHESTRATION.
-
-          E                F               G
-
-    % of Overture.   % of Ballet.   % of Interludes.
-
-         2.07              --            12.32
-         5.21             3.34           21.55
-         2.45              --            11.90
-        14.87             9.01            2.97
-         3.61            18.45           10.86
-        10.97              --            13.6
-         7.39              --             8.52
-         2.64              --             1.97
-        16.95             1.41            4.5
-         7.4               --            18.6
-         8.98              --            13.17
-        21.09             3.27           26.67
-         3.35              --            16.26
-         4.85              --            14.85
-         2.33             1.45            5.14
-        16.25            10.32            5.09
-         1.293             --            17.57
-         6.52              --            13.2
-         2.45             3.97           22.14
-         6.42            10.53           12.87
-         4.5              9.2            17.9
-         5.1               --            26.1
-          --             17.42           18.18
-        21.72              .93            8.95
-        15.15              --            10.62
-         3.4              5.6            27.31
-        16.5               --            19.7
-         5.29              --            28.31
-         4.75              --            20.85
-         5.42              --            28.00
-         3.52             9.65           19.33
-          --              7.42           12.47
-          --               --            24.6
-          --               --            22.41
-
-
-
-
-TABLE IV.
-
-
-     A                  B                           C             D
-
-    Date.             Name.                      Composer.   % of entire
-                                                                solos.
-
-    1600       Rappresentatione de Anima       Cavalieri         14.21
-    1675       King Arthur                     Purcell           21.3
-    1731       La Serva Padrona                Pergolese         25.73
-    1762       Orfeus                          Gluck             15.27
-    1767       Alceste                         Gluck             23.5
-    1784       La Domine Noir                  Auber             18.68
-    1787       Don Giovanni                    Mozart            30.13
-    1762       L'Amant Jaloux                  Gretry             6.53
-    1800       Les Deux Journees               Cherubini         13.5
-    1805       Fidelio                         Beethoven         35.17
-    1816       The Barber of Seville           Rossini           17.28
-    1821       Der Freischütz                  Weber             18.9
-    1831       La Somnambula                   Bellini           15.19
-    1832       Le Postillon Lonjuneaux         Adam              12.76
-    1835       Lucia di Lammermoor             Donizetti         39.83
-    1843       The Bohemian Girl               Balfe             23.7
-    1847       Martha                          Flotow             8.73
-    1866       Mignon                          Thomas            21.42
-    1867       Romeo and Juliet                Gounod            32.71
-    1874       Aida                            Verdi             17.405
-    1875       Carmen                          Bizet             26.71
-    1882       Parsifal                        Wagner            28.67
-    1887       Samson and Delilah              Saint-Saens       25.43
-    1890       Cavalleria Rusticana            Mascagni          12.3
-    1892       Il Pagliacci                    Leoncavello       40.2
-    1893       Le Cid                          Massenet          25.83
-    1894       Hansel and Gretel               Humperdinck       25.47
-    1896       Cricket on the Hearth           Goldmark          16.86
-    1900       Louise                          Charpentier       23.97
-    1904       Madame Butterfly                Puccini           12.87
-    1905       Eugene Onegin                   Tschaikovsky      33.96
-    1905       Salome                          Strauss           46.2
-    1913       L'Amour dei Tre Re              Montemezzi        33.24
-    1914       Madeleine                       Herbert           50.19
-
-SOLOS.
-
-         E            F          G         H         I         J
-
-        % of         % of      % of       % of      % of      % of
-      Soprano.     Mezzo Sop.  Alto.     Tenor.   Baritone.   Bass.
-
-        10.2          --         --        2.6        --      1.31
-         7.4          --        4.061      4.62       --      5.219
-        19.1          --         --          --       --      6.63
-         6.52         --        8.75         --       --       --
-        14.8          --         --        4.5        --     33.6
-        14.92         --         --         .92       --      2.84
-        15.02         --         --        3.27      4.29     7.55
-         3.98         --         --         .95       --      1.58
-         4.3         2.1         --        5.72       --      1.38
-        17.06         --         --       14.32       --      3.79
-         3.42         --       6.68        3.813     1.52     1.847
-         8.76         --         --        3.41      2.41     4.32
-         5.35        1.07        --        4.53      2.25     1.99
-         2.67         --         --        5.33       --      4.76
-        13.6         4.5         --       14.12      3.25     4.36
-         4.95         --         --        7.86      6.24     5.25
-         4.53         .414       --        2.81       --       .742
-         5.28        5.32        --        6.71      4.11      --
-        14.9          --         --        7.36      3.51     6.94
-         5.69        5.03        --        3.56       --      3.125
-         9.87         --        .09        7.43      1.29     8.03
-         5.24         --         --        6.59      9.62     7.22
-         6.00        6.27        --        6.00      6.42      --
-         6.24         --         --        5.19       .87      --
-        13.25         --         --        13.9     13.07      --
-        15.2          --         --        5.31      1.4      3.92
-         5.63       12.59        --         --       7.25      --
-        10.16         --         --        1.09      2.4      3.21
-         5.6          .27       3.8        9.41      4.89      --
-         7.98         --         --        3.96       .874     --
-        10.42        2.37        .531      3.29      8.34     8.909
-        23.4          --         --       15.27      3.5      4.03
-         5.32         --         --        9.64      9.72     7.56
-        15.06         --         --       10.5       8.39    16.23
-
-
-
-
-TABLE V.
-
-
-      A              B                        C                 D
-
-    Date.          Name.                   Composer.       Spoken text.
-                                                          Accom. Unaccom.
-
-     1600    Rappresentatione de Anima    Cavalieri          --    x
-     1675    King Arthur                  Purcell            --    --
-     1731    La Serva Padrona             Pergolese          --    --
-     1762    Orfeus                       Gluck              --    --
-     1767    Alceste                      Gluck              --    --
-     1784    Le Domine Noir               Auber              --    --
-     1787    Don Giovanni                 Mozart             --    --
-     1762    L'Amant Jaloux               Gretry             --    x
-     1800    Les Deux Jounees             Cherubini          --    --
-     1805    Fidelio                      Beethoven          --    x
-     1816    The Barber of Seville        Rossini            --    x
-     1821    Der Freischütz               Weber              x     x
-     1831    La Somnambula                Bellini            --    --
-     1832    Le Postilion de Longjuneaux  Adam               --    --
-     1835    Lucia di Lammermoor          Donizetti          --    --
-     1843    Bohemian Girl                Balfe              --    --
-     1847    Martha                       Flotow             --    --
-     1866    Mignon                       Thomas             --    x
-     1867    Romeo and Juliet             Gounod             --    --
-     1874    Aida                         Verdi              --    --
-     1875    Carmen                       Bizet              --    --
-     1882    Parsifal                     Wagner             --    --
-     1887    Samson and Delilah           Saint Saens        --    --
-     1890    Cavalleria Rusticana         Mascagni           --    --
-     1893    Le Cid                       Massenet           --    --
-     1892    Il Pagliacci                 Leoncavello        --    --
-     1894    Hansel and Gretel            Humperdinck        --    --
-     1896    Cricket on the Hearth        Goldmark           --    --
-     1900    Louise                       Charpentier        --    --
-     1904    Madame Butterfly             Puccini            --    --
-     1905    Eugene Onegin                Tschaikovsky       --    --
-     1913    L'Amour dei Tre Re           Montemezzi         --    --
-     1914    Madeleine                    Herbert            --    --
-
-RECITATIVE.
-
-      E          F          G          H        I         J          K
-
-      %          %          %          %        %         %          %
-    Recit.   Soprano.   Mezzo Sop.   Alto.    Tenor.   Baritone.   Bass.
-
-    30.2        6.43        --       13.21     9.27       --        1.29
-    9.73        5.39        --         --       --        --        4.34
-    30.30      20.58        --         --       --        --        9.72
-    11.87       7.56        --        4.315     --        --         --
-    23.82       3.32        --         --      2.95       --       17.55
-    18.62       4.22       3.9         .3      1.77       --        8.43
-    31.43       9.16        --         --      5.53      7.47       9.27
-      .92        .11        --         --       .95       --        1.58
-    22.8        6.9         --        3.165    7.32       --        5.415
-    10.11       4.31        --         --      2.6        --        3.3
-    10.00       2.66        --         .798    2.33       --        4.2
-     9.06       2.27        --         --      2.72      1.03       3.04
-    30.33       5.85       3.17        --      4.78     22.2        4.33
-    33.80      25.71        --         --      5.66       --        2.43
-     5.62        .987       .06        --      1.76      3.09        .703
-    10.42       3.26        --         --      3.5       2.91        .75
-    24.03       7.45       5.02        --      3.31       --        8.25
-      --        3.96      17.30        .725    6.36       --        5.41
-    17.00       3.68        .97        --      4.63      5.29       2.34
-    15.60       3.94       4.6         --      5.82       --        1.24
-    15.32       4.52        --        1.06     5.31      2.06       8.03
-    19.82       3.7         .3         --      3.92      7.59       4.31
-    19.71        --        4.36        --      4.3       5.1       17.95
-    11.9        2.3        1.47       4.538    1.29      2.357       --
-    19.78       4.31        --         --      2.29      5.53       7.65
-    11.97       4.63        --         --      3.445      --        4.89
-    18.1        6.4        7.35        --       --       4.35        --
-    38.40      10.42        --         --      7.31      9.44      11.23
-    20.32       4.28       3.36        .43     6.19      6.14        --
-    24.85      18.4        4.5         --      1.2       3.2        1.6
-    15.42       2.33       2.47       1.09     2.96      1.17       5.4
-    21.62       6.39       1.6        1.4     11.27       --         .96
-    39.62      19.21        --         --     10.43      1.5        8.48
-    23.04      12.27       6.02        --      1.06      1.4        2.29
-
-
-
-
-TABLE VI.
-
-
-     A              B                      C              D
-
-    Date.         Name.                 Composer.        % of
-                                                       Ensemble.
-
-    1600   Rappresentatione de Anima   Cavalieri        11.6
-    1675   King Arthur                 Purcell          17.27
-    1731   La Serva Padrona            Pergolese        19.50
-    1762   Orfeus                      Gluck            33.13
-    1767   Alceste                     Gluck             3.163
-    1784   Le Domine Noir              Auber            15.91
-    1787   Don Giovanni                Mozart           19.31
-    1762   L'Amant Jaloux              Gretry           83.4
-    1800   Les Deux Journees           Cherubini         7.2
-    1805   Fidelio                     Beethoven        14.06
-    1816   The Barber of Seville       Rossini          38.57
-    1821   Der Freishutz               Weber             4.7
-    1831   La Somnambula               Bellini           7.523
-    1832   Le Postilion Lonjuneaux     Adam             23.32
-    1835   Lucia di Lammermoor         Donizetti        10.23
-    1843   The Bohemian Girl           Balfe             8.38
-    1847   Martha                      Flotow           28.778
-    1866   Mignon                      Thomas            9.76
-    1867   Romeo and Juliet            Gounod            6.97
-    1874   Aida                        Verdi             7.075
-    1875   Carmen                      Bizet            15.05
-    1882   Parsifal                    Wagner             --
-    1887   Samson and Delilah          Saint Saens       4.3
-    1890   Cavalieria Rusticana        Mascagni         12.56
-    1892   Il Pagliacci                Leoncavello       9.18
-    1893   Le Cid                      Massenet          8.33
-    1894   Hansel and Gretel           Humperdinck       5.54
-    1896   Cricket on the Hearth       Goldmark          2.09
-    1900   Louise                      Charpentier      15.6
-    1904   Madame Butterfly            Puccini           4.75
-    1905   Eugene Onegin               Tschaikovsky      2.93
-    1905   Salome                      Strauss            .93
-    1913   L'Amour dei Tre Re          Montemezzi         .07
-    1914   Madeleine                   Herbert           4.36
-
-ENSEMBLE
-
-      E        F          G           H          I
-
-    % Duet.  % Trio.  % Quartet.  % Quintet.  % Sextet.
-
-    11.6        --       --            --        --
-    14.07      3.2       --            --        --
-    19.50       --       --            --        --
-    33.13       --       --            --        --
-      .833      --      2.53           --        --
-     9.59      6.32      --            --        --
-     8.89      5.69     4.47          3.91      6.35
-    34.2      34.2     22.8          15.75     10.65
-     2.46      2.97      .743          --       1.1
-     8.3       1.66     4.7            --        --
-    15.25      4.92     2.7          15.7        --
-     1.6       3.1       --            --        --
-     6.46       --       .963          --        --
-    12.73      6.52     1.76          4.07       --
-     6.4       2.07      --            --        --
-     3.25      2.42     2.71           --        --
-    10.68      8.50     7.89          1.708      --
-     5.19      4.24      .033          --        --
-     4.31       --      2.66           --        --
-     4.39      2.685     --            --        --
-     8.92      1.07     3.74         1.32        --
-      --        --       --            --        --
-     3.9        .4       --            --        --
-    12.56       --       --            --        --
-     8.87      .306      --            --        --
-     4.3      1.97      2.06           --        --
-     2.09       --       --           3.54       --
-     2.09       --       --            --        --
-    13.92     1.68       --            --        --
-     3.41      .134      --            --        --
-     1.42      .6       1.91           --        --
-      .93       --       --            --        --
-      .07       --       --            --        --
-     4.36       --       --            --        --
-
-
-
-
-TABLE VII.
-
-
-     A            B                         C              D
-
-    Date.       Name.                   Composer.      % of Chorus.
-
-    1600   Rappresentatione de Anima    Cavalieri        14.39
-    1675   King Arthur                  Purcell          21.6
-    1731   La Serva Padrona             Pergolese        10.2
-    1762   Orfeus                       Gluck            12.88
-    1767   Alceste                      Gluck            18.71
-    1784   Le Domine Noir               Auber            23.19
-    1787   Don Giovanni                 Mozart            1.582
-    1762   L'Amant Jaloux               Gretry            6.2
-    1800   Les Deux Journees            Cherubini        36.94
-    1805   Fidelio                      Beethoven        14.6
-    1816   The Barber of Seville        Rossini          12.2
-    1821   Der Freischütz               Weber            16.31
-    1831   La Somnambula                Bellini          30.6
-    1832   Le Postilion Lonjuneaux      Adam             26.17
-    1835   Lucia di Lammermoor          Donizetti        35.4
-    1843   The Bohemian Girl            Balfe            24.9
-    1847   Martha                       Flotow           25.957
-    1866   Mignon                       Thomas           33.75
-    1867   Romeo and Juliet             Gounod           13.72
-    1874   Aida                         Verdi            30.1
-    1875   Carmen                       Bizet             9.32
-    1882   Parsifal                     Wagner           10.31
-    1887   Smason and Delilah           Saint Saens      15.07
-    1890   Cavalleria Rusticana         Mascagni         31.64
-    1892   Il Pagliacci                 Leoncavello      19.88
-    1893   Le Cid                       Massenet          9.75
-    1894   Hansel and Gretel            Humperdinck       5.38
-    1896   Cricket on the Hearth        Goldmark          5.6
-    1900   Louise                       Charpentier      15.51
-    1904   Madame Butterfly             Puccini          10.03
-    1905   Eugene Onegin                Tschaikovsky     15.29
-    1905   Salome                       Strauss          11.36
-    1913   L'Amour dei Tre Re           Montemezzi        3.57
-    1914   Madeleine                    Herbert            --
-
-CHORUS
-
-       E            F            G
-
-    % of mixed   % of men's   % of women's
-     chorus.       chorus.      chorus.
-
-    14.39           --           --
-    18.3          2.56          1.14
-    10.2           --            --
-    12.88          --            --
-    16.05         2.66           --
-    12.7          6.09          4.3
-      .923         .652          --
-      --           --            --
-     9.14        24.8            --
-     8.3          2.71          4.59
-    12.2           --            --
-    12.2          3.15          3.85
-    30.6           --            --
-    13.37          --          14.85
-    20.99        15.21           --
-    21.32          --           3.58
-    19.9           .647         5.41
-    11.08         3.66           --
-     9.03         2.5           2.19
-    19.74         3.5           9.86
-     5.29         1.64          2.39
-     5.1          3.29          1.92
-    10.43         3.21          1.43
-    22.78         3.46          5.4
-    19.88          --            --
-     7.29         2.46           --
-     1.27         4.21           --
-     5.6           --            --
-     6.29         4.3           4.96
-     8.48          .262         1.34
-    10.47          --           4.82
-    11.36          --            --
-     2.04         1.53           --
-      --           --            --
-
-
-
-
-BIBLIOGRAPHY.
-
-
-Books.
-
-   1. Apthorpe, W. F.                      Opera, Past and Present.
-   2. Dannrheuther, E.                     Wagner and Reform.
-   3. Edwards, H. S.                       Rossini and His School.
-   4. Gounod, Chas.                        Mozart's Don Giovanni.
-   5. Henderson, W. J.                     Some Forerunners of Opera.
-   6. Henderson, W. J.                     A Comment on Opera.
-   7. Krehbiel,                            A Book of the Opera.
-   8. Krehbiel,                            Studies of Wagnerian Drama.
-   9. Mendelssohn                          Stories of the Opera.
-  10. Newman, E.                           Gluck and the Opera.
-  11. Newman, E.                           Opera.
-  12. Sonneck, O. G.                       Early Opera in America.
-  13. Upton, Geo. P.                       The Standard Operas.
-  14.                                      Victor Book of the Operas.
-  15. Introduction--American History
-      and Encyclopedia.                    H. E. Krehbiel.
-  16. Groves Musical Dictionary.           Pages 446, 454.
-  17. Moore Encyclopedia of Music.
-  18. Naaman Zwillingsbruder.              Volume II.
-  19. Dictionary of Music.                 Rieman.
-  20. University Music Encyclopedia.
-  21. W. B. Matthews.                     History of Music.
-
-
-Program Notes.
-
-    Chicago Grand Opera Company.
-    Boston Grand Opera Company.
-
-
-Special Articles in the Programs.
-
-    1. Brennon, Algernon St. John.    Translating Opera.
-
-    2. Haexter, Hermann H.,           English Grand Opera in America.
-
-    3. Hackett, Karleton,         (a) Madame Butterfly.
-                                  (b) Il Trovatore.
-                                  (c) Faust.
-                                  (d) Cleopatre.
-                                  (e) Thais.
-                                  (f) Thanhauser.
-
-    4. Oberdorfer, Anne Faukner,  (a) Influence of Wagner.
-                                  (b) Reforms of Gluck.
-                                  (c) Monna Vanna.
-                                  (d) Louise.
-
-
-Aid has been recieved from the following first hand sources.
-
-      I. Interview with Mr. C. C. Birchard of Boston.
-     II. Notes from class in Music II, Summer of 1916.
-    III. Lecture on Modern Music. Thos. Whitney Surrette.
-     IV. Attendance at the various operas for the past six seasons
-             at Chicago.
-
-
-Magazine Articles.
-
-  1913 Atlantic Monthly         The Opera                Thos. W. Surrette.
-
-  Vol. 13.  Bookman             Opera Season 1900-1901        E. Singleton.
-
-  Vol. 29.     "                Lawrence Gilman on "Chapters of the Opera"
-                                by Krehbiel.
-
-  Vol. 81.  Century             Acting in Lyric Drama          Mary Garden.
-
-  Vol. 89.  Contemporary Review "Nicolai Andreyevitch Rimski-Korsakov"
-                                                              A. E. Keeton.
-
-  Vol. 13.      "     "         Gluck and Puccini             A. E. Keeton.
-
-  Vol. 97.      "     "         Two Centuries of French Opera.
-
-  Vol. 106.     "     "         Gluck & the Reform of Opera.       K. Roof.
-
-  1908      Craftsman           Nationalism in Opera.
-
-  1909         "                Elektra in Dresden.
-
-  Vol. 39.  Current Literature  Two New French Operas.
-
-  Vol. 48.     "     "          (a) American reception of Elektra.
-                                (b) Sorrowful Fate of Librettists.
-
-  1909      Etude               Frank Moore Jeffery                Bellini.
-
-  1910        "                 Future of Italian Opera in America
-                                                                Ant. Scott.
-
-              "                 Modern French and German Opera.
-                                                              Arthur Elson.
-
-              "                 Modern Italian Opera and Tendencies.
-                                                               L. C. Elson.
-
-              "                 Gluck's Operatic Ideas      Henry T. Finck.
-
-              "                 Beginnings of Opera            "       "
-
-              "                 Conflict of Speech and Song    Fred Corder.
-
-  Vol. 37.  Forum               Music                          Joseph Sohn.
-
-  Vol. 41.    "                 Lesson from Wagner            F. R. Burton.
-
-  Vol. 3.   Fortnightly         Centenary of Wagner      Franklin Peterson.
-
-              "                 Moussorgsky's Operas.
-
-  1909       "                  Beaumarchais and Musicians       E. Newman.
-
-  1913       "                  Puccini.
-
-  Vol. 54. Harper's Weekly      Two New Operas                   L. Gilman.
-
-             "                  Bruneau on Opera.
-
-             "                  Strauss' Electra.
-
-             "                  Tschaikovsky's Queen of Spade
-
-  1910       "                                              F. S. Converse.
-
-  1910       "                  Pipe of Desire                      Gilman.
-
-  Vol. 64.  Independent         Bel Canto                       Tetrazzini.
-
-  Vol. 69.      "               Future of the Opera                Puccini.
-
-  Vol. 19.  Living Age          Music and Modern Opera.
-
-  1906            "             Apostasy of a Wagnerian      E. A. Baugham.
-
-  1910            "             Electra and the Future of Music Drama.
-
-  1910   Literary Digest        (a) Our Gilded Opera.
-                                (b) Slow Growth of Shakespearean Opera.
-
-  1905     Musician             New School of Music             E. B. Hill.
-
-  1908        "                 Peleas and Melisande             "  "  "
-
-  1910        "                 Group of French and Italian Composers
-                                                             F. H. Marling.
-
-  1910        "                 Synopsis of Modern French Music E. B. Hill.
-
-  1911        "                 (a) Music of Greek Drama
-                                (b) Rimski-Korsakov           C. A. Browne.
-
-  Vol. 18.    "                 Opera as a factor in Music   Arthur Wilson.
-
-  Vol. 9.   Music               (a) Wagner
-                                (b) Gounod
-              "                 (a) Boris Godonow                A. Pougin.
-              "                 (b) Balakirew and Borodine
-              "                 (c) First Greek Drama          Arthur Weld.
-              "                 (d) "Mataswinthe"
-
-  Vol. 12   Music               Young Russian School             A. Pougin.
-
-  Vol. 13     "                 Puccini                        Alfred Vert.
-
-  Vol. 14     "                 Rimski-Korsakov                  A. Pougin.
-
-  Vol. 39   Nation              German and Italian Opera.
-
-  Vol. 40     "                 German Opera in New York.
-
-  Vol. 90     "                 Massenet's Music.
-
-  Vol. 96     "                 Weber.
-
-  Vol. 102    "                                                H. T. Finck.
-
-  Vol. 102    "                 (a) Comments on the Metroplitan Season.
-                                (b) Shakespearean Operas.
-                                (c) Music.
-
-  1908   19th Century           Music Drama of the Future      E. J. Levey.
-
-  1887   North American         Boucicault and Wagner          E. J. Levey.
-
-  Vol. 9  New Music Review      Les Hugenote                   Saint Saens.
-
-           "    "      "        Puccini                       Vernon Black.
-
-  Vol. 8   "    "      "        At the Opera.
-
-  1910     "    "      "        Königskinder.
-
-           "    "      "        Natoma.
-
-  1910     "    "      "        Cyrano                     Walter Damrosch.
-
-           "    "      "        Conchita                 Riccardo Zandonai.
-
-  1895 Saturday Review          Opera and Acting                   J. F. R.
-
-  Vol. 80   "      "            Weber and Wagner                   J. F. R.
-
-  Vol. 80   "      "            Italian and German Opera           J. F. R.
-
-  Vol. 80   "      "            At the Opera                       J. F. R.
-
-  Vol. 84   "      "            Concerts at the Opera              J. F. R.
-
-  Vol. 95   "      "            Italian Opera                      J. F. R.
-
-  Vol. 43 Review of Reviews  }
-  Vol. 40   "           "    }  Opera.
-  Vol. 49   "           "    }
-
-  1898 Scribner's               (a) Gluck and Wagner.
-                                (b) Tendencies of Modern Opera    De Koven.
-                                (c) Mozart's Magic Flute.
-
-  Vol. 18   World Today         Chevalier Gluck and the Leading Motive.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Certain Tendencies
-in Modern Opera, by Kathryn Eleanor Browne
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA ***
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-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Certain Tendencies in
-Modern Opera, by Kathryn Eleanor Browne
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Development of Certain Tendencies in Modern Opera
-       Thesis for the degree of Bachelor of Music
-
-Author: Kathryn Eleanor Browne
-
-Release Date: January 31, 2017 [EBook #54077]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-generously made available by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Note: This e-text is reproduced from the original typescript
-submitted by the author for her bachelor’s degree. Whilst undoubtedly she
-would have liked it to be error-free, it wasn’t, and for authenticity the
-typos etc. have been left in situ&mdash;save for the incorporation of her
-handwritten corrections, and some attention to missing/extraneous
-punctuation/spacing.</p>
-
-<div class="bbox">
-
-<p class="titlepage larger">THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES
-IN MODERN OPERA</p>
-
-<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br />
-KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE</p>
-
-<p class="titlepage">THESIS<br />
-<span class="smaller">FOR THE</span><br />
-DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF MUSIC<br />
-<span class="smaller">IN</span><br />
-MUSIC</p>
-
-<p class="titlepage">SCHOOL OF MUSIC<br />
-UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS<br />
-1917</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
-
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="700" alt="Certificate" />
-
-<p class="caption center">UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS</p>
-
-<p class="caption right">June 1, 1907</p>
-
-<p class="caption">THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY
-KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE ENTITLED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN
-MODERN OPERA.</p>
-
-<p class="caption">IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
-DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF MUSIC</p>
-
-<p class="caption">George F. Schwartz Instructor in Charge</p>
-
-<p class="caption">APPROVED: J Lawrence Erb</p>
-
-<p class="caption center">HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Music</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center larger">THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.</p>
-
-<h2>Table of Contents.</h2>
-
-<table summary="Contents">
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2">Introduction</td>
-    <td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Page&nbsp;3.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>I</td>
-    <td>The Beginnings of Opera to Gluck</td>
-    <td><a href="#I_THE_BEGINNINGS_OF_OPERA_TO_GLUCK">Page&nbsp;5.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>II</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td><a href="#II_GLUCK">Page&nbsp;14.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>III</td>
-    <td>Rossini and His School up to Wagner</td>
-    <td><a href="#III_ROSSINI_AND_HIS_SCHOOL_UP_TO_WAGNER">Page&nbsp;20.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>IV</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td><a href="#IV_WAGNER">Page&nbsp;27.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>V</td>
-    <td>Post Wagnerian School&mdash;Including Modern Russian, French, Italian, German and American Composers.</td>
-    <td><a href="#V_POST_WAGNERIAN_SCHOOL">Page&nbsp;34.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>VI</td>
-    <td>Appendix of Tables</td>
-    <td><a href="#APPENDIX_OF_TABLES">Page&nbsp;44.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table I, General</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_I">Page&nbsp;46.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table II, Number and Kind of Characters</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_II">Page&nbsp;48.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table III, Orchestration</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_III">Page&nbsp;50.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table IV, Solos</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_IV">Page&nbsp;52.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table V, Recitative</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_V">Page&nbsp;54.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table VI, Ensemble</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_VI">Page&nbsp;56.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Table VII, Chorus</td>
-    <td><a href="#TABLE_VII">Page&nbsp;58.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>VII</td>
-    <td>Bibliography</td>
-    <td><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">Page&nbsp;60.</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
-
-<h1>THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.</h1>
-
-<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2>
-
-<p>In this thesis there has been an attempt made to trace the
-origin, growth and development, and modification of various tendencies
-in the Opera. The form only of the opera has been considered
-and no attempt has been made towards the harmonic analysis of the
-various operas. The main tendencies that have been discussed are,
-the differences in regard to; (1) the number of acts employed;
-(2) the number and kind of characters; (3) a comparison; (a) of
-the proportion of orchestral work, overtures, ballets and ritornelli;
-(b) of solo work and the various voices employed; (c) of
-recitative, spoken, accompanied and unaccompanied; (d) of ensemble
-work, duets, trios, quartets, quintets and sextets; and
-(e) separate from this last, a consideration of the proportion
-of chorus work, mixed, and that sung by the men and the women alone.</p>
-
-<p>A study has been made of thirty-four operas and in order
-to accurately consider these proportions, tables have been prepared,
-showing the percentage of the factors portrayed. These
-percentages have been obtained by actual count of the measures
-devoted to the solos, choruses, ensembles, etc. There are seven
-tables.</p>
-
-<p>Table I is a general table showing the number of characters,
-acts, percentage of orchestra, solo, recitative, ensemble
-and chorus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Table II shows the distribution and number of characters.</p>
-
-<p>Table III shows the percentage of orchestral work, and also
-that of the divisions of the orchestral work into overture,
-ballet and ritornelli.</p>
-
-<p>Table IV shows the percentage of solo work and its distribution
-to the various voices.</p>
-
-<p>Table V shows the percentage of recitative and its distribution
-to the various voices.</p>
-
-<p>Table VI shows the percentage of ensemble work and the
-various kinds.</p>
-
-<p>Table VII shows the percentage of the chorus work and its
-distribution as to mixed choruses and those sung by the men and
-women alone.</p>
-
-<p>"Rappresentatione de Anima" by Cavalieri is generally
-classed as an oratorio but many authorities consider it an opera,
-as he was one of Peri's contemporaries, and worked with the little
-band of Florentine nobles, and this was the first work which resulted
-from their meetings. However, whether it is an opera or
-an oratorio, the forms in those days were very vague, hence, the
-component factors are interesting as compared to the later operas,
-and inasmuch as no score could be obtained earlier than 1675, it
-will suffice as a type of that time. In studying the operas from
-Wagner on, the solos have been very difficult to distinguish from
-the recitative, and consequently any stretch of solo singing over
-twenty or twenty-five measures in length, with any sort of tune,
-has been considered as a solo.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="I_THE_BEGINNINGS_OF_OPERA_TO_GLUCK">I. THE BEGINNINGS OF OPERA TO GLUCK.</h2>
-
-<p>Before beginning the survey of modern operas and before
-tracing the development of the different tendencies, it will be
-interesting to consider briefly the historic source of the opera,
-and the part that music played in the various dramas, madrigals,
-ballets, church services, etc.</p>
-
-<p>It is an acknowledged fact that Peri and his little band
-of Florentine reformers went back to the old Greek dramas for
-their models and forms. However, it is not to be supposed that
-opera was developed spontaneously among these reformers. Like
-every other world wide movement, it was the culmination of tendencies
-and customs from various sources. We have no reason to accept
-the Greek dramas as the only models which served, although they
-were considered seriously by the first opera writers.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptians sang jubilations to their Gods. These consisted
-of florid cadences on prolonged vowel sounds. In the old
-Greek dramas, music played an important part. The Greek tragedy
-and comedy developed from the hymns, choral dances and chants
-sung by a chorus of singers disguised as satyrs, at the festivals
-of Bacchus. The chorus often addressed the audience on topical
-subjects. The various actors intoned or chanted their words, and
-were often accompanied by a lyre and other instruments of the day.
-The chorus chanted their parts. This would not be termed music
-by us today, but was more of a recitative. Later the chorus chanted
-while the principals sang, forming a sort of background accompaniment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
-The slow developement of the music in the mass must not be
-forgotten, but there is nothing which definitely resembles opera
-until the thirteenth century. "Noel" was supposed to be a song
-which the angels sang, and is found in many festivals. Perhaps this
-may be termed one of the sources of Wagner's ideas, the association
-of a particular song with one group of people. In the "Three
-Maries" the chorus sang words in Latin, Gabriel and the three virgins
-sang, but the words of the Savior had no music. The "Fete of
-the Ass" was quite an elaborate festival and here the various
-characters sang quite definitely, and the congregation was urged
-at stated intervals to join in the singing. Part of the words and
-music were symbolical, especially those imitating the braying of
-the ass. "The Passion", in 1264, enacted by the Fraternity of the
-Gonfalone, lasted for several days, and contained scenes which
-were sung, choruses and a trio.</p>
-
-<p>At this period, we must consider the vaudeville plays
-which were plays interspersed with song. "Li gieus de Robin et
-de Marion", given at the court of Charles d'Artois in Naples in
-1285, was an operatic symptom and was divided into songs, spoken
-dialogue, dialogue songs in which two voices alternated, and popular
-ballad tunes, although the music was not appropriate since it
-consisted of such complex counterpoint. The Madrigal plays, although
-comic in character, influenced in the introduction of
-village gossip related by chorus. The "Ballet de la Reine" was a
-brilliant ballet with elaborate scenery, costumes, music, etc.
-It contained solos, duets, choruses and instrumental interludes.
-The melody, however, was only loosely associated with the play.
-In 1554 "Il Sagrifigio", a pastoral drama, arose, in which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
-priest sang solos, accompanied by lyre and the chorus. The first
-solo singing was in the Madrigal of Corteccia in 1539. In "Aminta",
-1573, the choruses separated acts, and introduced the action
-danced to the chorus behind the scenes. There was no attempt at
-the complete setting of the text in these plays, and no union of
-the lyrics by any sort of recitative. In "Decameron" one or another
-of the personages sang to the company, and they all sang and danced.
-The lyric solo resembled somewhat the dramatic recitative of Peri
-and Caccini. The vocal melody was simple in melodic structure.
-Cecchi's "Esaltazione delle Croce", 1589, a sacred representation,
-had an orchestra of viols, lutes, horns and the orchestra played
-an interlude with special music. There was an accompanied solo
-allotted to the Deity and a dance of David. The orchestras were
-composed of lutes, trombones, which accomapnied the dancing, etc.,
-but were usually silent after the entrance of the various characters,
-excepting the lyres. In the English masque the words and
-song were written for an actor but sung behind the scenes by a
-chorus.</p>
-
-<p>The Madrigal dramas became comedies which exhibited a
-variety of style and expressive power. When a single character
-spoke, the chorus sang in madrigals, while the actors were on the
-stage. The music was from behind the curtain. These Madrigal dramas
-began to degenerate, however, as the spectacle disappeared, and
-the comic element became preeminent.</p>
-
-<p>Then came the band of Florentine nobles who were not originators,
-but merely revived certain musical practices and traditions
-of the 14th century and modeled these on the early Greek
-tragedies. "Eurydice" was accompanied by a large orchestra for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
-those days consisting of a chitarone, viola di gamba, theorba,
-three flutes and smaller trombones. There was a brief entr'acte,
-and a trio of two sopranos and a tenor. The chorus was in five
-parts. Previous to this the solo without harmony or harmonic
-support was unknown. The instrumental music was of course in its
-infancy and expressive melody was out of the question. This first
-operatic orchestra was concealed&mdash;perhaps this suggested the idea
-to Wagner&mdash;perhaps not. There were no set tunes, nor any sort of
-formal melody divided into periods, balancing each other symmetrically,
-but a sort of recitative which observed the inflection of
-the spoken words was created.</p>
-
-<p>Peri developed this principle to a great extent. He expressed
-soft gentle speech by half spoken, half sung tones on a
-sustained instrumental bass. Feelings of deeper emotional kind,
-he expressed by melody with greater intervals and a lively tempo,
-accompanied by instrumental harmonies changing frequently, sometimes
-using dissonance. His prologue was in verse and he gave
-short metrical passages for the chorus which were rich in harmony.
-An instrumental episode in the first act and dancing in
-the end are effective.</p>
-
-<p>Vecchi's "L'Amfiparnasso" and "Commedia Armonica" are
-really only a series of madrigals for five voices. There was no
-overture, no orchestral accompaniment, nor ritornello of any
-kind. When the stage was occupied by a single character, four
-voices were made to sing behind the scenes, foretelling the modern
-orchestra. In "Orfeo" the accompaniment was a figured bass.
-"Dafne" and "Arianna" were written in this newly invented "Stilo
-rappresentatino" with a larger orchestra. "Dafne" consisted of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
-imitation of speech, a sort of melodious recitative accompanied
-only with a sustained bass. The instruments were really so contrasted
-and combined as to invest each character and scene with
-marked individuality. The introductory toccata (founded on a single
-chord) was followed by a ritornello, the recitative was accompanied
-by a figured bass, sometimes by two or more instruments
-indicated at the beginning.</p>
-
-<p>These reformers really resuscitated a style of musical
-declamation, and their music better expressed passion and the
-like. There was a monodic exchanging of contrapuntal richness for
-the simplest of melodies, confined to a single part, and accompanied
-by bass of the rudest type and construction. The melodies
-were destitute of figure and the composers really aimed at exact
-oratorical rendering of the words. The possibilities of orchestral
-coloring were limited and the dry style of recitative really
-dramatically untruthful. There was little variety of contrast.
-This weakened the true power of the drama by the introduction
-of measured melody and formally constructed movements. The libbrettos
-were carefully considered at first, but finally declined,
-and more and more attention was paid to the aria and the various
-concerted music introduced without regard to the dramatic tendencies.
-The rules became strict, and it is not difficult to see how
-the operas became a concert in costume. We find a quotation of
-the rules:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. A woman always took a man's part.</p>
-
-<p>2. Characters were stereotyped.</p>
-
-<p>3. Position of the aria was determined to give entrance impressiveness.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>4. The solos, duets, choruses and ballets were arranged artificially
-to suit the convenience of the performers and without
-regard for the dramatic context.</p>
-
-<p>Monteverde has been termed "the Italian Wagner". He never
-ventured to introduce flowing melody save in the ritornello. His
-music was dramatic and he increased the dramatic scope of the recitative.
-His "Orfeo", 1607, contains the first dramatic duet.
-He was an innovator and gave a new developement to the harmonic
-system. His influence may be summed up as follows;</p>
-
-<p>I. He made operatic recitative more melodious and expressive.</p>
-
-<p>II. He boldly used unprepared discord to express dramatic
-emotions.</p>
-
-<p>III. He greatly enlarged the orchestra, used special, appropriate
-groups of instruments to accompany characters, and employed
-separate combinations to announce the return and entry of persons.
-In his "Arianna" the widening influence of his orchestra developed
-to thirty-six instruments, including violins, trombones, trumpets
-and three small organs. He invented the pizzicato and tremolo on
-the violin. In his "Orfeo" there are parts for the harpsichords,
-lyres, violas, double basses, double harps with two rows of strings,
-two violins, guitars, organs, flutes, clarions and trombones. The
-apportionment of the instruments was as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>The bass viols accompanied Orpheus.</p>
-
-<p>The violas, Eurydice.</p>
-
-<p>Four Trombones, Pluto.</p>
-
-<p>The organs, Apollo.</p>
-
-<p>The guitars, Charon.</p>
-
-<p>The flute registers of the organs, the chorus of sprites.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Scarlatti's genius for melody modified the still though
-dramatically correct recitative, and substituted airs in its place.
-He introduced measured recitative for the first time, and invented
-the "de capo aria", his singers thus distracting attention from
-the important dramatic meaning. His knowledge of counterpoint
-aided him in the construction of the bass, and elaboration of accompaniments.
-He tired of the monotony of uninterrupted recitative,
-and organized three forms:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. Recitative secco for ordinary business.</p>
-
-<p>2. Recitative stromentato which was accompanied and used
-for violent emotion, and used the "thorough bass" by the harpsichord
-to aid this passionate form of declamation. The sense of
-the verbal text was enforced by continual interposition of orchestral
-symphonies.</p>
-
-<p>3. The aria, to which he added the "de capo"&mdash;that is,
-the repetition of the second part following the first.</p>
-
-<p>Cavalli employed the ritornello constantly to relieve the
-monotony of continuous recitative, and introduced repetition in
-his ariettas, which was disapproved by the Florentine Caccini,
-who was the father of a new order of music, a style of melody
-which is not melody; a recitative melody, noble in character and
-surpassing the songs of the people, not altering the words nor
-depriving them of life, but augmenting them and giving them
-meaning and force.</p>
-
-<p>Purcell had true dramatic instinct and a declamatory recitative
-second only to that of Wagner, and his airs show unfettered
-melody. The laws of his time, which he chose to disregard
-and modify, are interesting.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>I. The number of characters was six, three women and
-three men.</p>
-
-<p>a. Prima Donna (soprano).</p>
-
-<p>b. A contralto.</p>
-
-<p>c. An artificial or male soprano.</p>
-
-<p>d. An artificial alto.</p>
-
-<p>e. A tenor.</p>
-
-<p>f. A bass.</p>
-
-<p>II. (a) "Aria Cantabile" was quiet and slow with opportunities
-of ornamentation, accompanied by a figured bass under
-pathos.</p>
-
-<p>(b) "Aria di portamento" in slow movement and marked
-rythm was sometimes accompanied only by one or two violins.</p>
-
-<p>(c) "Aria di mezzo carattere" had the second part
-faster than the first, and the accompaniment was rich and varied.</p>
-
-<p>(d) "Aria Parlante" was elaborately declamatory.</p>
-
-<p>(e) "Aria di bravura" was allegro with brilliant
-divisions.</p>
-
-<p>III. There were three acts and every scene terminated
-with an air. Every member sang one air but no one sang two airs
-in succession and no two airs of the same type followed each other.
-The most important ones came at the conclusion of the first and
-second act and here the hero and heroine claimed a grand scene,
-with accompanied recitative followed by "aria d'agilita" and then
-united in a grand duet. The third act ended with a chorus of lively
-movement frequently accompanied by a dance. There were no trios,
-quartets or other concentrated movements allowed, though three
-characters could join in harmonized exclamation at close of the
-recitative.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Handel broke away from these rules in "Radamisto" with
-an elaborate quartet and "Teseo" in five acts with two airs in
-succession to each character. His operas have been termed a ballad
-concert in costume, although he did a great deal toward faithful
-reproduction of the embodied sentiments of the text. Purcell rebelled
-against the idea of succession of songs and dances and in a
-tuneful chorus with dramatic spoken action, he introduced a decided
-dramatic feeling. The English opera was advertised to be performed
-after the Italian manner, with recitative in place of dialogue
-and measured melody for airs. Purcell's "Dido and Aeneus"
-contains not one spoken word, and his drawn out aria foreshadowed
-the dramatic aria of Gluck and Wagner. Balfe and Benedict raised
-the standard of the old ballad operas by using better music although
-Balfe only appealed to the ear. Tallis, Byrde and Purcell
-are tolerated for their voice parts only.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="II_GLUCK">II. GLUCK.</h2>
-
-<p>"In the early 18th century the condition of opera was
-very 'low'". The accepted number of characters was six, three of
-each sex. There were three acts of a given number of verses based
-on Greek drama. The chorus stood motionless except for the leader,
-in a double row with the sexes separated and masked. The same libretti
-were used time and time again. The poets became as stilted
-as the composers. There were five types of melody whose sequence
-and distribution were regulated by rules, and not by dramatic requirements.
-Though varied in other ways, the songs consisted of
-two parts, the first repeated "de capo" after the second, notwithstanding
-the histronic result. The vocalist tyrannized over
-the performance, displaying no musical feeling, nothing but vocal
-agility. In England and Germany the singers sang their own language
-during the performance, for every thing except the formal arias,
-which were sung in Italian. Each act had to close with an elaborate
-finale, and each singer had to have an aria.</p>
-
-<p>Sammartini in Milan gave prominence to string quartets.
-There was much stress laid on technical proficiency and arias.
-The dances became better than the vocal music, for the arias
-especially were monotonous and forced, and overloaded with ornament
-and contained practically no counterpoint. The overture,
-customarily in three parts, was separated from the opera itself.
-The arias were in bravura style with long and prolix ritornelli.
-The dramatic airs were absolutely spoiled by florishes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Gluck freed the opera from many of these forms. He maintained
-that the function of the music was to support the poetry
-without interrupting action or disfiguring by superfluous ornament.
-The dramatic action was given more importance and the concerted
-pieces with stereotyped de capo were discarded. He was
-criticized for sacrificing music to drama, which would often
-have been better without it. This has also been said of Debussy's
-"Pelleas and Melisande." Gluck colored his music and avoided
-interrupting the actor in the warmth of the dialogue to wait for
-ritornello, flourishes and repetitions. He maintained that the
-overture should prepare specifically for the character of action
-and indication of the subject. Instruments should be employed
-in proportion to the degree of interest and passion. Above all
-he worked for simplicity; that opera must express life in aria
-and in recitative, and in similarity between the passion and the
-object called forth. His melody was supported by harmony and
-was varied in rythm. He strove for pictorial representation in
-his airs and accompanied his recitatives by figured bass and
-chords of the harpsichord, and employed several airs preceded
-by long instrumental solos. He changed and consolidated the
-structure of the opera on the verbal basis, and repressed the vanity
-and egotism of the singers. He galvanized the lazy languid
-orchestra into life and made the recitative play a more important
-part, making his opera dignified, overture elucidatory, accompaniment
-significant, and emphasized the coherent principle
-of unity.</p>
-
-<p>In "Telemaco" Gluck imitated aspects of nature in several
-of the arias with greater unity of handling, truer dramatic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
-expression, and continuous interest in the recitative. There are
-nine numbers following in dramatic sequence. He abandoned the
-symphony in three pieces making his overture lead into the opening
-aria. His two themes begin finely in contra-distinction but
-they degenerate into bravura style. Gluck studied literature
-and filled in the void for recitative so that the audience could-not
-play chess in between numbers.</p>
-
-<p>"Orpheus" is lyrical and noticeable for the dramatic interest
-of the recitative, and the importance of the work given
-to the chorus. His duo-thematic treatment of the orchestra here
-is not successful. In his short orchestral prelude he breaks away
-from the spirit of the overture. The chorus takes up the
-broad sad theme. Orpheus cries, "Eurydice", twice, the third
-time he sings a note higher and stands against chords of diminished
-intervals, instead of blending with the chord of the minor
-third of the dominant, making a striking dramatic effect. The
-theme of the aria is echoed behind the scenes. In the accompanied
-recitative the orchestra has a share in producing the effect. In
-one aria when the sense of the words changes, the whole character
-of the music changes. Three fourth time, in the key of G, is used
-to depict the happiness of man. Where Cupid relates to Orpheus,
-an andante in three eighth time in the key of D is used.</p>
-
-<p>Gluck has too many contrasts of slow and fast to be effective.
-His overtures and finales are weak, and he could not
-quite effect a compromise between the musical and the dramatic.</p>
-
-<p>He improved the old antagonism between the aria and the
-recitative by giving the orchestra the function of adding some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
-sort of color to the mere vocal padding. He insisted on acting,
-instead of mere singing by posturing sopranos and a chorus of
-wax figures. He insisted also on his music being sung as written.
-His bold stroke was uneven, but such a dramatic genius has never
-been surpassed.</p>
-
-<p>In "Alceste" his overture assumed a new significance. It
-had no formal end but was broken into by the chorus. In "Armide"
-each character had music personally distinctive. "Iphigenie en
-Tauride" combined dramatic sincerity, superb use of recitative,
-natural and telling though simple choruses, throbbing height of
-passion, unification of parts of soloists, chorus and orchestra.
-He is termed a "creator of dramatic music". Orchestration was his
-specialty although he introduced it subservient to action. However,
-Gluck never employed trill passages or cadenzas, for he
-wanted to accentuate nature and strengthen declamation. His choruses
-are treated as "an additional acting character", and his
-recitative is true to the dramatic import. Rameau's and Lulli's
-operas were crabbed and rigid in comparison. Gluck alone gives
-each personage a style that is proper. The musicians who would
-not, or could not sing, except from the wings, were ignored by
-Gluck, and he refused the undramatic demands of the manager. In
-"Iphigenia en Tauris" the chorus works into a background which
-appropriately and dramatically supports the singer. The two tendencies
-in Gluck are, to neglect all sensuous aesthetic pleasure
-for attainment of dramatic intensity through declamation, and
-to realize his purpose through emotional pleasure, harmony of
-color, greater unity of scenes, the carrying out of one dramatic
-idea from the beginning to the end, making each individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
-part stronger.</p>
-
-<p>Piccini was the innovator of the dramatic treatment of
-the duet and extended development of the finale. He was the first
-to turn choral masses to account on the stage. He used "Recitative
-instrumento" in pale of the ordinary "Recitative secco." Mozart
-enlarged on his ideas, for his command of the orchestra was
-unrivalled as a dramatic factor. Cimarosa placed a statue on the
-stage, with a pedestal in the orchestra, while Mozart placed the
-staue in the orchestra, using the work of the stage as the pedestal.
-Cimarosa uses the accompaniment for the support while
-Mozart intensifies the voice. Cimarosa was the first to introduce
-quartets and other concerted pieces in the midst of dramatic
-action, and not as an ornament at the end of the act, but he
-was outdistanced by Mozart. Before this, opera was merely a recitative,
-with a chorus at the end of each act, and then occasional
-airs were introduced, but not before the middle of the 18th
-century do we find trios, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Beethoven and Weber followed Gluck. Beethoven gave to the
-orchestra the explanatory character of the chorus. He employs
-twenty phrases for a single character in "Fidelio". Weber used
-spoken dialogue and recitative sparingly but when neccessary
-composed with originality and dramatic vividness. He tried to
-construct drama by means of melody and failed. The first example
-of a grand orchestral prelude is written in six-fourth time to
-"Der Beberrscher der Geister." The overture to "Der Freischutz",
-by the use of leading themes, relates the entire story.</p>
-
-<p>In the Italian and French school, "a la Sopontini" the orchestra
-lifted and balanced the words and the spirit of the orchestra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
-reveals the innermost emotions of the dramatic personae.
-The Mythical manner is chosen, and a use of alliterative verse
-with a peculiar use of the orchestra as preparing, supporting,
-commenting upon, enforcing and recalling the various situations
-of the text.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="III_ROSSINI_AND_HIS_SCHOOL_UP_TO_WAGNER">III. ROSSINI AND HIS SCHOOL UP TO WAGNER.</h2>
-
-<p>In 1814 the operatic conditions were deplorable. Vocalists
-were masters over the composers. They accepted the mere
-skeleton of a tune, and so adorned it with their own trills and
-flourishes that the poor composer could scarcely recognize it.
-The solos were placed to suit their convenience, whether or not
-they were suited dramatically. The tenor singers were very prominent
-and the bass singers had not as yet emerged from the background.</p>
-
-<p>Rossini expelled the male soprani from the stage, directed
-and controlled his own operas. His music was sensuous
-and, as shown in "William Tell", of a simple dramatic style.
-The operas were of two acts and scarcely conducive to the maintenance
-of dramatic action, separated by a ballet. His "Elizabetha"
-contained an overture, a duet and the finale had involved
-motives in the orchestra. There were two tenors, for the bass was
-still in the background. This was the first opera in which the
-recitative was accompanied by a stringed quartet and double bass.
-He supported the declamation by brilliant themes for the orchestra.
-"The Barber of Seville" is a series of melodies, continuous,
-and the characters only ceased to sing for strains executed by
-the instrumentalists. The transfer of the current of the melody
-from the voices to the orchestra was an entirely new idea. He
-also introduced new instruments into the orchestra.</p>
-
-<p>Mozart was indebted to the Italians for the sweetness of
-his melodies and gave to Italy, through Rossini, new instrumental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
-combinations, new dramatic methods and new operatic forms.
-The horn, eighty years ago, was not very important in Italy and
-the orchestration played in the operatic band probably had a part
-in developing the taste for wind instruments and especially for
-horns. Rossini was a student of Haydn's symphonies and quartets.</p>
-
-<p>In the opera-buffo "L'Equivaco Stravagante" the concerted
-pieces are good, and the final rondo a type of final airs.
-"L'Inganno Felice" was the first to make an impression. "Ciro
-in Babilonia" was given to accomodate a woman, who sustained one
-tone while the orchetra played the melody. With "Tancredi" came
-the commencement of reforms and the character of the easily comprehended
-melodies was fascinating. Rossini substituted singing
-for declamation, for monologues supported by chords, and concerted
-pieces connected with and supported by a brilliant orchestral
-accompaniment. In "Tancredi" the bass was given prominence, in
-fact he was as prominent as the tenor. In "Semiramide" the principal
-is a bass. The action is sustained, the number of formal airs
-decreased, the number of characters increased and a free use
-made of the chorus, which previous to this time had been merely
-a subordinate part with no dramatic functions. In "Otello" the
-recitative is used more sparingly and accompanied by a full band,
-from which the piano was banished. This had been expelled before
-in Germany, and by Gluck in France. The two leading parts are assigned
-to bass voices, and the interminable recitative accompanied
-by double piano or piano and double bass, is done away with.
-The most beautiful airs for the prima donna are in "La Cenercatola".</p>
-
-<p>Rossini was now bringing his operas to a brilliant termination,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
-and beginning to emphasize the alto and mezzo voice.
-It was only toward the end of his Italian career in "Matilda di
-Shubrun" that he assigned the leading part to a soprano. We find
-now that there are no leading parts written for contralto and
-whether this is due the fact that the soprano has bean forced into
-activity to suit new tastes, or because contraltos are rare,
-we can not say. Of course Meyerbeer's "L'Africaine" and Donnizetti's
-"La Favorita" are exceptions. The orchestration of "La
-Gazza Ladrone" is more brilliant and sonorous than that of its
-predecessors and introduces new instruments, new combinations,
-a new distribution of voice parts, and of orchestral melodies
-with declamatory phrases for the singers instead of the endless
-recitative accompanied only by chords for the cellos or piano.</p>
-
-<p>He introduced cornets and ophicleides in the overture to
-"William Tell", as the nearest approach to the actual instruments
-used by the cowherders of Switzerland. In "Semiramide" he
-brought an entire band onto the stage and wrote beautifully harmonized
-music which suggests the chase. He began the overture
-to "La Gazza Ladrona" with a duet for the drums, and did away with
-the extemporaneous attempts at orchestration by solo instrumentalists
-in the accompaniment, who were every bit as disagreeable
-and authoritative os the vocal soloists.</p>
-
-<p>Berlioz charged that Rossini's music was heartless, unemotional
-and written entirely for the singer, utterly disregarding
-the vocal effect. His particular attention to orchestral and choral
-effects may be traced to the Parisian influence of his fine
-experience in hearing their choruses and orchestras. His music
-changed from the soft voluptuous melodies of "Semiramide" to simple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
-emotional dramatic ones in "William Tell".</p>
-
-<p>Rossini, as mentioned before, was the first Italian to accompany
-recitative with a full band, assign leading parts to the
-bass, make each dramatic scene one continuous piece of music, and
-bring to perfection the highly varied, amply developed, concerted
-finales.</p>
-
-<p>Donizetti wrote from sixty to seventy operas, but his
-"Don Pasquale" is in a light style as compared to the "Barber of
-Seville" and does not approach "Semeramide" for melody, nor "William
-Tell" for dramatic value. Stendhal foretold that the florid
-music of Rossini would be followed by a master of simple melodies
-and we find Bellini to be the one. Donizetti's work is not well
-balanced and he sways from one extreme to the other. His tenor
-air in "Anne Bolena" is attractive for it possesses more dramatic
-significance than most of his. He counted on the pure musical effect,
-which is naturally more effective in spoken drama than in
-opera, which is sung through out. For instance, the horn of "Hermani"
-is terrifying when heard in the play, but merely ordinary
-when heard in the opera. He seldom wrote a tune, or scored a half
-dozen measures of simple accompaniment, without burying the voice
-under ponderous chords for the wood winds. "Lucrezia Borgia" contains
-less recitative than was customary with Rossini. Notice
-must be taken of the brilliancy of the introduction, the series
-of dramatic scenes and the large number of tuneful themes distributed
-judiciously for the four leading personages. "Lucia" is
-broadly conceived, well constructed and highly dramatic, especially
-where the chorus informs Lucia of the end of Edgar. In "La
-Favorita" there is passionate impulsiveness in the final duet, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
-choruses are impressive, and the music appropriate to the various
-personages and situations of the piece.</p>
-
-<p>Bellini had true melody and his creative power was more
-effective than Donizetti's, as was his use of the orchestra. He abandoned
-trills and for ornamentation delivered simple phrases. "La
-Somnambula" is an endless flow of melodies full of true emotion and
-thoroughly dramatic, for he gave attention to the orchestration
-and concerted melodies. Rossini emphasized the necessity of introducing
-choruses, which he maintained were indispensable for dramatic
-effect, and we find his ideas developed by these men. However,
-these, and Paisiello's form of long scenes of recitative are old
-now.</p>
-
-<p>Mozart's introduction to "Figaro" first introduces the
-air by the orchestra, then transcribed for the solo voice and finally
-sung by the chorus. The melody of his "Zitti Zitti" trio was take I
-from Hayden's "Seasons". He has adapted also an air from a Russian
-dance to aid in the dramatic effect. He reached the highest perfection
-of expression of melody with the strings, woodwinds and
-voice. His librettos are weak, however, although he rewrote the
-less important ones himself. His recitative is barren, for in his operas
-one had only to sing beautifully, while in Wagner one must declaim
-beautifully. Mozart knew music as the art of expression and
-gave this in its fullest sense to airs, duets and ensemble pieces,
-yet he left opera forms as he found them. He spoke of and depicted
-scenes, animals, etc. in his music. "Magic Flute" is a primma donna
-opera. Mozart considered first music, then the book and lastly the
-performance. In "Figaro" the psychological handling of the characters
-is unconvincing. He has applied one invariable musical formula<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
-to every character. He repeats one or two chords ad infinitum in
-the orchestra. The voice trips along on top of these in semi speed.
-He sanctioned formulas for cadences used in every situation. Even
-in "Don Giovanni" the formulas for the cadences are used in this
-manner. He uses the same method for light scenes as well as tragic
-situations, depicting indignant heroines and chorus in the same
-manner. He was more musical but he did not realize the dramatic situations.</p>
-
-<p>Bellini was a pure melodist, but his instrumentation was
-faulty, and he objected to ornamentation.</p>
-
-<p>The French opera helps to develop the tendency of individual
-expression while the German crushes it in striving for a
-whole general effect. Rameau's "Hyppolyte et Aricie" is the most
-highly developed study of character. Lulli's work is an amplification
-of Ramean's work. He combined simplicity, natural melody and
-dramatic intentions. He developed his attention to the orchestra,
-and employed the chorus as an integral factor in the situation.
-He invented the overture using a slow movement, followed by a quick
-fugal style with the third division, a short dance. He developed
-the style of the French ballet. Both he and Ramean considered accompanied
-recitative a matter of more importance than a continuous
-flow of melodies. He reduced music to a minimum in this and did
-not dominate it in time, rythm nor musical feeling. He characterized
-it by accentuating the metrical and prosodial elements of the
-words themselves, and followed closely the accent of the words,
-changing rapidly from four-four rythm to three-four, and back again.</p>
-
-<p>There is no feeling in his arias for he was restricted to
-conventional forms, and his melodies are characterless. In his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
-"Comique de la Rayne", arranged by Baltazan de Beaujoyeaux, with
-dance, tunes, chorus, musical dialogues and ritornelli he exhibits
-a bold and highly cultivated taste for instrumental music
-which led him to mold the overture into a more perfect form.</p>
-
-<p>The serious opera, however, was becoming a mass of absurdities,
-emphasizing the spectacle as superior to the music, with
-bad libretti, degenerating under aristocratic patronage. The overture
-was to anticipate the opera and a better recitative was wanted.
-Gluck wished to minimize the disparity between opera and recitative
-and protested against the frequent use of the de capo and repetition
-of words, maintaining that the words should only be repeated where
-required by circumstances of passion.</p>
-
-<p>Meyerbeer was feeble in harmonic invention with no psychological
-grip but with a talent for manipulating broad contrasts
-and climaxes of sound. He is a creator of modern stage technique,
-merging scenes and music into unity, a school of dramatic effects
-closely studied by Berlioz and Wagner.</p>
-
-<p>Bizet's "Carmen" is the most brilliant and best to convey
-the romance of the nomadic desire in the gypsy. The ballets and operas
-of Delibes are like the fashioning of a piece of Sevres china.
-Cesar Franck's veil of harmonies envelops a multitude of themes
-so that the tragic ending almost gives one a sense of peace. Auber
-was the last to represent the Opera Comique and is noted for his
-simple melodies, and the rythm and brilliancy of his orchestral
-effects. Bizet's operas are notable for their abundance of local
-color, but Meyerbeer was the most influential except Wagner. He
-opened up a new epoch in French opera.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="IV_WAGNER">IV. WAGNER.</h2>
-
-<p>Wagner objected to the sentimental Italian music. He considered
-Gluck only a musician of airs, and himself insisted on absolute
-equality of words and music. His "Trilogy" is the longest
-musical work in the world, containing 984,033 notes. He discarded
-formal arias, finales, separate movements, to a great extent choruses,
-whereever histrionic delineation did not demand them. He considered
-a full close or final cadence quaint and for usual formal
-melodies substituted declamatory recitative or speech song.</p>
-
-<p>Gluck and Wagner brought back undying principles of dramatic
-worth. In the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody
-was supreme. The dramatic truth was lost sight of and the melody
-was not appropriate. In "William Tell" and "Der Freischutz" there
-was a step onwards towards the Wagner reform and a return to the
-first principles of dramatic art as applied to opera by the Bardi
-coterie. There was recitative, declamation and melody. Individualism
-was the prevailing tendency, and the success depends on the forcibleness
-of character development by means of the leitmotiv. Operatic
-art was here swaying between Wagnerism and the ancient Greek drama.
-This union of drama and music does away with the old absurd Italian
-form, in which the libretto was a mere skeleton, the situations unnatural
-and the music inappropriate and undramatic.</p>
-
-<p>The Wagner texts were better and abolished concerted music
-which was unnatural, and he demanded distinctness in ennunciation,
-musical embodiment of emotional speech, melodic independence
-of the orchestra and rapid and natural action. The Italian libretto
-was merely an excuse for musical adornment, but the Wagnerian opera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
-was a source of inspiration. Wagner translated every character,
-emotion, dramatic action, symbolic idea by a series of characteristic
-phrases. He joined motive to motive, developed with artistic
-skill a musical current rolling along in the orchestral accompaniment
-and ample in every word.</p>
-
-<p>In his earlier works Wagner adhered to the lyrical conception
-of the opera. Speech was raised by stress of emotion into song
-with the orchestra used only as an accompaniment and, under this new
-system, effected an organization of instrumental and vocal forces.
-In "Das Rheingold" the orchestra is exalted to symphonic dignity
-with the traditional alternations of the formal song and recitative
-merged into free declamation. The symphonic treatment of the orchestra
-led to increased developmentt of leading motives. As symphonic
-music presupposes the use of musical themes, Wagner drew
-his themes not from the words sung by the characters but from the
-characters themselves, their thoughts, feelings and aspirations.
-In the love duet in "Die Walküre" the most delicious harmony is expressed.</p>
-
-<p>Wagner was both a poet and a musician and combined poetry,
-music and pantomine painting. He is called the "reformer of opera",
-a "regenerator of modern drama". Wagner's great work aside
-from the leitmotiv was his work with recitative. Up to this time
-the recitative and the arias were dry, weak, barren and hampered
-every composer and poet. Up to his time the recitative aria and the
-ballet had undergone no organic change, though the aria had suffered
-many changes of fashion. He did not mean to sacrifice the
-beauty of sound in the Italian operas, but this had so far usurped
-the first place, while the dramatic motive which had inspired the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
-invention of the opera. His works are not conspicuous for pure melody,
-for he considered the dramatic effect of chords and discords.
-He paid deference to the language employed and the vocal peculiarities
-of the people, for the German words were unintelligible when
-sung to the florid Italian tunes. He wrote the vocal parts of his
-lyric dramas to bring out the force of his poetry.</p>
-
-<p>He gave new expression to new ideas. Peri, in "Eurydice",
-concealed an orchestra behind the scenes. In Monteverde's "Orfeo",
-thirty-six different instruments were relegated to each personage.
-Wagner assigned an instrument or set of instruments to each person.
-His typical phrases are most interesting. He pictures the giants,
-in "Das Rheingold", with loud heavy octaves, the Nibelung, tricksters
-and schemers, with music of a descending figure, twothirds
-the interval of a seventh, the melodies of the Rhine with characteristic
-figures depicting slow undulation of water in its depths,
-flux and reflux of element, ripples on the surface and the motion
-of the swimmers.</p>
-
-<p>His "Rheingold" music is truly scenic. It begins with a
-single deep tone and then introduces instruments of a lighter color.
-The graduated augmentation of the wavy accompaniment and the doubly
-delineative spirit reflects the sinless quiet of the Golden Age.
-There are themes for mental states and the evil Alberich is represented
-by abrupt jerky music. The orchestra discourses mournfully
-of the renunciation of love. Loga is depicted by fitful chromatic
-phrases which crackle and flash thru the orchestra. The sword
-phrase consists of major harmonies over sustained pedal point, and
-the thunderstorm of rushing figures in bass, and staccato lightning
-in short rapid figures in lighter instruments, crashing of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
-wind in chromatic phrases, a hammering rythm for the Nibelung.
-Siegfried's boyhood is pictured as a wild forest lad with a hunting
-call, and when he gathers pieces of the spear the music accompaniment
-is in broken rythm.</p>
-
-<p>In "Parsifal" the music depicts little of external things.
-In "Tannhaüser" there are fancies which Wagner wished to float thru
-the minds of the audience and the Pilgrim's Chant swells and disappears.
-In "Tristan and Isolde" the prelude represents the spiritual
-progress of the tragedy. The suffering of the wounded Tristan
-is shown by a theme of descending half steps and a closing cadence
-of short phrases which stand for the love glance is a downward
-leap of the seventh. The symbol of death is expressed with a sudden
-and unprepared change from A flat to A. The music consists of a
-few phrases which unfold themselves over and over again in a variety
-of combinations with continually changing instrumental color.
-"Die Meistersinger" prelude delineates the characteristic traits
-of the personages, and the symphonic introduction indicates the
-elements of the plot, the progress in its developement and the outcome.
-The two classes of melodies are broadly distinguished in external
-physiognomy and emotional essence, at first consecutively,
-then in conflict and finally in harmonious and contented union.
-The solid old burghers of Nuremburg, a little vain, are pictured
-by strong simple tunes with sequences of the intervals of the simple
-diatonic scale, strongly and simply harmonized, a trifle pompous
-in opposition to the passion of the lovers displayed. These
-themes differ in every respect, melodic, rythmic, and harmonic, and
-also in their treatment. The lover's theme is chromatic, the rythme
-are less regular and more eager by syncopation. This is harmonized
-with greater warmth and set for the instruments with greater passion.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Wagner's orchestra acquired gradually the functions of the
-Greek chorus, in that it takes part in the action to publish that
-which is beyond the capacity of the personages alone to utter. He
-unfolds thoughts, emotions, motives and passions by means of mode,
-harmony, rythm, time and the orchestration. By applying the principles
-of augmentation to a phrase in the three phases of melodic,
-harmonic and instrumental structure, he illustrates the tragic
-growth of Siegfried. He wrote his own librettos so that his works
-would be consistent. "Tristan and Isolde", "Die Meistersinger", "Der
-Ring des Nibelunger" and "Parsifal" realized his conception of
-what a poet composer should be. Music had usurped the place in
-lyric drama and music is a medium only and not an end of dramatic
-expression. His leitmotiv, infinite melody and symbolical themes
-gave his orchestra color. He used musical declamation for recitative
-secco, employed choruses with intelligent regard, and originated
-arias from the situations. Wagner lived for pure singing
-and did not make abnormal demands upon the voice like those of
-Strauss' "Electra". He has long solo passages and orderly development
-of orchestral themes, as different from Debussy whose
-sounds are not connected. Wagner elevated the orchestra from a
-mere accompanying force to an essential factor. He maintained that
-formal song should be abolished, that the dialogue should be musical
-and that the orchestra should have an orderly development
-of melodic material save when the climaxes justify an apparently
-disconnected dramatic melodramatic method. Damrosch criticizes
-Wagner because he says everything in his orchestra, and his singer
-is too little considered.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>However, his operas are a tableaux of gorgeous glowing
-pictures, and he has had no successful imitation. His scheme of
-thematic identification and development in its union of calculation
-and reflection and musical inspiration, is beyond the capacities
-of those who have come after him. Musical critics and historians
-have been occupied with the question as to whether or not the progress
-in operatic composition is possible on the lines laid down, although
-his influence is a modification of the old method rather
-than the invention of new ideas. We look to the theatres of Paris
-for his influence in corrections and technical finish. The clear
-musical phrases of the "Flying Dutchman" are presented in symphonic
-way and there is an introduction, aria, scene, duet and chorus. The
-commencement of each of the three acts with a chorus was a mannerism,
-but Wagner scarcely ever employed it. In "Tannhauser" there is
-only one duet. He advanced individualism of the dramatic mood by
-banishing the aria. He made the orchetra the chief sustainer of the
-musical framework with the voice for the dramatic organ. The lyric
-recitative is reechoed at times by melodic phrases and developed
-motives. The extreme limit of Wagner's methods is "Salome", which
-is really a symphonic poem for a gigantic orchestra to the accompaniment
-of dramatic action with a voice obligato.</p>
-
-<p>Gounod did not use prolonged themes unless for a dramatic
-or purely ethical reason. "Faust" is the best suited for the human
-voice. The orchestra never submerges the voice and is only a factor
-and not a sum total. At this time the Italian school was at the
-height where flimsy librettos only served to string together duets,
-quartets or choruses. In "Faust" there is the first artistic union
-of score and words.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Verdi had a keen dramatic vision and assigned greater
-importance to the orchestra than his Italian predecessors. There
-is an absence, for the most part, of set airs, and there is a continuity
-of musical structure. The orchestration is wonderful, but
-the voice still remains the centre of the musical system. The style
-is more that of Donizetti's than Bellini's, although critics declare
-the music of "Ernani" noisy and commonplace, with too much
-brass in the orchestra. His chorus was written in unison, and passed
-too abruptly from one piece to another, and his effects were not
-sufficiently prepared, but under his direction the brassiness was
-kept down, and a proper balance maintained. There is genuine emotion
-in his strains, significance in his melodies, characterization
-of personages and forcible construction of scenes, though he did
-not surpass "William Tell". He neglected concerted music and does
-not include one separate regularly constructed piece. His solo melodies
-are beautiful. His "Aida" is saturated with local color, Egyptian
-music, with a masterly combination of strings, woodwind and
-voice. "Il Trovatore" is not an opera but a set of detached pieces
-held in loose contact on a string. There was little action and we
-find page after page to be sung at the footlights with only mechanical
-gestures. Verdi avoided the "leitmotiv", and relegated mere
-tune to the background. In "Falstaff" there is a complete independence
-of restrictive formalism that modern music drama requires to
-illustrate the play, which enhances the significance of the situations.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="V_POST_WAGNERIAN_SCHOOL">V. POST WAGNERIAN SCHOOL&mdash;INCLUDING MODERN RUSSIAN,
-FRENCH, ITALIAN, GERMAN, AND AMERICAN COMPOSERS.</h2>
-
-<p>Michael Ivanovitch Glinka is called the "Father of Russian
-Opera". He combined the technique, forms and counterpoint of
-Italy and Germany with the Russian folksong and rythm. He was
-choice of his subjects, and thought that the management of the
-plots ought to be more simple, and the music in the style of natural
-song. There is energy and also vitality in "La Vie pour le Tsar"
-and "Russlau et Ludmille". In Russian folk songs we find the music
-suitable to the words.</p>
-
-<p>The Russian folk like acting and their customs in their
-wedding ceremonies, etc., are an ideal basis for an opera school.
-Glinka used the fierce struggle of the contending nations for a
-background, and let the story be related and enacted by four central
-figures. His realism surpassed the trivial impossibilities of the
-Italian school. He did not combine involved themes in a pot-pourri
-style so that none could be distinguished, but rather created
-atmosphere. His instrumentalism is sonorous and uses five-four,
-six-four and seven-four time.</p>
-
-<p>The "Pique Dame" of Tschaikovsky has a style like that of
-other composers beyond set forms of the older operas though not of
-the music drama. The arias, duets, choruses and ballets are dramatically
-appropriate, and the orchestra is more of a function than
-an accompaniment. In "Boris Godonnow" there is no principle tenor
-part, no principle contralto part and no principle soprano part.
-If it is a singer's opera at all it is a basso's, but it really is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
-more for chorus. The writing for solo declamatory passages occassioned
-the use of the lyric passages in the orchestra, which was
-made the purveyor of color. The atmosphere is not symphonic, though
-the development is important and we find a remarkable use of the
-leitmotiv but the composer never even heard of Wagner.</p>
-
-<p>Nicolai Andreyevitch Rimski-Korsakov was a serious student
-of Russian folk lore. His music is free and expressive&mdash;so much so
-that when he studied technique seriously, it was almost impaired.
-His operas are versatile, but his "Snow Maiden" is a trifle old-fashioned,
-although he fails to express pathos, delicate tenderness
-etc. The stage phantasmoriga, of "Christmas Eve or Vakoul the Smith",
-especially at the transformation scenes is accompanied with music
-wild and bizarre, yet consummate in its descriptive finesse. He was
-dissatisfied with the foreign elements of the Italian form of opera
-which Glinka and Tschaikovsky could assimilate to excellent purpose.
-He cannot seem to decide whether opera is lyrical or symphonic. His orchestra
-suggests the soft freshness of a May night atmosphere in the
-steppes of Russia, the aroma of flowers, the enchanting long drawn
-notes of a nightingale interspersed with the love element, and the
-vocal characterization of the Mayor and the Bailiff in this "A
-May Night" is extremely clever. Like Strauss, he uses certain themes
-for certain instruments and has the Russian desire to mingle meaning
-and sound.</p>
-
-<p>Wagner laid down the theories but his imitators have failed
-because they did not have his genius. Rimski-Korsakov is noted for
-his brilliant orchestration and the ugly and cruel music leading
-up to his situations, but he combines dignity and simplicity with
-realism and not with the romantic. The protogonists of his drama<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
-are, the Russian people, and that is the reason for the extended
-use of the chorus. There is no central situation, as the people
-and one character, or sometimes two, make up the drama. It is easy
-to omit or transpose a scene thus showing the loosenes of the dramatic
-construction, which is a merit in a musical play, for the
-composer can express the central ideas of the drama without being
-bound hand and foot by dramatic situations. In the modern music
-drama the orchestra expresses all that cannot be expressed by the
-dramatic action and the singers. Rimski-Korsakov's is mainly a subjective
-expression of composition, while Moussorgsky's orchestra
-is never subjective, but always objective. Borodini's "Prince Igor"
-is a colorful barbaric ballet while in Dargomysky's "The Water
-Sprite", "The Stone Guest" there are interesting intermediary recitative
-sections, although the recitative of "La Pskovitaine" is
-dry.</p>
-
-<p>Xaver Schwarwenka'a opera "Mataswinthe" resembles those
-of Wagner of the "Lohengrin" period. They are thoroughly modern.
-The muted horns in the orchestra give dramatic expressiveness in
-harmony and the composer uses the free arioso style. There is not
-the set form of the Italian school, but the modern declamatory
-arioso, monologues and duets, discarding recitative, and introducing
-massive ensembles with key complexity, but never smothering
-them with the orchestra.</p>
-
-<p>Balakirew and Borodini employ good airs, especially in the
-ballet, and color their orchestra wonderfully. Cesar Cui used melodic
-recitative with the interdiction of the repetitions of words,
-and there is an absence of duets and trios and every piece of ensemble,
-and every one affecting a definite and complete character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
-"Angelo" and "The Filibuster" are too extreme, for the three acts
-of recitaive become monotonous. This school's form is vague except
-for the audacious harmonization.</p>
-
-<p>Puccini adds to Wagner's reform, with the peculiar style
-of modern French and Italian composers which alternates light and
-varied orchestration and melody, with harsh, almost crude instrumentation.
-He demonstrates that the orchestra may be made to interpret
-shades and transitions of rapid and subtle emotion, and he produced
-an actual musical diction with some of the finest passages
-for the orchestra alone. His sense of melody is supreme in his
-combination of Italian and German methods. His impressive manner
-of intensifying and underscoring dramatic moments in the action
-is unparalleled as is also his capacity for forceful and succinct
-orchestral commentary. He uses his music to paint scenes and makes
-continuous use of distinctive and rythmic melody and there is an
-absence of any definite characterization by means of a leitmotiv,
-for his work is lighter than that of Wagner's. He maintains that
-opera must have local color, so therefore we find an interweaving
-of American airs in his "Girl of the Golden West" and American
-and Japanese airs in "Madame Butterfly". His score is genuinely
-Puccinean and an influence of Debussy is betrayed in an harmonic
-way.</p>
-
-<p>The prelude to "Madame Butterfly" Is not an overture,
-though it does state some motives. His songs constantly contain
-one melody in the instrumental against the unrelated vocal part,
-and he reflects the modern moods and ideas in a score intricate in
-counterpoint, rich in embellishment, full of the melodic fluency
-of the Italian temperament and strength of the German school. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
-Japanese effects give beautiful lyric movements but they are not
-as great as Verdi's. There is intense dramatic vigor in "Manon
-Lescaut" which has spoken dialogue with running orchestral accompaniment
-and motives. "La Boheme" has neither overture nor intermezzo,
-and lacks sustained melody. Puccini is termed the only one
-with as much genius as Wagner, for he agrees that too much realism
-is cramping to good music, and he proves that music drama can be
-loosely constructed and need not conform to spoken drama standards.</p>
-
-<p>Debussy, in "Pelleas and Melisande" places a statue on
-a stage, not a musical one, but one of dramatic action and declamation.
-The vocal parts are reduced to a minimum of musical expressiveness
-and the music, a sort of rythmless chant, is subordinate
-to action. He is about the only composer who makes music dependent
-entirely on the drama. Wagner's orchestra is a bug driving force,
-while Strauss' delicate shifting of the background of the polyphony
-does not drown the voices. Debussy does not compose with the
-aim of orchestral composition as do Wagner and Strauss. With Puccini,
-Debussy and Charpentier, the human voice counts as a real medium.
-In "Pelleas and Melisande" there is a tress on the naturalness of
-the recitative. Debussy makes music the servant of the drama and
-makes a symphonic use of motives which are not developed formally,
-but manipulated in an undercurrent of musical thought. He declares
-melody anti-dramatic, and in recitative with the orchestra there
-is freedom for individual interpretation. His "L'Enfant Prodigue"
-is composed along the regular lines and is his best work. He follows
-Cesar Franck's method of scattering a number of disconnected
-themes and leaving them to sort themselves.</p>
-
-<p>In Dukas' "Ariane and Bluebeard", set melodies are avoided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
-and everything is in plastic style of music drama, with shimmering
-tone color and a wealth of orchestral touches. Louis Aubert's
-"The Blue Forest", is an effective combination of modernity and
-simplicity with much use of leading motives and some fairly definite
-numbers. "Les Heretiques" displays enervating voluptuousness
-and languor in the duet. There are grave and large accents for the
-invocation to Venus by Daphne. The orchestral lamentation at the
-close is graceful and the choruses are charming, but the dialogue
-is wearisome. He is a disciple of Massenet in his correct portrayal
-of the suavity, sweetnes and fascination of women. In "Le Petite
-Boheme" the orchestration is rich and effective and the dramatic
-action is developed.</p>
-
-<p>Franchetti's "Germania" is a lyric two act drama with a
-prologue and an epilogue, aping Wagner, Verdi, Puccini and Tschaikovski.
-Delibes, a new dramatist, uses unusual discretion in the
-color expression of the orchestra but with very little acting. His
-modulation scheme is rich and more melodic, but it is almost as
-declamatory as that of Strauss. Saint Saens and Massenet are less
-radical with a light melodic orchestra. Massenet's music in "Le
-Jongleur" and "Griselidis" is not strong enough to atone for tiresome
-episodes in the plot. The chorus plays an important but invisible
-part, throughout.</p>
-
-<p>The Charpentier orchestra and neither Strauss-like nor
-Wagnerian. His "Louise" is constructed according to Wagner but creates
-an atmosphere rather emphasizing themes. It has musical originality,
-dramatic novelty and picturesque reproductions of life,
-style, and a blend of romanticism and reality. He is influenced by
-Massenet in musical speech and orchestral style. He emphasizes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
-lyrical element by the use of melodic recitative rather than by
-aria. He develops motives for descriptive importance with polyphonic
-style. The individual sonority of the orchestra reduses the
-stress on the orchestra's departure from the Wagnerian ideas. He
-reduced the dependence of these ideas to a minimum, and asserted the
-value of reliance on the native sources of music and drama.</p>
-
-<p>Bruneau was a pupil of Massenet with undistinguished melodic
-patterns. He followed Wagner in the close continuity of drama
-and accurate characterization in music, fitting a characterization
-for varying dramatic atmospheres. His "Kerim" displays militarism
-and is a contrast to the pastoral elements in "L'Attaque
-du Moulin". His thematic manipulation is not flexible enough but his
-harmonic idiom is ingenuous and true to the qualities of race and
-time. D'Albert's "Tiefland" has a prologue and two acts, and combines
-the Wagner and Puccini swift and pliant orchestra, which colors
-and intensifies, but dispenses with the elaboration of Wagner's
-symphonic chorus. Chenier's "Liberia", strange to say, has
-one strain repeated and repeated. Chabrier is noted for his delicate
-expression and his fidelity and vigor of delineation. In "Briseis"
-the fresh aroma of the sea is suggested by the soft singing of
-the sailors without any overture or prelude. Bruneau in "Zola"
-writes flexible music and has a capacity for unmetred prose used for
-vocal purposes, a caustic rugged sincerity with an element of passion
-and little tenderness. Charpentier's "Louise" has the quick
-lithe movement of the Parisian character; gay, amused and amusing.</p>
-
-<p>Richard Strauss uses a more complex orchestra than Wagner
-and we find leading motives as in Wagner. He is one of the
-most severely criticized composers of modern times. He has been
-accused of outrageous infraction of every musical law. The mood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
-in "Electra" is implicit in the play, but it is reinforced by
-Strauss' orchestration. Where Beethoven or Wagner entrances are
-splendid, the instrumental equivalent of Strauss grates. He is typical
-to the moods, etc., of the play. He uses discords to represent
-a mad woman, but is musically beautiful in the recognition of brother
-and sister and love. The chief characters are depicted by leading
-motives, dissonance and orchestral bewilderments, and his power
-of characterization is extraordinary. There are forty-five themes
-in "Electra". He uses different instruments to represent the different
-animals, etc. For instance, the grunting of the pigs is represented
-by six bassoons and a flute.</p>
-
-<p>There are one hundred and four musicians in "Salome",
-with sixty strings and an organ celeste. Three men carry on an excited
-conversation, one in seven eighth time, one in five eighth
-time and one in four four time, while the orchestra continues its
-original tempo.</p>
-
-<p>Puccini, Humperdinck and Mascagni are considered by many
-to be the best living composers. "Königskinder" is chiefly declamatory
-and never sacrfices the human voice for the orchestra, and
-expounds and illustrates, but never fails to support the shapely
-arioso by rarely defined melody.</p>
-
-<p>"Conchita" by Riccardo Zandonai embraces a few fragmentary
-themes and the voice parts are declamatory without a melodic
-line or the shapeliness of an arioso. Mascagni's "Cavalleria Rusticana"
-shows the introduction of a new device with the performance
-of the orchestral interlude and division of the work into
-two parts, with the curtain remaining up and showing the empty
-stage. Both he and Leoncavello have written short operas with effective
-librettos, and they stand for dramatic verities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
-Our American composers seem to follow different schools and styles
-without establishing one of their own. "Mona" by Horatio Parker
-assigns not a motive for a label to each character but a tonality,
-though only one blessed with absolute pitch can appreciate this.
-Walter Damrosch's "Cyrano" is in a post-Wagnerian style, a sort of
-melodious arioso frequently broadening into definitely shaped airs,
-with numerous ensembles, trios, quartets and choruses and the orchestra
-plays an important part, being continuously melodious, but
-not monopolizing melodic interest with leading motives attached to
-characters. "The Pipe of Desire", by F. S. Converse, has passages in
-a later Wagnerian style, and there are four prominent motives while
-the orchestra is exceedingly good, especially in depicting the
-"Naioa" theme. Victor Herbert's music is replete with local color
-and drama, and the representative themes are not developed, although
-his music is rather light and better suited for the operetta
-and the salon.</p>
-
-<p>Thus we see how the musical forms of the opera have changed
-from the older more vocal feats to the newer well developed music
-drama. Gluck and Wagner brought back the undying principles of dramatic
-truth. In the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody
-was supreme and the dramatic truth was lost sight of. In "William
-Tell" and "Der Freischütz" there was a step onward, and with Wagner
-we find a return to, or reform, of the first principles of true
-dramatic art as applied to the opera by the Bardi coterie. Individualism
-is the prevailing tendency and succes depends on the forcibleness
-of the characters and the development of the leitmotiv.</p>
-
-<p>In our consideration of the operas, from "Rappresentatione
-di Anima" to "Madeleine" we find the number of characters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
-growing larger, the orchestra more complex and perhaps usurping more
-time, the solo work increasing considerably, recitative increasing,
-ensemble almost vanishing and chorus work reduced to a minmum. The
-opera of the future will be a medium between Wagner and Strauss,
-orchestral music drama, and the Debussy incidental music, and the
-melodiousness of the Italian school. The most vital music dramas of
-the day do not abandon nor drown out the voice, nor do they cast
-aside all musical connections, but combine orchestra, voice and dramatic
-action in an artistic way.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="APPENDIX_OF_TABLES">APPENDIX OF TABLES.</h2>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_I">Table I.</a> This table is general, comparing, by means of
-a percentage system, the amount of space devoted to the orchestra
-solo, recitative, ensemble and chorus work in the thirty-four operas
-considered. The date, name, composer, number of acts and number of
-characters is shown.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_II">Table II.</a> This develops column "D" of table I and shows the
-first the entire number of characters, and then the number of
-sopranos, mezzo-sopranos, altos, tenors, baritones and bass in
-these same thirty-four operas.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_III">Table III.</a> This table develops "F" of Table I showing
-the entire percentage of orchestration in each of the thirty-four
-operas, and further the division of this percentage into
-that devoted to overtures, ballets and interludes.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_IV">Table IV.</a> This table develops column "G" of Table I concerning
-solo works. The percentage of the entire solo work is given
-and this is then divided into the percentage devoted to that
-of soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_V">Table V.</a> In this table column "H" of Table I is developed.
-A record is shown of the operas which contain accompanied
-and unaccompanied recitative of the thirty-four operas is shown,
-and this, in turn, is divided into that of soprano, mezzo-soprano,
-contralto, tenor, baritone and bass.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_VI">Table VI.</a> Column "I" of Table I is considered here. The
-entire percentage of ensemble work is shown, and this is divided
-into that of duets, trios, quartets, quintets and sextets.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><a href="#TABLE_VII">Table VII.</a> This table develops column "J" of Table I
-and shows the percentage of the opera devoted to chorus work
-and further, the division into mixed chorus and men's and women's
-choruses.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_I">TABLE I. GENERAL.</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th>A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th>B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th>C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th>D<br />No. of<br />Characters.</th>
-    <th>E<br />No. of<br />Acts</th>
-    <th>F<br />% of<br />Orchestra</th>
-    <th>G<br />% of<br />Solo</th>
-    <th>H<br />% of<br />Recitative</th>
-    <th>I<br />% of<br />Ensemble</th>
-    <th>J<br />% of<br />Chorus</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresebtatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.39&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.1&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.73</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.35</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.73&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.30</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.50&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.85</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.87</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.13&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.88&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.92</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.82</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.163</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.71&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>Le Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.68&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.91&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.19&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.91</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.13&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.43</td>
-    <td class="tdr">29.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.582</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.17</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.92</td>
-    <td class="tdr">83.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Journees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.56</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.8&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">36.94&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35.17&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.11</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.06&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.15</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.28&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
-    <td class="tdr">38.57&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.00&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freischütz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">51.03</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.06</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.31&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.61</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.33</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.523</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postilion Lonjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.76&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.8&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.17&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.92</td>
-    <td class="tdr">39.83&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.23&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>The Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.38&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.85</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.73&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.03</td>
-    <td class="tdr">28.77&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.95&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.7&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.75</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.76&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.74&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">29.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.72&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">29.82</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.405</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.075</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.32</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.05&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.32&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">28.67&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.82</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.31&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Samson and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint-Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.71</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.07&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalleria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.9&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.56&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.64&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.77</td>
-    <td class="tdr">40.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.97</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.18&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.88&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">36.31</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.83&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.78</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.33&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.75&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">36.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.47&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.1&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.91&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.38&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.86&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">38.40</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.54&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">20.32</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.51&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.4&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.87&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.85</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.03&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovski</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.4&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.96&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.93&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.29&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Salome</td>
-    <td>Strauss</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.89</td>
-    <td class="tdr">46.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.93&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.36&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.24&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">39.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.51&nbsp;</td>
-</tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.41</td>
-    <td class="tdr">50.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.04</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_II">TABLE II. NUMBER AND KIND OF CHARACTERS.</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th>A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th>B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th>C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th>D<br />No. of<br />Characters.</th>
-    <th>E<br />No. of<br />Soprano</th>
-    <th>F<br />No. of<br />Mezzo<br />Soprano</th>
-    <th>G<br />No. of<br />Alto</th>
-    <th>H<br />No. of<br />Tenor</th>
-    <th>I<br />No. of<br />Baritone</th>
-    <th>J<br />No. of<br />Bass</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresentatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>Le Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Journees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freischütz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postilion Lonjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>The Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Samson and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint-Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalleria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovski</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Salome</td>
-    <td>Strauss</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_III">TABLE III. ORCHESTRATION.</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th>A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th>B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th>C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th>D<br />% of<br />Entire<br />Orchestration.</th>
-    <th>E<br />% of<br />Overture.</th>
-    <th>F<br />% of<br />Ballet.</th>
-    <th>G<br />% of<br />Interludes.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresentatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.39</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.32</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.1&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.34</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.55</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.35</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.45&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.90</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.85</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.87&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.01</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.97</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.92</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.61&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.45</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.86</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>Le Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.6&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.91</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.52</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.17</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.64&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.97</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Journees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.56</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.95&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.41</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.5&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.00</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.6&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.15</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.98&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.17</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freischütz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">51.03</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.27</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.67</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.61</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.35&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.26</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postilion Lonjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.85&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.85</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.92</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.33&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.45</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.14</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>The Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.25&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.32</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.09</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.85</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.293</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.57</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.7&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.52&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.2&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdr">29.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.45&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.97</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.14</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">29.82</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.53</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.87</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.9&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.1&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Samson and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint-Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.18</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalleria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.72&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.93</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.95</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.77</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.15&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.62</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">36.31</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">27.31</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">36.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.7&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">28.31</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">20.85</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.4&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">28.00</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovski</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.4&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.52&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.65</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.33</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Salome</td>
-    <td>Strauss</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.89</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.47</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.6&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.41</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.41</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_IV">TABLE IV. SOLOS.</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th>A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th>B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th>C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th>D<br />% of<br />entire solos.</th>
-    <th>E<br />% of<br />Soprano.</th>
-    <th>F<br />% of<br />Mezzo&nbsp;Sop.</th>
-    <th>G<br />% of<br />Alto.</th>
-    <th>H<br />% of<br />Tenor.</th>
-    <th>I<br />% of<br />Baritone.</th>
-    <th>J<br />% of<br />Bass.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresentatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.31&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.4&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.061</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.62&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.219</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.73&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.1&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.63&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.52</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.8&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>La Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.68&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.92</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.92&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.84&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.13&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.02</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.55&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.98</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.95&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.58&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Journees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.72&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.38&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35.17&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.06</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.79&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.28&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.42</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.68&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.813</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.52&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.847</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freischütz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.76</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.41&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.41&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.32&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.35</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.25&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.99&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postillon Lonjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.76&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.67</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.33&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.76&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdr">39.83&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.12&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.25&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.36&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>The Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.86&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.24&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.25&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.73&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.53</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.414</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.81&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.742</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.28</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.11&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdr">32.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.9&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.51&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.94&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.405</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.69</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.03&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.56&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.125</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.87</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.03&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdr">28.67&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.24</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.59&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.62&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.22&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Samson and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint-Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.00</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.00&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalleria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.24</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.87&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdr">40.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.9&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.83&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.92&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.47&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.63</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.59&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.25&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.86&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.16</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.21&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.41&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.89&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.87&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.98</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.96&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.874</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovsky</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.96&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.37&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.531</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.34&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.909</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Salome</td>
-    <td>Strauss</td>
-    <td class="tdr">46.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.4&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.03&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.24&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.32</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.64&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.72&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.56&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdr">50.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.06</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.23&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_V">TABLE V. RECITATIVE.</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th rowspan="2">A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th colspan="2">D<br />Spoken text.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">E<br />%<br />Recit.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">F<br />%<br />Soprano.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">G<br />%<br />Mezzo&nbsp;Sop.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">H<br />%<br />Alto.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">I<br />%<br />Tenor.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">J<br />%<br />Baritone.</th>
-    <th rowspan="2">K<br />%<br />Bass.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th>Accom.</th>
-    <th>Unaccom.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresentatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.2&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.29&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.73</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.34&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.30</td>
-    <td class="tdr">20.58&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.72&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.87</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.56&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.315</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.82</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.95&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.55&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>Le Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.22&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.9&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.77&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.43&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.43</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.16&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.47&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.27&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.92</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.11&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.95&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.58&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Jounees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.8&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.165</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.415</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.11</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.798</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.33&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freischütz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.06</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.72&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.03&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.04&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.33</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.85&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.17</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.78&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.33&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postilion de Longjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.80</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.43&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.987</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.06</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.76&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.703</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.26&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.91&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.75&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.03</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.45&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.02</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.25&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.96&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.30</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.725</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.41&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.00</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.68&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.97</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.63&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.34&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.60</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.94&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.82&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.24&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.32</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.52&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.06&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.06&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.03&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.82</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.3&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.92&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.59&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.31&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Samson and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.71</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.36</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.95&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalleria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.9&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.47</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.538</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.357</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.78</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.65&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.97</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.63&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.445</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.89&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.1&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.35&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">38.40</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.44&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.23&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">20.32</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.28&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.36</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.14&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.85</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.5&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovsky</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.42</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.33&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.47</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.96&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.17&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.6&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.96&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">39.62</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.48&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.04</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.02</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.06&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.29&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_VI">TABLE VI. ENSEMBLE</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th>A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th>B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th>C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th>D<br />% of<br />Ensemble.</th>
-    <th>E<br />%<br />Duet.</th>
-    <th>F<br />%<br />Trio.</th>
-    <th>G<br />%<br />Quartet.</th>
-    <th>H<br />%<br />Quintet.</th>
-    <th>I<br />%<br />Sextet.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresentatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.50&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.50&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.13&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.13&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.163</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.833</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>Le Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.91&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.59&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.89&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.69&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.47&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.91&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.35</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdr">83.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">34.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">34.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.65</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Journees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.46&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.743</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.1&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.06&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">38.57&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.25&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.92&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freishutz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.523</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.46&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.963</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postilion Lonjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.73&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.52&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.76&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.23&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>The Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.38&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.25&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdr">28.778</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.68&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.50&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.89&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.708</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.76&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.24&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.033</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.075</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.685</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.05&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.92&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.74&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Samson and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalieria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.56&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.56&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.18&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.87&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.306</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.33&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.97&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.06&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.54&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.54&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.92&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.68&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.41&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.134</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovsky</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.93&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.42&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.91&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Salome</td>
-    <td>Strauss</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.93&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.93&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a><br />
-<a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="TABLE_VII">TABLE VII. CHORUS</h3>
-
-<table summary="">
-  <tr>
-    <th>A<br />Date.</th>
-    <th>B<br />Name.</th>
-    <th>C<br />Composer.</th>
-    <th>D<br />% of<br />Chorus.</th>
-    <th>E<br />% of<br />mixed<br />chorus.</th>
-    <th>F<br />% of<br />men's<br />chorus.</th>
-    <th>G<br />% of<br />women's<br />chorus.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1600</td>
-    <td>Rappresentatione de Anima</td>
-    <td>Cavalieri</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.39&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1675</td>
-    <td>King Arthur</td>
-    <td>Purcell</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.56&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.14</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1731</td>
-    <td>La Serva Padrona</td>
-    <td>Pergolese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>Orfeus</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.88&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.88&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1767</td>
-    <td>Alceste</td>
-    <td>Gluck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.05&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1784</td>
-    <td>Le Domine Noir</td>
-    <td>Auber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">23.19&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.09&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1787</td>
-    <td>Don Giovanni</td>
-    <td>Mozart</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.582</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.923</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.652</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1762</td>
-    <td>L'Amant Jaloux</td>
-    <td>Gretry</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1800</td>
-    <td>Les Deux Journees</td>
-    <td>Cherubini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">36.94&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.14&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1805</td>
-    <td>Fidelio</td>
-    <td>Beethoven</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.71&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.59</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1816</td>
-    <td>The Barber of Seville</td>
-    <td>Rossini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1821</td>
-    <td>Der Freischütz</td>
-    <td>Weber</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">12.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.15&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.85</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1831</td>
-    <td>La Somnambula</td>
-    <td>Bellini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1832</td>
-    <td>Le Postilion Lonjuneaux</td>
-    <td>Adam</td>
-    <td class="tdr">26.17&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.37&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">14.85</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1835</td>
-    <td>Lucia di Lammermoor</td>
-    <td>Donizetti</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">20.99&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1843</td>
-    <td>The Bohemian Girl</td>
-    <td>Balfe</td>
-    <td class="tdr">24.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">21.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.58</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1847</td>
-    <td>Martha</td>
-    <td>Flotow</td>
-    <td class="tdr">25.957</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.647</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.41</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1866</td>
-    <td>Mignon</td>
-    <td>Thomas</td>
-    <td class="tdr">33.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.08&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.66&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1867</td>
-    <td>Romeo and Juliet</td>
-    <td>Gounod</td>
-    <td class="tdr">13.72&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.03&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.19</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1874</td>
-    <td>Aida</td>
-    <td>Verdi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.74&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.86</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1875</td>
-    <td>Carmen</td>
-    <td>Bizet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.32&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.64&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.39</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1882</td>
-    <td>Parsifal</td>
-    <td>Wagner</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.31&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.92</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>Smason and Delilah</td>
-    <td>Saint Saens</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.07&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.43&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.43</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1890</td>
-    <td>Cavalleria Rusticana</td>
-    <td>Mascagni</td>
-    <td class="tdr">31.64&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">22.78&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.46&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.4&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1892</td>
-    <td>Il Pagliacci</td>
-    <td>Leoncavello</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.88&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">19.88&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1893</td>
-    <td>Le Cid</td>
-    <td>Massenet</td>
-    <td class="tdr">9.75&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.46&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1894</td>
-    <td>Hansel and Gretel</td>
-    <td>Humperdinck</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.38&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.27&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.21&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1896</td>
-    <td>Cricket on the Hearth</td>
-    <td>Goldmark</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">5.6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1900</td>
-    <td>Louise</td>
-    <td>Charpentier</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.51&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">6.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.96</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1904</td>
-    <td>Madame Butterfly</td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.03&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8.48&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">.262</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.34</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Eugene Onegin</td>
-    <td>Tschaikovsky</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15.29&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">10.47&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">4.82</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Salome</td>
-    <td>Strauss</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11.36&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>L'Amour dei Tre Re</td>
-    <td>Montemezzi</td>
-    <td class="tdr">3.57&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2.04&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1.53&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1914</td>
-    <td>Madeleine</td>
-    <td>Herbert</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h2>
-
-<h3>Books.</h3>
-
-<table summary="List of books consulted by the author">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">1.</td>
-    <td>Apthorpe, W. F.</td>
-    <td>Opera, Past and Present.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">2.</td>
-    <td>Dannrheuther, E.</td>
-    <td>Wagner and Reform.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">3.</td>
-    <td>Edwards, H. S.</td>
-    <td>Rossini and His School.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">4.</td>
-    <td>Gounod, Chas.</td>
-    <td>Mozart's Don Giovanni.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">5.</td>
-    <td>Henderson, W. J.</td>
-    <td>Some Forerunners of Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">6.</td>
-    <td>Henderson, W. J.</td>
-    <td>A Comment on Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">7.</td>
-    <td>Krehbiel,</td>
-    <td>A Book of the Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">8.</td>
-    <td>Krehbiel,</td>
-    <td>Studies of Wagnerian Drama.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">9.</td>
-    <td>Mendelssohn</td>
-    <td>Stories of the Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">10.</td>
-    <td>Newman, E.</td>
-    <td>Gluck and the Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">11.</td>
-    <td>Newman, E.</td>
-    <td>Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">12.</td>
-    <td>Sonneck, O. G.</td>
-    <td>Early Opera in America.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">13.</td>
-    <td>Upton, Geo. P.</td>
-    <td>The Standard Operas.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">14.</td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>Victor Book of the Operas.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">15.</td>
-    <td>Introduction&mdash;American History and Encyclopedia.</td>
-    <td>H. E. Krehbiel.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">16.</td>
-    <td>Groves Musical Dictionary.</td>
-    <td>Pages 446, 454.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">17.</td>
-    <td>Moore Encyclopedia of Music.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">18.</td>
-    <td>Naaman Zwillingsbruder.</td>
-    <td>Volume II.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">19.</td>
-    <td>Dictionary of Music.</td>
-    <td>Rieman.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">20.</td>
-    <td>University Music Encyclopedia.</td>
-    <td></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">21.</td>
-    <td>W. B. Matthews.</td>
-    <td>History of Music.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3>Program Notes.</h3>
-
-<table summary="List of program notes consulted by the author">
-  <tr>
-    <td>Chicago Grand Opera Company.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Boston Grand Opera Company.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3>Special Articles in the Programs.</h3>
-
-<table summary="List of special articles in the programs consulted by the author">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">1.</td>
-    <td>Brennon, Algernon St. John.</td>
-    <td>Translating Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">2.</td>
-    <td>Haexter, Hermann H.,</td>
-    <td>English Grand Opera in America.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">3.</td>
-    <td>Hackett, Karleton,</td>
-    <td>(a) Madame Butterfly.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(b) Il Trovatore.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(c) Faust.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(d) Cleopatre.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(e) Thais.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(f) Thanhauser.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr"></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">4.</td>
-    <td>Oberdorfer, Anne Faukner,</td>
-    <td>(a) Influence of Wagner.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(b) Reforms of Gluck.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(c) Monna Vanna.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(d) Louise.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3>Aid has been recieved from the following first hand sources.</h3>
-
-<table summary="List of first hand sources consulted by the author">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
-    <td>Interview with Mr. C. C. Birchard of Boston.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
-    <td>Notes from class in Music II, Summer of 1916.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
-    <td>Lecture on Modern Music. Thos. Whitney Surrette.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-    <td>Attendance at the various operas for the past six seasons at Chicago.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3>Magazine Articles.</h3>
-
-<table summary="List of magazine articles consulted by the author">
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td>Atlantic Monthly</td>
-    <td>The Opera</td>
-    <td>Thos. W. Surrette.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>Vol. 13.</td>
-    <td>Bookman</td>
-    <td>Opera Season 1900-1901</td>
-    <td>E. Singleton.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 29.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Lawrence Gilman on "Chapters of the Opera" by Krehbiel.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 81.</td>
-    <td>Century</td>
-    <td>Acting in Lyric Drama</td>
-    <td>Mary Garden.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 89.</td>
-    <td>Contemporary Review</td>
-    <td>"Nicolai Andreyevitch Rimski-Korsakov"</td>
-    <td>A. E. Keeton.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 13.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Gluck and Puccini</td>
-    <td>A. E. Keeton.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 97.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Two Centuries of French Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 106.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Gluck &amp; the Reform of Opera.</td>
-    <td>K. Roof.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1908</td>
-    <td>Craftsman</td>
-    <td colspan="2">Nationalism in Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1909</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Elektra in Dresden.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 39.</td>
-    <td>Current Literature</td>
-    <td colspan="2">Two New French Operas.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 48.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(a) American reception of Elektra.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(b) Sorrowful Fate of Librettists.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1909</td>
-    <td>Etude</td>
-    <td>Frank Moore Jeffery</td>
-    <td>Bellini.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Future of Italian Opera in America</td>
-    <td>Ant. Scott.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Modern French and German Opera.</td>
-    <td>Arthur Elson.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Modern Italian Opera and Tendencies.</td>
-    <td>L. C. Elson.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Gluck's Operatic Ideas</td>
-    <td>Henry T. Finck.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Beginnings of Opera</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Conflict of Speech and Song</td>
-    <td>Fred Corder.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 37.</td>
-    <td>Forum</td>
-    <td>Music</td>
-    <td>Joseph Sohn.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 41.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Lesson from Wagner</td>
-    <td>F. R. Burton.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 3.</td>
-    <td>Fortnightly</td>
-    <td>Centenary of Wagner</td>
-    <td>Franklin Peterson.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Moussorgsky's Operas.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1909</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Beaumarchais and Musicians</td>
-    <td>E. Newman.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1913</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Puccini.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 54.</td>
-    <td>Harper's Weekly</td>
-    <td>Two New Operas</td>
-    <td>L. Gilman.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Bruneau on Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Strauss' Electra.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Tschaikovsky's Queen of Spade</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>F. S. Converse.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Pipe of Desire</td>
-    <td>Gilman.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 64.</td>
-    <td>Independent</td>
-    <td>Bel Canto</td>
-    <td>Tetrazzini.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 69.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Future of the Opera</td>
-    <td>Puccini.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 19.</td>
-    <td>Living Age</td>
-    <td colspan="2">Music and Modern Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1906</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Apostasy of a Wagnerian</td>
-    <td>E. A. Baugham.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Electra and the Future of Music Drama.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td>Literary Digest</td>
-    <td colspan="2">(a) Our Gilded Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(b) Slow Growth of Shakespearean Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1905</td>
-    <td>Musician</td>
-    <td>New School of Music</td>
-    <td>E. B. Hill.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1908</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Peleas and Melisande</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Group of French and Italian Composers</td>
-    <td>F. H. Marling.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Synopsis of Modern French Music</td>
-    <td>E. B. Hill.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1911</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(a) Music of Greek Drama</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(b) Rimski-Korsakov</td>
-    <td>C. A. Browne.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 18.</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Opera as a factor in Music</td>
-    <td>Arthur Wilson.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 9.</td>
-    <td>Music</td>
-    <td colspan="2">(a) Wagner</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(b) Gounod</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>(a) Boris Godonow</td>
-    <td>A. Pougin.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(b) Balakirew and Borodine</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>(c) First Greek Drama</td>
-    <td>Arthur Weld.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(d) "Mataswinthe"</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 12</td>
-    <td>Music</td>
-    <td>Young Russian School</td>
-    <td>A. Pougin.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 13</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td>Alfred Vert.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 14</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Rimski-Korsakov</td>
-    <td>A. Pougin.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 39</td>
-    <td>Nation</td>
-    <td colspan="2">German and Italian Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 40</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">German Opera in New York.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 90</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Massenet's Music.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 96</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Weber.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 102</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>H. T. Finck.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 102</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(a) Comments on the Metroplitan Season.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(b) Shakespearean Operas.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(c) Music.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1908</td>
-    <td>19th Century</td>
-    <td>Music Drama of the Future</td>
-    <td>E. J. Levey.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1887</td>
-    <td>North American</td>
-    <td>Boucicault and Wagner</td>
-    <td>E. J. Levey.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 9</td>
-    <td>New Music Review</td>
-    <td>Les Hugenote</td>
-    <td>Saint Saens.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Puccini</td>
-    <td>Vernon Black.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 8</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">At the Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Königskinder.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2">Natoma.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1910</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Cyrano</td>
-    <td>Walter Damrosch.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Conchita</td>
-    <td>Riccardo Zandonai.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1895</td>
-    <td>Saturday Review</td>
-    <td>Opera and Acting</td>
-    <td>J. F. R.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 80</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Weber and Wagner</td>
-    <td>J. F. R.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 80</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Italian and German Opera</td>
-    <td>J. F. R.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 80</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td> At the Opera</td>
-    <td>J. F. R.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 84</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Concerts at the Opera</td>
-    <td>J. F. R.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 95</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-    <td>Italian Opera</td>
-    <td>J. F. R.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 43</td>
-    <td>Review of Reviews</td>
-    <td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="valign"><span class="bracket">}</span> Opera.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 40</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 49</td>
-    <td class="center"><span class="ditto">"</span> <span class="ditto">"</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1898</td>
-    <td>Scribner's</td>
-    <td colspan="2">(a) Gluck and Wagner.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td>(b) Tendencies of Modern Opera</td>
-    <td>De Koven.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td></td>
-    <td colspan="2">(c) Mozart's Magic Flute.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Vol. 18</td>
-    <td>World Today</td>
-    <td colspan="2">Chevalier Gluck and the Leading Motive.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Certain Tendencies
-in Modern Opera, by Kathryn Eleanor Browne
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