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diff --git a/old/54077-0.txt b/old/54077-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 29c7d03..0000000 --- a/old/54077-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2502 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Certain Tendencies in -Modern Opera, by Kathryn Eleanor Browne - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Development of Certain Tendencies in Modern Opera - Thesis for the degree of Bachelor of Music - -Author: Kathryn Eleanor Browne - -Release Date: January 31, 2017 [EBook #54077] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note: This e-text is reproduced from the original -typescript submitted by the author for her bachelor’s degree. Whilst -undoubtedly she would have liked it to be error-free, it wasn’t, and -for authenticity the typos etc. have been left in situ--save for the -incorporation of her handwritten corrections, and some attention to -missing/extraneous punctuation/spacing. - - - - - THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES - IN MODERN OPERA - - BY - KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE - - THESIS - FOR THE - DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF MUSIC - IN - MUSIC - - SCHOOL OF MUSIC - UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - 1917 - - - - -UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - - - June 1, 1907 - -THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY - - KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE - -ENTITLED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA. - -IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE -DEGREE OF - - BACHELOR OF MUSIC - - George F. Schwartz - Instructor in Charge - - APPROVED: J Lawrence Erb - - HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Music - - - - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA. - - - - -Table of Contents. - - - Introduction Page 3. - - I The Beginnings of Opera to Gluck Page 5. - - II Gluck Page 14. - - III Rossini and His School up to Wagner Page 20. - - IV Wagner Page 27. - - V Post Wagnerian School--Including Modern Russian, - French, Italian, German and American Composers. Page 34. - - VI Appendix of Tables Page 44. - - Table I, General Page 46. - - Table II, Number and Kind of Characters Page 48. - - Table III, Orchestration Page 50. - - Table IV, Solos Page 52. - - Table V, Recitative Page 54. - - Table VI, Ensemble Page 56. - - Table VII, Chorus Page 58. - - VII Bibliography Page 60. - - - - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -In this thesis there has been an attempt made to trace the origin, growth -and development, and modification of various tendencies in the Opera. The -form only of the opera has been considered and no attempt has been made -towards the harmonic analysis of the various operas. The main tendencies -that have been discussed are, the differences in regard to; (1) the -number of acts employed; (2) the number and kind of characters; (3) a -comparison; (a) of the proportion of orchestral work, overtures, ballets -and ritornelli; (b) of solo work and the various voices employed; (c) of -recitative, spoken, accompanied and unaccompanied; (d) of ensemble work, -duets, trios, quartets, quintets and sextets; and (e) separate from this -last, a consideration of the proportion of chorus work, mixed, and that -sung by the men and the women alone. - -A study has been made of thirty-four operas and in order to accurately -consider these proportions, tables have been prepared, showing the -percentage of the factors portrayed. These percentages have been -obtained by actual count of the measures devoted to the solos, choruses, -ensembles, etc. There are seven tables. - -Table I is a general table showing the number of characters, acts, -percentage of orchestra, solo, recitative, ensemble and chorus. - -Table II shows the distribution and number of characters. - -Table III shows the percentage of orchestral work, and also that of the -divisions of the orchestral work into overture, ballet and ritornelli. - -Table IV shows the percentage of solo work and its distribution to the -various voices. - -Table V shows the percentage of recitative and its distribution to the -various voices. - -Table VI shows the percentage of ensemble work and the various kinds. - -Table VII shows the percentage of the chorus work and its distribution as -to mixed choruses and those sung by the men and women alone. - -"Rappresentatione de Anima" by Cavalieri is generally classed as an -oratorio but many authorities consider it an opera, as he was one of -Peri's contemporaries, and worked with the little band of Florentine -nobles, and this was the first work which resulted from their meetings. -However, whether it is an opera or an oratorio, the forms in those days -were very vague, hence, the component factors are interesting as compared -to the later operas, and inasmuch as no score could be obtained earlier -than 1675, it will suffice as a type of that time. In studying the operas -from Wagner on, the solos have been very difficult to distinguish from -the recitative, and consequently any stretch of solo singing over twenty -or twenty-five measures in length, with any sort of tune, has been -considered as a solo. - - - - -I. THE BEGINNINGS OF OPERA TO GLUCK. - - -Before beginning the survey of modern operas and before tracing the -development of the different tendencies, it will be interesting to -consider briefly the historic source of the opera, and the part that -music played in the various dramas, madrigals, ballets, church services, -etc. - -It is an acknowledged fact that Peri and his little band of Florentine -reformers went back to the old Greek dramas for their models and forms. -However, it is not to be supposed that opera was developed spontaneously -among these reformers. Like every other world wide movement, it was the -culmination of tendencies and customs from various sources. We have -no reason to accept the Greek dramas as the only models which served, -although they were considered seriously by the first opera writers. - -The Egyptians sang jubilations to their Gods. These consisted of florid -cadences on prolonged vowel sounds. In the old Greek dramas, music played -an important part. The Greek tragedy and comedy developed from the hymns, -choral dances and chants sung by a chorus of singers disguised as satyrs, -at the festivals of Bacchus. The chorus often addressed the audience on -topical subjects. The various actors intoned or chanted their words, -and were often accompanied by a lyre and other instruments of the day. -The chorus chanted their parts. This would not be termed music by us -today, but was more of a recitative. Later the chorus chanted while the -principals sang, forming a sort of background accompaniment. The slow -developement of the music in the mass must not be forgotten, but there is -nothing which definitely resembles opera until the thirteenth century. -"Noel" was supposed to be a song which the angels sang, and is found in -many festivals. Perhaps this may be termed one of the sources of Wagner's -ideas, the association of a particular song with one group of people. In -the "Three Maries" the chorus sang words in Latin, Gabriel and the three -virgins sang, but the words of the Savior had no music. The "Fete of the -Ass" was quite an elaborate festival and here the various characters sang -quite definitely, and the congregation was urged at stated intervals -to join in the singing. Part of the words and music were symbolical, -especially those imitating the braying of the ass. "The Passion", in -1264, enacted by the Fraternity of the Gonfalone, lasted for several -days, and contained scenes which were sung, choruses and a trio. - -At this period, we must consider the vaudeville plays which were plays -interspersed with song. "Li gieus de Robin et de Marion", given at the -court of Charles d'Artois in Naples in 1285, was an operatic symptom -and was divided into songs, spoken dialogue, dialogue songs in which -two voices alternated, and popular ballad tunes, although the music -was not appropriate since it consisted of such complex counterpoint. -The Madrigal plays, although comic in character, influenced in the -introduction of village gossip related by chorus. The "Ballet de la -Reine" was a brilliant ballet with elaborate scenery, costumes, music, -etc. It contained solos, duets, choruses and instrumental interludes. The -melody, however, was only loosely associated with the play. In 1554 "Il -Sagrifigio", a pastoral drama, arose, in which the priest sang solos, -accompanied by lyre and the chorus. The first solo singing was in the -Madrigal of Corteccia in 1539. In "Aminta", 1573, the choruses separated -acts, and introduced the action danced to the chorus behind the scenes. -There was no attempt at the complete setting of the text in these plays, -and no union of the lyrics by any sort of recitative. In "Decameron" -one or another of the personages sang to the company, and they all sang -and danced. The lyric solo resembled somewhat the dramatic recitative -of Peri and Caccini. The vocal melody was simple in melodic structure. -Cecchi's "Esaltazione delle Croce", 1589, a sacred representation, had an -orchestra of viols, lutes, horns and the orchestra played an interlude -with special music. There was an accompanied solo allotted to the Deity -and a dance of David. The orchestras were composed of lutes, trombones, -which accomapnied the dancing, etc., but were usually silent after the -entrance of the various characters, excepting the lyres. In the English -masque the words and song were written for an actor but sung behind the -scenes by a chorus. - -The Madrigal dramas became comedies which exhibited a variety of style -and expressive power. When a single character spoke, the chorus sang in -madrigals, while the actors were on the stage. The music was from behind -the curtain. These Madrigal dramas began to degenerate, however, as the -spectacle disappeared, and the comic element became preeminent. - -Then came the band of Florentine nobles who were not originators, but -merely revived certain musical practices and traditions of the 14th -century and modeled these on the early Greek tragedies. "Eurydice" -was accompanied by a large orchestra for those days consisting of a -chitarone, viola di gamba, theorba, three flutes and smaller trombones. -There was a brief entr'acte, and a trio of two sopranos and a tenor. The -chorus was in five parts. Previous to this the solo without harmony or -harmonic support was unknown. The instrumental music was of course in -its infancy and expressive melody was out of the question. This first -operatic orchestra was concealed--perhaps this suggested the idea to -Wagner--perhaps not. There were no set tunes, nor any sort of formal -melody divided into periods, balancing each other symmetrically, but a -sort of recitative which observed the inflection of the spoken words was -created. - -Peri developed this principle to a great extent. He expressed soft gentle -speech by half spoken, half sung tones on a sustained instrumental bass. -Feelings of deeper emotional kind, he expressed by melody with greater -intervals and a lively tempo, accompanied by instrumental harmonies -changing frequently, sometimes using dissonance. His prologue was in -verse and he gave short metrical passages for the chorus which were rich -in harmony. An instrumental episode in the first act and dancing in the -end are effective. - -Vecchi's "L'Amfiparnasso" and "Commedia Armonica" are really only a -series of madrigals for five voices. There was no overture, no orchestral -accompaniment, nor ritornello of any kind. When the stage was occupied -by a single character, four voices were made to sing behind the scenes, -foretelling the modern orchestra. In "Orfeo" the accompaniment was a -figured bass. "Dafne" and "Arianna" were written in this newly invented -"Stilo rappresentatino" with a larger orchestra. "Dafne" consisted of -an imitation of speech, a sort of melodious recitative accompanied only -with a sustained bass. The instruments were really so contrasted and -combined as to invest each character and scene with marked individuality. -The introductory toccata (founded on a single chord) was followed by a -ritornello, the recitative was accompanied by a figured bass, sometimes -by two or more instruments indicated at the beginning. - -These reformers really resuscitated a style of musical declamation, and -their music better expressed passion and the like. There was a monodic -exchanging of contrapuntal richness for the simplest of melodies, -confined to a single part, and accompanied by bass of the rudest -type and construction. The melodies were destitute of figure and the -composers really aimed at exact oratorical rendering of the words. The -possibilities of orchestral coloring were limited and the dry style of -recitative really dramatically untruthful. There was little variety of -contrast. This weakened the true power of the drama by the introduction -of measured melody and formally constructed movements. The libbrettos -were carefully considered at first, but finally declined, and more and -more attention was paid to the aria and the various concerted music -introduced without regard to the dramatic tendencies. The rules became -strict, and it is not difficult to see how the operas became a concert in -costume. We find a quotation of the rules:-- - -1. A woman always took a man's part. - -2. Characters were stereotyped. - -3. Position of the aria was determined to give entrance impressiveness. - -4. The solos, duets, choruses and ballets were arranged artificially -to suit the convenience of the performers and without regard for the -dramatic context. - -Monteverde has been termed "the Italian Wagner". He never ventured to -introduce flowing melody save in the ritornello. His music was dramatic -and he increased the dramatic scope of the recitative. His "Orfeo", 1607, -contains the first dramatic duet. He was an innovator and gave a new -developement to the harmonic system. His influence may be summed up as -follows; - -I. He made operatic recitative more melodious and expressive. - -II. He boldly used unprepared discord to express dramatic emotions. - -III. He greatly enlarged the orchestra, used special, appropriate -groups of instruments to accompany characters, and employed separate -combinations to announce the return and entry of persons. In his -"Arianna" the widening influence of his orchestra developed to thirty-six -instruments, including violins, trombones, trumpets and three small -organs. He invented the pizzicato and tremolo on the violin. In his -"Orfeo" there are parts for the harpsichords, lyres, violas, double -basses, double harps with two rows of strings, two violins, guitars, -organs, flutes, clarions and trombones. The apportionment of the -instruments was as follows:-- - -The bass viols accompanied Orpheus. - -The violas, Eurydice. - -Four Trombones, Pluto. - -The organs, Apollo. - -The guitars, Charon. - -The flute registers of the organs, the chorus of sprites. - -Scarlatti's genius for melody modified the still though dramatically -correct recitative, and substituted airs in its place. He introduced -measured recitative for the first time, and invented the "de capo aria", -his singers thus distracting attention from the important dramatic -meaning. His knowledge of counterpoint aided him in the construction of -the bass, and elaboration of accompaniments. He tired of the monotony of -uninterrupted recitative, and organized three forms:-- - -1. Recitative secco for ordinary business. - -2. Recitative stromentato which was accompanied and used for violent -emotion, and used the "thorough bass" by the harpsichord to aid this -passionate form of declamation. The sense of the verbal text was enforced -by continual interposition of orchestral symphonies. - -3. The aria, to which he added the "de capo"--that is, the repetition of -the second part following the first. - -Cavalli employed the ritornello constantly to relieve the monotony of -continuous recitative, and introduced repetition in his ariettas, which -was disapproved by the Florentine Caccini, who was the father of a new -order of music, a style of melody which is not melody; a recitative -melody, noble in character and surpassing the songs of the people, not -altering the words nor depriving them of life, but augmenting them and -giving them meaning and force. - -Purcell had true dramatic instinct and a declamatory recitative second -only to that of Wagner, and his airs show unfettered melody. The laws of -his time, which he chose to disregard and modify, are interesting. - -I. The number of characters was six, three women and three men. - -a. Prima Donna (soprano). - -b. A contralto. - -c. An artificial or male soprano. - -d. An artificial alto. - -e. A tenor. - -f. A bass. - -II. (a) "Aria Cantabile" was quiet and slow with opportunities of -ornamentation, accompanied by a figured bass under pathos. - -(b) "Aria di portamento" in slow movement and marked rythm was sometimes -accompanied only by one or two violins. - -(c) "Aria di mezzo carattere" had the second part faster than the first, -and the accompaniment was rich and varied. - -(d) "Aria Parlante" was elaborately declamatory. - -(e) "Aria di bravura" was allegro with brilliant divisions. - -III. There were three acts and every scene terminated with an air. Every -member sang one air but no one sang two airs in succession and no two -airs of the same type followed each other. The most important ones came -at the conclusion of the first and second act and here the hero and -heroine claimed a grand scene, with accompanied recitative followed by -"aria d'agilita" and then united in a grand duet. The third act ended -with a chorus of lively movement frequently accompanied by a dance. There -were no trios, quartets or other concentrated movements allowed, though -three characters could join in harmonized exclamation at close of the -recitative. - -Handel broke away from these rules in "Radamisto" with an elaborate -quartet and "Teseo" in five acts with two airs in succession to each -character. His operas have been termed a ballad concert in costume, -although he did a great deal toward faithful reproduction of the embodied -sentiments of the text. Purcell rebelled against the idea of succession -of songs and dances and in a tuneful chorus with dramatic spoken -action, he introduced a decided dramatic feeling. The English opera was -advertised to be performed after the Italian manner, with recitative -in place of dialogue and measured melody for airs. Purcell's "Dido and -Aeneus" contains not one spoken word, and his drawn out aria foreshadowed -the dramatic aria of Gluck and Wagner. Balfe and Benedict raised the -standard of the old ballad operas by using better music although Balfe -only appealed to the ear. Tallis, Byrde and Purcell are tolerated for -their voice parts only. - - - - -II. GLUCK. - - -"In the early 18th century the condition of opera was very 'low'". The -accepted number of characters was six, three of each sex. There were -three acts of a given number of verses based on Greek drama. The chorus -stood motionless except for the leader, in a double row with the sexes -separated and masked. The same libretti were used time and time again. -The poets became as stilted as the composers. There were five types of -melody whose sequence and distribution were regulated by rules, and -not by dramatic requirements. Though varied in other ways, the songs -consisted of two parts, the first repeated "de capo" after the second, -notwithstanding the histronic result. The vocalist tyrannized over the -performance, displaying no musical feeling, nothing but vocal agility. -In England and Germany the singers sang their own language during the -performance, for every thing except the formal arias, which were sung in -Italian. Each act had to close with an elaborate finale, and each singer -had to have an aria. - -Sammartini in Milan gave prominence to string quartets. There was much -stress laid on technical proficiency and arias. The dances became -better than the vocal music, for the arias especially were monotonous -and forced, and overloaded with ornament and contained practically no -counterpoint. The overture, customarily in three parts, was separated -from the opera itself. The arias were in bravura style with long -and prolix ritornelli. The dramatic airs were absolutely spoiled by -florishes. - -Gluck freed the opera from many of these forms. He maintained that the -function of the music was to support the poetry without interrupting -action or disfiguring by superfluous ornament. The dramatic action was -given more importance and the concerted pieces with stereotyped de -capo were discarded. He was criticized for sacrificing music to drama, -which would often have been better without it. This has also been said -of Debussy's "Pelleas and Melisande." Gluck colored his music and -avoided interrupting the actor in the warmth of the dialogue to wait for -ritornello, flourishes and repetitions. He maintained that the overture -should prepare specifically for the character of action and indication of -the subject. Instruments should be employed in proportion to the degree -of interest and passion. Above all he worked for simplicity; that opera -must express life in aria and in recitative, and in similarity between -the passion and the object called forth. His melody was supported by -harmony and was varied in rythm. He strove for pictorial representation -in his airs and accompanied his recitatives by figured bass and chords of -the harpsichord, and employed several airs preceded by long instrumental -solos. He changed and consolidated the structure of the opera on the -verbal basis, and repressed the vanity and egotism of the singers. He -galvanized the lazy languid orchestra into life and made the recitative -play a more important part, making his opera dignified, overture -elucidatory, accompaniment significant, and emphasized the coherent -principle of unity. - -In "Telemaco" Gluck imitated aspects of nature in several of the arias -with greater unity of handling, truer dramatic expression, and -continuous interest in the recitative. There are nine numbers following -in dramatic sequence. He abandoned the symphony in three pieces making -his overture lead into the opening aria. His two themes begin finely in -contra-distinction but they degenerate into bravura style. Gluck studied -literature and filled in the void for recitative so that the audience -could-not play chess in between numbers. - -"Orpheus" is lyrical and noticeable for the dramatic interest of the -recitative, and the importance of the work given to the chorus. His -duo-thematic treatment of the orchestra here is not successful. In his -short orchestral prelude he breaks away from the spirit of the overture. -The chorus takes up the broad sad theme. Orpheus cries, "Eurydice", -twice, the third time he sings a note higher and stands against chords -of diminished intervals, instead of blending with the chord of the minor -third of the dominant, making a striking dramatic effect. The theme of -the aria is echoed behind the scenes. In the accompanied recitative the -orchestra has a share in producing the effect. In one aria when the sense -of the words changes, the whole character of the music changes. Three -fourth time, in the key of G, is used to depict the happiness of man. -Where Cupid relates to Orpheus, an andante in three eighth time in the -key of D is used. - -Gluck has too many contrasts of slow and fast to be effective. His -overtures and finales are weak, and he could not quite effect a -compromise between the musical and the dramatic. - -He improved the old antagonism between the aria and the recitative by -giving the orchestra the function of adding some sort of color to -the mere vocal padding. He insisted on acting, instead of mere singing -by posturing sopranos and a chorus of wax figures. He insisted also on -his music being sung as written. His bold stroke was uneven, but such a -dramatic genius has never been surpassed. - -In "Alceste" his overture assumed a new significance. It had no formal -end but was broken into by the chorus. In "Armide" each character had -music personally distinctive. "Iphigenie en Tauride" combined dramatic -sincerity, superb use of recitative, natural and telling though simple -choruses, throbbing height of passion, unification of parts of soloists, -chorus and orchestra. He is termed a "creator of dramatic music". -Orchestration was his specialty although he introduced it subservient to -action. However, Gluck never employed trill passages or cadenzas, for -he wanted to accentuate nature and strengthen declamation. His choruses -are treated as "an additional acting character", and his recitative is -true to the dramatic import. Rameau's and Lulli's operas were crabbed and -rigid in comparison. Gluck alone gives each personage a style that is -proper. The musicians who would not, or could not sing, except from the -wings, were ignored by Gluck, and he refused the undramatic demands of -the manager. In "Iphigenia en Tauris" the chorus works into a background -which appropriately and dramatically supports the singer. The two -tendencies in Gluck are, to neglect all sensuous aesthetic pleasure for -attainment of dramatic intensity through declamation, and to realize his -purpose through emotional pleasure, harmony of color, greater unity of -scenes, the carrying out of one dramatic idea from the beginning to the -end, making each individual part stronger. - -Piccini was the innovator of the dramatic treatment of the duet and -extended development of the finale. He was the first to turn choral -masses to account on the stage. He used "Recitative instrumento" in -pale of the ordinary "Recitative secco." Mozart enlarged on his ideas, -for his command of the orchestra was unrivalled as a dramatic factor. -Cimarosa placed a statue on the stage, with a pedestal in the orchestra, -while Mozart placed the staue in the orchestra, using the work of the -stage as the pedestal. Cimarosa uses the accompaniment for the support -while Mozart intensifies the voice. Cimarosa was the first to introduce -quartets and other concerted pieces in the midst of dramatic action, and -not as an ornament at the end of the act, but he was outdistanced by -Mozart. Before this, opera was merely a recitative, with a chorus at the -end of each act, and then occasional airs were introduced, but not before -the middle of the 18th century do we find trios, etc. - -Beethoven and Weber followed Gluck. Beethoven gave to the orchestra the -explanatory character of the chorus. He employs twenty phrases for a -single character in "Fidelio". Weber used spoken dialogue and recitative -sparingly but when neccessary composed with originality and dramatic -vividness. He tried to construct drama by means of melody and failed. The -first example of a grand orchestral prelude is written in six-fourth time -to "Der Beberrscher der Geister." The overture to "Der Freischutz", by -the use of leading themes, relates the entire story. - -In the Italian and French school, "a la Sopontini" the orchestra lifted -and balanced the words and the spirit of the orchestra reveals the -innermost emotions of the dramatic personae. The Mythical manner is -chosen, and a use of alliterative verse with a peculiar use of the -orchestra as preparing, supporting, commenting upon, enforcing and -recalling the various situations of the text. - - - - -III. ROSSINI AND HIS SCHOOL UP TO WAGNER. - - -In 1814 the operatic conditions were deplorable. Vocalists were masters -over the composers. They accepted the mere skeleton of a tune, and so -adorned it with their own trills and flourishes that the poor composer -could scarcely recognize it. The solos were placed to suit their -convenience, whether or not they were suited dramatically. The tenor -singers were very prominent and the bass singers had not as yet emerged -from the background. - -Rossini expelled the male soprani from the stage, directed and -controlled his own operas. His music was sensuous and, as shown in -"William Tell", of a simple dramatic style. The operas were of two -acts and scarcely conducive to the maintenance of dramatic action, -separated by a ballet. His "Elizabetha" contained an overture, a duet -and the finale had involved motives in the orchestra. There were two -tenors, for the bass was still in the background. This was the first -opera in which the recitative was accompanied by a stringed quartet and -double bass. He supported the declamation by brilliant themes for the -orchestra. "The Barber of Seville" is a series of melodies, continuous, -and the characters only ceased to sing for strains executed by the -instrumentalists. The transfer of the current of the melody from the -voices to the orchestra was an entirely new idea. He also introduced new -instruments into the orchestra. - -Mozart was indebted to the Italians for the sweetness of his melodies -and gave to Italy, through Rossini, new instrumental combinations, new -dramatic methods and new operatic forms. The horn, eighty years ago, was -not very important in Italy and the orchestration played in the operatic -band probably had a part in developing the taste for wind instruments and -especially for horns. Rossini was a student of Haydn's symphonies and -quartets. - -In the opera-buffo "L'Equivaco Stravagante" the concerted pieces are -good, and the final rondo a type of final airs. "L'Inganno Felice" -was the first to make an impression. "Ciro in Babilonia" was given to -accomodate a woman, who sustained one tone while the orchetra played -the melody. With "Tancredi" came the commencement of reforms and the -character of the easily comprehended melodies was fascinating. Rossini -substituted singing for declamation, for monologues supported by chords, -and concerted pieces connected with and supported by a brilliant -orchestral accompaniment. In "Tancredi" the bass was given prominence, -in fact he was as prominent as the tenor. In "Semiramide" the principal -is a bass. The action is sustained, the number of formal airs decreased, -the number of characters increased and a free use made of the chorus, -which previous to this time had been merely a subordinate part with no -dramatic functions. In "Otello" the recitative is used more sparingly and -accompanied by a full band, from which the piano was banished. This had -been expelled before in Germany, and by Gluck in France. The two leading -parts are assigned to bass voices, and the interminable recitative -accompanied by double piano or piano and double bass, is done away with. -The most beautiful airs for the prima donna are in "La Cenercatola". - -Rossini was now bringing his operas to a brilliant termination, and -beginning to emphasize the alto and mezzo voice. It was only toward the -end of his Italian career in "Matilda di Shubrun" that he assigned the -leading part to a soprano. We find now that there are no leading parts -written for contralto and whether this is due the fact that the soprano -has bean forced into activity to suit new tastes, or because contraltos -are rare, we can not say. Of course Meyerbeer's "L'Africaine" and -Donnizetti's "La Favorita" are exceptions. The orchestration of "La Gazza -Ladrone" is more brilliant and sonorous than that of its predecessors -and introduces new instruments, new combinations, a new distribution of -voice parts, and of orchestral melodies with declamatory phrases for the -singers instead of the endless recitative accompanied only by chords for -the cellos or piano. - -He introduced cornets and ophicleides in the overture to "William Tell", -as the nearest approach to the actual instruments used by the cowherders -of Switzerland. In "Semiramide" he brought an entire band onto the -stage and wrote beautifully harmonized music which suggests the chase. -He began the overture to "La Gazza Ladrona" with a duet for the drums, -and did away with the extemporaneous attempts at orchestration by solo -instrumentalists in the accompaniment, who were every bit as disagreeable -and authoritative os the vocal soloists. - -Berlioz charged that Rossini's music was heartless, unemotional and -written entirely for the singer, utterly disregarding the vocal effect. -His particular attention to orchestral and choral effects may be traced -to the Parisian influence of his fine experience in hearing their -choruses and orchestras. His music changed from the soft voluptuous -melodies of "Semiramide" to simple emotional dramatic ones in "William -Tell". - -Rossini, as mentioned before, was the first Italian to accompany -recitative with a full band, assign leading parts to the bass, make each -dramatic scene one continuous piece of music, and bring to perfection the -highly varied, amply developed, concerted finales. - -Donizetti wrote from sixty to seventy operas, but his "Don Pasquale" is -in a light style as compared to the "Barber of Seville" and does not -approach "Semeramide" for melody, nor "William Tell" for dramatic value. -Stendhal foretold that the florid music of Rossini would be followed by a -master of simple melodies and we find Bellini to be the one. Donizetti's -work is not well balanced and he sways from one extreme to the other. His -tenor air in "Anne Bolena" is attractive for it possesses more dramatic -significance than most of his. He counted on the pure musical effect, -which is naturally more effective in spoken drama than in opera, which is -sung through out. For instance, the horn of "Hermani" is terrifying when -heard in the play, but merely ordinary when heard in the opera. He seldom -wrote a tune, or scored a half dozen measures of simple accompaniment, -without burying the voice under ponderous chords for the wood winds. -"Lucrezia Borgia" contains less recitative than was customary with -Rossini. Notice must be taken of the brilliancy of the introduction, -the series of dramatic scenes and the large number of tuneful themes -distributed judiciously for the four leading personages. "Lucia" is -broadly conceived, well constructed and highly dramatic, especially -where the chorus informs Lucia of the end of Edgar. In "La Favorita" -there is passionate impulsiveness in the final duet, the choruses are -impressive, and the music appropriate to the various personages and -situations of the piece. - -Bellini had true melody and his creative power was more effective than -Donizetti's, as was his use of the orchestra. He abandoned trills and for -ornamentation delivered simple phrases. "La Somnambula" is an endless -flow of melodies full of true emotion and thoroughly dramatic, for he -gave attention to the orchestration and concerted melodies. Rossini -emphasized the necessity of introducing choruses, which he maintained -were indispensable for dramatic effect, and we find his ideas developed -by these men. However, these, and Paisiello's form of long scenes of -recitative are old now. - -Mozart's introduction to "Figaro" first introduces the air by the -orchestra, then transcribed for the solo voice and finally sung by the -chorus. The melody of his "Zitti Zitti" trio was take I from Hayden's -"Seasons". He has adapted also an air from a Russian dance to aid in -the dramatic effect. He reached the highest perfection of expression -of melody with the strings, woodwinds and voice. His librettos are -weak, however, although he rewrote the less important ones himself. His -recitative is barren, for in his operas one had only to sing beautifully, -while in Wagner one must declaim beautifully. Mozart knew music as the -art of expression and gave this in its fullest sense to airs, duets and -ensemble pieces, yet he left opera forms as he found them. He spoke -of and depicted scenes, animals, etc. in his music. "Magic Flute" is -a primma donna opera. Mozart considered first music, then the book -and lastly the performance. In "Figaro" the psychological handling of -the characters is unconvincing. He has applied one invariable musical -formula to every character. He repeats one or two chords ad infinitum -in the orchestra. The voice trips along on top of these in semi speed. He -sanctioned formulas for cadences used in every situation. Even in "Don -Giovanni" the formulas for the cadences are used in this manner. He uses -the same method for light scenes as well as tragic situations, depicting -indignant heroines and chorus in the same manner. He was more musical but -he did not realize the dramatic situations. - -Bellini was a pure melodist, but his instrumentation was faulty, and he -objected to ornamentation. - -The French opera helps to develop the tendency of individual expression -while the German crushes it in striving for a whole general effect. -Rameau's "Hyppolyte et Aricie" is the most highly developed study of -character. Lulli's work is an amplification of Ramean's work. He combined -simplicity, natural melody and dramatic intentions. He developed his -attention to the orchestra, and employed the chorus as an integral -factor in the situation. He invented the overture using a slow movement, -followed by a quick fugal style with the third division, a short -dance. He developed the style of the French ballet. Both he and Ramean -considered accompanied recitative a matter of more importance than a -continuous flow of melodies. He reduced music to a minimum in this and -did not dominate it in time, rythm nor musical feeling. He characterized -it by accentuating the metrical and prosodial elements of the words -themselves, and followed closely the accent of the words, changing -rapidly from four-four rythm to three-four, and back again. - -There is no feeling in his arias for he was restricted to conventional -forms, and his melodies are characterless. In his "Comique de la -Rayne", arranged by Baltazan de Beaujoyeaux, with dance, tunes, chorus, -musical dialogues and ritornelli he exhibits a bold and highly cultivated -taste for instrumental music which led him to mold the overture into a -more perfect form. - -The serious opera, however, was becoming a mass of absurdities, -emphasizing the spectacle as superior to the music, with bad libretti, -degenerating under aristocratic patronage. The overture was to anticipate -the opera and a better recitative was wanted. Gluck wished to minimize -the disparity between opera and recitative and protested against the -frequent use of the de capo and repetition of words, maintaining that the -words should only be repeated where required by circumstances of passion. - -Meyerbeer was feeble in harmonic invention with no psychological grip but -with a talent for manipulating broad contrasts and climaxes of sound. He -is a creator of modern stage technique, merging scenes and music into -unity, a school of dramatic effects closely studied by Berlioz and Wagner. - -Bizet's "Carmen" is the most brilliant and best to convey the romance -of the nomadic desire in the gypsy. The ballets and operas of Delibes -are like the fashioning of a piece of Sevres china. Cesar Franck's veil -of harmonies envelops a multitude of themes so that the tragic ending -almost gives one a sense of peace. Auber was the last to represent the -Opera Comique and is noted for his simple melodies, and the rythm and -brilliancy of his orchestral effects. Bizet's operas are notable for -their abundance of local color, but Meyerbeer was the most influential -except Wagner. He opened up a new epoch in French opera. - - - - -IV. WAGNER. - - -Wagner objected to the sentimental Italian music. He considered Gluck -only a musician of airs, and himself insisted on absolute equality of -words and music. His "Trilogy" is the longest musical work in the world, -containing 984,033 notes. He discarded formal arias, finales, separate -movements, to a great extent choruses, whereever histrionic delineation -did not demand them. He considered a full close or final cadence quaint -and for usual formal melodies substituted declamatory recitative or -speech song. - -Gluck and Wagner brought back undying principles of dramatic worth. In -the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody was supreme. The -dramatic truth was lost sight of and the melody was not appropriate. In -"William Tell" and "Der Freischutz" there was a step onwards towards the -Wagner reform and a return to the first principles of dramatic art as -applied to opera by the Bardi coterie. There was recitative, declamation -and melody. Individualism was the prevailing tendency, and the success -depends on the forcibleness of character development by means of the -leitmotiv. Operatic art was here swaying between Wagnerism and the -ancient Greek drama. This union of drama and music does away with the -old absurd Italian form, in which the libretto was a mere skeleton, the -situations unnatural and the music inappropriate and undramatic. - -The Wagner texts were better and abolished concerted music which was -unnatural, and he demanded distinctness in ennunciation, musical -embodiment of emotional speech, melodic independence of the orchestra and -rapid and natural action. The Italian libretto was merely an excuse for -musical adornment, but the Wagnerian opera was a source of inspiration. -Wagner translated every character, emotion, dramatic action, symbolic -idea by a series of characteristic phrases. He joined motive to motive, -developed with artistic skill a musical current rolling along in the -orchestral accompaniment and ample in every word. - -In his earlier works Wagner adhered to the lyrical conception of the -opera. Speech was raised by stress of emotion into song with the -orchestra used only as an accompaniment and, under this new system, -effected an organization of instrumental and vocal forces. In "Das -Rheingold" the orchestra is exalted to symphonic dignity with the -traditional alternations of the formal song and recitative merged into -free declamation. The symphonic treatment of the orchestra led to -increased developmentt of leading motives. As symphonic music presupposes -the use of musical themes, Wagner drew his themes not from the words sung -by the characters but from the characters themselves, their thoughts, -feelings and aspirations. In the love duet in "Die Walküre" the most -delicious harmony is expressed. - -Wagner was both a poet and a musician and combined poetry, music and -pantomine painting. He is called the "reformer of opera", a "regenerator -of modern drama". Wagner's great work aside from the leitmotiv was his -work with recitative. Up to this time the recitative and the arias were -dry, weak, barren and hampered every composer and poet. Up to his time -the recitative aria and the ballet had undergone no organic change, -though the aria had suffered many changes of fashion. He did not mean to -sacrifice the beauty of sound in the Italian operas, but this had so far -usurped the first place, while the dramatic motive which had inspired -the invention of the opera. His works are not conspicuous for pure -melody, for he considered the dramatic effect of chords and discords. He -paid deference to the language employed and the vocal peculiarities of -the people, for the German words were unintelligible when sung to the -florid Italian tunes. He wrote the vocal parts of his lyric dramas to -bring out the force of his poetry. - -He gave new expression to new ideas. Peri, in "Eurydice", concealed -an orchestra behind the scenes. In Monteverde's "Orfeo", thirty-six -different instruments were relegated to each personage. Wagner assigned -an instrument or set of instruments to each person. His typical phrases -are most interesting. He pictures the giants, in "Das Rheingold", with -loud heavy octaves, the Nibelung, tricksters and schemers, with music of -a descending figure, twothirds the interval of a seventh, the melodies of -the Rhine with characteristic figures depicting slow undulation of water -in its depths, flux and reflux of element, ripples on the surface and the -motion of the swimmers. - -His "Rheingold" music is truly scenic. It begins with a single deep -tone and then introduces instruments of a lighter color. The graduated -augmentation of the wavy accompaniment and the doubly delineative -spirit reflects the sinless quiet of the Golden Age. There are themes -for mental states and the evil Alberich is represented by abrupt jerky -music. The orchestra discourses mournfully of the renunciation of love. -Loga is depicted by fitful chromatic phrases which crackle and flash -thru the orchestra. The sword phrase consists of major harmonies over -sustained pedal point, and the thunderstorm of rushing figures in bass, -and staccato lightning in short rapid figures in lighter instruments, -crashing of the wind in chromatic phrases, a hammering rythm for -the Nibelung. Siegfried's boyhood is pictured as a wild forest lad -with a hunting call, and when he gathers pieces of the spear the music -accompaniment is in broken rythm. - -In "Parsifal" the music depicts little of external things. In -"Tannhaüser" there are fancies which Wagner wished to float thru the -minds of the audience and the Pilgrim's Chant swells and disappears. In -"Tristan and Isolde" the prelude represents the spiritual progress of -the tragedy. The suffering of the wounded Tristan is shown by a theme of -descending half steps and a closing cadence of short phrases which stand -for the love glance is a downward leap of the seventh. The symbol of -death is expressed with a sudden and unprepared change from A flat to A. -The music consists of a few phrases which unfold themselves over and over -again in a variety of combinations with continually changing instrumental -color. "Die Meistersinger" prelude delineates the characteristic traits -of the personages, and the symphonic introduction indicates the elements -of the plot, the progress in its developement and the outcome. The two -classes of melodies are broadly distinguished in external physiognomy and -emotional essence, at first consecutively, then in conflict and finally -in harmonious and contented union. The solid old burghers of Nuremburg, -a little vain, are pictured by strong simple tunes with sequences of the -intervals of the simple diatonic scale, strongly and simply harmonized, -a trifle pompous in opposition to the passion of the lovers displayed. -These themes differ in every respect, melodic, rythmic, and harmonic, -and also in their treatment. The lover's theme is chromatic, the rythme -are less regular and more eager by syncopation. This is harmonized with -greater warmth and set for the instruments with greater passion. - -Wagner's orchestra acquired gradually the functions of the Greek chorus, -in that it takes part in the action to publish that which is beyond the -capacity of the personages alone to utter. He unfolds thoughts, emotions, -motives and passions by means of mode, harmony, rythm, time and the -orchestration. By applying the principles of augmentation to a phrase -in the three phases of melodic, harmonic and instrumental structure, he -illustrates the tragic growth of Siegfried. He wrote his own librettos -so that his works would be consistent. "Tristan and Isolde", "Die -Meistersinger", "Der Ring des Nibelunger" and "Parsifal" realized his -conception of what a poet composer should be. Music had usurped the place -in lyric drama and music is a medium only and not an end of dramatic -expression. His leitmotiv, infinite melody and symbolical themes gave -his orchestra color. He used musical declamation for recitative secco, -employed choruses with intelligent regard, and originated arias from -the situations. Wagner lived for pure singing and did not make abnormal -demands upon the voice like those of Strauss' "Electra". He has long solo -passages and orderly development of orchestral themes, as different from -Debussy whose sounds are not connected. Wagner elevated the orchestra -from a mere accompanying force to an essential factor. He maintained that -formal song should be abolished, that the dialogue should be musical -and that the orchestra should have an orderly development of melodic -material save when the climaxes justify an apparently disconnected -dramatic melodramatic method. Damrosch criticizes Wagner because he says -everything in his orchestra, and his singer is too little considered. - -However, his operas are a tableaux of gorgeous glowing pictures, and he -has had no successful imitation. His scheme of thematic identification -and development in its union of calculation and reflection and musical -inspiration, is beyond the capacities of those who have come after him. -Musical critics and historians have been occupied with the question as -to whether or not the progress in operatic composition is possible on -the lines laid down, although his influence is a modification of the old -method rather than the invention of new ideas. We look to the theatres of -Paris for his influence in corrections and technical finish. The clear -musical phrases of the "Flying Dutchman" are presented in symphonic -way and there is an introduction, aria, scene, duet and chorus. The -commencement of each of the three acts with a chorus was a mannerism, but -Wagner scarcely ever employed it. In "Tannhauser" there is only one duet. -He advanced individualism of the dramatic mood by banishing the aria. He -made the orchetra the chief sustainer of the musical framework with the -voice for the dramatic organ. The lyric recitative is reechoed at times -by melodic phrases and developed motives. The extreme limit of Wagner's -methods is "Salome", which is really a symphonic poem for a gigantic -orchestra to the accompaniment of dramatic action with a voice obligato. - -Gounod did not use prolonged themes unless for a dramatic or purely -ethical reason. "Faust" is the best suited for the human voice. The -orchestra never submerges the voice and is only a factor and not a sum -total. At this time the Italian school was at the height where flimsy -librettos only served to string together duets, quartets or choruses. In -"Faust" there is the first artistic union of score and words. - -Verdi had a keen dramatic vision and assigned greater importance to the -orchestra than his Italian predecessors. There is an absence, for the -most part, of set airs, and there is a continuity of musical structure. -The orchestration is wonderful, but the voice still remains the centre of -the musical system. The style is more that of Donizetti's than Bellini's, -although critics declare the music of "Ernani" noisy and commonplace, -with too much brass in the orchestra. His chorus was written in unison, -and passed too abruptly from one piece to another, and his effects were -not sufficiently prepared, but under his direction the brassiness was -kept down, and a proper balance maintained. There is genuine emotion in -his strains, significance in his melodies, characterization of personages -and forcible construction of scenes, though he did not surpass "William -Tell". He neglected concerted music and does not include one separate -regularly constructed piece. His solo melodies are beautiful. His -"Aida" is saturated with local color, Egyptian music, with a masterly -combination of strings, woodwind and voice. "Il Trovatore" is not an -opera but a set of detached pieces held in loose contact on a string. -There was little action and we find page after page to be sung at the -footlights with only mechanical gestures. Verdi avoided the "leitmotiv", -and relegated mere tune to the background. In "Falstaff" there is a -complete independence of restrictive formalism that modern music drama -requires to illustrate the play, which enhances the significance of the -situations. - - - - -V. POST WAGNERIAN SCHOOL--INCLUDING MODERN RUSSIAN, FRENCH, ITALIAN, -GERMAN, AND AMERICAN COMPOSERS. - - -Michael Ivanovitch Glinka is called the "Father of Russian Opera". He -combined the technique, forms and counterpoint of Italy and Germany -with the Russian folksong and rythm. He was choice of his subjects, and -thought that the management of the plots ought to be more simple, and the -music in the style of natural song. There is energy and also vitality in -"La Vie pour le Tsar" and "Russlau et Ludmille". In Russian folk songs we -find the music suitable to the words. - -The Russian folk like acting and their customs in their wedding -ceremonies, etc., are an ideal basis for an opera school. Glinka used -the fierce struggle of the contending nations for a background, and let -the story be related and enacted by four central figures. His realism -surpassed the trivial impossibilities of the Italian school. He did not -combine involved themes in a pot-pourri style so that none could be -distinguished, but rather created atmosphere. His instrumentalism is -sonorous and uses five-four, six-four and seven-four time. - -The "Pique Dame" of Tschaikovsky has a style like that of other composers -beyond set forms of the older operas though not of the music drama. The -arias, duets, choruses and ballets are dramatically appropriate, and -the orchestra is more of a function than an accompaniment. In "Boris -Godonnow" there is no principle tenor part, no principle contralto part -and no principle soprano part. If it is a singer's opera at all it is -a basso's, but it really is more for chorus. The writing for solo -declamatory passages occassioned the use of the lyric passages in the -orchestra, which was made the purveyor of color. The atmosphere is not -symphonic, though the development is important and we find a remarkable -use of the leitmotiv but the composer never even heard of Wagner. - -Nicolai Andreyevitch Rimski-Korsakov was a serious student of Russian -folk lore. His music is free and expressive--so much so that when he -studied technique seriously, it was almost impaired. His operas are -versatile, but his "Snow Maiden" is a trifle old-fashioned, although -he fails to express pathos, delicate tenderness etc. The stage -phantasmoriga, of "Christmas Eve or Vakoul the Smith", especially at -the transformation scenes is accompanied with music wild and bizarre, -yet consummate in its descriptive finesse. He was dissatisfied with -the foreign elements of the Italian form of opera which Glinka and -Tschaikovsky could assimilate to excellent purpose. He cannot seem to -decide whether opera is lyrical or symphonic. His orchestra suggests -the soft freshness of a May night atmosphere in the steppes of Russia, -the aroma of flowers, the enchanting long drawn notes of a nightingale -interspersed with the love element, and the vocal characterization of -the Mayor and the Bailiff in this "A May Night" is extremely clever. -Like Strauss, he uses certain themes for certain instruments and has the -Russian desire to mingle meaning and sound. - -Wagner laid down the theories but his imitators have failed because they -did not have his genius. Rimski-Korsakov is noted for his brilliant -orchestration and the ugly and cruel music leading up to his situations, -but he combines dignity and simplicity with realism and not with the -romantic. The protogonists of his drama are, the Russian people, and -that is the reason for the extended use of the chorus. There is no -central situation, as the people and one character, or sometimes two, -make up the drama. It is easy to omit or transpose a scene thus showing -the loosenes of the dramatic construction, which is a merit in a musical -play, for the composer can express the central ideas of the drama -without being bound hand and foot by dramatic situations. In the modern -music drama the orchestra expresses all that cannot be expressed by the -dramatic action and the singers. Rimski-Korsakov's is mainly a subjective -expression of composition, while Moussorgsky's orchestra is never -subjective, but always objective. Borodini's "Prince Igor" is a colorful -barbaric ballet while in Dargomysky's "The Water Sprite", "The Stone -Guest" there are interesting intermediary recitative sections, although -the recitative of "La Pskovitaine" is dry. - -Xaver Schwarwenka'a opera "Mataswinthe" resembles those of Wagner of the -"Lohengrin" period. They are thoroughly modern. The muted horns in the -orchestra give dramatic expressiveness in harmony and the composer uses -the free arioso style. There is not the set form of the Italian school, -but the modern declamatory arioso, monologues and duets, discarding -recitative, and introducing massive ensembles with key complexity, but -never smothering them with the orchestra. - -Balakirew and Borodini employ good airs, especially in the ballet, and -color their orchestra wonderfully. Cesar Cui used melodic recitative with -the interdiction of the repetitions of words, and there is an absence of -duets and trios and every piece of ensemble, and every one affecting a -definite and complete character. "Angelo" and "The Filibuster" are too -extreme, for the three acts of recitaive become monotonous. This school's -form is vague except for the audacious harmonization. - -Puccini adds to Wagner's reform, with the peculiar style of modern French -and Italian composers which alternates light and varied orchestration and -melody, with harsh, almost crude instrumentation. He demonstrates that -the orchestra may be made to interpret shades and transitions of rapid -and subtle emotion, and he produced an actual musical diction with some -of the finest passages for the orchestra alone. His sense of melody is -supreme in his combination of Italian and German methods. His impressive -manner of intensifying and underscoring dramatic moments in the action is -unparalleled as is also his capacity for forceful and succinct orchestral -commentary. He uses his music to paint scenes and makes continuous use of -distinctive and rythmic melody and there is an absence of any definite -characterization by means of a leitmotiv, for his work is lighter than -that of Wagner's. He maintains that opera must have local color, so -therefore we find an interweaving of American airs in his "Girl of the -Golden West" and American and Japanese airs in "Madame Butterfly". His -score is genuinely Puccinean and an influence of Debussy is betrayed in -an harmonic way. - -The prelude to "Madame Butterfly" Is not an overture, though it does -state some motives. His songs constantly contain one melody in the -instrumental against the unrelated vocal part, and he reflects the -modern moods and ideas in a score intricate in counterpoint, rich in -embellishment, full of the melodic fluency of the Italian temperament -and strength of the German school. The Japanese effects give beautiful -lyric movements but they are not as great as Verdi's. There is intense -dramatic vigor in "Manon Lescaut" which has spoken dialogue with running -orchestral accompaniment and motives. "La Boheme" has neither overture -nor intermezzo, and lacks sustained melody. Puccini is termed the only -one with as much genius as Wagner, for he agrees that too much realism -is cramping to good music, and he proves that music drama can be loosely -constructed and need not conform to spoken drama standards. - -Debussy, in "Pelleas and Melisande" places a statue on a stage, not -a musical one, but one of dramatic action and declamation. The vocal -parts are reduced to a minimum of musical expressiveness and the music, -a sort of rythmless chant, is subordinate to action. He is about the -only composer who makes music dependent entirely on the drama. Wagner's -orchestra is a bug driving force, while Strauss' delicate shifting of the -background of the polyphony does not drown the voices. Debussy does not -compose with the aim of orchestral composition as do Wagner and Strauss. -With Puccini, Debussy and Charpentier, the human voice counts as a real -medium. In "Pelleas and Melisande" there is a tress on the naturalness -of the recitative. Debussy makes music the servant of the drama and -makes a symphonic use of motives which are not developed formally, but -manipulated in an undercurrent of musical thought. He declares melody -anti-dramatic, and in recitative with the orchestra there is freedom for -individual interpretation. His "L'Enfant Prodigue" is composed along the -regular lines and is his best work. He follows Cesar Franck's method -of scattering a number of disconnected themes and leaving them to sort -themselves. - -In Dukas' "Ariane and Bluebeard", set melodies are avoided and -everything is in plastic style of music drama, with shimmering tone color -and a wealth of orchestral touches. Louis Aubert's "The Blue Forest", -is an effective combination of modernity and simplicity with much use -of leading motives and some fairly definite numbers. "Les Heretiques" -displays enervating voluptuousness and languor in the duet. There are -grave and large accents for the invocation to Venus by Daphne. The -orchestral lamentation at the close is graceful and the choruses are -charming, but the dialogue is wearisome. He is a disciple of Massenet in -his correct portrayal of the suavity, sweetnes and fascination of women. -In "Le Petite Boheme" the orchestration is rich and effective and the -dramatic action is developed. - -Franchetti's "Germania" is a lyric two act drama with a prologue and -an epilogue, aping Wagner, Verdi, Puccini and Tschaikovski. Delibes, a -new dramatist, uses unusual discretion in the color expression of the -orchestra but with very little acting. His modulation scheme is rich and -more melodic, but it is almost as declamatory as that of Strauss. Saint -Saens and Massenet are less radical with a light melodic orchestra. -Massenet's music in "Le Jongleur" and "Griselidis" is not strong enough -to atone for tiresome episodes in the plot. The chorus plays an important -but invisible part, throughout. - -The Charpentier orchestra and neither Strauss-like nor Wagnerian. His -"Louise" is constructed according to Wagner but creates an atmosphere -rather emphasizing themes. It has musical originality, dramatic -novelty and picturesque reproductions of life, style, and a blend of -romanticism and reality. He is influenced by Massenet in musical speech -and orchestral style. He emphasizes the lyrical element by the use -of melodic recitative rather than by aria. He develops motives for -descriptive importance with polyphonic style. The individual sonority of -the orchestra reduses the stress on the orchestra's departure from the -Wagnerian ideas. He reduced the dependence of these ideas to a minimum, -and asserted the value of reliance on the native sources of music and -drama. - -Bruneau was a pupil of Massenet with undistinguished melodic patterns. -He followed Wagner in the close continuity of drama and accurate -characterization in music, fitting a characterization for varying -dramatic atmospheres. His "Kerim" displays militarism and is a contrast -to the pastoral elements in "L'Attaque du Moulin". His thematic -manipulation is not flexible enough but his harmonic idiom is ingenuous -and true to the qualities of race and time. D'Albert's "Tiefland" has -a prologue and two acts, and combines the Wagner and Puccini swift and -pliant orchestra, which colors and intensifies, but dispenses with the -elaboration of Wagner's symphonic chorus. Chenier's "Liberia", strange -to say, has one strain repeated and repeated. Chabrier is noted for -his delicate expression and his fidelity and vigor of delineation. In -"Briseis" the fresh aroma of the sea is suggested by the soft singing of -the sailors without any overture or prelude. Bruneau in "Zola" writes -flexible music and has a capacity for unmetred prose used for vocal -purposes, a caustic rugged sincerity with an element of passion and -little tenderness. Charpentier's "Louise" has the quick lithe movement of -the Parisian character; gay, amused and amusing. - -Richard Strauss uses a more complex orchestra than Wagner and we find -leading motives as in Wagner. He is one of the most severely criticized -composers of modern times. He has been accused of outrageous infraction -of every musical law. The mood in "Electra" is implicit in the play, -but it is reinforced by Strauss' orchestration. Where Beethoven or -Wagner entrances are splendid, the instrumental equivalent of Strauss -grates. He is typical to the moods, etc., of the play. He uses discords -to represent a mad woman, but is musically beautiful in the recognition -of brother and sister and love. The chief characters are depicted by -leading motives, dissonance and orchestral bewilderments, and his power -of characterization is extraordinary. There are forty-five themes in -"Electra". He uses different instruments to represent the different -animals, etc. For instance, the grunting of the pigs is represented by -six bassoons and a flute. - -There are one hundred and four musicians in "Salome", with sixty strings -and an organ celeste. Three men carry on an excited conversation, one in -seven eighth time, one in five eighth time and one in four four time, -while the orchestra continues its original tempo. - -Puccini, Humperdinck and Mascagni are considered by many to be the -best living composers. "Königskinder" is chiefly declamatory and -never sacrfices the human voice for the orchestra, and expounds and -illustrates, but never fails to support the shapely arioso by rarely -defined melody. - -"Conchita" by Riccardo Zandonai embraces a few fragmentary themes -and the voice parts are declamatory without a melodic line or the -shapeliness of an arioso. Mascagni's "Cavalleria Rusticana" shows the -introduction of a new device with the performance of the orchestral -interlude and division of the work into two parts, with the curtain -remaining up and showing the empty stage. Both he and Leoncavello have -written short operas with effective librettos, and they stand for -dramatic verities. Our American composers seem to follow different -schools and styles without establishing one of their own. "Mona" by -Horatio Parker assigns not a motive for a label to each character but -a tonality, though only one blessed with absolute pitch can appreciate -this. Walter Damrosch's "Cyrano" is in a post-Wagnerian style, a sort of -melodious arioso frequently broadening into definitely shaped airs, with -numerous ensembles, trios, quartets and choruses and the orchestra plays -an important part, being continuously melodious, but not monopolizing -melodic interest with leading motives attached to characters. "The Pipe -of Desire", by F. S. Converse, has passages in a later Wagnerian style, -and there are four prominent motives while the orchestra is exceedingly -good, especially in depicting the "Naioa" theme. Victor Herbert's music -is replete with local color and drama, and the representative themes are -not developed, although his music is rather light and better suited for -the operetta and the salon. - -Thus we see how the musical forms of the opera have changed from the -older more vocal feats to the newer well developed music drama. Gluck -and Wagner brought back the undying principles of dramatic truth. In -the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody was supreme and the -dramatic truth was lost sight of. In "William Tell" and "Der Freischütz" -there was a step onward, and with Wagner we find a return to, or reform, -of the first principles of true dramatic art as applied to the opera by -the Bardi coterie. Individualism is the prevailing tendency and succes -depends on the forcibleness of the characters and the development of the -leitmotiv. - -In our consideration of the operas, from "Rappresentatione di Anima" -to "Madeleine" we find the number of characters growing larger, the -orchestra more complex and perhaps usurping more time, the solo work -increasing considerably, recitative increasing, ensemble almost vanishing -and chorus work reduced to a minmum. The opera of the future will be -a medium between Wagner and Strauss, orchestral music drama, and the -Debussy incidental music, and the melodiousness of the Italian school. -The most vital music dramas of the day do not abandon nor drown out -the voice, nor do they cast aside all musical connections, but combine -orchestra, voice and dramatic action in an artistic way. - - - - -APPENDIX OF TABLES. - - -Table I. This table is general, comparing, by means of a percentage -system, the amount of space devoted to the orchestra solo, recitative, -ensemble and chorus work in the thirty-four operas considered. The date, -name, composer, number of acts and number of characters is shown. - -Table II. This develops column "D" of table I and shows the first -the entire number of characters, and then the number of sopranos, -mezzo-sopranos, altos, tenors, baritones and bass in these same -thirty-four operas. - -Table III. This table develops "F" of Table I showing the entire -percentage of orchestration in each of the thirty-four operas, and -further the division of this percentage into that devoted to overtures, -ballets and interludes. - -Table IV. This table develops column "G" of Table I concerning solo -works. The percentage of the entire solo work is given and this is then -divided into the percentage devoted to that of soprano, mezzo-soprano, -alto, tenor, baritone and bass. - -Table V. In this table column "H" of Table I is developed. A record -is shown of the operas which contain accompanied and unaccompanied -recitative of the thirty-four operas is shown, and this, in turn, is -divided into that of soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone -and bass. - -Table VI. Column "I" of Table I is considered here. The entire percentage -of ensemble work is shown, and this is divided into that of duets, trios, -quartets, quintets and sextets. - -Table VII. This table develops column "J" of Table I and shows the -percentage of the opera devoted to chorus work and further, the division -into mixed chorus and men's and women's choruses. - - - - -TABLE I. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. No. of - Characters. - - 1600 Rappresebtatione de Anima Cavalieri 5 - 1675 King Arthur Purcell 13 - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese 2 - 1762 Orfeus Gluck 3 - 1767 Alceste Gluck 8 - 1784 Le Domine Noir Auber 9 - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart 8 - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry 7 - 1800 Les Deux Journees Cherubini 6 - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven 7 - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini 8 - 1821 Der Freischütz Weber 6 - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini 7 - 1832 Le Postilion Lonjuneaux Adam 7 - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti 7 - 1843 The Bohemian Girl Balfe 9 - 1847 Martha Flotow 10 - 1866 Mignon Thomas 8 - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod 12 - 1874 Aida Verdi 6 - 1875 Carmen Bizet 10 - 1882 Parsifal Wagner 6 - 1887 Samson and Delilah Saint-Saens 8 - 1890 Cavalleria Rusticana Mascagni 5 - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello 5 - 1893 Le Cid Massenet 10 - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck 7 - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark 6 - 1900 Louise Charpentier 8 - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini 10 - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovski 10 - 1905 Salome Strauss 6 - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi 10 - 1914 Madeleine Herbert 5 - -GENERAL. - - E F G H I J - - No. of % of % of % of % of % of - Acts Orchestra Solo Recitative Ensemble Chorus - - 3 11.6 14.21 30.2 11.6 14.39 - 5 30.1 21.3 9.73 17.27 21.6 - 2 14.35 25.73 30.30 19.50 10.2 - 3 26.85 15.27 11.87 33.13 12.88 - 3 32.92 23.5 23.82 3.163 18.71 - 3 23.6 18.68 18.62 15.91 23.19 - 2 15.91 30.13 31.43 29.31 1.582 - 3 4.17 6.53 .92 83.4 6.2 - 3 22.56 13.5 22.8 7.2 36.94 - 2 26 35.17 10.11 14.66 14.06 - 2 22.15 17.28 10.00 38.57 12.00 - 3 51.03 18.9 9.06 4.7 16.31 - 2 19.61 15.19 30.33 7.523 30.6 - 3 19.6 12.76 33.8 23.32 26.17 - 3 8.92 39.83 5.62 10.23 35.4 - 3 32.6 23.7 10.42 8.38 25.7 - 4 18.85 8.73 24.03 28.77 25.95 - 5 19.7 21.42 33.75 9.76 14.74 - 5 29.6 32.71 17 6.97 13.72 - 4 29.82 17.405 15.6 7.075 30.1 - 4 31.6 26.71 15.32 15.05 9.32 - 3 31.2 28.67 19.82 -- 10.31 - 3 35.6 25.43 19.71 4.3 15.07 - 1 31.6 12.3 11.9 12.56 31.64 - 2 15.77 40.2 11.97 9.18 19.88 - 4 36.31 25.83 19.78 8.33 9.75 - 3 36.2 25.47 18.1 14.91 15.38 - 3 33.6 16.86 38.40 5.54 5.6 - 4 25.6 23.97 20.32 15.6 15.51 - 2 33.4 12.87 24.85 4.75 10.03 - 3 32.4 33.96 15.42 2.93 15.29 - 1 19.89 46.2 31.62 .93 11.36 - 3 24.6 32.24 39.62 .07 3.51 - 1 22.41 50.19 23.04 4.36 -- - - - - -TABLE II. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. No. of - Characters. - - 1600 Rappresentatione de Anima Cavalieri 5 - 1675 King Arthur Purcell 13 - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese 2 - 1762 Orfeus Gluck 3 - 1767 Alceste Gluck 8 - 1784 Le Domine Noir Auber 9 - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart 8 - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry 7 - 1800 Les Deux Journees Cherubini 6 - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven 7 - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini 8 - 1821 Der Freischütz Weber 6 - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini 7 - 1832 Le Postilion Lonjuneaux Adam 7 - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti 7 - 1843 The Bohemian Girl Balfe 9 - 1847 Martha Flotow 10 - 1866 Mignon Thomas 8 - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod 12 - 1874 Aida Verdi 6 - 1875 Carmen Bizet 10 - 1882 Parsifal Wagner 6 - 1887 Samson and Delilah Saint-Saens 8 - 1890 Cavalleria Rusticana Mascagni 5 - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello 5 - 1893 Le Cid Massenet 10 - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck 7 - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark 6 - 1900 Louise Charpentier 8 - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini 10 - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovski 10 - 1905 Salome Strauss 6 - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi 10 - 1914 Madeleine Herbert 5 - -NUMBER AND KIND OF CHARACTERS. - - E F G H I J - - No. of No. of Mezzo No. of No. of No. of No. of - Soprano Soprano Alto Tenor Baritone Bass - - 2 -- -- 2 -- 1 - 7 -- -- 1 -- 5 - 1 -- -- -- -- 1 - 2 -- 1 -- -- -- - 1 -- -- 2 -- 5 - 2 3 -- 1 -- 3 - 3 -- -- 1 1 3 - 3 -- -- 2 -- 1 - 1 -- -- 3 -- 2 - 2 -- -- 2 -- 3 - 1 -- 1 1 1 4 - 2 -- -- 1 1 4 - 2 1 -- 2 1 1 - 1 -- -- 4 -- 3 - 1 1 -- 3 1 1 - 3 -- -- 3 1 2 - 2 3 -- 2 -- 3 - 1 1 1 2 -- 3 - 2 1 -- 3 3 3 - 1 1 -- 2 -- 2 - 3 1 -- 2 1 3 - 1 -- -- 1 1 3 - -- 1 -- 3 1 3 - 1 1 1 1 1 -- - 1 -- -- 2 -- 2 - 2 -- -- 2 3 3 - 3 3 -- -- 1 -- - 3 -- -- 1 1 1 - 1 1 3 1 2 -- - 1 2 -- 2 3 2 - 1 2 1 2 1 3 - 1 2 -- 2 1 -- - 3 1 -- 4 2 -- - 1 1 -- 1 1 1 - - - - -TABLE III. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. % of Entire - Orchestration. - - 1600 Rappresentatione de Anima Cavalieri 14.39 - 1675 King Arthur Purcell 30.1 - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese 14.35 - 1762 Orfeus Gluck 26.85 - 1767 Alceste Gluck 32.92 - 1784 Le Domine Noir Auber 23.6 - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart 15.91 - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry 4.17 - 1800 Les Deux Journees Cherubini 22.56 - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven 26.00 - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini 22.15 - 1821 Der Freischütz Weber 51.03 - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini 19.61 - 1832 Le Postilion Lonjuneaux Adam 19.6 - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti 8.92 - 1843 The Bohemian Girl Balfe 32.6 - 1847 Martha Flotow 18.85 - 1866 Mignon Thomas 19.7 - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod 29.6 - 1874 Aida Verdi 29.82 - 1875 Carmen Bizet 31.6 - 1882 Parsifal Wagner 31.2 - 1887 Samson and Delilah Saint-Saens 35.6 - 1890 Cavalleria Rusticana Mascagni 31.6 - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello 25.77 - 1893 Le Cid Massenet 36.31 - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck 36.2 - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark 33.6 - 1900 Louise Charpentier 25.6 - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini 33.4 - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovski 32.4 - 1905 Salome Strauss 19.89 - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi 24.6 - 1914 Madeleine Herbert 22.41 - -ORCHESTRATION. - - E F G - - % of Overture. % of Ballet. % of Interludes. - - 2.07 -- 12.32 - 5.21 3.34 21.55 - 2.45 -- 11.90 - 14.87 9.01 2.97 - 3.61 18.45 10.86 - 10.97 -- 13.6 - 7.39 -- 8.52 - 2.64 -- 1.97 - 16.95 1.41 4.5 - 7.4 -- 18.6 - 8.98 -- 13.17 - 21.09 3.27 26.67 - 3.35 -- 16.26 - 4.85 -- 14.85 - 2.33 1.45 5.14 - 16.25 10.32 5.09 - 1.293 -- 17.57 - 6.52 -- 13.2 - 2.45 3.97 22.14 - 6.42 10.53 12.87 - 4.5 9.2 17.9 - 5.1 -- 26.1 - -- 17.42 18.18 - 21.72 .93 8.95 - 15.15 -- 10.62 - 3.4 5.6 27.31 - 16.5 -- 19.7 - 5.29 -- 28.31 - 4.75 -- 20.85 - 5.42 -- 28.00 - 3.52 9.65 19.33 - -- 7.42 12.47 - -- -- 24.6 - -- -- 22.41 - - - - -TABLE IV. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. % of entire - solos. - - 1600 Rappresentatione de Anima Cavalieri 14.21 - 1675 King Arthur Purcell 21.3 - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese 25.73 - 1762 Orfeus Gluck 15.27 - 1767 Alceste Gluck 23.5 - 1784 La Domine Noir Auber 18.68 - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart 30.13 - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry 6.53 - 1800 Les Deux Journees Cherubini 13.5 - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven 35.17 - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini 17.28 - 1821 Der Freischütz Weber 18.9 - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini 15.19 - 1832 Le Postillon Lonjuneaux Adam 12.76 - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti 39.83 - 1843 The Bohemian Girl Balfe 23.7 - 1847 Martha Flotow 8.73 - 1866 Mignon Thomas 21.42 - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod 32.71 - 1874 Aida Verdi 17.405 - 1875 Carmen Bizet 26.71 - 1882 Parsifal Wagner 28.67 - 1887 Samson and Delilah Saint-Saens 25.43 - 1890 Cavalleria Rusticana Mascagni 12.3 - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello 40.2 - 1893 Le Cid Massenet 25.83 - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck 25.47 - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark 16.86 - 1900 Louise Charpentier 23.97 - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini 12.87 - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovsky 33.96 - 1905 Salome Strauss 46.2 - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi 33.24 - 1914 Madeleine Herbert 50.19 - -SOLOS. - - E F G H I J - - % of % of % of % of % of % of - Soprano. Mezzo Sop. Alto. Tenor. Baritone. Bass. - - 10.2 -- -- 2.6 -- 1.31 - 7.4 -- 4.061 4.62 -- 5.219 - 19.1 -- -- -- -- 6.63 - 6.52 -- 8.75 -- -- -- - 14.8 -- -- 4.5 -- 33.6 - 14.92 -- -- .92 -- 2.84 - 15.02 -- -- 3.27 4.29 7.55 - 3.98 -- -- .95 -- 1.58 - 4.3 2.1 -- 5.72 -- 1.38 - 17.06 -- -- 14.32 -- 3.79 - 3.42 -- 6.68 3.813 1.52 1.847 - 8.76 -- -- 3.41 2.41 4.32 - 5.35 1.07 -- 4.53 2.25 1.99 - 2.67 -- -- 5.33 -- 4.76 - 13.6 4.5 -- 14.12 3.25 4.36 - 4.95 -- -- 7.86 6.24 5.25 - 4.53 .414 -- 2.81 -- .742 - 5.28 5.32 -- 6.71 4.11 -- - 14.9 -- -- 7.36 3.51 6.94 - 5.69 5.03 -- 3.56 -- 3.125 - 9.87 -- .09 7.43 1.29 8.03 - 5.24 -- -- 6.59 9.62 7.22 - 6.00 6.27 -- 6.00 6.42 -- - 6.24 -- -- 5.19 .87 -- - 13.25 -- -- 13.9 13.07 -- - 15.2 -- -- 5.31 1.4 3.92 - 5.63 12.59 -- -- 7.25 -- - 10.16 -- -- 1.09 2.4 3.21 - 5.6 .27 3.8 9.41 4.89 -- - 7.98 -- -- 3.96 .874 -- - 10.42 2.37 .531 3.29 8.34 8.909 - 23.4 -- -- 15.27 3.5 4.03 - 5.32 -- -- 9.64 9.72 7.56 - 15.06 -- -- 10.5 8.39 16.23 - - - - -TABLE V. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. Spoken text. - Accom. Unaccom. - - 1600 Rappresentatione de Anima Cavalieri -- x - 1675 King Arthur Purcell -- -- - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese -- -- - 1762 Orfeus Gluck -- -- - 1767 Alceste Gluck -- -- - 1784 Le Domine Noir Auber -- -- - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart -- -- - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry -- x - 1800 Les Deux Jounees Cherubini -- -- - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven -- x - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini -- x - 1821 Der Freischütz Weber x x - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini -- -- - 1832 Le Postilion de Longjuneaux Adam -- -- - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti -- -- - 1843 Bohemian Girl Balfe -- -- - 1847 Martha Flotow -- -- - 1866 Mignon Thomas -- x - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod -- -- - 1874 Aida Verdi -- -- - 1875 Carmen Bizet -- -- - 1882 Parsifal Wagner -- -- - 1887 Samson and Delilah Saint Saens -- -- - 1890 Cavalleria Rusticana Mascagni -- -- - 1893 Le Cid Massenet -- -- - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello -- -- - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck -- -- - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark -- -- - 1900 Louise Charpentier -- -- - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini -- -- - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovsky -- -- - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi -- -- - 1914 Madeleine Herbert -- -- - -RECITATIVE. - - E F G H I J K - - % % % % % % % - Recit. Soprano. Mezzo Sop. Alto. Tenor. Baritone. Bass. - - 30.2 6.43 -- 13.21 9.27 -- 1.29 - 9.73 5.39 -- -- -- -- 4.34 - 30.30 20.58 -- -- -- -- 9.72 - 11.87 7.56 -- 4.315 -- -- -- - 23.82 3.32 -- -- 2.95 -- 17.55 - 18.62 4.22 3.9 .3 1.77 -- 8.43 - 31.43 9.16 -- -- 5.53 7.47 9.27 - .92 .11 -- -- .95 -- 1.58 - 22.8 6.9 -- 3.165 7.32 -- 5.415 - 10.11 4.31 -- -- 2.6 -- 3.3 - 10.00 2.66 -- .798 2.33 -- 4.2 - 9.06 2.27 -- -- 2.72 1.03 3.04 - 30.33 5.85 3.17 -- 4.78 22.2 4.33 - 33.80 25.71 -- -- 5.66 -- 2.43 - 5.62 .987 .06 -- 1.76 3.09 .703 - 10.42 3.26 -- -- 3.5 2.91 .75 - 24.03 7.45 5.02 -- 3.31 -- 8.25 - -- 3.96 17.30 .725 6.36 -- 5.41 - 17.00 3.68 .97 -- 4.63 5.29 2.34 - 15.60 3.94 4.6 -- 5.82 -- 1.24 - 15.32 4.52 -- 1.06 5.31 2.06 8.03 - 19.82 3.7 .3 -- 3.92 7.59 4.31 - 19.71 -- 4.36 -- 4.3 5.1 17.95 - 11.9 2.3 1.47 4.538 1.29 2.357 -- - 19.78 4.31 -- -- 2.29 5.53 7.65 - 11.97 4.63 -- -- 3.445 -- 4.89 - 18.1 6.4 7.35 -- -- 4.35 -- - 38.40 10.42 -- -- 7.31 9.44 11.23 - 20.32 4.28 3.36 .43 6.19 6.14 -- - 24.85 18.4 4.5 -- 1.2 3.2 1.6 - 15.42 2.33 2.47 1.09 2.96 1.17 5.4 - 21.62 6.39 1.6 1.4 11.27 -- .96 - 39.62 19.21 -- -- 10.43 1.5 8.48 - 23.04 12.27 6.02 -- 1.06 1.4 2.29 - - - - -TABLE VI. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. % of - Ensemble. - - 1600 Rappresentatione de Anima Cavalieri 11.6 - 1675 King Arthur Purcell 17.27 - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese 19.50 - 1762 Orfeus Gluck 33.13 - 1767 Alceste Gluck 3.163 - 1784 Le Domine Noir Auber 15.91 - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart 19.31 - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry 83.4 - 1800 Les Deux Journees Cherubini 7.2 - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven 14.06 - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini 38.57 - 1821 Der Freishutz Weber 4.7 - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini 7.523 - 1832 Le Postilion Lonjuneaux Adam 23.32 - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti 10.23 - 1843 The Bohemian Girl Balfe 8.38 - 1847 Martha Flotow 28.778 - 1866 Mignon Thomas 9.76 - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod 6.97 - 1874 Aida Verdi 7.075 - 1875 Carmen Bizet 15.05 - 1882 Parsifal Wagner -- - 1887 Samson and Delilah Saint Saens 4.3 - 1890 Cavalieria Rusticana Mascagni 12.56 - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello 9.18 - 1893 Le Cid Massenet 8.33 - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck 5.54 - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark 2.09 - 1900 Louise Charpentier 15.6 - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini 4.75 - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovsky 2.93 - 1905 Salome Strauss .93 - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi .07 - 1914 Madeleine Herbert 4.36 - -ENSEMBLE - - E F G H I - - % Duet. % Trio. % Quartet. % Quintet. % Sextet. - - 11.6 -- -- -- -- - 14.07 3.2 -- -- -- - 19.50 -- -- -- -- - 33.13 -- -- -- -- - .833 -- 2.53 -- -- - 9.59 6.32 -- -- -- - 8.89 5.69 4.47 3.91 6.35 - 34.2 34.2 22.8 15.75 10.65 - 2.46 2.97 .743 -- 1.1 - 8.3 1.66 4.7 -- -- - 15.25 4.92 2.7 15.7 -- - 1.6 3.1 -- -- -- - 6.46 -- .963 -- -- - 12.73 6.52 1.76 4.07 -- - 6.4 2.07 -- -- -- - 3.25 2.42 2.71 -- -- - 10.68 8.50 7.89 1.708 -- - 5.19 4.24 .033 -- -- - 4.31 -- 2.66 -- -- - 4.39 2.685 -- -- -- - 8.92 1.07 3.74 1.32 -- - -- -- -- -- -- - 3.9 .4 -- -- -- - 12.56 -- -- -- -- - 8.87 .306 -- -- -- - 4.3 1.97 2.06 -- -- - 2.09 -- -- 3.54 -- - 2.09 -- -- -- -- - 13.92 1.68 -- -- -- - 3.41 .134 -- -- -- - 1.42 .6 1.91 -- -- - .93 -- -- -- -- - .07 -- -- -- -- - 4.36 -- -- -- -- - - - - -TABLE VII. - - - A B C D - - Date. Name. Composer. % of Chorus. - - 1600 Rappresentatione de Anima Cavalieri 14.39 - 1675 King Arthur Purcell 21.6 - 1731 La Serva Padrona Pergolese 10.2 - 1762 Orfeus Gluck 12.88 - 1767 Alceste Gluck 18.71 - 1784 Le Domine Noir Auber 23.19 - 1787 Don Giovanni Mozart 1.582 - 1762 L'Amant Jaloux Gretry 6.2 - 1800 Les Deux Journees Cherubini 36.94 - 1805 Fidelio Beethoven 14.6 - 1816 The Barber of Seville Rossini 12.2 - 1821 Der Freischütz Weber 16.31 - 1831 La Somnambula Bellini 30.6 - 1832 Le Postilion Lonjuneaux Adam 26.17 - 1835 Lucia di Lammermoor Donizetti 35.4 - 1843 The Bohemian Girl Balfe 24.9 - 1847 Martha Flotow 25.957 - 1866 Mignon Thomas 33.75 - 1867 Romeo and Juliet Gounod 13.72 - 1874 Aida Verdi 30.1 - 1875 Carmen Bizet 9.32 - 1882 Parsifal Wagner 10.31 - 1887 Smason and Delilah Saint Saens 15.07 - 1890 Cavalleria Rusticana Mascagni 31.64 - 1892 Il Pagliacci Leoncavello 19.88 - 1893 Le Cid Massenet 9.75 - 1894 Hansel and Gretel Humperdinck 5.38 - 1896 Cricket on the Hearth Goldmark 5.6 - 1900 Louise Charpentier 15.51 - 1904 Madame Butterfly Puccini 10.03 - 1905 Eugene Onegin Tschaikovsky 15.29 - 1905 Salome Strauss 11.36 - 1913 L'Amour dei Tre Re Montemezzi 3.57 - 1914 Madeleine Herbert -- - -CHORUS - - E F G - - % of mixed % of men's % of women's - chorus. chorus. chorus. - - 14.39 -- -- - 18.3 2.56 1.14 - 10.2 -- -- - 12.88 -- -- - 16.05 2.66 -- - 12.7 6.09 4.3 - .923 .652 -- - -- -- -- - 9.14 24.8 -- - 8.3 2.71 4.59 - 12.2 -- -- - 12.2 3.15 3.85 - 30.6 -- -- - 13.37 -- 14.85 - 20.99 15.21 -- - 21.32 -- 3.58 - 19.9 .647 5.41 - 11.08 3.66 -- - 9.03 2.5 2.19 - 19.74 3.5 9.86 - 5.29 1.64 2.39 - 5.1 3.29 1.92 - 10.43 3.21 1.43 - 22.78 3.46 5.4 - 19.88 -- -- - 7.29 2.46 -- - 1.27 4.21 -- - 5.6 -- -- - 6.29 4.3 4.96 - 8.48 .262 1.34 - 10.47 -- 4.82 - 11.36 -- -- - 2.04 1.53 -- - -- -- -- - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - - -Books. - - 1. Apthorpe, W. F. Opera, Past and Present. - 2. Dannrheuther, E. Wagner and Reform. - 3. Edwards, H. S. Rossini and His School. - 4. Gounod, Chas. Mozart's Don Giovanni. - 5. Henderson, W. J. Some Forerunners of Opera. - 6. Henderson, W. J. A Comment on Opera. - 7. Krehbiel, A Book of the Opera. - 8. Krehbiel, Studies of Wagnerian Drama. - 9. Mendelssohn Stories of the Opera. - 10. Newman, E. Gluck and the Opera. - 11. Newman, E. Opera. - 12. Sonneck, O. G. Early Opera in America. - 13. Upton, Geo. P. The Standard Operas. - 14. Victor Book of the Operas. - 15. Introduction--American History - and Encyclopedia. H. E. Krehbiel. - 16. Groves Musical Dictionary. Pages 446, 454. - 17. Moore Encyclopedia of Music. - 18. Naaman Zwillingsbruder. Volume II. - 19. Dictionary of Music. Rieman. - 20. University Music Encyclopedia. - 21. W. B. Matthews. History of Music. - - -Program Notes. - - Chicago Grand Opera Company. - Boston Grand Opera Company. - - -Special Articles in the Programs. - - 1. 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R. - - Vol. 43 Review of Reviews } - Vol. 40 " " } Opera. - Vol. 49 " " } - - 1898 Scribner's (a) Gluck and Wagner. - (b) Tendencies of Modern Opera De Koven. - (c) Mozart's Magic Flute. - - Vol. 18 World Today Chevalier Gluck and the Leading Motive. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Certain Tendencies -in Modern Opera, by Kathryn Eleanor Browne - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA *** - -***** This file should be named 54077-0.txt or 54077-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/0/7/54077/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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