diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/54347-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/54347-0.txt | 15028 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 15028 deletions
diff --git a/old/54347-0.txt b/old/54347-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5a711f1..0000000 --- a/old/54347-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15028 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Autobiography of Sir John Rennie, F.R.S., -Past President of the Institute of Civil , by John Rennie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Autobiography of Sir John Rennie, F.R.S., Past President of the Institute of Civil Engineers - Comprising the history of his professional life, together - with reminiscences dating from the commencement of the - century to the present time. - -Author: John Rennie - -Release Date: March 12, 2017 [EBook #54347] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR JOHN RENNIE *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR JOHN RENNIE, F.R.S. - -[Illustration] - - - - - AUTOBIOGRAPHY - OF - SIR JOHN RENNIE, F.R.S., - PAST PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. - - COMPRISING - THE HISTORY OF HIS PROFESSIONAL LIFE, - TOGETHER WITH - REMINISCENCES DATING FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CENTURY - TO THE PRESENT TIME. - - [Illustration] - - LONDON: - E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING CROSS. - NEW YORK: - 446, BROOME STREET. - 1875. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The following Autobiography was written by Sir John Rennie in 1867, -shortly after he had retired from the active duties of his profession. As -will be perceived in the sequel, it was composed wholly from memory. Sir -John was subsequently unable to revise it as he would have desired, and -it has since been found impossible to do so. Nevertheless it is believed -that but few substantial errors will be found; while the kindliness with -which the autobiographer invariably speaks of every person with whom he -came in contact, is a guarantee that there can be nothing to offend the -most sensitive person, or which might tend to injure the just claims -and reputations of others. It is now presented to the public in its -original state, having undergone merely some necessary correction, in -the hope that the memoirs of the man who was perhaps unrivalled in his -branch of the profession--and which comprise valuable hints as to the -neglected art of hydraulics, as well as advice to engineers commencing -their career, the result of the experience of a lifetime of no ordinary -duration--together with the reminiscences of one who had seen much both -of men and things, - - “Qui mores hominum multorum vidit et urbes,” - -may not be unacceptable either to the profession or the world at large. - -LONDON, _September, 1875_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - My birth and early education--I enter my Father’s - office--Commencement of Waterloo and Southwark - Bridges--Anecdotes of Mr. Ferguson, of Pitfour--The Stockton - and Darlington Railway, and Surveys between Port Patrick - and Donaghadee--Account of the mode of erecting the arches - of Southwark Bridge--Journey to the Continent and Field of - Waterloo--Account of the building of Waterloo Bridge--It is - opened in State by the Prince Regent, 1817. Page 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - Travels in Switzerland, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, - Constantinople, and Egypt--Return to England--Death of Mr. - Rennie 36 - - CHAPTER III. - - Eau Brink Cut--Ramsgate Harbour--Sheerness Dockyard--Plymouth - Breakwater--Anecdote of the late Mr. J. Fox--London Bridge and - Approaches--Sir F. Trench’s Plan for Quaying the Thames--Nene - Outfall--Cross Keys Bridge--Norfolk Estuary--Improvement of the - Witham--Ancholme Drainage 157 - - CHAPTER IV. - - Sketch of the Rise and Progress of the Railway System--The - Manchester and Liverpool, London and Birmingham, and other - early Lines 228 - - CHAPTER V. - - Travels in the North of Europe and Spain 252 - - CHAPTER VI. - - Ship Canal from Portsmouth to London--Machinery and - Engine Making--Screw Steam Ships--Hartlepool and Coquet - Harbours--Railways round London--Railway Mania--South-Eastern - Railway--London, Chatham, and Dover Railway 284 - - CHAPTER VII. - - Swedish Railways--Surveys in Holland and Portugal 304 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - Surveys in Portugal and Tunis 343 - - CHAPTER IX. - - Surveys at Odessa and Vienna--Harbour at Ponta - Delgada--Ramsgate--Dagenham 377 - - CHAPTER X. - - Retrospect--London Bridge--Sheerness Dockyard--Plymouth - Breakwater and Victualling Yard--Steam Vessels for the - Navy--Harbours--Railways--Broad and Narrow Gauge--Atmospheric - Railway--Water Supply and Sewage 407 - - CHAPTER XI. - - The Formation of Natural Breakwaters--The Society of Civil - Engineers--The Education of a Civil Engineer--Some Hints on - Practice--Estimating--Conclusion 427 - - Index 459 - - - - -AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR JOHN RENNIE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - My birth and early education--I enter my Father’s - office--Commencement of Waterloo and Southwark - Bridges--Anecdotes of Mr. Ferguson, of Pitfour--The Stockton - and Darlington Railway and Surveys between Port Patrick - and Donaghadee--Account of the mode of erecting the arches - of Southwark Bridge--Journey to the Continent and Field of - Waterloo--Account of the building of Waterloo Bridge--It is - opened in State by the Prince Regent, 1817. - - -I was born at 27, Stamford Street, Blackfriars, London, on the 30th -of August, 1794. Having been taught my letters at home, I was sent to -the care of Dr. Greenlaw, who kept a boys’ school at Isleworth. It -was a large house, formerly belonging to the Bishop of London. To the -house were attached excellent gardens and playground. The situation, -moreover, was open and healthy, and the total number of boys was about -fifty, ranging from eight to sixteen years of age. They were well fed -and taken care of by the Doctor’s excellent wife, and his sister-in-law, -Miss Hodgkins. The Doctor’s eldest daughter, Miss Greenlaw, taught the -youngest boys their letters; whilst the Doctor and his assistants devoted -themselves to the education of the others, which education consisted -chiefly of classics, writing, arithmetic, French, and occasionally -geography and the elements of astronomy. During the time that I was -there the most remarkable scholar was the celebrated poet, Percy -Bysshe Shelley, who was then about twelve or thirteen (as far as I can -remember), and even at that early age exhibited considerable poetical -talent, accompanied by a violent and extremely excitable temper, which -manifested itself in all kinds of eccentricities. His figure was of -the middle size, although slight, but well made. His head was well -proportioned, and covered with a profusion of brown locks; his features -regular, but rather small; his eyes hazel, restless, and brilliant; -his complexion was fair and transparent; and his countenance rather -effeminate, but exceedingly animated. The least circumstance that -thwarted him produced the most violent paroxysms of rage; and when -irritated by other boys, which they, knowing his infirmity, frequently -did by way of teasing him, he would take up anything, or even any little -boy near him, to throw at his tormentors. His imagination was always -roving upon something romantic and extraordinary, such as spirits, -fairies, fighting, volcanoes, &c., and he not unfrequently astonished his -schoolfellows by blowing up the boundary palings of the playground with -gunpowder, also the lid of his desk in the middle of schooltime, to the -great surprise of Dr. Greenlaw himself and the whole school. In fact, at -times he was considered to be almost upon the borders of insanity; yet -with all this, when treated with kindness, he was very amiable, noble, -high-spirited, and generous; he used to write verse, English and Latin, -with considerable facility, and attained a high position in the school -before he left for Eton, where, I understand, he was equally, if not -more, extraordinary and eccentric. - -Cotemporary with Shelley there was another peculiar character, named -Tredcroft, from the same county, viz. Sussex; he also had considerable -poetical talent, but unfortunately lost his health, and ultimately, I -understand, died completely imbecile at an early age. I remained at this -school until the year 1807, by which time I had acquired a tolerable -knowledge of the Greek and Latin classics, and arithmetic as far as -vulgar fractions and decimals. I was then sent to the celebrated Dr. -Burney’s, at Greenwich, where there were about 100 boys, varying from ten -to eighteen. - -Dr. Charles Burney was considered one of the best Greek and Latin -scholars of the day, and was the intimate friend of Porson and numerous -other literary celebrities. His school was therefore very highly esteemed -for classics, but for little or nothing else; for although a certain -quantity of arithmetic and the elements of algebra and geometry were -taught, yet these were quite secondary to the classics. - -I therefore made little further progress in anything but classics, -in which I became a tolerable proficient, and had Homer, Thucydides, -Euripides, Sophocles, Virgil, Horace, &c., at my fingers’ ends, whilst -I could scarcely demonstrate the Pons asinorum of Euclid; in fact, in -those days a knowledge of Greek and Latin was considered as including -everything else, and anything like a science or physics was considered of -secondary consequence. I made the acquaintance of two men, who afterwards -much distinguished themselves by their scientific acquirements, namely, -the late Herbert Mayo, the well-known surgeon and physiologist; also the -late Sir George Everest, the scientific Director of the Triangular Survey -of India; and Dr. Milman, late Dean of St. Paul’s. Dr. Burney’s school -was by no means so well managed as that of Dr. Greenlaw in everything -which regarded the comfort of the boys, neither were they so well fed or -looked after, and it was a great relief to me when I left the school in -1809. - -It then became a question with my father whether I should go to Oxford -or Cambridge, or whether I should finish my education at home, under the -superintendence of proper masters. About this period, and ever since -the year 1802, there was nothing but war heard or talked of all over -the world. The whole country was as it were turned into a camp; every -man capable of bearing arms became a volunteer, and at school even we -were regularly drilled to the use of arms; and I was so excited by the -extraordinary victories of Nelson and the early career of Wellington -that I determined to enter the army, but to this my father was decidedly -opposed, as he wished to bring me up to his own profession. I was -therefore reluctantly obliged to give up all idea of the military -profession and follow that of a civil engineer; and my father wisely -determined that I should go through all the gradations, both practical -and theoretical, which could not be done if I went to the University, -as the practical part, which he considered most important, must be -abandoned; for, he said, after a young man has been three or four years -at the University of Oxford or Cambridge, he cannot, without much -difficulty, turn himself to the practical part of civil engineering. -All idea, therefore, of my going to Cambridge or Oxford was given up. -My father at that period had one department of his business exclusively -devoted to practical mechanics, that is, to the making of machinery of -all kinds; this department, although it formed by no means the principal -part of his profession, nevertheless enabled him to make experiments -which were of great value in the other departments of his business, -and was by no means unprofitable, as the importance of machinery and -mechanical contrivances was then to a certain extent appreciated, and -was daily becoming more so. My father always said that theoretical and -practical mechanics were the true foundations of all civil engineering; -and he therefore insisted that as I had to a certain extent learned the -theoretical, so I must now learn the practical part. I was therefore sent -into the mechanical department, and commenced work planing and sawing -boards, making patterns, and other similar works. After this I was put -to turning both wood and metal; and although I did not attain complete -practical efficiency in these departments, which would have required -several years, nevertheless I learned sufficient to enable me to become a -tolerable judge of workmanship. - -I was then put into the drawing office, where I learned to copy -geometrical plans, by which, in a short time, in combination with what I -had acquired in the workshop, I gained a general knowledge of design and -construction. - -My time was employed in this manner about eight hours daily, but my -evenings were devoted to the acquisition of geometry, algebra, and -trigonometry, plane and spherical; also astronomy under the late -Astronomer Royal, Mr. Pond, and his father-in-law, Dr. Bradley, and -in learning French, Italian, and German. Having acquired to a certain -extent a proficiency in the mathematical sciences, I was placed under the -direction of the late Mr. Francis Giles, a land surveyor of considerable -experience and ability, who was generally employed by my father to make -his various hydraulic surveys for canals and harbours under his immediate -direction, which Mr. Giles executed with his usual fidelity and ability. -Under Mr. Giles I learned the use of the chain, level, and theodolite, -and was enabled to apply my theoretical knowledge in trigonometry, plane -and spherical, to practice. About this period, viz. the year 1813, -having obtained a tolerable knowledge of the rudiments of my profession, -both theoretical and practical, my father determined to place upon my -shoulders a certain degree of responsibility, and put me under the -direction of that late worthy and excellent man, Mr. James Hollingsworth, -whom my father had appointed to be resident engineer of the Waterloo -Bridge, which was then building. I felt the responsibility of this office -a good deal, and entered upon it with every determination and desire -to meet my father’s approbation; and during the inclement winter of -1813-14, when the frost lasted about two months, and the Thames above -London Bridge was frozen over for several weeks, I was obliged to attend -the piling of the foundations of the first and second piers on the Surrey -side of the river night and day for three days each week, which severely -tried my constitution. - -At this period Vauxhall Bridge was also in course of construction, and I -was directed by my father to attend to this also, under Mr. Jones, the -resident engineer; but they had scarcely finished the Middlesex abutment -up to the springing of the first arch, and were preparing the caisson -for founding the first pier, when the Company found that they had not -sufficient funds to carry into effect Mr. Rennie’s design, which was very -beautiful. The bridge was to be made entirely of the fine blue sandstone -from Dundee, and was to consist of seven arches, segments of circles, -the centre arch being 110 feet span, with a rise or versed sine of 19 -feet, and depth of keystone 4 feet 6 inches; piers 18 feet 6 inches thick -at the springing of the arch, the two arches next the centre being 105 -feet span each, with a rise or versed sine of 17 feet, keystone 4 feet -5 inches, and springing stones 9 feet long, and the two piers 17 feet 6 -inches thick each. The two next arches were 100 feet span, with a rise -or versed sine of 15 feet, keystones 4 feet 4 inches, and springers -9 feet, and piers 17 feet thick each; the two sub or shore arches 90 -feet span each, with a rise or versed sine of 13 feet, keystones 4 -feet, and springers 8 feet, abutments 21 feet thick at the springing, -having a total width of waterway of 700 feet. The arches were surmounted -by a Roman Doric cornice and plain block and plinth parapet, and the -projecting points of the piers were surmounted by solid square pilasters, -with a niche in the centre. The roadway was 34 feet wide between the -parapets, and was formed by a very flat segment of a circle rising 1 in -53. The piers were intended to be founded by caissons resting upon a -platform supported by bearing and surrounded by sheeting piles. This was -upon the whole a very elegant, light, and chaste design. Finding that the -Company had not sufficient funds to carry into effect the stone design, -Mr. Rennie proposed another wholly of iron, consisting of eleven arches, -with a total waterway of 732 feet, supported upon cast-iron columns -filled with masonry and resting upon a platform supported upon piles and -surrounded by sheeting piles. The centre arch was to be 86 feet span and -8 feet rise, and the others diminishing regularly to each end so as to -enable the roadway to be formed into a graceful curve rising 1 foot in -60. This also was an extremely light, elegant, and economical design. -The total cost of this elegant design was estimated at 100,000_l._, and -would have been executed first, but at that time even this amount was not -forthcoming. The works then stopped, and some time elapsed before the -Company was resumed, and ultimately constructed the present bridge. - -In the year 1814-15 my father was appointed engineer-in-chief of the -Southwark Bridge Company, and as this was proposed to be constructed in -the narrowest part of the river between Blackfriars and the Old London -Bridge, considerable opposition was made to the Act of Parliament for its -construction by the Corporation of London and the Conservators of the -river, on account of the obstruction which they said the bridge would -offer to the navigation; this however was finally overcome, but it was -decided by Parliament that the bridge should be constructed with as large -arches as possible. Accordingly Mr. Rennie submitted a design consisting -of three cast-iron arches, the centre being 240 feet span, with a versed -sine of 24 feet, and two side arches of 210 feet each, with a versed sine -or rise of 18 feet 10 inches each, with piers of 24 feet wide each at the -springing, thus giving a clear lineal waterway of 660 feet, which was a -great deal more than that of the Old London Bridge at that time existing. -This design was approved of and ordered to be carried into effect. By -this time, with the experience of the Waterloo and Vauxhall bridges and -my other studies, I had gained considerable knowledge in bridge building, -and my father was anxious to give me as much encouragement as possible; -although, therefore, he appointed a worthy and practical man, Mr. Meston, -as nominally the resident engineer, yet he confided to me the arduous -task of making out the working drawings under his own direction, and -of carrying them into effect. I therefore felt highly gratified with -this great mark of confidence, and devoted my whole energies to the -work night and day. The ironwork was carried into effect by Messrs. -Walker, of Rotherham, under the able management of their experienced and -able superintendent, Mr. Yeats, and the masonry and piling under the -well-known contractors, Messrs. Jolliffe and Banks; and Mr. Meston, the -resident engineer, faithfully discharged his duties. - -As these arches were the largest of the kind ever constructed, -considerable doubts as to their stability occurred to many, and the -subject was discussed amongst scientific men with considerable energy; -and amongst others, the celebrated Dr. Young undertook to investigate -Mr. Rennie’s calculations, and came to the conclusion that the bridge -was well designed, and would be a perfectly safe and stable structure, -and equal to the support of any weight or amount of traffic which could -be brought over it. But in order to fulfil these conditions, it was -absolutely necessary that every detail of materials and workmanship -should be worked out with the greatest skill and accuracy. - -As the arches were of such great span with so small rise, the pressure -upon the piers and abutments was chiefly lateral; it therefore became -necessary to construct them in such a manner that they should offer -the most effectual resistance to this pressure. In consequence, the -foundations of the abutments were made on an incline, and the masonry -from thence upwards to the springing of the arches was made to consist -of a series of courses radiating upwards until they reached the angle -of the springing courses; so that, in point of fact, the abutments -formed, as it were, a continuation of the side arches to their base; -and in order to connect the courses of masonry more solidly together, -the courses were connected with each other from the top to the bottom -by several series of vertical bond stones, thus forming one solid -immovable mass. These abutments were supported on a platform composed -of piles, double sleepers, and planking, the piles being 20 feet long, -12 inches in diameter in the middle, and driven solidly into the ground -at right angles to the inclination of the foundation. As the pressure -upon the piers was nearly equal on both sides, it was necessary that the -foundations should be laid level. These also rest upon a wooden platform -of double sills and planking, lying upon piles of the same dimensions -as those of the abutments, driven vertically into the ground below, and -the courses of masonry, which were laid horizontally, were connected -together in the vertical direction by a series of bond stones in a -similar manner to those of the abutments. The abutments and piers were -founded many feet below low-water mark of spring tides, so as to be below -the reach of any possible scour of the river. Those parts of the piers -from immediately below the springing of the arches to a point above the -top of the main solid ribs of the arches were composed of large blocks -of stone set nearly vertically, breaking bond laterally and vertically -with each other, and in the centre of this part of the piers there was a -set of keystones 12 feet long and 2 feet thick, tapering on each side, -forming so many stone wedges. These were very finely worked on all sides. -These wedge stones broke bond laterally with the blocks in front of -them, and were firmly driven into their places for a depth of 2 feet by -means of heavy wooden rams. The masonry of the pilasters and salient -angles of the piers is of the same character as those of the interior -of the pier before described, and worked into them in the same manner, -so as to form one solid bond from one point of the pier to the other. -The whole of the exterior of this part of the piers, as well as of the -abutments, is cased with granite from Scotland or Cornwall; and it was -necessary that the blocks forming this casing should be of the largest -kind, which hitherto was quite unusual, particularly for the facing of -the abutments from whence the arches were to spring, which required -blocks from 15 to 20 tons. These were of such unusual magnitude, and -nothing of the kind had hitherto been used in London, or even elsewhere -in England, that the contractors made considerable objection to obtaining -them, and even went so far as to say that it could not be done. I was -perfectly convinced that it could be done, and that it was merely a -question of a little extra expense, and strongly recommended my father -to insist upon it, as it was absolutely necessary for the security of -the bridge; and he did so, and directed me to proceed to Aberdeen for -the purpose of obtaining them. I accordingly started for Aberdeen; and -when there, carefully examined all the quarries in the neighbourhood, -which I found had only been opened up on a small scale, and were merely -adapted for getting paving stones, the commerce of which with London -was then upon a considerable scale; but the idea of obtaining blocks -of the size required for the Southwark Bridge was considered to be -entirely out of the question; or, even if they could be obtained, the -price would be such that the contractors would not consent to pay. In -fact, so many difficulties and objections were made that I found nothing -could be done in that quarter. I therefore determined to proceed to -Peterhead, 30 miles farther northward, where the red granite abounds in -large masses near the coast, and where I was told that I should probably -succeed; but still, they said, even there it would be very difficult to -get them. Upon arriving at Peterhead I immediately set to work exploring -the adjacent country for several miles round, and soon found that blocks -of the size required could readily be obtained, and even larger ones if -necessary. I accordingly selected, by way of experiment, a mass of solid -rock about four miles to the south of Peterhead, lying within a quarter -of a mile of the sea coast, and about 200 feet above the main turnpike -road to Peterhead, which ran along the sea shore. This block, weighing -about 25 tons, was accordingly marked out, and was soon detached from -the main mass of rock by means of wedges, and was 10 feet long and 5 -feet square. The workmen who executed this task were rewarded with ample -wages and a good supply of whisky, and were extremely proud of their -achievement. Then came the important question, how they were to convey -it to Peterhead. To get it to the turnpike road was soon accomplished -by means of a wooden inclined tramway formed of stout planks moved upon -wooden rollers. Good wages and whisky settled this, and the workmen -considered it a further great triumph; but still the greater difficulty -remained, how to get this vast block (as it was then considered) four -miles to Peterhead. I then went back to Peterhead, and after numerous -inquiries, and as many failures and objections on all sides, at last -found two large single bogies, each consisting of a pair of strong wheels -8 feet in diameter, connected by a strong axle shaft and a double pair of -shafts in front. These two pairs of wheels I joined together at the axle -shafts by two strong beams, cased with wrought iron, and strengthened -the wheels and axles in other respects as far as necessary. I then -took this carriage to the block of red granite already mentioned lying -in the road, and slung the stone, by means of strong chains, to the two -longitudinal bearers of the carriage. Some twelve or fourteen horses -were then attached to the carriage, and off we departed in great triumph -for Peterhead. The toll-keeper, never having seen such a mass of stone -before, did not know what to charge. However, having at length satisfied -his demand, we proceeded onwards, and we had scarcely advanced a mile -when we came to a soft piece of road, which yielded under the great -weight of the stone, and the wheels stuck fast, buried about 9 inches in -the ground. This accident created general dismay amongst the attendant -workmen, and they began to consider the task hopeless. However, nothing -daunted by this mischance, I soon rallied their courage, and with plenty -of screw-jacks, wedges, and levers judiciously applied, we raised the -wheels out of the ground, and placed strong wooden beams under them, -forming a rough kind of railway, over which we dragged and pushed the -carriage with its stone in safety, until we had passed the unsound part -of the road. This operation detained us about a day. Everybody worked -with the greatest ardour and goodwill, which was aided not a little by a -plentiful supply of ale and whisky, and the men were determined, for the -honour of Scotland, that they would not be beaten. Having overcome this -serious obstacle, we started again on our journey, and reached Peterhead -about four hours afterwards, making the total length of the journey--four -miles--a day and a half. The whole town of Peterhead, having never seen -such a sight before, and having considered our task impracticable, turned -out to see us, and welcomed us with the most enthusiastic acclamations. - -The next thing to be done, having succeeded so far, was to get a vessel -that would take this monstrous block of stone, as it was termed, to -London; and although there were a considerable number of vessels in the -harbour, I could not at first prevail upon any of the captains to take -the charge. All sorts of objections were made, and amongst the rest, it -was impossible to get the stone on board, and if they did, it would make -a hole in the bottom, and the vessel would founder with all on board. At -last, after a great deal of difficulty, I found a brig of about 200 tons -burthen, the captain of which, after a good deal of persuasion, consented -to take the block of stone to London, provided that I would put it on -board at my own risk and expense, and indemnify him against all risk or -loss on the voyage, which I accordingly agreed to do. - -Then came the last important question, how was the block to be got on -board? There was no crane in the port capable of lifting above 2 or 3 -tons. - -I immediately set to work to supply this deficiency by means of two sets -of strong sheer-poles, capable of bearing 10 to 15 tons each. The vessel -engaged was accordingly brought alongside the quay where the 4-ton crane -was fixed, so that it should nearly plumb the centre of the hatchway of -the vessel, which it was necessary to enlarge and strengthen considerably -before it could receive the stone. I then secured the sheer-poles well -at the top, and placed one set on each side of the crane, a short -distance from the extremity of each end of the hatchway. The legs of the -sheer-poles were firmly fixed in the bed of the harbour, striding over -the vessel, so that they were perfectly independent of the vessel, and -the top of each pole was directly over the centre of the hatchway. To the -top of the sheer-poles I applied a pair of strong treble sheave-blocks, -capable of receiving a thick rope; each block was worked by a double -purchase crab or windlass manned by eight men each, besides four to work -the crane, so that the block would be suspended at three points, the -sheers taking the greatest weight. After a good deal of trouble I got -the whole of this apparatus as complete as circumstances would permit, -which were not the most favourable. From the quay a strong timber gangway -was constructed over the hatchway, the outer end being supported, clear -of the vessel, by piles driven into the bed of the harbour on each side, -in order that the ship might be kept perfectly steady until the stone -was placed within the hold, because otherwise the stone resting upon -any part of the deck might have upset it. Everything being ready, the -stone was brought alongside the vessel and the tackle of the crane and -of the two pairs of sheer-poles was made fast to three sets of strong -chains fastened round the stone, which was transferred upon rollers -over the centre of the hatchway of the vessel, the purchases of the -crane and sheer-poles being kept sufficiently tight so as to prevent -any undue pressure upon the platform. The stone was then raised clear -of the platform, when I heard a crack; in fact, one of the sheer-poles -had bent and partially yielded; it was then blocked, and, the sheers -having been first spliced with strong rope, the stone was again hoisted -and swung clear of the platform, which was removed, and the stone was -lowered into the hold of the vessel and properly secured without any -further delay or accident. The whole of these operations were witnessed -with intense interest by many of the inhabitants of Peterhead, and when -so successfully completed the quays resounded with cheers. The gallant -workmen who laboured so arduously and with such goodwill, and to whose -exertions the success may be mainly attributed, were plenteously regaled, -together with their friends, with all the good things which Peterhead -afforded, in which the worthy inhabitants joined, and the remainder of -the day was passed in mutual goodwill and festivity. - -My readers will, I trust, excuse the detailed manner in which I have -described these operations, which at the present day would be considered -trifling to a degree, but, at the time above mentioned, more than half -a century since, operations of this kind had not been attempted, and -were entirely novel, and were considered extraordinary; they must, -therefore, be viewed as the pioneer to the far greater operations of -the kind which have followed. For now such stones are considered mere -trifles, and blocks of almost any reasonable size can be quarried, -polished, and transported to their destination, however distant, at -comparatively much less cost and with greater facility. The cutting and -polishing of granite at that time was accomplished at great expense, as -it was done entirely by manual labour; now it is performed by means of -machinery at greatly reduced cost, and polished granite of every kind is -introduced into buildings, which was formerly considered impracticable; -and thus the architect is provided with additional means of ornamenting -his structures. It is true that many centuries before the Egyptians had -shown the way; but then the whole power and resources of the nation had -been devoted to this object, and incredible sums of money and great -labour had been expended, regardless of the misery and oppression of -the people. But in Great Britain it has been considered a true maxim -of political economy, that every article should be produced at the -least possible cost, and no work should be undertaken unless it would -yield a fair profit for the capital expended; and whenever there is a -reasonable prospect of obtaining this satisfactory result, any amount of -capital which may be required is always forthcoming. Witness the vast -sums which have been expended on railways alone, besides steam-vessels, -manufactures, machinery, and other similar undertakings. - -Whilst at Aberdeen and Peterhead, my father gave me an introduction to -his old and intimate friend, the well-known James Ferguson, of Pitfour, -the member for the county, and the intimate friend of Mr. Pitt. Mr. -Ferguson possessed a large fortune; he was an old bachelor of the most -amiable and charitable disposition, beloved by everybody and universally -popular throughout the county. As illustrative of the manners of those -days, I will simply mention that when I presented my father’s letter of -introduction he received me most kindly, and invited me to spend a few -days under his most hospitable roof, which I accepted, and on the first -day there was assembled a large party of the most influential gentlemen -of the county; as was usual wines of all kinds flowed in abundance, and -universal hilarity prevailed. The consequence was that not long after -dinner several of the guests fell off their chairs and took their nap -under the table, from which after a short time they recovered and resumed -their seats, and again set to work at their potations, which continued -until long past midnight; by this time another considerable batch of -guests were under the table, leaving their glasses full. I was so much -amused at this unaccustomed scene, that, by way of frolic, I took the -full glasses of some of the guests on the floor and poured them down -their throats, which had no other effect than to make them sleep sounder. -In this manner the evening passed merrily away, and it was late in the -morning before the whole of the company found their way to their beds. -The amiable host allowed everyone to do as he liked, and when he had had -enough, which was not very soon, he retired to bed, leaving his guests -to take care of themselves; in fact, Pitfour was “_Liberty Hall_,” and -was open to all comers, the only limit being the amount of sleeping -accommodation. - -To give some idea of his hospitality, Mr. Ferguson seldom had less than -thirty-six pipes of fine port wine in his cellars, besides claret, -burgundy, sherry, champagne, brandy, and whisky, in proportion. He was -so fond of Mr. Pitt, that it is believed that if Mr. Pitt had survived -him, he intended to have made him heir to his estates, which were said to -have been worth above 20,000_l._ a year. - -When attending his duties in the House of Commons, he lodged in -apartments in St. James’s Street, and after the parliamentary labours of -the week were over, Mr. Pitt, the late Harry Dundas, First Lord Melville, -and Mr. Ferguson used to retire to a country house at Wimbledon, and -spend the Saturday, Sunday, and Monday in the greatest conviviality, -until it was time to return to their parliamentary labours. Mr. Ferguson -rarely, if ever, spoke in the House of Commons, but when he did, it -was always to the purpose: his speeches, although exceedingly short, -were replete with much common sense, accompanied by a terseness of wit, -humour, and drollery, which convulsed his hearers with laughter, so that -he was a general favourite. He used always to say that he had heard “mony -a gude speech, but that he never changed his vote, he aye voted with Mr. -Pitt.” - -Having shown the good people of Peterhead how to get and ship the large -blocks of red granite for the Southwark Bridge, and feeling that there -would be no further difficulty about the matter, I returned to London, -after an absence of two weeks, and resumed my duties at the Southwark -Bridge. In the spring of 1814 my father, being desirous that I should -be initiated into the practice of marine and trigonometrical surveying -upon a large scale, sent me, under the direction of the late Mr. Francis -Giles, who had then been appointed by Mr. Rennie to make an extensive -survey of the different places where it was practicable to construct -proper artificial harbours on the south-west coast of Scotland, such -as Port Nessock, Ardwell, and Port Patrick bays, on the Scotch side of -the channel, and Ballantrae, Donaghadee, Ballyhone, and Bangor bays, on -the opposite coast of the Irish Channel, in order to decide which were -the best places on either side of the channel to make permanent good -artificial harbours for packets, for the purpose of establishing the best -and most direct communication between the south-west coast of Scotland -and the opposite coast of Ireland. In addition to making the surveys of -the different ports above mentioned, it was absolutely necessary to make -a correct chart of the channel within the above limits, comprehending -a coast-line of about 30 miles on each side, including the Copeland -Islands. It was also necessary to determine the exact distances between -the different ports, together with the soundings, currents, rises of -tide, prevailing winds, and all the other attendant hydraulic phenomena. -This was a very extensive survey, and required great skill, judgment, and -experience, and Mr. Giles was fully competent to undertake it. - -As the shore, particularly on the Scotch side of the channel, was very -precipitous, rugged, and mountainous, it was impossible to measure with -anything like accuracy a base line from which a series of triangular -observations could be made so as to connect the two coasts together; -Mr. Griles was therefore obliged to resort to the Bay of Luce, situated -about 10 miles to the east of Port Patrick; it had this disadvantage, -however, that in consequence of the intervening mountains neither the -Scotch nor Irish coast could be seen. But there was no alternative, for -no other convenient place could be found to measure a base line. The -head of the Bay of Luce, however, at low water consists of an extensive -district of flat sand 6 miles long, admirably adapted for the purpose of -measuring a correct base line. This plan was accordingly adopted, and -a base was measured 6 miles in length, first by the common chain, then -by another chain consisting of steel links each 5 feet long, and lastly -by well-seasoned deal rods each 10 feet long; these measurements were -repeated with great accuracy several times, and a mean was then struck -by which the variation was reduced to a fraction of an inch. It should -also be observed that the measurements were taken when the atmosphere was -about the same temperature, so that the final measurement was reduced -to as near accuracy as practicable. Having established the base, strong -vertical staffs with flags at their summits were then accurately fixed -upon the summits of the neighbouring mountains which overlooked the Irish -Channel, and from which on a clear day the opposite coast of Ireland -could be distinctly seen. From each end of the base the above-mentioned -angles were taken with one of Troughton’s best 7-inch theodolites, -between the different mountain stations, and the distance between the -extreme points of these stations was accurately calculated, so that it -gave a base line of about 30 miles along the Scotch coast, from whence -correct sights were taken on flagstaffs fixed on the high land above -Bangor, Donaghadee, and Ballantrae, including the Copeland Islands on the -opposite coast of Ireland. These observations being taken on different -levels, were subsequently reduced to the same plane, so that the exact -distance was obtained between the different stations on each side of -the channel, and a correct chart was made. In addition to the general -survey, detailed hydraulic charts were made of the places on each coast -which were best adapted for making harbours of the size required, viz. -Port Nessock, Ardwell, and Port Patrick, on the Scotch side, and Bangor, -Ballyhone, Donaghadee, and Ballantrae, on the Irish side of the channel; -and as there was a great variety of interests concerned, each proprietor -being desirous of having the permanent ports established on his own -property, it was finally decided by the Government, at the recommendation -of my father, that the whole of the surveys should be submitted to the -arbitration of the Trinity Board, to select one port on each side of -the channel which was best adapted for establishing a communication by -packets between the two countries for letters and passengers in the most -expeditious, convenient, and effective manner. The Trinity Board, after -having given the subject their most mature consideration, ultimately -decided on Port Patrick on the Scotch, and Donaghadee on the Irish -side. This decision was approved of by the Government, and Mr. Rennie -was desired by them to prepare designs for harbours in both of the -above places; he did so, and the Government ordered them to be carried -into effect under his direction: for a more particular description the -reader is referred to my work on British and Foreign Harbours. During -the progress of these surveys I learned a great deal in this important -department of civil engineering, and personally surveyed the bay of Port -Nessock and the Copeland Islands, which gave me an excellent lesson, as, -on account of the rugged nature of the coasts, they were attended with -considerable difficulties. - -As already observed, in the following year, 1815, I was placed under -Mr. Giles’ direction during the whole period of the survey of the river -Tyne, which had been entrusted to him by my father also. In the same -year I was under Mr. Giles during the surveys for the Barnard Castle, -and Stockton and Darlington railways and canal; and I subsequently made -a hydraulic survey of the port of Blythe for my father, and for which -he afterwards made a design for its improvement. I had been previously -employed under Mr. Giles in the surveys for the eastern extension of the -Kennet and Avon Canal. During a part of this time our head quarters were -at Windsor; and one Sunday afternoon I recollect very well attending -the promenade on the terrace at Windsor Castle when His Majesty King -George the Third, accompanied by the Queen and Royal Family, made their -appearance with their attendants and joined the promenade, and were -received in the most loyal and affectionate yet respectful manner. I also -about the same time assisted Mr. Giles in the survey of the Thames in -the vicinity of Woolwich Dockyard, the accumulation of the mud in front -of which was so great at that time that it threatened to render that -dockyard useless. The evil to a certain extent has since been remedied by -removing a number of the projections which interfered with the currents -of the ebb and flood tide, according to the plan laid down by the late -Mr. Rennie, although, as he clearly pointed out, it would be impossible -to improve the river to such an extent in front of Woolwich and Deptford -dockyards as to render them fit for the construction and accommodation -of large vessels of war; and therefore he recommended that they should -be abandoned and sold, and that a proper establishment should be made -at Northfleet capable of accommodating at all times of tide any number -of the largest vessels of war at that time in the navy, or that might -be built hereafter. This dockyard was intended to be so arranged that -all classes of vessels of war could be built there; and it would contain -establishments for manufacturing cordage, sails, anchors, guns, smith -work of every kind, together with depôts of provisions, and stores of -all sorts, all of which were to be arranged in such a manner that each -operation of building, repairing, storing, and fitting out for sea should -be completed in the order required; so that a vessel, after having been -built, might be transferred at once into a dry dock to be coppered, -then take in her masts, ballast, rigging, sails, stores, provisions, -guns, boats, and seamen, and sail at once complete to her station from -the centre dock-gates; in the same manner, when returning from her -station, she might be repaired and fitted out again ready for sea. The -saving effected by such an establishment would have been immense, and -the service would have been performed in a far more expeditious and -effective manner. Mr. Pitt was then Prime Minister, and his master mind -at once acknowledged the advantages of such an establishment; it was -accordingly approved of by the Government, the land was bought, and it -was ordered to be carried into effect, but the unfortunate death of -that great minister and the change of Government effectually put a stop -to all further proceedings in this direction. Since that time the old -dockyards of Woolwich and Deptford, Sheerness and Chatham, have been -improved and enlarged, at an expenditure as great as would have completed -Mr. Rennie’s establishment at Northfleet, without half the efficiency or -accommodation. The old useless dockyards of Woolwich and Deptford, which -the late Lord Melville, when First Lord of the Admiralty, condemned and -ordered to be sold, have been retained, and the increase of unnecessary -expense has been enormous, whilst the evils complained of have not been -remedied till quite lately. - -Having by this time a considerable knowledge of surveying, practical -and theoretical, in all its departments either on land or water, so -that I could undertake either, my father deemed that I had learned -sufficient, and directed me to return to my practical duties in the -construction of the Southwark Bridge. As this was considered a work of -great importance and difficulty I felt highly honoured by my father’s -confidence, and devoted my energies to it with the greatest anxiety and -with a determination to do everything in my power to make it successful. -The difficulty of obtaining the large blocks of granite and other stone -had been successfully overcome, and they arrived with great punctuality, -and the masonry of the abutments and piers was successfully carried into -effect as previously described. Then came the important question of -erecting the cast-iron arches; each arch consisted of eight main ribs, -and each rib consisted of thirteen pieces, the lower or main part of -which formed the chord or arch upon which the whole of the superstructure -was to be supported. These thirteen pieces were solid, 2½ inches thick -in the mass and 3 inches thick at the bottom, and 2½ thick at the top, -and formed so many radiating blocks, like arch-stones. At the end of -every block there was a transverse frame extending from one side to -the other through the whole width of the bridge; against each side of -these frames the main ribs abutted and were nicely fitted to them, and -in order to prevent them from moving laterally there were projecting -dovetailed cheeks cast on the frame, and between these cheeks and the -ends of the main ribs solid cast-iron wedges the whole depth of the main -rib were fitted, then drawn home against the ends of the rib; by this -means the ribs were kept firmly within their places, and as an additional -precaution strong diagonal braces, having a strong feathering rib on -each side, were inserted diagonally between the ribs from one end of -the arch to the other, and secured to the ribs by projecting dovetailed -cheeks on them, and wedges and bolts, so that these cast-iron arches were -constructed in the same manner as a stone arch, being almost as it were -a solid mass depending upon the equilibrium of the different pieces for -its stability. The depth of the main rib of the centre arch at the crown -is 6 feet and 8 feet at the piers, whilst the depth of the ribs of the -side arches at the crown is 6 feet and 8 feet at the abutments. As these -ribs with their attendant transverse frames and diagonal braces formed -the main part of the arches upon which the whole of the superstructure -depended, it was necessary that they should be extremely well put -together and properly united to the piers and abutments. Contrary to -the usual mode of constructing stone arches, they were commenced at the -centre instead of the sides, a strong wooden centring supported upon -tiers of piles having been previously constructed between the piers -and abutments to support them whilst being put in their places. Each -piece of each rib was carefully placed upon the centre, resting upon -nicely-adjusted strong wooden double wedges, and connected together -as they proceeded by the transverse frames and diagonal braces before -mentioned. By this means the whole of the arches were constructed at -the same time from the centre to the skewbacks or bearing parts of the -piers and abutments; but in order to connect them properly with them it -was necessary to devise a particular arrangement. For this purpose a -transverse frame, similar to those already described for connecting the -rib pieces together, was accurately imbedded and fitted to the skewbacks -or bearing places on piers and abutments, resting on a bed of sheet lead, -and the joints were filled in with melted lead also; this formed a solid -and to a certain extent elastic bearing, upon which the main ribs were -ultimately to rest. - -At the ends of the arched rib-plates next to the piers and abutments -there was another transverse frame plate of the same kind as those -previously described, and fixed there in a similar manner; this brought -the ends of the arches within 6 inches of the abutting or bearing plates -fixed in the skewbacks or springing places of the piers and abutments. - -Between the frame plates fitted on the skewbacks or masonry of the piers -and abutments, and those fitted on the ends of the rib plates of each -arch, solid cast-iron wedges, 9 feet long and 6 inches thick at the back, -and 2 inches thick at the bottom, 9 inches wide, three being behind each -rib, were accurately fitted by chipping and filing, so that it would -slide down to within 12 inches of the bottom; when these wedges were all -accurately adjusted at the same temperature to the same depth, they were -simultaneously driven home by wooden rams to their full depth, so as to -reach about an inch below the bottom of each rib; by this means the -whole of the three arches were gradually brought to their bearing without -being raised wholly from their centres. Matters were then allowed to -remain in this state for a few days in order to give time for every part -to come to its bearing and to ascertain whether there was any defect in -any part. - -After the minutest search in every part no defect could be discovered; -the wedges between the centres and the under sides of the ribs were then -gradually slackened until the whole of the arches came to their full -bearing, and were removed entirely, leaving the arches perfectly free of -support. During the whole of these operations, from first to last, which -occupied about a week, not the slightest accident or fracture occurred; -the total subsidence of the main arch barely exceeded 2½ inches, whilst -the subsidence of the two side arches barely exceeded 2 inches, which had -been allowed for in the construction. - -In order to ascertain the effects of expansion and contraction of -the arches by the variation of the temperature of the atmosphere, I -constructed steel, brass, and wooden gauges, accurately divided into -decimal parts of an inch, and erected them upon different parts of the -centres, where the effects were most likely to be apparent, and I kept -the register for several weeks, during the height of summer, autumn, -winter, and spring. I found that the variation in the rise and fall of -the crown of the arches, the abutments being fixed, was 1/10th of an inch -for every 10° of temperature, so that, taking the extremes of temperature -at London to be 10° below freezing point of Fahrenheit in winter, and -80° in summer; the utmost rise and fall of the arches may be taken at -7/10ths, or at most one inch; but as any variation in the temperature, -unless continued for some time, has no sensible effect upon such a large -mass of iron, so, in our variable climate, the rise and fall of the -crowns of the arches may be taken upon the average somewhat below the -amount above given. - -After the arches had been brought to their bearing and had been relieved -from the centres, the superstructural framework was carried up and firmly -connected and bracketed together by diagonal ties and wedges; in doing -this the ends of the superstructural frames were too tightly wedged to -the masonry of the piers, without my knowledge, so that they would not -allow the main ribs of the arches to play freely, and some of the masonry -courses above the main ribs were slightly splintered and deranged; the -wedges were then slackened, and some of them removed entirely, and thus -the evil was immediately remedied; the whole structure has ever since -remained in a perfect state. - -The bridges and approaches were finally completed and opened to the -public traffic in March, 1819, the ceremony being performed by Sir John -Jackson, the chairman, the directors, and a few friends. - -In the month of August, 1818, having worked very hard, I may say almost -night and day, for some time, I was nearly worn out, and was permitted to -have a short holiday. I therefore determined to go to Belgium and visit -the celebrated field of Waterloo, which closed the long and eventful -revolutionary war, and attracted the admiration and interest of the whole -civilized world. I accordingly started for Dover, in company with my old -friend, the late Mr. Joseph Gwilt, architect, and crossed over to Calais. - -On landing we repaired to Dessin’s hotel, at that time one of the best -in Europe, and rendered famous by Sterne, whose rooms are still shown as -one of the most interesting curiosities (to Englishmen at least) of the -place. Here we passed the remainder of the day very agreeably. Everything -was new to us--the people, their language, their manners, their mode of -living. We had been so long considering the French as our deadly foes -that we could hardly believe ourselves to be at peace with them, and to -be actually in France and so civilly treated by them. Then the living -was so good and cheap, compared to that of England; champagne, which -with us was considered the greatest luxury, and only within reach of the -highest and most wealthy, was here obtainable for four francs a bottle, -whilst in England it was twenty-four, and almost everything in the same -proportion. In the town of Calais there is nothing to see. The harbour is -but indifferent, and almost dry at low water, and is chiefly maintained -open by sluicing and dredging. On such a flat, sandy shore, with the -prevailing winds and currents always driving on and accumulating the -sands, it is very difficult to make and maintain a good harbour; still I -think that a great deal more might be effected by pursuing a different -course, and having a proper system of open piers and breakwaters on the -outside. After breakfast on the following day we started in a travelling -calèche, with two horses, for St. Omer, about 26 miles distant. On our -way we stopped to examine the celebrated quadrangular bridge, called -the Pont Sans Pareille, across the junction of the two canals of -Picardy. This is certainly a meritorious, well-executed work, but the -idea is by no means new, as the Gothic triangular bridge of Crowland, -in Lincolnshire, across the junction of the Welland, was executed many -centuries previous to the Pont Sans Pareille, and is still extant in a -perfect state. Near this bridge is the celebrated maiden fortress of -Ardres, which is said to have never been taken. Here also, according to -Froissart, was the Champs d’Or, or Field of the Cloth of Gold. Ardres is -a poor, miserable little fortress, surrounded with earthworks and ditch, -on a flat plain. In ancient times it might have been formidable, with -their means of attack, but now it would be utterly defenceless. From -Ardres we passed through St. Omer and Lille, and after visiting Tournay -and Ghent we proceeded to the capital of Belgium, where we took up our -quarters at the Hôtel de Flandre, in the highest and best part of the -city. We were particularly struck with the magnificent Hôtel de Ville -and its lofty spire; also the remarkable place or square in front of it, -which, looking to its picturesque mediæval buildings and the remarkable -historical events which have taken place there, renders it one of the -most interesting in Europe. The fine old Gothic cathedral of St. Gudule, -the museum, fine canals, &c., particularly attracted our attention. - -On the next morning we started for the scene of the celebrated battle -of Waterloo, which had occurred about two months previously. In this -place, like every Englishman, I took the greatest possible interest, -and pictured to myself the whole of that terrific and stirring scene -as being enacted before me. Notwithstanding the lapse of time since -which that battle had taken place considerable traces of it were still -visible, particularly in the blood-stained walls and ruined, desolate, -and half-consumed buildings of the keys of the position, Hougumont and -La Haye Sainte, and the remnants of shakos, arms, and military clothing -which strewed the field on all sides, and the fresh-made graves, -where many thousand gallant fellows lay entombed. The whole field and -neighbouring villages were crowded with guides to explain the different -particulars of that memorable struggle, and to sell the numerous articles -which they had raked up from the field of battle; we bought some of these -as mementos, and wandered for hours over every part of this field of -desolation, until we fancied that we had mastered every detail of the -conflict, and were almost fit to take the command of an army ourselves. -We then returned to Brussels, highly gratified and instructed by the -excursion. - -We left Brussels much pleased with that pretty little industrious -capital, and proceeded to Malines, where the fine old cathedral and -town rewarded us well during our short visit. From thence we journeyed -on to Antwerp, where we stopped at the Grand Labourer, a celebrated -old-fashioned hotel. This famous old city, the great emporium of the -Belgian trade, interested me much, with its magnificent cathedral and -other churches, its fine old Hôtel de Ville, and spacious quays and -docks; the Scheldt is here a fine river. There was a good museum of Dutch -and Flemish pictures, but the _chef-d’œuvres_ of Rubens and Vandyke -had not yet returned from Paris. I was much struck with the extent and -strength of the fortifications; also with the costume of the natives, -particularly that of the women, which still resembled a good deal that of -their former masters, the Spaniards. At the time of our visit everything -was in a depressed state. Its trade had not yet recovered from the -effects of the great war, and its then silent streets contrasted greatly -with their former activity. The Roman Catholic religious ceremonies were -conducted with great magnificence, and struck us simple Protestants, -who had never witnessed anything of the kind before, with considerable -astonishment. - -We left Antwerp for Ghent, and took our departure for Bruges in one of -the trackschuyts or barges, by means of which the great bulk of the -goods and passenger traffic of the kingdom was carried on. These canals -are magnificent specimens of the kind, and, being upon a much greater -scale than our own, particularly struck me with admiration. The canal -was bounded on each side with spacious banks, and was of great width, -with a towing path and carriage way for general traffic. These banks were -bounded by rows of trees, which serve for shade; at the same time their -clippings and timber yield a considerable amount of profit. - -We reached Bruges about noon, and had just time to examine the fine -cathedral and townhall, as well as the interesting town, its quaint old -buildings, quays, mercantile warehouses, all in the architecture of the -Middle Ages, during which Bruges attained its greatest prosperity. We -left this interesting town in the afternoon by another trackschuyt for -Ostend, about 12 miles distant, by a canal of the same dimensions as -the one above described. Most of these canals being connected with each -other, Brussels, Ghent, Malines, Louvain, and the other large towns, -possessed a complete network of water communication with the ports of -Antwerp and Ostend, and trade is carried on with the greatest facility. - -We reached Ostend in the evening, and learned that a packet was about -to sail for Margate, of which we determined to avail ourselves. We had, -however, sufficient time to examine this indifferent port, the second -in the kingdom, which, in addition to a badly-contrived entrance by two -guide piers, has two small docks. It is a mere tidal harbour, with an -awkward bar at the entrance, and numerous shoals on the outside. The town -possesses nothing remarkable; it was then garrisoned by English troops, -and there was constant communication with England. - -From this period I devoted my time almost exclusively to the Waterloo -and Southwark bridges, but particularly to the latter, which was almost -entirely under my direction, subject to the orders of my father. Besides -the above works, I was a good deal employed in the drawing office in -making drawings and estimates and calculations for a variety of new works -upon which my father was engaged. I also occasionally visited the rolling -and other machinery of the Royal Mint on Tower Hill, which my father at -that time was constructing for the Government, and during the evenings I -was employed in learning mathematics under Dr. Bradley and Dr. Firminger, -and the Italian, French, and German languages, so that my time from -morning to evening was fully employed. I must not omit to say that at -this time I attended the lectures of the celebrated Sir Humphry Davy, -the Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, who at that day -astonished the world by his wonderful discoveries. - -The first, second, and third arches of the Waterloo Bridge being -completed, Mr. Rennie determined to slacken the centres of the first -arch, which was on the Surrey shore, where the bridge commenced. This -was when the arches were entirely relieved from the centres, and the -total subsiding of this arch was 2½ inches, which is nearly half an -inch less than had been allowed; the centres were then removed from the -first arch to the fourth arch, only three centres being employed. Each -centre consisted of eight ribs, upon the truss principle, resting upon a -compound system of wedges, supported upon struts placed upon the offsets -of the piers and abutments; all the ribs were well connected together -by transverse and diagonal ties, as well as the planking upon which the -arch-stones rested. The trestles or bearers of the centre ribs, together -with the wedges, having been first fixed in their places upon the offsets -of the pier and abutment where the centre was to be fixed, four ribs of -the centre were transferred, and fixed upon them in the following manner. - -The ribs of the centre having been constructed upon a platform upon -the shore near the bridge, a large barge or floating stage, capable of -carrying four complete ribs, which weighed 40 tons each, was built to -receive them. This floating stage was extremely strong, and transversely -across the centre of it there were four strong stages at the same -distance from each other as the ribs of the centre were intended to be -when fixed in their position, to support the arches whilst building. -These stages were supported by double transverse beams, resting upon -powerful screws 15 inches diameter, in boxes resting upon the bottom of -the vessel. Above each of these stages, yet securely attached to them, -was a framework, to which the ribs of the centres were lashed whilst -being transported to their places. When the centre ribs were finished and -all was ready, the floating stage, at high water, was brought alongside -the platform, upon which the ribs of the centre had been constructed, and -were lying ready to be transferred to their places. Each rib was then -raised by means of powerful sheer-poles, to which were double-purchase -crabs, treble blocks, with all the necessary ropes, chains, and other -tackle, by which means each rib of the centre was readily raised from -the platform where it was built and transferred to its proper stage in -the floating barge, and there secured in an upright position, when the -ribs had been fixed in their places. The barge was then floated into the -opening where the arch was to be constructed, which was generally done -about half an hour before high water, so as to allow ample time to adjust -and fix the ribs over the corresponding pair of wedges and trestles upon -which it was ultimately to rest, which was done as the tide fell, and -adjusted to the greatest nicety by the screws before mentioned; when the -rib had been fixed in its place, the barge returned to bring another, -which was served in the same manner as the first, and thus the fixing of -one centre occupied only six days. This system answered most effectually, -and was subsequently adopted by Mr. Robert Stephenson for fixing the -great tubes for the Menai and Conway bridges. - -The Waterloo Bridge, as well known, consists of nine equal -semi-elliptical arches, 120 feet span each, with a rise of 34 feet 6 -inches, the keystones at the crown being 4 feet 6 inches deep and 10 -feet at the spring, and 18 inches thick at the soffit; inverted arches -on each pier between the main arches 4 feet 6 inches deep. The piers -were 20 feet wide, each having projecting buttresses, supported by two -three-quarter Doric columnar pilasters, over each pier, the whole being -surmounted by a Doric block cornice and balustrade parapet, level from -end to end, the same as the roadway. The roadway above the piers was -supported by six brick walls, 2 ft. 3 in. thick, covered with corbel -stones. The shores being low on both sides of the river, the approaches -are constructed so as to form an inclined plane rising 1 in 30 on the -Surrey side, and nearly level on the north, or Middlesex side, with the -Strand, upon a series of brick arches 16 feet wide each. These arches -serve for storehouses. The roadway was formed by a layer of well-puddled -clay 15 inches thick, then a layer of lime and of fine gravel 3 inches -thick, then a layer of equally broken granite, in pieces 2 inches in -diameter, 1 foot thick. Through the centre of the masonry of each pier -a hole 18 inches in diameter was cut, entering the river on one side of -the pier at low water, and from the top of this hole inside the pier -cast-iron branch pipes of the same diameter were carried to side drains -on each side of the roadway, so that all rain and surface water was -effectually carried off into the river, thus preventing leakage. - -The piers and abutments were founded in the solid bed of the river, which -is strong gravel; they rest upon a wooden platform, supported upon piles -12 inches in diameter driven 20 feet into the bed of the river. The -whole of the arches and exterior face of the bridge are built of Cornish -granite, from the vicinity of Penryn, and the balustrade is made of fine -grey Aberdeen granite. - -The contract for the Cornish granite was taken by a very worthy man of -the name of Gray, and the price was such as on so large a quantity ought -to have enabled him to realize a very handsome profit; but he had no -system or machinery adequate for the purpose, and instead of opening -quarries properly upon an enlarged scale in the solid rock, by which he -would have saved a great deal, he chiefly confined his operations to the -loose outlying blocks, which reduced his profits considerably, and in -the end it is very doubtful whether he did more than cover his expenses. -As the dressing of granite for masonry was entirely new at that time, -nothing having been built of this material in London, it was extremely -difficult to find masons who would undertake it, even at such enormous -prices as 1_s._ 9_d._ to 2_s._ per cube foot, so that the contractors, -Messrs. Jolliffe and Banks, could not afford to pay it. Workmen were -therefore obtained from Aberdeen, and the price was ultimately reduced -from 2_s._ to 1_s._; notwithstanding, however, the prime cost of the -stone, the freight, dressing, mortar, and setting complete in the bridge -cost about 7_s._ 2_d._ to 7_s._ 3_d._, so that the total cost was near -7_s._ 6_d._ It should be observed, however, that at that time there was -a duty of threepence per cubic foot (or ton?) on stone, which has since -been taken off. The interior stone consisted of hard sandstone from -Derbyshire and Yorkshire. - -The bridge and approaches were completed and opened with great ceremony -by George IV., then Prince Regent, on the 15th of June, 1817, in -commemoration of the battle of Waterloo, after which it was especially -named. Twenty-five pieces of artillery were placed on the centre of -the bridge, which fired a salute as His Royal Highness, the directors -of the Company, and a brilliant suite walked over in procession, when -he christened it Waterloo Bridge, and declared it open to the public. -His Royal Highness came by water in his state barge, accompanied by the -Admiralty and other barges, in which were the ministers and suite; he -landed at the stairs on the south-east side of the bridge, and walked -over it from south to north; he embarked again on the north-east -side, and returned to Whitehall and Carlton House. The sight was very -brilliant, the weather magnificent, and everybody seemed to be satisfied. - -The total cost of the bridge was 565,000_l._, which was 10,000_l._ more -than estimated by Mr. Rennie; the approaches, besides the land and -buildings, cost a further sum of 112,000_l._; so that the total cost of -the bridge and approaches was 677,000_l._, and the land and buildings -and contingencies 373,000_l._, making a total of 1,050,000_l._ This is -certainly a very large sum for a bridge and its approaches; but when its -extent is considered, the bridge alone being a quarter of a mile long, -and the approaches nearly three-quarters of a mile more, also the great -cost of materials and labour of every kind, the stone-cutting costing -from 4_s._ to 6_s._ a cubic foot in the rough state, timber from 7_l._ to -14_l._ per load, and labour in the same proportion (which is more than -double the present price), we cannot be surprised at the total cost. - -I still continued my duties at the Southwark Bridge, which was completed -in March, 1819, and was opened without any ceremony by Sir John Jackson, -the chairman of the Company, and the other directors. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Travels in Switzerland, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, - Constantinople, and Egypt--Return to England--Death of Mr. - Rennie. - - -I had now received a tolerably good education, both theoretical and -practical, as a civil engineer; but before entering fully into practice -on my own account, my father thought it advisable that I should travel -for a time to study what had been done in ancient and modern times both -in architecture and engineering. I accordingly left England on the 7th -of June, 1819, in company with my cousin, Colonel, now General, Sir J. -Aitchison, and the late Lord Hotham, his friend. We had a thirty-three -hours’ passage from Brighton to Dieppe, during which time, having -exhausted the captain’s store of bread and cheese, not very abundant, we -were glad to fall back on a dozen mackerel, which Lord Hotham’s servant -was fortunate enough to catch. We passed through France without much -incident; but when the view from the summit of the Jura suddenly burst -upon us, the magnificent scene made a most lasting impression upon my -memory. The valley of the Rhone, the Lake of Geneva, backed by Mont Blanc -and its splendid range of mountains, rose before us as if by magic; we -were totally unprepared for it, could scarcely believe our senses, and -stood enraptured for nearly half an hour. We then descended to Geneva, -where we passed several days very agreeably, examining what was then the -picturesque old town, with its clumsy, old-fashioned waterworks; for the -improvement of these my father, through the well-known Dr. Marcet, had -just made a design for the municipality, which was much approved of, and -which I understand has since been partially carried into effect. I here -made the acquaintance of General Dufour, so well known for his scientific -acquirements, and after a few days went on an expedition to Chamounix, -where, as no one then thought of ascending Mont Blanc, we climbed the -Montanvert and the Mer de Glace, where I made some experiments with -Leslie’s hygrometer. Having returned to Geneva, we started again on -the 7th July for a more extended tour in the mountains, going by the -lakes of Morat and Bienne, the scene of the great battle of 1476. I -examined these two lakes, which were evidently rapidly filling up, but -by lowering the outfalls a great part of the whole might be recovered, -whereas at present the borders are to a great extent covered with reeds, -and the marshes exhale unwholesome effluvia. After passing through -Freibourg, where the bridge, then newly opened, was considered one of -the wonders of Switzerland, and which, as a most remarkable work of its -kind, I examined attentively, we passed on to Berne, and going through -the mountains, returned to Geneva. On our way, being at Meyringen, and -short of ready cash, we proposed either to return direct to Geneva, or -to change one of Herries’ circular notes; but on offering one of these -notes to the landlord, he at once said there was no occasion for it, as -we were Englishmen, and that was enough. Having produced a large bag of -five-franc pieces, he told us to help ourselves, and was with difficulty -persuaded to take one of Herries’ notes in exchange. I merely mention -this to show how high the name of Englishmen then stood on the Continent. - -Leaving Geneva for Italy, we proceeded by the route of the Simplon, the -construction of which I had promised to observe very attentively for my -father. The first portion only presents, as objects of interest, the -excavations through the rock of St. Gingough, near the upper end of the -lake. From Martigny we started up the valley of the Rhone, where, though -the ground is generally level, the road yet encounters considerable -difficulties from the river, which here assumes the character of a -torrent, and when swollen by floods sweeps almost everything before it; -wandering from side to side it deposits the _débris_ of the one side -on the banks of the other, forming, we may say, alternately rapids and -almost still pools, which renders it extremely difficult to confine its -course within any reasonable limits; so that the art of the engineer -is taxed to the uttermost. I thought that in many places the works -were not designed with that solidity which is so necessary under such -circumstances, and that sufficient precautions were not taken to arrest -the progress of the _débris_. I considered that by providing depositories -for it at certain favourable stations, the violence of the floods might -have been considerably controlled, a much greater extent of land on -both sides of the river rendered available for cultivation, and the -extensive marshes, which, operated upon by a powerful sun, now produce -most injurious exhalations, might have been deprived of their baneful -influence. - -Having passed Sion, we left Brieg early on the 10th of August, and as -soon as we began the ascent I descended from the carriage, and with line -and rule I measured every bridge until we reached Boveno, on the Lake -Maggiore. I sent off from Milan, as I had promised, a detailed account of -this celebrated road to my father, giving a drawing and account of every -work, which I afterwards had the gratification of knowing afforded him -great pleasure. The whole Pass must have at first sight been appalling to -the engineers who traced the line of road; and although many other works -of the kind of greater magnitude have been since executed, nevertheless, -all things considered, it is worthy the approbation of mankind, and does -great credit both to those who designed and those who executed it. - -We reached Milan[1] on the 12th of August, and I was much struck with the -fine canal which unites it with Pavia, and which can only be compared -with the canals of Belgium. It has been said that the first pound lock -was invented and executed by the famous Leonardi da Vinci, but subsequent -inquiries have induced me to believe that our own country is entitled to -the honour in the Exeter ship canal. I was also greatly pleased with the -system of irrigation employed generally throughout Lombardy. This system -was originally introduced by the Italians themselves, and during the -Austrian rule was carried to the greatest perfection, Lombardy being by -nature peculiarly well adapted to it. The vast and fertile valley of the -Po is for the most part destitute of rain during the summer, when it is -most wanted; but it fortunately happens that at this season water is most -abundant from the melting of the snows on the Alps, which descend into -the adjacent lakes and rivers, and would be otherwise wasted and thrown -away if not employed for fertilizing the land. The water, therefore, at -this season is conducted by an elaborate system of artificial canals, -and distributed over the adjacent lands according to their respective -levels, at a certain price, varying with the quantity distributed. Thus -the constant supply of water, the high temperature, and the fertility of -the soil combined, produce the most abundant crops, and the plains of -Lombardy are rendered the most productive and valuable in Europe; whereas -in winter, when the temperature is lowest, the snow is congealed on the -Alps, and comparatively little water comes down when it is least wanted. - -From Milan we reached Verona, where the bridge, consisting principally of -brick, with binding courses of marble, can boast of one of the largest -brick arches in the world, an excellent example of what may be done with -this material when properly handled. After passing Vicenza and Padua, we -reached Venice early in September, 1819. - -The extraordinary and at the same time most beautiful and novel -appearance of the city, with numerous towers and spires, about which I -had read and heard so much, and had so long wished to see, now stood -before me, and its loveliness more than realized my most sanguine -expectations. When I considered its origin, a few fishermen’s huts built -upon the mud banks of the lagoon by men flying from the invasion of -Attila, then the rise of the great republic whose wealth, conquests, -and influence were destined hereafter to play such an important part in -the world, and lastly the fallen and degraded state in which it then -presented itself before me, I was lost in astonishment; I was for a while -transported as it were in a dream, and could scarcely believe where I was. - -The Grand Canal first attracted our notice,--perhaps there is no -thoroughfare in the world lined with so many magnificent palaces,--and -along which we passed until we came to the Rialto, a drawing of which I -made and sent to my father. But if I was delighted, and I may almost say -astonished, at the Grand Canal, I was still more so with the Place of St. -Marc and its surrounding buildings, so varied in their architectural -styles, yet each so picturesque and elegant in itself, and combined -together forming at once the most interesting and beautiful scene of -the kind in the world. It is one of those sights, at least speaking for -myself, that never satiates--the more I looked the more I admired it. As -to the details of these different buildings which we saw, they are so -much better described in the numerous guide books that it is unnecessary -to repeat them here. - -I visited every part of the lagoons, including the various islands, all -of which are more or less deserving of notice, particularly the island -of Murano, the seat of the celebrated glass manufactories; and also the -Moravian establishment. But what really most interested me were the -lagoons, and the means which must have been resorted to for keeping them -open, notwithstanding the numerous causes which were and are constantly -in operation to fill them up with the alluvial matter brought down -from the mountains and plains by the various rivers and streams which -discharge their waters into this portion of the Adriatic, also from the -alluvium brought in from the adjacent shores, by the tide, which rises -from 2 to 4 feet, and at times, during heavy gales from the southward, as -much as 6 feet, overflowing the quays of St. Marc’s Place. - -There was a long-continued discussion amongst the numerous distinguished -mathematicians, engineers, and others who have written upon this subject, -as to the best way of preventing the filling up of the harbour. Some -contended that the only method of effecting this was to admit all the -rivers into the lagoons freely; for although they might deposit a certain -amount of alluvial matter, nevertheless the great quantity of water -discharged would alone be sufficient to carry away this deposit. But they -forgot that when the rivers met the sea the current would necessarily -be checked and rendered powerless to carry forward any matter which -might be held in suspension, and that consequently the detritus would be -deposited and form banks and shoals which the waters could not remove; -thus in time the lagoons would be filled up, grass marshes would be -formed, the city of Venice would be united to the mainland, and the -harbour would be destroyed. On the other hand, it was argued, for the -reasons above mentioned, that the only way to preserve the lagoons and -the port of Venice was to exclude the rivers when densely charged with -alluvial matter, and only to admit their waters at certain times, when -they were comparatively clear; thus all the advantage would be obtained -from the scour of these rivers, without the disadvantage arising from -their deposits. Ultimately the arguments of the latter prevailed, the -rivers were excluded from the lagoons by making a capacious canal all -around them with sluices at their mouths, by means of which the waters -were discharged into the lagoons when they were tolerably clear of -alluvial matter; the surplus waters were discharged into the adjacent sea -clear of the lagoons, and any alluvial matter which was brought in from -the sea was removed by dredging from the main channels of the lagoons, so -that they were in a fit state to admit the tidal waters and thus to keep -the lagoons open. - -But there was another important agent to be provided against, namely, -the alluvial matter brought in by the winds, waves, and currents from -the scouring of the adjacent shores of the Adriatic; this is done to a -certain extent by dredging. Originally these banks contributed materially -to the formation of the outer banks, which protect the lagoon on the -sea side. If these banks were broken through or completely swept away, -which the storms of the Adriatic frequently threatened to do, the lagoon, -and with it the port, would be seriously injured or totally destroyed. -This was remedied by defending this outer barrier bank of the lagoon by -facing it with stone, and where the sea was most violent by constructing -a solid breakwater of stone, and protecting it further by stone filters -carried out a sufficient distance into the sea in order to divert the -current, and to enable the alluvial matter to be deposited between them -so as to form an additional protection to the main breakwater; this was -accordingly done, and thus an extraordinary work at great expense has -been constructed between Lido and Malamocco, the principal entrances from -the sea to the lagoon, for a length of four miles, where the effects of -the sea are greatest. - -Malamocco is the principal entrance for large vessels, and the channel -from thence to Venice has been deepened, chiefly by dredging, to the -extent of 24 feet at low water. Lido, which is the next chief entrance -and the nearest to Venice, being about 1½ mile distant from it, serves -for the general class of merchant vessels. The other entrances of Foggia, -Tre Porte, and the Piave, are seldom used except for fishing vessels, -and it is not necessary to do more to these than to keep them in their -present state, that is, to prevent deterioration, as it is an object -of importance to allow the great mass of water by which the lagoon is -chiefly preserved to pass in and out of the main entrances, Malamocco and -Lido. Upon the whole it appears to me that this latter plan is the wisest -that could be adopted, and the result has proved that it has been so far -successful, although attended with considerable expense. It is in fact -a choice of two evils, and the least has been chosen. It is, I believe, -admitted that the port of Venice is now capable of receiving as large, -if not larger, vessels than she ever received before; for it should be -recollected that in the most flourishing times of Venice there were no -ships drawing 23 or 24 feet, and vessels of this size can now enter and -depart at all times. Hence Venice has been converted into a port fit -for modern requirements; but it must always be borne in mind that so -strong are the natural obstacles against its maintenance that nothing can -preserve it in its present condition but the most constant vigilance and -care. Fortunately the method of dredging by steam has been introduced, -and this may be done to any extent, at a comparatively moderate cost, -but it can only be compensated for when there is a sufficient amount of -trade to pay for it. Still, in whatever way we may consider the question, -it must be admitted that the port of Venice has been preserved in a -most extraordinary manner during so many centuries, notwithstanding the -natural obstacles against it; and now that it has been connected with the -kingdom of Italy, there is no further drawback to its full development, -and it only requires self-reliance and energy to render it what it once -was, one, if not the most important, of the commercial cities of Italy. - -At Bologna we had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of the -celebrated linguist Mezzofanti, whose modest and simple manner, -accompanied by his extraordinary acquirements, quite enchanted us. The -singular fact is that at the time of our meeting him he had never been -out of the province of Bologna, and yet he had acquired the knowledge of -twenty-four languages, and, as far as our limited acquaintance went, he -spoke the English, German, French, Greek and Latin tongues perfectly; and -those conversant with the Oriental languages informed us that he spoke -them equally well. He appeared to be completely absorbed in languages, -and was scarcely acquainted with any other branches of knowledge; still -his wonderful mastery of this branch of study was a great acquirement, -and must have required vast powers of memory as well as indefatigable -study. - -From thence we passed through Ravenna to Ancona, the position of which is -good, occupying as it does a salient point of the coast. The water is -deep and there is a commanding height for a citadel. The Roman emperors -resolved to take advantage of the situation, and built a town here, the -place being well adapted for a seaport. They accordingly made a mole -on the south side to protect the harbour against the most dangerous -winds, namely, those blowing from the south; they commenced the work -from the shore by throwing down large blocks of rough stone, which were -obtained from the rocks in the vicinity, in order to form a base for the -superstructure; these blocks of stone were deposited promiscuously in the -sea and left to the action of the waves, which in a comparatively short -time consolidated them until they formed a mass that at length became -immovable, always adding more stone as required until the whole became -solid; this foundation was carried up to the level of low-water mark. -They then commenced the superstructure of masonry, of squared stone and -brickwork cemented together by pozzolana or hydraulic mortar, which was -best adapted to make the work permanent. The inside or quay wall was -formed by first placing a close framework of timber in front and at the -angle or slope at which the quay wall was to be formed. They then threw -down a mass of pozzolana, lime, and small rubble stone, mixed together, -between the wooden frames and the rubble stone which had been previously -deposited to form the base of the mole. This in a comparatively short -time become solid, as the mixture of pozzolana, lime, and stone possesses -the quality of setting under water. When it had become sufficiently -solid, the timber frame was removed and transferred to another section to -form a continuation of the quay wall, and thus the whole line of inner -quay wall which formed the roadway was made by backing the quay wall to -its full height with rubble, and a parapet of masonry was erected on -the outside; this superstructure, although rough, stood very well with -occasional repairs. In this manner the mole was carried out to a great -extent. A fine triumphal arch was erected at the end to commemorate the -completion of the work. - -It is singular that the same emperor should have constructed a like work -in a similar situation and in the same manner at Civita Vecchia, on the -opposite coast of Italy, after every attempt had been made to establish -a port by his predecessors at Ostia, which was built at extraordinary -expense, and has been filled up by the alluvial matter brought down by -the Tiber and from the sea by the littoral currents, so that it is now -three miles from the sea. - -The principle of construction used in these works resembles a good -deal the mode adopted by the Phœnicians at Tyre, and subsequently by -the Carthaginians at Carthage, and by the moderns. The Romans also -employed the hollow mole, that is, a mole constructed with arches, by -means of which the current charged with alluvial matter was enabled to -pass through the mole, and thus any deposit within or without the mole -was to a great extent prevented. The harbour of Civita Vecchia remains -serviceable at the present day for vessels drawing 20 feet of water, -although, as may be naturally expected, a certain deposit has taken -place during the lapse of so many centuries which requires to be dredged -out occasionally. At Ancona only one pier was built on the south side, -and consequently an eddy and stagnation took place on the north side, -as the littoral current runs from south to north, and therefore there -is a tendency to deposit on the north side. The French when masters -of Italy commenced another mole on the north side, thus enclosing a -considerable space of sea so as to form a close harbour, which no doubt -is of great service; still, from the nature of the local circumstances, -a certain deposit may always be expected. This, however, can be removed -by dredging, and the harbour may always be preserved in a state of -efficiency if the extent of trade will warrant the expenditure necessary -for the purpose. - -On reaching Rome, it is difficult to express the emotions I felt on a -first sight of the Holy City, surrounded by the desolate Campagna, the -Tiber rolling in front, the Castle of St. Angelo, and the numerous towers -of churches rising out of the mass of houses, crowned by the gorgeous -dome of St. Peter’s elevated in proud majesty above the whole, backed by -the magnificent views of the ancient city, once the mistress of the world. - -This most interesting, I may say, most thrilling, sight lay before me -in all its solemn majesty. When I considered that it rose from a few -insignificant shepherds’ hovels to imperial splendour, then became the -prey of the barbarian hordes of the north, and lastly, the throne of -the Catholic Christian world, I was awed by the wonderful decrees of -Providence, and at the instability of all human grandeur. I lay restless -all night; I could scarcely realize the fact that I was actually in this -wonderful, all-absorbing city, to visit which from my childhood had been -one of the greatest objects of my ambition. It would be vain to attempt -to describe in detail its numerous splendid buildings, both ancient and -modern, its museums, and its countless treasures of priceless art. I will -merely remark that there is no city in the world more worthy of a visit -than Rome, or where greater gratification and instruction can be derived; -for example, the aqueducts and the Cloaca Maxima show how thoroughly -the Romans understood the importance of sewerage and good water for the -preservation of human life, an importance that is only now beginning -to be recognized in England, while there still remains very much to be -accomplished. - -My friend Colonel Aitchison was obliged to hasten his departure. I then -took lodgings in the Piazza de Spagna, and devoted myself to the study -of the Italian language, architecture, and drawing, and in my leisure -moments entered into society; and fortunately at that time there were -assembled there some of the most distinguished characters in science, -literature, and art, besides diplomatists and leaders of fashion, from -the various capitals of Europe. Amongst the first may be mentioned the -celebrated chemist and philosopher, Sir Humphry Davy, and his talented -wife, under whose hospitable roof I passed many happy days, and at the -same time received much valuable instruction. I made acquaintance with -the Marchese Martinette, the scientific engineer, who at that time -devised the extensive hydraulic works for the improvement of the rivers -and drainage of the marsh-land districts of Bologna and Ferrara, from -whom I derived much information. I also met the well-known antiquary, Sir -W. Gell, who to his interesting memoir of Greece afterwards added much -towards explaining the antiquities of Rome, and in his agreeable society -I spent many a pleasant day. Dodwell too had just returned from Greece; -and I made the acquaintance of that prince of sculptors, Canova, to whom -my father had given me a letter of introduction. I frequently went to his -studio, where he always received me with the greatest kindness. He was -then at work on the model of his famous dying Madeleine, which struck me -as a masterpiece of elegance and beauty, combined with the resignation -and piety which so pre-eminently distinguishes it as a beautiful specimen -of art. Nobody could be more kind, amiable, and modest in his manner -than that distinguished sculptor. Flattered by emperors, kings, and the -great and cultivated of every land, he never for a moment forgot himself -or appeared to be elated, or to be put out of his ordinary simple, -unobtrusive manner; whilst to his brother artists he was equally kind -and familiar; to his inferiors he was always gentle and considerate, -giving his humbler fellow-workers every encouragement and advice, -cheering them on their way, and not unfrequently assisting them with his -purse when their necessities required it. He was devoted to his art, -of which he was so eminent a professor, and with it combined all those -amiable and charitable feelings which rendered him an universal favourite -and a benefactor to mankind. - -I made acquaintance also with the great Dane, Thorwaldsen, who frequently -admitted me to his studio. He was totally different from Canova. His -square, massive head, covered with a redundance of flowing locks; -his finely-developed countenance, beaming with talent and firmness -of purpose; his colossal and well-proportioned figure, and erect and -commanding gait, all combined to raise in the mind of the spectator a -degree of respect and admiration not usually to be met with. Yet with all -this apparent sternness there was combined a happy mixture of gentleness, -genial sociability, and good-nature, which, after a little acquaintance, -soon made you feel at home with him; and the more you knew him the more -you liked him. He was then at work upon the colossal figures of the -Twelve Apostles, for the church at Copenhagen, a commission given to him -by the King. Several of these were finished, and magnificent specimens of -art they were. I have since seen them in their places, and have looked -at them with increased admiration. His Triumph of Alexander had just -then been completed, and a finer specimen of bas-relief it is impossible -to see. It is singular that with all this nobleness of character, and -being withal a perfect master in his art, this great man--for certainly -he was so in his sphere--should have looked upon Canova as his rival, -and disliked him with a dislike almost amounting to hatred, whereas the -gentle Canova had no such feeling towards Thorwaldsen. - -Their styles, moreover, were so totally different from each other, that -there could be no reason for jealousy between them. Canova excelled in -the female form, where nothing but elegance, gentleness, and grace are -required, although he by no means failed in the male figure; whereas -Thorwaldsen excelled in that of the male, where force, manliness, and -dignity are mainly requisite. Both were at the head of their profession -in their respective styles, and both have left behind them numerous -masterpieces of art, which have never been surpassed in ancient or modern -times. - -In addition to these celebrities, there were Lawrence, Chantrey, and -Turner, all engaged in their respective walks of art. These I had known -in England, and I received much kindness and instruction from them, and -enjoyed the greatest pleasure in their delightful society. - -Numerous great houses were at that time open for the reception of all the -celebrities of Roman and foreign society, to which I had access. Amongst -many others may be mentioned those of the beautiful Princess Borghese, -the Duchess of Devonshire, and Lord William Bentinck. At the house of -the Duchess of Devonshire I was introduced to the polished courtier and -priest, Cardinal Gonsalvi, at that time Minister of Foreign Affairs to -the Pope, whose graceful manners and elegant language, combined with a -vast fund of information, enchanted everybody. I also met Thomas Moore, -who enraptured the whole audience by singing his fresh melodies, with -a degree of pathos, taste, and feeling which was peculiarly his own. -Neither must I forget Lady Morgan, whose lively and constant prattle -afforded much amusement, not altogether destitute of information. - -At the hospitable house of Lord and Lady William Bentinck I saw the -_élite_ of English society, where I was frequently a welcome guest. -Amongst others, appeared the beautiful Miss Canning, afterwards the -Marchioness Clanricarde, and the silent, amiable, and unfortunate Lord -William Russell, who afterwards fell a victim to his servant, the -assassin Courvoisier. - -To enumerate all the agreeable and talented persons of whom I had the -honour of making the acquaintance at Rome would be foreign to my purpose, -and out of place here. Suffice it to say, that the winter of 1819, which -I passed at Rome, was one of the most agreeable and instructive of my -life, and will ever be remembered by me with the most lively feelings -of satisfaction. Before leaving I had the honour of being presented to -the benevolent Pius VII., and was much captivated with his kind and -unostentatious reception. After witnessing the Church ceremonies of -Christmas, I left Rome just before the Carnival. I passed through Castel -Gandolfo, and afterwards came upon the Pontine Marshes. - -The Pontine Marshes consist of a low tract of land, extending from the -elevated ridge of Castel Gandolfo to a spur of the Apennines, which -approach the Mediterranean near Velletri, being a length of about 20 -miles, whilst on the east they are bordered by the Apennines, from whence -numerous streams and torrents descend into the marshes; and on the west, -or sea side, they are bounded by a line of sandbanks, or dunes, thrown -up by the waves and storms from the west; so that they form, as it -were, a basin into which all the waters flow, without a natural outfall -through which they can escape. To attempt to make a direct outfall to -the sea was perfectly practicable, but there was no rise of tide, so -that though the outfall would be considerably improved, there would yet -remain the difficulty of keeping it open, in consequence of the constant -influx of the sand. In similar, and indeed in all cases of this class, -there are two points to be considered, namely, the water which comes -from the highlands, and that which falls directly upon the lowlands. -Now the former, coming from a higher level, and necessarily having -greater velocity, will naturally descend to the lowest level, which is -the marshes, and will force its way to the outfall before the lowland -water; so that until the highland water is discharged, the lowland water, -having less inclination, cannot escape, and as the outfall was extremely -deficient, neither the highland nor lowland water could be discharged, -and both combined accumulated upon the lowlands and flooded them. It -therefore was evident that so long as this state of things remained it -was impossible for the lowlands to be properly drained, as the outfall -was deficient for the discharge of both waters when combined. - -The only feasible mode of attaining the desired object was to separate -them; then, at least, the lowlands could not be incommoded by the -highland water, and would only have to discharge its own drainage. Thus, -if a catchwater drain had been made along the base of the highlands, -all that water might be discharged into the sea at any level required, -for there is ample fall or inclination; and if another and separate -outfall had been made for the discharge of the water falling upon the -lowlands, although with much less fall, it might have been discharged, -at least, to a great degree, if well embanked and of a proper size, -because it would have been unobstructed by the highland water. But even -supposing that any portion of the lowlands had been below the level of -the outfall, this defect could easily have been remedied by pumping -machines, worked either by wind, animal, or steam power, connected with -main and subsidiary drains of proper capacity. This plan, which has been -so effectively exemplified in the drainage of the great level of the Fens -and elsewhere, was not adopted, but the whole of the waters, highland as -well as lowland, were thrown into one drain and outfall, and thus before -the highland water could be discharged, the lowland water stagnated upon -the land. Until Mr. Rennie’s system is adopted, there never will be a -perfect drainage; and the more imperfect the outfall, the greater is the -necessity for adopting his system. - -At Terracina we were terrified with the account of the brigands whom -we should have to encounter in crossing the spur of the Apennines -before we entered the kingdom of Naples. I here examined the old Roman -port, consisting of two artificial piers of stone carried out from the -shore, with the entrance pointing west. Both piers are long, and are -well constructed of solid masonry, with a parapet and roadway; there -being large mooring stones, with holes through their extremities, fixed -solidly into the inner or quay walls of each pier. Upon the whole this -is a substantial work, although, as the piers are curved, they are -badly adapted for breaking the waves on the outside, and for preserving -tranquillity within the harbour. The whole space within and without the -piers was filled up with sand to within two feet of the quay walls. -It is a common error, even at the present day, to make curved piers; -the consequence is, that when the waves strike them they accumulate as -they move forward, until at length they break with increased force and -carry all before them. The same takes place with the waves entering the -harbour, which produce such a degree of agitation within that vessels -cannot lie in safety; whereas by making the piers in several straight -arms the waves strike them on the outside, and they are broken, and -neutralize each other at the angles. - -I reached Naples through a road closely patrolled by soldiers, with -blockhouses for ten or twelve men at very short intervals. Being bound -for Greece, my time was very short, yet I managed to ascend Vesuvius and -visit Herculaneum with Lord Guildford, as well as the Museo Borbonico as -often as possible. - -I examined the modern harbour of Naples, and I doubt if anything could -be more badly designed. There are two small piers, the entrance between -which is difficult; it is exposed to the prevalent and dangerous winds, -and is scarcely safe inside. This is the more extraordinary, because -the numerous remains of the ancient harbours of the Romans, dispersed -throughout the bay, might have served as models for a port adapted -for all the requirements of modern trade as well as for war vessels. -The harbour must be improved before Naples can be provided with that -accommodation which her increasing trade imperatively requires. - -I started from Naples with several others on the 31st January, 1820, and -after an alarm from a threatened attack by brigands on the summit of the -pass of Baveno, from which we were rescued by the timely arrival of the -Receiver-General of the province, on his official journey, accompanied -by a numerous escort of dragoons. We reached Lecce, the capital of the -province, on the evening of the 8th February, having been eleven days on -the journey, a distance of about 300 miles, rather fatigued, but much -pleased with this novel and interesting country, so seldom visited by -travellers. I alighted at the best hotel in the place, which was but very -indifferent, and the next day called upon General Church, the Governor -of the province, and was most kindly received by him, he insisting upon -my making his house my home. Here I again met with Lord Guildford, Lord -William Russell, and Chevalier Bronsted, with whom I had previously -made acquaintance at Rome. Lord Guildford was on his way to the Ionian -Islands on official business, and Sir Thomas Maitland, the Governor, had -ordered a vessel to be sent to Brindisi to convey his Lordship, who very -civilly offered me and our two mutual friends a passage. As the vessel -was not expected for several days, we in the meantime became the guests -of General Church, and were most hospitably entertained by him. General -Church was an extraordinary man. He was below the middle size, about the -age of five-and-forty, extremely well built, spare, sinewy, and active, -with a well-proportioned head, sharp piercing eyes, rather aquiline nose, -and a closely-compressed mouth, denoting great firmness and resolution. -He commanded a regiment of Albanians and Greeks, as an auxiliary corps -in the British employment, during the great war, and in that position -assisted the operations of the British cruisers on the coast of Italy; -and hence he became subsequently attached to the army of Lord William -Bentinck, after his conquest of Sicily. Church was a proficient in the -Greek, Italian, and French languages, and, having considerable military -talent, and being a great disciplinarian, soon brought the rough and -savage elements of which his corps was composed into tolerable order, -and rendered them of considerable service in the wild warfare in which -they were engaged. At the conclusion of the war he retired on half pay to -Naples, where, being well known to the Government, he was made Governor -of the province of Otranto, at that time overrun with brigands. Church -was appointed to the command with unlimited control, and by his vigorous -and energetic conduct soon spread terror and dismay amongst them; he was -here, there, and everywhere; when they least expected, he came upon them -suddenly, dispersed them, and destroyed the leaders without mercy. He -had many narrow escapes himself from sharing the same fate. Once it is -related that he and his aide-de-camp, Captain Kusini, entered unknowingly -a small town, of which one of the most able and daring brigand chiefs, -with a powerful band of followers, was in possession. Church, when he -found this, determined to make the best of it, being perfectly aware -of his danger. He entered the chief inn and sent for the landlord, who -recognized him at once, and asked him if he knew that the brigand chief -and his followers were actually in the town. “Yes,” replied Church, with -imperturbable coolness, “I am come expressly to meet him; tell him that -I want to see him immediately.” The brigand chief accordingly came, -astonished to see the General, whom he least expected; he began to be -alarmed, thinking he was surrounded. The General, addressing the brigand -by name, informed him that there was no chance of his escape, but that -if he and his followers would surrender, he would pardon them and get -them employed in the King’s army. The brigand chief and his men declined -this generous offer. Church then told him that he was sorry, for their -own sakes, as in future they could expect no mercy. The brigand and his -followers then withdrew, determined on their side to show no quarter to -the troops if ever they should get them within their power; but for the -moment, being ignorant of Church’s position, they were afraid to attack -him, little supposing that he was at that time theirs. This extraordinary -interview having terminated, Church felt that he had played the game -far enough, and the sooner he and his aide-de-camp made their escape -the better. The landlord, fortunately for them, kept the secret. The -General and his aide-de-camp escaped by the back of the house, climbed -over some fences, reached their horses, and then galloped off, never -pulling bridle until they had reached their own followers, who, when they -heard what had passed, were astonished at their escape, which was due -alone to the coolness and courage of the General. Scarcely had Church -and his aide-de-camp departed when the brigand and his followers learned -how completely they had been deceived, and at once set off in pursuit; -but they were soon obliged to retreat, being themselves pursued by a -superior force, from which they narrowly escaped capture; the band was -afterwards destroyed. This is but one out of the numerous instances -of Church’s extraordinary adventures. In a short time he extirpated -brigandism, the province regained its tranquillity, and the people -pursued their several employments in peace without fear of molestation, -blessing the General who had relieved them from their oppressors. - -Being particularly desirous of seeing Brindisi, from my recollections -of Horace, I obtained an escort of two dragoons from General Church, -for, said he, “You may meet some unwelcome visitors on the way; but -if they see the uniform of my dragoons they will not trouble you with -their acquaintance.” Brindisi, which I need not now describe, struck me -as being an excellent port on the whole, and now that it is made the -terminus of the railway from Naples, which connects it with the entire -railway system of Europe, it will no doubt become a place of considerable -importance. - -I embarked with Lord and Lady Guildford and others in a Government -vessel, and reached Corfu on the 27th February. The day was fine, and we -were much struck with the beauty of the surrounding sea and mountains, -together with the view of the magnificent inlet forming the harbour of -Corfu, comprising as it did the ancient and picturesque town on the bold -outline of St. Salvador and the rich undulating fields. As this was the -first time I had seen anything of Greece, I particularly remarked the -handsome appearance of the population and their picturesque costume. - -There was nothing worthy of notice in the town except the old -fortifications, so that I determined to make my stay as short as -possible and take the first conveyance for Zante, and from thence to -the mainland of Greece. Corfu, having been under so many different -governments, partook in some measure of the character of all--Turkish, -Venetian, Russian, French, English, but the ruling feature was Greek -and Albanian. Our Government, urged on by that amiable, excellent, and -enthusiastic person, the late Lord Guildford, had determined to establish -an university at Zante, to revive classical learning, and Lord Guildford -was appointed Lord Rector. He was an excellent scholar and linguist, -and a most good-natured person; he was anything but a man of the world, -and little acquainted with the real character of the modern Greeks. Sir -Thomas Maitland, the Lord Chief Commissioner and Governor of the islands, -was a totally different character, and knew the Greeks well. He was a -stern, uncompromising soldier, with great talent, courage, and firmness, -joined to long experience in war, politics, and governing mankind -in every part of the world; he was not to be deceived by plausible -appearances; to use his own phrase, he would stand no humbug, and would -make his commands obeyed, although he was a strict administrator of -justice. He treated Lord Guildford’s plan with great ridicule. “They were -clever and learned enough, but they had already a great deal to unlearn; -the first thing was to make them honest and obedient to the law.” When -Sir Thomas became Lord Chief Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, the -population was in a most disorganized state; pillage, murder, and piracy, -were very common, and the malefactors were triumphant, and defied the -law. It therefore required a strong hand to keep them in order, and Sir -Thomas was just the man to do it--which he did. Under his strict but just -rule they soon became more manageable, as they found he would not be -trifled with. - -On the day after my arrival I left my card at the palace, and received -an invitation to dine with him on the 2nd March. I had taken no letter -of introduction to him, although he knew my father; but I had previously -heard that he disliked nothing so much as letters of introduction, -and seldom paid them any respect, even when coming from the highest -quarters. I accordingly made my appearance at the palace punctually at -the time appointed, and soon after a brilliant assemblage was collected, -in full costume, all waiting for the Governor. He shortly after appeared -in full uniform, covered with orders. He was a rather fine-looking man, -about sixty-five, of the middle size, with a strong, square, well-built, -well-proportioned, figure. His countenance and speech betrayed his Scotch -origin; and his large bluish-grey eyes shaded by shaggy eyebrows, his -well developed nose, and compressed mouth, evinced a decided strength -of will. His speech was terse and blunt, but with a strange mixture of -kindness and severity, and altogether he was evidently made to command -and be respected. I kept in the background, but he came up to me, and in -his dry Scotch manner said, “I suppose you are Mr. Rennie; and pray, sir, -may I ask what brought you to this country?” “To study the antiquities of -ancient Greece.” He at once replied, with a certain degree of vehemence, -“A pack of nonsense; gang awa’ back to your worthy father in England, -he will teach you more in two days than ye will learn here in all your -life.” Then, shaking me very cordially by the hand, he said, “But I am -very glad to see you, and if I can do anything for you I shall be very -happy, for your gude father’s sake.” Dinner was then announced, and a -capital dinner we had, Sir Thomas making himself very agreeable, and -cracking his Scotch jokes right and left with a great deal of glee. I -sat nearly at the bottom of the table, and immediately opposite to me -was Colonel Napier, afterwards the celebrated Sir Charles Napier of -Scinde. I was much struck with his countenance; his keen piercing eyes, -his prominent aquiline nose, and his restless, quivering lips, marked -him out as a man of great character. I said to myself, if opportunity -offers, that man will much distinguish himself hereafter, and time has -shown that I was not mistaken. Sir Thomas is reported to have said, -“Napier is a great Radical, and a friend to liberty and equality; he -has considerable talents, and I will give him an opportunity of showing -himself, and I will wager that before six months are over there will be a -petition to the House of Commons against him for tyranny and oppression -of the people.” Sir Thomas was a true prophet; he made Colonel Napier -Governor of the island of Cephalonia; a most troublesome set he had to -deal with, and he was obliged to use harsh measures to bring them under -control; true enough a petition was got up by the inhabitants of the -island complaining of him for his severity and cruelty, and requesting -the Government to remove him from his command. When Sir Thomas heard of -this he laughed heartily, and said, to his staff, “Did not I tell you so? -the Radicals, however much they may preach about liberty and equality, -are always the greatest tyrants.” Sir Thomas was held in high respect at -head-quarters, and whenever he went to England and asked for instructions -at the Colonial Office, was told to write them for himself, as the -Government had entire confidence in him. - -I here made the acquaintance of Captain Smyth, of the Navy, and his -amiable and accomplished wife. Captain Smyth was then employed in making -a survey of the Ionian Islands for the British Government, which was -afterwards published; and certainly for elaborateness of detail and -completeness of execution it has seldom been surpassed. Every plate -is ornamented with a view of the architectural remains of the most -remarkable buildings in the district, and also views of the coast, -which were drawn by Mrs. Smyth with great taste, beauty, and fidelity, -and form an important feature in this great work. Captain (afterwards -Admiral) Smyth was a man of considerable scientific acquirements; and -after having been most actively employed in different parts of the world -(always with distinction), he retired to Bedford, where he erected an -observatory, and published his celebrated astronomical observations, -which, in addition to his public service, entitle him to a high place -among literary, scientific, and professional men. He was of a most -amiable and jovial disposition, ever ready for fun and amusement whenever -they did not interfere with his duties; he was, moreover, always ready to -serve a friend, and was universally beloved and respected by his numerous -acquaintance. For myself, I regarded him as a valuable and sincere -friend, whose loss I afterwards most deeply regretted. - -Count Lunzi, one of the Greek nobles, a most agreeable and talented -young man, and a large proprietor on the island, who had travelled -with us, invited me to his country house, and I set off with my friend -the Chevalier Bronsted to pay him a visit on the following day, the -10th February. We started on horseback on a fine day, and after riding -through a rich, level plain for about ten miles, we reached the volcanic -pitch-wells, and on our return found Count Lunzi awaiting our arrival -at his Villa Sarachina. He received us most cordially, and conducted us -into the house, and we were introduced to his family, by whom we were -most hospitably entertained. We then took a kind farewell of our host at -5 P.M., mounted our horses, and proceeded homewards. At first we rode -along leisurely, and gradually quickened our pace; at last we got into a -full gallop. My horse, which was little better than a pony, although a -very handsome, strong, well-made animal, by this time became so excited -that he fairly got the better of me, and proceeded at a furious rate, -so that I lost all control over him. Away he went helter-skelter over -land and water, driving all before him. In vain I attempted to stop -him. At last, finding it useless, I let him have his way; and arriving -at the bay of Zante, he made direct for the sea. I allowed him to -proceed until he began to swim; then, finding he was in no disposition -to return, I dismounted, and partly swam, partly waded ashore, where I -awaited his return; he soon got tired of swimming, and came to land. I -then caught him, and mounted, and returned to Zante. My friend Bronsted, -who was completely distanced, joined me as I remounted, and we rode back -together. As we entered the town I saw a number of soldiers looking on -and laughing; I did not know why. But it appeared that this pony was -noted throughout the place for his tricks, and they wondered how, after -venturing upon his back (which I certainly should not have done if I had -known his vicious character), I had come back safe and sound. However, I -had punished him pretty well, and he became quieter afterwards. We had -a hearty laugh at the adventure; and, being thoroughly drenched to the -skin, I changed my clothes, and joined Sir Patrick Ross’s dinner-party, -when again everybody laughed at me, and congratulated me upon my happy -escape. - -Before quitting this subject I cannot help saying a few words about -my friend Bronsted, the Dane. He was a most excellent person, and a -first-rate scholar and antiquary, well known for his researches. He had -acquired some most valuable bronzes, being portions of helmets found at -Cortona, of which he published an elaborate account. The figures and -other ornaments are most elaborate in design and execution; in fact, they -are masterpieces of art, and were afterwards bought by the British Museum -(for a considerable sum), where, I believe, they still remain. - -I made several other excursions to various parts of the island; amongst -others, to the top of the mountain which forms the south-west promontory -of the bay. The summit rises far above the Mediterranean, and the view -from it is magnificent, commanding the whole of the beautiful island, -which lies at its base like a rich garden, and some other islands and -adjacent coasts. - -The inhabitants are a good-looking, active, and industrious race, but, -like their neighbours, inclined to be very turbulent, and require to be -kept in order by the strong arm of the law. - -While here, just at the equinox, we had, as usual, some very severe -storms; and one night I was roused from my sleep with a violent shaking -of the bed, which lasted several seconds. It was at the same time raining -tremendously, and blowing very hard, accompanied by violent thunder -and lightning. I jumped out of bed, not knowing what it was; the house -trembled, and I thought it was coming down. The other inmates were also -alarmed. After waiting anxiously for some time the storm abated. I -went to bed again, and slept soundly until morning, and then inquired -of the landlord the cause, when he informed me that it was the shock -of an earthquake, which they frequently felt in the island; and on the -following day we learned that the same earthquake had been most severely -felt at the neighbouring island of Santa Maura, that many houses had been -thrown down, and a number of the unfortunate inhabitants destroyed. I -had frequently been told by persons who had lived in volcanic countries -of the extraordinary sensation produced by earthquakes on the human -frame, but until I had experienced it I never could appreciate its -effects; certainly they are most remarkable; the whole nervous system is -convulsed, and one fancies that the last hour has arrived, so that it -takes some time before the system recovers its usual tone. I certainly -should not wish to experience another shock, and was extremely happy to -have escaped with nothing more than a shaking and a severe fright. - -Having now spent fourteen days very agreeably, being most kindly -entertained by the Governor, Sir Patrick Ross, the officers of the 75th, -and others, and having seen enough of Zante, I was anxious to proceed -on my journey, only waiting for a vessel to take me to Greece, when -fortunately I heard that an English mercantile brig, commanded by Captain -Burgess, a rough old Scotchman, was about to sail for Patras, so I at -once took my leave of Sir Patrick Ross, his family, and all my other kind -friends, packed up my baggage, embarked at 3 P.M. on the 23rd March, and -bade adieu to Zante. After a pleasant passage, but rough accommodation, -we arrived at the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, and anchored in -the roadstead about a mile from the shore. I paid my passage, landed, -proceeded up to the town, called upon Mr. Green, the Consul, and soon -found tolerably comfortable quarters in a Greek house, but the beds were -sadly infested with bugs, which annoyed me much. Before leaving Zante, I -ought to say that I here engaged a Greek, who had been well recommended -to me. His name was Demetrius Papandriopolo. He was about thirty-five, -of the middle size, sharp, active, sober, intelligent, and honest, and -served me faithfully through the greater part of my journey, for above -twelve months, until I returned to Malta on my way back to England. I -found him a most valuable servant, and he rendered me the most essential -services. - -Patras was then a trading town of some importance, in fact, the principal -one in the Morea, and it contained a considerable number of inhabitants, -almost wholly Greeks, without including the Turkish garrison. It is -situated on a hill about a quarter of a mile from the gulf of the same -name, where there is a small rubble jetty for boats to land their goods, -&c. The roadstead outside is safe and well protected. The town is -surrounded by a rich, fertile plain, well cultivated with olives, vines, -and currants. The entrance to the Gulf of Corinth is protected by two -old castles, the distance between them being about a mile and a half; -and three miles east is the modern town of Lepanto (it was formerly the -ancient Naupactus), celebrated for the victory over the Turks by John of -Austria; it contains 2000 souls; the surrounding views are very fine. -The town was under the command of a Turkish Governor, and is situated -upon the side of a hill rising to the east, encompassed by a rude wall -and ditch, and crowned at the summit by a citadel, in which the Governor -and the garrison resided. Besides the citadel there were no remarkable -buildings of any kind: the streets were narrow and dirty. There were a -few mosques interspersed here and there, whose graceful minarets, rising -above the mass, gave the place a most picturesque appearance. The town -contained numerous bazaars, where all the trade of the place was carried -on, and the neighbourhood of the main street was filled with cafés, -crowded with Greeks, Turks, Ionians, French, English, and various other -nations, all smoking their long pipes, drinking coffee, sherbet, and -various other liquors, apparently in great comfort. The Turk, as lord -supreme, moved leisurely about with the most solemn dignity, having -the greatest contempt for his neighbours, and every now and then, as -a Christian passed by, he greeted him with a lofty scowl, as if he -considered him unworthy of notice, uttering the simple word Giaour! and -passed on without further ceremony. I frequently wandered amongst the -bazaars, then to me a perfectly novel sight, and was much amused with -the gravity and solemn dignity with which the Turks sat cross-legged -behind their counters; if you asked for any of their wares, they quietly, -with a monosyllable, ordered their assistant to show it to you, as if -they considered it a favour. This was so different to what I had been -accustomed to in the civil, well-bred shopkeepers in Europe, that I -could not help laughing outright, which I soon found would not do, as it -gave great offence. - -One morning, whilst walking along the shore in front of the roadstead, -whom should I stumble upon but my old friend Captain Smyth, who had come -to Patras on a surveying expedition in one of the small auxiliary boats -attached to his larger vessel, which lay at anchor in the roadstead. This -auxiliary boat, although small, was fitted up with every convenience -for the purpose, and adapted to enter shoal water, in order to complete -the details of the survey. In this he was accompanied by one or two -assistants, and a few men to work it, so that he could be absent from -his ship for several days without inconvenience. Captain Smyth was -delighted to see me, and asked me to dine with him on board his boat, -and I agreed to, with great pleasure. I accordingly went there at the -time appointed, and amongst the guests met Captain Hunter and his wife, -and our worthy Consul (Mr. Green). We had a most cordial welcome and an -excellent dinner, and afterwards passed a delightful evening. Towards -sunset we adjourned to the beach in order to take ices, which we got -from the town, and enjoy ourselves by smoking our cigars. Whilst we were -thus happily seated, laughing and talking together, we were surrounded -by numerous Greeks from the town, amongst whom were several Turkish -soldiers, armed to the teeth, and carrying their long pipes, which they -never abandoned for a moment. The jolly old Captain said, “Now I will -astonish these fellows,” and immediately dispatched one of his officers -for his seven-barrelled pistol, which was brought, and duly loaded. He -then told his interpreter to inform the Turks that this was a pistol -which he could discharge as many times as he liked without reloading. The -Turks held up their hands in astonishment, exclaimed “In Shallah!” and -with a scornful look at us, said such a thing was not possible. Smyth, -however, at once rose from his seat, deliberately discharging his pistol -one, two, three, four, five, and six times, to the utter amazement of the -Turks, who could scarcely believe what they saw. He then, with the utmost -coolness, asked whether they were convinced, to which they all replied, -with the exclamation of “In Shallah!” perfectly so. Smyth then offered -them coffee and ices, of which they readily partook, and, after a hearty -salutation and shaking of hands, they returned to the town, saying what -wonderful people these Ingleses are. This pistol resembled the modern -Colt revolver, although differing in some particulars. Before leaving I -visited the celebrated cypress tree, three miles to westward. Its base is -about 40 feet in circumference, and it is 35 to 40 feet high, the upper -part having been blown off during a gale. I also visited St. Andrea, -where were the remains of the well and some fragments of sculpture. - -I took leave of my excellent and talented friend, the Captain, and -determined to start the next day, the 27th of March. Upon returning to -my quarters at Patras, I was informed that there was a French gentleman -of the name of Prevot, an artist, who was about proceeding to Athens to -make a panoramic view of that city, and was desirous of knowing whether I -would allow him to accompany me. Finding him a very agreeable person, and -having been introduced by Mr. Green, and being glad of a companion upon -my lonely and novel journey, I willingly consented to his joining me. - -Having got all my baggage on board, attended by my servant Demetrius, -we started early on the following morning, the 27th, at seven. The day -was unfortunately very rough, with violent gusts of wind, heavy rain, -accompanied by thunder and lightning; notwithstanding which we started -on our journey, and when we got into the gulf there was a heavy swell -(which threatened at times to overwhelm the boat and all in it), with -baffling winds, which materially retarded our progress. We struggled -on all day: at last our boatmen said that it was impossible to proceed -farther; we therefore determined to run ashore, and finish our journey -the next day. We accordingly did so, and landed in a small bay, the only -safe one on the south side, near Vostizza, at about four o’clock in the -afternoon, two hours before sunset. Then came the question, where were we -to sleep? Vostizza was about one or two miles distant, and there were no -means of transporting our baggage there; and to leave it in the boat was -to expose it to being plundered, as the boatmen said they would not be -responsible for it, in consequence of the numerous bad characters lurking -about, pirates, robbers, &c. As there was no possibility of getting our -things to Vostizza, and there were the remains of a convent (which had -been ruined by an earthquake) close by on the shore, on a cliff about 50 -feet above the gulf, I proposed at once that we should place our things -there, and sleep, to which my companion, who was very tired and sick of -the voyage, readily consented. We got the boatmen to land the things, and -place them in the convent; but when we got there, to our great surprise -and mortification, found that it was uninhabited and half in ruins. -There was no alternative, however, as there was no other building near -us; so we made the best of it, and prepared to pass the night there. We -went upstairs, explored the ruined building all over, and at length we -discovered one large room tolerably perfect, and capable of keeping out -the rain. This we chose for our night’s quarters, placed the baggage -in order, and then commenced to prepare our supper. Upon examining our -provisions, such as we had, we found them considerably damaged by the -wet and unfit for use. I then decided that Demetrius and myself should go -to the bazaar of Vostizza, and purchase what we could get, whilst we left -M. Prevot in charge in the convent; and I gave the boatmen some money on -account to provide themselves for the night where they could: the boat, -everything having been taken out, was firmly moored to the shore. - -Demetrius and myself went to Vostizza, and returned to the convent just -after dark, laden with a bag well furnished with wine and provisions, the -best we could get, and immediately set about preparing our mattresses -for beds, and lighting a good fire to cook the supper. Demetrius was a -capital cook, and about nine o’clock had got ready an excellent repast. -Having had scarcely anything all day, and being miserably wet and cold, -after having washed, and dressed in dry things, with a roaring wood fire -before us, we enjoyed our supper excessively, forgot all discomforts, and -about eleven lay down upon our mattresses for the night. Before doing -this, warned by what our boatmen told us of the insecurity of the place, -we fastened the door of our room as well as we could with an English -padlock, and placed our heavy baggage and the table against the door, -examined the priming of our pistols, which were well loaded, and lay -down to sleep. My mattress was placed immediately opposite to the door, -Demetrius was in the other corner, and M. Prevot near the fireplace, with -an understanding between us that if any noise occurred during the night -we were not to leave our berths, for fear of mistaking each other for an -enemy. We slept tolerably sound until about two o’clock in the morning, -when I awoke and thought I heard the movement of footsteps on the landing -outside our door. We had kept a light burning all night. I listened -again attentively, and thought I heard voices outside, then something -like a push against the door. I awakened my companions, and told them -to be ready with pistols, but not to fire until we were attacked, and -then if possible to keep our positions. I had scarcely done this when a -violent attack was made against the door, which in a moment was burst -in, the table, portmanteaus, &c., being hurled into the middle of the -room; this was immediately followed by a rush of several armed men. I -instantly fired into the midst of them, Demetrius seconded me by another -shot, and I repeated mine. We then heard a shriek as if somebody was -wounded, and the whole of our assailants precipitately beat a retreat, -scampering down the stairs as rapidly as possible. I reloaded, and we -jumped up, rushed to the stair-head, and were going to follow them, but -upon second thoughts we considered it best to remain where we were. We -then secured the door again and tried to sleep, but in vain; we therefore -lay watching until daylight, when our boatmen called us, and we prepared -to depart, rejoicing heartily at our lucky escape from being robbed and -murdered, as we assuredly should have been if we had not been armed and -defended ourselves so stoutly. Before leaving, we examined the landing -and stairs, and discovered some traces of blood, so that some one must -have been wounded. Our boatmen told us that we had a very narrow escape; -they said that they would not have slept there, and indeed told us before -that we had better not, as there were numerous pirates and rascals in the -vicinity, who waylaid all travellers, and seldom allowed them to escape -even with their lives. - -Early in the morning, which was very fine after the storm, we set -sail with a fair wind, and bid adieu to Vostizza, with a remembrance -of its inhospitable shore not likely to be soon forgotten. We had a -delightful voyage, and enjoyed the beautiful mountain scenery on both -sides of the gulf with much satisfaction, and reached the custom-house -of Corinth, three miles from the town, before the close of the day. -We then discharged our boatmen, and finding no horses, were obliged to -stop at this nasty, wretched place, and passed a most miserable night. -Next morning, the 29th, having got horses, we started at eight and -reached the caravanserai at Corinth at nine, and having breakfasted and -dressed, called upon the Bey, who received us very civilly. We wandered -about all day examining the place and its antiquities. I arose early in -the morning, awakened by the Muezzin as he was calling the faithful to -prayers from the galleries of the minarets attached to the mosques. I -had not heard this at Patras, having slept too late, and therefore it -appeared to me for the first time most novel and singular. I listened -to it with peculiar interest, as the contrast was so different to our -own, where this office is performed by bells. On the same day, after -breakfast, I examined the town, a poor miserable place domineered over by -the Turks, with no trade, and the wonder was how the people lived. There -was nothing worthy of examination except the beautiful remains of the -Temple of Venus, of the simple, severe, yet commanding Doric order. A few -columns only were left, surmounted by the cornice and entablature; these -have been so often measured and engraved, that it is unnecessary to say -more about them here, except that they are eminently beautiful, and an -excellent specimen of that bold and expressive style of architecture. I -was anxious to mount the Acropolis, crowned by an old fort and garrisoned -by Turks, but this was not permitted: I regretted it much, for, seated -as it is on a commanding eminence, eighteen hundred feet above the level -of the adjoining gulf, the view over the sea and the fine mountainous -surrounding country must be magnificent; but the Turks in those days were -so proud, insolent, and domineering, that the sight of a Christian was an -abhorrence to them, and one was glad to get out of their way, although -even then they had considerable respect for the English, more indeed -than any other nation; for we had saved them from the French and had -protected them against the encroachment of the Russians, who had already -begun to be very troublesome. Having nothing further to see, we were -anxious to get away as early as possible. - -There were two routes to Athens, to which we were destined, one entirely -by land over the isthmus, the other by sea, after crossing the six -miles of isthmus which separates the Corinthian Gulf from the Ægean -Sea. We determined therefore to take the latter, and on the 30th March, -having engaged the necessary number of horses, and loaded them after a -considerable wrangling and noise with their keepers, started at 1 P.M. -for Recrees Ceneres, on the borders of the Ægean Sea. At 3 P.M., in -crossing the isthmus, we came upon the remains of the wall said to have -been built by the Venetians for preventing the incursions of the Turks -into the Morea. Here we dismounted, and engaged one of the boats of the -country and embarked. However, as there was little or no wind, we were -out all night, and did not reach the Piræus before four o’clock in the -afternoon of the 31st. This is a fine natural port, but the town was -then a miserable place, surrounded by a few wretched buildings, at the -head of which was a Turkish custom-house, where the authorities at first -made considerable opposition to our landing. However, I soon silenced -them with a respectable backshish, or present, when they became as civil -as possible, and not only allowed us to land with our baggage, but did -not subject us to any examination; we therefore at once inquired for -horses to take us to Athens, but finding none to be had, were obliged -to remain that night in a wretched plastered room at the custom-house. -Next day, 1st April, having got horses, we started at six, with no end -of wrangling with muleteers, which the Turks soon silenced by laying -about right and left, to our great amusement. I at once interfered, and -rewarded the Turks with another backshish, when they heartily saluted -me, and we started without further molestation, and reached Athens, six -miles distant, over a miserable road, within an hour and a half, at -half-past seven o’clock. There were then no hotels, so we took up our -quarters at the house of a respectable Greek, Toagrafos, with but poor -accommodation. I by this time had become so accustomed to bad fare and -lodging that I did not mind it, but my friend, the French artist, was -not so easily satisfied; we therefore parted, and he endeavoured to find -better apartments elsewhere. I never met him again, and consequently do -not know how he succeeded with his panorama, or whether he ever completed -it, but I heard that about a year afterwards a panorama of Greece had -been exhibited at Paris with considerable success. I hoped that it was -that of my friend, for he appeared to be an excellent person, and was -certainly a very pleasant companion, with all the characteristic ardour -and enthusiasm of his countrymen. He had never been out of France before, -and therefore felt the _désagréments_ of the journey a great deal more -than I did; nevertheless, by the time he reached Athens he had become -tolerably well accustomed to it, and, with the usual French _sang froid_, -made up his mind to it, and enjoyed the journey as much as myself. - -We arrived at Athens on Friday, the 1st April, in the midst of spring; -the weather was delightful, the sun shining brightly, the sky cloudless, -the vegetation bursting into full luxuriance, the plain and mountains -covered with flowers and shrubs of the most brilliant and varied hues. -Nature seemed to be in all her glory, and man to sympathize with her. I -was in most exuberant spirits, and was pleased with everything around me. -The beauty of the country, and the very idea that I was in Athens, which -from my boyhood I was most anxious to see, and which I scarcely ever -expected to behold, aroused me to such a pitch of enthusiasm that I could -scarcely believe my eyes; which was not extraordinary, considering the -brilliant and memorable scene which burst upon my sight, and by which I -was surrounded. I soon sallied forth again, called upon the English and -Austrian consuls and delivered my letters, and hurried about all day, -taking a hasty view of the Parthenon, the Temple of Theseus, Jupiter -Olympus, and the Temple of the Winds, which I admired excessively; then, -thoroughly tired and exhausted, I returned to my lodgings, took a hasty -supper and went to bed, dreaming of the glories of ancient Greece. After -breakfast I went out, and at once made my way to the Acropolis, where -the glorious Parthenon stood out prominently. I was riveted to the spot -with admiration, and could go no farther. At last I came to myself, and -found the scorching rays of the sun rather more than agreeable. I then -returned to my quarters, dined, reposed during the heat of the day, -and towards evening I again sallied forth, and enjoyed a magnificent -sunset, such as I had been totally unaccustomed to in our frigid climate -of England. I again went to the Acropolis the following day, and there -enjoyed the splendid scene. The Acropolis is a detached rock, standing -high above the plain or valley on which Athens is situated; upon this -rock is the citadel, where the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and all the -other principal buildings are placed, and in addition to this it is -a citadel or fortress, where, in case of attack, and the city below -being taken, the Acropolis would form a refuge for the garrison and -the inhabitants. From the summit you command a view of the country all -around: on the north Mount Olympus and the Pindus range of mountains; on -the south the Mediterranean, the island of Syra, and several others; on -the east the plain of Athens, flanked by Mount Hymettus, and Mount Hybla -on the north; on the west the Piræus, the Ægean Sea, and the mountains of -the Peloponnesus or Morea; in fact, whichever way you look, the view is -delightful, and you are satisfied. - -I at once removed into a new lodging in a Greek house, which appeared -tolerably clean and comfortable but as usual I found it full of fleas, -which tormented me day and night. However, when I went to bed I hit upon -a plan to relieve me at least of a good many of them, which fortunately -proved successful. I placed a number of large plates filled with oil, -having a wick in them; I then lighted the wicks, and the fleas, attracted -by this, leaped into the plates, which in the morning were black with -them, and by this means I got rid of the greatest part, and at length -enjoyed some comfort. - -I now determined to study the antiquities more at leisure, and set -regularly about it. Every morning, immediately after breakfast, I -proceeded to the Acropolis, and employed myself in drawing and measuring -the Parthenon, Erechtheum, and other buildings until dinner time; and -after, in the evening, I took walks and rides round the adjacent country. -Having finished the Acropolis, I then proceeded to the Temples of Theseus -and Jupiter Olympus, the Temple of the Winds, and the other antiquities, -which occupied me about a month. All these splendid specimens of -architecture have been so accurately described in the elaborate works of -Stuart, Cockerell, Dodwell, Gell, and others, that it is unnecessary to -describe them here. With regard to the Piræus, and the other ports of -Athens, I examined them minutely, and for plans and description of them I -refer to my work on ‘British and Foreign Harbours.’ I also saw a little -of Athenian society. Amongst others, I made the acquaintance of the Maid -of Athens (so celebrated by Byron), who was very pretty, ladylike, and -agreeable. I was also most kindly received by Mr. Gropeus, the Austrian -Consul, Mr. Logotheti, the English Consul, and by the well-known artist, -Mr. Luzieri, who had made some fine views of Athens for Lord Elgin. - -The Turks treated the Greeks with great contempt and very little -ceremony. By way of illustration, I was present at the arrival of a new -Governor or Vaivode. His Excellency came mounted on a beautiful white -Arabian horse, surrounded by about a hundred well-mounted cavalry, all -in the magnificent Turkish costume of the day; next there followed the -hareem, in crimson-coloured carriages, each slung between two horses, -and escorted on foot by numerous eunuchs and blacks, all splendidly -attired; then the baggage, which was carried on the backs of horses, led -and guarded by Greeks, mixed with Turkish soldiers on foot. The whole -town turned out to witness the sight and welcome their new Governor, who -scarcely deigned to look at them; whilst the attendants going before -cleared the way with sticks, which they by no means used sparingly, -dealing their blows right and left on everyone within reach. A number -of Turkish lads amongst the crowd amused themselves by firing off their -guns and pistols, which were loaded with ball and shot. They took no care -which way they fired; sometimes in the air, sometimes on the ground, and -sometimes straight forward amongst the crowd; of course everybody got -out of the way, myself amongst the number. I saw one Greek who had his -leg broken by a shot from a Turkish lad near me, at which he, the Turk, -and the whole of his companions, shouted with joy, and seemed to think -it great fun: at this I could not restrain my indignation, and being -armed with a good stout stick, I rushed amongst them, striking right and -left: some Greeks tried to stop me, but I stuck to them, and had the -satisfaction of seeing that no more shots were fired except in the air. -Nothing impressed the Turks with so much respect as courage and vigour; -the more you humbled yourself, the more they bullied you, being anything -but fond of fighting. I found from experience that this was the only way -to treat them; for though frequently amongst them, and under the most -trying circumstances, I was rarely molested. Afterwards I witnessed the -entrance of the Pacha of Negropont, which was in the same style, but upon -a more extended scale. - -I occasionally visited the convents, inhabited by a few worthy monks, who -kindly receive strangers and lodge and board them for a moderate sum. The -situation is excellent, being in the higher part of the town, close to -the beautiful remains of the Temple of the Winds, with a splendid view. -Athens at the time of my visit was a poor miserable place, without an -inn worthy of the name. It was surrounded by a crenellated wall, which -even the artillery of that day would have demolished with a few rounds -of shot. The Ilyssus and Cephisus are trifling streams, which, passing -on the south side of the town, discharge their waters into the sea a -few miles below. During summer there is scarcely any water, as it is -conducted away by different channels for irrigation, so that the beds of -these two rivulets are dry. - -Having explored Athens sufficiently for my purpose, I determined to make -a tour of the Morea, and accordingly hired a small decked vessel of about -30 tons to cross the Ægean Sea, leaving Athens for the Piræus on the 25th -of March; and after waiting some time on board in the harbour, at seven -on the 25th started, reached Ægina at eight, landed after breakfast, and -proceeded on foot to the Temple of Jupiter, on a hill about a mile from -the shore. We spent here nearly three hours measuring and examining the -remains of this beautiful specimen of Greek architecture, and sketching -the surrounding picturesque scenery; then started for the town and -port of Ægina, whither I had sent the vessel to meet us, and was told -that the distance was only three or four miles, which turned out to be -nearly twelve, over a rough path, so that we did not reach Ægina until -nearly 6 P.M., very tired and hungry, having had no lunch. The Temple of -Jupiter is a fine specimen of the Doric, and is well described in Mr. -C. R. Cockerell’s excellent work, to which the reader is referred. The -small town of Ægina is situated about the middle of the west side of the -island, facing the Morea, from which it is separated by a channel about -eight or ten miles wide. The town and island of Ægina were governed by -a Vaivode, who had a few Turkish soldiers, and was inhabited chiefly -by fishermen and small traders. The surrounding country is hilly, with -fertile valleys producing olives, vines, and grain, and beans of several -kinds; and there are a few sheep and goats. - -The next morning, the 26th March, I rose early and examined the port, -which consisted of two artificial harbours, formed by two piers, each -carried out from the shore, enclosing a considerable space of water, with -a depth of about 10 or 12 feet. This was made by the ancients, and Mr. -Cockerell gave me a plan of it, which is inserted in my work on ‘British -and Foreign Harbours.’ It was then blowing very hard north-west and -contrary; however, soon after noon the wind abated, when we embarked, and -arrived at the little port or bay of Pilascro, the ancient Epidauros, on -the opposite shore of the Morea, about five o’clock in the afternoon. -Here we disembarked, and walked round the place, and could only -discover what appeared to be the remains of a bath, and some mutilated -figures near it; and a little farther some similar remains, but nothing -remarkable; so that it would require considerable time to make anything -out of them. In Sir W. Gell’s ‘Itinerary of the Morea’ what is there is -well described. - -We slept on board. On the 27th we rose at daylight, and found that the -baggage horses, Greek servants, and an excellent Arabian horse, which -I bought at Athens, and which I sent round by land, had arrived at -Epidauros. Having disembarked our baggage and discharged the vessel, -we loaded the baggage on the horses, after which we started for Napoli -di Romania, a small town situated on the Gulf of Argos, not many miles -distant from Epidauros, through an undulating, picturesque, and rich -country. On account of the guide taking the wrong road, we were obliged -to stop at the village of Tero, where there are a considerable number of -Roman and Greek remains. - -On Friday, 28th March, we started at half-past six, and at noon reached -the picturesque fortress of Napoli di Romania, on the east side of the -Gulf of Argos, situated on a lofty hill commanding the entrance to -the gulf. The miserable town lay beneath the citadel, which, as well -as the town itself, was strongly fortified according to the Venetian -system, and was a place of considerable strength, garrisoned by a set -of bigoted Turkish troops, imbued with a thorough hatred of Christians, -so that I was strongly advised not to stop there. There was, however, -no alternative, as there was no other place near. I therefore rode into -the town, and took up my quarters at the English Vice-Consul’s, who -was a Greek. Immediately after my arrival I went out, and tried to get -into the citadel, in order to have a view of the town and surrounding -country, which was very fine, but the Turks refused me admittance in the -most insolent manner, and told me to get about my business as quickly as -possible. I found that it was of no use to attempt to proceed farther, -and returned at once to the town, and after having examined it, and found -nothing worthy of notice, returned to my lodgings. Here the Vice-Consul -came to me in a great fright, and said that the Turks had been much -annoyed at my arrival, and that I must depart directly; strongly urging -me to do so, as he said that he could not protect me, and if I stayed -he would not be responsible for the consequences. I replied that as it -was night it was too late to depart then, but that I would do so the -next morning at daybreak. To this he consented. I accordingly supped, -and went to bed. On the following morning my servant and myself were -in the saddle before daybreak, and were at the gates of the fortress -waiting for them to be opened. In Turkish fortresses at that day it was -the custom to make every foreigner and Greek dismount and walk over the -drawbridge. I thought that this was degrading, and determined not to do -it. As soon, therefore, as the gates were opened, and the drawbridge let -down, I started off at a rapid pace, and told Demetrius to follow me. -In passing the Turkish guard, consisting of three or four badly-armed -men, they called out to me to stop, which I disregarded, and galloped -off as fast as I could. I had scarcely proceeded a couple of hundred -yards when, turning round, I saw Demetrius in the hands of the Turks, -who were belabouring him with sticks, and trying to pull him off his -horse. He kicked and fought with all his might. I immediately rode back -with a loaded pistol in each hand, and dashed amongst the Turks, who -soon released my man, and spurring our horses we galloped off as hard as -possible, never pulling rein for a full mile, and then, finding we were -not followed, stopped and joined our men and baggage, whom I had left -behind in a small Greek house before I entered Nauplia the preceding -evening. Thus I got happily out of this affair, which might have been -rather serious; but I always found the best way was to show a bold front -to the Turks, and not allow them to insult you. After a little halt -we started again, and stopped to examine the ruins of the ancient city -of Tiryns, said to have been built by the Cyclopeans. These are very -curious and interesting, and are supposed to be the oldest specimens of -architecture in Greece. They are constructed of rough, only partially -hewn blocks of stone, rudely put together without cement. We have here -an attempt to construct a Gothic arch; but the stones are not radiated, -the beds being flat, each stone projecting over another until they meet -in the centre. These ruins are extensive, covering a surface of several -acres. They are well described and represented in Gell’s ‘Itinerary.’ - -From Tiryns I proceeded to Mycene, about 12 miles farther northward. -These ruins are also very extensive, and once formed the capital of -Agamemnon, with a small surrounding territory. The chief building worthy -of remark is the Hall of Atreus. This, of the kind, is a fine work, -constructed of solid masonry, of large blocks of stone well squared, and -put together without cement. The hall is circular, and 47 feet 6 inches -in diameter in the inside, and 42 feet 6 inches high, the top covered by -a single stone, thus forming a Gothic arch inside of squared blocks of -stone, the beds being horizontal, and the stones projecting over each -other in the inside until they meet in the centre, the angles of the -projecting stones in the inside being cut off and dressed smoothly on the -face, so that, when viewing it from within, the whole has the appearance -of a nicely-constructed dome, lighted from the top by a circular opening. -The side walls are 18 feet 6 inches at bottom, diminishing to 18 inches -at top. It is a remarkable work, and may be considered as one of the -earliest specimens of the arch, and a considerable improvement upon that -of Tiryns. The entrance to the hall is by a massive doorway, the sides -being formed of single stones well dressed, and the top of another -single block equally well prepared; this is surmounted by another large -block, upon which is sculptured in bold relief two lions rampant. The -approach to the doorway is between two solid walls of masonry, forming -a passage open to the air. This being near the summit of a hill, there -is a fine view from it over the plain, or rather valley, beneath, backed -by the ruins of the ancient city of Argos and its Acropolis, on the Gulf -of Nauplia, and on the west by a fine range of mountains, the highest of -which towers prominently above the rest, standing far above the level of -the Mediterranean. - -After having measured the Hall of Atreus, and having made a sketch of -the surrounding country, during which my people had managed to cook an -excellent dinner in the open air, I dined, and started about 4 P.M., and -reached Argos at 5 P.M. The ruins of the ancient city contain little -worthy of remark, and the modern one is a miserable village, seated -amongst the ruins. The rich country was not half cultivated, merely -dotted here and there with a few vineyards and olive woods. Argos is -now about a mile from the head of the Gulf of Nauplia, but it is very -probable that in former times the sea washed the walls of the ancient -city; the intervening space has been filled up by alluvial deposit, and -it is now little better than a marsh. - -I slept at the caravanserai, and next morning started for the Temple -of Jupiter at Nemea, passing through a rich valley with vines, grain, -and olives, and the village of Agioz Georgious, near which is a convent -on a hill. These convents are not the seats of learning, for the monks -are lazy and ignorant; but they form comfortable resting-places for -travellers who pay well for their accommodation. The ruins of the Temple -of Jupiter, well described by Gell, consist only of three columns of an -indifferent style of Doric. - -Having returned to Argos to sleep, on Sunday, May 1, I arose early. The -morning was wet and stormy, and I was detained by the muleteer demanding -extra pay for the horses, which, however, the Bey decided against him. -We accordingly started about seven, and soon after began to ascend the -Pass through the mountains, having on the left the miserable village -Lerna, seated on the swampy shore of the gulf, anciently called Hydra; -and hence was derived the Lernean hydra or monster, celebrated by Virgil. -This was no doubt nothing more than the malaria fever personified, -which prevails severely in this district. In fact, the whole of this -country had a wretched, forlorn, deserted appearance. The population was -scanty, oppressed by poverty, misery, and tyranny, their countenances -for the most part pale and haggard, expressing despair and dejection, to -extricate themselves from which appeared hopeless; whilst the surrounding -country, naturally fertile, aided by the influence of a genial climate, -only required the industry of man to make it yield the richest reward. -Nothing was done; all lay dead and desolate. Nature seemed to have done -everything for man, while man had in everything neglected nature; a not -uncommon occurrence, and one which, as far as my experience goes, has -produced more misery than almost anything else. - -We began to ascend the Pass over a rude causeway, about eight or ten -feet wide, in many places cut up into deep gullies by the torrents; the -ascent steep, rugged, and difficult, fit only for mules and pack-horses. -The evening was fine, however, the air fresh and invigorating, and the -scenery beautiful, which raised my spirits after the melancholy caused -by the depressing influence of the sight of so much desolation. Having -got to the summit of the Pass, we had a magnificent view on both sides. -Looking back, we had the Gulf of Nauplia, with the picturesque fortress -at the entrance, the plain of Argos and its ruins, also those of Mycene -and Tiryns, backed by a rugged outline of hills; on the west the fertile -plain, with its capital Tripolitza, and the ruins of Mantinea, backed by -a bold line of hills, with the magnificent Taygetus rising 7000 feet, -flanked on both sides by the blue waters of the Mediterranean. We reached -Tripolitza just after dark, and, as usual, put up at the best Greek -house where we could find admittance; and as I had a good sumpter mule, -Demetrius soon prepared a capital supper, which I enjoyed much after a -hard-working day of nineteen hours, during which I had been fourteen -hours in the saddle. I slept soundly, notwithstanding the attacks of -numerous fleas, to which by this time I had become tolerably well -accustomed. - -Tripolitza, although the capital of the Morea, was but a poor place, with -about 4000 inhabitants, and the Turkish garrison of about 300 men. The -Governor’s palace was merely an assemblage of some low, insignificant -buildings enclosed within a wall. The rest of the town consisted of -irregular, crooked, narrow, dirty streets, some of them hardly wide -enough for a carriage, for which, indeed, there was no need, and there -were none; with a place or square near the centre, surrounded by cafés, -where the Turks and better class of natives, such as they were, sat idly -smoking their long pipes and nargillas with that stupid indifference -and repose which characterized them, perfectly regardless of any but -themselves, and quite unconscious and indifferent to the misery around -them. There were one or two bazaars, where all the business of the place -was transacted; in these cloths, furs, shawls, leather articles, such as -saddles, bridles, &c., silks, arms, pipes, tobacco, and provisions of -all kinds, were sold, but scarcely any articles of European manufacture. -The town was surrounded by a crenellated wall, unfit for artillery, and -incapable of resistance to European troops; and there were two or three -mosques, with their minarets rising above the mass of insignificant -buildings, and a few Greek churches, the interiors of which were -decorated with rude and almost grotesque representations of saints. These -edifices, towering above the rest, had a picturesque and imposing effect -when viewed from a distance, but this vanished the moment you drew near -and entered, when little else but dirt and misery met the eye. - -The following day after my arrival I walked about the town, amusing -myself with the little which was to be seen; and the next day I rode, -accompanied by my servant Demetrius, to the ruins of the ancient -Mantinea, formerly a city of considerable importance, and well fortified -according to the style of that period. It was surrounded by a strong -lofty stone wall, about 25 feet high, flanked at intervals by circular -turrets, and in front of each entrance there was a kind of lunette -or advanced work to protect it, so that an enemy, in endeavouring to -enter, was exposed to flank attacks from the garrison. These walls were -surrounded by a wide ditch filled with water, and the total surface -enclosed by them is considerable. The ruins within consist of the remains -of a hippodrome, theatre, and other private and public buildings, -concerning which, from their scattered and dilapidated condition, it -was difficult to define anything accurately. In the neighbourhood of -Tripolitza there are numerous kalavatha, or subterranean conduits for -carrying off the water for drainage, irrigation, and supplying the -inhabitants. The river flowing through the plain, if such it can be -called, is an insignificant stream; it is connected with the subterranean -conduits described above. The surrounding country was tolerably -cultivated, and produced corn, pulse, oil, and wine, both red and white. -This wine was made in a very rough way, and, in order to preserve it, -was mixed with a certain quantity of turpentine, which gave it a strong -bitter flavour, by no means agreeable at first; and until you become -accustomed to it, you cannot drink it with any degree of relish, but by -degrees you like it, and it is very wholesome. - -Whilst at Tripolitza I became acquainted with the late Mr. Hodgets Foley, -afterwards M.P. for Droitwich, a very amiable, good-natured person. As -an instance of Turkish civility, Mr. Foley was taking his usual ride in -the evening, accompanied by his servant, and on his way met with a party -of the delhi, or cavalry, playing at football, a game in which they much -delighted. As they passed he civilly pulled up to get out of their way, -when two or three of them at once, without the smallest provocation, -attacked him, laid hold of his horse, and otherwise maltreated him, and -he with some difficulty extricated himself from their hands, and rode -back to Tripolitza as quickly as possible, to lay his complaint before -our Vice-Consul, who was a Greek. He made his complaint to the Governor, -who promised redress, but (Turkish fashion) never gave it. Foley’s -mistake was this, that instead of getting out of the way, he should have -ridden right into the midst of them, laying about him on both sides with -his whip as hard as possible; then they would have feared and respected -him, and have never offered him any violence. - -After having seen all that was worthy of attention in the town and -neighbourhood, I started for Misitra, the site of the ancient Sparta, -some miles from Tripolitza, the route to which lay through the plain. -We reached Misitra, a miserable village, towards evening, and obtained -tolerable quarters in a respectable Greek house, where we were received -very kindly, and most hospitably entertained, which of course I paid for -by a handsome present. I sat down to supper with the family, consisting -of the husband, his handsome wife, daughter, and son, before a low table, -placed upon the floor; the dishes consisted of soup, a species of stewed -mutton, vegetables, and cakes and fruits. After dinner the servant came -round with a basin and ewer, and poured water over our hands, and then -presented a napkin to wipe them: we next adjourned to another room, -where coffee and pipes were served, and the daughter sung very prettily -some Greek airs, accompanied by the mandoline; and thus I passed a very -agreeable evening. - -The following morning I rose early and proceeded to the ruins of ancient -Sparta, some miles distant. Here nothing is to be seen of this ancient -celebrated city, but some mounds, fragments of walls and buildings, the -extent and designation of which it is extremely difficult to make out. -It was in vain, therefore, to attempt more, and so I next determined to -prosecute my journey into Maina, said to be inhabited by the descendants -of the Spartans. This was considered at that time to be a journey of -considerable difficulty and danger, and, indeed, impracticable, on -account of the lawlessness of the natives, who were said to be nothing -more than a set of pirates and robbers, at war with the whole world and -each other. Lord Byron wished to go there, but was dissuaded from it, -although no person ever accused his lordship of want of courage. My -janissary advised me not to make the journey, and said that he would not -accompany me, as we should all be murdered; and added that the Turks, who -had frequently endeavoured to conquer the country both by land and by -sea, had always failed. The more they tried to dissuade me from going, -the more I was determined to do it, being stimulated also by doing that -which few persons would attempt; therefore I discharged my janissaries -and extra horses and servants, and sent them to meet me at Calamata, the -other side of the peninsula, and decided to undertake the journey with -Demetrius alone, who was well acquainted with one of the captains or -chiefs of the district of Marathonesi, and who was anxious to go himself, -and said that the difficulties had been greatly exaggerated, and that -we should get through very well. I resolved, therefore, to start on the -following morning. - -Before proceeding farther I will endeavour to describe the country which -we were about to visit. The district of Maina is situated at the southern -extremity of the Morea; it is bounded on the north by Mount Taygetus, and -its subsidiary range of mountains, and by Cape Matapan on the south, so -that it forms a triangle, jutting out into the Mediterranean; and on the -east and west sides it is bordered by that sea, so that on all sides, -except on the north, it is surrounded by water. As to the aborigines, -it is difficult to find any well-authenticated account; it is supposed -that they at one time formed part of the Spartan republic. After the -conquest of the Greeks by the Romans, and subsequently by the Turks, -they took refuge here, and being of a warlike and restless temperament, -disdained all subjection to any one chief, but divided themselves into -separate communities, and chose their chief for the time, who was the -most able and successful warrior amongst them. These communities or -tribes were wholly independent, and were frequently at war with each -other, but always united to defend themselves against the common enemy, -and they drove out the Turks, who frequently, but in vain, attempted to -bring them under subjection, and latterly had quite given it up. Such -was the state of the country when I visited it. The whole population was -considered to be about 20,000, divided into capitanates or beylichs, with -a supreme chief, to whom, however, the allegiance was merely nominal, -and only accorded when the whole country was invaded by a common enemy. -On other occasions, each tribe or community made war upon the others -upon the least provocation, or upon the surrounding countries and seas -as it suited them; in fact, they were a horde of pirates, at war with -all mankind, who treated them accordingly. It was no uncommon event at -that day for a British ship of war to bombard its seaports and to land a -strong body of men to chastise the natives whenever they could lay hold -of them; but as the coast is intersected with numerous creeks, backed -by innumerable inaccessible mountain fortresses, to which they escaped -when overpowered, it was almost impossible to root them out. Every petty -chief had a stronghold or fortress, where he lived with his most intimate -followers. In some cases this fortress was surrounded by a strong -loop-holed wall, to which no access was given except by a drawbridge or -ladder, which could be drawn up when attacked; and the access to the -castle within was the same. In others it was a simple square or round -tower, with the entrance about 10 feet above the ground, approachable -only by a ladder, which could be removed at pleasure, and was always -drawn up at night. The country for the most part was uncultivated, and -although extremely fertile, capable of producing corn, wine, oil, fruit, -and silk in abundance, served little more than to supply the deficiency -when booty was scarce. Such was the general state of Maina, which I -determined to visit. We accordingly left our heavy baggage behind, and I -started early in the morning, accompanied by Demetrius and one baggage -horse. Shortly after leaving Misitra we crossed the frontier, came to a -wild, desolate country with nothing but brushwood, occasionally mixed -with lofty valonia trees, the bark and fruit of which form a valuable -article of export. - -At midday we halted as usual to give our horses, as well as ourselves, -rest and refreshment; and the ever-active Demetrius, in a comparatively -short time, provided us with a tolerable dinner, and after a couple -of hours’ rest started again on our journey, and passing through the -same kind of wild country we reached the sea-shore and the ruins of the -ancient Marathonesi, the greatest portion of which had been submerged by -an earthquake, and we could distinctly discern the buildings through the -clear water. A few miles farther we reached the neat little seaport town, -the modern Marathonesi, the capital of the tribe of which Demetrius’s -friend was the chief. In the course of our day’s journey we were not -a little inspired and gratified that we had not been attacked or even -molested, notwithstanding the dismal accounts and forebodings which had -been made to us. It is true we met a few rough, straggling, armed fellows -on the way, and they looked at us with a fierce, independent scowl, but -seeing us well armed and prepared to meet them, passed on without further -remark. - -We arrived, soon after sunset, at the house of the chief, and were most -kindly received by him, and he showed us into some clean comfortable -bedrooms, furnished, to my surprise, in the French fashion. The fact is, -the chief was a great merchant and trader with the Ionian Islands, Italy, -and France, and possessed considerable wealth, and was far more civilized -than the rest of his countrymen. He was a fine handsome courteous -young man, about twenty-eight, of the middle size, and extremely -well-proportioned, sinewy, active, and vigorous. His countenance was -oval, of the true Greek form, with dark piercing eyes, black eyebrows -and lashes, well-defined nose, small mouth, with compressed lips, and -beautiful white teeth; with long moustaches, curling several inches below -his chin, and his head covered with a profusion of black hair hanging -down in natural ringlets; he wore no beard, his chin being closely -shaven; in fact, he was a very dashing personage. He gave us an excellent -supper, and entertained us with numerous anecdotes and accounts of the -country and its inhabitants; he asked me how I could think of venturing -among such a lawless people, whom no stranger ever visited, and strongly -recommended me to go back, as after having learned that I proposed to -cross the country and return by the opposite coast, he said the journey -would be attended with considerable danger, and he feared that he could -not protect me. Both Demetrius, who sat at table with us, and myself told -him that it would be disgraceful to go back, and if he would furnish us -with an escort of some of his followers they should be properly paid, -and we had no doubt but that we should get through our journey without -difficulty. Finding that we were determined to proceed, he opposed our -intentions no more, but said he would do the best he could for us. Being -rather tired with our day’s ride, we went to bed and slept soundly until -soon after sunrise the next morning, when we were up and stirring. Our -friend, the chief, told me that he would provide me with an escort of -twenty-five well-armed men, whom I might safely rely upon. We accordingly -breakfasted, and went to look over the town, which was the neatest and -cleanest I had seen in Greece. There were several vessels taking in and -delivering their cargoes; in fact, the little town was bustling with -activity and industry. All my escort, consisting of five-and-twenty -stout, active, wiry fellows, were mustered outside of the town waiting -for me, and a fierce, rough, savage-looking set they were, armed to the -teeth with guns, pistols, and yatagans, clad a good deal like Albanians, -with kilts, jackets, hose, and red skull-caps, with long moustaches, -close-shaven chins, and long hair falling down their shoulders. Most of -them had several scars from wounds received in their various fights. -Before starting I examined their arms to see if they were properly loaded -and flinted, as it frequently happened that they were in bad order and -would not go off when they pulled the trigger, and often burst, so that -they did more harm to themselves than to their enemies. I found the arms, -however, better than I expected, and giving some of them fresh flints -and good powder and ball, they were properly loaded. I then said a few -words of encouragement, which their chief, who was with me, interpreted, -and told them to behave like men, and take care of me, and they would be -properly paid. The men answered one and all, that there was no fear but -that they would take good care of the English Milord, as they called me, -and off we started in high spirits for the opposite side of the peninsula. - -The view from Marathonesi was extremely beautiful. On the north the noble -Mount Taygetus, with its numerous peaks, deeply-indented gorges, ravines, -and its sides covered densely with woods, rose towering above the clouds. -At its base there was a torrent running east and west through a valley -bordered by precipitous cliffs towards the sea. On the south side of the -torrent was a narrow road, and the perpendicular cliff on the south side -of the road was full of caverns admirably adapted for the concealment -of brigands, pirates, and bad characters of all kinds, of which so many -abounded in the country. We had to pass through this gorge, and at -the time there was a great number of these vagabonds concealed in the -caves, waiting to intercept the merchants going backwards and forwards -to and from Marathonesi. I was warned of this, and determined to drive -these rascals, if there were any, out of the caverns before we passed. -I accordingly told about eight or ten of the most active of my escort -to cross the river and climb the base of the hill, and to fire into the -caves, whilst I and the main body proceeded along the road; and as we -searched each cave as we advanced, if any robbers were concealed in them, -they could not escape; and if they attempted to do so, they were exposed -to two fires. We were thus proceeding cautiously through the Pass, and -had scarcely well entered when my men on the opposite side of the valley -commenced firing into the caverns, and at first they were sharply replied -to by the concealed bandits. This did not last long, for the robbers, -who were not equal to us in numbers, found that they were out-manœuvred, -and if they remained in the caves must all be taken, and they expected -little mercy from their captors. They therefore left the caves, and fled -as fast as possible, upon seeing which my people on both sides of the -torrent followed them with equal speed, firing at random whilst they -went forward. This rude and desultory mode of fighting was fortunately -attended with no slaughter, although several flesh wounds occurred. My -party being the stronger, we overtook the brigands, and made three or -four prisoners. At this my people were delighted, and at the same time -exasperated against them, and wished to shoot them. I at once interposed, -but found that my men were so excited with the fight and subsequent -pursuit, that it was extremely difficult to control them. However, after -a little while I pacified them by saying that it was unmanly and unworthy -to kill an enemy after he had surrendered. This did not seem to have much -impression on them, as they considered the conquered their lawful prize, -and that they might do what they liked with them. I ultimately quieted -them by saying that I would pay a good sum per head for each of the four -taken, which they willingly accepted, fearing that if they refused I -should report them to their chief. I therefore released the captives, -who upon their knees thanked me for their lives. Having reached the end -of the Pass, and the road being tolerably clear to the end of the day’s -journey, I dismissed my escort with about ten shillings each, besides -a capital dinner, and a good sum for the captives, with which they -were pleased, and left me with many thanks and cheers, expressed very -cordially in their peculiar and rough manner. - -Having parted with my escort, I rode leisurely forward with Demetrius -and the baggage horse, until we reached the castle of a capitano, to -whom I had a letter of introduction from my excellent friend the Captain -of Marathonesi. On our arrival, which was just as the sun was setting, -we found the chief surrounded by numerous followers seated on stone -benches fixed to the gate of the outer wall by which the castle was -surrounded. The old chief and his attendants were quietly enjoying their -pipes and coffee, whilst the cowherds were driving in the cattle for -the night, just as described in Homer. The chief and his suite arose to -meet me as I advanced and presented my letter of introduction, which he -received with much dignity, and welcomed me most kindly to his castle, -and certainly a wild, rough place it was. Within the outer wall was -placed the keep or castle, consisting of a great square tower massively -built, containing a few rough apartments with little or no furniture -except a few mattresses and cushions, which were removed during the day. -The space between the main tower or residence was filled with numerous -outhouses and sheds for the cattle and servants and guards of the chief. -After a short conversation we adjourned to the inner castle, and were -shown into the principal room, about 30 feet square, with divers rows -of low cushions placed all round against the walls. Directly after our -arrival, a low table was brought in, and the chief, his attendants, -myself, and servant Demetrius, to the number of about a dozen, sat down -cross-legged to supper, which was immediately served. This consisted of -stewed mutton, with vegetables, roast game, sweets, and fruits, which -for the most part we ate with our fingers. Before each guest was placed -a bottle full of wine, but there were no glasses on the table, so that -one had no alternative but to drink out of the bottle, which was refilled -several times with good red wine. After dinner we took to our pipes and -coffee, during which we had a good deal of agreeable conversation, which -was chiefly devoted to inquiries about England, in which they appeared to -take the greatest interest. After having well supped, and having smoked -and conversed as long as we felt it agreeable, one by one we dropped -off to sleep upon our mattresses, armed, and without undressing, ready -for a surprise at any moment. I soon fell asleep, and awoke at daybreak -thoroughly refreshed. We all got up, shook ourselves, washed, and took -coffee and a pipe, and then strolled about till breakfast. This castle -is situated on a fine bay on the sea-shore, near the base of Taygetus. -Outside the walls of the castle there is a straggling village. Besides -fishing-boats, there were several others of a more suspicious character, -being sharply built, and having the appearance of pirates. We got a -capital breakfast with the old chief; afterwards rowed in the bay; and -then taking a hearty farewell of my worthy host, started for Kitriai, -the castle of the Bey, who was the nominal chief of the whole of Maina. -We reached Kitriai a little before sunset, and were most kindly received -by the Bey, a fine old warrior, about 5 feet 10 inches high, well built, -square, and muscular, with an open, well-developed Greek countenance, -thick moustache, and flowing white beard. There was something mild and -gentlemanlike in his manner, very different to any other we had met. We -were shown to our apartments, which were very comfortable, overlooking -the sea and surrounding coasts. I spent the next day very agreeably in -looking about the adjacent country, which was very pretty, but not so -wild and grand as that nearer to Taygetus. Besides the Bey, there were -several of his counsellors, his secretary, and one or two Greek priests, -all accomplished persons, who spoke the Greek in its purity, much to my -gratification and instruction. The town of Kitriai is about the size of -Marathonesi, but not nearly so neat and clean, neither had it so much -trade. - -On the morning after, we started at daybreak, and proceeded along the -coast to Calamata. This town ranked about the third in the Morea, and -was then doing a good trade; but, like all the towns in the Morea, was -miserable and dirty, with narrow streets, low buildings, from one to two -stories high, two or three insignificant mosques and Greek churches, and -a square near the centre, with several cafés, filled, as usual, with idle -Turks and Albanians, smoking their pipes and sipping coffee and sherbet, -whilst numerous Greek merchants and Jews were transacting their business. -The bazaars were close by, and crowded with purchasers. The harbour was -full of vessels and sailors of various kinds--Hydriote Greeks (amongst -the best sailors on the Mediterranean), Austrian, French, and a few -English vessels, besides a number of boats called caiques, and fishing -vessels, altogether a busy scene. I took up my quarters at a Greek house, -as rough and dirty as usual, and found my heavy baggage, servants, and -janissary whom I had sent from Misitra. - -Next day I started at daybreak through a wild, undulating, -partially-cultivated country to visit the two Doric temples of Messenia, -where Mr. Cockerell discovered the celebrated Phigalian marbles. It is -said that these marbles were sent to Malta for sale, of which due notice -was given by advertisement, and a certain day fixed for the auction, -to which commissioners were sent by the British and other Governments. -The sale, however, by some mistake, took place at Athens. The British -agent, not being aware of this, remained at Malta. There was therefore -no person present to bid on the part of the British Government, and -they were knocked down to the Bavarian agent. When this was announced, -the British Government refused to deliver up the marbles, upon the plea -that the sale ought to have taken place at Malta. The matter remained -in abeyance until the Peace of 1814, when the Bavarian sovereign was in -England. Certain negotiations then took place, and the British Government -ultimately agreed to give the marbles up to Bavaria, upon condition -that a complete set of casts was sent to the British Museum. By this -unfortunate affair England lost a valuable prize; and this loss was the -more annoying, because, having already obtained the Elgin marbles, the -Phigalian marbles--which represented an earlier stage of Greek art--would -have rendered the English collection the most complete in the world. I -spent the greater part of the day at Phigalia in measuring and sketching -the temples, which are situated upon a hill commanding a fine view of the -picturesque surrounding country. - -I took up my quarters in a Greek house, got supper as soon as possible, -and went to bed, with the customary annoyance of vermin. The country -around was naturally rich and fertile, but left, as usual, almost in -a state of nature. Undulating, with clumps of wood scattered about, -it resembled a good deal the park-like scenery of England. There were -numerous flocks of sheep and goats and a few herds of cattle feeding -upon excellent herbage, guarded here and there by wild, shepherds, armed -with guns and yatagans. The peasantry appeared very poor and ragged, -but, notwithstanding, many of the women had skull-caps made of gold -coins strung together, called mahmoudies, about the size of a sovereign. -This composed their whole wealth; and it is a curious fact that these -head-dresses were respected, and never stolen. The men also, and in some -cases the women, had the girdles round their waists fastened together by -large discs of silver about the size of a small plate. Thus there was a -strange contrast of wealth and poverty exhibited in the same person. - -We started early next day, and at noon on the second day reached the -Alpheus, the most considerable river in the Morea, and which flows -through the famous plain of Olympia. The river Alpheus here was 150 to -200 yards broad, but fortunately the waters were low, although we had -some difficulty in crossing without swimming our horses. In the Olympian -plain there were scarcely any remains worth noticing, though numerous -fragments of marble, brick, and pottery are strewed about. We got some -very rough quarters for the night in a village near Olympia, and next -day, passing over a similar kind of country, reached Patras before -sunset, at which we greatly rejoiced, as we were tolerably tired with our -rough journey in the Morea. I succeeded in getting, as I thought, clean, -comfortable quarters in a respectable Greek house. I was shown upstairs -into a large well-furnished room, with apparently a delicious-looking bed -covered with a snow-white counterpane. They gave me an excellent dinner -and some good wine, after which, being very tired, I threw myself on the -outside of the bed for a nap. I slept most soundly for about five or -six hours, and when I awoke it was quite dark; I felt all the torments -of the damned, for I was almost devoured by immense bugs. I jumped out -of the bed in an instant, rubbing my face, which was covered with blood -and bugs, and struck a light, when I found that the bed too was almost -covered with them. I very soon caught some dozens, I may almost say -hundreds; I undressed, and cleared my clothes of them, then dressed -myself, and waited until daylight, being resolved not to trust to a Greek -bed again, but to my own mattress. - -I spent the next day at Patras quietly, and then started off on my return -to Athens, taking the circuitous route by Delphos, Livadia, Eubœa, -Negropont, and Marathon. We coasted along the south shore of the Gulf -of Lepanto, passed our old friend the ruined convent near Vostizza, -and dined at the house of a Greek merchant near, who kindly invited and -treated me most hospitably. After dinner, just before I departed, our -worthy host said he would show me a curiosity, and without more ado he -brought out a large tub full of black snakes each about four feet long; -at the word of command all these reptiles leaped out of the tub and -began dancing about the table, at which I got considerably alarmed, when -my host burst out laughing, and said they would do me no harm unless -I irritated them, which of course I had no idea of doing. I therefore -looked quietly on, and in a short time he called to them and they quickly -leaped back into the tub. He said these snakes abounded in the cornfields -which had just been reaped, but they were timorous, and never did any -harm unless provoked; their bite was not dangerous, although for a time -it occasioned a good deal of inflammation. I parted from my worthy host -with many thanks, and then hired a large boat to take myself, servants, -horses, and baggage across the gulf to Scalo, on the opposite side. We -reached the landing-place about sunset, after a four hours’ voyage, and -proceeded to a caravanserai close by for the night. This was a most -wretched place, in the middle of a marsh filled with large frogs and -mosquitoes innumerable; and what with the loud croaking of the frogs, -and the bites of the mosquitoes and bugs, it was impossible to sleep -with any degree of comfort. There was a party of Turks and Albanians at -the caravanserai who suffered as much as we did; being unable to sleep, -they revenged themselves on the kanghè or master of the caravanserai, -and belaboured him with their sticks most unmercifully, and left him -without paying for anything. The poor fellow complained to me bitterly; -but unfortunately I could give him no redress. As soon as it was daylight -we started also; I paid him handsomely, although we had scarcely anything -from him, but lived on our own provisions. He was very grateful, and -hoped to see me again, but I told him that was very improbable. - -As we cleared the marsh and got amongst the splendid mountain scenery, -in the midst of which the classic Mount Parnassus reared his majestic -head, towering above the whole, the fine fresh air completely revived -us. We passed Salano, surrounded by olives, and breakfasted under the -trees, much to our comfort. A little before noon on the 26th of May -we reached the village of Kastri, the site of the celebrated Delphos, -situated at the base of Mount Parnassus. Enhanced as it is by classical -recollections, the magnificence of the surrounding scenery it is -impossible to describe; let it suffice to say I shall never forget it. Of -the temple and spring scarcely anything remain, and a good deal must be -left to the imagination. I descended into a small plastered well, said -to be the ancient Castalian spring, which is situated in a cavern at -the base of the mountain; here the oracle was said to have been placed, -and although I was not inspired, nevertheless I could not divest myself -of the sanctity of the place and of the wonderful influence which the -oracle once held over the ancient world. The surrounding scenery, with -Parnassus towering above the clouds, added much to my enthusiasm, which -was increased by the sight of seven or eight fine eagles soaring over -our heads and screaming wildly. I was delighted with the scene, and only -regretted that I had not time to ascend to the summit of Olympus. - -After a halt of three or four hours, during which I dined, I started -in high spirits for Livadia, where we halted for the night. This was a -rather large town, with extensive cotton manufactories, seated on the -side of a lofty hill overlooking the Lake Copais and the fertile plain of -Thebes. We got tolerable quarters here, not forgetting the ever present -bugs and mosquitoes. Next day I visited the ancient Orchomenus, the -remains of which are very inconsiderable, consisting of the treasury, -similar to that of Mycene, but elliptical instead of circular; also -of the citadel. I also visited the ancient lion of Chæronæa, which is -tolerably perfect, cut out of the solid rock. Returned to Livadia to -sleep. - -On the 28th May I examined the cave of Trophonius. The weather was very -hot, as it was the latter end of the month. I then travelled on until, -passing through the miserable modern town of Thiva, for of the ancient -celebrated Thebes there are no remains worthy of notice, we took a route -to the north-east, and entered a defile, in the centre of which there is -the beautiful tranquil Lake of Copais about four miles long, upon which -some wild swans and ducks were enjoying themselves. - -The next day we were off at daybreak, and on our way examined the -kolavothora or outlet at the lower end of Lake Copais, which was a rough, -unfinished tunnel cut through the sandstone rock; by means of this tunnel -the surplus waters of the lake are discharged into the sea, otherwise the -lake would overflow and totally submerge the surrounding plain. This is -a considerable work, but is not carried far enough; if it were the whole -lake would be laid dry, a large quantity of valuable and fertile soil -would be gained, and the surrounding district rendered much more healthy. -From there we proceeded through an arid, stony, undulating country to -Negropont. Upon reaching the shores of the arm of the sea which divides -the island of Negropont from the main, and which is scarcely 200 yards -wide at the narrowest point, although very hot, I stopped to make a -sketch of the beautiful scene; having done this we proceeded across the -bridge which connects the island with the mainland, to the fortified -town of Negropont. The town is surrounded by a strong wall with circular -towers at the angles; these towers mount some heavy guns, particularly -towards the sea front, where there is a casemated battery, incapable, -however, of resisting the broadside of a heavy frigate. This town at the -time of my visit was garrisoned by fierce, bigoted Turks, who had the -utmost contempt for Christians, nevertheless with a certain respect for -Europeans, particularly the English. The chief inhabitants were Greeks, -whom the Turks kept in the most perfect subjection. The interior of -the town consisted of narrow streets with low, mean houses, and a few -mosques, Greek churches, bazaars, cafés, &c. There was very little trade, -although the place is well adapted for it, as the island is rich and -fertile. We got into a Greek house and made ourselves as comfortable as -we could, and one of my Greek servants for greater protection requested -one of my old hats, which I gave him, and of which he was very proud, -although it contrasted strangely with his picturesque Greek costume. - -There was nothing to be seen in the town, and as we did not appear to be -welcome guests, the sooner we left the better, so the next day I started -for Marathon, having sent the heavy baggage down to Athens, which I -expected to reach the same evening. This renowned battle-field interested -me exceedingly; it is about two miles wide, and is bounded by the sea on -the east, and the ranges of Mounts Hymettus and Pentelicus on the west. -I fancied in my enthusiasm that I could discover the positions of the -different commanders, their manœuvres, and in fact the whole battle from -beginning to end. I remained there several hours, until near sunset, and -then left with Demetrius at a hand-gallop, expecting to reach Athens in -the course of a couple of hours or so. We had no guide, and thought that -our most direct course lay through the wood on our right, where there -was a convent, which would serve as a halting-place if necessary. Off we -started, and were soon in the wood, which became thicker and thicker as -we advanced; the road, which at the first was only a horse-track, now -became fainter and fainter; and at last we lost it altogether. The sun -had now set, and the short twilight had disappeared. After floundering -about the wood for some time, our horses came to a dead stop, and neither -whip nor spur would make them budge an inch farther, but they backed, -snorting violently, and rearing occasionally so as almost to unseat us. -We could see nothing, it being quite dark, and could not imagine why our -horses had come to such a dead stand; we therefore threw the reins on -their necks and allowed them to have their own way; and most fortunately -we did so, for they had more sense than their masters. When left to -themselves they immediately turned round and went back for some distance, -then turned to the left and commenced a very rapid descent, occasionally -sliding for a considerable distance; sometimes losing their footing, then -slipping and sliding again, so that we could hardly keep our seats. At -last we came to the bottom, cleared the wood, and reached a grass plain. -It was now about midnight; we did not know where we were or where the -convent was; in fact, we were lost, so that there was no alternative but -to picket our horses and lie down on the grass till morning. Although -very tired and hungry we had nothing to eat; we accordingly wrapped -ourselves in our cloaks and lay down and slept until sunrise. When we -woke we found ourselves at the bottom of a perpendicular cliff above 80 -feet high; we now saw the cause of our horses’ halt the night before; -we were doing all we could to force them over this precipice, but by a -merciful Providence their instinct saved us. We were sincerely grateful -for our escape, and shuddered to think how narrowly we had missed a -terrible catastrophe. We then looked for our horses, but they were -nowhere to be seen; we at once concluded that they must have been stolen -by robbers, who were said to be numerous in the neighbourhood. After -searching everywhere for about a mile round, we at last observed them -quietly feeding under a hill, and had very little difficulty in catching -and mounting them. We rode to the convent which was close by, and which -for the darkness we could not find the previous night. Here we got a -capital breakfast, and rested, and the good monks having heard our story, -congratulated us on our escape, not only from the precipice but from -the robbers. We dined here also, and rode to Athens in the cool of the -evening, where I took up my old quarters. Before leaving the convent I -went out and took a sketch of Athens, which is about four miles distant, -and the surrounding country. The view is extremely beautiful; in the -front you have Athens, with its Acropolis, rising out of the plain, -backed by the island of Ægina in the midst of the Ægean Sea, and beyond -that by the mountains of the Morea; whilst as a foreground there is Mount -Hymettus, with the convent rising out of the woods, and Pentelicus on the -right. This I think is the best view of Athens. - -Being again settled in Athens, I set about finishing my studies of the -antiquities, and taking sketches of the neighbourhood; as the weather was -very hot, being now the middle of June, I started off one morning before -sunrise with Demetrius to take a sketch of the Isthmus of Corinth and the -surrounding scenery, and found an excellent position which commanded the -whole, near a marsh with a small lake in front. I was so absorbed in my -sketch that I did not think of the malaria, which was very fatal in that -place. The sketch occupied about three hours, and although I had taken -some breakfast in the open air, and Demetrius the same, we both felt -very ill and returned to Athens, and sent directly for the doctor, when -I found that I had the malaria fever in the form of an ague. Demetrius -was much worse, and towards night he became delirious, and remained so -for some time. I rallied in three or four days, but remained very weak. -Demetrius was confined to the house for above a fortnight. Although I -could go about, still the fever clung to me more or less, and I could do -very little. At this time, a singular person, a Mr. Scott, a friend of -Lord Byron’s, called upon me and offered every attention; he was a shy, -kind, and well-informed man, living quite shut up by himself, seldom -stirring out till dusk, when he was to be seen galloping round the walls -of Athens quite alone. There were also at Athens, Mr. Hodgetts Foley, -Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Waddington (the late) Dean of Durham, and the Rev. Mr. -Hanbury. The latter was a tall, fine-looking man, of fair complexion, -with long light brown hair hanging over his shoulders, and a long beard, -altogether a very striking figure; he was perpetually thinking of -firearms; so that it might well be said, that instead of being a man of -peace, he was a man of war. - -I was now introduced to the Maid of Athens, so celebrated by Lord Byron; -she certainly was a handsome and elegant young woman, about twenty, with -a very pleasing manner and lively and intelligent in conversation. She -had a younger sister, a very agreeable person also, but not so handsome. -They lived with their parents, who made their house a very pleasant -resort for strangers. By this time, the beginning of July, I was a great -deal better, and was recommended to take a sea voyage for change of air. -The above-named gentlemen had hired an Hydriote brig to take a month’s -cruise amongst the islands, and I agreed to join them. We accordingly -started about the end of the first week in July, the weather still very -hot. We left the Piræus in the morning, and as there was very little wind -we were becalmed off Cape Colonna, which forms the eastern promontory of -the Gulf of Athens. Here we cast anchor, lowered a boat, and went on -shore to visit the celebrated temple. - -As we landed we were much struck by the appearance of the beautiful ruin, -perched upon the summit of the promontory in solitary grandeur, and -overlooking the surrounding coasts and islands, altogether forming a very -imposing and charming scene. - -Whilst in the midst of silent admiration at this beautiful temple, all -of a sudden Hanbury cried out, “There goes an old hawk,” and fired at it -immediately. This dispelled the charm, and we all burst out laughing. -Having finished our exploration, we returned on board our vessel to -dinner. A light breeze soon afterwards sprang up; we lay-to for a short -time off the island of Syra, and the following morning got under way for -Paros, a fine land-locked port, which we reached early in the day, and -landed after breakfast. We then proceeded to explore the quarries from -which the celebrated marble was extracted. - -These quarries are situated near the top of a hill, about a mile distant -from the port, with a steep broken road for an approach. The ancients, -instead of opening out a good face, so that the quarries might be -worked to any extent with advantage, excavated caverns in the side of -the hill, and having arrived at the good sound rock, cut it out by -wedges and picks in such masses as they required, so that the inside -of the quarry presented a long gallery from whence the stone had been -taken, worked in a very regular manner in steps one above the other, -without any appearance of waste; in fact, the rock is so solid that when -worked by pick and wedge no blasting is necessary; indeed, if blasting -were adopted, it would entail considerable waste. At the same time, it -appeared to me that if the solid rock was bared from the surface and a -good length of face opened out, the pick-and-wedge system might be worked -to almost any extent, with much greater advantage; and if inclined -planes with railways were made to the port, and a proper embarking jetty, -with cranes, carried out into deep water, so as to enable large vessels -to come alongside at all times to receive their cargoes, this fine marble -might be quarried and exported at a very moderate cost, infinitely below -the price now charged for Carrara marble. As the Parian marble is of a -beautiful white cream-colour, almost free from veins, and of an even, -close texture, the sale would be immense and yield an excellent profit; -and considering the enormous price of fine marble adapted for sculpture, -amounting to one and two guineas and upwards per foot cube, according -to the size of the block and fineness of the quality, it is astonishing -that the value of these quarries has not been recognized before, and that -capital has not been forthcoming to work them. The harbour is spacious, -with ample depth, and well protected against all winds. - -The following day we devoted to the examination of the celebrated -stalactite caverns of Antiparos, a small island on the north-west of -Paros, and only separated from it by a narrow strait. We accordingly -went there after breakfast, and being accompanied by a sufficient number -of guides with torches and wax lights, commenced the exploration. We -entered by a lofty arch, and after proceeding some distance came to a -magnificent chamber, from the roof of which depended the most magnificent -stalactites, many of them eight and ten feet long, reflecting the light -of our torches like so many diamonds. From this hall issued several -galleries, some of which had not then been explored; we pursued our way -through all which had been investigated, and returned, after a fatiguing -walk, to the surface. This island, like that of Paros, is composed of -fine, close marble, which might be developed in the same manner with -considerable profit. We next set sail for Naxos; and here the whole -party started in a native open boat to visit some ruins, which turned -out to be not in the least worth seeing. We were first becalmed for -many hours, and on our return were overtaken by a violent storm, and -only escaped, as the entire coast was one wall of almost perpendicular -rock, by one of the sailors accidentally remembering the vicinity of a -small creek, into which the captain, a brave and skilful man, managed to -steer us through the breakers. We ultimately returned to Naxos, after an -absence of thirty-nine hours, by far the greater part of which we passed -without food, as the ruins being only eight miles from Naxos, it was -considered a mere morning’s sail. The day after our return we invited -the English Consul, a Greek, and several of the principal inhabitants to -dinner, and had a jovial party, for the Greeks like good cheer, and are -certainly not water drinkers. The wine of Naxos, of which a considerable -quantity is made, both for home and foreign consumption, is excellent; it -is chiefly white wine, resembling a good deal brown sherry, and if well -made is equally good. Besides wine they export Velança bark, wool, figs, -currants, and other articles. - -Having nothing further to see, we set sail from Naxos, with a lively -and lasting recollection of our visit to the _celebrated_ antiquities, -and then steered for Scio, the ancient Chios, passing amongst numerous -islands, many of them very beautiful; some were covered with woods and -verdure to the water’s edge, others consisted of bold barren rocks rising -perpendicularly from the water to a great height, and terminating in -lofty peaks. The scene was ever changing, and we enjoyed views of wood, -water, plain, and mountain, combined in the most charming manner, and of -endless variety. - -It was amusing also to see how well the Greek sailors managed our ship. -At this time of the year strong northerly winds prevail during the day, -against which we had to heat. In tacking about and manœuvring the vessel -they showed considerable skill and activity. - -Mitylene, where we next arrived, is a poor little place, surrounded by -steep, lofty hills covered with wood almost to their summits. There is -some trade of wine and oil, and wood and bark. I was much amused by a -fight between my man Demetrius and a Turk who insulted him; fortunately -they had neither firearms nor knives, but they used their hands in the -most clumsy manner possible, and after a little time I parted them before -they had done any mischief. - -We spent about three days in the island, which is well worthy of a visit -on account of its rich and beautiful scenery, and then returned to Scio, -where our party separated. - -I took lodgings, and rested a few days, for I was still very weak, and -liable to attacks occasionally from the malaria fever. I had several -enjoyable rides about this island. A ridge of lofty hills, extending from -north to south, added greatly to the picturesqueness of the scenery. The -soil is extremely rich and fertile, and a large quantity of excellent -wine, besides oil, silk, fruits, grain, wood, &c., is produced. A -great trade is carried on with different parts of the Mediterranean, -particularly Constantinople and Smyrna. Perhaps, with the exception -of Sicily, it is the richest island in the Mediterranean, and has a -great number of wealthy merchants and proprietors. The port, which is -formed by a small creek, defended by two stone piers, contained numerous -vessels, some of considerable size, and bearing the flags of most -European nations. The town was better and more substantially built than -any I had hitherto seen, and there were some good bazaars, rich with the -wares of the East and with European articles. The square in the centre -was surrounded by handsome cafés and houses, and also one or two large -mosques and Greek churches. The island was governed by a Turkish officer -of rank, with a small body of janissaries and cavalry. The following -year, 1821, this island suffered terribly during the Greek revolution, -when the inhabitants attempted to overcome the Turks, who were too strong -for them, and showed them no mercy; many were massacred, and the island -was devastated. Having taken a sketch of the port, and seen everything of -interest, I hired a Greek open boat, and embarked with Demetrius and all -our baggage for Smyrna, where I got tolerably comfortable lodgings in a -Greek house. - -Smyrna is situated at the south-eastern extremity of the gulf of that -name, and extends northward along the coast for about a mile and a half. -The shore of the bay in front of the city is lined with a quay-wall, -formed partly of wood and partly of stone, with small wooden jetties -projecting from it at irregular intervals. Between this quay-wall and -the houses is a road, which runs nearly along the whole sea-front. From -this road innumerable narrow, crooked streets lead to the different -parts of the town; many of these are so narrow that two horses can -scarcely go abreast. The buildings for the most part consist of two -and three stories. The bazaars were numerous, extensive, and rich, -filled with all the commodities of the East, such as rick silks, plain -and brocaded, shawls, jewellery, arms, leather articles, and pipes of -all kinds, rough iron and pottery ware, besides tobacco, fruit, and -provisions. All these bazaars were laid out in different sections, with -a particular trade assigned to each, and were kept in tolerable order; -the Jews and Armenians were the bankers, and had their counters or -stalls, with offices behind, where they transacted business to a large -amount. All the Consuls’ houses were in front of the quay, and were -substantial stone buildings of considerable extent, and, with the flags -of the respective nations which they represented, had a very imposing -appearance. In front of the quay were moored at times several hundreds -of vessels of all nations, and the immense number of boats and barges -passing continually between them and the shore, formed a most busy and -lively scene. There were several fine and extensive mosques, which no -Christian was ever permitted to enter; also many Greek churches, with -their gorgeously-bedaubed paintings representing innumerable saints. I -attended the Greek service at different times, but generally came away -anything but satisfied; their strong nasal tone in saying prayers, and -their indifferent music and singing, greatly disappointed me. Towards -the land the city was surrounded by a high wall, and at each gate was a -strong guard. At the south end there was a kind of citadel on a hill, in -which the Governor resided, and about half a mile from the city were the -cemeteries, deeply embosomed in cypress trees. Many of the tombs were -very pretty, of white, well-sculptured marble, with inscriptions from -the Koran engraved upon them, and they were tastefully ornamented with -garlands of flowers. - -The exports from Smyrna are various, and its trade with Europe is -very extensive. The articles of export are figs, raisins, silk, oil, -bark, grain, &c.; figs and raisins, however, are the chief, and these -are exported to a vast amount, and certainly they are the finest in -the world. There are two crops, those which are ripe about the end of -July, which are mostly consumed in the country and neighbourhood; they -are most delicious, and extremely wholesome. The second crop is ripe -about the end of September. These are gathered, dipped in water, then -carefully packed in boxes and exported, chiefly to England, France, and -the north of Europe, and by the time of their arrival they are covered -with a rich coating of crystallized sugar, and are fit for use. At the -season of shipping the figs, which I witnessed, the greatest activity -is visible everywhere--the producers selling, the merchants buying, -the packing-case makers splitting the wood and making up the boxes--the -packers carefully stowing the figs--the men loading them into lighters, -by which they are transported to the fast-sailing vessels waiting for -them, which are generally clipper schooners of about 120 to 170 tons--the -Consuls’ offices besieged with numerous applicants for their clearance -papers--the whole combined to form a most active and industrious scene, -not omitting the numberless dinners and social parties at the different -hotels and coffee-houses, which are thronged with natives of all nations. -I walked about and witnessed this busy scene with much delight and -satisfaction. I must not omit the melons, both sweet and water, and -the grapes, which were the most delicious I ever tasted. The finest -raisins are those called sultanas grown at Scala Nova, a small port to -the south-west of Smyrna, which I visited. The grapes from which they -are made are especially delicious. The town is a poor place as regards -the buildings; but, notwithstanding, there is a considerable amount -of wealth. When I was there the town had recently been visited by a -severe attack of plague, and many of the houses were shut up, all the -inmates having died, and, having no heirs, the property belonged to the -Government. - -Whilst I was at Smyrna the British Consul was Mr. Werry, a fine old -gentleman of about sixty-five, with considerable vigour and talent, just -the man for the place. All British subjects were under his protection, -amongst whom were a considerable number from the Ionian Islands, who -were the most troublesome and daring vagabonds, committing all Sorts -of crimes, and mixed up with every row in the place; these rows daily -occurred, and bloodshed and murder not unfrequently was the consequence. -Old Werry was the arbiter, and delivered his judgments with great -impartiality and justice. The Turks also were very troublesome, and -frequently attempted acts of great barbarity. Werry, however, was equal -to the occasion, and at such times went direct to the Governor and -claimed an audience; he was at once admitted and seated at the head of -the divan; then he claimed protection for his British subjects; and -whenever the Governor demurred, Werry drew his sword, threw his hat -down on the floor, and threatened him with a British frigate to blow -up the town before his eyes. The Governor would try to pacify him by -offering pipes and coffee, and soothing words, which Werry treated with -contempt, and nothing would do but releasing the prisoners, which was -soon effected. Then Werry strode off in triumph, scarcely condescending -to return the Governor’s salute. The Turks looked upon him as a madman; -but they have always entertained the greatest respect for him, and -allowed him to have his way, invariably calling him the _mad Consul_. -Nevertheless, he was a most kind and worthy man, greatly respected and -liked by his countrymen, the other consuls, and by the whole population. -He received me with the greatest kindness and hospitality. I was a -frequent visitor at his house, both in town and at his country seat, -Bridjar, about nine miles distant to the south-east. - -Whilst at Smyrna I made acquaintance with my countryman, Mr. (afterwards -Professor) Donaldson, a M. Parke, and another French architect, who had -just returned to Smyrna after a very successful exploration of some of -the most remarkable ruins of the ancient cities of Asia Minor, and their -portfolios were filled with drawings of these most interesting relics of -antiquity. I passed several happy days in their company, and Donaldson -most kindly made out for me a map by which I might be enabled to visit -these remarkable ruins; I therefore determined to follow it out as -nearly as possible without delay, and took leave of them with many thanks. - -On the next day, having obtained the usual firman, I started, in company -with my faithful servant Demetrius, to explore some of the ruins of -Ionia, with a Turkish surgee, or guide, a janissary, and a couple of -baggage horses, leaving my heavy baggage at Smyrna. After passing through -a wild, rich, and almost uncultivated country, we reached Aiasolok, on -the Meander, near the ruins of Ephesus, in the evening, and took up -our quarters in a Turkish caravanserai. Demetrius soon prepared a good -supper, laid our mattresses, and we both slept soundly until the morning. -Every inmate was up transacting his business soon after daybreak, and I -at once sallied forth to examine the ruins of Ephesus. This celebrated -city was situated on the left bank of the Meander, at the base of an -elevated ridge of hills. The only remains which we could distinctly make -out was the amphitheatre, of the rest little could be discovered; but -numerous fragments of columns, cornices, blocks of masonry, pottery, -brickwork, &c., lay scattered about. I made a sketch of the whole from -the best place I could find. The ruins of Ephesus formed the foreground, -with the Meander and its numerous windings and the marshy valley flanked -by the mountains on each side, whilst in the background was the miserable -town of Aiasolok, with its fortress and mosque on a conical hill above -it, backed by a wild range of mountains of considerable elevation, which -completed the view. The scene was most picturesque, replete with solitary -grandeur and desolation. The stillness was something remarkable; nothing -was seen moving, except at rare intervals a long line of camels laden -with merchandise, led by their guide, smoking his pipe, and mounted on -a donkey; or here and there a solitary heron fishing amongst the reeds -of the Meander, and flocks of wild ducks, which took to flight at the -slightest disturbance. It was singular and melancholy to remark the ruins -of the three most celebrated of the Churches of the world before me, -namely, those of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Christians, dominated -over by the Mahometan mosque. I remained alone lost in contemplating this -solemn and desolate scene for two or three hours, reflecting upon the -vicissitudes and instability of human grandeur, and walked slowly back to -the caravanserai at Aiasolok, where I took my breakfast, and then started -on my journey. We slowly wound our way through the Pass between the -mountains at the back of Aiasolok, and descended into the plain of the -ancient Magnesia, the site of one of the seven Churches, through which -two streams flow sluggishly to the sea, and reached the ruins about a -couple of hours before sunset. I picketed my horse here whilst I examined -the ruins, and sent Demetrius forward with the other horses and baggage -to a village, where I proposed to pass the night, ordering Demetrius to -have supper ready by my arrival. - -The principal building is the hippodrome, which was tolerably perfect, -and I took some pains to measure it accurately, which occupied me about -two hours. There was nothing else worthy of remark, although there -were numerous fragments of buildings scattered around. I met a Turkish -Aga, handsomely accoutred and well mounted, attended by a servant, who -watched my movements with considerable attention, and politely accosted -me. Having finished my work, I mounted and galloped off to the place -of my rendezvous as quickly as possible. Passing through the adjacent -forest I observed something like hammocks slung to the trees about 10 -or 12 feet from the ground; these, I learned, were the sleeping places -of the shepherds who attended their flocks in the neighbourhood, and as -there were no habitations near, they slept in these hammocks to keep -themselves out of the influence of the malaria, which is very fatal in -these parts. - -About sunset I reached my destination, which was situated at the head of -a valley surrounded by lofty mountains. There was a cluster of miserable -mud huts, but no place fit to sleep in, so Demetrius was obliged to take -possession of an open shed, with a bare mud hut adjoining, in which he -placed the baggage, spread my mattress in the shed, and laid out the -table attached to my canteen in the open air in front, upon which he had -got ready a tolerably good supper. This canteen, it should be mentioned, -was a very smart affair; all the utensils were plated on the outside -and gilt on the inside, and, being quite new, had a very stylish and -attractive appearance: it was much finer than I wanted, and had been -sent out from England by my brother. No sooner had I sat down to supper, -than I was surrounded by a considerable number of Kurds, wild-looking -fellows, armed to the teeth, who had come from their own country with -their flocks, for the rich pasture which this country afforded. Their -encampment was close by. They appeared very friendly, and admired my -turn-out with great satisfaction, thinking, no doubt, that it was real -gold and silver. I treated them very courteously, gave them wine, coffee, -and tobacco, for which they appeared very thankful, and we parted, as -I thought, excellent friends. It was a fine summer evening, and soon -after became dark. The Kurds retired with many thanks, and being tired -I lay down for the night on my mattress without taking off my clothes, -whilst Demetrius and the other servants were in front, and the horses -picketed before them, having only their girths slackened, so that we -were ready for a start at any alarm. I examined my pistols, my men did -the same, and we all retired; but I was very restless and feverish, and -could not sleep, although excessively weary. I was continually roused -by the barking of the great mastiffs which were kept by the shepherds -to drive off the wolves and panthers in the vicinity. At last, towards -midnight, I fell fast asleep. I awoke all of a sudden to find two -fierce-looking Kurds by my side, one with a pistol close to my head, the -other flaring a lighted torch in my face, with one hand thrust under my -pillow, to steal my purse and valuables. I sat up directly and secured -my pistols; seeing this, the fellow with the pistol pulled the trigger, -but fortunately it only flashed in the pan. I at once fired. I think -I hit him somewhere, for he uttered a loud cry, and instantly took to -flight with his companion. My men awoke at the noise, jumped up directly, -and fired also. By this time we were surrounded by the Kurds, and had a -hand-to-hand fight for a few minutes, when I called to my men to mount -and gallop off as quickly as possible. I did the same, and off we went -at full speed, leaving the baggage behind. We could do no other, for by -this time the whole tribe was on the alert; they came running to the -help of their companions, and commenced firing at us. Fortunately it was -hardly daylight, and they could not see us clearly. In order to avoid -the shots that whistled past us, we crouched down upon our saddles, -and soon got out of their reach. They did not follow us, either being -deterred by the stout resistance we had made, or being satisfied with -the booty which they had got. To have remained longer would have been -madness, for we should soon have been overpowered, and probably all -murdered, as there were at least thirty or forty of them, and we were -only five. We never pulled bridle until we had made about six or eight -miles; it was then broad daylight, and the sun was just rising above -the horizon; we continued, however, at a smart pace, passing through a -rich and partially cultivated valley, until, about seven o’clock in the -morning, we reached a small town, where the Aga, or Turkish Governor -of the district resided. Here we stopped at the caravanserai, tolerably -tired with our morning’s ride of about seventeen miles, and heartily -thankful for our providential escape. After a good wash, and breakfast, -I sent my janissary, a gallant fellow, to demand an audience of the -Aga, which he granted at midday. I went accordingly, showed my firman, -and then related my story by means of an interpreter. The Aga was a -fine-looking man, about forty, surrounded by his divan and a number of -well-armed Tartars and guards. He listened to my tale with the utmost -gravity and attention, and then burst out into a violent rage at the -indignity which I had suffered, and said that such an insult to an -English gentleman had never occurred before in his district, and he would -lose no time in bringing the offenders to justice. He was most particular -in inquiring as to the place where the offence had occurred, and the -number and description of my assailants, and then ordered a strong body -of well-armed and well-mounted Tartars to the place, with strict orders -to bring them to him immediately; in the meantime he ordered coffee and -pipes to be served, and offered me any money I required. He also asked -me where I was going. I told him that I was going southwards for two or -three days. He then said that upon my return he should be happy to see me -again, when he would have all the culprits in custody for me, and if I -could identify them he would have their heads taken off directly. I took -my leave, with many thanks for his courtesy; to which he replied, with -the greatest civility, that he was too happy to be of any service to an -Englishman. I left soon afterwards, and crossed another mountain ridge, -passing through a wild, desolate country, and descended into a fertile -valley, through which a small river wound its tortuous course. On the -way I examined the ruins of the ancient Priene, seated on a hill on the -right side of the valley. Here I saw considerable remains of some temples -of the Ionic order, besides the relics of numerous other buildings, which -it was very difficult to define. This city was surrounded by a strong -wall of massive masonry, considerable remains of which were visible. -We crossed the river by a ford, and took up our quarters for the night -amongst the ruins of Miletus. There were only a few scattered wretched -hovels in the vicinity, but none of them fit for our accommodation; I -therefore preferred the open air, and determined to bivouac amongst the -ruins; as I had already provided myself and my people with mattresses and -coverlets, and a good supply of provisions, I felt myself comfortable and -independent. I was roused about daybreak by something tugging hard at my -pillow; upon jumping up I descried a large wolf close by, with several -more near him. I immediately laid hold of a stout stick, and dealt him -a heavy blow on the head. This aroused Demetrius and the servants, who -fired several shots at the other wolves, and they all scampered off as -quickly as possible, so that we had no further molestation. - -Early in the morning I set about examining the ruins, of which there -were but few; the principal was the theatre, but even of this, except -some massive walls, there was little remaining. I made a sketch, with -the Lake Bofi and the mountains behind it for a background, the whole -forming a very beautiful picture. We then went on to Yirondi, which we -reached about four o’clock in the afternoon, and got comfortable quarters -in the caravanserai. The next morning I proceeded to examine the ruins -of the celebrated Temple of Apollo Didymæus. This is one of the largest -and most magnificent specimens of the Ionic order, and well worthy of -the attention of every traveller who takes an interest in architecture. -I was much pleased with and instructed by it. Of the front columns -several were still standing, and numerous fragmentary blocks of pillars, -entablature, pediment, and substructure lay scattered all around, the -whole being of the most elaborate workmanship. When entire it must have -been a very magnificent work of art, as the remains evidently show. - -After finishing my examination, I determined to return to Smyrna as -quickly as possible, having much to do before my tour was completed. I -accordingly started soon after midday, although the weather was very hot, -and the next day I sent my janissary to request an audience of the Aga, -which he granted me at midday. He then said that he had captured all the -Kurds, and ordered them to be brought from the prison. Accordingly the -whole of them, amounting to about thirty in number, were produced, and -marched before me slowly, when the Aga asked me if I could recognize -any of them, in which case he would take care that justice should be -administered. I was pretty well aware what this justice would be, namely, -that their heads would be taken off if I recognized them. I certainly -remembered several of their faces, but having been robbed only of a -few articles, worth about eighty pounds, I did not consider that the -punishment of death could be put in comparison with my loss, although it -is true they would have murdered me if they could. I therefore resolved -to save them, as they had already suffered sufficiently by being confined -in a miserable dungeon with scarcely any food for four days. They were -accordingly discharged, having been, as I understood, pretty well -punished, in addition to their imprisonment, by heavy fines, and perhaps -sundry stripes into the bargain, so that it was not likely that they -would attack an Englishman again. The Tartars had recovered several of my -lost things; for this I made them a handsome acknowledgment, with which -they were much pleased, and gave me many thanks. I also rendered my best -thanks to the Aga, and we parted upon the most amicable terms. - -Having returned to Smyrna, I there met my friend Scott, whom I had -previously known at Athens, and we resolved to proceed at once to -Constantinople by land. The first night we reached the modern Magnesia, -a large town situated on a plain, surrounded by rude crenellated walls, -inhabited chiefly by a Turkish population, and containing nothing worthy -of remark. The following morning we proceeded through an open undulating -country, very fertile, but, as usual, only partially cultivated. Here -and there were extensive plains, some only tenanted by shepherds -tending their large flocks of goats, cattle, and sheep, others growing -cotton, maize, corn, beans, and tobacco, occasionally interspersed with -vineyards; the inhabitants looked poor and miserable, and the villages -and towns wore the same appearance. - -After a long, hard day’s ride of eighteen hours, we came in sight of -Broussa, the ancient capital of the Turks. The surrounding country was -rich and beautiful, and covered with luxurious gardens, intermixed with -comfortable villas and houses; the city, with its numerous mosques and -towering minarets, lay in the foreground; whilst the magnificent Mount -Olympus, above 7000 feet high, rearing his head above the clouds, formed -a noble background. When within a mile of the city I felt very tired and -thirsty. Just then a countryman approached, and offered us some bunches -of magnificent grapes, which I accepted with much gratification, and -gave him a handsome present. I devoured them voraciously. We reached the -caravanserai at sunset, and as there were a great number of travellers, -we got but poor accommodation. I awoke about three in the morning with -a violent diarrhœa, which continually increased, until I became so -exhausted that I could scarcely move. It turned out to be dysentery, and -my friends considered that it must end fatally. Before leaving England -I had consulted my friend, the late distinguished Dr. James Johnson, as -to what was to be done under similar circumstances, and he recommended -large doses of calomel as the only and best means of cure. I had provided -myself with this, and took it accordingly, with the assistance of which -I rallied considerably, and we then determined to proceed at once to -Mondania, on the shores of the Sea of Marmora, where we should find much -better accommodation. Off, therefore, we went, without being able to see -anything further of the beauties of Broussa. I was much fatigued with -the journey, and immediately after our arrival took to my bed. Here the -dysentery came on more violently than ever. I again had recourse to a -large dose of calomel, and ordered Demetrius to get some chicken broth -as soon as possible. This the good fellow got ready without delay. I -swallowed as much as I could, and then fell back on my mattress perfectly -exhausted. I was delirious for four or five hours; but at the end of -that time I broke out into a violent perspiration; the calomel had done -its work effectually, and I became conscious and tranquil, although very -weak. The disease, however, had been arrested, and I recovered rapidly. - -I reached Constantinople at last by sea, and after a day or two of repose -I regained my strength and sallied forth with a janissary to examine -the Moslem capital. I first paid a visit to our ambassador, Mr. Frere. -He received me most kindly, and asked me to dinner the next day. The -entertainment was sumptuous, and I spent a delightful evening. I was -afterwards frequently invited to this most hospitable house, and always -received the same kind attention, ever returning from it both amused and -instructed. Mr. Frere was a very accomplished, unassuming gentleman, -ever ready to protect his countrymen; he discharged his onerous duties -in such a manner as to gain the respect of the Turks (which was very -difficult in those days), as well as that of the _corps diplomatique_ -and foreigners of every nation, and the respect and affection of his own -countrymen. I also frequently visited the hospitable house of our worthy -and most excellent Consul, General Cartwright. He was a man above the -common order, and no one was better calculated to deal with the Turks; -frank, open, courageous, honest, and decided, understanding thoroughly -the people he had to deal with, and never flinching from his duties, -firmly upholding his countrymen when right, but no less inflexible in -refusing his support when wrong. He was hospitable and sociable to a -degree, yet withal never neglected the least of his duties, and was -universally respected and beloved. - -Constantinople has been often described, and is now so well known that -I need not weary my reader with any detailed description. But as I was -there at a time when the reforms of the Sultan Mahmoud had not long -commenced; when the janissaries were still in existence; when the old -Turkish bigotry, insolence, and fanaticism was at its height; when the -fierce vigour which had formerly carried out its conquests was nearly -extinct, and European ideas and civilization had not yet dawned; when, in -short, the Government was most corrupt, and the whole Turkish population -sunk in indolence and sensuality, a few rough notes of what I then saw -may perhaps not be unacceptable. - -Amongst the sights during my short stay was the marriage of one of the -Sultan’s daughters, which was made the occasion of great fêtes, and -amongst others a grand tournament or display of djerid. This consisted -of a number of horsemen extremely well mounted, each armed with a short -blunted dart, which they hurled at one another, and those who received -the greatest number of hits were declared to be losers The game was very -exciting, and the display of horsemanship and the activity and skill of -the riders were worthy of the highest admiration. - -There was also another sight equally new and beautiful, the sultan -proceeding in state to the mosque of St. Sophia during the Bairam. It -was a very imposing spectacle, all the actors in it being clothed in the -ancient picturesque costume--long flowing robes of endless variety of -brilliant colours, furs, and turbans of every shape, those worn by the -Sultan and his great officers mounted in gold and silver and studded -with precious stones. The Sultan’s body guard consisted of about one -hundred fine-looking men wearing dresses of the most brilliant colours, -richly ornamented with gold embroidery, and having on their heads -helmets of finely polished brass, surmounted by a crescent of the same -metal, being three to four feet long, on the top of which were fixed -plumes of the finest white ostrich feathers, flowing on all sides. The -Sultan, clothed in a splendid dark sable pelisse, with a green turban -ornamented with the plumes of a bird of paradise, set in a most costly -diamond aigrette, rode in the midst of them, mounted on a magnificent -pure white Arabian charger, covered with housings richly embroidered -with gold. He was a very handsome, stern, dignified-looking man, about -fifty, with sharp, piercing black eyes, moustache, and beard; his nose -short and well developed, and a medium-sized, well-defined mouth; his -whole appearance was very stately, grave, and solemn, expressing majesty, -firmness, and courage. As the procession moved slowly, silently, and -majestically along, through a dense mass of spectators, everyone was -impressed with awe and admiration, and certainly it was one of the most -unique and finest sights of the kind I had ever witnessed. I afterwards -saw a review of several thousand of the Ottoman troops, consisting of -infantry, cavalry, and artillery. These, though inferior in discipline -and mechanical contrivances to European armies, nevertheless expressed a -degree of fierce and enthusiastic courage, mixed with a thorough contempt -of Christians, which inspired them with the confidence that they could -overwhelm all their enemies, and plant the crescent over the cross with -triumphant success. - -Constantinople proper was inhabited chiefly by Turks imbued with the -most bigoted hatred and contempt for Christians, and it was attended -with not a little danger to go amongst them. As I walked boldly along I -was frequently saluted by fierce scowls and curses loud and deep, and -sometimes with a small shower of stones, which but for the presence of -the janissary, whom they feared, might have been attended with serious -consequences. These janissaries, a certain number of whom were attached -to every embassy for their protection, were called pig-keepers by their -comrades, who considered them as an inferior class. The streets for the -most part were narrow, crooked, and dirty to a degree; here and there -was a fine stone mansion, inhabited by some Turkish grandee, but this -presented only a dead stone wall to the street. The population of the -city generally looked poor, miserable, and oppressed. I tried to visit -the mosques, but the fanaticism of the Ottomans was so great at that -time that no Christian was permitted to enter, and I was more than once, -when trying to penetrate the outer court of one of them, driven away -by a shower of stones. On the arrival of a fresh ambassador from any -Christian court a special firman, allowing him to visit the mosques, was -issued, when the different strangers in Constantinople at the time were -allowed to accompany him. The ambassador and suite on these occasions -were always accompanied by a strong guard of janissaries, for protection. -It happened that a little time previous to my visit the new Russian -ambassador, Count Stroganoff, arrived, and obtained a special firman to -visit the mosques, when he was accompanied by two or three hundred of -his own countrymen and other strangers, attended by a strong guard of -janissaries. Whilst in one of these edifices, a Frenchman, it is said, -spat upon the pavement; immediately a cry of horror was uttered by the -priests and assistants, the mosque was defiled; the alarm was raised, -which spread like wildfire, and the place was quickly surrounded by a -vast multitude of angry Turks, many of whom rushed into the mosque, -shouting for vengeance on the infidels who had desecrated their temple, -and attacking them with the most savage ferocity. The ambassador and his -followers were obliged to defend themselves and fight for their lives. -The doors were shut, and there they were obliged to remain until the -Government sent another strong body of janissaries to rescue them from -their perilous situation, which they did with the greatest difficulty; -and whilst they were escorted back through the streets, they were -assailed with yells, curses, and missiles of every description; many were -seriously hurt, and they had some difficulty in escaping with their lives. - -At Bouyukderé I spent several days at a comfortable Greek hotel, and -was much amused at seeing two or three grave Turks enter the hotel one -evening and engage a private room. For a time everything went on quietly. -Then came a most tremendous noise, and shouts of all kinds; in fact, -they were getting very drunk. Then all was silent, and I imagined they -were senseless; but shortly after, to my great surprise, they sallied -forth and entered their boat apparently quite sober. I afterwards asked -the Greek waiter whether the water they had drunk had rendered them so -noisy. He replied, laughing, “No; they had two bottles of rum apiece.” -He said, farther, that it was their constant practice, especially during -the Ramadan, to go prowling about in search of some quiet place where -they might indulge. Knowing this, some of the proprietors of Greek inns, -after closing the front door, left a private one open, and allowed none -but Turks to enter, not even appearing themselves when they did. The -Turks, seeing the coast clear, would enter, and presently find a room -in which was a table covered with good things, both to eat and drink, -whereupon they helped themselves liberally, and after leaving a handsome -donation on the table, walked out as quietly as they came in, satisfied -with having cheated their religion and satisfied their appetites without -anyone being the wiser. - -Constantinople is supplied with water from five reservoirs, situated -on the western base of the Little Balkan Mountains, and communicating -with the city by stone conduits. They were originally built by the -Byzantine emperors, and their preservation was enforced by repeated -imperial edicts, some of which are still preserved in the archives of -Constantinople; a heavy fine was imposed, amounting to a pound of gold -for every ounce of water taken from these reservoirs by any individual -without express permission. The water for Pera is supplied from the -southern reservoirs, near Bagtche, by means of a conduit, upon which are -placed at certain intervals hollow stone columns, called _sous terrasi_, -which rise to the level of the source from which the water is taken; the -water in the conduit rises up these pillars nearly to the same level, -and thus acts as a safety valve, overcoming the friction of the water -in the conduit, forcing it forward to the level required at Pera, and -so relieving the pressure upon the upper surface of the conduit, which -otherwise would be blown up through such a long line, had it not a vent -to relieve the pressure. This ingenious idea was the invention of the -Turks, and was adopted for the purpose of saving the expense of the lofty -stone aqueducts used by the Romans and their successors. Some expedient -of this kind became inevitable, as they had no iron pipes large or strong -enough. In modern times a similar device, called the stand-pipe, is -occasionally employed to relieve the pumping engines; but such is not -necessary along the line of the conduit, because the material of the -conduit is made of cast iron of such dimensions that it is strong enough -to more than amply resist the pressure of the highest column of water -which it may be necessary to employ. - -The whole of the sides of the mountains where the reservoirs are placed -used formerly to be covered with dense woods, and when I visited the -reservoirs in October, 1820, nothing could be more beautiful; but after -the massacre of the janissaries, about a year and a half subsequent -to my visit, a remnant took possession of the forest, and committed -intolerable acts of brigandage, until the Ottoman Government, thoroughly -roused, surrounded the entire forest with troops, and destroyed it and -its inmates together. There is also a fine aqueduct, but there can be -very little doubt that proper means are not taken during the rainy season -to preserve and store the water nature then places at their disposal. If -this were done, the serious evil of drought would be avoided; and means -are now being taken to ensure a more constant and better supply. This -scarcity of water, for the same reason, has been felt in London and other -great cities. We shall continue to suffer from these droughts until men -come to understand that only a certain and known quantity of water falls -upon the earth, and that at certain periods; and that it is necessary to -store the surplus waters to supply the deficiency of the dry season. This -great truth is fortunately now beginning to be fully appreciated in the -civilized world, and it is to be hoped that we shall no longer hear the -cry of scarcity of water. - -On leaving Constantinople I took passage in a native vessel for -Alexandria. Passing down the Hellespont, at its narrowest point I -remarked the positions selected by Xerxes for erecting his famous double -bridge, or rather two bridges, one taking a north-west and the other a -north-easterly direction. An ancient author, Polyænus, says “that they -connected together a vast number of ships of different kinds--some long -vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked galleys--to the number of -three hundred and sixty, on the side towards the Euxine Sea, and three -hundred and thirteen on that of the Hellespont. The former of these were -placed transversely; but the latter, to diminish the strain upon the -cables, in the direction of the current. When these vessels were firmly -fastened to each other, they were secured on each side by anchors of -great strength--on the upper side, towards the winds which set in from -the Euxine; on the lower side, towards the Ægean Sea, on account of the -south and south-east winds. They left, however, openings in three places -sufficient to afford a passage for the light vessels which might have -occasion to sail into the Euxine or from it. Having done this, they -extended cables from the shore, stretching them upon large capstans of -wood. For this purpose they did not employ a number of separate cables, -but united two of white flax with two of byblos. These were alike in -thickness, and apparently so in goodness; but those of flax were in -proportion much the more solid, weighing not less than a talent to every -cubit. When the passage was thus secured, they sawed out rafters of wood, -making their length equal to the space required for the bridge. These -they laid in order across upon the extended cables, and then bound them -fast together. They next brought unwrought wood, which they placed very -regularly upon the rafters. Over all they threw earth, which they raised -to a proper height, and finished the whole by a fence on each side, that -the horses and other beasts of burthen might not be terrified by looking -down upon the sea.” - -This bridge of boats, for such it may be properly called, resembled -materially those constructed by the moderns. The addition of the -suspension cables, which connected both ends of the bridge with the -shore, must have contributed greatly to its strength. The floating -bridges used in modern warfare, however, have this advantage over those -constructed by the ancients (of which that devised by Xerxes was a very -favourable specimen); the boats or pontoons upon which such bridges -are now erected are specially constructed for the purpose, and an army -on the march can carry these pontoons, like other baggage, and when -necessary a bridge can be built in a very short time. When the army -has passed the river the bridge can readily be taken to pieces and the -materials transported elsewhere, to serve the same purpose again. An -enemy pursuing, unless provided with similar appliances for constructing -a bridge, would find his farther progress barred; but in the floating -bridges used by the ancients it was possible for the pursued to erect a -bridge that would be used also by their pursuers. The floating bridge by -which Darius crossed the Bosphorus is said to have been similar to that -contrived by Xerxes, although no precise record exists to enable us to -ascertain exactly how it was fashioned. Alexander adopted a different -course; taking advantage of such vessels as he could obtain on the spot, -by rowing or sailing he crossed the particular river or strait which -opposed his march. We have a remarkable example of a floating bridge on -the river Douro opposite to Oporto, but the bridge erected by Xerxes -seems rather to have resembled that thrown over the Adour. - -The only incident that occurred on our voyage to Alexandria was -furnished by a Turkish Aga, one of the passengers, who came on board -in considerable state. His attendants spread his carpet on deck, that -he might attend to his devotions. However, the sea was so rough that -directly he appeared on deck he lost his balance and rolled over and -over, which greatly hurt his dignity. He was very much enraged, and, to -revenge himself, immediately set to work belabouring the unfortunate -captain with his cane, saying that it was entirely his fault for giving -them a foul wind, though all the time it was blowing most favourably, -though rather too fresh for the Aga’s comfort. I burst out laughing, -but soon checking myself, interceded for the poor captain and got him -off, while the Aga retired to his cabin and delivered himself over to -seasickness. - -The situation chosen for the city of Alexandria, which Alexander the -Great founded as the emporium of the Mediterranean after the destruction -of Tyre, was peculiarly favourable, for the seven mouths of the Nile -at that time existing were ill adapted for the safe passage of large -vessels; all of them were more or less obstructed by bars, upon which -during the stormy seasons there was a heavy surf, so that it was -extremely dangerous to attempt their navigation. Alexander therefore -resolved to adopt a situation totally independent of the Nile, and -accordingly selected Alexandria, as being the farthest point from the -mouths of that river, and the least affected by the alluvium brought down -by it, and that which is carried along the shore by the western littoral -current. - -At the time the present situation was selected there was a small island -not far from the shore. This island he connected with the mainland -by means of an embankment faced with masonry, thus forming a double -harbour, namely, one on the eastern side, which was protected by the -promontory bounding the bay; and one on the western side, protected by a -reef of rocks running in a westerly direction from the original island, -and the projecting point of the bay to the west, so that the western -harbour was tolerably well shielded on all sides, with the exception of -the entrances between the rocks on the north; but through these only a -comparatively small amount of swell can penetrate. It contains space -for all the vessels that are likely to frequent this port, and the -accommodation may be further increased, to almost any extent required, -by making docks inland. It is true that in order to connect this port -with the Nile above the bars and the interior country, a canal or other -means of communication was requisite. A canal at that time was the only -effectual method known, and this was accordingly adopted, and was made -to the Canopic branch of the Nile, skirting along the shores of the Lake -Mareotis for a considerable distance; but it was frequently filled up -by the sand blown in from the desert and the adjacent shores. This sand -was as constantly removed, and the communication between Alexandria -and the Nile more or less imperfectly preserved. In 1851 the Pacha -completed a line of railway between Alexandria and Cairo, and thus got -rid of the uncertainty and expense of maintaining the canal and the -river navigation. This railway was made under the direction of the late -eminent engineer, Mr. Robert Stephenson, and now a perfect and economical -communication is kept up by this means between Alexandria, Cairo, and the -interior. - -The eastern harbour of Alexandria, the water being very shallow, is now -scarcely used except for the small coasting vessels; but it does not -appear that in either the eastern or western harbours there is any -material tendency to shoal. - -When I was there, Alexandria, although possessing considerable trade, -was but a poor place compared to the present city, and all the business -of shipping, transhipping, and storing of goods was carried on in a very -rude and costly manner, which is now materially changed for the better. - -Besides Pompey’s Pillar, the other important relic is Cleopatra’s Needle, -then as now lying prostrate. This needle was given to the British army, -and a large subscription, amounting it is said to about 20,000_l._, -was raised to transport it to England, and there to erect it in some -conspicuous place in the metropolis, as a trophy of the signal success -of the British army. For some reason or other, never properly explained, -this has never been done, although seventy years have elapsed since the -money was subscribed. When I returned from Upper Egypt, in the month -of March, 1821, I found that the English Government, after repeated -applications, had sent the ‘Spry,’ sloop of war, commanded by Captain -Boswell, with my old friend and schoolfellow, Captain Wright, of the -Royal Engineers, to report upon the cost, and the best plan for bringing -Cleopatra’s Needle to England; but this all ended in nothing being done, -although Captain Wright’s report was very favourable, both as to the cost -and feasibility. - -On reaching Cairo I had an audience with the celebrated or notorious -pasha, Mehemet Ali. He received me with great dignity and civility, and -said that the English were his best friends, upon which I could not help -saying to myself, Thank God we are not his subjects! He was no doubt a -very remarkable man--cool, determined, able, and courageous. He reduced -the turbulent rulers and Bedouin tribes of Egypt to subjection, and -procured a degree of tranquillity and peace for the oppressed inhabitants -which they had not enjoyed for many generations; and if he plundered -them himself, he would allow no one else to do so. Nevertheless, one -cannot but be horrified at the atrocities with which all this was -accompanied and accomplished. While here I saw a few Mamelukes who had -escaped the massacre of 1809, and who were permitted to reside here. I -was much struck by their martial air, their richly-embroidered costumes, -and superbly mounted pistols and scimitars. As a body they were nearly -exterminated, the survivors being allowed to subsist on the little -property saved from the wreck. Egypt, like Constantinople, has since -been so well described, and is now so well known (though at that time -my journey to the second cataract was deemed extraordinary), that it is -unnecessary for me to go over the same ground. - -I hired a khangé, or small boat, manned by a reis, or captain, and eight -rowers, with a tolerably comfortable raised cabin behind, divided into -two parts, in neither of which, however, could I stand upright. But -by this time I had become pretty well accustomed to the usages of the -country, and my limbs being tolerably supple, I did not much mind it. I -engaged the khangé at so much per month, I finding provisions for myself -and servants, the reis agreeing to do the same for himself and his crew. -Having stocked my boat with everything we were likely to require for -four months, I embarked at Bouloe, accompanied by my servant Demetrius -and a janissary. We came to anchor every night near the most convenient -village, and started next morning soon after daybreak. At midday I halted -for an hour, and sometimes more, in order to allow the captain and his -crew to take their dinner comfortably, whilst I and my servants took -ours. When the wind was unfavourable the crew were obliged to row or -track the boat against the current; at such times I used to land and walk -along the bank, gun in hand, exploring the adjacent antiquities or the -surrounding country; and I found that I could easily keep pace with the -boat. Where there was any object particularly worthy of remark, I had -the boat moored as near to the bank as I could, whilst I went ashore, -examined, sketched, and measured the objects in question at my leisure, -and in this way I took measurements of all the edifices of any note. -When there were none, I used to indulge in a sporting excursion, and -found ample amusement. I not only procured many interesting objects of -natural history, but shot numerous wild fowl, that were a very welcome -addition to my table. Thus I passed a very agreeable time. Never idle -for a moment--always employed, either for instruction or amusement; and -my whole time was my own. I carried my house with me; and when there was -nothing interesting on the route, and I had filled my book with sketches, -if my journal was in arrear, I used to remain in the boat posting it up, -whilst we were sailing, tracking, or rowing. - -On my way up a sad accident deprived me of the services of my faithful -attendant--I may say friend--Demetrius. We met a boat, having on board -the O’Conor Don, Captain Groding, and another, coming down. They hailed -us, and as they were short of provisions, I gave them a liberal supply, -and invited them to dinner, the two crews regaling themselves and firing -_feux de joie_ at the same time. Suddenly a tremendous explosion, -followed by a loud cry, was heard, and hastening on deck I found poor -Demetrius covered with blood from two deep wounds in the throat and -breast, his pistol having burst in his hand. At first I thought it -would have been fatal, the effusion of blood was so great. I succeeded, -however, in tying up the wounds and stopping the hemorrhage. It was then -a question what should be done with him, as I was not surgeon enough -to cure him, and no advice was to be had. In this emergency my new -friends were so kind as to offer to take him to Cairo, where he could -be properly attended to. I gladly accepted the offer, and supplied him -with a sufficient sum of money, and requested them to place him in charge -of the Consul, with directions to procure the best medical advice, for -which I was of course responsible. Independently of the accident, I was -much grieved to part with him, and was at first greatly at a loss for his -services; but my janissary, an Italian turned Mussulman, and who spoke -Arabic very well, and was not a bad cook, cheerfully consented to do what -he could; and the reis also, a very civil fellow, as well as his crew, -did all in their power to compensate me for the loss of Demetrius, so -that after a short time we managed between us to get along pretty well. - -I will only add one more incident, because it seems to show that the -serpents used by serpent-charmers are not always deprived of their fangs, -as is usually supposed, but that there is some real secret which renders -them harmless or powerless. I was measuring the Temple of Edfou, when I -saw a peculiarly venomous serpent come out of its hole, whilst an Arab -boy who stood by fixed his eye steadily upon it the moment he saw it, -the reptile fixing his eyes on the boy. The lad began waving his hands -gently up and down, humming a peculiar tune in a low, monotonous tone. -The serpent seemed to be charmed, and lay perfectly still, listening to -and keeping its eyes attentively on the boy, who, finding that he had -charmed it, was about to secure it; but at this I was so horrified, that -I took up a large stone and killed the reptile. The boy was very angry, -and assailed me with the most vehement gestures and imprecations, at -which I laughed heartily. I afterwards learned that he was the son of a -serpent-charmer, and was collecting these reptiles for his father. - -In proceeding along the banks of the Nile, I observed that the land -inclined from the margin of the river to the base of the adjacent hills. -This is nothing more than might have been expected, as it is usual under -all similar circumstances, and is caused by the periodical inundation. -Thus, whenever the river rises above the margin, the current naturally -diminishes in velocity as it encroaches on the banks, and to a certain -extent becomes stagnant, and then deposits the alluvial matter with which -the waters are charged; and as the water spreads farther on both sides -from the main body of the river, it becomes clearer, and contains less -alluvial matter. This is a wise provision of nature, for it enables the -waters to extend a long way, and thus to irrigate a great extent of land. -In order to ensure this irrigation more effectually, it is only necessary -to keep open sufficient channels, which may be done with facility. But -suppose this was not the case; suppose the land farthest off silted -up first, then it would be necessary, for the purpose of irrigation, -to raise the water by artificial means at considerable extra cost, to -irrigate those lands farthest from the river. However, in process of -time, as the land rises both at the sides of the river and the parts more -remote from it where they have attained the utmost level of the floods, -recourse must be had to art to irrigate the lands, otherwise their -fertility and cultivation must cease, as the quantity of rainfall in the -lower valley of the Nile, as it passes through Egypt, is comparatively -trifling; in fact, the fertility of the country depends almost entirely -upon the floods. - -It is very probable that these waters might be utilized to a much greater -extent by establishing large reservoirs in the adjacent valleys, which -would be filled during the rising of the floods; and when these latter -have subsided, the stored-up water could be discharged during the dry -seasons for irrigation, navigation, and numerous other purposes. -According to the present system, a vast quantity of water is allowed -to waste, and the means of cultivating a large additional tract of -country, now a desert, is lost. This object might be carried still -farther by improving the channel of the Nile up to the great lakes of -Albert and Victoria Nyanza, for the most part now a marshy, pestiferous -district; this will very probably be done, as the subject becomes better -understood; indeed, it is surprising how little the advantages which -nature offers us in this respect are turned to account. - -The delta of the Nile, like other rivers of the same class and magnitude -under similar circumstances, advances outwards into the Mediterranean, -and in proportion as it moves forward, the depth of water increases, -and the width of the delta becomes greater, so that it requires a -larger quantity of alluvium to maintain its progress, which becomes -necessarily slower--that is, as far as concerns the alluvium brought down -by the Nile. But then it must be observed, that as the delta proceeds -outward, the stagnation produced by the protrusion of its apex into the -Mediterranean causes a greater accumulation of alluvial matter to be -deposited on both sides of the apex, and consequently two great bays are -formed, one on either side, although the shores of these bays necessarily -do not advance so rapidly as the centre portion. In proportion as the -several branches of the Nile advance seaward, so their courses become -lengthened, and consequently the total fall or inclination of the current -becomes diminished, so that it cannot keep them all open; and hence, out -of the eight branches or mouths of the Nile which existed in ancient -times, only two now remain--namely, the Damietta and Rosetta mouths, and -these are slowly deteriorating. - -Whilst upon this part of the subject, it may be advisable to make a -few remarks about the Suez Canal. This great work consists of an open -cutting or trench from the Bay of Pelusium (Port Said) to the Red Sea -at Suez, a total length of 99 miles, 196 feet wide at top, 72 feet -wide at bottom, and 26 feet deep, with side slopes of 2 to 1. At the -Mediterranean end there is a rise of tide or variation in the surface -of the sea of from 1 foot to 2 feet, and at the Suez end from 2 feet at -neaps to 6 feet at springs. - -On the Mediterranean the entrance to the canal is protected by an -artificial harbour composed of two piers carried from the shore. The -western pier is carried out 2400 yards in a straight line, pointing -towards the north, it then inclines slightly to the east for 330 yards, -so that the total length of the west breakwater or pier is 2730 yards, or -8190 feet. The eastern breakwater or pier is carried out from the shore -at a distance of 1530 yards from the commencement of the western pier, -and is extended in a northerly direction 2070 yards, where it terminates -at 760 yards from extremity of the west pier, which constitutes the -entrance. Thus the two piers enclose a space of 500 acres, with a depth -within of 26 feet. This harbour is said to be well protected against the -prevailing or north-west winds. - -This outer harbour, called Port Said, is connected with extensive quays -and basins within, from whence the canal proceeds across the isthmus. -At 52 miles from Port Said there is Lake Timsah; also Lake Ismaila and -the Bitter Lakes, at 57 miles from Port Said. These Bitter Lakes cover -a surface of about 100,000 acres, and will always ensure a considerable -draught or current from the Red Sea, to compensate for the large amount -of evaporation which is constantly going on, particularly during the -summer season, and is said to amount to about 250,000,000 cubic feet -daily. In order to supply fresh water to Suez, Ismaila, and Port Said, a -considerable channel has been made from the Nile, at Cairo, to Suez and -Ismaila, and a double line of cast-iron pipes between Ismaila and Port -Said, with pumping engines of the requisite power at the former place. - -The entrance to the Suez end of the canal is formed by an extensive -double embankment through the shoal water, increasing gradually from a -width of 72 feet at bottom, to 980 feet, where there is an open tidal -dock, with 26 feet depth at low water. - -This is no doubt a very extraordinary performance, rendered remarkable -for the vast amount of capital which has been raised by a single -individual--not an engineer--and the wonderful energy and perseverance -with which he has accomplished it, opposed by innumerable obstacles, -political and financial, which would have daunted and overwhelmed any -person of ordinary physical powers. Although as an engineering work it -is encountered by no unusual difficulties in the execution--being simply -a matter of digging and dredging upon a vast scale--yet it certainly -entitles M. Lesseps and his officers to _the greatest credit_. - -Having now generally described the canal, let us consider how far natural -obstacles exist which should cause any doubts as to its being possible -to maintain the canal at such an expense as will enable it to produce -something like a reasonable profit upon the capital expended in making it. - -These obstacles may be enumerated as follows: - -Firstly. The alluvial matter brought down by the Nile, and that from the -prevailing littoral westerly current in the Mediterranean. - -Secondly. The sands driven by the north-westerly winds into Port Said. - -Thirdly. The sands driven into Suez by the southerly winds. - -Fourthly. The sands driven into the canal from the surrounding deserts by -the kamsin, or south-east winds. - -Fifthly. From the great evaporation which will take place, and the -consequent requirement of a corresponding supply of water both from the -Mediterranean and the Red Sea. - -Sixthly. Whether the expenses which must necessarily be incurred in -overcoming these obstacles will amount to such a sum as will render the -canal practically useless, that is to say, that it will not be worth the -while of the Company to maintain it. - -Before considering these important questions, it will be right to -investigate the natural causes which have formed the Isthmus of Suez. -I think we may conclude that Africa was originally an island, and that -by degrees the waters of the Red Sea, driven in by the southerly winds, -and those of the Mediterranean, driven by the northerly winds, brought -with them a great quantity of alluvial matter; at the junction of these -waters the currents would be destroyed, and the alluvium with which the -waters were charged would be deposited and form a bank or bar, which by -degrees rose above the ordinary level of the sea. This bank, once formed, -would continually increase, not only from the alluvium brought in by the -seas, but also from the sands blown in by the northerly and southerly -winds from the surrounding deserts; and thus, in the process of time, the -present isthmus would be formed. I think that the practical evidence of -this is undoubted. The same operations are still in existence, and it is -simply a question of time as to the increase. - -Having discussed the cause of the formation of the isthmus, I will now -proceed to consider the objections or obstacles above mentioned. With -regard to the first, the waters of the Nile are constantly bringing down -alluvial matter, but whether the quantity brought down now is the same as -formerly, or greater or less, is a question which nothing but experience -can decide. But as far as experiments have already been made, it appears -that the accumulation which has already taken place is considerable, and -if it proceeds in the same ratio as hitherto, it must shortly become a -very serious question whether it should be removed or not, and whether it -might not be remunerative to do so. - -Secondly. With regard to the sands driven in by the northerly winds; -these must be very considerable, and not being able to escape, they -must accumulate and tend to fill up the harbour; this will necessitate -constant dredging to keep it open. - -Thirdly. The sands driven by the tide and the southerly winds into the -Suez end of the canal. These also must be very considerable, as is -already evinced by the great extent of shallow water at the northern -extremity of the Red Sea. This also must be reduced by dredging. - -Fourthly. With regard to the quantity of sand which may be expected to be -driven into the other parts of the canal from the surrounding deserts, -during the winter and spring prevailing kamsin, or southeasterly gales. -This quantity has been proved by one year’s experience to be not less -than 310,000 cubic yards, and at times it may possibly be much more. It -is proposed to check this by planting the sides of the canal with trees. -Still a great deal of dredging must be constantly required. - -Fifthly. The evaporation from the Bitter Lakes, and parts of the canal -adjacent, is said to be 250,000,000 cubic feet of water, which is -equivalent to about three-quarters of an inch daily. This water will have -to be supplied chiefly from the Red Sea; and as it will have to pass -through such a narrow channel, the velocity of the current will probably -amount to two or three miles per hour, and if the banks of the canal -are not well secured by paving, or similar works, they will be liable -to be seriously affected. The constant indraught of the current will -impede vessels coming from the Mediterranean, whilst it will facilitate -the passage of vessels coming from the Red Sea; and in the same manner -there will be a constant current from the Mediterranean, but by no means -to so great an extent. These currents will also very probably bring -in a considerable quantity of alluvium. They will not, however, very -materially interfere with the passage of steam-vessels, although, if the -latter are permitted to go at full speed, the waves produced by them will -scour away the sides considerably, unless well protected by stone paving, -fagoting, or similar works. - -Upon the whole, viewing the difficulties above mentioned, the question -naturally arises, whether they are of such a character as to be -insurmountable; and to this I think we may safely say that they are -not. What has been done once, as has been proved by the completion of -the canal, can be done again, and will be maintained with much less -difficulty. So far, therefore, viewed simply as a work of engineering, -it resolves itself into a question of cost, or in other words, will -the work pay as a commercial speculation, seeing that it has already -cost 20,000,000_l._, and a great deal more is still required before it -can be said to be quite complete, besides a very large sum for annual -maintenance, and what this last item will be it is very difficult to -decide, and nothing but experience can prove; still the more the canal -becomes known, the more in all probability will it be used, and therefore -the more money will be available for keeping it in repair. In addition to -the dredging, it is very probable that the piers, both at Port Said and -Suez, will have to be extended considerably. - -The whole of the valley of the Nile, from the head of the delta below -Cairo, is bordered by ridges of sandstone hills a few hundred feet -high, with generally a plain monotonous tableland above, intersected by -numerous ravines; no granite appears until we reach Assouan. In the -vicinity of this place there are numerous quarries of fine granite, -chiefly red; the masses are so compact that blocks of almost any size may -be obtained from near the surface. From this district all the granite for -the obelisks, statues, and columns of the various buildings, temples, -and pyramids on both sides of the valley have been taken. Transported -in flat-bottomed boats and rafts to the places where they were intended -to be used, they were landed by means of inclined planes of wood, with -rollers, and wedges, assisted by numerous rough capstans or windlasses, -worked by countless gangs of men. This work appears to have been done -with considerable skill, and the necessary combined operations were -carried on simultaneously, by means of well-concerted signals. These -operations are very clearly explained by the sculptured figures, and have -been published by Sir Gardner Wilkinson and others. - -Whilst examining the granite quarries near Assouan, I observed several -imperfect blocks, which the Egyptians had commenced quarrying, but found -them defective, and ceased working them. The mode of quarrying seems to -have been nearly the same as we employ at the present time, namely, by -wedges, levers, and pickaxes. Even if gunpowder had been known it would -have been of very little use, for it would have in most cases destroyed -the blocks, and the waste would have been enormous. - -It does not quite clearly appear of what metal the tools were composed -with which they worked the granite, whether of iron or bronze; if of the -former, it must have been case-hardened. The polishing would be done by -attrition with emery or sharp silicious sand. As for the stone, being -sandstone, it was easily worked, and softer tools only were required. - -As soon as I got back to Alexandria my first inquiries were for poor -Demetrius. To my great delight I found him quite recovered, and -overjoyed at seeing me; but he said he had been very ill for six weeks, -and had several times considered himself dying. I immediately set to -work making arrangements for my journey overland to Palestine, when -I was suddenly interrupted by letters from my father, saying that he -was very unwell, and wishing me to come back as soon as possible. I -instantly dismissed Demetrius with a very handsome gratuity, discontinued -my preparations, and, through Mr. Lee, our Consul at Alexandria, hired -a passage to Malta in a merchant vessel. I was, however, laid up for -several days at Cairo with fever, which was not pleasant, as the plague -was then raging. As soon as I was sufficiently recovered I proceeded -to Alexandria, where I found that the merchantman had already sailed. -However, as I have said before, Captain Boswell, with H.M. sloop, the -‘Spry,’ was there, having Captain Wright on board, and the latter having -finished his report on Cleopatra’s Needle, the sloop was about to return -to Malta, and they very kindly offered me a passage. This I gladly -accepted, and on arriving at Malta found that the plague had broken out -on board the merchantman in which I had engaged a passage, and that -several of the crew had died. She was then in quarantine, and before long -everyone on board died of the plague, and I saw the ship burnt. I humbly -thanked an all-merciful Providence for its inscrutable dispositions. - -At Malta, though better, I still retained the fever, and consulted Dr. -Groves, the head of the naval medical department. He looked very grave -and said little, but recommended me to go to England as soon as possible, -while he told a friend of mine that he did not think I should recover, -the fever having taken such hold of my constitution. However, by the aid -of bark and port wine I became temporarily myself, and as soon as I was -able I proceeded to pay my visits. I called on the Commander-in-Chief -of the Mediterranean squadron, Sir Graham Moore, who gave me every -assistance in his power, and introduced me to Admiral Woolley, chief of -the dockyard, to whom and his amiable wife I owe my gratitude for their -kind hospitality. They introduced me to Sir Manly Power, the commander of -the military forces, and from him and the various messes of the regiments -composing the garrison I met with the most friendly reception. I here -made the acquaintance of Mr. Strutt, one of the sons of Mr. Strutt, of -Belper, and with him I explored both Malta and Gozo. He shortly after -left for Greece and the East, where he died of malaria, which I much -regretted, as he was a remarkably fine, intelligent, and spirited young -man. - -While I was here His Majesty George IV.’s birthday was celebrated with -the greatest _éclat_. At twelve o’clock the entire garrison was reviewed -by Sir Manly Power, with the usual salutes from the forts and ships -of war. At sunset all the guns on the works were fired. This was a -magnificent sight, and, that I might see it properly, I was invited to -dine at the artillery mess at St. Elmo, from whence the first gun was -fired; this was taken up by fort after fort until the entire fortress -seemed in a blaze, and the whole was terminated by a magnificent bouquet -of rockets. - -I embarked for Naples on board a cutter commanded by Mr. Thurtle, one -of the oldest midshipmen in the navy. He was a very peculiar and rather -eccentric character, rough and sarcastic in manner, an excellent sailor, -and a kind-hearted man. His long service and great experience rendered -him well known throughout the navy, and his wit and good-humour made -him a favourite wherever he went; in fact, he was a privileged person -throughout the fleet, and enabled to assume a character which few -officers of far higher rank thought of attempting. Unfortunately he was -the brother of that daring and dissipated criminal who shortly afterwards -murdered his companion, Welsh, at Elstree, for which he was hanged at -the Old Bailey. This was a sad blow to the poor midshipman, and one from -which I afterwards heard that he never recovered. My voyage with him was -most agreeable. He was very kind and attentive, full of fun and humour, -yet never for a moment neglecting his duties, and he kept his crew and -ship in the most perfect order. - -On landing at Naples I got apartments in the Gran Bretagna (then, and -I believe now, the principal hotel), with more ease than usual, in -consequence of the rapid advance of an Austrian army, thirty thousand -strong, commanded by General Baron Pirmont, at the request of the King of -Naples. I saw them enter, and very fine troops they were, especially the -Tyrolese yagers. Later on, when I wished to make an excursion to Pæstum, -I obtained, through the kindness of the colonel of the regiment, two -Tyrolese corporals as escort. They sat, rifle in hand, on the box of my -carriage, and mounted guard while I sketched. We saw several ill-looking -fellows, armed, prowling about, but none dared venture within reach of -the rifles. Letters from my father reached me here, saying that he was -a good deal better, and that there was no necessity for my hurrying; -I therefore, while still hastening home, thought I might allow myself -a few days on the road to visit those objects of interest which I had -previously omitted. - -While at Naples I also examined an open pier, of which there are numerous -specimens about the bay. This pier is constructed in a peculiar manner -of pozzolana mixed up with irregular-shaped pieces of brick, marble, and -tufa, or volcanic stone. The piers were formed by enclosing the space in -a wooden dam or box, then filling it with the materials above mentioned, -which after a short time set under water, and became a solid mass; the -cofferdam was then removed and the pier left standing; then another was -constructed in the same manner, until the required number were completed; -upon these piers arches were built, and upon the top of them a roadway -and parapet were constructed. The piers were about the same thickness, or -rather greater, than the span of the arches. The object of the openings -and piers was to provide a barrier which should be just sufficient to -break the swell, but not large enough to obstruct the current, as the -latter prevented any sediment from accumulating on either side of the -pier. This is a very ingenious and novel mode of constructing piers, -and it is strange that a like method has not been adopted in England, -where the vast quantity of alluvial matter carried by the currents along -our coasts accumulates round solid piers, and frequently fills up the -harbours, rendering them almost useless, unless the accumulated matter be -removed by dredging at continual expense. - -Whilst breakfasting at the hotel at Pozzoli I felt an attack of my old -enemy, the malaria fever, coming on; I therefore got back to Naples as -soon as possible, and was obliged to go to bed, and there I remained -for several days perfectly helpless. Thinking it would leave me, I did -not send for medical advice. However, finding myself gradually getting -worse, I was recommended to send for Dr. Roskilly, formerly an army -surgeon, who had now established himself at Naples as a physician, and -from his well-known skill and courteous manners had obtained considerable -practice, particularly amongst the English. He came, and I found him -such as described; he examined me carefully, and, after a considerable -time of grave consideration, he said that I was in a very bad way, that -the fever had got such a strong hold of me that it was continually -undermining my constitution, and that, if not speedily arrested, he -could not answer for the consequences; indeed, I might not live to see -England. The worthy doctor, with whom I was much pleased, then left, -and promised to return the next day at the same time, which he did. He -then said that he had given my case his utmost consideration, and he was -more than ever convinced that some decisive measure was necessary. My -constitution was still good, and strong enough for the measure he would -propose; and if I would submit to him, he felt confident that he could -carry me through. He explained his remedy, which was nothing more or less -than that I should take blue pill, as much as I was able; this, he said, -would thoroughly eradicate the fever. I accordingly consented, as my case -was desperate. It succeeded completely after about a fortnight’s trial. -I felt very weak, but I was entirely a different man. I soon began to -recover strength and appetite, and in about another week I was enabled -to go out, and became myself again. No doubt the remedy was severe, but -I must in justice to the able doctor say that he perfectly cured me; for -although in after life I was frequently exposed to malaria influence in -the fens of Lincolnshire, Walcheren, the worst parts of Holland, Tunis, -and elsewhere, I never had an attack of the malaria fever. - -On my way northwards I stopped two days at Mola di Gaeta, where the -Apennines approach the sea, and where are numerous traces of the villas -of the old Roman aristocracy; it was well I did so, for the brigands had -mustered in great strength in the adjoining mountains, and committed many -atrocities; amongst other things, they had just carried off a number -of pupils from a neighbouring school. The Austrians, who were there in -great force, at the request of the local authorities came to the rescue. -A very strong patrol of cavalry kept the main roads, while a still more -numerous body of Tyrolese swept the valleys and penetrated the recesses -of the mountains. The brigands at first defied their pursuers, but -finding themselves hard pressed, they killed their unfortunate prisoners. -On hearing this the Austrians attacked at once, and having slain a great -number, made the rest prisoners. I saw about thirty chained together, -who, I believe, were all shot the next day. The road being now clear, I -resumed my journey. - -At Florence I carefully examined and measured the celebrated bridge -of the Most Holy Trinity, by Ammanati, across the Arno, near the -Gran Bretagna. This beautiful structure, a masterpiece in the art of -bridge-building, consists of three arches; the arches may be termed -semi-elliptic, slightly pointed at the crown; perhaps they might be more -appropriately termed Gothi-elliptic. The slight pointing at the crown -may have been done to allow for sinking, which did not take place to the -extent calculated upon. Each of the arches is surrounded with a moulded -archivolt of equal thickness throughout, with an ornamented scroll or -shield in the centre of the spandril walls supporting the roadway, which -is bounded by a solid panelled bridge. The piers are terminated by acute -angular buttresses carved up to the top, and panelled also. The whole -is built of marble, and is certainly one of the lightest, most elegant, -and most scientific structures of the kind in existence. Some doubts as -to its stability have existed at various times; nevertheless, it still -exists without a flaw, and as a model to engineers and architects. - -I visited the magnificent picture gallery of the Palazzo Pitti, replete -with choice specimens of the great Italian masters. The palace itself -is a fine example of the simple, massive, rusticated style, devoid of -ornament. The effect is imposing, and shows what may be done by bold, -well-defined masses, without resorting to that exuberant over-ornamented -style, intermixed with all sorts of coloured marble, so much the fashion -of the present day, particularly in England, where the climate is -peculiarly unsuited for it; in any case it can only be termed a vitiated -taste. If the building is well designed and properly grouped in effective -masses, so as to give well-defined portions of light and shade, there can -be no need of extraneous ornaments, as they only detract from the general -effect; and where a building is not well designed no ornament can render -it effective. - -The port of Leghorn consisted of several solid stone piers, which did not -appear to be laid out in the most scientific manner, and considerable -improvements were in contemplation when I saw it. The great difficulty -it has to contend with is the quantity of alluvial matter brought down -by the Arno, which spreads along the coast for some distance both to -the north and south. This might be obviated by judiciously adopting the -principle of open piers, as invented by the Romans, so as to allow the -littoral current full scope; this would sweep away the alluvium as fast -as it was deposited, and the requisite protection from westerly winds -might be easily obtained if the works were constructed on a proper system. - -Passing by Carrara, I was much struck by the waste consequent on the -clumsy method of working the quarries, and of transporting and loading -the blocks. It occurred to me at the time how easy it would be to -construct an iron tramway from the quarries to the shore, with a suitable -pier furnished with powerful derricks at its termination, and this, -with proper machinery for quarrying, all of which would have cost but -little, would materially reduce the price of the marble, and consequently -increase the demand. - -As I passed the magnificent and well-protected Gulf of Spezzia, I -thought, “What a splendid site for a naval arsenal!” This idea has -now been at least partially carried into effect, and if the works are -properly designed and executed, it ought to be one of the finest in -Europe. - -The morning after my arrival at Genoa I arose early, quite refreshed, and -went first to the harbour, which I had always heard was one of the finest -works of the kind in the world, and as such my excellent father expected -that I should give him a complete account of it. I therefore examined it -very minutely, and took great pains in tracing, sketching, and measuring -it, when I could do so without being observed, for there was a good -deal of jealousy about it. At first sight I was very much struck by the -extent and magnificence of the bay, with the fine old town rising like -a vast amphitheatre of palaces round it, surrounded by a huge circle of -forts which crowned the summits of the hills; and by the great extent and -massiveness of the two outer moles, the depth of water enclosed within -them being capable of receiving at all times the largest vessels of war. -But when I began to examine more narrowly I found that there, was a great -error in the design of the main or outer moles. The southern, which was -the longest, consisted of two arms, the outer one inclining inward at -a considerable angle, whilst the northern mole consisted of a single -straight line projecting from the shore in a south-south-west direction, -so that the entrance pointed south-south-west, and was consequently -exposed to the full effect of the severe gales which blow up the Gulf of -Lyons during the winter and autumn months; the consequence is that during -severe gales from this quarter a heavy swell sets into the entrance and -produces such a strong current throughout the interior of the harbour -that vessels in front of the town and under the southern mole can -scarcely ride with safety at their moorings. This is a serious defect, -and it might be easily remedied, although up to the present I have not -heard that anything has been done. In the construction of the works -there was nothing particular to find fault with, but there was a serious -error committed in the disposal of the sewage; the whole of this was -discharged into the harbour, so that in hot weather a most disagreeable -effluvia arose in front of the lower part of the town; moreover, it -caused the accumulation of a considerable quantity of alluvial matter. -This had to be removed by constant dredging, in which convict labour was -employed. The alluvium was emptied into lighters and sent out to sea to -be discharged. The old arsenal was situated at the south-east corner of -the inner harbour; it was quite unequal to the requirements of modern -times. - -While I was at Genoa an accident occurred by which my old acquaintance -the sloop ‘Spry’ was nearly lost. Captain Boswell, having served his -time, had been succeeded by another captain, who, contrary to strict -rule, had his wife on board. The evening on which the captain had given -orders to prepare for sailing there happened to be a grand ball in the -town, and the lady persuaded her husband to take her, and defer sailing -to the morrow. By this time the ‘Spry’ had left the harbour, and lay at -single anchor outside the north mole. During the night a strong gale -sprung up from the south. As the ship could not regain her old position -the officer in command let go two more anchors, but two cables having -parted she dragged her third anchor, and was driven close to the rocks. -No assistance could be given from the shore, and, as her position seemed -hopeless, the officers and crew took to their boats, and managed to -get off in safety. To the astonishment of everybody, however, the last -cable held, and the recoil of the waves, so close was she to the rocks, -actually prevented her from striking, and so she remained until the gale -abated, and the ship was saved. The odd part of it was, that when the -crew were about leaving the ship my old friend Dr. Biggar was asleep -in the cabin, and when aroused flew into a violent rage, and threw a -bootjack at the head of the midshipman who woke him. After several -ineffectual attempts, the midshipman was obliged to leave him, and he -turned round and slept soundly till the morning. Judge of his surprise -when he awoke and found what had happened during the night! - -After passing rapidly through France, I embarked from Boulogne, September -23, 1821, in a small packet, during a very strong gale, with about fifty -other passengers. - -The following day we started with the morning’s tide with about seventy -passengers, of whom Colonel Hylton Jolliffe, a friend of my father’s, -was one. We left Boulogne about eleven, and reached Dover at 2 P.M.; -I directly started by coach for London, and reached my father’s, 27, -Stamford Street, the same night. I found him in very bad health, lying -upon the sofa in the principal front bedroom; he was glad to see me. - -He continued in the same weak state, although in perfect possession of -all his great faculties, dictated to me several letters on business, and -talked of sundry new works that he was about to undertake, particularly -the new London Bridge, and the removal of the old one, which had been -for some time under discussion in Parliament; a Bill for this purpose -had actually been introduced during the past session, and my father -had been requested to prepare a design for it, which he did, and it -was very similar to that since executed by myself. My father’s bodily -health appeared to decline gradually; he was confined almost to the sofa, -and could do little more than walk across the room; in this manner he -continued until the 3rd of October. He went to bed as usual, perfectly -sensible and composed, and hoped that he would soon be better, as he -was most anxious to return to business and make up for lost time. I -went to his room on the morning of the 4th of October, and found that -a considerable change for the worse had taken place; he seemed to -be in much pain, and was walking about the room, evidently scarcely -knowing what he was about. I got him into bed, and immediately sent for -his physician, Dr. Ainslie, who had known him all his life, but he was -unfortunately out of town. The apothecary, Mr. Welbank, came, and we -consulted together as to whom we should send for, and ultimately summoned -Dr. Roberts, who, although in good practice, had never seen my father, -and consequently knew nothing of his constitution or complaints. He did -the best he could, but evidently thought the case was very serious. My -father lay in bed all day, almost unconscious, although I thought he knew -me. I remained with him nearly the whole day, and about five o’clock in -the afternoon he appeared to be sinking fast, and breathed very heavily, -which alarmed us all excessively. In a short time this ceased, his -features began gradually to relax, and he breathed his last at half-past -five on the afternoon of the 4th of October, 1821, in the sixty-first -year of his age. - -The disease which killed my poor father was that of the kidneys and -liver, as far as we could ascertain. All my brothers and sisters were -assembled round his deathbed. It was a sad, sad sight, and afflicted us -most severely; we had, however, the melancholy satisfaction of having -done all in our power, though of no avail, to arrest the fatal event. -He was universally known and respected; the news of his death spread -immediately throughout the town, the public papers were filled with -leading articles giving accounts of his public and private life, and -everybody deplored his loss. One of the most powerful and touching -articles was written by his talented friend Perry, the proprietor of the -‘Morning Chronicle,’ who was then at Brighton in bad health, and died -there three months afterwards. - -It seemed to be the universal wish that he who had rendered so many -services to his country and was so generally beloved, should be buried -in St. Paul’s, and arrangements were made accordingly. The funeral took -place a few days afterwards, at eleven o’clock, and he was attended to -his last resting-place by a vast concourse of literary, scientific, and -private friends. The late talented John Wilson Croker, Esq., then First -Secretary of the Admiralty, wrote the epitaph, which was composed in the -most feeling and scholar-like manner for which that able gentleman was so -particularly well qualified. - - [1] Let me here relate an anecdote of the almost incredible - instinct of the dog. Passing by the palace of the Austrian - viceroy, I observed a dog sitting with an air of profound - melancholy before one of the sentry-boxes. Colonel Brown, - our representative, who was then with me, said that this dog - formerly belonged to a soldier of the body-guard of Eugène - Beauharnois, the viceroy, and accompanied his master to Moscow. - The man never returned, but upwards of two years afterwards the - dog did, and resumed his station before his former master’s - sentry-box. After a time the dog came to be talked about, - and at length the viceroy, an Austrian archduke, had him - brought into the palace and tried to domesticate him, but he - always returned to the sentry-box, where he lay motionless, - and at times moaning. Seeing this, the archduke ordered him - daily rations, and he was placed in the sentry’s orders for - protection, and in this state I saw him; but a short time after - the dog died, apparently inconsolable. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Eau Brink Cut--Ramsgate Harbour--Sheerness Dockyard--Plymouth - Breakwater--Anecdote of the late Mr. J. Fox--London Bridge and - Approaches--Sir F. Trench’s Plan for Quaying the Thames--Nene - Outfall--Cross Keys Bridge--Norfolk Estuary--Improvement of the - Witham--Ancholme Drainage. - - -It was some time before I could recover from the shock. I had been -absent abroad nearly two years and four months, and had passed through -so many different scenes, that when I returned to England everything -seemed perfectly new to me; being deprived of my father so unexpectedly -threw me almost into a state of despair, so that I scarcely felt myself -equal to undertake the responsibility of following his noble career, -which I could never expect to equal. After giving way to my melancholy -reflections for about a month, I determined to rouse myself to the -utmost and to do my best, and with his brilliant example before me, and -cheered on by his numerous attached friends, I felt that if I had no -chance of attaining the same degree of celebrity as my dear father, I -might still do something, and although _lungo intervállo_, I might still -keep up the name. I determined therefore to set to work in right earnest -and endeavour to obtain some of my father’s numerous appointments. My -first ambition was to succeed him in his numerous great works then being -carried on by the Admiralty, such as the Plymouth Breakwater, and the new -Chatham and Woolwich dockyards. - -That most excellent and able man, the late Lord Melville, was at the head -of the Admiralty; the distinguished and gallant Sir George Cockburn, one -of Nelson’s officers at the Nile and elsewhere, was the First Naval Lord; -John Wilson Croker and Sir John Barrow were the Secretaries; and there -never has been such a galaxy of talent at the Admiralty since. All these -great and good men have since passed away from us, not without, however, -leaving behind them indisputable monuments of their skill and the great -benefits they conferred upon their country. As for myself, I owe them -my deepest gratitude, and shall never forget their kindness. I was -appointed by the Admiralty to succeed my father as their engineer. This -high honour at my early age (for I was only seven-and-twenty) filled me -with the greatest thankfulness, although I felt it was due to no merit of -my own, but rather to the regard and respect which they entertained for -my father; I therefore resolved to do everything in my power to render -myself worthy of it, and set to work with right good will. - -The next appointment I obtained was as drainage engineer to the Eau Brink -Commissioners. This was at that time the greatest work of the kind, at -the head of which were the late General Lord William Bentinck, afterwards -Governor-General of India; the late Sir Andrew Hammond, Bart.; the late -Sir Charles Browne, physician to the King of Prussia; and the late -Thomas Hoseason, Esq., of Banklands, in the district of Marshland, near -Lynn. These able and distinguished men formed the Committee for carrying -into effect the Eau Brink Cut, for the improvement of the drainage of -the great level of the fens, called the Bedford Level, amounting to -about 300,000 acres of valuable land. This work consisted of a cut for -altering the channel of the Ouse, by means of which nearly two miles of -the navigation of that river would be saved, and an additional fall for -the drainage of five feet perpendicular would be gained. This great work -had been planned nearly a century before, but had always been opposed -by the inhabitants of the fens, as being in their opinion inadequate to -effect the desired object. At length, after great opposition on the part -of the townspeople, who alleged that it would ruin their harbour and -trade, the plan was decided on, and an Act of Parliament was obtained, -in the year 1781, to carry it into effect, and to lay a tax of 4_d._ per -acre per annum upon all fen lands which it was supposed would derive -benefit from it; certain guarantees were given to Lynn Harbour and the -interior navigation interests, as well as to the owners of the banks of -the Ouse, that they should be indemnified for any damages they might -sustain in consequence of the Eau Brink Cut being executed. Under this -Act it was decreed that there should be two engineers, one appointed by -the drainage interests, namely, the late Robert Mylne (the architect of -Blackfriars Bridge), and Sir Thomas Hyde Page, R.E., as the engineer -for navigation. These two gentlemen were to decide the direction and -dimensions of the proposed Eau Brink Cut, which was to commence below -German’s Bridge and to terminate a short distance above the boat wharf -at Lynn. They, however, differed so materially that it was necessary to -call in an umpire to decide between them, and the late scientific Captain -Joseph Huddart, of the Trinity Board, and the inventor of the celebrated -patent cable machinery, was appointed arbitrator. Captain Huddart made -his award; but when it was determined to carry on the works, it was found -that the whole of the funds appropriated for that purpose, which amounted -to about 80,000_l._, had been expended in litigation and the cost of -obtaining the Act of Parliament, so that the whole matter fell to the -ground. - -Meanwhile the defective state of drainage of the great level of the fens -still continued, and everybody was convinced that the only remedy was to -carry into effect the Eau Brink Cut as awarded by Captain Huddart. It was -therefore resolved that a new Act of Parliament should be obtained for -this purpose, increasing the tax upon the lands proposed to be benefited -sufficiently to cover the costs according to the estimate of my father, -who was appointed engineer-in-chief of the drainage interests; and the -above-mentioned gentlemen, Lord W. Bentinck, Sir A. Hammond, Sir Charles -Browne, and Thomas Hoseason, Esq., were appointed as the executive -committee. - -The Act having passed, Messrs. Jolliffe and Banks tendered for, and -received and executed the contract. - -The effect of this work greatly exceeded the most sanguine expectations -of its supporters. Immediately after it was opened the low-water mark at -the upper end of the cut fell five feet, and the drainage waters were -carried off with a degree of rapidity which astonished the whole country. -The autumn and winter of 1821-2 was characterized by an unusual quantity -of rainfall, and if it had not been for the opening of the Eau Brink -Cut the whole, or the greater part, of the level of the fens would have -been under water, and therefore the fenmen were very well pleased with -the result. At this time I was appointed to succeed my father as chief -drainage engineer, and the late Mr. Telford had been previously appointed -the chief engineer for navigation. Immediately after my appointment, -which was in the month of December, 1821, I went to Lynn to examine the -works, and was much astonished to find the great effects which had been -produced by the Eau Brink Cut. Instead of the circuitous old shallow -course, full of shoals and obstructions of every kind, there was a fine -straight, deep channel, two miles shorter than the old one, of the proper -width, bordered by strong banks of the full height; the floods passed off -without difficulty, and the navigation was so much improved that the -lighters and barges going up the river from Lynn saved several tides. -It is true that upon examining the country between Denver Sluice and -Cambridge, there was a great deal of water out in several places, but -this was attributed to the interior drains and rivers not being properly -defended and embanked, so that they could carry off the water to the main -outfall below. I also examined the new steam pumping apparatus, which had -lately been erected for draining Soham and other fens. This, although -proposed by my father in 1786, was the first of the kind that had been -erected. It consisted of a scoop wheel, with a perpendicular lift, worked -by a condensing engine. It answered its object completely, and has since -been imitated by numerous others with equal success in different parts -of the fen and lowland districts. Yet in many places it has been found -very difficult to induce the fen proprietors to combine together in order -to effect a natural drainage, which would be better and less expensive; -they prefer to act independently of each other, and adopt the steam -wheel. Still, even with this, the main outfalls must be improved to their -fullest extent, otherwise the water cannot run off; and when the floods -in the adjacent rivers rise so high that the banks are endangered, the -pumping must be discontinued, otherwise the banks will break, and then a -greater injury will ensue. Nevertheless, the steam pumping apparatus is -an immense improvement on the old windmill, which could only work when -there was wind. - -My next appointment was to succeed my father as engineer-in-chief to -Ramsgate Harbour. - -This harbour was established by special Act of Parliament for the purpose -of affording shelter to vessels of 300 tons lying in the Downs during -south-west gales. When these winds prevail that anchorage is crowded with -all classes of vessels, and the smaller ones, not being so well found -with ground tackle as the larger, are liable to be driven from their -moorings and fall foul of the larger vessels, causing them to go adrift -also, and thus creating considerable confusion and damage; but by having -Ramsgate under their lee, the small vessels can always get under way, -run for it at the commencement of the flood, and reach it in safety long -before high water, at which time the Goodwin Sands are covered, and a -heavy sea rolls into the Downs. In fact, Ramsgate Harbour was made for -clearing the Downs of small vessels, so that the large ones may ride in -safety, and so far has effectually answered its object. - -There were a certain number of trustees appointed under the Act, who -were selected from the principal merchants and shipowners of London, -and the Deputy Master and three or four Elder Brethren of the Trinity -were members of the Board of Trustees _ex officio_. At the time I was -appointed engineer, the celebrated Sir William Curtis, Bart., member for -the City of London, was chairman, and the worthy Deputy Master of the -Trinity House, Sir John Woolmore, represented that Corporation with three -others of the Elder Brethren. As this was one of the oldest and most -important harbour trusts in the kingdom, I felt great honour in being -appointed their chief engineer, the more so as the celebrated Smeaton and -my father had previously occupied that position. It was here that Smeaton -followed out the idea that had been originally proposed at Dundee, of -establishing an inner basin with sluices for the purpose of scouring -away the mud which continually accumulated in the outer harbour, owing -to the great quantity of alluvial matter brought in from the adjacent -coast and waters, which otherwise in a very short time would have filled -it up and rendered it useless. Ramsgate Harbour was also celebrated for -being the first place of the kind where the diving bell was introduced by -Smeaton for the purpose of laying down moorings and removing obstacles -under water. The diving bell was afterwards, in 1813, much improved, -and rendered, for the first time, applicable to building masonry under -water with as much security and accuracy as building upon dry land. In -such an exposed situation it was more economical and expeditious than -the old cofferdams; it was in this manner Mr. Rennie rebuilt the east -pier-head in 17 feet at low-water spring tides, which was originally made -by Smeaton, and which failed. I also succeeded my father at Sunderland, -Donaghadee, Port Patrick, and Kingstown harbours, the West India Docks, -besides other places soon afterwards, so that I had a large business, and -was daily getting more. - -The most difficult and anxious work, however, at that time was the -new dockyard at Sheerness, designed and partly carried into effect by -my father. He originally, in the year 1807, recommended that the old -dockyard, which was composed only of some old wooden slips imbedded in -the mud, a few storehouses, a wretched basin, lined with wooden walls, -and some timber jetties, should be abolished. He said that it was on the -lee or wrong side of the harbour, that the foundation for new works was -of mud and quicksand, that the space, on account of the buildings in the -old town, was very confined, and, therefore, that to make a good dockyard -there would be very expensive, and he thought it would be far better to -make a new complete establishment at Northfleet, just above Gravesend, -and to get rid of Woolwich, Deptford, and Sheerness altogether. Mr. Pitt, -then Prime Minister, decided that it should be done; but when he died the -matter fell to the ground, as I have before said, although the land was -bought for the purpose. - -However, after the great war had terminated, in 1815, the nation was -naturally anxious to reduce the expenditure as much as possible, so that -the House of Commons would not listen to the idea of expending any large -sums upon great new works either for the navy or the army; and it was -only after considerable difficulty that the House of Commons would grant -money for the repairs of Sheerness Dockyard, and, like most extensive -repairs, it was found, when too late, that it would have been far better -to have abandoned Sheerness altogether. - -Nevertheless it was absolutely necessary to do something to the Thames -and Medway dockyards, to keep in repair the large fleet of vessels which -was there laid up in ordinary. The total number of pennants flying at the -close of the war was about 1000, and the last vote for seamen in 1815 -included 127,000 sailors and marines. As there was greater depth of water -at Sheerness than at any of the dockyards, and as the harbour immediately -contiguous was capable of accommodating with ease any number of large -vessels, Sheerness was decided upon as the place where the greatest -repairs and improvements should be made, and it ended in an entirely new -dockyard being built. The works accordingly commenced in 1815, and the -late Lord Melville laid the first stone at the north end that year. It -ended in expending nearly 3,000,000_l._, 1,700,000_l._ of which went to -the engineering department, and the remainder in the purchase of ground, -buildings in the town of Sheerness, in storehouses, mast and timber -ponds, smithery, admiral’s and officers’ houses. The engineering works -were of the most difficult kind; the foundations were composed of nothing -but soft mud and loose quicksands to an almost interminable depth, so -that my father was obliged to invent an entirely new system of hollow -walls faced with granite in front and brick behind. This system of walls, -which was entirely new, by giving a greater superficial area of bearing -surface with the same weight of materials, rendered them thoroughly -secure. He had adopted this kind of construction with perfect success at -the docks at Great Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, and they succeeded equally -well at Sheerness, although exposed to much greater difficulties. The -dockyard as completed consists of one basin of nearly 3 acres, at the -east end of which are three docks for first-rate vessels of war, with a -depth of 9 feet at low water of spring tides, the basin being of the same -depth, so that with a rise of tide of 18 feet at spring tides the largest -vessels can always be docked at those times. There is also another tidal -basin of about the same size, together with large storehouses, smithery, -mast ponds, boathouses, admiral’s and officers’ houses, chapel, &c., and -ample space for timber and other materials. This dockyard, therefore, as -was the intention, is well adapted for keeping in repair the numerous -vessels lying up in ordinary in the adjacent harbour, or for executing -any repairs which vessels on the northern stations may require; it never -was intended to be a building yard, and it answers its original purpose -well. It should be mentioned, that here Mr. Rennie first introduced -cast-iron gates for the dry docks; these fitted to the granite quoins so -nicely by polishing the two surfaces, iron and stone, with emery, that -they worked together perfectly, and were completely water-tight; and -although they have now been in use forty-five years, they are as good as -on the day when they were made. - -At the time that these works were proceeding, it was decided to make a -new large granite dry dock at Chatham, similar to those at Sheerness; and -some improvements in the line of river wall, which partly interfered with -the free circulation of the tide there, were being constructed when I was -appointed, and I finished them. - -The breakwater in Plymouth Sound, which was designed by my father and -commenced in 1815, had made considerable progress; in fact, the great -mass of rubble stone had been deposited throughout its entire length, -so that vessels of war as well as merchantmen could safely lie under -its protection during the heaviest gales from the westward. When I was -appointed engineer to the Admiralty, the late excellent Mr. Joseph -Whidbey, who was distinguished for his scientific acquirements, and who -had sailed round the world with Vancouver, was the superintendent of the -breakwater, so that I had but little to do with it until the latter end -of 1824, when, on the 22nd and 23rd of November of that year, a violent -storm occurred from the south-south-west, the most dangerous wind, and -its effect upon the breakwater above low water of spring tides was to -disarrange nearly the whole of the superstructure, and to transfer a -very large portion of the stone from the south to the north slope. The -effects of this severe storm were considered to be so serious as to -create considerable doubts as to the security of the breakwater, and -even Mr. Whidbey was alarmed. I was accordingly sent by the Admiralty to -make a detailed report as to what had occurred. I carefully examined the -whole work, and had numerous transverse and longitudinal sections taken -to show its exact state, and reported that the main body of the work -remained as substantial as ever, but that the rubble from above low water -to the top, on the south or sea slope, had only been laid at an angle of -3 to 1, and the waves during the storm above mentioned had in a great -measure disturbed it, and had transferred a very large portion from the -south to the north slope, increasing the south slope to 5 to 1. Now it -is singular that my father, when it was decided to raise the breakwater -from the level of half tide (which was the original intention) to above -high water of spring tides, always said that the outer slope should be -laid at 5 to 1. After his death, however, Mr. Whidbey, with an idea of -economy, reduced the south slope to 3 to 1, so that the effects of the -storm had been to confirm my father’s views; and not only had no real -damage been done, but it had consolidated and strengthened the breakwater -materially, and had given a practical example as to the best mode of -completing it, and I recommended that the outer slope should be finished -at 5 to 1, and the inner at 2 to 1. The Admiralty, however, feeling their -responsibility, thought it advisable, in addition to myself, to consult -three other experienced engineers, and the late Mr. Telford, Mr. Josias -Jessop, and my eldest brother, George, were appointed for that purpose. - -We proceeded to Plymouth in the month of March, 1825, and spent several -days in examining the breakwater. We finally recommended that the outer -slope should be finished at 5 to 1 and the inner at 2 to 1 (as I had -previously suggested to the Admiralty), that the outer slope and top -should be paved with rough square blocks set closely together, and -that the inside slope should be paved with rubble. Mr. Whidbey was, -unfortunately, of a different opinion, and recommended a nearly vertical -wall of solid masonry on the top, of which the Admiralty did not approve, -and adopted our plan, which was ordered to be carried into effect. Mr. -Whidbey was so much annoyed that he resigned his situation and retired -into private life near Taunton. This was much regretted, as he was a most -able and honest public servant, and beloved and respected by everybody -who knew him. I was then appointed chief engineer, and upon considering -the subject again, I thought that, as the base or toe of the outer slope -was the most exposed part of the work, it would be better to strengthen -it by benching, which would effectually break the force of the waves -before they could reach the main body of the work. This was approved -by the Admiralty, and has since been carried into effect with complete -success. - -I may here relate a curious anecdote in connection with the death of Mr. -Perceval. Messrs. Fox, Williams, and Co., the great mining contractors in -Cornwall, took the first contract for blasting the rock and depositing -the stones on the breakwater. In 1815 Mr. John Fox, a Quaker, having -come to town on business, breakfasted with my father and several others, -including myself. The conversation happened to turn on the death of Mr. -Perceval. Mr. Fox said in a simple, unaffected manner, “I remember it -very well; it is a curious story, and now I will tell it you. I was then -visiting my friend Williams at Redruth. I went to bed as usual, and awoke -in a most restless state, having had an extraordinary dream. I dreamed -that I went to the House of Commons, where I had never been before, and -having no admission into the interior of the House, I sat down quietly -on one of the benches in the lobby, expecting a Cornish member who -had promised when I came to London to give me a ticket of admission -to hear the debates. Beside me on the bench sat a tall, muscular man -(describing Bellingham most exactly), who appeared to be very restless, -and continually asking whether Mr. Perceval had come to the House, and -every now and then putting his right hand into his left breast pocket. -At length, after waiting some minutes, there was a bustle, and several -persons near me said that Mr. Perceval was coming; and shortly after -Mr. Perceval made his appearance (Mr. Fox describing the exact dress -he wore, namely, a blue coat with gilt metal buttons, white cravat and -waistcoat, with nankeen shorts, white stockings, and shoes, according to -his usual attire in the summer). Immediately after Mr. Perceval made his -appearance, the man who sat next to me got up, and, advancing close to -Mr. Perceval, drew a pistol from his left breast pocket, fired, and Mr. -Perceval fell at his feet. This occasioned great commotion. The man who -fired the pistol was at once seized, and I rushed out and asked what -had happened, and the bystanders told me that Mr. Perceval had been shot -by a man named Bellingham, who was the identical individual who had been -a few minutes before sitting by my side. When my dream had come to this -point I awoke in the greatest agitation. I could not account for it. I -had never seen Mr. Perceval, nor his murderer, Bellingham; I had never -been in the lobby of the House, and I had been in no way connected with -Mr. Perceval, either by correspondence or otherwise, still I was so much -affected by the dream that I felt convinced that Mr. Perceval had been -murdered. I passed the remainder of the night in great restlessness. I -could not sleep, but was always thinking of the dream, being thoroughly -convinced that it was true. I came down to breakfast at the usual hour, -in the most anxious and nervous state, which I in vain endeavoured to -conceal as much as possible; but my friend and partner Williams and his -whole family observed it, and said that I looked very ill, and kindly -asked me to explain the cause. After much pressing, I told my story. -Friend Williams and the whole of his amiable family said that it was -nonsense; that I had been unwell, and still was so, and said that they -would send for their family doctor. I said no; I felt perfectly convinced -that my dream would, unfortunately, prove but too true, and that the -mail, which would arrive in the evening, would bring a confirmation of -it. They tried to laugh me out of it, but nothing would do; I therefore -went about with my friend Williams, transacting our mining business, -being convinced that the arrival of the mail in the evening would confirm -the truth of my dream in all particulars. We returned to dinner at five -o’clock; at nine the mail arrived, and confirmed every particular of my -dream. I was afterwards taken to the House of Commons, where I had never -been before, and I correctly pointed out the whole particulars of the -melancholy transaction exactly as they occurred, to the astonishment of -my friends and the bystanders. The whole story seems so strange that I -cannot account for it. I relate it to you just as it occurred to me.”[2] - -This is certainly one of those marvellous instances of foresight -which baffles all comprehension. John Fox was generally considered -by his numerous friends and acquaintance to be a most honest, plain, -straightforward, business man, and incapable of stating anything but what -he believed to be true. I heard him relate the dream, and my father and -all present believed it. The curious part of the story is how he should -have dreamed such a thing, being in no way connected with it. - -About this time (1825) the several victualling departments of the navy -at Plymouth were very inefficient, and divided into three or four -establishments--one at Southdown, opposite to Devonport, another at -Cremill Point, near Stonehouse, a third at Plymouth, and the fourth in -Plymouth town--being several miles from each other, so that the extra -expense and delay in provisioning vessels of war was considerable. Upon -this being represented to the Admiralty by the Victualling Board, of -which the late General Stapleton was the chairman, they determined to -make an entirely new victualling establishment, concentrating the whole -of the several departments into one, upon a well-organized plan, so that -every operation should be carried out with the greatest dispatch and -economy. - -After much discussion Cremill Point, being nearest to the dockyard at -Devonport, and being in other respects, as to depth of water, &c., -possessed of peculiar advantages, was finally selected as the best place -for the new establishment, and I was ordered by the Victualling Board to -prepare the necessary plans, specifications, and estimates, and to see -them carried into effect. - -Whilst these works were proceeding, a proposal was made to the Admiralty -to apply the Cornish system of engines to the Admiralty steam-vessels. Up -to this time steam, according to the principle of Watt, not exceeding 5 -lb. pressure upon the square inch, was only used, whereas in the Cornish -condensing engines steam of the pressure of 37 lb. per square inch was -then usual, with much greater effect and economy. I was accordingly sent -by the Admiralty to Cornwall to investigate their scheme. I took with -me my principal assistant, the late Mr. William Lewin, a very zealous, -able, practical engineer. We examined the whole system very carefully -at different mines, measured the actual work done and the quantity of -fuel consumed, and came to the conclusion that the Cornish system of -high-pressure condensing might be applied to the navy with the greatest -advantage, and reported the same to the Admiralty. It was not adopted -at the time, although high-pressure condensing engines have since been -introduced into the navy; at the present time the pressure has advanced -to 27 and 28 lb. per square inch, and in the non-condensing engines to -100 and 120 lb. Watt, although he had tried steam at every temperature, -yet generally preferred low pressure; his reason for this must have been -the imperfect means then at command for controlling it, and perhaps -he was right at the time, for the manufacture of wrought iron had not -then made sufficient progress to render it capable of resisting with -safety the great power of high-pressure steam. He pointed out the -way, and others, through the improvements in the manufacture of iron, -have profited by his discoveries. I must not omit, in justice to the -very talented Mr. Perkins, his views as to the value of high-pressure -steam, upon which he made numerous experiments; amongst other things, -he proposed to use it as a destructive power in war, by means of his -celebrated steam gun, which created much sensation at the time; and it -is rather singular that this has not been taken up in modern times, when -every invention which can add to the methods of destruction is most -greedily adopted. There can be no doubt that the “_steam gun_” may be -used with the most terrible effect in fixed batteries either for musketry -or artillery, and probably the day will come when we shall see batteries -worked by steam, with a great diminution of manual agency; and the men -employed to work them will be so protected as to render the destruction -of human life comparatively trifling. - -Amongst the other legacies which my dear father had left to me, was -that of building London Bridge. He had shown, to the satisfaction of -the Committee of the House of Commons, the impracticability of keeping -up the old bridge by any amount of repair or alteration; that it could -not be rendered fit for the improvement of the river Thames, nor for the -continually increasing traffic which must pass over it, at any reasonable -expense, and that therefore an entirely new bridge would be by far the -most satisfactory. The House of Commons was so fully convinced by his -arguments that it unanimously condemned the old bridge, and refused to -comply with the recommendation of the City of London that it should be -altered, but resolved that a new bridge should be built according to the -design made by my father. An Act of Parliament was accordingly passed -to this effect, the late talented and energetic Mr. Holme Sumner being -the leading member of the Committee. The Corporation demurred to this, -saying that there were other engineers equal to Mr. Rennie, and demanding -a public competition. The advertisement for designs was accordingly -issued, and a great number were sent in and referred to the Committee of -the House of Commons and the Government, according to the previous Act. -After considering the various rival plans, it was finally decided that -that of my father was the only one which complied with all the required -conditions, and it was therefore adopted. At this resolution great -discontent was manifested by the different competitors. The Corporation -of London also objected to this decision, as they considered that they -ought to have been the sole judges. But finding that the Government -adhered to its decision, they submitted, at the same time urging that -they, who were to pay the expense of the new bridge, ought to select the -engineer that was to execute the work. The Government agreed to this, -subject to their approval; and finally the Committee appointed by the -Corporation to carry into effect my father’s design, fixed upon me as the -engineer-in-chief; Mr. Richard Lambert Jones was appointed the chairman -of the executive committee of the Corporation. A very able and efficient -chairman he was, and conducted the whole to a conclusion, to the great -satisfaction of the Corporation and of the Government. - -The design, as I have already observed, was made by my father, but no -detailed working drawings, specification, or estimate, had been prepared -by him; it fell to my lot, therefore, to do this. As I had acted under my -father during the construction of the Waterloo and Southwark bridges, I -had become so thoroughly acquainted with his system, that I had no very -great difficulty about it. - -The design consisted of five semi-elliptical arches, the centre being 150 -feet span, the two next arches 140 feet span each, the two side or land -arches 130 feet span each; the two centre piers were 24 feet thick at -the springing, and the two side piers 22 feet each; the whole was to be -built of the best grey granite. The width of the roadway was originally -designed to be 48 feet, but was afterwards increased to 54 feet wide, at -an extra cost of 46,000_l._ - -It was intended by my father that the new bridge should be built on the -site of the old one, which was to be pulled down in the first instance, -and a temporary wooden one was to be built above it to accommodate the -traffic whilst the new bridge was building. It was considered that -as soon as the fall of 5 feet occasioned by the old bridge should be -removed, the river would be restored to its natural state, and there -would then be less difficulty and expense in making the cofferdams and -founding the piers and abutments; the old approaches to the bridge would -then be preserved, and thus a less quantity of valuable property would -be required. The wish, however, of the Corporation to preserve the old -bridge during the construction of the new one was so strong, that there -was no possibility of resisting it. I therefore yielded to their desire, -and agreed to build the new bridge immediately above the old one, and as -near as practicable to it; notwithstanding, I felt at the time that there -would be considerable difficulty, risk, and extra expense in so doing, on -account of the great depth of water in which the piers must be founded, -namely, 28 feet at low water of spring tides, and the strong current and -fall through the old bridge both during the flood and ebb, particularly -during the latter. It should be observed that the old bridge stood as it -were upon a hill, the foundations of the piers being from 28 to 30 feet -above the bottom of the river immediately above and below it, occasioned -by the great fall and scour produced by the contracted waterway; thus -it was necessary to secure the piers by large projecting starlings, and -to throw considerable quantities of stone continually round them, in -order to prevent the old bridge from being carried away. However, there -was no alternative but to build the new bridge above the old one, and -I accordingly set about taking every possible precaution in order to -prevent accident. - -As the loose stone thrown round the piers of the old bridge was -continually washed into the holes immediately above and below, it was in -vain to attempt driving the piles for the cofferdams of the piers until -this stone was removed, which was done by dredging. The cofferdams for -the piers were elliptical in form, this shape being the best adapted for -resisting the strong current in which they were placed; they consisted of -two main rows of piles each 14 inches square, each pile being properly -hooped and shod with wrought iron, and driven 25 feet into the bed of the -river. These piles were connected together in the horizontal direction -by three rows of braces 15 inches square, namely, one at the level of -the lowest tides, another at the level of half tide, and the third at -the level of high water. At every 10 feet the two rows of piles were -fastened together with wrought-iron bolts 2½ inches diameter, which -passed through the horizontal braces or walings, as they are technically -termed, and were secured outside and inside with additional wooden cleats -15 inches square and 8 feet long, so as to cover the joints where the -main horizontal braces met; outside of these were large iron plates, and -as the bolts were screwed at each end, they could be tightened up to the -full bearing without crushing the timber. On the outside of these two -main rows of piles was a third row of the same dimensions, and driven the -same depth into the bed of the river at a distance of 6 feet in the clear -from the two main rows, and connected together with a tier of horizontal -braces, and to the two main rows of piles with bolts, cleats, and plates -of the same dimensions as those already described. When the piles had -been driven to their proper depth, and had been properly secured to each -other as above described, the joints between every pile, which had been -previously fitted to each other, were well caulked with oakum, and the -outside joints were covered with melted pitch, so as to render them -water-tight; the spaces between the three rows of piles were then filled -with strong well-puddled clay. - -In addition to the above three rows of piles, there was a fourth row on -the inside, driven down in the form of a parallelogram, corresponding -with the exact size of the foundation of the piers, and to the same depth -as the outer piles. Every tenth pile, and those at the corners or angles, -extended up to the level of low water. Upon the heads of these piles -longitudinal and transverse braces were fixed across the inside of the -dam, at the level of low water, half tide, and high water; so that the -dam was braced internally and externally in every direction to resist the -pressure of the water, like a well-made cask. There was a powerful steam -engine, with the requisite pumps, attached to each dam, to remove any -water which might either rise from the foundation or from the outside. -Each dam was provided with a trunk secured by a valve 3 feet diameter, -laid at the level of low water, so that in the event of any unusual -pressure of water coming against the dam, these valves were opened, and -the dam was then filled with water, and all mischief was prevented. The -first pier cofferdam on the Southwark side was completed, the water -pumped out, and the earth was excavated to the depth of 30 feet, going -below low-water mark of spring tides; the bottom consisted of the stiff -London clay. Piles, consisting of Baltic fir, elm, and beech, 22 feet -long, and 12 inches diameter in the middle, properly hooped and shod with -wrought iron, were then driven 20 feet into the solid ground, or until, -with a weight of 12 cwt. falling 18 to 20 feet, they would not move above -an inch at a blow. These piles were driven 3 feet 6 inches from centre -to centre, both in the longitudinal and transverse direction. After -having driven them, their heads were cut off and accurately levelled. -The loose earth between their heads was then removed, to the depth of 12 -inches, and the spaces filled in with stone bedded in concrete; all the -rows of piles were then connected together in the transverse direction -by Baltic fir sills or beams 14 inches square, well fitted to each pile -head by jagged wrought-iron spikes 20 inches long and three quarters of -an inch square, driven through the sills into the pile heads below; the -spaces between the sills were well filled in with stone and brickwork; -another row of sills was then laid in the transverse direction above -the pile heads and spiked down to the lower sills in the same manner; -the spaces between the upper sills were then filled in with stone and -brickwork. The whole surface of the foundation was covered with elm plank -6 inches thick, closely jointed together and bedded in mortar, and well -spiked down to the sills below with jagged spikes 10 inches long and half -an inch square. Upon this platform the masonry was built, each course -diminishing in length and width by a series of offsets 12 inches wide, -until they reached the shaft of the pier, when it was carried up solid to -the springing of the arches. The whole of the exterior masonry was of the -best whitish-grey granite, and the interior stone was of the best hard -Yorkshire grit stone from the quarries of Bramley Fall. The abutments -were constructed upon piles and masonry of the same character as the -piers. - -The first stone was laid with considerable ceremony on the first pier -cofferdam from the Surrey shore by His Royal Highness the late Duke -of York. The dam was fitted up with great taste like an amphitheatre, -with seats all round, the whole being covered at top with a handsome -coloured canvas awning adorned with numerous flags of all nations. The -Lord Mayor, assisted by the Aldermen, Common Councilmen, and Committee, -with Mr. Jones, the Chairman, attended in great state, and everything -went off well. After this pier had advanced nearly to the level of high -water, one day whilst examining it, standing upon one of the cross -beams, my foot slipped, and I fell headlong into the dam upon the top -of the masonry; fortunately, my left foot caught in a nail in the beam, -and I hung by it for a few seconds. This somewhat broke and changed the -direction of my fall, and I pitched upon an inclined plank, upon which I -slid until I struck my head against a stone; my hat deadened the blow; -as it was, however, I was cut about the forehead and half stunned. The -after effects of this fall were very serious; my whole system got such -a severe shaking, that I did not recover thoroughly until nearly ten -years afterwards, and I carried on my large professional business with -the greatest difficulty. The works made satisfactory progress, and the -centres for the first and second arches from the Surrey shore were soon -fixed. - -Each centre was composed of eight ribs, framed upon the truss principle, -resting upon a continued series of wedges in one piece, laid horizontally -and resting upon tressels or legs formed by the piles of the cofferdams, -which had been cut off and levelled for that purpose. The mode of setting -and fixing the ribs was the same as that adopted at the Waterloo and -Southwark bridges. A large lighter was constructed especially for this -purpose. In the centre was placed a strong framing, which rested upon -eight screws, four in each row, working in a strong cast-iron box, to -which levers were attached, by means of which the screws and framing -above them could be gradually raised and lowered at pleasure; at one -end of the framing there was an upright scaffold. The centres, I have -already said, consisted of eight main ribs framed together separately. -As there was no room to frame these centres near the bridge, a special -workshop and wharf were provided by the contractors at Millwall, in -the Isle of Dogs; when ready they were launched in one piece, from a -properly-prepared platform, into the river, and towed to the Southwark -end of the bridge, where the lighter, with its apparatus of powerful -sheers, crabs, and tackle, was in readiness to receive them; by these -means they were gradually hauled up an inclined plane, and then raised -upright upon the platform, supported by the frame and screws beneath, -and firmly braced to the scaffolding in the lighter; two centre frames -were thus placed upon it at one time, and adjusted by the screws to an -extra height of 2 feet, so as to allow for any deficiency in the rise of -the tide. Two ribs having been placed upon the framing, the lighter was -hauled off from the shore and placed in front of the opening in which the -centre was to be, the lighter being moored 100 yards from it, about half -an hour before high water; upon the turning of the tide it was gradually -allowed to float down with the ebb current to its place. By the time that -the lighter with the centre ribs arrived in its exact position there was -always 2 feet to spare, in order to allow for any deficiency of the tide; -as the tide fell the two ribs were securely deposited in their places -upon the framing and wedges below them. It should be observed, that upon -the wedges there was an additional framing so as to reduce the weight -of the main ribs of the centring. When the main ribs had been deposited -upon the framing wedges, they were securely braced together until the -whole number of ribs required for each centre was fixed, when they were -all braced firmly together longitudinally, transversely, and diagonally. -This mode of fixing centres for arches of any span was most successful -and economical, and I believe that my father was the inventor of it, if -it may be termed an invention. My excellent and talented friend, the -late Robert Stephenson, adopted the same method for fixing the tubes of -the Conway and Menai Straits bridges. He told me that he was not aware -that my father had proposed it before him; but in the ‘History of the -Britannia and Conway Bridges,’ edited, I believe, by the present Mr. -Edwin Clarke, who was employed under Mr. Stephenson at the Conway Bridge, -it is expressly mentioned that my father had previously employed the same -plan.[3] - -But to return to London Bridge. The works proceeded successfully; the -fifth or last arch on the City side was completed in 1829. The centres of -the first, second, and centre arches having been removed, it was found -that they had subsided only 3 inches each, which was the exact distance -that had been allowed for, with an extra half inch for the centre arch. -Upon examining the arches and piers after it was supposed that they had -subsided, it was found that there had been an unequal sinking, that the -two centre piers had subsided on the east side slightly more than on -the west side. I was much puzzled at this, and could not for some time -account for the difference. Three or four of the quoin arch-stones of -the second arch from the City shore had been fractured for about 8 or 9 -inches; this, however, was of no consequence, for it is always difficult -in such large arches to get the workmen to bed the quoins accurately. -The same thing had occurred in the Waterloo and other bridges; I was -therefore led to investigate the subject more thoroughly during the -construction of the new bridge. It was found that the cofferdams for the -piers in several instances were made in front of the openings or arches -of the old bridge, which could not be avoided. These dams necessarily -still further obstructed the waterway through the old bridge; I therefore -felt that it was absolutely essential to find relief for the ebbing and -flowing tides, detained both by the old bridge and the cofferdams of the -new bridge, and accordingly recommended that, on the south side of the -main arch of the old bridge, which was only 80 feet wide, two arches -should be thrown into one, and that the intermediate pier should be -removed, by which means a single wide opening would be made facing the -space between the cofferdams of the arch and the centre on the Surrey -side of the new bridge, but the difficulty of doing this arose from the -fact that the traffic over the old bridge could not be interrupted for a -moment. I soon, however, found an expedient; I ordered that the requisite -number of logs of the best Baltic fir timber 15 inches square should be -prepared sufficiently long to extend over the two arches and piers of -the old bridge which I proposed to remove. Having got these ready, I -stopped up one half of the roadway, leaving the other half open for the -traffic, and working night and day, I laid these whole timbers spanning -the two arches to the adjoining piers close together, bolted them to each -other, and secured them to a longitudinal bearer of the same dimensions -imbedded in the masonry of the adjoining piers, so that the timbers which -were to form the increased opening rested firmly upon them. Having done -this, I removed the masonry of the intermediate arch by degrees from -beneath the timber girders, placing a strong diagonal strut or support -under each girder as I proceeded, at the same time connecting together -all these diagonal struts. Having completed one half of the temporary -arch or opening, the traffic was diverted over it, and the other half -was completed in the same manner; the whole operation was accomplished -within ten days, and the traffic was not stopped for one hour. The -intermediate pier of the old arch was then removed entirely. As the work -advanced to the fourth pier on the City side another similar opening -was made. These alterations relieved the river materially, and enabled -the works to be carried on much more securely, and greatly diminished -the fall through the old bridge at low water. Nevertheless, there was -increased scour against the dams where the openings were made, which -occasioned the slight unequal subsidence before mentioned. The last or -fifth arch was completed on the City side, January, 1829. - -It has been mentioned that Lord Liverpool’s Government had always taken -the greatest interest in the construction of new London Bridge, and gave -the Corporation of London every support in their power, not only for the -accommodation of the great traffic across it, but for the improvement -of the Thames, which the removal of the old bridge would effect; and -amongst the men most zealous in Lord Liverpool’s Government were the -late Marquis of Salisbury, then Lord Cranbourne, and the late Earl -of Lonsdale, then Lord Lowther; both these noblemen had considerable -talent, and, fully alive to the advancing ideas of the day, were mainly -instrumental in forwarding this great work. That amiable, able, and -conscientious nobleman, the Earl of Liverpool, had succumbed to the -effects of a paralytic stroke, and the Duke of Wellington was now -Premier; he took the greatest interest in the promotion of London Bridge -and everything connected with it; so that the Corporation of London, -who had hitherto been radically inclined, or had rather been opposed to -the Tory Government, turned rather Conservative than otherwise, and the -Duke became most popular with them; he invariably, whenever he could, -accepted their invitations to Guildhall and the Mansion House, and was -always received by them with the greatest respect and attention. Richard -Lambert Jones, the Chairman of the London Bridge Committee, was his -particular favourite, and he always shook Jones by the hand, a favour -which he did not accord to everyone. - -At this time the bridge had made considerable progress towards -completion, and the important question arose, what was the best plan for -the approaches? It was originally intended, in order to save expense, -that the old line of Fish Street Hill, on the City side, should be -adopted, pulling down such of the houses on this line as might be -necessary to make the incline not steeper than 1 in 30; but inasmuch as -the great traffic of Upper and Lower Thames Street interposed materially -with the main body of the traffic coming north and south, it became -most important to consider how this might be avoided, and the old idea -of making an arch over Thames Street was revived, and was favourably -received by the London Bridge Committee; the question was accordingly -referred by them to me. I had always felt that the old approach by Fish -Street Hill was a very great difficulty; but, restricted as I was to -the old line of approach, I felt that I could not get out of it without -some pressing necessity; I was therefore glad to have the opportunity of -reconsidering the subject, particularly when proposed by the Committee. -It was quite clear, that in any case an arch over Thames Street to -separate the great cart traffic of that quarter from the main coach and -passenger traffic coming from the City, Southwark, and the northern and -southern parts of the town, was absolutely necessary, and I should have -proposed it myself in the first instance, if there had at that time been -any chance of its adoption, and I am quite sure that my father would have -done the same. But if it had been proposed to divert the traffic from -the old line of Fish Street Hill at the first, it is most probable that -it would never have been carried; I was obliged, therefore, to confine -myself to the old approaches, leaving the future to develop itself. The -Committee, however, having taken up the idea of an arch over Thames -Street, I was only too happy to fall in with it; but as nothing could -be done without the sanction of the Government, it was determined by -the Committee to bring the subject before them at once; the more so, as -it would require a much larger sum than originally calculated to make -the approaches, for which the Committee had no funds, and a new Act -of Parliament would be required. Plans and estimates were accordingly -prepared for the new approaches, and submitted to His Majesty’s -Government. The Duke of Wellington took the greatest interest in the -subject, and investigated it to the fullest extent; he visited the place -himself, he interrogated the Chairman of the Committee and myself most -closely, and at length, being fully convinced that it was necessary, gave -the consent of the Government, provided that the funds could be found. -In order to meet this difficulty, the Committee proposed to increase -the coal tax, which, with the necessary sinking fund, would pay off the -whole sum necessary to make the new approaches, which were estimated at -1,400,000_l._, in a given number of years. The Government consented to -this, and the requisite notices, plans, &c., were given and deposited in -the month of November, 1828. - -Early in 1829 the Bill was brought into Parliament, and was most -strongly opposed by the great northern coal-owners, Lord Durham, Lord -Londonderry, Lord Lauderdale, and others, as well as by a considerable -body of Londoners, and after a hard fight the Bill passed the House -of Commons and got into the Lords; but here the opposition was more -violent and powerful than ever. The Duke of Wellington, however, having -been thoroughly convinced of the necessity and justice of the measure, -determined that it should be carried if possible, whilst the Opposition -were equally determined to throw it out. The Committee accordingly met -in the Painted Chamber of the House of Lords, and the extraordinary -number of forty peers, including seven cabinet ministers, assembled, the -Duke of Wellington being in the chair. The Opposition comprised, amongst -others, Earl Grey, his son-in-law the Earl of Durham, the Marquis of -Londonderry, the Earl of Lauderdale, &c. Such a committee upon a private -Bill has never since been seen in the Lords, and perhaps never will be -again. The brunt of the battle fell upon me; I was the leading witness, -and had to establish the whole case. I never felt more nervous in my -life; I was to be prepared upon all points to defend everybody else’s -errors as well as my own. I knew there were several weak points, and -though I had an excellent case upon the whole, I still felt the greatest -difficulty about it; I knew also perfectly well, that if I broke down, my -career as an engineer was ruined for ever, for the Government had pinned -their faith upon me; I therefore had made myself thoroughly master of -the subject, and determined to sink or swim with it. Mr. W. Montague, -then surveyor to the City, was a very sensible, practical man, and of -great experience in the valuation of property, and possessed considerable -influence with the Corporation; but whether it was jealousy at my being -so much younger than himself, or whether he thought the post of honour -should have been given to him, I cannot say, but he did not act cordially -with me. That very remarkable man, Richard Lambert Jones, the Chairman -of the Bridge, with his usual tact and sagacity, at once saw this, and -thought that if he was examined there might be some discrepancy which -our enemies would take advantage of; he therefore, with the concurrence -of his Committee, determined that I alone should fight the battle of the -estimates, upon which the whole fate of the Bill depended. It was well, -both for Montague and myself, that this course was taken; for Montague, -when the first Bill of 1821 was carried, had made the surveys of the -property to be taken for the approaches on both sides of the bridge, -which was confined to 180 feet above the old bridge. This limit ought -to have been taken in a direct line, at right angles to the old bridge; -but unfortunately it was taken according to the line of the shore, which -near the old bridge receded considerably, whilst the old Fishmongers’ -Hall projected beyond it, making the direct line, if taken, as it ought -to have been, at right angles to the old bridge, 20 feet longer than if -measured according to the line of the shore. This difference of 20 feet -rendered it necessary that old Fishmongers’ Hall should be removed, and -negotiations immediately commenced between the London Bridge Committee -and the Fishmongers’ Company with respect to the purchase of this piece -of land. The Fishmongers’ Company behaved very fairly; they said that -they did not wish to build a new hall, as the existing structure answered -their purpose very well; but if they were compelled to part with this -20 feet of ground, they must build a new hall, which they did not want -to do. However, as they had no wish to impede the construction of the -bridge and approaches, they were willing to sell the strip of land on -which part of their hall stood, namely, 20 feet in width, for 20,000_l._ -1000_l._ per foot at first sight appeared a very large sum, although at -present it would be considered remarkably cheap. The Committee of the -bridge, looking at the matter fairly, resolved to pay the Fishmongers’ -Company the required sum in full compensation for everything, and the -Fishmongers’ Company might, if they thought fit, build a new hall at -their own expense. This agreement was then settled, provided that the -Bill for making the new approaches by an arch across Thames Street should -pass the legislature. Knowing this fact, I was very anxious that this -error of Mr. Montague’s should not come out before the Committee of -the House of Lords, as it was no doubt a great mistake, and if it had -transpired, it might materially have injured our case. I determined, -therefore, during my examination, to keep it out of view as far as -possible; at the same time, if it was fairly put to me, of course I felt -myself bound to give every honest explanation. Perhaps Mr. Montague was -not anxious to be examined; anyhow, he was not, and the whole burthen -fell upon me. - -The opposition in the Lords’ Committee was headed by the Earl of Durham, -a very able and intelligent man; he would have made an excellent lawyer -if Providence had so designed it, and in this instance he conducted his -case admirably. I got through the examination in chief very well, and -the opposing counsel commenced his cross-examination, and made nothing -of it. Then Lord Durham got up and for three days I underwent as severe -a cross-examination as I ever experienced, either before or since. He -seemed to be aware of all the facts, and omitted nothing to render his -case triumphant. I always feared that he was coming to the mistake about -Fishmongers’ Hall, but he never did, and I had to lead him away from it -as far as possible; at last he got to the frontages in the different -streets of the respective parishes which were proposed to be taken, and -the new frontages of the new streets which were to be erected. Here I -showed very clearly that the lineal frontage according to the proposed -new streets would be greater than the frontages taken away. This, -however, did not satisfy his Lordship, for he contended that some of the -parishes would lose a great deal more frontage than they would obtain. I -had some idea that this would be the case, and therefore did not think -it necessary to take the individual frontage gained and lost by each -parish. I thought it was quite sufficient to know that upon the whole a -greater line of frontage would be given by the new approaches, than taken -away from the old. The parishes which had petitioned against the Bill -on this account, argued that in some of them the rates would be greatly -diminished, and that in others they would be greatly increased, which -would cause an unequal and unjust distribution. I still kept to my point, -and said upon the whole, without going into detail, the parishes would be -the gainers, and it was for them to adjust the rates amongst themselves. -Lord Durham was very indignant at my obstinacy in maintaining this point, -and tried in every way to make me confess that I had made a mistake; I -nevertheless stuck to it, and said that if I had tried to equalize all -the frontages, my survey might have extended to the Tower, and there -would have been no end of the expense. By this time he was losing his -temper, and said that if I was not very careful I might go to the Tower -still. At this the Committee smiled, and his Lordship, being fairly -baffled, sat down, and I, having been told that they had no further -questions, left the witness-box with the greatest alacrity. - -It was considered that I had made out the case for the Bill so -completely, both as regards the estimates and the absolute necessity, in -a public point of view, of carrying the new approaches into effect, that -no other professional witness was put into the box, except the present -able chamberlain, Mr. Scott, then chamberlain’s chief assistant, who -gave such clear and straightforward evidence with regard to the funds -which were disposable by the Corporation, and the way in which they -were administered, that the Committee of the Lords passed the Bill for -the London Bridge Approaches with but few dissentient voices. The Duke -of Wellington, and five or six Cabinet Ministers with him, attended -every day, and in fact kept Parliament sitting to pass the Bill. It was -curious to observe that he never for a moment interrupted the opponents -of the measure; he gave them full scope, and never said a word until -they had had their say, then he put the question, and carried it without -difficulty. - -After the fifth arch, the first on the Surrey side, was keyed, the -sinking was observed to be 4 inches, or about 1 inch more than the -others. I could not very well account for this. I also observed that two -of the quoins on the south-east end of the fourth arch from the Surrey -shore had splintered off at the soffit, but no crack could be observed in -the spandril walls; but upon levelling the piers, it was found that the -east end had subsided from 10 to 14 inches more than the upper or west -end. This I could account for in no other way but that there had been -a greater scour here than at the upper end, and that the piles had to -some extent been laid bare. I levelled the arches and piers constantly -after this for several months from a fixed standard gauge, but could find -no alteration; I therefore felt satisfied that the whole of the pier -abutments had come to their final bearing, and the works were continued -as fast as possible towards completion. - -In 1830 the Duke’s Government retired, and he himself became as unpopular -as he before had been popular; yet he never deserted London Bridge, and -was more frequent in his visits than ever. I often used to attend him at -five and six in the summer mornings; he generally came on horseback, and -remained from half an hour to an hour, and sometimes more if necessary. -At length the whole bridge and the approaches were completed, and His -Majesty, King William, at the special request of the Corporation of -London, condescended to fix a day on which he would open the bridge in -person. Earl Grey, who had strongly opposed the Bill for the improved -approaches two years before, now, as Premier, accompanied His Majesty -to inaugurate the opening of the same. Perhaps, as a spectacle of the -kind, it was the most brilliant of any that had taken place for fully -a century; and the whole Corporation, including the Bridge Committee, -did everything in their power, for the honour of the City of London, -to render the pageant as splendid as possible. The whole of the space -at the north or City end of the bridge was covered with a magnificent -tent, several hundred feet long, decorated in the greatest taste with -the flags of all nations, and with ancient and modern arms grouped -round the standards forming the supports of the tent, under which were -arranged tables for 1400 guests, for whom a splendid collation was -provided. His Majesty, King William, came in the royal barge in state, -accompanied by all his ministers, and upon his arrival was greeted with -a salute of twenty-one guns from the Tower. All the piers and arches -were decorated with lofty standards displaying the national emblems; the -whole of these, as well as the great tent and decorations, were under -the direction of Mr. Stacey, of the Ordnance department of the Tower, -and the greatest credit is due to him for the admirable taste which -he displayed. The ceremony consisted in King William walking over the -bridge, accompanied by his ministers, the Lord Mayor and Corporation, and -the Bridge Committee. When His Majesty arrived at the Southwark end a -balloon ascended, carrying Mr. Richard Crawshay; the Tower guns then sent -forth another salute, and King William and his _cortège_ returned to the -tent at the City end of the bridge, where they partook of lunch with the -usual ceremonies, and returned by water as they came, with another royal -salute from the Tower. The day was remarkably fine, the river was covered -with boats filled with gaily-dressed people; the wharves, warehouses, -and bridges were thronged with spectators; in fact, it was a great -metropolitan holiday; everything went off well, and all appeared to be -satisfied; I was particularly so. I had been very hard worked, I may say -almost night and day, for some time past, to get things ready, and was of -course rather tried; nevertheless, the success which attended the whole -rendered me completely unmindful of myself, and I forgot all my fatigues, -for I was amply rewarded for all my troubles and anxieties. - -A few days after the opening of London Bridge, Jeffreys, the cheesemonger -of Ludgate Hill, presented a petition to Parliament through the -well-known Henry Hunt, stating that the new bridge was coming down. -Jeffreys was very much annoyed because he had received no recompense for -his repeated proposals with regard to the new approaches, though he was -never regularly employed; but he was one of those active, intelligent -persons, who are always interfering in matters which do not concern -them. If he had devoted himself to his own business he might have done -well; but, unfortunately, he neglected this, and fancied himself a great -engineer, a post for which he was absurdly incompetent. He mistook his -vocation, and in attempting to do that for which he was wholly unfit, -he neglected the business of a tradesman, for which he was thoroughly -suited. The petition ended in its being referred to a Commission, -consisting of J. Walker, Telford, and Tierney Clark, who examined the -bridge carefully and made their report, which was colourless and came to -nothing, as the subsidence spoken of had taken place two years and a half -before, and had not increased, nor has it done so up to the present day. - -In all works of great magnitude, and particularly in such a difficult -situation as that in which London Bridge is built, it is impossible to -be certain of attaining absolute perfection, but the Committee, being -perfectly satisfied of the stability of the new bridge, determined to -remove the old one forthwith, and I received orders accordingly. The -removal was contracted for by Messrs. Jolliffe and Banks, for the sum of -10,000_l._, they having the benefit of the old materials, except in so -far that they were to fill up the holes in the river below both bridges, -to the extent of 14 feet below low water of spring tides, which was -rather more than the average depth of the river in the vicinity; they -were also bound to remove the whole of the foundations of the piers, -starlings, &c., of the old bridge, to the same depth. The whole of these -operations were completed in the year 1834, when the river, after a lapse -of 658 years, was restored to its natural state. - -The history of old London Bridge is replete with interest, and forms a -very curious epoch in the annals of bridge building before the embankment -of the river Thames by the Romans. The Southwark side, which is in many -places considerably below the level of high water of spring tides, was -frequently flooded, and numerous creeks were formed in it, so that the -river must have been very unequal in its depth, and filled with numerous -shoals, and fordable at low water in several places near London; and -there was evidently an appearance of a ford at the site of old London -Bridge, as in many cases the piers were founded on the original ground, -which must have been dry, or nearly so, at low water; these piers were -in many instances wider than the adjoining arches, so that they offered -considerable obstruction to the free flow of the tidal and fresh waters -through the bridge. These obstructions necessarily increased the velocity -and scour of the current, and threatened to carry away the old bridge. -Great starlings, or timber casings of piles, were erected round the -bridge piers, and the spaces between them were filled in with chalk. -These starlings still further narrowed the openings of the arches, -so that at low water some of them were little more than 8 or 10 feet -wide, and the obstructions became so great, that the fall at low water -increased to 5 feet perpendicular. Five openings on the south end and -one in the north end were occupied by water-wheels for pumping water for -the City. The obstruction caused by these works was so great that the -celebrated Smeaton was employed by the Corporation of London to take down -the two arches near the centre, and replace them by a single one of 80 -feet span. - -The original bridge is said to have been built in the year 1176; but -between that time and the period of its removal in 1834, it underwent -so many alterations and changes that it may almost be said to have been -rebuilt several times. It was originally covered with houses, as everyone -knows, leaving a narrow passage between for the traffic. To describe -the numerous alterations would require a large volume, and the reader -is therefore referred to an interesting account of this curious old -structure called ‘The Chronicles of Old London Bridge.’ - -Numerous speculations were made by scientific men, engineers and others, -on the effect the removal of the old bridge would have upon the river. -My father pointed out the probable results in a very simple manner; he -said that the river was in an artificial state in consequence of the -old bridge acting as a dam to the free passage of the waters upwards -and downwards, both tidal and fresh; and the consequence was, that the -river above had to a certain extent accommodated itself to circumstances. -By the removal of this obstruction the river would soon be reduced to -its natural level; the fall of 4 to 5 feet through the bridge would be -removed, consequently the tide would rise so much higher and fall so -much lower above bridge, and so much more tidal water would be admitted -above the old bridge throughout the whole length of the tidal flow as far -as Teddington Lock; and this increased quantity of tidal water passing -up and down twice each way during the twenty-four hours would scour the -bed of the river, and thus remove the great quantity of mud deposited -along the shores. And further, that the drainage of the metropolis, and -in fact the whole valley of the Thames, at least as far as Teddington, -would be greatly improved; and the water, being constantly changed, would -be clearer and fresher. He further said, that the actual level of high -water would scarcely be materially affected, perhaps not exceeding 5 or 6 -inches; and lastly, that the process would be gradual, and that it would -take several years before the river would attain its final and natural -state. Such has proved to be the result. - -As the works of new London Bridge proceeded attention was drawn to the -irregular outline of the wharves, which were not only unsightly but -extremely injurious to the regular passage of the waters. At this time -also, people having visited Paris and other great continental cities, -were struck with the architectural beauties which they had seen, and -became much disgusted with the mean, shabby-looking appearance of London; -and well they might, for there were no great leading thoroughfares worthy -of the name. Cockspur Street, leading from the Strand to Pall Mall, -was scarcely 20 feet wide; the Royal Mews occupied Trafalgar Square; -the Haymarket was encumbered by haycarts; Cross’s Menagerie and Exeter -Change blocked up the Strand near Waterloo Bridge; the connection between -Holborn and Oxford Street was round by old St. Giles’, and Farringdon -Street was filled with a market, and surrounded by undertakers. Regent -Street had been commenced under the direction of that clever architect -Nash, which, from his novel mode of grouping shops into distinct masses -of different styles, excited considerable attention, and was totally -different to anything we had hitherto seen in the metropolis. This -great and really magnificent street was, I am told, entirely his own -idea, and according to the opinion of the late Sir Robert Smirke, was a -Herculean task, on account of the great variety of interests to be dealt -with, and he told me that nobody but the indefatigable Nash could have -carried it through. He built a house there for himself, now the Gallery -of Illustration, opposite to the Club Chambers near Waterloo Place, where -George IV. honoured him with a visit. In fact, just about this time there -was a perfect mania for architectural improvements. - -A committee, called the Committee of Taste, was accordingly appointed, -in order to design such improvements as were imperatively required in -the neighbourhood of Charing Cross, the Strand, and Holborn and Oxford -Street. This Committee consisted of the late Lord Farnborough, John -Wilson Croker, Sir John Soane, Sir Robert Smirke, Nash, and two or -three others, and certainly no committee ever discharged its duties -better. To its labours we are indebted for Trafalgar Square and the -improvements in the Strand, Cockspur Street, the Haymarket, the old Opera -House, and those between Oxford Street and Holborn, which are really -very good, and the architecture, although not altogether faultless, is -nevertheless, taken as a whole, very effective; in fact, nothing like -these improvements has been effected since. The new street from Waterloo -Bridge to Oxford Street, undertaken soon after, has been a miserable -failure; instead of taking a direct line, they availed themselves as far -as they could of the old miserable intervening streets, so that this -thoroughfare, which ought to have been one of the best in London, is -now one of the worst, and the increase in the value of the property on -each side has been very little. But if this street had been made in a -straight line, and of ample width, the shops and buildings on both sides -would have been of a superior character, and would have yielded far -higher rents, which would have gone a long way towards paying part of the -expenses, if not the whole. - -About this time Sir F. Trench, who moved in the most fashionable circles -and was a great amateur in architecture and fine arts, was seized and -enraptured with the idea of constructing quays along the banks of -the Thames, between Whitehall and Blackfriars Bridge, and converting -the space so recovered from the shore of the Thames into a handsome -carriage-drive and promenade ornamented with gardens and fountains. -He applied to the late Mr. Philip Wyatt and myself to assist him in -preparing the designs and in obtaining an Act of Parliament to carry -it into effect. At the request of the London Bridge Committee I had -previously, in company with the late Mr. W. Mylne, prepared a general -plan for this object, but it went no farther on account of the difficulty -of raising the funds. Trench, however, overlooked this, and said he had -no doubt that sufficient money would be obtained. He accordingly, with -his great influence and indefatigable activity, formed a committee of -the highest class; neither were the ladies excluded; amongst others, -the beautiful Duchess of Rutland took the greatest interest in the -undertaking, and at the first meeting, which took place at Her Grace’s -house, she was unanimously voted to the chair, and conducted everything -in the most business-like manner. Lord Palmerston, then Secretary for -War, took a leading part, and it is singular that many years later -his Lordship, then Premier, should have proposed a similar measure, -and the continuation of the coal duties for carrying it into effect, -which was adopted; but when we proposed the undertaking and the mode of -raising the funds, notwithstanding our powerful committee, the idea was -considered as chimerical. Trench, however, was so confident that the -means would be found, that he went to considerable expense in preparing -a book ornamented with numerous beautiful engravings showing the effect -which would be produced by the undertaking, to which Wyatt and myself -contributed our share. A solicitor, named Leech, was appointed, notices -for going to Parliament were duly given, and the necessary plans and -estimates were deposited; but when the question as to the means of -raising the funds came before the Managing Committee, everybody was at a -loss. To form a company appeared impossible, as it did not appear that -sufficient revenue would be derived from the undertaking; and as to -raising funds by increasing and extending the coal tax, the Government -was decidedly opposed to it; they said they had done as much in this way -as possible for London Bridge, and that the public would not submit to -any further tax of the kind. Thus, after a considerable deal of useless -trouble and expense, Trench, Wyatt, and myself were obliged to abandon -this great undertaking, which has since been carried into effect nearly -upon the same principles as we recommended. - -As to the architecture of the approaches to London Bridge, I referred -the subject to my brother-in-law, Cockerell, a very accomplished and -competent authority, and I exhibited his designs to the Committee as well -as some of my own. They, however, considered them to be too ornamental -and costly, although they were as plain and simple as these important -approaches rendered necessary. The Committee, having rejected them, -referred the subject to the late Sir Robert Smirke, then one of the -Crown architects, and he designed the present buildings on both sides -of the bridge, as far as King William Street on the north, and the old -townhall of Southwark on the south; and certainly, with all due respect -to my late friend Sir Robert Smirke, a more unworthy set of buildings was -never designed. Thus not only has a rare opportunity of making handsome -and appropriate buildings to one of the greatest thoroughfares in the -world been lost, but the buildings are so low and badly built, that the -advantages of the ground, which it must have been foreseen were capable -of almost unlimited development as regards rental, have been in a great -measure thrown away. - -Whilst building London Bridge I had also numerous other works to attend -to, namely, the Admiralty works, the harbours of Ramsgate, Sunderland, -Donaghadee, Port Patrick, Kingstown, and Port Rush, Staines Bridge, -the bridge across the Serpentine in Hyde Park, finishing the Eau Brink -Works, the Nene and Witham outfalls, the Ancholme Drainage, together with -a good deal of miscellaneous business. As the harbours and Admiralty -works are fully described in my book on ‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ -I will proceed to the drainage: first, the Eau Brink. I have already -said that the Great Cut was opened in 1821, just at the period of my -father’s death; according to the latest Act, the engineers of drainage -and navigation were obliged to report within twelve months after the -opening of the cut; they were obliged to examine the whole, and report -how far they had been completed, and what further was necessary in order -to render them efficient. Mr. Telford and myself accordingly devoted -several days to this; on examining the Eau Brink Cut we found that it -had been made in exact conformity with Huddart’s design, as specified -by the Act; but, notwithstanding, the upper end was too small, and the -scour there was so great that it threatened to break through the bank -across the upper end of the old channel, and thus revert to its old -course. We therefore recommended that it should be increased one-third -in area, the greatest part of the increase being at the upper end, and -that the money destined in the estimate for clearing away the shoals -in the river between the cut and Denver Sluice should be used for the -purpose of widening the cut, as the bed of the river did not require -clearing. This report took the Commissioners by surprise. They said -they had been deceived, and did not believe that it was required, and -would have the whole subject investigated by other engineers, which was -accordingly done. However, it ended in proving that Mr. Telford and -myself were right, and the enlargement of the Eau Brink Cut was made -under my direction; this had the effect of lowering the low-water mark -at the upper end 2 feet more, making 7 feet altogether. The scour of the -cut was so much more than estimated, that the banks between Denver Sluice -and the cut were in many places undermined, the channel was diverted from -the old quays in Lynn, and several buildings on the opposite shore were -washed down, and as the Eau Brink Commissioners were bound under the Act -to compensate for any damages done to any interest or party, they, the -Commissioners, were compelled to pay for all these damages--50,000_l._ -to the bank owners, 28,000_l._, and 700_l._ a year to Lynn Harbour, -10,000_l._ to the Marshland Drainage, and other minor sums. Having -settled this, they obtained an Act to relieve themselves from all further -liability. - -My father had been employed by the Duke of Bedford, and other great -landowners in the north level of the fens, to consider the best plan of -improving the Nene, so as to render it a good outfall for the drainage of -the extensive low fen lands bordering it, which, on account of their bad -drainage, were frequently subject to floods, and comparatively valueless. -My father wrote a very able report on the subject, and recommended that -the Nene should be deepened, enlarged, and lowered throughout its course -from Peterborough to the sea; that a new channel should be made from a -place called Rummery Mill above, to the Horse-shoe Bend, below Wisbeach -(for the course followed by the river through the town was so crooked -and confined that it could not be sufficiently improved without incurring -great unnecessary expense) and that the navigation to and from the town -should still be preserved by locks connecting the old with the new -channel; and also to make a new outfall for the river from Kinderly’s Cut -to a place called Crab Hole, in the Great Wash, where there was ample -depth of water. He said that the new outfall might be made partly within -the estuary and partly in the marshes without, to Skates Corner, but that -then it would neither be so direct nor so effectual as if made entirely -within the banks of the Nene estuary. Mr. Rennie’s report was approved -of, but the necessary means for carrying it into effect were wanting, -so the matter for the time lay dormant. Subsequently Mr. Telford and -myself were appointed the engineers, and reconsidered the whole matter. -Finding the people of Wisbeach were violently opposed to the main channel -passing by their town, we were obliged to give up this part, as well as -the upper portion of the channel to Peterborough, and confine ourselves -to the improvement of the outfall below Wisbeach, and to commence the -new outfall near the lower end of Kinderly’s Cut. I strongly advocated -my father’s plan of making the new outfall direct to Crab Hole, within -the old banks, but as the first expense would have been a little more, -although far less in the end, as has been proved, it was resolved to make -the new outfall to Skates Corner, partly within, partly without the old -banks. - -An Act of Parliament was accordingly obtained, and Messrs. Jolliffe -and Banks became the contractors. The works commenced, and the outfall -was opened in 1831. Whilst it was in progress Mr. Telford and myself -frequently visited the works together, and in June we went down the -old estuary of the Nene in a boat at low water, for the purpose of -examining more minutely the state of the channels near Crab Hole and -Skates, where we proposed that the new outfall should enter the estuary. -It was a very stormy day, accompanied by lightning, thunder, rain, and -a strong south-west wind. We got as far as Crab Hole at low water, when -the weather beat us completely, and we were obliged to walk over the -muddy shore half-way up to our knees, and drenched to the skin. We had -sent some refreshment to an old house, called King John’s House, near the -bank, said to have been erected during his reign, and to have afforded -His Majesty shelter after his retreat from Lynn. The rain now came down -heavier than ever, so that we had no alternative but to retrace our -steps back to the dirty old “public” at the Ferry, called Cross Keys, -about 3½ miles distant. We got back, thoroughly soaked, about three in -the afternoon. I immediately stripped and went to bed. Old Telford, -being a strong, hearty man, of about seventy, instead of following my -example, ordered a large fire to be made in the only sitting-room there -was, called for the newspaper, and sat himself down to dry. After two -hours’ nap I was thoroughly refreshed, and went down to the sitting-room. -When I entered there was such a steam that I could hardly see anything; -but, approaching the fire, found Telford had nearly dried himself, -and he abused me thoroughly for being so effeminate as to go to bed. -He suffered, however, severely afterwards for his imprudence; for he -was taken with a violent diarrhœa at Cambridge on his return, and was -confined there for a fortnight, and escaped with difficulty with his -life; but the diarrhœa haunted him more or less ever after, until his -death. He was a most agreeable, facetious companion, and I passed many -happy days with him. Previous to the diversion of the old channel through -the new outfall, Mr. Telford and myself ordered the contractors to -assemble as many men, horses, carts, and materials as possible, in order -that the old channel should be stopped up during the neap tides. - -When everything was ready we went down and met the contractors, Messrs. -Jolliffe and Banks, and immediately gave them orders to commence -filling up the old channel; they had about thirteen hundred men, and -horses, carts, and materials, and appliances of all kinds, and set -to work in right good earnest. The Corporation of Wisbeach, who had -always opposed the measure, although they were compelled by the Act to -contribute 30,000_l._ towards it, which was perhaps the cause, offered -every obstruction in their power, and said that the new outfall was not -excavated deep enough according to the Act, and came down in their barge -with their law officers, giving us official written notices to stop all -proceedings. At this critical moment the contractors were rather taken -aback; Mr. Telford and I, however, nothing daunted, ordered the men to -proceed stopping the channel, and to take no notice of the Corporation. -We further told them, that if they did not go away, their barge and all -in it would be swamped, and that the responsibility would rest entirely -with them. Seeing that we were in earnest they turned tail, and, leaving -their protest, returned to Wisbeach. The third day afterwards the old -channel was completely closed, and the Nene diverted to its new outfall. -It should be observed here, that Mr. Telford and myself, calculating -upon the loose nature of the soil, which was silt, and which we felt -confident would scour when fairly acted upon by the current, only made -the contract for the excavation to the level of low water of spring -tides; and therefore it would have wasted money to have excavated that -which we knew the current would do for nothing. The current at first -appeared to have very little effect; and the Duke of Bedford’s manager, -the late excellent and talented Tycho Wing, a schoolfellow of mine at -Dr. Burney’s, became much alarmed, and was sadly afraid that the outfall -would be a failure. Telford and I knew better, and assured him that our -only doubt was whether the current would not be too strong, and render -it necessary to protect the sides with stone. This we considered to be -no disadvantage--on the contrary a great benefit; for making the cut -small in the first instance, we should always be able to regulate the -scour whenever it might have a tendency to enlarge the cut beyond the -size necessary to discharge the drainage water effectually, at the same -time preserving a sufficient depth for navigation; but if it had been too -large in the first instance, it could not have been properly adjusted -afterwards. Mr. Wing was comforted by our assurances; still he had his -doubts, and two months elapsed before any sensible scour appeared to -take place. The fact was, the fall in the bottom was so little, that -the current had to remove the obstacles to its progress, which it could -only do by degrees, when it had accumulated sufficient fall or head; -having done this, its progress was most rapid, and increased daily, so -that within six months after it had been opened it had scoured out the -bottom to 9 feet below low water of spring tides; the sides also had been -regularly scoured away, and the area of the cut was increased to three -times its original size. Spring tides, which had scarcely exceeded a few -feet at Wisbeach, and not much more at Cross Keys, rose remarkably at -both places, so that vessels of considerable tonnage could reach Wisbeach -even at neaps, whereas before they could only get up there at spring -tides. The trade of the port increased so rapidly, that they were soon -enabled to pay off the 30,000_l._ which they had been previously obliged -to borrow to contribute to the cost of the outfall. - -The outfall by the scour had now attained its proper dimensions, and -we recommended that the banks should be paved with stone, in order -to prevent them from being enlarged, which was accordingly done. The -outfall went on improving until the year 1837, when I examined it, and -found that the low-water mark had fallen 10 feet 3 inches at Cross Keys -Bridge, that there was a rise of tide of 20 feet at springs, and depth -of 9 feet at low water, and a rise proportionate at Wisbeach at both -springs and neaps; so that vessels drawing 16 feet could go up to the -town at springs, and 12 feet at neaps, and the whole of the surrounding -lowland country was completely drained and the property nearly doubled in -value. Mr. John Young was appointed engineer under me for paving the new -outfall with stone, and afterwards entered business upon his own account -as merchant and shipowner at Wisbeach; and by his talents, energy, and -industry has since realized an ample fortune, has been elected mayor -several times, and has become member for the county of Cambridge. - -It had long been a favourite idea with the late Lord William Bentinck and -his friend Mr. Thomas Hoseason, of Banklands, to make a bridge across the -Nene estuary, at Cross Keys, in order to shorten the distance between the -south of Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The bridge over the lower end of the -Eau Brink had been completed, and another had been made at the Fossdyke -Wash by my father, for the Welland; so that it was only necessary to -make another across the Nene estuary, at Cross Keys, to complete this -desirable line of communication. A company was accordingly formed for -this purpose, of which Lord William Bentinck was the head. An Act was -obtained at the same time as the Nene Outfall Act, and I was appointed -the engineer. The Nene Outfall Commissioners obtained a clause in the -Bridge Act compelling the Company to build the bridge over the Nene -Outfall Cut at the same time; this I told them was very unwise, for as -the bridge was to be built of wood, with a drawbridge opening in the -centre to allow vessels to pass, it would be impossible to drive the -great piles forming the piers of the bridge sufficiently deep to be below -the scour in the outfall; the better plan would be to wait until the -outfall had been scoured to its full depth, and then build the bridge. -My opinion was overruled; the bridge was built; and it was impossible, -as I expected, to drive the piles to the requisite depth. Where the full -effect of the scour had taken place it was found necessary to secure the -piles of the bridge by throwing a great mass of stone round them. This -materially obstructed the current through the bridge, until at length -there was a fall through it of from two to three feet, which greatly -injured the drainage, so that the Nene Outfall Commissioners ultimately -got an Act to make a new bridge for the Company at the Commissioners’ -expense. All this might have been avoided if the bridge had been built -as I originally recommended. The spot where this bridge and line of -embankment is made is the same place where King John’s army was lost, and -where my father was nearly drowned some years before, crossing in his -carriage, being overtaken by the tide. Six thousand acres of this Wash -have been reclaimed from the sea by myself; and where once the tides used -to ebb and flow, are now fields under culture producing the finest crops. - -Notwithstanding all the attempts to improve the river Nene above -Wisbeach, nothing had been done, and I was again requested by the Duke -of Bedford’s advisers to examine the subject and make a comprehensive -plan by means of which Whittlesea Mere and all the low fenny country -around it might be drained, to the extent of 55,000 acres, it being then -little better than a marsh. I accordingly surveyed and levelled the whole -country, and made my report in 1837. I showed that by improving the Nene -from Peterborough to the outfall, and making a main drain to Whittlesea -Mere to connect it with the Nene, and by making a catchwater drain round -the base of the surrounding hills, so as to discharge the highland water -into the Nene at Peterborough and the Ouse at Hermitage Sluice, the whole -country would be thoroughly well drained, the navigation would be greatly -improved, and there would be an ample supply of fresh water at moderate -cost. This plan was approved of by the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, but -was not adopted. The Middle Level Corporation, in whose district was the -greatest part of the lowlands to be drained, would not listen to it, -but insisted on draining them by the Ouse, 10 miles farther distant. -This measure was carried out at double the cost of my plan, and a minor -plan substituted for the improvement of the Nene, which is said to have -cost a great deal more than any benefits derived from it, although the -Eau Brink Cut had lowered the low-water mark on the Ouse nearly 6 feet. -Still the sands below Lynn, at the mouth of the Ouse, accumulated to -such an extent, that the navigation up to that town was so seriously -obstructed that moderate-sized vessels could only come up to the town at -spring tides, and they frequently got ashore upon the numerous shoals, -lost their tide, and were detained for days together, besides suffering -considerable injury. The drainage interests, moreover, complained that -the water in the Ouse did not fall low enough to enable the middle and -south level lands to be properly drained. In fact, the good effects -produced by the Eau Brink Cut were decreasing, in consequence of the -waters not being able to get off below Lynn, so that they were held up -to the extent of 2 feet at the lower end of the Eau Brink Cut, thus -reducing the original fall gained by that cut from 7 feet to 5, whilst -the fall gained by the Nene Outfall had been fully 10 feet 6 inches to 11 -feet, being a difference of 6 feet in favour of the Nene. A committee, -consisting of Lord W. Bentinck, Sir William Foulkes, and others, leading -proprietors and parties interested, requested me to examine into the -whole subject and report as to what was best to be done. I accordingly -employed nearly twelve months in surveying and levelling the Great -Wash and the mouths of the Ouse, Nene, Welland, and Witham, which are -the principal rivers discharging their waters into the Great Wash, and -which drain all the adjacent fen lands, amounting to nearly a million of -acres, besides the high lands. I found that by improving all the mouths -of these rivers an additional fall of 7 feet might be gained for the -Ouse, 2 feet for the Nene, and a similar amount for the Welland and the -Witham, and recommended that all these rivers should be united and made -to discharge their waters into one great main channel in the centre of -the Great Wash, and that the main and minor channels should be properly -embanked. By this means not only would all these rivers be much improved, -and the drainage and navigation rendered as perfect as they could be -made, but, in addition to this, from 150,000 to 200,000 acres of land -would be gained from the Wash, or, in other words, a new county, of most -valuable land, would be added to the kingdom. This project was so vast -and important that it took the world by surprise. It was impossible to -deny the soundness of the principles or data upon which it was founded, -or the vast importance of it in a national point of view, if means -could be found to carry it into effect; but here was one of the great -difficulties, and another still greater presented itself, namely that of -uniting together the vast number of conflicting interests concerned, so -that they might combine together as one whole body for the completion of -the undertaking. - -After the plan had been published and promulgated for some time, all -sorts of objections were raised and attacks made upon it. I replied -coolly and steadily to them all, and the more it was investigated, the -more the world became convinced of its practicability. Still it was -impossible to combine the various conflicting interests, and equally -difficult to form a company for such a vast and novel undertaking. The -public naturally said, if the drainage and navigation interests and -the landed proprietors, who were so much interested, did not see their -way, how could it be expected that a company should? Thus the affair, -although frequently agitated, lay in abeyance for several years. Its -chief supporters, Lord William Bentinck and Mr. Hoseason, having gone -to India, there remained none of sufficient energy and influence to -push it forward. At length the late talented and indefatigable Lord -George Bentinck became member for Lynn, in succession to his uncle, -Lord William, when he became Governor-General of India. Lord George was -unanimously chosen chairman, and examined most minutely, with his usual -sagacity, every detail of the measure, and was perfectly satisfied of -its practicability and value, but thought that it was too great to be -undertaken as a whole, and that it would be better to divide it into -two parts, one comprising the Ouse and Nene, the other the Welland and -Witham. I must not omit to mention that the late Prince Consort was much -pleased with the plan, and expressed his approbation to me of it. It was -accordingly decided to form a company for the Norfolk half, including the -Ouse and Nene, and to reclaim 35,000 acres of land from the Great Wash; -and at the end of 1845 the requisite plans were prepared and notices -given for a Bill to be applied for in the ensuing session, under the -title of the Norfolk Estuary Act. The Company originally calculated that -the land gained from the estuary would have indemnified them for making -the new cut for the Ouse; and so it would, if they had been allowed all -the land below high-water mark, without having any other burdens entailed -upon them. But unfortunately this was not the case; they were saddled -with the maintenance of the Great Cut, although, strictly speaking, -it ought to have been maintained by the navigation and the drainage -interests, which alone derived the benefit from it. The land frontagers -claimed all the land, or green marsh, to be embanked at the expense of -the Company, who were only to receive a certain portion of its improved -value; the Ouse bank owners were to be indemnified to some extent -also. The Crown was to have a commission of five per cent. upon the -expenditure; and the Church was to have a certain portion, or tithe, upon -the land gained: indeed, so many restrictions were placed on the Company -that their calculated profits were materially reduced; nevertheless, as -a number of the shareholders were otherwise greatly interested in the -improvement of the drainage, frontage, &c., they calculated that if the -shares were worth nothing, they would still be the gainers. I protested -as much as I could, without avail, against all these restrictions, and -I doubted much whether the Act could or would be carried into effect -with any benefit to those shareholders who simply looked to their profit -from the shares. It turned out as I expected. The Act passed during the -session of 1846. Still there was no prospect of the Norfolk Estuary -Act being carried into effect, on account of the restrictions above -mentioned; and the Company wisely determined not to proceed unless the -drainage and navigation interests, which were so materially concerned, -came forward with a handsome contribution towards it. The Middle Level -proprietors had obtained a Bill, in the year 1846, for the improvement -of their drainage, which was much opposed, and in which I took a leading -part. However, they carried their Bill, and the works were designed and -commenced under Mr. James Walker; but they soon found that the work would -be comparatively valueless. The Norfolk Estuary Act had now been carried, -and they therefore entered into negotiations with the Norfolk Estuary -Company, and these negotiations finally ended in the Middle Level -Commissioners and the Lynn Corporation, who represented the drainage and -navigation interests, agreeing to contribute each the sum of 60,000_l._ -towards the completion of the new channel for the Ouse, contemplated by -the Norfolk Estuary Company, upon condition that the late Mr. Robert -Stephenson should be joint engineer to the Norfolk Estuary Company with -myself, to which, of course, I had no objection; and it was agreed -that an Act of Parliament should be obtained in order to ratify this -agreement, which passed in the year 1850. - -At that time a former Act rendered it necessary that before any -improvement was made in any port or harbour, a Commission should be -appointed by the Admiralty to investigate the plan, the Commission to -hold its inquiry in public; Captain Washington and Captain Veitch were -appointed by the Admiralty for this purpose. They held their court at -the townhall, Lynn, and, singular to relate, the gallant gentlemen -advocated a curved instead of a straight channel, which, under the -circumstances, was so contrary to the practice of every good hydraulic -engineer, that their report was simply ridiculous, and when produced -by the Admiralty before the Committee of the House of Commons on the -Bill, was proved by the best engineers to be wrong, and was therefore -ignored by the Committee, and the plan proposed by Mr. Stephenson and -myself was unanimously adopted. The Bill accordingly passed, and the -agreement between the Middle Level Commissioners, the Corporation of -Lynn, and the Company, the two former contributing 60,000_l._ each, was -ratified; still there were several restrictive clauses, such as entailing -the maintenance of the works upon the Company, giving up the whole of -the green marsh to the several frontages, which materially abridged -the profits of the Company, and increased their risks, and which I in -vain protested against. The main cut commenced on the lower side of -Lynn, and was continued in a straight line 2½ miles. We calculated that -certain dimensions were ample in the first instance, because it was not -necessary to excavate the cut artificially to the full depth, as we knew -that as soon as the current began to act upon it, it would in a short -time be adjusted to its proper capacity for the admission and discharge -of the tidal waters, in the same manner as had taken place in the Nene -estuary outfall already mentioned. From the lower end of the above cut -the channel for a distance of two miles farther to deep water was to be -trained through the sands, formed by guide walls of rough stone raised to -about the level of half tide, with beacons upon it at certain distances -to indicate the channel; and when once the channel had been thus trained, -the remainder of the banks to their full height above high water would -be raised naturally by the silting up on each side, combined with the -gradual process of embanking the land from each of the shores of the -estuary, if properly managed. - -Messrs. Peto undertook the contract of the main cut. The land having -been bought, and everything arranged, a day was fixed for turning the -first sod, at the upper end near Lynn. The ceremony was performed by the -late worthy Sir William Foulkes, the chairman of the Company, on the 1st -of November, 1850. On that day a grand procession, consisting of the -Company, the Corporation and trades of Lynn, the Earl of Leicester, Lord -Lieutenant, together with numerous gentry, and other spectators, attended -the ceremony, which went off with great _éclat_, and the whole, as usual, -terminated with a grand dinner to about two hundred persons at the -townhall. Unfortunately my friend Mr. Stephenson was abroad and could not -attend. The excavation of the great cut proceeded rapidly for some time, -until Mr. Stephenson and myself, judging that enough had been done, and -that the current would do the rest more effectually, ordered the dams -to be removed at both ends and the water admitted, which was accordingly -done. As soon as the fen proprietors heard of this, they were greatly -alarmed; they said that the Company had violated their agreement with -them, and had gone contrary to the Act of Parliament, in not excavating -the cut to the full depth required before letting the water in. We -endeavoured in vain to persuade them to the contrary. They immediately -applied for a mandamus to stop the works and restore the dams until the -cut had been excavated to the full dimensions required by the Act, and -obtained an injunction, so that we were compelled to restore the dams and -stop out the water. We determined, however, not to give up the point, -and argued the question before Vice-Chancellor Turner, and were beaten. -We then applied to the Admiralty, who would not assist. We appealed from -the Vice-Chancellor’s decision to the Lords Justices of Appeal, and were -again beaten; still we would not give up, and at last we found that there -was no alternative but to get a new Act of Parliament allowing us to -make the cut in any manner we pleased, provided that we made it of the -dimensions originally agreed upon. The Eau Brink Commissioners opposed us -by every means in their power, but our evidence, which was given by the -first engineers of the day, so completely satisfied Parliament that we -carried our new Bill as we wished it. - -Thus, after a severe struggle for two years, we carried our point; but -this was so much valuable time lost, besides a great deal of money spent -in litigation. Having obtained our new Act, we set to work immediately -to remove the dams of the cut, and to let the water in, and at the same -time to commence the dam for stopping up the old channel of the Ouse at -the lower end of the town of Lynn, near the upper end of the new cut. -As the dams and bottom of the river near them were composed of strong -clay, it took some time to remove them so as to admit the waters freely -into the cut; but as soon as this was done, the scour began to have a -sensible effect; this was increased by the closing of the dam across the -old channel, so that within a few months afterwards not only had the -new cut been scoured out to the full depth required by the old Act, but -considerably beyond it. Thus Stephenson and myself were proved in the -right, and the opposition entirely in the wrong. - -The effect on the port of Lynn was very remarkable. The depth of water -at spring tides was 18 to 20 feet, and neaps 14 to 16 feet; and there -was a regular depth at low water of spring tides of 9 to 12 feet in -the cut, so that the largest vessels could always come up and depart -with their full cargoes either at spring or neap tides, and the channel -was so direct and easy of navigation, that pilots, of whom there was a -large establishment, became in a great measure unnecessary, and their -numbers were considerably reduced as well as their charges, and the -increase of trade soon enabled the town of Lynn to pay off the 60,000_l._ -contribution to the estuary works. - -The drainage interests also derived a similar benefit by the lowering of -the low-water mark 6 feet, which, together with that obtained by the Eau -Brink Cut, was altogether 11 feet. The Middle Level Drainage, upon which -a large sum had been expended, obtained an increased fall of between 3 -and 4 feet, which enabled the Commissioners to drain the greatest portion -of their lands naturally instead of artificially. In fact, the Port of -Lynn by means of these works has become one of the best on the east -coast of England, at the least expense, and with the most moderate dues; -indeed, if the Drainage and Navigation had paid double the money which -they did to this great work, and which in justice they ought to have done -for the benefits it has conferred upon them, they would have been more -than amply indemnified. - -The Estuary Company having now completed the cut, turned their attention -to the best means of reclaiming from the Wash the 35,000 acres which had -been allotted to them by the Crown, or at least as much of it as they -could; but unfortunately there were so many different opinions among them -and their advisers, that they lost a great deal of time and money in -pursuing improper measures. I, who originally designed the undertaking, -and had acquired great experience in this department from having carried -on successfully similar works in the Great Wash and elsewhere, always -adhered to one system, namely, to work with nature, and never to go -against her; if we did, I invariably found that we were beaten. - -We knew, from a variety of experiments that had been made, that the -alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters in the Great Wash was an -ascertainable quantity; that this alluvial matter was transferred from -one place to another, according to the prevailing winds and currents; -and that it was only deposited where circumstances were favourable, such -as eddies and sheltered stagnant places. Now my great object (after -having confined the fresh and tidal waters of the river Ouse to one -adequate channel, so as to preserve the drainage and navigation in an -efficient state) was to cause to be deposited the alluvial matter that -was held in suspension in the waters spreading over the other parts -of the estuary. This could only be done effectually by arresting the -progress of the flowing and ebbing waters in such a manner, that as much -of the alluvial matter as possible might be deposited in the places most -convenient, that is, in those places where it was desired to raise the -soil above the level of high water of neap tides. When this level is -reached grass may be expected to grow, and in a very short time the -whole is converted into a green marsh. The process simply this: when the -deposit has reached a certain number of feet above low water of spring -tides, a species of light green vegetation first covers the surface in -patches, then by degrees extends over the whole; the reclaimed land -still continues rising, and at a higher level above low water samphire -makes its appearance; the accumulation of soil still goes on increasing, -when the samphire disappears, and grass succeeds it, and in a short time -afterwards the place assumes the appearance of a level green marsh well -adapted for grazing cattle. After it has arrived at this stage, which it -does at about the level of high water of neap tides, the accumulation -is very slow; on our coasts it seldom attains a much higher elevation, -except where the sand is blown up by strong winds from the sea, which -forms dunes or banks, that, as in the case of Holland and other places, -sometimes attain an elevation of 30 feet and upwards above the level of -the highest tides. This, however, is not the case around the shores of -the Great Wash; there the marshes are simply produced by the gradual -deposit of alluvial matter in the manner above stated. - -The great object, therefore, as I have said, is to facilitate this -deposit or accretion as much as possible by artificial means. Nature, -if left to herself, though sure, is very slow. We must therefore assist -nature, by following and working in unison with her laws. We must go -to work gradually, and not by great and expensive operations check the -currents violently and at once, which would only produce an equally -strong current elsewhere, so that while we gained in one place we should -lose in another. By a series of light works composed of bushy fagots or -other similar materials, raised about 12 or 15 inches above the level -of the sands, and disposed in a series of lines at certain distances -from each other, not continuous, but in lengths, so that the ends may -overlap each other, the currents will be gently checked without being -wholly obstructed, the water between them will be rendered stagnant, and -the alluvial matter with which it is charged will be deposited. When -the deposit has reached to the top of these works, the works themselves -should be raised higher in the same place, or in an intermediate -position, as circumstances shall render advisable. Where a certain space -is intended to be raised or warped up, it is generally better to commence -at the upper end and work downwards; the works themselves are less -expensive, the height to be raised is less, and the water impelled by the -mass of the tide behind brings up a greater quantity of alluvial matter, -and in proportion as the space above is warped up it accumulates in a -greater degree below. In carrying on works of this kind, wherever we find -that there is a tendency to make a channel, and with it a strong current, -it must be checked gradually from the upper end, so that the quantity of -water passing through it may be decreased, and this channel will soon -fill up. When a certain space has been naturally or artificially raised -to the level of a fine green marsh, provided that there be a sufficient -quantity to pay the expense, it should be embanked entirely from the sea. -As to the expense incurred in embanking it, and the value of the land -when embanked, generally speaking, we shall seldom err if we take as a -rule that the land should be worth double the cost of embanking. When we -have an estuary to deal with from which we may expect to reclaim several -thousand acres of land, it resolves itself into a serious question both -of time and money as to the best mode of accomplishing it. One object -should be as far as practicable to reduce the extent of main or barrier -banks, and if the situation be well adapted for the purpose, a barrier -bank may be commenced at the lower end, and gradually pushed forward in -proportion as the space above it exhibits a tendency to silt up; in -combination with this the minor operations should be carried on, so that -the one may assist the other. When a sufficient quantity of marsh above -the barrier bank has been formed, it may be embanked from the sea, and -by keeping the barrier bank always sufficiently in advance the interior -banks will become less costly, as they will not be exposed to the main -force of the waves during storms; otherwise each separate bank must be -made a barrier bank, and the whole cost will be materially increased. The -propriety of adopting either the one system or the other will greatly -depend upon the peculiar local circumstances. - -With regard to the quantity of land, when fit for the purpose, to be -embanked or enclosed at one time, this also will, like the other, -depend upon the local circumstances. Generally speaking it is safer to -confine the operation to about 400 or 500 acres; and the proper time for -closing the embankment is during neap tides, when the work will be much -facilitated. - -It is true that much greater quantities may be taken in at one time, -according to the Dutch system, but then several closing spaces must be -left open, and these must all be specially prepared for the purpose by -lining the bottom and sides with wicker-work and fascines to prevent the -scour, and then filling them up with clay, stone, fascines, and earth, -as the case may require; and if by chance a breach should take place, -which occasionally occurs under the best of management, the internal -space to be filled with water is so great that the violence and strength -of the inpouring current is increased in the same proportion, so that it -carries all before it, scoops out great channels in the interior space, -and damages the land by the great quantity of sand brought in, and it -becomes difficult to clear the internal space of water. And although by -this plan a less quantity of embankment is required, nevertheless the -expense per lineal foot becomes greater; but where the length of the -embankment is small compared to the depth of the land to be enclosed, -this system, if properly managed, may be adopted with advantage. The most -advisable plan must be left a good deal to the judgment and skill of the -engineer-in-chief taking advantage of the local circumstances. - -The above principles for warping and enclosing land I recommended in -several reports to the Norfolk Estuary Company, but they were not adopted -to the extent I recommended; the consequence has been that several -years’ time and a good deal of money have been unnecessarily expended. -But I believe that they have been finally convinced that my system was -the proper one, and it has since been adopted to some extent, with -considerable success, and about 1000 acres (in 1867) have been enclosed, -the property of the Company, at the cost of about 15_l._ per acre, the -land being worth 40_l._ They have, moreover, enclosed 600 acres more -for the Prince of Wales, upon which they will be paid one-third of its -improved value. As several thousand acres in the estuary belonging -to the Company are rapidly approaching that state when they may be -profitably embanked, I confidently believe, by proper management, that -the shareholders will ultimately recover a good deal if not the whole of -their capital, and perhaps a good portion of their interest also; but I -shall always contend that if my recommendations had been followed from -the beginning, a great deal of money would have been saved. The Company -ought not to have submitted to the restrictions imposed by the Acts. The -contribution from the drainage and navigation interests ought to have -been double, for which they would have been amply repaid, and the land -gained would have been far greater, so that even by this time it might -have been a very profitable concern. - -Whilst the Nene Outfall was in progress, I was employed by the -Corporation of Boston to improve the outfall of the river between the -Grand Sluice at the upper end of the town, and Hobhole near the mouth -of the river, a distance of nearly four miles. This had previously -been proposed by my father, in the year 1845, to the Corporation of -Boston, previous to commencing the great drainage of the East, West, -and Wildmere fens bordering upon the Witham between Lincoln and Boston, -amounting to about 125,000 acres of lowland, which for the most part was -little better than a marsh. It was here he proposed his grand system for -the drainage of lowlands by means of catchwater drains for the waters -from the highlands, and main and minor drains for the waters from the -lowlands, both systems of drains being distinct and separate from each -other, and which he afterwards most successfully carried into effect. In -order to obtain the requisite fall, it was necessary that the outfalls -of the two main drains should be carried into the Witham below the -town of Boston; but in order that this might be effectual, it was also -necessary that the Witham should be greatly improved between Boston and -the mouth at Hobhole; and as the navigation between these two points -was very defective, he thought that the Corporation should bear the -expense, as they would derive the greatest benefit. For this purpose my -father proposed two plans: one was to improve the old channel, partly -by cutting off the bends and confining and straightening its course, -and from Hobhole making a new cut to Clayhole, where there was ample -depth of water at all times of tide; and the other plan was to make a -direct cut within land from the lower end of Boston to Clayhole. He -proposed also, for the drainage, to make an outfall for the highland -water at Maudfoster, just below the town of Boston, as he said that by -bringing the highland water there, it would effectually serve to keep -the river open between that point and its mouth at Hobhole, and to make -an outfall for the lowland waters at the latter place; and he recommended -the drainage interests to contribute a certain portion of the expense -towards the improvement. The Corporation of Boston declined doing -anything, and the drainage was left to take care of itself. Mr. Rennie, -however, foresaw that if the Witham was not improved by either one or -the other of the plans that he recommended, the highland water would not -be effectively discharged by the sluice at Maudfoster, and therefore he -made a communication between the Maudfoster drain and the Hobhole drain -at a place called Cowbridge, a few miles above Boston, where there was a -gauge, so that whenever the water in Maudfoster drain exceeded the gauge -it passed into the lowland main drain, and from thence into the Witham at -Hobhole. What Mr. Rennie foresaw came true; the Witham, not having been -improved, became worse, and the river in front of the Maudfoster Sluice -was silted up, so that it could not discharge its water, and therefore -the whole of the water, highland and lowland, was obliged to go by -Hobhole, which drain and sluice, foreseeing what would take place, he had -enlarged for the purpose. - -In the year 1827, the outfall of the Witham between Boston and Hobhole -had become so much silted up that at high water of neap tides there was -scarcely water enough for fishing boats to come up to the town during -the summer months and dry seasons, and at spring tides only sloops -of very small draught could get up to the town; in fact, it might be -said that at that time Boston as a seaport was lost, and the trade and -navigation of the port ruined. At this the Corporation became greatly -alarmed, and sent for me. I directed the late Mr. Francis Giles to make a -complete survey of the river, which he did in his usual able and correct -manner, and no person could do it better. Being provided with this -survey, I made my report, and saw clearly that there was no remedy but -to carry into effect either the one or the other of my father’s plans -of 1805. As the Corporation funds were very limited, I recommended the -plan for improving the old channel, partly by cutting off the bends and -confining the river as far as Hobhole, and from thence making a new cut -to Clayhole, as recommended by my father. There were three parties who -were to contribute towards the improvement of the outfall of the Witham, -namely, the Corporation of Boston, and the Witham and the Black Sluice -Commissioners. The Black Sluice Commissioners demurred to the plan -proposed by me, which was my father’s, on the ground that the cut ought -to be made from the Black Sluice inland direct to Hobhole, otherwise -they would not derive the advantages they had a right to expect from -their contributions; so the whole matter was referred to Mr. Telford, -who said that no improvement in the river below Boston would be of any -use, unless the Grand Sluice above Boston was removed, so as to admit the -tide to flow farther up the river. Now, although Telford was to a certain -extent right, but by no means wholly so, because by carrying into effect -either of my father’s plans there could be no doubt that considerable -improvement would be made on the outfall of the Witham below Boston, -as the sequel will show, nevertheless, if the Grand Sluice had been -removed the tide would have flowed farther up the river and the increased -quantity of tidal water passing upwards and downwards would have improved -the outfall still further; but there were insuperable objections to -the removal of the Grand Sluice, which neither of those parties above -mentioned who were to make the improvement in the outfall could control, -for the river above the Grand Sluice was under a different body. The -banks must have been raised to admit the tide; compensation must have -been made for the loss of fresh water, and various other interests must -have been consulted that were hostile. The Black Sluice Commissioners -stuck to Telford’s report, and withdrew from the contribution, so that -the whole matter fell to the ground. - -The outfall of the Witham became worse, and the Corporation of Boston, -being left single-handed, and having determined to do what they could to -improve the river, again requested my advice. I said that the best thing -they could do under the circumstances would be to carry into effect by -degrees, as far as their means would allow, the plan of my father already -referred to for improving the old channel of the river, and to begin by -cutting off the bend between Hobhole and the upper end of Burton’s Marsh -(this cut would be about half a mile long), and blocking up the old -channel immediately above it, which was about half a mile wide. These -two works would shorten the navigation quite half a mile, and admit and -discharge the tidal and fresh waters more readily, and thus produce a -corresponding scour and lowering of the low-water line and bed of the -river all the way up to the Grand Sluice above Boston. - -The Corporation adopted my recommendation, and entered into a contract -with Jolliffe and Banks for that purpose. Although a small work, it -was attended with considerable difficulty, particularly in closing the -old channel, on account of its great width and the great body of tidal -water which passed through it. The effect of this work exceeded my most -sanguine expectations; in a short time it improved the channel upwards -to Boston to such an extent that spring tides rose at Boston Bridge 14 -feet, and neaps 10 feet, and the bed of the river was deepened from 3 -to 4 feet below low water of springs, so that vessels drawing 15 feet -and 16 feet could come up to the town at springs, and vessels drawing 12 -to 13 feet could come up at neaps; moreover, all the silt was scoured -away from the front of the Maudfoster Sluice, so that it discharged the -highland water from the fens, which it had not done for years before, -and improved also the discharge of the waters from the Grand and Black -sluices. I must confess that I was not a little elated at this successful -result, as it most completely established the correctness of my father’s -opinion as well as my own, and demonstrated the fallacy of my friend -Telford’s judgment. The cost of the above works was 33,000_l._, which was -very small compared to the advantage obtained. The Corporation of Boston -were so much pleased with the success that they determined to carry into -effect the remainder of the improvement in the old channel to Boston, -which was afterwards done by confining the channel by degrees to a proper -width by means of fascines and loose stone and clay properly combined -together up to the level of half tide, so that the flood and ebb always -acted to the greatest advantage in one and the same channel without -materially diminishing the quantity of tidal water. - -The effect of these additional works was to still further deepen the bed -of the river and increase the flow of the tide by lowering the low-water -mark, which improved the navigation and drainage still further, so that -the trade of Boston revived and increased in prosperity, and all this was -effected by the resources of Boston alone; and it is only to be regretted -that the drainage interests, who derived so much benefit, were not -compelled to contribute their just proportion. - -In 1852 a Bill was obtained to carry into effect my plan for improving -the mouths of the Witham below Hobhole, and the Welland below Fosdike -Bridge, and reclaiming 35,000 acres of land from the Great Wash, as -formerly described, but the Bill was clogged with so many restrictions, -and neither the drainage or navigation interests would contribute -anything towards it, although they would have been greatly benefited, -that it was found impossible to carry it into effect so as to remunerate -the shareholders, and therefore it was abandoned. - -I about this time finished some minor works which had been designed and -partly executed for the improvement of the Witham near Lincoln. This was -part of a great plan of my father for improving the river Witham, so as -to make it navigable for the Yorkshire coasting vessels, drawing 6 feet -and carrying about 70 tons. From Lincoln they proceeded to the Trent by -the Old Foss navigation, which entered the Trent at Torksey, and from -thence to the Humber and the adjacent coasts. This improved navigation -of the Witham answered very well as a commercial speculation, and in the -year 1847 was sold to the Great Northern Railway Company, who established -a railway on its banks, which now forms part of their loop line between -Peterborough and Lincoln, which has in a great measure superseded the -navigation. - -During this period I was requested by the Commissioners of the Ancholme -Level, consisting of about 50,000 acres of low fen lands, bordering upon -the Ancholme in North Lincolnshire, to give them my advice as to the best -means of improving their drainage, and at the same time the navigation of -that river. - -The Ancholme takes its rise near Market Rasen, in the highlands of the -north of Lincolnshire, and after a course of some miles it enters the -lowland district of the valley, and proceeds through it in a northerly -direction for a distance of about 18 miles, when it joins the Humber at -right angles to its course. The valley varies from one mile in width at -the upper end to three miles at the lower end, where it joins the Humber. -It is bounded on the south by a ridge of chalk hills of considerable -elevation, and on the north by a similar ridge of sandstone hills. - -The Ancholme having very little fall where it enters the lowlands, and -being prevented from discharging its waters with facility into the Humber -on account of the great mass of water and high tides in the latter river, -was forced back upon the lowlands, and frequently inundated them, so -that they became little better than marshes, and the river itself was -necessarily extremely circuitous. In 1806 the Commissioners applied to my -father for advice, and he recommended, in the first place, that the river -should be straightened as far as practicable, in order to utilize the -fall of the current to the fullest extent; also that a sluice should be -constructed to exclude the tides at Terreby; and a catchwater drain made -on the south side, with separate sluice to discharge the highland waters -into the Humber. This advice was only partly followed: the river was -straightened; the catchwater drain only extended as far as Brigg; a lock -was made for the navigation at Hortestow Green, where the river entered -the lowlands; and a sluice with a lock was made at Terreby. In principle, -these works were correctly designed and well adapted for the purpose as -far as they went; but I am not exactly aware whether they were carried -out according to his plan, or under his immediate direction; and twenty -years had elapsed before I was invited to give my opinion. - -When I visited them the level was very badly drained; the river was full -of shoals; the navigation, which was intended for the Yorkshire coasting -vessels up to Bishop’s Bridge, was only practicable a few miles beyond -Brigg, and that in a very imperfect manner; and the works generally were -in a very bad state. - -After having inspected the works, I recommended, first, that the main -river should be deepened, widened, and enlarged throughout the entire -length of the level, so as to accommodate the full-sized Yorkshire -coasting vessels drawing 6 ft. 6 in.; and that the river should be of -ample capacity to contain the floods fully 2 to 3 feet below the level of -the lowlands, so that they could not be overflowed, and might always be -able to drain into it. - -Secondly, that a lock should be made with a lift of 6 feet, so that -coasting vessels might be enabled to get up to Bishop’s Bridge; and that -as a great deal of sand was brought down by the upper part of the river, -which continually produced shoals and filled it up, I recommended that -at the upper end of the lock an overfall should be made, together with a -capacious reservoir, into which the sand might be discharged, in order to -prevent it from getting into the river; then it could be removed whenever -necessary. - -Thirdly, that a new sluice and lock should be made at Terreby, where the -Ancholme joined the Humber; that all the new sluices should be laid 6 -feet below the old one; and that new bridges should be made across the -main river to replace the old ones, which were not of sufficient capacity. - -Fourthly, that the south catchwater drain should be drained out and -enlarged, and extended to the upper end of the level. - -Fifthly, that a catchwater drain of the requisite dimensions should be -made on the north side of the level, from the new sluice to the farther -extremity of the level, and that the water should be discharged through a -separate opening in the new sluice. - -Sixthly, that wherever a brook entered the catchwater drain on either -side, there should be corresponding weirs and reservoirs for receiving -the sand and other deposits, so as to prevent them from getting into the -drains. - -These several works were executed, under my directions, by Messrs. -Jolliffe and Banks, as contractors; and Mr. Adam Smith, as resident -engineer, to whom the real credit is due for the very able, honest, and -zealous manner in which he discharged his duties, particularly for -the execution of the new sluice at Terreby, which was done without a -contractor, and is one of the cheapest and best works of the kind. - -These works have answered their object completely; and the Ancholme -district is as well drained as any level in the kingdom, and the -navigation is complete of the kind. - -Whilst carrying on these works I was the frequent guest of the Earl of -Yarborough, the Commodore of the Yacht Club, and received the greatest -kindness and attention from his lordship; without his support, ability, -and firmness, these works would never have been attempted, nor carried to -a successful conclusion. - - [2] I have always heard this story in Cornwall; and a pamphlet - on the subject, now very scarce, was published at the time. Mr. - Fox, I have been told, was taken before a magistrate, and made - an affidavit concerning it the morning after the occurrence, - and before the mail came down.--C. G. C. R. - - [3] I may mention here that before Telford built the suspension - bridge near Bangor, Mr. Rennie proposed a cast-iron bridge of - several arches, on the site of the present Britannia Bridge, - which would ultimately have carried the railway, but the scheme - was considered too bold at the time. The possibility of the - construction of the present magnificent bridge, which marks an - era in engineering, is of course due to the great improvements - in the manufacture of iron since Mr. Rennie’s time. Thus every - age has its specialty, and what cannot be done at one time - becomes practicable at another. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Sketch of the Risk and Progress of the Railway System--The - Manchester and Liverpool, London and Birmingham, and other - early Lines. - - -I will now proceed to a very important epoch in my life, namely, my -first introduction to railways upon the locomotive system. Railways of -wood were first introduced on the Tyne, for the purpose of bringing down -coal from the adjacent collieries, to be shipped from Newcastle and the -vicinity for exportation to London and other places. These were 4 feet 6½ -inches wide from centre to centre, and the coal waggons were specially -adapted to them. The wooden rails wore out rapidly, and were subsequently -improved by having cast iron edge rails fixed upon the wooden ones, and -the wheels of the waggons were made of cast iron also, having a flange -on the inside to keep them in their places. It reduced materially the -friction of the road, enabled the horses by which the waggons were drawn -to take a greater load, and the expense of maintaining the ways was -greatly reduced. Matters proceeded in this manner until towards the end -of the last century. At that time, the celebrated James Watt began his -experiments upon steam, and then turned his attention to the improvement -of the steam engine, which had previously been so far perfected by -Savery, Newcomen, and Smeaton, as to be used for pumping water from mines -with considerable effect, by employing steam and atmospheric pressure -alternately, for raising and lowering the piston in the cylinder to which -the pumping apparatus was attached. The waste of fuel and the expense of -working these engines were very considerable, and they were inapplicable -to any other purpose but pumping. Watt saw these defects, and immediately -set about devising means for remedying them. He first enclosed the steam -cylinder at top and bottom, and elevated and depressed the piston by -means of steam only; and instead of allowing the spent steam to escape -into the atmosphere, it was discharged into a separate vessel, into -which a jet of cold water was constantly playing, so that the steam was -condensed there, and hence this vessel was called a “condenser.” In this -condenser there was an air pump constantly working, so that to some -extent a vacuum was produced, which facilitated the discharge of the -steam from above and below the piston, relieved the pressure upon it both -ways, and added considerably to the effect of the whole machine, as well -as economizing the fuel required to work it. He also added a crank to a -connecting rod at the opposite end of the beam to which the piston was -attached, and by means of this crank communicated rotary motion to any -machinery connected with it, adding still further to the value of the -steam engine, and rendering it universally applicable. The boiler also -he greatly improved, so as to produce a larger quantity of steam with -less fuel. The ingenious idea of the crank was pirated from him before he -could patent it, and he resorted to another invention to produce rotary -motion, which he called the sun and planet wheel; this consisted of a -toothed wheel attached to the lower end of the connecting rod fixed to -the end of the beam, which wheel worked into another attached to the -end of a horizontal shaft, upon which were fixed other wheels to give -motion to any system of machinery which might be required. It should be -observed that in this improved engine the connecting rod of the piston -was attached to one end of the beam, the connecting rod attached to the -crank, or sun and planet, was fixed to the other, and the air and cold -water pumps were attached to rods connected with the intermediate part -of the main beam, so that they were all worked together by the rising -and falling of the piston, and thus formed one whole compact machine. -He also added several minor contrivances, which it is unnecessary to -mention, and which rendered the steam engine still more complete. His -improvements did not end here, for he made numerous experiments upon the -expansibility or elasticity and effects of steam at various temperatures, -constructed a high pressure engine, and subsequently one with a condenser -mounted upon a carriage supported by wheels, which was nothing more than -the locomotive engine, a model of which still exists. Watt, however, as -I have already observed, did not like high-pressure steam: he was fully -aware of its importance; but at that time, from the backward state of -the iron manufacture, he did not see his way to controlling it with -safety, and he considered that his low-pressure condensing system was the -best and most economical, and he therefore gave up all idea of pursuing -the investigation of the locomotive engine and its applicability. -Fortunately, however, everybody was not of the same opinion. Watt had -clearly invented the locomotive engine, and his able and faithful -assistant, William Murdock, afterwards made another working model of -it on the same plan, with which he used to amuse himself by setting it -in motion to run about his room. But the idea and its practicability -once established, the locomotive was not to be thus abandoned. Amongst -those who heard of it, and who appreciated its value, were two Cornish -engineers, Trevithick and Vivian, who had been accustomed to work -high-pressure steam, which was largely used in the Cornish mining engines -about this time. Trevithick and Vivian soon saw that Watt’s waggon boiler -was too cumbrous, and not capable of producing steam fast enough or in -sufficient quantity for a locomotive engine. They therefore invented a -new kind of boiler with a tube in the centre, around which the heat from -the furnace circulated, so that a greater surface was exposed to its -action, and, consequently, steam was generated much more quickly and in -greater volume and elasticity. This boiler was, moreover, more compact, -lighter, and more portable than Watt’s; the engine also was more simple; -and the cylinder and piston being vertical, the latter was attached to -a crank, which again was applied to the axles of the wheels, which made -them revolve at every double stroke of the piston. The whole of this -engine was mounted on a carriage; and this may be termed an improvement -upon Watt’s engine, and the second stage of this great invention. - -Trevithick and Vivian being convinced of success, took out a patent for -the tubular boiler and the engine, for its application to common roads -and railways; and foreseeing that if the wheels were applied to the -smooth surface of a railway, the adhesion of their surface, combined with -the weight of the whole machine, would be sufficient to impel it forward -when worked by the engine, proposed that the peripheries of the wheels -should be smooth; but in other cases, where more grip or action might be -necessary, they proposed to add bosses or cogs to the peripheries of the -wheels. What they now required was to apply the invention to practice. -They accordingly were either invited or went to the Merthyr Tydvil Iron -Works, where iron tramways were in extensive use, and there proposed -an engine for drawing the waggons, instead of manual and horse labour. -The invention was greatly approved of, and the proprietors of the mines -determined to give it a fair trial. A locomotive engine was then made by -Trevithick and Vivian and placed on the railway. Waggons laden with ten -tons of iron and coal were attached to the engine, and, to the surprise -of all, it drew them at the rate of six miles an hour. This was in the -year 1802. - -One would have thought that the principle, practice, and value of -the invention having been thus fairly demonstrated, the wealthy and -enterprising ironmasters would at once have adopted it and have brought -it into general use. Indeed, it is difficult to conceive why this was -not so. It is true that the machine was still cumbrous and difficult -to manage, and the cast-iron tramways were probably too light and -badly laid, so that they were frequently broken; still sufficient must -have been proved to show that these were defects that might easily be -remedied, and that continued practice would enable the inventors to -render both the locomotive and the railway more perfect. In almost -all new inventions, nothing is made perfect at first, and it requires -constant trials and much perseverance to remove obstacles which cannot be -foreseen, and the existence of which can only be proved by experience, -when the proper remedy can be applied. The attempt to introduce -locomotives on railways was not, however, for the time prosecuted further -at Merthyr Tydvil. - -It may be asked, why did not Trevithick and Vivian pursue the matter -further elsewhere? I believe the answer to this is simply that they had -not the means; they had already expended so much in prosecuting the -invention that their resources were exhausted, and unless fresh pecuniary -aid came in they must necessarily abandon it, at least for the time. -Nothing is more difficult than to introduce a new invention, however -plausible it may appear at first sight. We become by habit so wedded to -our old ways that we are apt to regard anything new with indifference. -When it has succeeded, the more simple it is the more we are astonished -that we should not have perceived its value before; hence, unfortunately, -we so frequently find that many able men, who have made brilliant -discoveries and inventions which have conferred so much benefit upon -mankind, have exhausted their all, and have died of starvation, just at -the very moment when they have succeeded. Then some lucky one steps in -and derives all the advantage. Such was the fate of poor Trevithick, who -may be said to have been the inventor of the modern railway system. Even -Watt himself would have probably shared the same fate, if he had not -met with the great Matthew Boulton, who appreciated his inventions, and -furnished the means for carrying them into effect. The same may be said -of Cort, who introduced puddling, the simplest mode of converting cast -into wrought iron. Bessemer himself told me that he was nearly ruined -before his great discovery succeeded. In fact, numberless examples might -be adduced of this melancholy truth; but to my story. - -The next example we find of the employment of the locomotive engine was -that of Blenkinsop, of Leeds, which was similar to, but more compact and -lighter than that of Trevithick and Vivian, and was applied to draw the -waggons laden with coal from Middleton Colliery, near Leeds, to that -town; I saw it at work in the year 1814. It then drew 20 tons at the -rate of seven miles an hour, at which I was much astonished. Although -quite a lad, I thought to myself, “Something more will come out of this -hereafter.” But the most singular thing connected with this was, that the -principle of adhesion to the rails by the smooth tired wheels, and the -fact of the power of a locomotive being in its weight, as laid down by -Trevithick, was completely forgotten, and the locomotive was propelled -forward by means of a toothed wheel driven by the engine, acting on a -corresponding toothed rack laid alongside the rails; this was nothing -more than Trevithick’s idea of bosses or teeth attached to the wheels, -but intended to be applied in a different way. Still the invention was -making its way. Blenkinsop’s engine excited great interest in the north, -especially in the neighbourhood of the Tyne and Wear, and numbers of -engineers, scientific men, and others went to see it, and being convinced -of its value, determined to introduce it into that district. Amongst -others, Mr. Blackett, of Wylam Colliery, who had seen Blenkinsop’s engine -and railway, perceived the error of attempting to propel the locomotive -by means of the toothed wheel and ratchet, and determined to revert to -Trevithick’s original design of the smooth tired wheels. Whether he had -heard of Trevithick’s invention or not, does not appear, although, as -the subject had become generally known, and numerous intelligent minds -had been directed towards it, it is very probable that he had. However, -be that as it may, he has the credit of reintroducing Trevithick’s -invention, and a locomotive, with improvements, leaving out the toothed -wheel and ratchet, was applied to a railway at Wylam with complete -success. - -Amongst others who visited Blenkinsop’s railway and locomotive engine was -Mr. James, a general land agent and surveyor, at Newcastle, who was in -large practice, and had a respectable fortune. He was a man of enlarged -mind and great intelligence, and although not a practical mechanician, he -was so much struck with the effect of Blenkinsop’s engine and railway, -that he at once said it was a new mode of conveying passengers and goods -which must supersede all others, and become universal. In his enthusiasm -he wrote a long letter, addressed to the Prince Regent, on the subject, -in 1815, pointing out the value of this new mode of transport, the saving -which it would effect in manual and horse labour, the ease and expedition -with which goods and passengers would be conveyed, and the vast benefits -which would be conferred upon the country by the general introduction of -the railway system. - -Immediately he set to work and devoted his whole energies and time, -regardless of his own business, to the promotion of this new mode of -transit. The celebrated George Stephenson, who up to this time had -been a working collier, began to emerge from his obscurity and exhibit -his genius to the world. James got acquainted with him, and being -greatly taken by his talent, imparted his views about the introduction -of railways, and, it is said, supplied money towards aiding him in -prosecuting the work. Be this as it may, Stephenson, who had seen -Blackett’s engine, was fully convinced of the soundness of the system, -and that it must become universal; and therefore, with his usual -indomitable energy and talent, he applied himself to promote and develop -the new scheme by every means in his power. He became acquainted, and -ultimately entered into partnership, with Mr. Lord, and established a -manufactory for locomotive engines at Newcastle, which maintains its -celebrity at the present day. He first made a locomotive of a new and -improved construction, which worked with considerable success upon the -Hetton Colliery railways. Next he was employed on the Stockton and -Darlington, for which he made several locomotives, all of which, be it -observed, were employed solely for carrying goods at the rate of about -eight miles an hour; and it was by no means anticipated that they would -be able to exceed that, or that they could calculate much upon general -passenger traffic. However, the success that had already attended their -efforts, made Stephenson confident that the railway system could be -equally well applied wherever there was a large traffic. James and -Stephenson then entered into a kind of partnership, and first proposed -to make a railway, in 1817, from Manchester to Liverpool, for between -those towns the traffic was so enormous that the Duke of Bridgewater’s -Canal and the Mersey could not accommodate it properly, and great -dissatisfaction was expressed at the delays and high charges. Nothing, -however, was done at the time, and it was not until the year 1825 that -the project was so far matured as to enable a company to be formed to -carry it into effect. This company was principally composed of gentlemen -from Manchester, Liverpool, and Newcastle; and George Stephenson was -their chief engineer. They went to Parliament in the year 1825, but were -so ill prepared to encounter the violent and powerful interests by which -they were opposed, particularly that of the Bridgewater Canal, which -enjoyed a very large portion of the traffic, that they lost their Bill. - -The late Earl of Lonsdale, then Lord Lowther, one of the Lords of the -Treasury, a very able and intelligent young man, knowing me from my -connection with London Bridge, and with the Whitehaven Harbour, of which -I was the engineer (where his father was the chief owner of all the -great collieries round the town), asked my opinion about the proposed -new system, and whether I thought that it was likely to succeed. I told -him frankly that I thought it would. His lordship replied, “I think -so, too;” and he offered me the post of engineer to the Manchester and -Liverpool Railway, adding, “Although it will be greatly opposed, I think -we shall carry it.” I replied that my brother and myself would be happy -to undertake it, provided that we did not interfere with Mr. Stephenson -or any other engineer who had been previously employed. Lord Lonsdale -said that he would arrange all that with the Company, and my brother and -myself were accordingly appointed engineers-in-chief. - -As we were left entirely to our own discretion to adopt the old or to -choose an entirely new line, we selected the present energetic and -talented engineer, Mr. Charles Vignolles, to make the necessary surveys -for Parliament. After examining the old line and the surrounding -country, we finally decided upon adopting the present one, which -passes over Chatmoss. Whilst we were proceeding with the survey, my -brother George and Mr. Vignolles met Mr. Bradshaw, who was the sole and -independent manager of the Duke of Bridgewater’s Canal, on Chatmoss, -not far from the line, and near his own residence. He went up to my -brother and introduced himself as the manager of the Duke’s Canal, and -my brother at once mentioned his name. Mr. Bradshaw shook him by the -hand very cordially, and said that he was glad to make the acquaintance -of the son of his old friend, Mr. Rennie, for whom he had the greatest -respect and friendship; and knowing what we were about, said that he, on -the part of the Duke’s Canal and the other water carriers, would oppose -the railway by every means in their power, and he felt pretty confident -that they could throw out the Bill a second and even a third time, if it -were attempted. At the same time he expressed the most friendly feeling -towards my brother, and invited him and Mr. Vignolles to his house, where -he received them most hospitably, and conversed, amongst other subjects, -about the Bridgewater Canal, and the great difficulties they had to -overcome in completing it. Pointing to a little whitewashed house, near -the Moss, about half a mile distant, he said to my brother: “Do you see -that house? Many a time did the late Duke of Bridgewater, Brindley, and -myself spend our evenings there during the construction of the canal, -after the day’s labours were over; and one evening in particular we had -a very doleful meeting. The Duke had spent all his money, had exhausted -his credit, and did not know where to get more, and the canal was not -finished. We were all three in a very melancholy mood, smoking our pipes -and drinking ale, for we had not the means to do more, and were very -silent. At last the Duke said: ‘Well, Mr. Brindley, what is to be done -now?’ Brindley said: ‘Well, Duke, I don’t know; but of this I feel as -confident as ever: if we could only finish the canal, it would pay well, -and soon bring back all your Grace’s money.’” After remaining a little -longer, the party broke up in melancholy silence, and each went his way. -It happened shortly afterwards that the Duke managed to get money enough -to complete the canal, and Brindley was a true prophet, for the canal -has paid well, and has been mainly the making of the great houses of -Sutherland and Ellesmere. - -The surveys for the line over Chatmoss were completed and deposited in -due time, and the usual notices were given. The Bill was read a first -time in the Commons, and after the second reading was referred to a -committee. Certainly Bradshaw had not exaggerated the opposition, for the -Bill was most energetically contested, the leading counsel against the -Bill being the late able and amiable Baron Alderson. The Bill, however, -passed the Commons, and ultimately the Lords, after an equally strong -contest; but Lord Lowther and his friends were indefatigable, and to his -lordship’s great exertions the success may be mainly attributed. At the -time I was so completely prostrated by the effects of the fall which I -had met with at London Bridge, as previously mentioned, that I was unable -to take any very active part, which therefore chiefly devolved upon my -brother and Mr. Vignolles. After the passing of the Bill, my brother and -myself prepared working drawings and estimates for carrying the work -into effect, and we naturally expected to be appointed the executive -engineers, after having with so much labour and anxiety carried the -Bill through Parliament. The Executive Committee of the Company behaved -extremely ill to us. Stephenson, although he had failed in carrying the -first Bill, still possessed considerable influence with the Executive -Committee, who proposed that Mr. Stephenson should be united with us. We -said that we had no objection to Mr. Stephenson taking the locomotive -department, which should be distinct from the other works. This, however, -the Committee declined, and at once appointed Mr. Stephenson the chief -engineer, and Mr. Vignolles the resident. - -My brother and myself designed that the width of gauge should be 5 feet -6 inches from centre to centre of the rail, and if this had been adopted -we should never have heard of any other. This was the proper gauge for -which an engine could have been made of the most powerful description, -without being too long. Moreover, the centre of gravity being lower, it -would have been more steady, being better adapted to going round sharp -curves. The same advantages would have been gained by the passenger -and goods carriages. Unfortunately, Mr. Stephenson was of a different -opinion: he thought that the old colliery waggon gauge of 4 feet 8½ -inches from centre to centre of the rail was ample, and it was adopted. -Hence all the enormous litigation and expense which afterwards ensued. -Brunel subsequently, on the Great Western Railway, feeling confident that -Stephenson’s gauge was too narrow, proposed and ultimately adopted 7 feet -as the proper gauge. Now this was as much too wide as Stephenson’s was -too narrow. Stephenson’s party have ultimately prevailed, and the narrow -gauge has been generally adopted, much to the efficiency and economy of -railways. - -Before leaving this part of the subject, it may be right to remark -that the opposition endeavoured to make a strong case against our line -crossing Chatmoss, which they said was utterly impracticable at any -reasonable expense. This we knew from our own experience to be simply -ridiculous, and so it was found to be during the execution; it has now -proved to be the best part of the line, and the easiest to keep in -repair. All that was required was to drain the surface by moderate-sized -drains, so as to get rid of the superfluous water, then the foundation -for the rails would be sufficiently solid to bear anything; moreover, it -possesses a certain degree of elasticity which prevents the concussion -or jolting that is usually found on a hard unyielding road. In 1828 the -line was so far advanced that the Company determined to advertise for -locomotives, and to give a premium of 1000_l._ for the best one that -was produced. Amongst the competitors were Messrs. Stephenson and Lord, -Messrs. Braithwaite and Ericsson, and Mr. T. Hackworth. - -The competition took place at Rainhill. The Company restricted the -weight of the engines to seven tons, which shows how little the subject -was at that time understood, for the power of a locomotive engine is -in proportion to its weight and the steam generated to work it; hence -it was quite clear that in restricting the weight they restricted its -power. Notwithstanding this, the engines performed wonders, and attained -the speed of 28 to 29 miles an hour. This was so contrary to the general -expectation, for even the makers did not expect above 8 or 10 miles an -hour, that everybody was astonished, and from that time forward the -glorious career of railways was established, and the old road system for -goods and passengers was condemned as a thing of the past. The shares, -which had been at a discount, now rose to a premium, and numerous new -lines were in contemplation. Stephenson’s engine, the ‘Rocket,’ gained -the premium, as it complied with all the required conditions, although -that of Messrs. Braithwaite and Ericsson was in other respects considered -the best. - -The rails used upon this line were what is technically called the edge -rail. These were of cast iron, weighing 30 lb. per yard, and they were -cast on lengths 3 feet long, resting upon blocks of stone about 12 inches -thick and 2 feet square, like the old tramways. Here is another example -of the little that was known upon the subject; for it was forgotten that -the old tramways were worked by horses, which seldom exceeded the speed -of 2½ miles, and, consequently, the vibration upon a tolerably well made -road was scarcely sensible, although it prevailed to a certain extent; -but when the velocity was increased to above 20 miles an hour, the case -was totally different, as should have been anticipated; yet the line was -opened for traffic on the old principle, until it was found that the -concussion and vibration produced by the rigidity of the road were so -serious as to cause considerable trouble. On account of its elasticity, -the Chatmoss section was found to be the easiest and best part of the -road, yet it is singular that this did not occur to the Company. They -continued to use stone blocks more or less up to the year 1837, when they -discovered their error, and replaced the blocks with wooden sleepers, and -large hillocks of these stone blocks may still be seen lying along the -Manchester and Liverpool, and Birmingham lines. - -But to return to the edge rail, which was certainly a great improvement -upon the old flange rail. This edge rail was, I believe, first invented -by William Jessop, a celebrated man of his time, and tried under Smeaton, -who proposed it for the Leicester and Loughborough Tram Railway. The -flange was transferred from the rail to the inner edge of the waggon -wheel; and the edge rail having no flange occasioned less friction to -the shaft. As the rails were manufactured of cast iron, they could not -be made longer than 3 feet without materially increasing their liability -to break; but there were so many joints that it was very difficult to -make a smooth road and keep it in order, particularly when the speed -of travelling increased. Hence the use of stone blocks had not been -abandoned. This difficulty was at length overcome by the substitution of -wrought-iron rails, which were first proposed by Buckenshaw. These were -laid on wooden sleepers, and this was another great improvement; but -the numerous joints were still a great difficulty in the way of making a -smooth road and keeping it in order. This was at last overcome by making -the rails in one single piece on rollers patented for the purpose. - -Rails have now been increased from 30 to 80 lb. per foot, and have been -fished at every joint; that is, a plate has been fixed on each side with -sufficient room in the connecting bolt-holes to allow for expansion and -contraction. - -With regard to locomotives, numerous improvements have been made. We have -first Watt’s idea of making a steam engine, with its boiler complete, -upon an independent carriage, mounted upon wheels, so that it could -move in any direction and propel itself; as well as a weight attached -to it, mounted upon wheels also. As the tramways of cast iron were then -established, this locomotive machine could have readily been applied to -it, so that, in fact, to Watt may be attributed the first practical idea -of the locomotive engine, although there are some doubts about this, for -a M. Cugnot is said to have made a working model of a locomotive engine -upon a considerable scale, at Paris, in the year 1783. Be this as it may, -they were both made so nearly about the same time that it is difficult to -decide which had the priority. At all events, Watt is justly entitled to -the merit of having been the first to invent it in England. - -Hackworth’s (of Darlington) engine was made about the same time, and was -similar to Stephenson’s. - -The next improvement consisted in placing the cylinders of the engine -horizontally instead of vertically, so that the piston acted directly -upon the axle upon which the driving wheels were placed, instead of by -the intervention of a double crank; this made the engine more compact. - -The next was the multitubular boiler, by means of which the generation -of steam was greatly accelerated, in consequence of the increased surface -exposed to the action of the heat.[4] - -I will now revert to 1826, the time when I was asked my opinion as to -the value of railways, and I said, in the most decided terms, to Lord -Lowther, that I thought very highly of them, that they must succeed and -eventually supersede every other mode of transport for passengers and -goods. Being quite convinced of this, with which opinion my brother -George cordially agreed, I set about projecting lines to those places -where I thought they were most applicable; that is, where there was -actually a large and constant traffic, and where a more facile means -of locomotion would be attended with an increased trade. Next to the -Liverpool and Manchester, I selected the London and Birmingham line, -whilst my brother, in company with the late Jonas Jessop and William -Chapman, chose a direct line, from the termination of mine at Birmingham, -to Liverpool, so that the two lines together would have considerably -reduced the distance between London, Birmingham, and Liverpool. My line -proceeded by Aylesbury, Banbury, Bicester, Kenilworth, and Warwick, to -the higher part of Birmingham; and my brother’s from thence by Stafford -and Runcorn--with a bridge across the Mersey at that place--to Liverpool. -Thus London, Birmingham, and Liverpool, the three largest and most -important commercial towns in the kingdom, would have been connected -together in the shortest possible distance and with the least expensive -works practicable. The project, upon the whole, was well received, but -the public were not quite prepared for such an undertaking; in fact, it -was in advance of the time, and for a while fell to the ground. Canals -had not fallen into disrepute, and Mr. Telford, who succeeded my father -in carrying into effect the great improvements proposed by him for the -Birmingham Canal, suggested a continuation of this (through the very -district which my brother, Jessop, and Chapman had proposed to carry -their railway), to connect it with the Bridgewater and Mersey canal to -Liverpool; this was accordingly executed, and, as regards a commercial -speculation, failed entirely, as it was soon superseded by railways. -The fact was, that Telford, having been bred in the old school, and -having seen the triumph of canals, could not, or would not, believe in -the efficacy of railways, or that they would ever succeed; and, indeed, -he laughed heartily when he had succeeded in supplanting my brother’s -line of railway from Birmingham to Liverpool by a canal. He had a strong -prejudice against railways, which he maintained until his death, in 1835. -He had just finished his great work the Holyhead Road, with the great -connecting suspension bridges of Conway and Bangor, and of which, with -good reason, he was justly proud, and could not bear the idea of their -being superseded by any other system of locomotion. Although an able -engineer in many respects, he was not much of a practical mechanic, and -very likely conscientiously thought that railways would not succeed. He -had done his work well in his own department, and was too old to learn -anything new. He died at a good old age, much respected and beloved by -those who knew him, and leaving numerous monuments behind him of his -engineering talents. - -Another important line of railway which I proposed at this time was one -between London and Brighton, and I employed two very experienced and -competent surveyors, Messrs. Edward Grantham and Jago, who had frequently -been employed by my father to make surveys in various parts of England, -particularly in the region between London and Portsmouth, and the Weald -of Kent, so that they had a thorough knowledge of the district. After -examining the country myself, I directed that the line should commence -at Kennington Common, and proceed from thence by Clapham and Streatham -to the lower end of Croydon; from thence up Smitham Bottom valley to -the hill at Merstham, which was to be pierced by a tunnel; from thence -to Redhill, Horley, and the valley to the Cinder Banks at the base of -the ridge of hills called Tilgate Forest, where there was to be another -tunnel; from thence, skirting the left side of the valley near Balcombe, -to the valley of the Ouse, which was to be crossed by a viaduct, and -thence to Hayward’s Heath, between Lindfield and Cuckfield, where -it passed through another ridge of hills by a deep cutting; it then -proceeded direct to the Southdown hills, near Clayton Hill, which was -to be pierced by a tunnel; thence down the valley to Brighton, where it -terminated at the upper end of the town on the right side of the valley. -This line extended from Kennington Common to Brighton. The country is -very rugged, having three lofty ridges of hills running east and west, -which it was necessary to pass through, as there are no leading valleys -or gaps to facilitate the passage without going a long way round, which -would have defeated my object. This line might have been shortened -nearly a mile by going direct from Tilgate Forest to Cuckfield, but -the works would have been much heavier, and could scarcely have been -justified at the time, as the public were not prepared for such expensive -operations. I also employed Mr. Vignolles to survey another line from -Nine Elms, Vauxhall, by Dorking, Horsham, and Shoreham; from thence along -the coast to the west end of Brighton. This line, upon the whole, was -easier of execution than the other, but it was five miles longer, which -I considered objectionable, as my object was to lay down the shortest -possible line between the two termini, so as to render all future -competition out of the question. By this time I was so fully convinced -of the ultimate success of railways, both for speed and economy, that -I announced in the prospectus, that when the railway system had been -introduced into France, the journey from London to Paris might be made by -this route in twelve hours; however, at this period no passenger railway -had been completed, and therefore my statement was considered only as -a rough guess, which might never come to pass, and therefore a company -could not be formed. At the same time I employed competent persons to -make the survey for a coast line from Brighton to Worthing, Arundel, -Chichester, Havant, Portsmouth, Southampton, Salisbury, and thence to -Warminster, with the intention of extending it hereafter to Bristol. - -The Manchester and Liverpool Railway was opened with great ceremony, when -the Duke of Wellington, then Premier, and Mr. Huskisson, the President -of the Board of Trade, attended. Unfortunately, the latter most able -Minister was killed, by being run over by one of the locomotives. Poor -Huskisson was standing between the two lines of rails, with the Duke -and several others, when the engine came up unexpectedly; he lost -his presence of mind, and took a wrong step, which ended in a death -universally deplored by the nation, as well as by his numerous friends. - -The success of the Manchester and Liverpool railway having been -established, the next thing was to extend the line to Birmingham, and -a company was immediately formed for the purpose, with Mr. George -Stephenson as engineer. About the same time another line was projected -by his son Robert, from London to Birmingham, pursuing pretty nearly -the line of the old Grand Junction or Paddington Canal; this line was -longer than mine, led over much more difficult country, and did not pass -through the same number of towns and population, although it touched the -important city of Coventry. - -My line commenced at Blackwall, and pursued the route of the Regent’s -Canal, nearly similar to the line of railway which my father had formerly -laid down. - -There were two strong parties, one of which supported Stephenson’s line, -and the other mine; but ultimately Stephenson’s party was the strongest, -he carried his line by one or two votes, and the present London and -Birmingham railway was executed. - -The route to Liverpool was unnecessarily long, and therefore a new line -was started to shorten the distance, called the Trent Valley Line, which -commenced at Rugby, and joined the Birmingham line at Stafford, thus -cutting off the angle at Birmingham, and saving a considerable distance. -This line was strongly opposed, but was carried, it is said, by the -influence of the late Sir R. Peel, and was executed, I believe, at the -cost of three millions. If my own and my brother’s line had been carried -out, this would have been unnecessary, as a branch to Stafford would -have sufficed for that and other towns, and Birmingham would have been -upon the main line. It is singular, also, that Telford’s canal, which -supplanted our line, has been absorbed by the adjacent railways. - -Having now, in a rather rambling manner, brought my professional diary -so far, I must revert again to some incidents connected with my private -life. On the death of Sir Joseph Banks, Sir Humphry Davy was unanimously -elected President of the Royal Society in the year 1820, and I had the -honour of being elected Fellow, 1823. - -I was elected member of the Travellers’ Club, 1822. This club was formed -in the year 1818, for the express purpose of associating travellers -together, and for promoting travelling. It was enacted that no person was -eligible to become a member unless he had travelled on the Continent, in -a direct line, 500 miles from London, and great things were expected from -it; but although it was the first travelling club established in London, -and contained amongst its members the most distinguished travellers, it -shortly degenerated into an ordinary club, and nothing has ever emanated -from it towards extending our knowledge of the globe, or in publishing -the travels of the numerous able men who belonged to it. Sir Arthur de -Capel Brooke, who was a member of it, and who travelled a good deal -himself, particularly in the north of Europe, going as far as the North -Cape, and who published an interesting account of his journey, spoke -to my brothers, myself, and numerous other travellers on the subject, -proposing to establish a new club, composed of none but distinguished -travellers; he suggested that this, in the first instance, should be -nothing more than a dining club, to meet once every month, saying that -travellers meeting together in this social manner would communicate -to each other their various voyages, and would stimulate each other -to further discoveries; that although a mere social club in the first -instance, in time some good would result, and that in the end a regular -scientific society might be established for the promotion of geography. -He accordingly collected together all the distinguished travellers of -the day, naval, military, and civil, and a most delightful society it -was; the result clearly proved Sir Arthur Brooke’s sagacity, for from -the Raleigh Club was originated the Royal Geographical Society. I am not -quite certain with whom the idea first originated, but I recollect that -at one meeting, when, amongst others, the late distinguished traveller -and Secretary to the Admiralty, Sir John Barrow, was present, an animated -conversation took place, to the effect that the Raleigh Club had been -in existence many years, and a very agreeable club it was; but, except -amusing each other with our adventures, we had done nothing towards -promoting our original intention, which was to stimulate discovery in -foreign lands, and to extend the knowledge of geography throughout the -world. I think Sir John Barrow then said, “Why cannot we establish a -real geographical society, and read papers, and publish transactions, -like other scientific societies?” The idea caught at once: the whole of -the members then present applauded it, and resolved to carry it into -effect. A committee was appointed, and every member, I think, of the club -joined. A general meeting was then called, members soon joined, and Sir -John Barrow was appointed first president; a council and vice-presidents -were chosen, a house was taken in Waterloo Place, Colonel Jackson was -chosen secretary, a royal charter was applied for and obtained, and the -society was duly instituted, under the name of the Royal Geographical -Society. This society, like all others in their infancy, had a good deal -to contend with; it went on well for a time, but at length it began to -languish. It required some man of weight and influence to devote his -time to it, to enlist the Government heartily in the cause, and to make -it understand that it was its interest, on the part of the public, -to promote the Society by every means in its power. Fortunately, at -that time the Society had in Sir Roderick Murchison the very man most -competent to undertake this arduous office. He worked hard; he convinced -the Government of the utility of the Society, and the many advantages -that would be afforded by its existence, as it could collect information -upon all geographical subjects, at far less expense than could be -obtained by any Government establishment; it would, moreover, stimulate -travellers to increased exertions, and accumulate a fund of geographical -information--knowledge that is so important to a commercial country like -our own. - -The then head of the Government was so much struck by the representations -made to him of the value of the Society and of the advantage it would -be to the Government, that he resolved in the House of Commons to grant -500_l._ a year in aid of its funds. This at once revived the members’ -spirits; they started, as it were afresh; the Society became exceedingly -popular, and there was no end of applications to be enrolled as members, -both from ladies and gentlemen, and ever since then it has been one of -the most, if not the most, popular societies of the day. - -The old Raleigh Club, from which the Geographical Society originated, -having done its duty, and most of its original members having succumbed -to time, there was no longer any necessity for its existence; but as all -scientific societies have their dining clubs, which meet on the days of -the societies’ meetings, it was resolved to merge the Raleigh into the -Geographical Club. - -In the year 1824, John Wilson Croker, Esq., originated the Athenæum -Club, for men distinguished in science, literature, and art, and asked -me to become a member. I was only too happy to be associated with such a -company as he collected together. - -Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1825, originated the Zoological Society, -and asked me to join, which I did most willingly, and perhaps it has been -the most popular and successful of any modern society of that kind. It -commenced operations by purchasing the well-known Cross collection of -Exeter ’Change, in which in my early days I took an especial delight; -for, considering all things, it was a very wonderful collection, and it -is difficult to understand how, in such a confined and unhealthy spot, -it could have been maintained in such good condition. The only other -exhibition of the kind in London was at the Tower; the collection of -animals there consisted of presents from the sovereigns of different -countries. These were afterwards lent to the Zoological Society, who -established their museum in the Regent’s Park, and, taking it altogether, -it is probably the finest and best maintained in the world. - - [4] The blast-pipe, also, was one of the most important - improvements. Previous to this invention it was necessary to - employ bellows to keep up the fire in the boiler, and these - were worked by the engine, so that a good deal of power was - wasted in order to keep the furnace going, and the greater - the speed, the greater the power necessary to work the - bellows; moreover, the waste steam ejected from the cylinders - was constantly puffing out in the faces of the drivers, so - that they could not see clearly before them. This was a - great annoyance, which they were most anxious to get rid of, - but nobody seemed to know how. At last, either Stephenson, - Hackworth, or Booth, or somebody else, whilst driving an - engine, and being much annoyed by the blowing in their faces, - said, “Confound the steam; let us send it up the chimney.” A - pipe was accordingly made, connecting the cylinder with the - chimney, so that the discharged steam might be ejected through - it into the chimney. When this alteration was made, the engine - was again tried, and to their astonishment they not only got - rid of the annoyance of the steam, but the bellows were of no - use, and the faster the engine went the more vigorous became - the fire. Upon thinking over this coolly, the mystery was - soon explained, for the hot steam being discharged into the - comparatively cold chimney, a vacuum was produced, and the - air rushed through the furnace to fill up the vacuum; the - faster the engine went the greater the amount of steam sent - up the chimney, and the more active the draught through the - furnace. The bellows became wholly unnecessary, so much power - was saved, and the nuisance of the escaping steam was entirely - got rid of. This was really a great step towards in rendering - the locomotive more effective; and it is very difficult to - ascertain to whom the improvement is justly due. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Travels in the North of Europe and Spain. - - -Having been very hard worked, and being in bad health, owing to my -still suffering from the effects of my fall into the cofferdam of -London Bridge, I felt the necessity for some relaxation. I therefore -made my arrangements for a short continental tour, resolving to visit -the north of Europe. Adhering to my original plan, I shall only mention -those places and occurrences which, for particular reasons, I think, -may possess some little interest, and shall pass over the ordinary -descriptions of places and things which are now so well known as to be -hackneyed. My journey, principally by sea, from London to St. Petersburg -passed without incident, except that off the Island of Bornholm we met -the Russian fleet, consisting of seven sail of the line. It was a fine -sight, and the ships seemed well handled; but one line-of-battle ship in -going about missed stays, and got into what the sailors term irons, that -is to say, she would move neither way. Our sailors laughed heartily, and -we could see by the signals made from the flag-ship that the admiral was -very much annoyed. - -On board the steamer I made acquaintance with Lieutenant Conolly, who -intended to take the route from St. Petersburg overland to India--a -particularly difficult and dangerous journey; but Conolly was an -intelligent, ardent, and courageous person, anxious for information, -and ambitious to explore a route which had hardly ever been undertaken -before; but he unfortunately fell a victim to his ambition. He was a -little man, determined and energetic, capable of undergoing great -fatigue, and a very agreeable and sociable companion. He and I took to -each other and became great friends, and entertained the pleasing idea of -meeting again after his return from India; but this never took place, for -he was murdered with his companions. - -Conolly and I got our luggage together as soon as possible after -landing, and drove to the Grand Hotel, which was then a sort of barrack -or caravanserai, near the Newski Prospect. Before seeing the city, I -presented the various letters of introduction with which I had been -provided; amongst others were several from my old friend, Chevalier -Benkausen, the Russian Consul-General in London. - -I first called upon Lord Heytesbury, our ambassador, whom I had -previously known as Mr. Abbott, at Naples, by whom I was most cordially -welcomed. I also waited upon all the authorities, and was well received -by them; but the person to whom I was most indebted was my friend, -General Wilson, a sensible Scotchman, who had entered the Civil Service -of the Government, as engineer to the cotton, gun, and general iron -manufactures, for which he had erected a large establishment at Kolpnau, -about 13 or 14 miles from St. Petersburg. This place I visited with -him; it was very complete, for the Emperor Nicholas, who was at times -very fond of Englishmen and everything English, had taken Wilson and -his establishment under his especial protection, and had given him -authority to incur any reasonable expenditure to make it perfect. Wilson, -therefore, imported the newest and most improved machines and tools of -every kind from England, and obtained also the best of English workmen. -The cotton manufactories were upon a most extensive and imposing scale; -in fine buildings, with hosts of employés, they were conducted in the -true imperial style, that is, with great show, but little profit. Still, -they were not without their advantages; they were the means of training -a set of native workmen, who, although not inventive, are excellent -imitators, consequently after a time their services must have been -valuable. The same may be said of the iron manufactories, particularly as -Russia has some of the richest iron mines, and they only require skilled -workmen to develop them to their utmost; Wilson contributed materially -towards this; and it was impossible to have selected a better man for -this purpose. He possessed a calm even temper, firm, but just, and -conciliating, with a competent knowledge of what he undertook to perform, -without possessing any considerable amount of invention. He spoke the -Russian language like a native, besides French and German. He therefore -most justly possessed a good deal of influence, and was thoroughly liked -and respected, from the humblest workman under his orders up to the -Emperor, who was very fond of him. Lastly, he was thoroughly honest, -a rare thing in Russia in those days, where peculation was rife from -the highest to the lowest; and if Wilson had followed the universal -example, which he might have done with impunity, he would have made a -large fortune; but after many years’ service he died comparatively poor. -Although anything but a military man, he was a general in the Russian -service, and was decorated with several stars and orders. All persons -officially employed like Wilson had military rank; he concealed this as -much as he could; but in St. Petersburg he was always obliged to wear -uniform, and as there were guardhouses in almost every street, whenever -he passed the guard turned out to salute him, which annoyed him much. - -There was another remarkable Scotchman, of the name of Baird, with whom -I made acquaintance. He was, however, a totally different character--a -shrewd, intelligent, clever, active, indefatigable person, wholly -devoted to making money. He was in constant communication with England; -and as soon as a patent was taken out there for any new invention, if -it was applicable in Russia he at once imported and patented it, and -thus obtained a monopoly. He cultivated, with the greatest tact and -assiduity, all the officials, from the highest to the lowest, as well -as all persons of any influence, and had a thorough understanding with -them, particularly with the police and officers of customs; thus he -contrived to gain the greatest influence, and secured almost a monopoly -of everything worth having. If ever the Government was desirous of -contracting for any large work, Baird was almost sure of obtaining it, -at the best price. Whether his numerous friends were interested in the -profits resulting from these multifarious undertakings is best known -to himself; but according to the ordinary practice of human nature, -particularly in Russia at that time, everybody endeavoured to make the -most he could, and it is probable that there was no exception in this -case; but suffice to say that Baird made a very large fortune, with which -he retired to his native country; and we must not omit to mention that -Baird, whilst benefiting himself, was of the greatest service to Russia, -and tended materially to advance her prosperity by the numerous valuable -inventions he introduced, and by training the natives, and inciting them -and urging them to make all sorts of improvements, which, without such -a man, would never have been undertaken, so that nobody grudged his -wealth, and he left the country to which he had been a real benefactor -universally liked and esteemed. As to myself, personally, I feel much -indebted to him; through his kindness I had the opportunity of knowing -many persons and seeing many things which otherwise would have been out -of my power. - -I frequently dined at the cafés and restaurants when not otherwise -engaged, and at some of the best of them met persons of the first class, -who were always very well bred and polite. One day I dined at one of the -best table d’hôtes, when several persons of high rank were present, and -amongst them a young naval officer of good family. Amongst other subjects -of conversation, the recent taking of Varna came forward, and the naval -officer seemed to speak rather disparagingly of it. I observed one of -the superior waiters looking at him and listening attentively for some -time, then he quietly went up to him and whispered a few words in his -ear, which my neighbour told me was an order to hold his tongue, for such -conversation would not be allowed. The fact was that all these waiters -were employed by, or in the pay of, the police, and all conversations -were reported. The young naval officer held his tongue immediately, and -the party broke up very shortly afterwards, and I was told that the -matter would not end there. I took the hint also, for nothing was more -dangerous than to talk politics, and I avoided them ever after. - -In considering the position of St. Petersburg, it is, perhaps, difficult -to find a more inconvenient and unhealthy spot for a great seaport town -than that chosen for the Russian capital, at the mouth of the Neva, at -the head of the Gulf of Finland, where there is no tide, and where the -greatest depth over the bar is only seven feet, so that none but vessels -of a small class can ascend the river. Hence, though within the bar -there is ample depth of water at all times, large mercantile vessels are -obliged to stop at Cronstadt, seven miles distant, and there discharge -their cargoes, which are transferred to St. Petersburg in lighters; -in like manner they receive their cargoes from the capital; this, of -course, is attended with great delay and considerable expense. Moreover, -during the prevalence of strong westerly winds, the waters of the Gulf -of Finland are heaped up at the upper end, and those of the Neva are -driven back, so that it frequently happens that a large portion of the -city is inundated; and in November, in the year 1827, a terrible example -of this occurred. In many parts of the city the waters rose more than -fourteen feet, many thousand persons were drowned, and a vast amount of -valuable property was destroyed. These inundations might be avoided, and -the port improved to a considerable extent, although it would necessarily -require a very great expenditure. Still the object to be gained is of -such importance that every reasonable means should be adopted to effect -it, and compared with the enormous sums which have been expended in -establishing this capital, the cost of improving the port would appear -trifling. - -Cronstadt is, properly speaking, the port of St. Petersburg. Here all -vessels, whether of war or merchandise, must stop; and the southern -side of the island, where there is the deepest water, from 24 to 27 -feet, has been chosen as the site for the naval arsenal, as well as -the port for merchant vessels, where docks had been made when I was -there by enclosing a portion of the water space from the gulf; the two -basins or harbours were close together, separated only by a partition -wall. The accommodation for the mercantile vessels, although not small, -nevertheless was in a rude state, devoid of the usual mechanical -appliances which we have for many years been so accustomed to in England. - -The naval arsenal, which was made in the time of Peter the Great, and -was considered perfect at the time it was made, consists of a long canal -leading from the outer to a small circular basin. Connected with this -there were four dry docks for the line-of-battle ships of that period. -From this the circular basin on the east side was connected with two -other dry docks; and around these canals, basin and docks, there were -several storehouses and magazines; but upon the whole they were badly -arranged. - -I may here as well mention that my brother and myself afterwards, at the -request of the Emperor, designed a complete naval establishment for this -place, utilizing as much as we could of the old construction, and this -design, I believe, was to some extent adopted. - -We afterwards built four iron steamboats, with their engines, for the -Caspian Sea, which were the first ever afloat there. These vessels were -built in England, then taken to pieces, and sent with the requisite -number of workmen to Odessa. Thence by land they were transported to the -Caspian, where they were again put together, with their engines, and -answered their purpose well. We afterwards made the iron gates for the -docks of Sebastopol, a pair of which were subsequently brought to England -and France as war trophies. We also constructed several vessels of war, -worked by the screw, for the Baltic and Black Seas; amongst others a -yacht for the Emperor, to review his fleets in the Gulf of Finland, as -well as for pleasure excursions. This was a small vessel, about 260 tons, -with a pair of oscillating engines of the nominal power of 120 horses, -although capable of working up to three times that power, and making -fully 14 knots an hour. She was fitted up plainly but very neatly. From -circumstances over which we had no control, the completion was prolonged -to a later period of the year than we anticipated; and it was not before -the middle of October, 1850, that we were ready to leave England, when -my brother and his son George determined to go with her and deliver -her in person. She was well insured, and was navigated by an English -captain--who, I observed at the time, was not a very sharp fellow--and an -English crew. As she was a small vessel she had to take a considerable -quantity of coals on deck, which brought her down beyond her usual line -of floatation. I went with her as far as Gravesend, and saw them fairly -on their voyage, but before she reached the Baltic she encountered a -severe storm, when she behaved admirably. At Copenhagen she took in more -coals, and started again, and in the Baltic encountered another severe -storm, which she got through equally as well as before. The weather then -became fine, and they thought that all their troubles were over. The last -storm had driven her considerably out of her course, which the captain -had not taken a correct account of; and one fine starlight night, about -ten o’clock, they were steaming away with a smooth sea, at the rate of -about 10 to 12 knots an hour, when the engineer, putting his head out -of the engine-house to enjoy the fine evening, suddenly called out, “I -think I see land,” and went at once to the captain. The captain said, -“It is impossible. We cannot be nearer land than 30 or 40 miles.” The -captain and the Russian officer and my brother were at the time in the -cabin taking their grog comfortably before going to bed. But he quickly -went upon deck and soon discovered his error, and ordered the vessel to -be put about; but before this could be done she struck upon a rock, and -in spite of all their endeavours she could not be got off. The Russian -officer declined taking any of the responsibility, saying it lay with -the captain, and he would have nothing to do with it. At daylight they -found themselves hard and fast upon the Island of Dago. My brother, -finding that nothing could be done to get the vessel off, resolved with -his son to make his way at once to St. Petersburg, and report the loss -of the vessel. As the winter had begun, the journey was attended with -considerable difficulty. However, they reached St. Petersburg, and had an -audience of the Emperor Nicholas, who, when he heard the story, laughed -heartily, and said, “Now, if this had occurred under the command of -Russian officers and sailors, what would the English have said? why, -that no wonder an accident had occurred, when the vessel was confided to -those stupid fellows, the Russians. Now, you see, it has happened with -the English; and they, with all their pretended knowledge, don’t know -the Baltic yet, and are more stupid than the Russians.” Again he laughed -heartily, and said, “I am delighted to find that my sailors are, after -all, as clever as the English, and under the circumstances I am not sorry -that the yacht is lost. It will teach the English in future not to be so -proud of their knowledge, and to give the Russians credit for knowing the -Baltic as well as they do.” - -Although the yacht was wrecked, we lost nothing, neither did the Emperor, -for he was insured to the full, and we received an order to make another -of precisely the same size. The underwriters, as soon as they heard -of the accident, sent out a clever fellow, Captain Farr, who, upon -arriving at the spot where the vessel was stranded, found that she had -not received much damage; he, therefore, finding that the season was too -far advanced to take her back to England, or even to get her into any -Baltic port, at once weighed her and then sank her in deeper water in -order that she might be protected during the winter. In the spring he -returned, weighed her again, and took her to Revel, where he repaired -the trifling damage she had received, then returned with her to England, -calling at Hamburg on his way, and from thence she made a quicker voyage -that had ever been made before. I saw her in the East India Dock, and she -looked quite new; and unless I had known I should never have supposed -that she had been stranded, and been a whole winter under water in the -Baltic. She afterwards sold, I think, for 9000_l._, having originally -cost 14,000_l._; and as the insurers had been paid nearly 4000_l._ for -the original insurance, the underwriters scarcely lost anything. Thus we -gained considerably by the accident, having to make two yachts instead -of one, and neither the Emperor nor the underwriters lost anything. - -Leaving St. Petersburg I started for Moscow, traversing 400 miles of most -uninteresting country in an open droschky, drawn at the rate of 10 miles -an hour--as I paid liberally--by four horses abreast. The only noticeable -place I passed through was Novogorod, a considerable town, with a good -deal of activity, and apparently an extensive trade. Here the two great -water-carriage systems met, connecting the Baltic with the Black Sea, and -also with the Caspian. The canals were crowded with vessels laden with -the products of the East and West; natives from the East clad in their -flowing garments, Tartars, with their bows and arrows, Cossacks from the -Don, Armenian, Greek, and Turkish merchants, and the never-failing Jew, -English, French, and Germans, all mixed together, and carrying on their -particular business, formed a very amusing and busy scene. I contrived to -get a tolerable dinner there, the only one deserving of the name since -I left Petersburg; I devoted two or three hours to looking over the -canal-works, which, for that time, were not badly executed, but the town -contained nothing remarkable. - -On reaching Moscow, what struck me most was the Eastern appearance of the -inhabitants, particularly when compared with the extremely modern look of -the town itself. The Kremlin, of course, I need not describe. I visited -the celebrated Riding House, which is 1200 feet long, covered by a wooden -roof, of the single span of 240 feet; it is without doubt the finest and -largest shed in the world, and a splendid piece of carpentry, well worth -going some distance to see. It is frequently used for reviewing troops in -unfavourable weather, and it is said that ten thousand men can go through -their exercises under its shelter. - -On my way from Moscow to Warsaw I had no idea that this great road--one -of the principal in Russia, and, upon the whole, not through an -unproductive country--I should find so totally unprovided with anything -for the accommodation of travellers. In those days I certainly did not -expect much, and having travelled in more barbarous countries, I could -submit cheerfully to a good deal; but I certainly did not expect that it -would be so bad as I found it, and therefore I carried little with me, -contrary to my usual practice. This I certainly repented of, for our fare -was most miserable; if we got eggs, butter, cheese, and bread, we thought -ourselves lucky, though sometimes we got better provisions; however, -perhaps it was well, for although ill when I started, I began to get -better, and slept soundly. My man Weiss consoled himself with plenty of -vodki, and considering the rough fare we got I could not altogether blame -him. We passed Smolenski, and a very poor place it was; there was nothing -like an hotel, nor any accommodation for travellers. Although seventeen -years had elapsed since the invasion of the French in 1812, the remains -of the fire and battle which took place when the French captured it were -still very visible. When we entered Poland cultivation appeared to be -carried on more extensively and with greater skill, and the people seemed -more intelligent; we passed several large proprietors’ houses. - -At Warsaw I attended a review of the garrison, in the Great Square, -in honour of the recent victories of the Russians over the Turks. It -consisted of about twelve thousand men of all arms, commanded by the -Grand Duke Constantine, the Viceroy. I never saw finer troops in my life, -nor any that manœuvred better. Before the review mass was said in their -midst, and when _Te Deum_ was sung by the whole of the men--and they sang -it with great skill--the effect was very fine, and was rendered still -more so by a salvo of one hundred and one guns, fired from the forts. - -I returned rapidly through Germany, and reached home after an absence of -sixty-five days, during which period I had travelled nearly thirty nights. - -I immediately visited London Bridge, and found everything going on well. -In fact, during my absence my brother George had diligently looked after -my business as well as his own. - -My brother George married the only daughter of Sir John Jackson, Bart., -in June 1828. I had then taken a house for myself, No. 15, Whitehall -Place, where my two younger brothers, Matthew and James, lived with me -for about a couple of years. - -At this time, as a bachelor, I saw a good deal of society, and made -acquaintance with most of the celebrated scientific men of the day, -also the leading literati, artists, painters, and sculptors. In fact, -when I could tear myself away from my business I passed my time most -agreeably and profitably in that distinguished society. I numbered -amongst my acquaintance Sir H. Davy, Dr. Young, Wollaston, Dawes, -Gilbert, Sir A. Cooper, Sir D. Home, Laurence, Greene, Playfair, Leslie, -Whewell, Peacock, Hopkins, Liston, Barlow, Irving, Bailey, Colby, -Parley, Sedgwick, Greenough, Delabeche, Meecham, Lyell, Brande, Faraday, -Christie, Allen, Pepys, Sir James M’Intosh, W. W. Scott, J. W. Croker, -J. Barrow, Sir S. Raffles, Marsden, Sir F. Chantrey, Sir T. Lawrence, -Turner, Calcott, Stansfield, Behnes, Chalon, Sir A. M. Shee, Eastlake, -Varley, Martin, Philips, Theodore Hook, Samuel Rogers, Southey, Robert -Brown, Hallam, Sir A. Alison, Sir J. Parry, Sir J. Franklin, Sir John -Ross, the late Sir J. Lubbock, the late Admiral Fitzroy, Professor -Owen, and many others, and last, not least, Mrs. Somerville. Amongst -foreigners--Humboldt, Laplace, Cuvier, Arago, Pring, Gerard, Cardinal -Mezzofauité, Mailenette, Wree-Viking, and Von Breek. - -In 1833, having now completed London, Hyde Park, Staines, and Crammond -bridges, the great naval works at Sheerness, Woolwich, and Chatham, the -Victualling Department, or Royal William Yard, and a large portion of -the breakwater at Plymouth, Sunderland, Port Patrick, Donaghadee, Port -Rush, and a large portion of Kingstown Harbours, the Eau Brink Cut, the -Nene Outfall, the Witham Outfall, the Ancholme Drainage, and several -other minor works, I was almost knocked up, and was recommended to take -another continental journey for recreation. As I had never seen Spain I -determined to go there, and accordingly started in the mail for Falmouth, -and reached Cadiz on the fifth day. - -Whilst at Gibraltar there was a grand military and civil fête, given by -the governor of the fort Algesiras on the opposite side of the bay, to -celebrate the establishment of the constitution, when he invited the -governor of Gibraltar, Sir W. Houston, one of King William IV.’s most -attached followers, and who had received me most kindly, and all the -officers of the garrison. The governor of course could not go, nor all -the officers; but a considerable number did, and I went in a boat in -company with a number of the officers of the Rifles, while a great many -rode round by land. We were received in the most courteous manner by the -governor and the Spanish officers, and were most hospitably entertained. - -On leaving Gibraltar I bargained with a respectable Spanish muleteer -named Manuel, well known and recommended by my landlord, for the hire -of four good mules, one each for myself and servant, and two for the -baggage--which Manuel and his man occasionally mounted also. My idea -was to go by Ronda to Malaga, but I was advised not to do it, as it was -reported to be greatly infested by brigands; moreover, Spain at the time -of my visit was in a very disturbed state on account of the Carlist -war, and to add to this the cholera spread dismay and terror in most -quarters, so that the time was very unfavourable for travel; still I -determined to go on, and trusted to Providence for a happy deliverance, -only instead of going by Ronda I determined to take the coast road. We -proceeded through a wild, uncultivated country, and after two days’ -travelling reached Malaga about sunset, and took up our quarters at a -comfortable little hotel situated in a narrow street near the Alameda. -Here our consul, Mr. March, warned me against going any farther without -waiting for some companions; but as my time was valuable, I thanked -him for his advice, and determined to proceed, and after two days’ -stay started again, sleeping the first night at Velez, or Old Malaga. -After supper Manuel came in and said that there were several suspicious -characters about the village, and that, moreover, our arrival had caused -some commotion; he had therefore told the landlord that we should -start at daybreak, but strongly recommended our setting out two hours -earlier. This we accordingly did, and at midday reached the old Moorish -town of Alhama, perched upon the summit of the pass which separates -Malaga from the vale of Granada; from here we descended into another -rich vale, which, well irrigated and cultivated, teemed with wine, -oil, corn, and fruits, and was filled with villages and chateaux, all -indicating wealth and prosperity; yet withal there was a certain degree -of wildness intermixed with it, which made it appear as if they were -only half-civilized. It was long after dark before we reached Granada, -then we had to go to the custom-house, where the officers were very much -inclined to be troublesome; but I made friends in the usual comfortable -manner, and got to a posada near the centre of the town--not a bad place, -and which I was very glad to get into. Manuel came in whilst I was at -supper and congratulated me upon our safe arrival; he said that for the -last two hours he expected that we should be attacked every minute, and -he therefore had urged us on as fast as possible; in fact, we came -latterly at the rate of about eight miles an hour, which, he said, had -saved us. The city of Granada, although extensive, appeared to be, like -most of the towns I there saw, in a state of decadence, little trade, -and consequently no prosperity. The lords of the soil seldom visited -their estates, but left the whole to their factors or managers; and when -the proprietor did come, he seemed to take no interest in his tenants -or labourers, but lived in a half-ruined château in a miserable manner, -reserving all for show and extravagance. Manuel said, that as our route -lay through the mountains, and as it was very unsafe, it was absolutely -necessary to take one or two escopoteros or armed police, to escort us at -least as far as Andujar: this I at once consented to do, and we were now -no contemptible party, consisting as we did of six well-armed men. - -After halting at midday at Jaen, we proceeded through an open country, -which presented anything but a thriving and prosperous appearance; the -peasants were returning from their labour armed with guns, and they had -a savage and discontented look. Manuel, who did not like the look of -things, went up and spoke to one of them. When he came back to me he said -that we must not go to Andujar that night, as the peasant had told him -that there was a strong band of brigands in the neighbourhood, who had -plundered the country right and left, so that all the country people were -obliged to go armed and keep together. On hearing this news I resolved -to stop for the night at a small village about two miles in front of -us, which Manuel said was decidedly the best plan. We halted there a -little before sunset, and a wretched place it was, without even a venta -or public inn of any kind; I therefore hired one of the most respectable -of the cottages, which was more like a stable or cowhouse than anything -else, although it had a kitchen, and one or two rooms abovestairs; the -floors were of broken brick, there were no windows, and only some planks -on tressels for beds, with one or two broken chairs. However, we were -able to purchase materials for supper, and with cloaks, saddles, and -bags very soon made beds. I confess I did not like the place at all. As -we might be attacked during the night, we barricaded the house as well -as we could, and slept in our clothes, with our arms ready, and one -man keeping watch. Having done this we went to sleep, but were awoke -soon after midnight by loud cries and screams, and a man began knocking -violently at our door asking admittance, crying out that the robbers -were come. We were up in an instant, prepared to give the rascals a -warm reception. We had scarcely made our dispositions for defence when -the robbers, to the number of at least a dozen, made their appearance, -well armed, and demanded our money, horses, and baggage, on pain of -death. These I determined not to yield, and defied them. They, seeing -that we were well armed and prepared for a stout resistance, hesitated -for a minute; and I, not wishing to push matters to extremities, called -to Manuel to tell them, that as for yielding to their demands it was -ridiculous, and if they did not go away at once, I should be joined by -some troops, and then every rascal of them would be shot; but if they -chose to send four or five of their men to escort me towards Andujar -I would pay them liberally. They then consulted, and agreed to the -proposal, when I told them that I should be ready to start at five in the -morning. Accordingly, at the appointed time, our friends, armed to the -teeth and well mounted--as rascally-looking a set as ever one saw--made -their appearance. I gave them a cigar and glass of brandy each, which put -them in good humour. I could get on tolerably with Spanish, and entered -into conversation with them; they were very agreeable, and told some -curious stories. Manuel came riding up to me and told me to be upon my -guard, for that one never could be sure of them for a moment; however, I -thought the best plan was to show no fear. At nine o’clock we got to our -destination, at a miserable village between Andujar and Cordova, where -we went to a wretched venta; I gave them a breakfast of such as we could -get, with cigars. I paid them handsomely, and so we parted, apparently -the best of friends. My guide and worthy friend Manuel, as we left, said, -“You seem to be very well pleased, but you don’t know these ratteros. I -hope that we have done with them, but I very much doubt it; you have paid -them too well not to make them wish for further acquaintance with you, -and depend upon it we shall meet them again, when we shall perhaps not -be so well prepared.” “Well,” I said, “we have got rid of them for the -present, and if we happen to make their acquaintance again, depend upon -it we shall have the best of it.” We jogged on all the day through a wild -but not uncultivated country; the land was rich--plenty of vines, olives, -corn, maize, and fruits, and everything, if properly cultivated, well -calculated to make the people comfortable and prosperous; yet everything -around denoted misery, poverty, and wretchedness. When I talked to the -people they seemed reasonable enough; they said that they toiled from -morning to night, but never got paid, or at least so little that they -could not live upon it; and then, what with the government taxes and the -priests, it was impossible to live, so that there was no use in working. -I certainly could not help sympathizing with them, for they are really -a fine generous people, and if they were properly treated, there is not -a finer race anywhere. Unfortunately there is no middle class, and the -nobility are completely worn out, so that the unfortunate peasants are -ground down to the lowest misery; yet with all this there is a nobleness, -independence, and enduring fortitude about a Spanish peasant which causes -you to admire them the more you know of them. I soon recognized their -character, and appreciated it accordingly. Whenever I entered a venta -or posada I always made it a point to treat the host and hostess with -frankness and courtesy as if we were equals, also to show myself ready to -oblige and to assist in any preparations that might be going on. Thus I -secured the utmost attention, and they readily produced their best at the -cheapest rate, a result which no amount of money would have obtained. - -But to return to my story. When within seven miles of Cordova, while -passing near the small fortress of Ercaloro, at about half-past five in -the evening, i.e. not long before sunset, I met a priest, who told me -that it would be impossible to proceed, as he had observed five mounted -robbers prowling in the olive woods between the fortress and Cordova, -who would be certain to fall upon us; and that, moreover, they were in -all probability only the scouts of a much larger body. Manuel exclaimed, -“Did I not tell you that we should meet these rascals again?” I, however, -replied that I was determined to reach Cordova that night, and asked the -priest to introduce me to the governor of the fort. To this he willingly -consented, and the governor having heard my story, was so obliging as to -say that he intended sending fifty men to Cordova next day, but that they -might accompany me now. We accordingly started and soon came in sight of -the five mounted men, who sure enough proved to be our five old friends, -who very soon turned and galloped off as hard as they could. We fired one -or two shots at them; but as night was coming on we thought it best not -to pursue, and continued on our way to Cordova, which we reached at eight -o’clock, very glad to get off so well. - -From Cordova we reached Seville, where Mr. Wetherall, the Consul, -strongly advocated the introduction into England of Manzanilla, a wine -then scarcely known. I requested him to send me a hogshead, which was -universally approved of, and henceforth the taste for pale dry sherry -has entirely superseded that for the old golden and brown, and there is -no doubt that as a tonic it is far superior. - -The road across the Sierra Morena was kept clear by the singular -expedient of intrusting its defence to a body of German colonists, who -held considerable lands and dues on condition of keeping the roads -free from brigands. This plan answered admirably; in a very short time -the brigands were exterminated, and after that, though no patrols were -ever seen, yet if any fresh bands ventured to appear, the Germans were -instantly under arms and never relaxed their pursuit until the brigands -were either destroyed or driven out of the country. - -We proceeded by diligence from Seville to Madrid; and when we reached -Ocãna, after having travelled three days and nights, our majoral or -conductor had compassion on us, and said we should halt for the night; -that is, we arrived about nine o’clock and he said we must be off again -at five in the morning; this, however, was a great release, and we all -thanked him; but I believe we had no great reason for being so very -grateful for his kindness, as it was rumoured that if we had proceeded -we might have been attacked by the Carlists. However, be that as it may, -we got a comfortable bed, to my great surprise. The cholera had been -flying about the neighbourhood, and I felt a slight attack of it, which -I got rid of by a few drops of sal volatile and camphorated spirits -in a wineglass of cold water. At five in the morning we started from -Ocãna, after getting a biscuit, a cup of chocolate, and glass of cold -water, which one finds almost everywhere in Spain; indeed, rough as -the travelling was in those days--and it could not be worse--we always -got most excellent bread, eggs, and sometimes milk and wine, although -the latter was generally new, and as thick as porridge and almost -undrinkable; still with bread, eggs, and milk one could always get on. - -When I arrived at Madrid, the city was in the greatest state of -excitement; the Carlists were making war in the most vigorous and -successful manner, headed by the celebrated Zumalacarragui; and it -being dangerous to talk politics, I particularly avoided them, and went -about seeing everything I could as a stranger. I also called upon our -minister, Sir George Villiers, whom I had known in England, and was most -kindly received by him. I here met a Colonel Downie, who had served -under Wellington and afterwards settled in Spain. He spoke Spanish -perfectly, and was much respected by the natives, which was saying a -good deal for him; for the Spaniards are a most peculiar people, and -especially the upper classes, extremely reserved and exclusive towards -strangers. Personally, however, I have no reason to complain, for they -were very civil to me. I was introduced by Downie and other friends, and -had an opportunity of visiting some of the first families of the place, -amongst others the Veraguas, the descendants of Columbus, of Cortez, -Viluma, Frias, and others. I went to their tertulias or conversaziones, -which were the only kind of society to be had when I was there; in -fact, parties were so divided on account of the civil war that many of -the great houses were shut up. At the tertulia there was nothing but -conversation, so that with the exception of the lights there was no -expense of entertainment. As you were leaving the house, in the hall the -servant presented you with a glass of cold water, with a biscuit of flour -and sugar, which, when taken with the water, was not unpalatable. At one -of these tertulias the servant, in the midst of the conversation, brought -to the lady of the house her supper, which she set to work on, without -making the least remark; in fact, it was usual, and no person thought -anything of it. - -Having now viewed everything worth seeing in the city, I determined to -see something of the environs, and accordingly asked Downie to accompany -me to Toledo; and as politics were very uncertain, I thought it better -to be doubly armed with passports. I therefore got our minister, Sir -G. Villiers, to verify mine, and also the minister of police, a very -gentlemanly man, the Marquis of Viluma, who was unusually civil, and gave -me a capital dinner and a special passport for Toledo. - -The next morning at daybreak we started, with four horses, and were just -leaving the town when we were stopped by a messenger running after us, -who proved to be the servant of a lady whom I had met the day before -at the Marquis de Viluma’s, and who was a niece of the Archbishop of -Toledo. She had sent her servant with a letter of introduction for us to -her uncle the Archbishop, for which we were thankful, as it is rather -difficult to obtain permission to see all the different objects, such -as the treasury. Accordingly we started off afresh over a very wild -country, with a very indifferent road, or rather none, and reached -Toledo about noon. We immediately went to the cathedral, which is a -very rich and imposing Gothic edifice, and although we did not see -the archbishop, who was not there, yet the dean most kindly showed us -everything, particularly the treasury, which was replete with a most -gorgeous collection of vestments, mitres adorned with precious stones, -silver croziers, gold and silver chalices, cups and basins and priestly -utensils without number. We then went and paid our respects to civil and -military governors, and got an order to see the Royal Sword Manufactory, -which formerly was celebrated throughout Europe for its excellent blades, -which were said to be equal to those of Damascus, but had for some time -past been rapidly on the decline; there were some two or three hundred -men employed where I was, but they were making only ordinary blades for -the army. Having seen everything, and perambulated this curious old city, -which was in anything but a thriving state, we returned to the fonda -or hotel, miserable as it was, to our dinner, previous to starting for -Aranjuez. - -We had just done dinner when an officer of police made his appearance, -and said very politely that the civil governor wished to see me. I -said that I had already seen him, and paid my respects, and shown my -passport; I asked if anything was wrong with it. He said no, then went -away, and again returned, saying the civil governor must see me. I -again asked if the passport was right. He said perfectly. Then I said -that I thought the governor’s conduct was extraordinary, and I declined -going. Two more police officers then came, and said that the gates of -the city were closed to me, and that I should not leave without first -going to the civil governor. My friend Downie then got alarmed, and said -that he would go with the officers, see the civil governor and explain -matters. He accordingly went, and asked the civil governor what he -meant. The governor replied that he was surrounded by Carlists, and he -was obliged to be constantly on his guard, for fear of an insurrection; -but he had been informed that I had brought a private letter to the -archbishop, who was the greatest Carlist in the place, and he must know -what that letter contained. Fortunately it was open, and both Downie -and I had read it before delivering it, and it was nothing more than a -request that we might be shown everything in the cathedral. With this -explanation the governor was perfectly satisfied, and dispensed with my -personal attendance, which I was glad of, and determined to carry no more -introductory letters, for at that time it was most dangerous to both -parties. Off we started, but were stopped at the city gates, at which we -were both much annoyed, and being determined that we would stand this -annoyance no longer, were just going to force our way through, when a -messenger from the governor told them to let us go, and off we galloped -as hard as possible. - -Before leaving Madrid I visited some of the convents, though with great -difficulty, for a short time before my arrival the mob, in a fit of -revolutionary excitement, had attacked several of them, and murdered -many of the unfortunate inmates, whilst the rest were obliged to fly for -their lives. When I applied for admission it was refused, until learning -that I was an Englishman, they opened the outer gates, which had been -well secured, and admitted me, and a melancholy spectacle I beheld. Very -few of the monks remained, and those that I saw had their heads and arms -bandaged up on account of the wounds they had received. A great deal -of property had been destroyed, and a still greater quantity had been -stolen; in fact everything had a most wretched and desolate appearance. -Shortly afterwards the whole of the convents and religious establishments -for monks and nuns were shut up by order of the government, and all the -property was seized for the benefit (?) of the nation. - -Leaving Madrid with several others, we proceeded to France _viâ_ -Saragossa and Barcelona, as the direct route through Bayonne was of -course quite impracticable. Barcelona was then, and is now, taking it -altogether, the finest and most thriving town in the peninsula, and -may be called the Manchester of Spain. It is situated on the shore of -the Mediterranean, in a rich fertile plain, backed by a lofty range of -mountains about three or four miles distant. The central streets are very -narrow, but the Marina and artificial harbour, with the fine spacious -quays by which they are surrounded, have a noble effect, although the -mole, a fine work as it undoubtedly is, has been badly designed with -respect to the currents and the great quantity of alluvial matter held -in suspension by the waters, and carried along the shore from the deltas -and mouths of the Hobugal and Ebro. The consequence is, that the space -covered by the mole is constantly filling up, and requires incessant -dredging at great expense; notwithstanding which, the trade is so great -that the harbour is always more or less full of shipping, and besides -its manufactures of cotton and silk, it exports largely wine, oil, bark, -fruits, and timber. - -I made an excursion with my servant to the celebrated convent of Monte -Serrata, situated upon the mountain of that name, about 30 miles to the -west of Barcelona; starting early in the morning, and stopping at the -bridge of Mastoul across the Hobugal, about 15 miles from Barcelona. -Here I enjoyed, from below the bridge, one of the most interesting and -beautiful views, I think, that I ever beheld. Facing me was the bridge, -consisting of two Gothic arches; the south one was the largest I ever -saw, being about 140 feet span. On the north side of the bridge was a -Roman arch, in tolerable preservation, except the cornice; and on the -south side of the bridge were the remains of a Moorish fort. Thus I -had before me, at one _coup d’œil_, the ruined works of three great -nations; in the distance was the convent of Montserrat, perched upon the -mountain side, with its numerous pinnacles rising above it, and these -overtopped by the numerous lofty peaks of the Pyrenees behind. Whilst -examining the bridge, I perceived on a sudden a large body of troops, -with several mounted officers, rapidly approaching; upon inquiring the -cause, I was told by an officer that I had better get out of the way as -soon as possible, as there were a great many Carlists about, and they -expected to be attacked every minute, as they had to defend the pass to -prevent the Carlists from getting to Barcelona. I therefore went off at -once to the convent. I left the carriage at the bottom of the mountain, -at a small inn, and got a man to carry up our things; and having a -letter to the worthy superior, was most hospitably received. They -gave us a comfortable dinner. We then set out to examine the numerous -hermitages which were perched upon different peaks of the mountain, -which resembled the teeth of a saw, from which the hill takes its name. -These hermitages consisted of a small hut, just large enough for the -hermit’s bed, and table, and chair; here they remained winter and summer, -and only occasionally descended to the convent. All the hermitages were -empty, the hermits had fled, and there were scarcely a dozen monks in the -convent. Whilst climbing about the mountain I observed several Carlist -scouts, well armed, lurking about, and I saw others at a distance--no -doubt they were part of the attacking force expected at Barcelona; they, -however, did not molest me, and I was too happy to leave them alone. The -view from the mountain all round is very fine; all the leading valleys -are filled with manufacturing towns and villages, amongst the principal -of which was Manresa, in the valley immediately below us. We got back -to the convent soon after dark, where the prior had ordered us a good -supper, and afterwards invited me to his apartments, where he gave an -excellent concert, which was very well executed by the choristers and -monks attached to the convent. I soon found out that the prior and all -around him were most devoted partisans of Don Carlos, and wished the -Christinos and all revolutionists to perdition, to which place they said -they would be most assuredly consigned. Knowing that I was an Englishman, -and being recommended to him, he felt himself perfectly at home with -me, and seemed to be tolerably well informed about English politics: -he understood perfectly well the difference between Whigs, Tories, and -Radicals, and had not a doubt but that the good sense and talent of the -Tories would soon upset the Whigs and Radicals; and so far he proved -right; but he went on to say that they would assist the Spanish Carlists, -and send all the Christinos and their wicked associates to the devil, -where they ought to go; for the Catholic religion could never thrive and -Spain never could prosper so long as the Christinos were triumphant. By -this time I could get on tolerably well with Spanish. We conversed on -various topics, and passed the evening very agreeably, as the prior was -a very superior person, and really, considering that he was a Spanish -priest, he was an enlightened man, and by no means bigoted. He said that -no nation could prosper without religion; and according to his belief -he considered that the Roman Catholic was the true faith; at the same -time he did not mean to say that a person professing any other religion -could not be saved, but that God in His great mercy would pardon their -ignorance. We bade the prior good-night, thanking him much for his -kindness, and retired to our dormitory, which was very cold and solitary, -near the chapel: we had plenty of cloaks, which were indispensable; and -I told my man to make a stiff glass of hot punch, not only for myself, -but also for the worthy monks who attended us, and I took care that they -should be offered supper; but although they had a glass of punch and a -cigar, they would take no more. The night was very cold, the moon shone -bright, and the stillness was remarkable. I awoke long before light, and -heard the monks saying their matins; feeling it was cold, I got more -covering, and again fell asleep. Awaking soon after eight o’clock, we got -up, and had chocolate; then, making a handsome present to the poor-box, -I retraced my steps downwards, and I must say that I never passed a more -agreeable day. The scenery was magnificent; that alone was sufficient -to recompense anyone for the journey; and in addition to this there was -the visit to this great convent, at one time one of the most powerful in -Spain, but now in its decadence, and its once powerful inmates degraded -so far as to hope for deliverance from the formerly hated and persecuted -heretics of England! It was a most singular sight; and it is still more -extraordinary, that after a lapse of thirty-four years, these very -Christinos, with the queen at their head, should now be persecuting -all liberal Catholics, and again threatening the establishment of the -Inquisition. - -Leaving Barcelona, I traversed France, passing through Toulouse, -Bordeaux, and Paris, and reached London in the beginning of 1834. - -Although not strictly in chronological order, I will here mention one or -two incidents which occurred to me shortly before, and which may be of -interest. In the early part of 1831 the cholera visited England for the -first time. Everybody was alarmed at its approach: it was a mysterious -disease, nobody seemed to know much about it. They knew that it came from -India, and that it was most fatal and capricious, sometimes attacking -those on the mountains, and sometimes those on the plains; sometimes, -in passing through towns and villages, carrying off in its strange and -deadly course all those on one side of a street, leaving the other side -untouched. It was making its way regularly from the East to the West, -deviating rather northwards in its course, and hence it approached Europe -by Russia, thence to the north of Germany. Its regular and gradual -approach struck everyone with awe: we saw the enemy coming, but how to -avoid or how to attack him nobody knew. The medical profession were -completely at fault, all suggesting different remedies, each proposing -what he considered his own specific, yet doubtful of the result. At -last the dreaded mystery leaped across the German Ocean, and made its -appearance in Sunderland, where it spread alarm and dismay far and wide. -It then turned southward, and made its appearance in London, in the -month of March, and numbers left the city, flying in all directions. The -French, dreading its invasion, closed their ports, and placed England in -quarantine, but in vain attempted to shut out the terrible malady, for, -in two or three months apparently glutted with death, it jumped over the -Channel into France, and became more virulent than ever. The French -physicians, who had visited England during its prevalence, and thought -they had acquired good knowledge of the disease and its treatment, were, -if anything, more at fault than our own medical men; for the disease held -them as it were in derision, and in Paris seven thousand fell victims in -one day. I was attacked with it one morning in June, about four o’clock, -with a sudden shock, and felt as if death had clutched me in his jaws. I -had been some time previously thinking what I should do in the event of -an attack, and consulted my medical advisers, but could elicit nothing -satisfactory. I then made up my mind that, as the attacks of the disease -were sudden and violent, the remedy must be something of the kind; and -the most likely remedy, if any, appeared to me some strong stimulant, -such as camphor, sal volatile, and opium, which, having previously been -subject to diarrhœa, I had frequently tried with effect. I therefore -always kept a mixture of this kind ready. Feeling the attack, I jumped -out of bed and staggered to the table, took a strong dose, rang the bell -violently, sent for my doctor directly, and went back to bed, and for an -hour suffered terribly. I then became calmer, but excessively exhausted, -and lay almost motionless. The doctor came about seven, when I was much -better: he asked me what I had taken, and I told him: he then said, “I do -not know that I should have prescribed exactly what you have taken, but -the principle is correct,” and he gave me something of the same kind, but -in a milder form. In a couple of days I was quite well, and I have ever -since carried camphor, sal volatile, and opium with me; and subsequently, -when travelling in Spain, Portugal, and Sweden during the prevalence of -cholera, I frequently took these remedies myself, and administered them -with success to others. - -The same year I took a trip to Austria and the south of Germany, and -attended the meetings of the scientific society, the Natur Geforsches, -then being held at Vienna. I was well received, and made a member -of the society; and there I made acquaintance with some of the most -distinguished professors of Germany, and a most sociable set of gentlemen -they were. The assemblage consisted of about three hundred; we dined -every day together, and received much gratification and instruction. I -attended the sections regularly, and there I saw the Austrian archdukes, -distinguished for their scientific acquirements, who took part, and no -mean one, in the discussions, without the least pretension, precisely -upon the same footing as the other members; foremost amongst the rest -was the celebrated Prince Metternich, then in the height of his power -and consequence, as Prime Minister of Austria. He certainly was a -very remarkable man; of the middle size, extremely good-looking, with -an aquiline nose, sharp, intelligent eyes, a firmly compressed lip, -a thoroughly gentlemanlike manner, a dignified appearance, complete -self-command, and altogether impressing you with the idea that he was the -great grandee and sovereign minister of the ancient and then all-powerful -empire of Austria. Notwithstanding his high position, he attended -sections in the most unassuming manner, like the most insignificant -member present. He attended the different sections daily, and always sat -amongst the crowd, not on the bench near the president, and took his -share in the discussions as if he was a simple citizen, and any point -that he happened to take up he well maintained. Having heard so much -of the all-powerful Prince Metternich, I was rather astonished to see -him act so amiable and distinguished a part in such a society. I was -introduced to him, and was very kindly received. He opened his palace, -and he and his distinguished and handsome consort, the Princess, received -the whole of the members and their ladies with the greatest cordiality. -I also was invited amongst the rest, and remarked that, although princes -of the imperial family and the most distinguished nobles were present, I -did not observe many of their ladies; and I was told by a friend, that -as the ladies of the German professors could not afford to dress in the -splendid style of the great Austrian ladies, these latter were excluded -for fear of their eclipsing in dress the German professors’ wives. The -Emperor Francis gave the Association a most magnificent entertainment -at one of his palaces, Laxembourg, about 12 miles from Vienna. His -Imperial Majesty sent sixty-five royal carriages, with outriders in -uniform, to conduct the association to Laxembourg; and when we arrived -there, we found sixty-five other imperial carriages, with servants in -the imperial livery, to take us to the palace, and drive us about the -park and environs to show us everything worth seeing. At three o’clock -dinner was announced in the palace, and a most imperial dinner it was. -Several of the archdukes, and Prince and Princess Metternich were there, -with all the members and their ladies; and before sitting down to dinner -the Prince said that His Imperial Majesty the Emperor Francis intended -to have been present to receive the Association, but unfortunately His -Majesty was very unwell, and was unable to attend; he therefore requested -the Prince to apologise to them for his absence; His Majesty hoped -that we would excuse his absence, and make ourselves as comfortable as -if we were at home, which we certainly did, and a splendid affair it -was. A magnificent band played during dinner, Tokay champagne flowed -in abundance, and at five o’clock we started on our return to Vienna, -conveyed in the same royal carriages and accompanied by the same escort -of imperial servants that brought us to Laxembourg in the morning; in -fact, it was impossible that anything could have been better done, or -that royalty could have shown more respect or deference to science than -was done to us. - -On the following Sunday, the municipality of Baden, a place some miles -from Vienna, invited us to another banquet, and sent comfortable -carriages to take us there and back. The burgomaster and councillors -received us on our arrival, and gave us a most excellent entertainment, -accompanied by the greatest cordiality and kindness. When we arrived it -wanted about two hours to dinner; and a friend of mine, high in office, -asked me if I should like to be introduced to the celebrated Archduke -Charles, the Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian armies, and who was -the first general who defeated the great Emperor Buonaparte, viz. at -Aspern. The proposition was quite unexpected, and I eagerly accepted -it. We accordingly went to the Archduke’s palace, where, on account of -ill-health, His Imperial Highness was living very quietly, taking the -baths. Upon arriving, we were shown into an ante-room furnished in the -most simple manner. After waiting a few minutes, a chamberlain made his -appearance, and ushered us into the Archduke’s presence, when we were -formally introduced to His Imperial Highness--a most simple, unaffected, -dignified gentleman, characterized strongly by the features of the -imperial family, at the same time possessing all the dignity and command -of a great soldier. He received us with great courtesy, and after bidding -us be seated, entered into conversation with us in the most easy and -familiar manner. He addressed me very kindly in French, asked after the -Duke of Wellington in particular (whom fortunately I had the honour of -knowing), and expressed in the highest terms his admiration of him as a -soldier and statesman, and said that England owed much to him. He then -entered into a general conversation about England, her great importance -and power, saying that she was the saviour of Europe, and expressed an -ardent wish that she might long retain her present influence. He said -that he should have been most happy to have dined with the municipality, -to meet us there, but unfortunately his health would not permit. After an -excellent dinner the Association returned in the evening to Vienna, much -gratified with their entertainment. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Ship Canal from Portsmouth to London--Machinery and - Engine Making--Screw Steam Ships--Hartlepool and Coquet - Harbours--Railways round London--Railway Mania--South-Eastern - Railway--London, Chatham, and Dover Railway. - - -Railways had by this time made rapid progress, and had been completely -established as the future means of conveyance for goods and passengers. -The Manchester and Liverpool and the Stockton and Darlington had been -completed with the most successful results. The Grand Junction between -Liverpool and Birmingham, the London and Birmingham, and Great Western, -were making rapid progress towards completion, and numerous other lines -were either projected or about being carried into effect. Still the -canals were not altogether supplanted; and it was proposed to make a -ship canal from London to Portsmouth, by means of which the dangerous, -tedious, and expensive navigation between those places would be avoided. -The late Mr. Horace Twiss, M.P. for Wootton-Bassett, and afterwards Under -Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, took the greatest interest in -this undertaking; and from calculations which he had carefully made from -official returns, he stated that a clear revenue of 1,000,000_l._ per -annum might be derived from it. The first Lord Ashburton, then Alexander -Baring, with whom I had a long conversation on the subject, said that, if -practicable at reasonable cost, it would be a valuable national work. - -During the height of the great revolutionary war with France, long before -the public had been accustomed to the vast sums which have been raised -and expended upon great works in modern times, a canal between London -and Portsmouth had been considered as a very desirable and profitable -work. My father made a plan for it in 1807, and the then Earl of Egremont -offered to subscribe largely to it: a money crisis however occurred, and -it was abandoned for the time. A canal, however, upon a much smaller -scale was afterwards made by Mr. Josias Jessop, between the Wey and Arun, -and from thence through Chichester and Longston harbours to Portsmouth. -It was upon too small and imperfect a scale, and therefore did not answer. - -A ship canal, however, capable of transporting a 74-gun ship and Indiamen -of the largest class, was afterwards contemplated. A very influential -committee requested me to investigate the subject thoroughly; firstly, as -to its practicability; secondly, what was the best time for such a canal; -and thirdly, what would be the cost. I accordingly, with the assistance -of the late Mr. Francis Giles, who took the levels and surveys, explored -and examined the three lines which were most practicable--the first by -the Merstham, the second by the Dorking, and the third by the Guildford -valley. The last was decidedly the best line, having the least height, -the easiest route, and the best supply of water for the lockage. It -commenced at the Thames, and continued up the valley of the Wey to -Guildford, where it crossed the summit, descended into the vale of the -Arun, which it crossed by an aqueduct, and thence along the base of the -hills to Portsmouth Harbour. - -The canal was to have been 100 yards wide at the top, and 24 feet deep. -At the summit there were to have been ample reservoirs, and capacious -basins or docks at each end. The voyage from London to Portsmouth would -have been made in two days--that is to say, by common haulage--but -steam tugs would have reduced it to twenty-four hours. The estimate -was 7,000,000_l._, which was considered so large at the time, that all -idea of prosecuting the undertaking further was at once abandoned. The -world had not then been accustomed to the enormous sums since spent upon -railways, and then they would never have believed that 16,000,000_l._ -would be spent upon the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, only the same -length as the proposed canal, or that a similar amount would be spent in -the same county upon the South-Eastern Railway. - -That the canal is perfectly practicable there can be no doubt, and it -would have been of great public advantage; but whether, after all, it -would have yielded a reasonable profit for the capital expended, is a -question which I will not undertake to determine. - -One part of my father’s business was the making of machinery, of which he -was very fond, being a first-rate theoretical and practical mechanic; but -the machinery department formed only a very small part of his extensive -business, although he constructed several important works, such as the -Albion Flour Mills near Blackfriars Bridge, afterwards destroyed by -fire, and where he subsequently had his own works, which still exist. -This is admitted to have been one of the best pieces of that class of -engineering ever constructed, either before or since, and performed a -quantity of work in proportion to the power employed, such as has never -been surpassed. He also designed and constructed the rolling mills in the -Royal Mint, which have been in full work for more than half a century, -and are still in as efficient a state as ever. The diving bell may almost -be said to have been an invention of his, for he effected such great -improvements in it that he was enabled to apply it to building under -water at Ramsgate Harbour for the first time in 1813. It was worked -from a scaffold above water, to which were attached movable trucks with -windlasses, working upon a rack-and-pinion railway, so that the diving -bell and the apparatus for raising and lowering the bell, together -with the stones, could be worked, and the building carried on with the -same certainty and nearly the same expedition as above water. He also -erected a similar apparatus applied for raising heavy blocks of mahogany -at the West India Docks: this is the Gantry crane, which has been since -very generally employed in almost all building operations. My object in -mentioning the subject here is merely to say that when my father died he -left this machinery department to my brother George and myself, though -I believe that if he had lived a few years longer he would have given -it up altogether. The site of this manufactory was formerly one of the -most fashionable suburbs of the metropolis, and here the celebrated Nell -Gwynne had her country house. My brother and self continued the business, -rebuilt the place entirely, with considerable improvements, and did a -large amount of business here. We constructed the rolling mills for the -Calcutta and Bombay mints; the great flour mills and baking machines -of Deptford, Portsmouth, and Cremill Point yards; numerous locomotive -engines for different railways, amongst others the ‘Satellite’ for the -Brighton Railway, which was one of the first that attained the speed -of 60 miles an hour upon the narrow gauge. We made the steam engines -and machinery for Her Majesty’s ship ‘Bulldog,’ the yacht ‘Dwarf,’ and -others; also for the famous Russian steamer ‘Wladimir,’ which did so -much mischief at Sebastopol; two yachts for the Emperor of Russia, and -other vessels for the Russian navy, together with the whole of the iron -gates for the dockyard at Sebastopol, two pair of which were brought -back as trophies by the British and French armies. We built four iron -steam vessels and their machinery for the Russian Government, for the -Caspian Sea, which were the first that floated on its waters; they were -first built in London, then taken to pieces, sent to St. Petersburg, and -thence down the Volga to the Caspian; men were sent with them by us, who -put them together there, and launched them successfully. We made and -erected the small-arms manufactory at Constantinople, for making five -hundred muskets per week. We constructed the engines and machinery for -the ‘Archimedes’ screw-vessel, which was the first screw used in this -country; and again, the iron vessel, engines, and screw for the ‘Dwarf,’ -which was the first screw-vessel ever introduced into the British Navy, -in the year 1839, for which I take the credit myself; for after we -had succeeded so well with the ‘Archimedes,’ I waited upon Sir George -Cockburn, then Senior Naval Lord of the Admiralty, and proposed to him -to make a small iron vessel worked by a screw. I engaged that the vessel -should make the speed of ten knots an hour by the measured mile; and that -if after she was completed and tried she did not come up to the required -conditions, of which their own officers were to be sole judges, I would -take back the vessel and machinery, without any compensation; but if they -were satisfied, they themselves were to fix the price to be paid for the -vessel and machinery. Sir George said the offer was so fair, that if -I would put it in writing in the form of an official tender, he would -recommend the Admiralty to accept it; this I accordingly did. The vessel, -engines, and screw were completed to the satisfaction of the Admiralty -officers, the price settled by them was at once paid, and so the ‘Dwarf’ -was the first screw-vessel introduced into the British Navy. It was -certainly no small gratification to myself to have introduced the first -vessel propelled by the screw into the Royal Navy, as I felt convinced -that it was the only proper method of propelling vessels of war: it -was the more gratifying, because my father was the first who, in 1819, -introduced the paddle-wheel system into the Navy; and thus our family -have had the honour--and a great one it is--of introducing into the Navy -the two greatest improvements of modern times. My father, who was always -consulted by the Admiralty, proposed machinery in every department -where it could be applied with any advantage; such as railways; the -Gantry crane, and others, worked by machinery; heating anchors in -furnaces, by means of which only could they be properly made; employing -convicts to do the labour, with a moderate gratuity to stimulate their -exertions, and thus reduce the expense of their keep; and employing -private establishments wherever they could do the work cheaper than in -the dockyards. The state must and ought to have such establishments as -should be able to do their own work when occasion requires; but in a -country like England, where the arts and manufactures are carried to the -highest possible extent by individual competition, and where the field of -exertion is so vast and the prizes of success are so great, no government -establishment can compete with them. It cannot hold out sufficient -inducement for exertion, and hence we find that no great invention -has ever emanated from a public establishment. Certain officers the -government must have, and these must be at fixed salaries, for which they -have to do a certain quantity of work, and for this the hours are fixed; -they have no inducement to go beyond this. Yet this perhaps is the wisest -course for a government like ours; it can always command the talent of -the day, and it is far more economical for a government to pay the market -price, whatever it may be, than to take persons, however well qualified, -wholly into its employment; the moment this is done the inducement to -extra exertion ceases, and the government must go again to the market for -the next best talent, and so on. Hence it is my opinion that a government -should have the fewest possible establishments it can get on with, so -as not to leave itself wholly dependent upon private firms; and that it -should go liberally to the public, specifying in general terms what is -required, then it will obtain the best workmen in the wisest manner, -without being taxed by extra pensions or any other drawback; by this -means a government would command all private establishments, and make the -most of its own. - -In 1832 I was requested by the authorities of the Isle of Man to examine -the whole of the coast of the Island, and to give my opinion as to -the best plan for improving the harbours. I accordingly sent over my -assistant, Mr. Coombe; and having carefully surveyed Douglas, Derby -Haven, Castleton, Peel, Ramsey, and Laxey, made complete hydrographical -surveys of the whole, and detailed plans for the best way of improving -them. At Douglas I proposed to make an extensive low-water asylum -harbour, and also at Derby Haven, which were the most important places, -and possessed the greatest capability of making good refuge harbours -at the most economical rates for the numerous vessels trading between -Ireland and England, and also for foreign vessels bound for Liverpool. -The other ports susceptible of improvement were chiefly local, and -therefore only a moderate sum was proposed to be expended upon them. A -great harbour might, indeed, have been made near the Calf of Man; but -this would have involved an expense which the revenues of the Island had -no means of paying, though a harbour there would have been of importance -to the vast number of vessels of all classes trading between Liverpool -and America; and therefore, if anything was to be done there, Liverpool -ought to have contributed largely towards it. Liverpool, however, thought -differently. They had no idea of encouraging their vessels to stop so -near home. So that all idea of making a refuge harbour near the Calf of -Man was abandoned. Neither could the Islanders obtain foreign aid for -Douglas, or Castleton, or Derby Haven. They were therefore left to their -own resources, and were obliged to confine their operations to making -a small addition to Douglas Pier, which I designed for them, and which -was carried into effect by Mr. James Brown--a most excellent practical -engineer--who had been employed many years by my father at Holyhead -Harbour and elsewhere. - -About the same time I was asked to make a plan for the improvement of the -ancient port of Hartlepool (I think one of the oldest in England), for -shipping coal from the coal-fields of South Durham, which were then being -developed to an extraordinary extent. I made a plan, which was afterwards -carried into effect under my direction, the late Mr. James Brown, above -mentioned, being the resident engineer. When I visited the place, it -was the most secluded, primitive fishing village I ever saw. It has now -become one of the most thriving and populous towns of Durham. - -At this time I was also requested by a society of gentlemen--amongst -whom were Messrs. Ladbrooke, Mills, Smith, Webb, &c.--to examine the -mouth of the Coquet, near Warkworth, in order to make a harbour there -for the shipping of coal from some collieries which were about to be -opened in that district. This harbour, which consisted of a north pier -and south pier, was made under my direction; Mr. George Remington being -the resident engineer. It was merely intended as a tidal harbour, with -floating docks attached to it; which latter, for want of funds, were -never made. By extending the northern pier farther seaward, they could -easily obtain 12 feet or more at low water; and the Coquet Island outside -forms an excellent and safe roadstead for vessels drawing 20 feet at -low water--an advantage that no other port on the east coast possesses. -There is plenty of coal in the vicinity, that has never been developed -for want of capital; but no doubt the day will come when this port will -be of considerable consequence. Whilst superintending these works, the -late Earl Grey, then Prime Minister, who lived at Howick, about nine -miles to the north of the Coquet, invited me to spend a day there. I -accordingly went over, and was most kindly received. I there met his -son, the present Earl, and the present Sir George Grey, and passed my -time very agreeably and instructively. The late Earl, when Commissioner -of Portsmouth Dockyard, knew my father well, and had great respect for -his talents. - -Whilst employed in constructing the piers of Sunderland Harbour, I -made acquaintance with Mr. Lambton, afterwards the Earl of Durham, who -married one of Earl Grey’s daughters. He was one of the commissioners -of the harbour, and a great coalowner. He was a slight-made person, of -the middle size, with an olive complexion, dark, piercing eyes, and a -profusion of jet-black hair. He possessed considerable talent, great -firmness, and a stern, haughty, proud bearing, with great impetuosity -of temper. Being heir to a large fortune, he was spoiled in his youth, -although not without kindly, generous, and noble feelings, and where he -took a liking, was a firm friend. He was always very kind and friendly -to me, and took a leading part in promoting the success of Sunderland -Harbour. His violent temper, and inability to control it, was the cause -of his failure as a public man. When Governor-General of Canada he, -contrary to all rules of order and subordination, threw up his command in -a pet on account of some trifling provocation, and returned to England -without authority. The obloquy which this foolish and imprudent step -entailed upon him for ever after rendered him unfit to take a leading -part in public affairs, for which otherwise he was well calculated, and -he died soon after, it is believed of a broken heart. - -Railways having been now fairly established, and having to a considerable -extent superseded roads and canals, the Brighton Railway scheme was -started again. The history of this work I have already described. During -the years 1837-1838 it occupied a considerable portion of my time, and -although I was then very ill, and totally unfit for business, I was -obliged to struggle through it, and carried it at last. At times I was -so nervous and unwell that I scarcely knew what I was about. I felt -perfectly stupid, and thought that my life must end in a lunatic asylum; -and many, even of my friends, considered that my career was over. When -cross-examined before parliamentary committees, which examinations I was -obliged to undergo at this time, after two or three hours my head got so -confused that I could see nothing distinctly--everything appeared either -double or upside down. However, I got through not only the Brighton, but -also the Blackwall, Railway Bills. Apropos of the Blackwall Railway, I -long had an idea that Blackwall, including the East and West India, the -Regent’s Canal, and the London Docks, should be connected with London by -a railway, and that this line should form the grand trunk and terminus -for all the railways which were to connect the eastern counties of -Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Cambridge with London. A Bill for making -the Eastern Counties Railway through Essex and Suffolk had then passed, -having their terminus in Shoreditch, which was quite out of the way, -and left out all the docks; whereas the line which I proposed would -not only have connected them with London at Fenchurch Street, which is -within half a mile of the Royal Exchange, but would have brought the -great traffic of the eastern counties there also. Mr. Stephenson, seeing -the importance of my Blackwall line, started another in opposition, -which was defeated in Parliament, and my line was carried; but my party -was not strong enough to carry it into effect; Mr. Stephenson’s was, -therefore they took up my line, and he was appointed the chief engineer. -He wholly ignored my principle of making the Blackwall line the main -trunk for the eastern counties’ traffic, but declared that the Blackwall -line should be considered distinct; and as he thought that so short -a line was not adapted for locomotives, he said that it would be far -better to work it by means of ropes attached to powerful engines fixed -at each end of the line. I foresaw that this plan would not succeed, -and told my friends so; however, it was of no use, the rope system was -adopted, until it was found that the constant breaking of the ropes, -their great friction, and the power required to work them, entailed so -much expense and inconvenience, that the line would not pay a dividend. -The company therefore resolved to abolish the rope system altogether, -and adopt locomotive engines, according to my original plan; and the -line was extended to join the Eastern Counties Railway at Stratford, -and the Tilbury and Southend Railway, and it has been connected with -the Victoria, East and West India, London, and St. Katharine Docks, -and now pays a dividend of about 3 to 3½ per cent. In fact, all that I -recommended has been done, and the result has been successful; but it -would have been much more profitable if my plan had been adopted in the -first instance, while the extra expense of the rope system would have -been saved. - -In the year 1844 came the great railway mania. Railways were considered -as a mine of wealth to whoever would undertake them; and consequently -new lines were projected in all directions, and I had my full share of -them: amongst others the Great Northern, the Leeds and Carlisle, the -Leeds and Bradford, the York and Scarborough, the Bristol and Monmouth, -the Bishop’s Stortford and Thetford (called the Direct Norwich), the -Birmingham and Boston, the Newry and Enniskillen, the East Lincolnshire, -the Lincoln and Hull, the Cannock Chase, and the North Wales, &c. The -consequence was that the demand for engineering surveyors and assistants -was very great. Engineering was considered to be the only profession -where immense wealth and fame were to be acquired, and consequently -everybody became engineers. It was not the question whether they were -educated for it, or competent to undertake it, but simply whether any -person chose to dub himself engineer; hence, lawyers’ clerks, surgeons’ -apprentices, merchants, tradesmen, officers in the army and navy, private -gentlemen, left their professions and became engineers; the consequence -was that innumerable blunders were made, vast sums of money were -recklessly expended, and the greater part of the lines were thrown out of -Parliament in consequence of the innumerable errors committed in them. - -The committee rooms of the Houses of Lords and Commons were thronged -to such a degree with engineers, lawyers, and witnesses, that it was -scarcely possible to find sufficient room for them. The barristers, -solicitors, and parliamentary agents made enormous sums, and so did -those engineers who were fortunate enough to get paid. My labours were -most arduous. I had to work night and day for several weeks in preparing -plans for Parliament, and if I had only got paid, I should have made a -good fortune, for I employed in one department or another above three -hundred assistants. It is true that I received a great deal of money; but -the expenses were so great that the advances made to me were immediately -absorbed, and before I could balance my accounts, most of the companies -had vanished, remaining largely in my debt. As to recovering my debts in -a court of law, it was impossible on account of the difficulty of proving -whether there was a sufficient number of directors present when the order -was given, and what were the names of the directors present; because, as -they were not legally constituted companies, the different members of -the board could only be sued in their individual capacities, whilst I, -who employed the different parties to make the surveys and work out the -details, was clearly liable to them; so that the claims against me were -innumerable, and made without mercy, and I had the greatest difficulty in -satisfying them without material loss. - -To give an example of the difficulties I had to contend with in -establishing my case against one of the companies that employed me--viz. -the Cannock Chase Railway, an essentially good concern, which has since -been carried into effect with considerable profit to another company who -took it up afterwards: My company had paid me 2500_l._ on account of the -expenses, and they owed me 2700_l._ more, which they never disputed. They -had 12,000_l._ in hand, and could have easily paid my bill; but finding -that they could not at that time carry their line, they united with -another company without paying me, and handed over to them the 12,000_l._ -subscribed for my company. I then got them to call a meeting, and said -that as their original company had collapsed, I was prepared to meet them -upon the most equitable terms, namely, that they should pay the balance -of my disbursements actually out of pocket; this they declined to do. I -then offered to deduct my share of the disbursements if they would pay -the balance; this they declined also, and they would pay no more. Finding -that I could do nothing with them, I sued them at law, and brought an -action against the chairman; he, however, proved that he was not present -when the order was given to me, I was therefore nonsuited, and had to -pay my expenses and his, which cost me 500_l._ I then brought an action -against two other parties, who were present when the order was given; but -then it was proved against me that there was not a quorum, and as I could -not get hold of the books, the secretary having absconded with them, I -was nonsuited again at the cost of 500_l._ more. At last this secretary -having got into difficulties, I got hold of the minutes of proceedings -by an extraordinary combination of circumstances, went to the Court of -Chancery, and eventually established my case, and recovered the whole -of my claim, viz. 2700_l._; but without the costs. So that after seven -years’ litigation I recovered the 2700_l._, which was wholly absorbed in -the expenses; and therefore I was where I began. - -The principal parliamentary battle I had was in 1844-5; and in the -following year I had another with the Great Northern Railway. The late -Mr. Gravatt had the dual line from King’s Cross by Barnet, Welwyn, -Stilton, Stamford, Corby, Lincoln, Asking to York; this was in every -respect the shortest and the most easy of execution; unfortunately, -our company was not formed until the end of September, so that it was -extremely difficult, in so short a time, to get the surveys and levels -made correctly. The late Mr. Francis Giles undertook to have the whole -completed in the most perfect manner by the 30th November, 1844, for -depositing with the respective Clerks of the Peace, as required by the -Standing Orders of Parliament. Mr. Giles’s well-known reputation as -a first-rate engineering surveyor appeared to Mr. Gravatt and myself -a sufficient guarantee that the surveys would be well completed by -the required time; in this, unfortunately, we were most grievously -disappointed, for Mr. Giles, who had a good deal of other business in -hand, could not devote his whole attention to it, which was absolutely -necessary; in fact, he ought never to have undertaken it; but he always -assured us that it would be properly done in time. However, finding -that he did not go on so well as we expected, we endeavoured, as far -as practicable, to remedy the evil by setting on additional surveyors -ourselves, under the control of Mr. Giles; but in spite of all our -exertions, Mr. Giles failed completely, and our line, in consequence -of the numerous defects in the survey, was thrown out upon Standing -Orders, and the present Great Northern line, which was our rival, but -acknowledged to be not so good, notwithstanding a strong opposition, was -carried through Parliament, very much to the annoyance of Mr. Gravatt and -myself, and Mr. Gravatt never forgave Mr. Giles’s neglect. - -My rule on all these occasions was to endeavour to conciliate the -landowners through whose estates we went, always asking and obtaining -their permission before entering upon their lands, and by this means we -made friends wherever we went; amongst other great proprietors we went -through a considerable portion of the Marquis of Exeter’s estate, near -Stamford. Upon going down the line I found one of our surveyors drunk, -and he had so completely departed from his instructions that I paid and -discharged him at once. I called on the Marquis to explain this, but he -was not visible, as he was busy with preparations for the reception of -Her Majesty and H.R.H. the Prince Consort, who were expected to arrive -the next day. I then went down the line as far as York, and upon my -return called again upon the Marquis at Burleigh, who received me very -coldly, and said when he gave me permission to go through his estate, it -was upon a particular line, which I faithfully promised to adhere to; -but he was much surprised and sorry to find that I had broken my word, -for that when H.R.H. the Prince Consort was shooting in his preserves -he found one of my surveyors with several assistants breaking into and -carrying the line through them, which he had strictly forbidden, and -which I had as strictly promised to his Lordship that I would not touch; -and it was most fortunate that the surveyor and his assistants were not -shot, for it was never for a moment expected that they would be there. -After having heard his Lordship quietly, and having asked the day, and -the name of the surveyor, which his Lordship told me, I said that the -man was not in my employment, for the very day on which I last called at -Burleigh I found this same surveyor drunk, and carrying the line into the -preserves, which I had strictly forbidden, and I immediately discharged -him. And I added that as his Lordship found him in the preserves, he must -have been sent there by somebody else. His Lordship was at once perfectly -satisfied with this explanation, and became as friendly as ever, and -pressed me to stop and dine with him; this invitation I courteously -declined, for I was so much occupied that I had not an hour to spare. - -One very important feature of our line, besides making it shorter, more -direct, and easier of execution, was the position of the station at -York, which we proposed to make on the main line, immediately outside -the walls of the city; and in order to effect this we carried our line -by a bridge across the railways then entering the York station, while -our rivals proposed to carry their line into the station itself; which -scheme having been adopted, compels them to back in and out, and not only -occasions considerable loss of time, but materially increases the risk of -collisions. - -Another important line was the Bristol and Chepstow, which would -materially have shortened the distance between Bristol, Birmingham, and -Liverpool, instead of going round by Gloucester, and would have enabled -the South Wales Railway to shorten materially their distance to London. -In order to effect this I proposed to carry the line across the Severn at -the old passage by an iron bridge, with a clear height of 100 feet above -the high-water level of spring tides, so as to enable the largest ships -to pass under. It happened that the rocks in the river afforded excellent -foundations for the piers. - -The late Mr. Cobden was chairman of the Committee in the House of -Commons to whom this Bill was referred, and they were all astonished -at the boldness and grandeur of the undertaking; although the late Mr. -Brunel and others did not deny its practicability, yet the promoters of -the undertaking could not see their way to find the means for carrying it -into effect, and therefore the Bill was withdrawn. - -I forgot to mention the Central Kent Railway line, 1838. It had long been -considered a desirable object to connect Dover and London by a railway -for the Continent, and the South-Eastern had already obtained an Act to -make a line by Redhill, thence to Tunbridge, Ashford, and Folkestone, -to Dover, the distance being 86 miles, whereas the old coach road was -only 72. Moreover, the South-Eastern avoids all the principal towns -and population in Kent; so much so, that it was considered to be very -objectionable, and that it would not pay. - -I was accordingly requested by a most influential committee to examine -the county of Kent carefully, and endeavour to find out a better line. I -was not long in discovering one, namely, to commence at London Bridge, -thence by Lewisham, Eltham, the Crays, the Darent, 4 miles above -Dartford, thence by Gravesend, through Gad’s Hill, crossing the Medway a -mile above Rochester, thence, within a mile of Maidstone, to Eastwell, -where it was to separate into two branches, one to Ashford, and thence on -to Folkestone and Dover; another to Canterbury, thence to Sandwich, where -it was to terminate; while from the Darent another branch was intended to -run up the valley of that river, with a tunnel at its head, and thence -to Sevenoaks and Tunbridge. From this it will be seen that the main line -connected all the principal towns in the county together; each was at the -same time within the shortest distance from the metropolis, and nearly -14 miles nearer to Dover than the present South-Eastern line; and there -was no inclination steeper than 1 in 264, or 20 feet to the mile, and the -New Cross inclined plane of the Greenwich and Croydon line of 1 in 100 -for three miles would have been avoided. This line was so obviously the -best for Kent and the sea-coast, that when submitted to the South-Eastern -Company, who had not commenced theirs, they admitted it, and told their -solicitors, Messrs. Fearon, to tell our solicitors, Messrs. Freshfield, -that they would make terms with us for carrying it into effect. How -the negotiations fell through I never heard; whether it was from the -opposition of Maidstone and Lord Winchelsea, who, as well as Sir Percival -Dyke, violently opposed it--although since, I understand, they have -sincerely repented--I never could learn; but the negotiation failed, -although we were perfectly ready to give up the line to the South-Eastern -upon a reasonable compensation, and they (the South-Eastern Railway) -commenced and completed their line round by Tunbridge, and bitter cause -they had to repent it. Two of my assistants--Crampton and Morris--after -leaving me, considering that it would be a good speculation to get up a -shorter line to Dover, persuaded a very worthy nobleman, Lord Harris, who -has considerable property near, between Sittingbourne and Canterbury, -and some other influential landowners on the line, to form a company to -make a line between Rochester and Canterbury, and Mr. George Burge, the -contractor of the St. Katharine Docks and Herne Bay Pier, under the late -Mr. Telford, joined them. - -Burge had invested a good deal of money at Herne Bay, and naturally -expected that one day a line of railway would be made to it, and that -the value of his property would be considerably increased thereby. -Morris, a very honest, painstaking, and industrious man, who had been -in my service many years, and afterwards became one of the contractors -of the South-Eastern Railway, and made a good deal of money there, had -the sagacity to purchase the old harbour of Folkestone, it is said for -10,000_l._, and sold it to the South-Eastern Railway Company, profiting -considerably by the transaction. Crampton had made some improvements in -the locomotive engine, and afterwards became the principal executive -engineer to Messrs. Samuda. At the time Crampton came into my employment -Messrs. Samuda had had a vessel constructed, and had made the engines for -propelling her upon a new principle. The vessel was called the ‘Gipsey -Queen,’ and a day was appointed for the trial. Whether Crampton had -some misgivings about the success of the experiment, or whether he was -tired of the employment, I do not know, but he was anxious to come under -me. Knowing him to be a clever, hard-working person, I took him, and -he continued serving me faithfully for four years. Crampton entered my -service four days before the experimental trial of the ‘Gipsey Queen,’ -which took place, I think, in the year 1840. The result of the trial was -that the boiler blew up, Samuda’s brother and four men were killed, and -if Crampton had remained in their service, he would probably have been -killed also. During the time Crampton was in my service, he made the -acquaintance of my solicitors, the Messrs. Freshfield, who conceived a -high opinion of his talents and energy. - -Morris, Crampton, and Burge, then, commenced the London, Chatham, and -Dover Railway with comparatively very little support for an undertaking -of the kind, and experienced very great uphill work; so much so, that -Burge got alarmed, and Morris and Crampton bought him out. Morris and -Crampton still struggled on with it, and then Morris went out, and -Crampton remained alone. At last he got Peto and Betts to join him, and -then the concern went ahead. Lord Sondes, a large proprietor in Norfolk -and in Kent, also joined them, and they completed the original line. -They then went to Parliament to extend their railway by an independent -line to London, and from Canterbury to Dover, and, subsequently, by lines -to the City, so as ultimately to join the Metropolitan Railway, and from -thence with the Great Northern Railway at King’s Cross. How they raised -the enormous amount of capital to execute these works was a miracle, but -the tale has at last been unfolded, and the unfortunate subscribers have -found it out, to their cost; the concern has become bankrupt, and the -great contracting firm of Peto and Betts, as well as Crampton, have ended -in the ‘Gazette,’ as a melancholy example of what energy and capital -will come to when pushed beyond their just limits. The original shares -of 100_l._ may now (at the time of writing) be bought at 18_l._, and the -South-Eastern Railway have been compelled to expend nearly 700,000_l._ -to cut off the angle between London and Tunbridge; whereas, if they had -only adopted my line of the Central Kent Railway, as they agreed to do in -1838, all this would have been avoided; the London, Chatham, and Dover -would never have been made, the enormous losses would not have occurred, -thirty-two millions would not have been spent in railways for a single -county, and the South-Eastern shares would not (at the time of writing) -be at 65. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - Swedish Railways--Surveys in Holland and Portugal. - - -In 1844 Count Adolphe Rosen obtained a concession for making railways -in Sweden, and offered me half the concession, provided that I would -go over to Sweden, lay out the lines, and bring the matter before the -English public. I accordingly employed a Mr. Tottie, a Swede, who had -been employed by Mr. Rastrick, to make the surveys of the lines laid out -by me, which consisted of a main one from Gothenburg right through the -kingdom to Oxhoe, as the central portion for the iron trade; from thence -one branch went to the upper end of the Lake Wener, and the other to the -Lake Malar, to communicate with Stockholm; the line then proceeded north -by Westerâs to Upsala, and thence to Stockholm. - -The same year I went from Hull with Count Rosen to Gothenburg by steam, -and spent two or three days there. The country through which I passed, -though not rich, was much more so and better cultivated than I expected -to find it, and the people honest, simple, and industrious, and extremely -civil. The general appearance rather picturesque, and in places wild, -being covered with dense forests of firs, larch, beech, &c.; large spaces -had been cleared of wood and brought under cultivation. The houses were -for the most part built of wood, in the Russian fashion, the logs being -laid close together, dovetailed at the ends, and the joints caulked with -moss, the inside being closely planked, and in every room was a stone or -porcelain stove; the windows were double, and in winter the outer and -inner were both shut up, and all the joints pasted with paper so as to -prevent the admission of the outer air. The houses were generally very -comfortable. In some of the larger towns, such as Orebro, many of the -houses were solidly built of stone, others had stone foundations and -wooden superstructure; most of the country churches were of stone, with -a detached building of wood for the bells, which were frequently of a -large size, with a very fine full melodious sound. Gothenburg is a very -well and regularly built town, chiefly of stone, in the Dutch style, with -canals running through the streets. Some of the houses of the principal -merchants, as well as public buildings, are spacious and handsome, -although the town generally has a heavy, dull, yet substantial appearance. - -I resolved to visit the celebrated iron mine of Daunemora, some miles -farther northward. I accordingly started off with Count Rosen, and -reached it the same evening, and visited the mine next day; it consisted -of a mass of rock, cropping out to the surface, of almost solid magnetic -iron, containing about 75 to 80 per cent. of the finest metal. There were -extensive forests round, so that there was no want of fuel; the wood was -converted into charcoal, and the finest iron was extracted, the best for -making steel; it fetched the highest price in the English market, where -there was a great demand for it. The machinery employed was very rude and -simple, the bellows for the forges being in some cases driven by manual -or horse labour, in others, where it was accessible, by water power. I -was anxious to go to the great mining district of Dalecarlia, about 100 -miles farther north, but the season was getting late, and therefore I was -obliged to return to England. - -When I had got all my surveys finished, I made a report upon the whole -line; but I found that the Swedish Government was not sufficiently alive -to the importance of railways at that time, or rather the Government did -not see its way to giving them encouragement by subscribing or rather -taking a pecuniary interest in them. Though by no means undervaluing the -importance of railways, yet, being naturally cautious and economical, -with only moderate funds at its command, the Government doubted much -whether a reasonable profit would be derived from them, but at the -same time wished us every success in obtaining the money in England. I -represented to them that people in England, knowing nothing of Sweden, -or her capabilities, would hesitate to subscribe their money without a -certain guarantee by the Government of interest of 4 or 5 per cent. upon -the amount of capital expended, and that as it was quite clear that the -railways would pay that, there could be no risk; in fact, the guarantee -would be merely nominal, but that it would have the effect of obtaining -the money in England, and thus conferring upon Sweden a great national -benefit, by saving their capital without running the least risk. I was -recommended to give a grand dinner, which several of the ministers and -all the other notables of Stockholm attended. Everybody was enthusiastic, -and a great number of speeches were made as to the importance of -railways, and the great national benefit they would confer, and my health -was proposed by the Minister of Commerce, Skogman, and was received with -the greatest enthusiasm, but the effect was nothing, for we neither got -private subscriptions nor public guarantee. However, after all we had -done something; we had introduced the subject of railways into Sweden, -we had shown the importance of them, and we had in some measure opened -their eyes, and we trusted that in time, when they had maturely reflected -upon the advantages, they would view them more favourably, and contribute -liberally towards them; but as there was no use in then pressing the -subject further, we returned at once to England. - -In all fevers there is a climax; the railway fever had its climax like -the rest, and it was then upon the decline. The vast multitude who had -expected to make their fortunes found at last to their sorrow that -their money was gone; but that was not the worst, for they would have -been very happy if they had not had to pay more. As for any new railway -speculation, that was entirely out of the question, and therefore it -turned out that the Swedish railways were too late for the market; nobody -would entertain the subject; the very name of railway was sufficient to -drive everyone away, so that there was no help for it but to abide better -times. Accordingly the Swedish railways remained in abeyance until the -year 1852; by this time the Swedish Government had considered the subject -maturely, and felt that, as every other European nation had adopted them, -Sweden, if she desired to keep pace with other countries, must either -make the railways herself, for which at the time the Government had not -the money, or she must encourage others to make them by guaranteeing -a sufficient interest for the capital expended. Accordingly I went -there again, and was as usual very kindly received by the King and his -Ministers, and I saw that they were becoming more anxious than ever that -the railways should be made. I had been there in October, 1848, and had -the honour of being invited to dine at the palace in Stockholm, as I -had previously the honour of dining with their Majesties at the summer -palace of Hoga, near Stockholm. Upon arriving at the palace I was most -courteously received by King Oscar, who did me the honour of presenting -me to his handsome, graceful, and intelligent queen. When her Majesty -heard that the railways were to be commenced, she said that she had heard -so much talk about them and nothing had been done, that she feared they -never would be made, “therefore talk no more about them, but set to work -and make them.” The dinner party consisted of about thirty. I had the -honour of sitting next the Lord Chancellor, a very agreeable, intelligent -person, who sat next to the Royal Family. We had an excellent dinner, -without the least restraint, and the common topic of conversation seemed -to be, who would be elected President of the French Republic, Cavaignac -or Louis Napoleon, and everybody seemed in favour of Cavaignac as the -proper person; they all spoke very disparagingly of Louis Napoleon. It -seems curious to think how little the world knew of that extraordinary -man, and how completely he disappointed all previous expectations. - -When at Stockholm I was presented to his present Majesty, King Charles -XV., then Prince Karl, a very handsome intelligent young man. Since his -accession to the throne he has done me the honour of conferring upon me -the order of Knight Commander of the Order of Wasa, for what his Majesty -was pleased to term the great services which I had rendered Sweden. This -was the more agreeable, as it was sent to me through my personal friend -Count Platen, then the Swedish representative at the Court of London. -Many years ago I made acquaintance with his father, the celebrated -Count Platen, who was the chief instrument in changing the dynasty from -the worn-out old race, and in placing Bernadotte on the throne. My -introduction to the Count arose in this manner. The Count took the utmost -interest in the completion of the great Gotha Canal, which unites the -river Gotha below the falls of that river and the lower end of the great -Lake Werner, thus completing the navigation between the whole of the -towns bordering upon that lake and Gothenburg. A canal had formerly been -made between the lower end of the lake and the river Gotha (which issues -from it) below the falls, and at the time a very great work it was, but -the locks were so unequally distributed, and the rise of some of them so -great, that the navigation was very much impeded; the Count, therefore, -came over to England, after the death of my father, to consult Mr. -Telford, who was then considered our first engineer, as to what was the -best means of improving the Gotha Canal, so as to avoid the inconvenience -complained of. Mr. Telford went over, prepared a plan, and carried it -into effect, much to the satisfaction of the Swedish Government. During -Count Platen’s visit to England, Mr. Telford brought him to Lynn, where -we met as engineers of the Eau Brink Drainage and Navigation, and we -explained to him the whole of the Eau Brink Works, with which he was -much pleased. He was a very superior person, grave and dignified, with -great intelligence, and of easy, affable manners. The Mayor of Lynn -being informed by Mr. Telford of his visit, called upon him, and being -introduced, invited him, in the name of the Corporation, to one of their -civic dinners, which he accepted. He had, however, brought no dress suit -with him, and indeed was perfectly indifferent about it, and would have -gone to the mayor’s feast in his travelling costume, which, to say the -least, was very rough. Telford consulted me about it, and we both agreed -that the Count could not attend the dinner without the usual evening -dress costume. Upon this being delicately explained by Mr. Telford, he -took the hint and sent for a tailor, who in the course of a couple of -days equipped him properly. The greatest attention was of course paid to -him by all the company. - -To return to my subject. As time went on, the money market got in such -a bad state--no end of failures--that nothing could be done with the -Swedish railway, and I began to think all my money and labour would be -thrown away. The period for which Count Rosen’s concession was granted -had elapsed, and it was very doubtful whether it would be renewed at all, -but it certainly would not in any case be to the extent of the original -concession, which comprised the whole kingdom. - -Fortunately, however, in 1852, confidence in the money market had been -restored, and we received a renewal of the concession for so much of the -line as extended between the Lakes Malari and Werner, with a branch to -the iron mines of Nora from Orebro, which was as valuable as any part -of the line; and the Government gave a guarantee of 4 per cent, on the -amount of capital required, namely, 420,000_l._, with power to raise -167,000_l._ more. The line was very easy, and Mr. Burge, the contractor, -agreed to complete it for that sum. A company was accordingly formed, the -capital was immediately subscribed, and the shares went to a premium. -I went over to Sweden again; appointed Mr. Watson resident engineer, -and the works began and proceeded very well for one year; unfortunately -the chairman and leading man on the committee was the notorious John -Sadlier, M.P., who afterwards made away with himself near Jack Straw’s -tavern, Hampstead Heath, when the whole of his proceedings were made -public; and, amongst others, his mismanagement of the Swedish railway. -What became of the money I never could make out, for I never could -account for above 60,000_l._ as having been expended on the works and -land combined; but it is certain that accounts far beyond that were -presented to me by the directors for my certificate, which they were -obliged to get before they could be passed by the Government, though -I never would give the certificate, because they kept everything back -from me; and finding that matters were going on in such a discreditable -manner, I felt that with any regard for my character I could no longer -remain their engineer. I therefore resigned at once, and fortunate it -was that I did so, for I afterwards was informed that they had not only -spent the whole 420,000_l._, but also 167,000_l._ of debentures, and had -issued 167,000_l._ more without authority; so that in round numbers they -had expended about 700,000_l._, and had not completed 50 miles of single -line, which required nothing more than surface formation, and one or two -short lengths of embankment and cutting scarcely exceeding 20 feet high; -for which 6000_l._ per mile complete was ample. In fact, there never was -a good affair so completely mismanaged, not to use much stronger terms. -The consequence was that after Sadlier’s death the whole came out, and -everyone laid the blame upon him. The particulars I do not know, and -thank God I got clear of it in good time, finding that it was impossible -to remain with honour. I never would certify the accounts the directors -presented to me, because I believed that at the least they were in error, -if not something worse. All I did was to certify to the contractor, Mr. -Burge (who, as I knew, behaved very honestly), to the extent, I think, -of 25,000_l._ or 30,000_l._ Thus this fine concern went to the dogs from -sheer mismanagement, to speak mildly, and the shares, which had stood -at a premium, were worth nothing; whereas in the hands of any sensible, -honest body of directors, the line ought to have been completed for the -estimate, and would have paid well. The Swedish Government could not with -justice pay any guarantee when no part of the line had been completed and -no satisfactory accounts rendered; and I have reason to believe that they -were so disgusted with the way in which this railway had been mismanaged -by the Board that they would have nothing further to do with English or -any other companies, but determined to make all the rest of the lines -themselves--which I understand they have done--and that the cost did not -exceed my estimate of 5000_l._ to 6000_l._ per mile, including stations -and rolling stock. - -I had previously examined several other parts of Sweden, and in November, -1850, I had gone there, undertaking to deliver on my way a confidential -letter from Count Reventlow, the Danish Ambassador in London, to the -Minister of Foreign Affairs at Copenhagen. We went by Hamburg and -Kiel, for at this time war was again expected to break out between -Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark, and both parties were watching one -another with the greatest anxiety. - -Schleswig-Holstein is not a rich country by any means, although there -are apparently some substantial farmers. The country is generally -flat, with here and there some gentle eminences, with patches of fir -trees; but there are some extensive mosses which might be reclaimed -and converted into valuable land if properly drained. These mosses -in many cases rest upon a bed of marl, which upon being dug up and -mixed with the peat forms most valuable manure. We saw many examples -of this in the fens of Lincolnshire, and in the north of Denmark. I -have been informed upon credible authority that there are vast tracts -of moss lands lying upon marl, and small lakes which might easily be -drained and become most fertile; and it is to be hoped that the Danish -Government will find the means of reclaiming them, as they will well -repay the expense. Rendsburg, through which we passed, is a little town, -well fortified, and may be made much stronger. Kiel, situated upon a -splendid bay in the Baltic, is the university of Holstein, and a very -neat little thriving town, with prettily wooded environs. From here we -proceeded to Schleswig, the capital of the province, its inhabitants -being partly Germans and partly Danes; in the northern part of Schleswig -the inhabitants are wholly Danes. The town of Schleswig is about 12 -miles from the Baltic; it is well built, surrounded with a very pretty -fertile country, well cultivated, and diversified with wood. There is -a good deal of agricultural traffic with the surrounding country, and -the place appeared very thriving and prosperous. We arrived there about -six o’clock in the evening, about two hours after dark, and it began to -feel very cold. We got to a very comfortable inn, and were dining, or -rather had finished our dinner, when the waiter entered with a quiet, -mysterious air, and said, or rather whispered, that a gentleman wished to -speak to me. Knowing no one in the place, I could not conceive what he -meant; he, however, repeated the whisper in my ear in the same mysterious -manner. When I told him to show the stranger in, there was no person in -the room but my friend, Mr. William Sim, afterwards the solicitor to -the Swedish Railway Company, who had accompanied me. Immediately after -the waiter’s departure the door opened, and in came a gentleman muffled -up to the eyes in a blue military cloak. He cautiously shut the door, -then uncovered his face, and looking stealthily round, and observing -nobody but Sim and myself, advanced at once to the table, threw off his -cloak, took off his cap, and saluted me as a naval officer. I motioned -him to be seated, which he courteously declined, and addressing himself -to me, said that he had been informed that I was the English gentleman -who had brought despatches of importance from Count Reventlow to the -Danish Government, and that he was a Danish naval officer, and had been -sent by the commanding officer of Alsen to request that I would deliver -up my despatches to him, as it was of the utmost consequence that they -should be delivered to the Danish Government as soon as possible. I -told him that I was perfectly unacquainted with him, and that I could -not do so without a personal conference with the General commanding at -Alsen, because these despatches had been confided to me by the Danish -Minister in London, and as a point of honour I could not deliver them -to any but an accredited officer of the Government. He then said that -if I would be at Dussel, opposite to Alsen, the following morning, at -eight o’clock, the General would have a boat ready to take me over to the -island, and would have a war steamer in readiness to take me to Kosoa, -where I could readily get to Copenhagen. I accordingly agreed to be at -Dussel the following morning at eight o’clock. The officer, who was a -perfect gentleman, then muffled himself up in his cloak, and requesting -that we should say nothing about his arrival, quietly left the room. Sim -and myself ordered a carriage with four horses to be ready the following -morning at six o’clock, paid our bill, and went to bed. During the night -there had been a very heavy fall of snow, and when we started there -was some difficulty in moving forward. We were therefore obliged to -take extra horses, and passing by the now celebrated heights of Dussel, -reached the shore opposite the island of Alsen precisely at the time -appointed, where we found a boat with four oars ready to take us across -the Sound (which was about half a mile wide); here we were received -by the General in full uniform. I then delivered him the despatches, -for which he felt very much obliged, and we went on board a small war -steamer, which got under way immediately, and landed us at Kosoa, not far -from Copenhagen, where we slept. Next day we examined the cathedral at -Roskeld, and reached Copenhagen in the evening. - -When I first visited Sweden, a vast quantity of brandy distilled from -potatoes was consumed; so much so, that the country was, to a certain -extent, demoralized, and drunkenness was very common; and the farther -north you went, the worse it was. The Government therefore determined to -take every means in its power to suppress it. Heavy duties were imposed -on potato brandy; and since that time, I am glad to hear that drunkenness -has considerably abated. The Swedes are an excellent, open-hearted, -gallant, and generous people, and most amiable and hospitable. I was -treated with the greatest kindness by them, for which I shall always -feel grateful. Christmas is a general holiday throughout the country -for a month, commencing with Christmas Eve. During that time, scarcely -any business is done. There is nothing but visiting and social parties -from morning to night; and it requires a strong stomach and head to go -through that festive ordeal without feeling the worse for it. When once -entered the house, you cannot refuse to accept their kind and profuse -hospitality. As a specimen, whenever a marriage takes place, the bride -not only appears before her friends, but the house is thrown open to the -public, and everybody is at liberty to enter and pay his respects to -the bride and bridegroom, who receive all comers in full-dress bridal -costume; and refreshments of all kinds are in great profusion. When I -was there a marriage took place between two noble families, to which -I was invited. The bride and bridegroom were both young, and bride -very handsome and splendidly dressed. I was most kindly received and -entertained, and did not get home until very late in the morning. I found -that I had taken as much as I could decently carry, and if I had not -escaped at the time I did, I must have remained all the next day, as many -of the bridegroom’s friends did. - -In Sweden I made acquaintance, amongst many others, with our excellent -Consul, Major Pringle, who during the last American war had the command -of Washington for twenty-four hours. I was frequently a guest at his -house, and I owe many thanks to him and his amiable wife and family for -their great kindness and hospitality. Another excellent fellow was Mr., -or Colonel, Elsworthy (as he called himself), the American Consul. He was -a bachelor, and kept open house, and he was so exceedingly hospitable, -and pressed his guests so strongly, that it was with the greatest -difficulty you could escape sober enough to reach your quarters with -safety. - -The woods of Sweden were being fast cleared away, both to furnish fuel -for the iron manufactory, in which a great quantity was consumed, and -also that the land might be used for agriculture, so that this source of -fuel for iron making is rapidly disappearing. In addition to these causes -may be mentioned the great export of timber to every part of Europe for -building and other purposes. It is true that large forests of fine timber -still exist farther north, and also in Norway, but then the expense of -transport to the iron districts will be very heavy; yet as Swedish iron -is so very valuable, on account of its magnetic properties, for making -steel, a large quantity must always be required for the southern markets -of Europe, and with the greater cost of fuel the price of Swedish iron -must increase. - -The Bessemer process has considerably reduced the expense of producing -good iron in England, and also for converting it into steel, still the -Swedish iron is so much better that there will always be a certain demand -for it. - -It becomes a question, then, whether it would not be worth while to -export the Swedish ore to England, where there is plenty of fuel, and -where it could be converted into the best iron at the least expense. -Would it not be cheaper to do this, than to manufacture the iron in -Sweden, where fuel is so much dearer? and as the Swedish iron ore is very -rich compared with ours, except the haematite, the extra freight would -soon be recouped. I think it is by no means improbable that it will come -to this at last. - -About the time that the Railway guarantee was obtained from the Swedish -Government, and the company was successfully started, another undertaking -was proposed to me by a M. Von Alstein, a Belgian proprietor, and a man -of some influence and property in that kingdom. The Dutch Government was -anxious to get a more direct and constant navigation up the Scheldt, -as that round by Bergen-op-Zoon was only practicable from half tide to -high water, while at low water the whole channel was completely dry. It -was considered, also, that the whole of the old channel might be filled -up and converted into valuable land, so that the fertile island of St. -Beveland might be joined to the mainland, and thus the kingdom would be -greatly benefited. The Government did not, however, want to undertake -the necessary works itself, but was ready to give up the whole of the -old channel to any company that would construct the new canal above -mentioned, as well as an embankment and road across the old channel, so -as to connect the island of St. Beveland with the mainland. Accordingly -upon these terms a concession was granted to M. Von Alstein and others, -giving them the whole of the lands to be reclaimed, which would amount -to a very considerable tract. The plan, upon due investigation, appeared -to offer considerable advantages to any party who would undertake it. It -was accordingly brought before the English public. A Belgian and English -company was formed to carry it out. The money was duly subscribed, and -Mr. Thomas Hutchings, at that time a large railway contractor, and -considered to possess undoubted means, offered to take a large number -of shares. He accordingly became the contractor for the work, and I -was appointed the engineer-in-chief, while M. Von Alstein became the -managing director, and a M. Dronker, a Dutch engineer and contractor of -considerable experience, was appointed by Mr. Hutchings sub-contractor -under him. I went over to Holland to examine the whole district and -the works proposed, and it appeared to me that if they were properly -carried into effect, it would turn out a very fair speculation, yielding -considerable profit. My visit was made in December, 1851. - -Things having, in 1852, been satisfactorily settled with the Government -at the Hague, as soon as the weather would permit, arrangements were -made for commencing the works, and in the month of June Mr. Hutchings, -myself, and the English and Belgian directors being present, the first -sod of the canal was turned with considerable ceremony by one of the -Dutch Princes. - -Whilst the canal was proceeding, the company was empowered to enclose -as much of the land of the old channel as was considered advisable by -a jury of Dutch experts, without whom nothing could be done. M. Von -Alstein, the manager of the company, attended, and the jury marked out a -space in the old channel of the Scheldt, which was always covered to a -considerable extent at high water of spring tides, and even neap tides, -including the green marsh as well as the sands. The Dutch jury marked a -space of 3000 acres, which included about one-third of green marsh and -two-thirds of sand--part of which was clayey; when this was done, I went -over to examine it, and was much surprised to find that so large a space -had been decided upon. I said to M. Von Alstein, the director, that I -thought it was far too much to be taken in at once; that it would cost -a great deal of money; that the sands were not worth the expense; and -that I thought it would be far better to confine the intake to the green -marshes for the present year, and that before the sands were taken in -they ought to be worked up so as to become green marshes. For, in fact, -in England, where I had reclaimed many thousand acres, I never thought -of enclosing bare sands. The manager, however, told me that was totally -contrary to the Dutch system, and as the jury had decided upon taking -the sands as well as the green marshes to the extent above mentioned, it -must be done, and he would not listen to my recommendation of taking in -a less quantity. The Dutch engineers also fixed the dimensions and form -of the embankments, which I did not approve of. In fact, I disapproved -of the whole plan, and told M. Von Alstein my opinion, and that I could -not take upon myself the responsibility. The manager said that the works -must be carried into effect as decided by the Dutch jury and the Dutch -engineers. I was therefore obliged to be silent, particularly as Mr. -Hutchings, who was the contractor and also the leading shareholder, -had consented to it. The works accordingly began under M. Dronker, Mr. -Hutchings’ sub-contractor; and Mr. Brown, one of Mr. Hutchings’ partners, -was sent over to superintend the works on the part of Hutchings, Brown, -and Wright. I remained some time on the spot, and had a boat fitted up to -live in at Barth, for there were no lodgings to be had. I soon saw by the -manner in which M. Dronker was carrying on the works that they could not -succeed, and I wrote repeatedly to Mr. Hutchings to come over, otherwise -he would be ruined, as his partner--Brown--knew nothing about it, and -allowed Dronker to proceed as he liked. It appeared to me as if it was -nothing more nor less than throwing away money by handfuls, no adequate -amount of work being done for it. I never saw such gross mismanagement in -my life. There were from twelve to thirteen hundred men employed at 3_s._ -to 4_s._ a day, with a number of assistants, and they were not doing work -enough for half that number. I also expostulated with Dronker, the Dutch -contractor, but he would not listen to me, and said that he would do as -he liked. The works continued to proceed in this manner, and I wrote -almost every post to Hutchings to come over himself without delay, or to -stop the works, for it was impossible to complete them for any reasonable -sum in the manner in which they were being carried on. I told him, -moreover, that it was in vain to attempt to reclaim 3000 acres at once, -and the better plan would be to confine his operations, in the first -instance, to taking in the green marsh, which was about 1000 acres, and -to wait until the sands were worked on the outside, which would be done -much more rapidly when once the green marsh was enclosed. I told the -manager and Dronker the same; however, they would not listen. At length, -after great difficulty, I got them to divide the enclosure into two -parts, each consisting of 1500 acres, and I hoped that I should be able -to induce them to subdivide these two again into 750 each. By this means -the green marsh in each division would have been reduced to about 500 -acres, which would easily have been enclosed at a considerable profit, -leaving the sands to be dealt with hereafter according to circumstances. - -However, nothing would do but they must continue pushing on the outer -bank over the sands, which I saw was impracticable at any cost within -reason. At last, Hutchings came over himself, and when he visited the -works held up his hands in astonishment, and saw that he was a ruined -man. By this time money ran short, the workmen rebelled for wages and -threatened destruction to Hutchings and all concerned; and the Dutch -Government, being applied to, sent three hundred soldiers and two armed -cutters to keep order. The men were paid, great numbers were discharged, -and the works went on upon a much better system, and considerable -progress was made, but still they would not confine themselves to the -enclosure of the green marsh. After a great deal of difficulty they -nearly succeeded in enclosing 1500 acres near to Barth; but before this -could be done Hutchings’ funds were exhausted, and he was obliged to stop -payment. If my advice had been followed this never would have occurred. -Some fresh parties then joined the concern, and, adopting my advice, -confined themselves to enclosing the 1000 acres of marsh land. - -At certain times of the year, particularly at the end of summer and in -the autumn, it is difficult to conceive a more unwholesome district, -as at those times the marsh fever invariably makes its appearance with -the most deadly effect. I had several fine, strong, healthy young men as -assistants with me, living in my ship, and at dinner it was by no means -uncommon to see one taken ill and fall off his chair. The only remedy -was to give him a strong stimulant of wine or brandy, wrap him up in -blankets, and send him off as quietly as possible. Fortunately I had been -so thoroughly cured of my fever when at Naples, as before mentioned, that -I had become as it were acclimatized and never experienced the least -attack. The island of St. Beveland, where these works were carried on, -is one of the most rich, and fertile districts imaginable, teeming with -luxurious vegetation of every kind, and abounding in beautiful little -villages, the very models of cleanliness and comfort; but amongst them -the fever lurks in the most insidious form. Mr. Brown, a fine, powerful -man of about forty-five, whilst superintending these works for his -partners and himself, had an excellent house in the village of Yersike, -about four miles distant, supplied with every English comfort both of -furniture and provisions; but after a time he caught the fever, which -stuck to him for a considerable time, and ultimately he was obliged to -leave the place, as otherwise he must have succumbed. The Dutch never -go out in the morning without taking a cup of coffee and a dram of -bitters, composed of gentian, quinine, and gin, and a pipe, which is -scarcely ever out of their mouths, and they repeat the dose at night and -not unfrequently during the day. In the English fens and lowlands we -do pretty much the same, and good port wine and quinine are considered -a specific; but I do not think that the fever is so bad with us as in -Holland; the cause may be that these Dutch islands being surrounded by -the sea, the tide leaves a large surface of mud exposed to the action of -the sun, and thus a considerable amount of malaria is engendered; this -I have always found to prevail most densely where there are trees, which -prevent it from being dissipated; so that it is always safer to be in a -boat, or in a house without any trees near it, so as to be exposed to the -free circulation of the air, also to sleep at least 20 feet above the -ground. - -The whole of the seaboard of Holland requires to be remodelled. The -numerous channels through which the tidal and fresh waters pass occupy -a considerable surface which is comparatively useless, and only serve -to deteriorate the main channels of the rivers, and thus prevent them -from discharging their waters effectually, and so keeping them open, -in the best state for drainage and navigation. If these superfluous -channels were filled up, and the islands which they surround were united -to the mainland, a great quantity of valuable land would be gained to -the State; the extensive embankments which are now necessary to prevent -these islands from being submerged, and which entail a great and constant -tax upon the kingdom, would be considerably reduced; the main rivers -and harbours would be materially improved, and the general surface of -the water in the interior would be lowered; the drainage also might be -improved in the same manner, so as to render a considerably less amount -of artificial drainage power necessary, which would in turn cause a -corresponding reduction of the taxes; while the land would be greatly -improved, because the present general body of water is too near the -surface, so that it is impossible to carry on agriculture to the greatest -advantage; also the risk of breaking the banks would be greatly reduced. -I think, moreover, that the vast multitude of shoals which skirt the -coast might, by the adoption of proper means--and those not expensive, -compared to the object to be obtained--be raised sufficiently so as -to be converted into valuable land, and be added to the kingdom with -considerable profit, while the navigation along the coast and in the -interior might be greatly improved. Further, the whole of the Zuyder -Zee, which is said to have been under cultivation in early times, might -be reclaimed. As extraordinary spring tides seldom rise high along these -coasts, and as vegetation generally takes place at the level of high -water of neap tides, the lands on the coast, if properly managed, should -not be above 4 or 5 feet below the level of high water of spring tides, -although I believe it is a fact that many tracts in the interior are much -lower, and this arises from their having been embanked too soon. - -Now that these lands have been brought into cultivation at vast expense, -it would be difficult to raise them without rendering them useless for a -considerable time. Still, in all contemplated new enclosures, the lands -should be raised by warping, that is, accumulating the alluvial matter, -which can always be done if properly managed up to the level of high -water of neap tides. In fact, I repeat, a considerable extent of Holland -has been embanked too soon, and what has been done it would be extremely -difficult, perhaps not advisable, to disturb; although, if any of these -very low lands are not sufficiently fertile, it would be well to warp -them up with fresh soil. They might thus be sufficiently raised to do -away with the greater part of the artificial power now required to keep -them dry, and be rendered very fertile; thus a double advantage would be -gained. This subject is well worthy of the serious attention of the Dutch -Government and its able staff of hydraulic engineers, who, nevertheless, -go too much upon the old routine, and prefer patching up the old system -in preference to striking out a new course. Probably this is not the -fault of the engineers, as they would naturally attempt any new course -whereby they might distinguish themselves. The Government, also, would -most likely be induced to adopt any new method, provided that it could -see its way to bettering the condition of the country. But, on the other -hand, the Government feels great disinclination to depart from an old -system which, it may be said with some reason, has continued so many -years, has answered its purpose very well, and has rendered Holland, -under the circumstances, one of the most extraordinary countries in the -world. This is very true; but then it must be recollected that hydraulic -science has advanced like other sciences, and what would be considered -good practice some centuries back would not be thought so now. The Dutch -introduced their system into England in the reign of Charles I., when -Vermuyden was considered the first hydraulic engineer of the time. He -certainly was considerably in advance of the English engineers of that -period; but at the present time his method would be wholly inadequate to -deal with the circumstances to be encountered, and it was abandoned long -ago. The combination system, and comparatively narrow channels, combined -with warping the land, is what is required in Holland as in all other -countries similarly situated. - -In 1855 I went to Portugal, at the request of the Government, to make -arrangements for a general system of railways and other works. As we -passed the Fort Belem, at the entrance of the Tagus, the view gradually -opened out, until you obtained a _coup d’œil_ of the whole, which really -is very fine and striking. Fancy a range of streets, houses, palaces, -and churches rising rapidly from the water’s edge until they crown the -summits of the hills on which they are built, backed by the picturesque -outline of the Cintra hills, and extending for upwards of three miles. We -landed at the custom house, close by the Plaza, commonly called by the -English Blackhorse Square, from the fine equestrian figure of the Marquis -of Pombal in the centre. This is certainly a handsome square, surrounded -by all the public offices, terminated in the centre, on the south, by a -fine triumphal archway, which leads by a spacious street to the square of -Dom Pedro. Beyond this are the public gardens, very tastefully laid out. - -I was introduced to Dom Fernando, the husband of the late Dona Maria, -Queen of Portugal, and at that time Regent during the minority of his -son. He was of the House of Coburg, and brother to the late Prince -Consort. He received me very graciously, and spoke English very well, -although with a peculiar accent. His Royal Highness afterwards invited me -to a ball and supper, at the Palace of Belem, which was extremely well -managed, without magnificence or ostentation. I was there introduced to -the Minister of Finance, Signor Mello de Fontes, a young man of great -talent and an excellent orator. On the following day I attended a launch -at the dockyard, which was honoured by the presence of the Prince Regent, -and here I was introduced to the Duke de Saldanha, President of the -Cabinet; the Duke de Terçeira and his amiable wife; Viscount de Bandiera, -together with the distinguished men of all parties. - -Before proceeding to Oporto I was obliged to remain several days until -I could get my official instructions as to what they required. I -employed the interim in visiting the different objects in Lisbon most -worthy of the traveller’s notice. I first went to the great aqueduct, -which is really a very grand and magnificent work, the finest of the -kind in Europe, and every part is readily accessible. It enters at the -highest part of the northern portion of the town, and conveys the water -to a large artificial reservoir, whence it is distributed by pipes -to fountains situated in different parts of the town, and from these -fountains it is carried to the various houses by means of carriers and -water-carts. These carriers are chiefly Gallegoes or Spaniards from the -Biscayan Provinces, who are allowed to charge so much per barrel. - -It is singular to see them travelling about from one part of the town to -the other with cries of “Agua,” and it is more singular still that this -practice should have been allowed to continue so long, to the great and -unnecessary tax upon the inhabitants, where, if pipes were only laid to -the houses, the water might be distributed at probably one-tenth of the -cost. The Gallegoes are a hard-working, temperate race, who save every -penny they can, and as soon as possible retire to their own country to -enjoy the hard-earned fruits of their labours. - -The water before it reaches the city is collected in reservoirs -distributed about the valleys, at the base of the Cintra hills, but these -reservoirs are upon too small a scale, and in dry seasons the water is -very scarce. A Portuguese company has since been formed to enlarge the -works, increase the supply, and deliver it direct to the houses, but, -like most Portuguese companies of the kind, has failed from the want of -understanding the subject and from mismanagement. - -I visited the fine old Cathedral of Belem, built in honour of Prince -Henry, the Portuguese navigator. The style is a species of richly florid -Gothic, and the interior is spacious and imposing. There was an hospital -for invalid sailors attached to it, which is now converted into a naval -academy. - -I also visited the Castle of Belem close by, where all ships coming to -Lisbon are obliged to stop and show their papers and get pratique before -they are allowed to proceed. The castle itself is a very small fortress, -built in the Moorish style, and mounts a few light brass guns, and is -manned by about fifty artillerymen. It is a very pretty object to look -upon, but as a fortress it is good for nothing. There is another fort, -called St. Julian, about five or six miles lower down, on the same -side, which commands the channel passing close to it, but it also was -in a dilapidated condition, with a few light guns. It is certainly much -stronger than that of Belem, but wholly unfit to prevent the passage of -any large vessel of war, or to resist a land attack. There is another -small fort near the bar at the entrance of the southern channel. This -fort is circular, and called the Bugia. In the centre is a lighthouse, -with a revolving light. This also as a fort is good for nothing. I -accompanied Dom Fernando and his ministers to examine the entrance of -the Tagus, which was said to be deteriorating. In the northern channel, -during the heavy south-west gales, which are very prevalent, there -is a very heavy broken sea, which at times cannot be passed without -great danger. The strength of these gales when at their utmost is -extraordinary. The waves break with tremendous violence on the shore, and -carry the sand in vast masses to a considerable distance inshore, so as -to render the soil perfectly barren on the north side of the entrance. -These sands extend for several miles, and the whole coast is covered with -it. At low water, in some places, they are dry during the ebb for a mile -and upwards. - -The port of Lisbon properly speaking is at the custom house, which -immediately adjoins Blackhorse Square. It consists of nothing more than -an open roadstead, where all the mercantile vessels lie at their anchors, -and are loaded and unloaded by means of lighters, at great delay and -cost, and with frequent interruptions from heavy gales of wind; but -it rarely happens that the vessels suffer any material damage, as the -mouth of the river, although about seven miles wide, is never seriously -agitated. Docks or landing jetties might be made here with considerable -advantage to the trade. At the request of the Government, I prepared some -plans upon a moderate scale. Docks also might have been made in the -bay to the westward, although it would have involved the removal of the -custom house, which would, however, be a great improvement. The naval -dockyard and Admiralty are close by, and, in fact, form part of the west -side of Blackhorse Square. It is a miserable place, and consists of a dry -dock, two or three building slips, with a ropery, and some warehouses, -all in the most antique fashion, and supplied with cranes, tools, &c., -of the last century. In fact, it required to be wholly remodelled and -removed to the bay above mentioned. The Government has since then parted -with this bay to a private company, which has nearly filled it up, and -propose to convert it into building ground. As the Great Eastern and -Northern Railway terminates on the east side of the custom house, docks -in connection with it might be made between it and the custom house, and -as these are so obviously wanted, it is not improbable that they will be -made some time hence; but, unfortunately, from some cause or another, -the railways have been mismanaged, and the Government has no funds to -undertake any great works itself. - -The roadstead for large foreign vessels of war is situated about a mile -and a half lower down, nearer to the southern shore, where there is ample -depth of water, and where they are completely out of the way of the -merchant vessels. - -The channel, from the entrance at Belem to Blackhorse Square, is about -three miles long, and from two to two and a half miles wide. It then -branches out to about seven miles wide, and continues more or less of -about the same width for nine or ten miles, when it contracts to a mile, -so that it may be readily imagined that the harbour is one of the finest -and most spacious in Europe, always excepting that of Vigo. - -At Lisbon I visited the collection of royal state carriages, which, -without doubt, is the finest and most extensive anywhere. I think I -counted nearly fifty, gilt and decorated with the royal arms in the most -elaborate manner. Upon the panels are very beautiful paintings executed -by first-rate artists. Some of these carriages are above two centuries -old; and it is curious to observe, that whilst the decorations are most -elegant and finished in the highest style of art, the ironwork, springs, -&c., in many of these are of the rudest description. - -The Sunday after my arrival there was a grand bull fight, which Dom -Fernando and some of the royal princes honoured with their presence. -These bull fights are totally different from those of Spain. Here the -bulls have their horns capped with large bosses of wood, so that they can -do no harm, whilst, on the other hand, they are never killed. Instead of -being tortured with barbed arrows and spears by a host of banderilleros -and picadores, and when thoroughly exhausted and worn out killed by the -matador, they are encountered by about a dozen stout and most active -men, accustomed to the fight. These grapple with the bull, and master -him by main force, and pin him down to the ground, and some of the most -powerful and skilful will, of a sudden, seize the bull by the horns, -and throwing their whole weight upon the animal, completely roll him -over, when he becomes perfectly helpless. This is a great feat, and is -most enthusiastically applauded. But notwithstanding their strength and -activity, the bull-fighters frequently get knocked about a good deal, -and receive heavy falls and bruises, but they never get tossed, and are -seldom severely hurt. The sight is by no means disgusting, cruel, or -barbarous, like those of Spain. Indeed, there is a good deal of fun in -it, and at times you cannot help laughing heartily, and generally go -away much pleased. After every fight, the men came forward, and were -handsomely rewarded by Dom Fernando and the audience. - -There still exist the remains of many fine convents and churches; of some -the building had never been finished. When monastic institutions were -abolished these buildings became the property of the State, and have -since been sold to the public and converted to different purposes; some -to manufactories, others to barracks, others to domestic residences. The -inmates have been dismissed, with moderate pensions, and thrown out upon -the world. The property brought little to the State; and as they were in -a great measure founded by the charity of private individuals, to which -the State had no right, it would have been better to have allowed them -to die a natural death. Religion has gained nothing, the State little or -nothing, while gross superstition has degenerated into scepticism and -infidelity. All violent changes have an opposite result to that desired. -The roots of old institutions once torn up, it is difficult to substitute -a new plant to succeed them. It would be better if such important changes -could be made gradually, but, unfortunately, the old generation, strong -in possession, and forgetful of the times in which they live, will listen -to no alteration, and cling firmly to the past, as if it must endure for -ever. The new generation, born under different circumstances, have no -respect for old institutions, and regardless of what is good in them, -will listen to no compromise, and are never satisfied until they have -rooted them out altogether. - -There can be no doubt that the institution of convents and monasteries -was of great service to the world in the middle ages--in preserving the -learning of past times, in teaching the ignorant, in distributing alms -amongst the poor, and in healing the sick. They curbed the ambition, -and controlled the violent passions of the barbarous feudal lords, who -considered that the world was made for them alone, and gratified their -lusts at the expense of the unfortunate people over whom they ruled. -No power but that of religion could have controlled them. They felt its -wondrous influence, and were told in stern, unmistakable language that -there was a hereafter, and that the great God who governed the world -would surely visit their sins with condign punishment, unless they -sincerely repented of their wickedness, and prayed for His forgiveness. -We must therefore be grateful for the services which religion, under -its peculiar forms and ceremonies, rendered in those days; and although -abuses by degrees crept in, yet these might have been remedied by much -milder measures. The monasteries and convents, however, served their -purpose; but now they are gone, and it is to be hoped that as the world -becomes wiser and more enlightened the great Creator will be worshipped -in a purer and simpler manner. - -Having heard so much of the filthiness of Lisbon, I was most agreeably -disappointed to find it so much the reverse. With the exception of the -old part of the town, to the westward of Blackhorse Square, and which -was filthy enough, few cities, certainly not London, were cleaner than -Lisbon at the time of my first visit in 1855. The streets were broad -and straight, well lighted and watered, and the buildings regular and -handsome. The police certainly was not the most effective, but still the -town was safe. - -I left Lisbon about four o’clock in the afternoon, in a fast steamer, -full of passengers, and after a fine passage of sixteen hours, with only -a moderate swell ahead--which, however, made most of the passengers -sick--we arrived off the bar of the Douro at six the following morning, -when a pilot came on board, and we crossed the bar and proceeded up to -the town quay, about two miles from the entrance of the river; I was -recommended to the Peninsular Hotel, situated in the higher part of -the town. This was entirely a Portuguese establishment and extremely -rough, where you boarded and lodged at so much per day. At the table -d’hôte I made acquaintance with a fine old Peninsular veteran, Colonel -Owen, formerly attached to the Duke of Wellington’s army, where he was -constantly employed on outpost duty, and he necessarily saw a great deal -of hard service. He was a fine-looking man, six feet high, and seventy -years of age, with a determined countenance, and full of fire and energy -even at that advanced age. He possessed a good deal of talent, had -studied much, spoke the Portuguese like a native, and was an excellent -writer both in that language and his own. I found him a very agreeable, -intelligent companion, and we soon became well acquainted with each -other, which was the more agreeable as he knew well and had frequently -served with Colonel Somers Cocks, a distant connection of mine, who was -a distinguished officer and favourite of the Duke of Wellington. Colonel -Cocks, much to the regret of the Duke, was killed at the siege of Burgos -Castle. Owen knew his whole history, and at my particular request wrote a -complete and very interesting memoir of him, which I privately printed. -Owen was almost my constant companion, and having long resided at Oporto, -knew all the principal merchants in the place, both English and native, -and was much liked and respected. He introduced me to several, but being -upon public business, namely, the improvement of the port, which all -desired, I had no need of introductions, for the principal inhabitants -called upon me and invited me to their houses; amongst others may be -mentioned Messrs. Lambert, Sandeman, Herries, and others, the principal -wine merchants of the place, who paid me the greatest attention and -hospitality. - -I lost no time after my arrival in proceeding to examine the port, and to -consider what was best to be done. I soon discovered its defects, which -were the exposed and dangerous nature of the bar at the entrance of the -Douro, the depth of water over it being scarcely 10 feet at low water -of spring tides, the tides rising only from 6 to 7 feet; the conformed -and circuitous channel both within and without the bar, in which there -were several rocks; and the prevalence during three-fourths of the year -of strong westerly winds from south-west to north-west. Moreover, during -heavy floods the outgoing current was so strong that it carried all -before it, frequently tearing vessels from their anchors, driving them to -sea, or wrecking them in the harbour. From these different causes the bar -could only be attempted during the flood or ebb for entering or departing -during the most moderate weather, and then only by vessels drawing 12 to -14 feet at spring tides. From all these combined causes the harbour of -Oporto might be said to be hermetically sealed for three-fourths of the -year, and frequent instances have occurred of vessels having made the -passage to the Brazils and back again, whilst others have been beating -about the offing waiting for a favourable opportunity to cross the bar; -and equal time was lost by those vessels that were waiting, laden in the -port, to go to sea. And the mails for Oporto, the second city in the -kingdom, frequently had to be delivered at Vigo, 60 miles farther north, -and to be transported thence by land, which occasioned the loss of one -or two days. In consequence of these serious disadvantages the trade -naturally suffered materially. - -In order to remedy these defects, I drew up a plan by which I proposed -to carry out two piers--one on the ridge of rocks on the south side, and -another on the north--in such a direction that the entrance between them, -which was to be 500 feet wide, should be least exposed to the prevailing -storms; and the space between the piers on the inside of the entrance -should be wider than the entrance itself, so that any swell which might -enter would diminish as it proceeded up the harbour. I also proposed to -remove the rocks both inside and outside, and to strengthen the channel. -By this means I expected that the bar would be lowered about 5 feet; so -that at high water of spring tides there would be about 20 feet, and a -vessel drawing 18 feet could enter at springs, and 16 feet at neaps. The -expense of these works was estimated at about 400,000_l._ This no doubt -would have been a very great improvement, and worth the money, although -at times even with this expenditure the bar would not be approachable -either way. - -Under these circumstances, I explored the adjacent coast in order to -ascertain whether another and better place for a harbour could not be -found, and at Mattozenhas, about three miles farther, I found that there -was a detached reef of rocks, 2000 feet long, lying about a quarter of -a mile distant from the shore, and between it and the shore there was a -depth of from 25 to 50 feet at low water. This reef had been observed -by others before me, and it had struck them that an excellent harbour -might be made. As this also lay within my instructions, I made a design -for a harbour; but upon maturely considering the subject, I thought -it would be scarcely safe to make a close harbour at this point, as, -from the great quantity of sand which lay along the coast, there was a -chance of its filling up. I therefore proposed to make it open: that is -to say, to construct a breakwater along the line of the rocks as far -as they reached, and as much farther each way as might be considered -advisable. In fact, this breakwater might be extended so as to make a -magnificent asylum harbour for the largest vessels of any class; and by -making an open landing pier within the breakwater, vessels could take in -and deliver their cargoes, and send them to Oporto by rail, when vessels -could not pass over the bar of the Douro. - -As there was plenty of fine granite on the spot, and labour could -be obtained comparatively cheap, I considered that for the sum of -500,000_l._ an excellent harbour might be made here with a double -entrance, and as there would be a free passage for the current both ways, -no sand would lodge within the breakwater. In fact, the current, being -confined, would force out the sand and make the harbour deeper, so that -at low water (spring tides) there would never be less than from 25 to 30 -feet in the shallowest part of the northern entrance, and above 50 feet -at the southern. This place appeared, and, in fact, was so much better -and more advantageous in every respect than Oporto, that, considering the -increased cost would not exceed 100,000_l._, I strongly recommended it in -preference to expending 400,000_l._ on the old entrance. Still, if the -Government thought it advisable to improve the entrance of the Douro, to -some extent this might be done advantageously by the expenditure of about -150,000_l._ Both the King and the Government approved of my plan for the -breakwater and landing pier at the Secars Rocks, near Mattozenhas, and -the Finance Minister--Fontes--gave me an order in writing to provide -the necessary apparatus, and to commence the work immediately. But soon -after, the Government being changed, the whole was stopped, and nothing -material has been done since, although, I believe, some attempts have -been made by the Portuguese Board of Works to blow up the rocks at the -entrance of the Douro, with very little effect; and as funds are very -scarce, it is probable that nothing of consequence will be effected for a -long time, which is the more to be regretted, as meanwhile the trade of -Oporto suffers most materially. - -Having completed my investigation of Oporto harbour, I prepared to -return direct to Lisbon, and report to the Government the results of -my examination, when I received a telegraphic message saying that the -Government wished me to examine the harbour of Viana, some thirty miles -farther north, also that of Aveiro, twenty miles farther south, and that -of Figuera, the mouth of the Mondego, about twenty miles south of Aveiro; -and that they would send a small vessel of war to take me to those -places. I therefore determined to await the arrival of the war-steamer, -which came two days afterwards. It was not above 200 tons, mounting three -or four small guns, and commanded by a lieutenant of the Portuguese navy, -having with him about thirty men. I embarked and proceeded at once to -Viana, which we reached about three o’clock in the afternoon. There being -a heavy swell, we could not enter the port, and a pilot boat with six -rowers was therefore sent out to take us ashore, where we were received -by the authorities. As our time was limited, I immediately proceeded to -examine the harbour, which was formed by the river Scina, the entrance to -which was at times very dangerous, from the same causes as those already -described as existing at the bar of the river Douro, namely, a shallow, -much-exposed bar, little tide, tortuous channel, and exposure to a heavy -swell during the prevailing westerly winds. I observed, however, that -there was a long reef of rocks running parallel to the channel nearly -as far as the bar, and that by erecting a breakwater upon the reef, -for which there was plenty of stone adjacent, the current, instead of -spreading over the rocks and losing its force, might be confined, and -thus act more effectively upon the bar and deepen it several feet; and, -further, by this means the entrance channel would be protected, and very -little swell could get in. Thus the principal defects of the entrance -would be remedied; and the small depth of water at the quays could be -increased by dredging. I consulted the pilots and the practical men of -the place, as I always do (for from experience they generally have a -knowledge of the subject), and it was satisfactory to know that their -opinions entirely coincided with mine. I accordingly made my notes, and -returned on board the vessel in the evening about eight o’clock. - -The days being long, and low water in the harbour, it gave me a very good -opportunity of examining it. - -I had occasion to visit Viana subsequently. It is a very pretty little -commercial town, surrounded by a rich, thriving country; it does a -good deal of trade, and is therefore very prosperous, there being some -wealthy merchants and a good deal of property in the place. The valley -through which the Scina flows is very beautiful and fertile, surrounded -by mountains varying from 2000 to 7000 feet high. The large village -of Scina, about twelve or fourteen miles above Viana, is particularly -picturesque. It is situated in a delicious country, abounding in corn, -wine, and oil, and apparently wanting in nothing. - -As soon as I got on board the vessel weighed anchor. The night was fine, -so that we reached the offing of Figuera, at the mouth of the Mondego, -about noon the next day. I was met on landing by the captain of the port, -who had received intelligence of our coming, and on account of the heat -we were obliged to take refuge in his house, where he exhibited all his -plans, and the measures which had been taken to improve the bar at the -entrance, which, upon the whole, as far as they went, were satisfactory. -After a couple of hours’ rest we took a boat and sounded the bar, upon -which the water was very shallow. There was a very extensive reservoir -for tidal and fresh water within, which, under proper management I -considered might be rendered very valuable in deepening and scouring -out the entrance, and in lowering the bar; but at low water there was -a narrow channel, which was constantly changing, so that there was -no good entrance, and consequently neither the fresh nor tidal waters -could be either admitted or properly discharged; thus the quantity of -water was reduced, and the effect upon the bar considerably diminished. -I therefore saw at once that it was necessary to confine the low water -channel to some extent by slight works, composed of osiers and faggots, -extending from two to three feet above the low water level, so that it -should be confined always to the same course; thus the low water line -would be lowered, more tidal water would be admitted and discharged, the -surrounding lowlands, which were frequently flooded, would be better -drained, and the bar improved. I observed also that the channel at the -entrance was too wide, and that consequently it was much exposed to the -swell during westerly gales. I therefore proposed to reduce the width of -the entrance to a certain extent; by this means a greater quantity of -water would be admitted and discharged, the bar would be reduced, the -drainage improved, and a less quantity of swell would be admitted; when I -explained my views to the captain of the port, who was a very intelligent -person, he quite agreed with me. - -Having finished my examination here, we embarked at sunset and proceeded -to Lisbon, which we reached on the following morning, when I took my -leave of the commander of the vessel and his officers, who had treated me -most kindly, for which I felt very grateful; I wanted to make a present -of some champagne, but this was most politely declined. I therefore -renewed my thanks, and went on then to the Braganza hotel. I next day -called upon the Finance Minister, Fontes, and Vicomte de Luz, the chief -officer of the Board of Works, reported generally what I had done, -and said that I would proceed to England at once, and send my plans, -estimates, and reports as early as possible. I accordingly left two days -afterwards, and reached England in the middle of June, after an absence -of between six and seven weeks. - -When I was in Portugal I had a good deal of conversation with M. Fontes -about their railways. He said that they had already given a concession -for them to an English company, Messrs. Shaw, Waring, and Co., of whom -the Government was now desirous if possible of getting quit. M. Fontes -also talked to me about their financial affairs, and said that they had -had a good deal of trouble with our Stock Exchange. I did not know the -precise cause of this at the time, but it was afterwards explained to me -that the English Stock Exchange would not allow their funds to be quoted -in the English money market in consequence of the Portuguese Government -having reduced the interest of the last Portuguese loan without the -consent of the subscribers, so that unless this was remedied, it would -not be possible to raise another loan in England. I saw the full force of -this, and told the minister frankly my opinion, which he appeared to take -very well, for he then said that he wished me to lay out a line between -Coimbra and Oporto, and gave me instructions accordingly. - -In the month of August, Dom Pedro, the heir apparent to the throne, and -his brother, Dom Louis, paid a visit to our Queen at Osborne House, -Isle of Wight, and Count Lavradio, the Portuguese minister in London, -recommended me to go there to pay my respects to his future majesty. I -therefore went, and was honoured with an audience on board Her Majesty’s -yacht, which was lying off Osborne, and in which Dom Pedro and his -brother were living at the time, as the Queen did not wish them to be on -shore, on account of the prevalence of the smallpox in the vicinity. Dom -Pedro and his brother received me very courteously, and we had a great -deal of conversation about Portuguese affairs, particularly concerning -the various engineering works that he wished to see carried into effect, -such as railways, harbours, docks, &c., and he said that until these were -done Portugal could not be on a par with other nations. He also very -kindly invited me over to Portugal again. I took my leave and returned -to Southampton, where I dined with Count Lavradio at Radley’s hotel, and -then returned to London. It should be added that Dom Pedro attained his -majority on the 15th of September, when he was crowned. - -As soon as I got my harbour plans and reports ready, I determined to -go over and present them in person after the coronation. As I had been -commissioned by the Government to make the surveys and estimates for -the proposed railway between Coimbra and Oporto, and consult two other -English contractors about making railways in Portugal, I went to Messrs. -Peto and Betts, who said that they would be happy to undertake them, -provided that they could make proper arrangements with the Government, -and that they did not interfere with any other contractors or companies -who were then employed; and that in order to ascertain the Government -views, they would send over their agent, Mr. Giles, with me. As I had -previously agreed with Mr. Cheffins to make the survey of the line -between Coimbra and Oporto, he preceded me with his staff, while Mr. -Giles went to Lisbon with me in the Royal Mail Company’s vessel the -‘Trent,’ leaving Southampton on the 9th September, 1855. - -After a fine passage we reached Lisbon on the morning of the 14th of -September. I immediately presented myself to M. Fontes, the Finance -Minister, and the Duke de Saldanha, President of the Cabinet, and -delivered my plans, which were well received, and tickets were sent to us -to visit the various ceremonies of the coronation. - -It happened just before our arrival that the Government and the English -contractors of the Great Eastern Railway from Lisbon to Santarem, who -had been quarrelling for some time past, came to an open rupture, and -the Government took possession of the whole of the works and all the -materials, machinery, and plant, with an armed force, turned the Company -adrift, and would have nothing further to do with them. The contractors -complained to the British representative, Mr. Ward, Chargé d’Affaires, -who was very indignant at this summary mode of treating his countrymen; -and M. Fontes was equally indignant at the way in which the Company had -behaved; but more of this hereafter. In the meantime the coronation took -place, and a very pretty sight it was. We had the usual demonstrations -of fêtes, reviews, illuminations, salvos of artillery, &c. To heighten -the spectacle a British fleet of five line-of-battle ships was sent over -to do honour to the occasion. These fêtes lasted for three days, and -no business was done; but in the mean time I had the honour of being -presented to the king at the great palace of the Ajude; and when M. -Fontes returned to his office again, I called upon him and presented Mr. -Giles, Messrs. Peto and Betts’s agent. Afterwards, when Mr. Giles had -left, M. Fontes commenced talking to me about their dispute with Shaw, -Waring, and Co. He spoke very temperately on the subject, and said that -justice should be done to them. I said that I did not wish for a moment -to defend them; in fact, I did not know the merits of the case on either -one side or the other. At the same time, I said that it would be far -better to arrange with them amicably; and if they could not agree, they -should settle accounts and dissolve the agreement; as until this matter -was satisfactorily concluded, it would be impossible to get any fresh -English contractors of respectability to finish the works, or form a -new English company, or indeed to raise any money in England, which the -Government at that time wanted to do. Moreover, it was desirable above -all things to arrange matters with the English Stock Exchange, and until -the affair of Shaw, Waring, and Co. had been settled this could not be -done. These arguments appeared to have much weight with the minister, who -replied, that he would think them over; that he was desirous of coming -to an amicable settlement; that he had very little doubt but it would be -ultimately arranged properly; and that when Mr. Griles and I returned -from our examination of the country, he would be glad to see us again. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Surveys in Portugal and Tunis. - - -After visiting, with a great deal of pleasure, Batalha, by far the finest -ecclesiastical edifice in Portugal, we reached Coimbra, than which, with -its environs, it is difficult to conceive a more beautiful prospect. The -town, with its numerous churches and academical buildings rising from -the opposite shore of the Mondego, and situated in a rich fertile plain, -backed by the lofty and picturesque hills of Busaco, clothed with wood -to their summits, with a fine old bridge in the foreground, while the -Mondego is seen winding through the valley until it is lost in the sea, -which forms the distant horizon, altogether made a picture which, for -loveliness, was unsurpassed by anything I have seen in Portugal. We found -here, a rare thing at that time in Portugal, a clean, comfortable little -hotel, near the Rocio, where Mr. Cheffins and his assistant had arrived -before us. We accordingly made preparations to start next morning at six -o’clock, on horseback, to explore a line along the coast to Oporto. - -We started punctually at six, and crossed the valley of the Mondego, -which is here about three miles wide, and is quite flat. It has a rich -and fertile alluvial soil, but is frequently inundated by the floods of -the Mondego, so that the roads, such as they were, viz. extremely bad, -were formed by rough causeways raised 3 or 4 feet above the level of -the adjacent land. In fact, at the time of my visit there were no roads -worthy of the name in Portugal, except the road above mentioned, from -Cairegado to Coimbra; and upon this, what was still more extraordinary, -a regular four-horse mail-coach, like those of England, had been just -established for the first time to run from Lisbon to Coimbra, at the rate -of about seven miles an hour. Another similar road had been commenced -from Oporto to Braga, and had been carried only a few miles. In fact, -unless you had seen and visited Portugal you could hardly have conceived -such a state of things possible. All the other roads were nothing but -mere horse-tracks, in the most wretched state imaginable, full of holes -and great stones, so that you could seldom go faster than a walking pace -without danger of breaking your neck at every step, except in those -parts where the track lay through forests and open plains. Over these -the rude bullock carts jolted up and down at about the rate of half a -mile an hour, and the creaking of the axles might be heard two or three -miles off. As for inns, for the most part there were none, and the -wearied traveller had to carry everything with him, and take refuge in -some miserable cottage full of filth, which he was obliged to clear away -before he could establish himself with anything approaching to comfort. -I had heard of this before leaving England, and I took care to provide -myself with a light travelling-bed, and a canteen with the necessary -provisions. - -Leaving Coimbra, we reached Aveiro the next evening, after a most -fatiguing journey of fifteen hours in the saddle; during a great portion -of our ride we were exposed to a terrific storm of rain, and lost our -way, and narrowly escaped passing the night in a pine forest. Not -far from Aveiro, Messrs. Pinto, Basto, & Co. had established a large -manufactory for porcelain and common crockery ware, which was in a very -thriving state, and the imitations of the English porcelain were very -creditable, as well as the artistic decorations; as they were well -protected by high import duties on foreign porcelain, they enjoyed a -monopoly for a time, and made considerable profits. These duties have -latterly been greatly modified, and it has not been found worth while -to continue this establishment. It has, however, I understand, answered -very well for the proprietors, who have, by this and other enterprises, -realized considerable fortunes. In fact, it was quite evident that such -an establishment, which had to import all the materials and the fuel -from England, could not compete with the superior talent and industry -of England without extraordinary protective duties, which are nothing -more or less than a heavy tax upon the country. Portugal is not a -manufacturing country. She has a most genial climate and generally a -rich soil, and can produce a variety of raw commodities which England -and the north of Europe cannot. Portugal therefore, by exporting these -articles, such as wine, oil, fruits, cork, salt, cattle, &c., can always -realize a good profit, which will enable her to import all other articles -required at a far less cost than they can be produced at home, besides -contributing materially to the State revenue. Messrs. Pinto and Basto -were not at the establishment when we visited it, but their manager had -received notice from them that we were coming, with orders to show us -everything, and to give us a handsome entertainment, which he did to the -very letter, and we returned to Aveiro much delighted with our reception. -Indeed, the manager regretted greatly that we had not stayed there the -previous night, and if we had known it, we certainly should have done so. -For although, considering all things, we were not badly off at Aveiro, -still we should have been much better off at Messrs. Pinto and Basto’s -establishment, and should have been saved the severe fatigue of the last -ten miles of our journey. - -The next day we started for Oporto, and passed the thriving little town -of Ovar, situated at the north end of the Aveiro lagoon, but having a -separate entrance from the sea, formed by a small stream passing through -the town. Our railway passed along the base of the hills, which was very -favourable. From Ovar we continued near the shore through a forest of -pines for several miles; these pines would furnish excellent sleepers for -the railway at a very moderate cost. From the forest we continued along -the shore through most favourable ground, until we reached the entrance -of the Douro: the distance from Ovar being about twenty miles. From the -entrance of the Douro there was a favourable line for the railway for two -miles along the banks to Oporto, where it would have been necessary to -cross the river by a rather expensive bridge to reach the chief part of -the city. This, however, must have been done in any case, and as all the -great wine depôts or lodges, as they are called, are on the south side, -and as the wine trade of Oporto is the most important, this would have -been a great advantage; moreover, there is on the south side, near the -entrance, a much better position for docks. - -Between Ovar and the Douro stands a rock surrounded by extensive sands. -On this rock is a chapel, reputed to be of peculiar sanctity, which is -annually visited by immense numbers of pilgrims. It is very curious to -see the extent to which these devotions are carried, and the occasionally -strange results. In going one day, on foot, from Mattozenhas to Oporto -during one of these festivals, I was surprised to meet a man walking, or -rather shuffling, along in an extraordinary manner, in what appeared to -me to be a sack. I immediately stopped to look at him, and gazed on him -with astonishment. Several persons, apparently friends, accompanied him, -and I inquired what it meant; I was informed that the person whom I saw -enveloped in a sack had, during a severe illness, prayed to the Saint -of the church of Mattozenhas to deliver him from his illness, promising -that if he recovered he would annually on the Saint’s fête-day walk to -the church in his grave-clothes, to return his thanks for his delivery -from death. The poor fellow seemed to be much fatigued, and no wonder, as -travelling for two miles in such hot weather over a dusty road in such an -uncomfortable costume must have been very severe work. - -Next day we were off before daylight, and reached our old quarters at -Aveiro the same night. I soon saw that it would be difficult to get -a good line for the railway over this district; it was too hilly and -expensive, and would have required long tunnels through granite rocks -and heavy embankments. I therefore gave up this line, that is as far as -Ovar. After leaving Aveiro we took a new route nearer to the hills, and -with the exception of a part of the river Vouga, it was preferable to the -coast line formerly mentioned. The summit near the Busaco hills was a -little higher, but there the line was shorter, and on the hill there was -plenty of fine limestone fit for bridges and any other works. This line -evidently therefore was the best; I ordered it to be minutely surveyed -and levelled, and the result proved that my anticipations were correct. - -We reached our old quarters at Coimbra, and having examined the city -again were much more pleased with it than before. The University is -a very handsome building upon an extensive scale, with an excellent -library, museum, extensive lecture rooms, and a competent establishment -of professors and lecturers. The costume of the professors and students, -although totally different from that of our own, was very appropriate; -and the method of teaching and conferring degrees was extremely good, -although a little too much savouring of sacerdotalism, but still greatly -improved in this respect to what it was only a few years before. The -city moreover was comparatively clean, and there appeared to be a degree -of outer tranquillity and prosperity about it which pleased me much. I -have seen many foreign universities, but none delighted me more than -Coimbra. After leaving Coimbra we passed through Thomar and reached the -valley of the Tagus; this we descended until we arrived at Santarem, -which is but an inconsiderable place; it is situated on the highest point -of the ridge, and bounded by precipitous rocks which abut on the Tagus, -there being a small valley on the north, also on the east and west. Being -thus isolated, it occupies an admirable position as a fortress, and -might easily be made impregnable; commanding, as it does, the country -all around, if it were properly defended, the approach of an enemy would -be extremely difficult; and if fortified according to modern ideas, with -a sufficient garrison and provisions, it might hold its own against all -comers for almost any length of time; in fact, it may be considered as -one of the keys of the kingdom. When I saw it, its works were in a very -unfinished and dilapidated state. From Santarem we proceeded down the -river to a small place termed the White House, where we embarked on board -the steamer for Lisbon. The hills on either side of the Tagus alternately -advance and recede; but the whole scenery is very rich, the soil being -highly cultivated to the very tops of the hills, and in places abounding -with cattle. In the flat country, however, bordering on the river, -malaria and intermittent fever are very common, and indeed the whole -course of the Tagus requires regulating. - -We reached the Braganza at Lisbon in the evening, after a rough but -satisfactory journey. Mr. Giles was now anxious to go to England, and -a few days after our arrival he sent in a general proposal to the -Government, on the part of Peto and Betts, for making railways, and -then started in the packet for England, leaving his assistant, Mr. -O’Neil, with me, to make any further necessary explanations. The season -was getting late, and we had no time to lose, for it was now nearly the -middle of October. I saw M. Fontes several times, and he always received -me very civilly, and said that he was determined to meet Messrs. Shaw, -Waring, and Co., fairly. - -Mr. O’Neil and myself then started to survey the country for lines -suitable for railways in the east and south. After being detained for -a time by heavy rains at the White House, we reached Salvatierra, a -wretched place on the left bank of the Tagus, about seven o’clock in the -evening, fully two hours after dark; it was a nasty pestilential hole, -close by the marshes; however, bad as it was, we were very glad to get -there. There was no inn in the place, but after a little inquiry we found -a shopkeeper who was willing, for a consideration, to accommodate us. We -accordingly agreed with him, and took possession; we found the rooms full -of corn, beans, &c., which we soon cleared out, swept the floors, walls, -and ceiling as well as we could, and unpacked our things. I sent out my -man for some provisions, we got a good wood fire lighted, and after about -an hour and a half had a tolerable supper, turned into bed, and slept -soundly until the morning. In fact, I never grumbled; I took the people -as I found them; they were generally very civil, and did everything in -their power to make us as comfortable as possible. I always carried -plenty of cigarettes and cigars, and distributed them liberally, not only -to the men attending the horses, but also to the people in the house and -to any casual visitors that might come in; as I had by this time acquired -some knowledge of the Portuguese language, I made myself as agreeable -as possible, and in consequence every one did the best they could to -help me. The Portuguese are a very civil, quiet people, and if you only -treat them properly, as I always did, they will do everything they can -to accommodate you. I of course also took good care of the horses and -men, and they were so much pleased that they never grumbled, and would -do anything I required. Throughout the whole of my journeys I never -had a single squabble; we all went on merrily together, and whenever I -could get a good laugh I always did, and this was not seldom. We left -Salvatierra at daylight, and proceeded over a gently undulating country, -and in three days reached the old fortress of Estremoz. The people of the -district through which we were now travelling were extremely primitive, -and in one large village, where we halted, as usual, at midday, the whole -population, it being Sunday, turned out to have a look at us. - -The country here is elevated and very well cultivated. The olive-trees -are planted in regular rows, and carefully attended to, a thing I had -not before observed in Portugal, as they are generally in forests, and -left entirely to nature. The vines also were more looked after, and -some excellent wine is made here. Upon the whole this was certainly a -thriving district. We took a ride to the ridge of mountains about ten -miles to the south, which, extending east and west, separates this -district from the southern part of the Alentejo. They are covered with -verdure to the top, afford excellent pasture for sheep and cattle, and -form a very picturesque prospect. Estremoz is in a commanding position, -but its fortifications were in a dilapidated state. After having spent a -day here, we proceeded over an elevated, fertile, cultivated country, to -Elvas, on the frontier. The Government had been employed for some time -past in making a good road here, and a considerable portion had been -finished, so that we made tolerable progress, and reached Elvas soon -after midday, and found a very clean, comfortable little hotel. - -Elvas is a very strong fortress, situated upon the summit of the ridge of -hills forming the western boundary of the valley of the Guadiana, which -winds through the extensive valley below, about seven miles distant, and -the boundary or frontier line between Spain and Portugal is about half -way between Elvas and the Guadiana. - -The fortifications are very extensive, and upon the whole well laid -out and tolerably well kept up. There are several large outworks, -particularly that on a hill about a mile to the north, which may be said -to be the citadel. It commands the town, being situated upon the highest -part of the ridge. The view from this is very extensive, overlooking -the dreary and bare valley of the Guadiana, with Badajoz, the Spanish -frontier fortress, about nine miles distant; and farther on the bare -bleak hills of Estramadura bound the horizon. On the west you have a fine -view of this part of Portugal, whilst north and south you command the -view of this elevated ridge, which bounds the Guadiana as far as the eye -can reach. - -Having explored this part of the country, and having satisfied ourselves -that it would be difficult to get a good line here, we turned our -attention to the southward, and again leaving Estremoz, reached the poor -but considerable village of Oçana, not many miles from the frontier. I -therefore determined to stop there for the night, and to my surprise -found that there were two or three small inns. I selected the best, and -bad was the best. I was informed that Oçana was the resort of the worst -characters of all sorts, both Portuguese and Spaniards, who made this -their head quarters, from whence they could easily cross the frontier -of either country, according as either Spain or Portugal became too hot -for them. I was told that we ought to be upon our guard, for it was not -improbable that we might be attacked in the night, or waylaid on our -route the next day, for the country through which we should have to pass -was very wild and lonely. Therefore, as is always the case, I thought the -best plan would be to put a good face upon it, and to show that we had -no fear, put confidence in the people around us, and make them friends. -I therefore invited as many as I could get, men and women, to a sort of -ball, inquired for some musicians, and found half-a-dozen with guitars, -castanettes, and tambourines, and as the inn where we were would not hold -all the guests, I engaged the other two inns also. The whole population -crowded to the balls at these inns, and I visited them alternately, -danced with the women, and made myself as agreeable as I could. Wine -and refreshments were not wanting, everything passed off in the best -manner, and nothing but mirth and good humour prevailed. Soon after -midnight I had had enough of it, and the guests below, excited by wine, -became very noisy. I told my servants, guide, and horse-keepers to have -everything ready by four o’clock on the following morning, the horses -saddled and the baggage packed, outside the town, and having previously -paid the reckoning, we quietly departed, without beat of drum, leaving -our delighted guests in the midst of their revelry, and in no disposition -to follow us. By daylight we had travelled five or six miles without -encountering any person on the way--for road there was none. We laughed -heartily at our adventure, and I was afterwards congratulated at having -succeeded so well, for we had had a narrow escape of being robbed, and -probably something worse. We passed through a wild but not unpicturesque -country, and reached Abrantes, on the Tagus, without further adventure, -on the afternoon of the second day. This is one of the most considerable -fortresses in the kingdom, situated in a commanding position of great -strength; but the works were very much neglected, and there was scarcely -any garrison. The town itself is a poor place. - -As regards the country through which we had passed being adapted for a -railway, there was no doubt that a good line could be made through it, -although at considerable expense; the difficulty was how to cross the -main ridge which separated the valley of the Guadiana from that of the -Tagus. It certainly was most desirable to connect Abrantes with Elvas, -but the descent from it to the Guadiana valley was too rapid; still, -this was only a matter of expense. I thought that some more practicable -gap through the ridge might be found farther southward, but this I was -obliged to leave for future investigation. - -I now determined to proceed northwards, in order to ascertain whether -a line for a railway could be obtained preferable to that which we had -previously examined when returning from Coimbra. - -Having slept at our old quarters at Thomar, we proceeded to the banks -of the Zezere, which we found to be extremely lofty and falling rapidly -to the river. We proceeded for some miles along them, but the higher we -went up the river, the higher we found the hills; in fact, there was no -valley except that occupied by the river, so that we had to give up all -hopes of a line in that direction. However, in the course of a few days’ -explorations we were fortunate enough to find an easily practicable line -for the northern railway, in the direction of Oporto. - -In one of these expeditions we met a Portuguese gentleman dressed in the -native costume, and attended by his servant. He courteously saluted us in -good English, and then asked where we were going, and what we were doing, -which, of course, we told; he then asked, “Where do you sleep to-night?” -and when we told him, he said, “Nonsense; you cannot and you shall not -sleep there: it is not fit for a dog” (in which he was not far wrong). “I -live close by. Yon must come and sleep at my house, and leave as early -as you like to-morrow morning.” We gladly accepted his invitation. We -returned to the cottage, dressed ourselves in rather better costume, -while our new friend rode forward to receive us. His house was something -like a good farm, surrounded by a courtyard and farm-buildings, situated -in the midst of a kind of rough park. The night was very dark, and we -had some difficulty in making our way through the woods, and if it had -not been for the barking of the dogs, we should scarcely have found it. -However, we got there, and were most cordially received, shown into a -comfortable room with a blazing wood fire, and in about half an hour -after sat down to an excellent supper, with plenty of good wine. - -Our host was a most excellent and well-informed man of about sixty, -of the middle size, rather stout and well-made, with a fine open -countenance. His name was Don S. de Silva. He had served in the -Portuguese army under the Duke of Wellington, and had been engaged in -several battles with the French, of which he was very proud. He took the -greatest interest in the railways, offered every assistance in his power, -and insisted upon our making his house our home whenever we came that -way. He said that after the war he had retired to his estate, and devoted -the whole of his time to farming, and that he passed a very active, -pleasant time. I think he said that his wife and family were at Lisbon, -where they frequently went, as they had many friends and connections -there. We were shown into a comfortable and clean double-bedded room, -and the only thing we required to make us thoroughly comfortable was -more blankets, for the night was excessively cold. However, I slept -soundly, and awoke next morning thoroughly refreshed. We had an excellent -breakfast, and took leave of our worthy host with many thanks for his -most hospitable entertainment. - -We reached Thomar about midday, having travelled over a rather better -road than usual. Here we halted at the Old Inn for a couple of hours, -and then made the best of our way over the old road to Basquenha, before -mentioned, where we slept. The next day we hurried on by Santarem, -caught the tugboat and the steamer at the White House, and reached the -Braganza, Lisbon, the same evening, having been absent about eighteen -days; fortunately, with the exception of the first day, we had tolerably -fine weather, without which we should have had a good deal of difficulty -in making such a rough journey. - -I forgot to mention that while Mr. Giles and myself went to Coimbra -and Oporto, we sent Mr. O’Neil to explore the line of the Tagus beyond -Abrantes as far as the frontier, in order to ascertain whether there -was any practicable line for a railway in that direction. Mr. O’Neil, -however, gave a very unfavourable account of it, for a few miles beyond -Abrantes the Tagus passes through a deep chasm, hemmed in on both sides -with steep, precipitous granite rocks, swarming with eagles, and wild -and desolate to a degree. There were scarcely any inhabitants save a few -shepherds, clad in goat-skins, who lived in small cottages stuck in the -clefts of the rocks, or built upon some small patches of ground close by -the margin of the river, with a few vegetables and fruits growing round -them. They were thoroughly surprised at seeing Mr. O’Neil; they said they -were never visited by strangers, and could not conceive why he had come -there. Nevertheless, they were civil, and gave him freely the best they -had, which was very little indeed, and would scarcely take anything in -return; when pressed, they said they would keep the money for his sake, -or would buy something in remembrance of him. - -The eagles appeared quite at home there, and were seldom molested, except -when they had carried off some favourite pet-lamb or kid, or had paid a -visit to the poultry. Mr. O’Neil’s report was so unfavourable that we -did not think it advisable to pursue our investigations farther in that -direction. - -We had now pretty well explored the country between the Tagus and the -Douro for the north, and the Tagus and the Guadiana for the east line to -connect Portugal with Spain, and it only required that these should be -investigated to ascertain which was best. Upon my arrival at Lisbon, I -called upon M. Fontes, and reported what I had done. We had also a good -deal of conversation about their finances; arranging affairs with Shaw, -Waring, and Co.; getting good contractors for making further lines; -raising a loan in England, &c. I said with all deference that the whole -of these things might be satisfactorily settled; but that the first and -most important of all was to arrange matters with the Stock Exchange in -England, for until this was done a loan could not be obtained (and the -Government was much in want of money) without paying very high interest, -which would soon consume the revenues of the country. For example, their -stock of 50 was only nominally quoted at 18 to 20, for which they paid -3_l._ interest, or 15 per cent.; whereas, if they settled with the Stock -Exchange, their funds would at once rise to 40 or upwards, and thus they -might borrow at 7 per cent. I further ventured to hint that by free -trade--that is, lowering their import duties--the revenue would be much -benefited, and that their exports would be increased in the same ratio. -M. Fontes listened with much attention, but said nothing. - -Having finished my business, I prepared to return to England, and -was told by M. Fontes that I should have an audience of the King. I -accordingly presented myself, and had an audience of his Majesty Dom -Pedro, who was an exceedingly well-informed, sensible young man, of about -twenty-one, and whose sole object and desire was the advancement and -improvement of his country, to which he devoted himself day and night. -He was exceedingly amiable and modest, and much beloved and respected, -not only by his own subjects, but by every person who had the honour of -being presented to him. His Majesty received me in the most condescending -manner, entered into the subject of railways, the great advantage they -would be to Portugal, the making of common roads to join them, the -benefit of free trade, and the necessity of improving agriculture and -extending the cultivation of vines, olives, corn, fruits, and all native -produce, as well as the improvement of the harbours, and everything else -which would advance the prosperity of the country. He had studied all -these subjects thoroughly, and was perfectly at home in them; and with -regard to the finances, he quite agreed with me. I took my leave of his -Majesty, and he shook me by the hand, and bade me farewell, trusting that -he should soon see me again. - -I then called upon the Duke de Saldanha, the President of the Cabinet and -Commander-in-Chief of the Army, a very estimable man, who spoke English -very well; he had served under the Duke of Wellington during the great -Peninsular war. He spoke English perfectly, and was very popular amongst -his countrymen, and always happy to see the English. When I told him that -I was about to leave the next day for England, he said that he was very -glad to hear it. He further remarked that a Cabinet Council had been held -the day before, and that I should hear more of it before the day was over. - -I returned to the Braganza, packed up my things, and was ready to leave -by the packet the next day. At nine o’clock the same evening I received -a message from M. Fontes to come to him at his office. I went there -immediately, and he said he had been ordered to proceed to England with -me, to endeavour to settle the matter in dispute between his Government -and the English Stock Exchange, and the quarrel with the railway -contractors. - -We started together next morning, and on arriving in London I had the -pleasure of being partly instrumental in bringing about an arrangement -between the principal holders of Portuguese stock in England and the -Portuguese Government, to their mutual satisfaction and advantage; also -an arrangement between the Portuguese and Messrs. Shaw, Waring, and Co., -which, as we shall see, was not subsequently ratified. M. Fontes returned -to Portugal with considerable _éclat_, having re-established the credit -of Portugal with their English stockholders, and settled the railway -difficulty, and it was thought that he and his ministry had a long and -prosperous career before them. Unfortunately, however, this turned out -quite the contrary; whether it was envy at his success, or some other -political cause, I do not know, but in the spring of the following year, -1856, Fontes and his ministry were obliged to resign, and the Marquis de -Loulé, a connection of the royal family, succeeded him. The Marquis de -Loulé was a remarkably fine, handsome man, a thorough gentleman, with -considerable talents, of imperturbable temper and great good humour; I -know no man with whom he might better be compared than the late Lord -Palmerston. Loulé, like Fontes, was equally desirous of completing the -railway system of Portugal. - -I continued the surveys for a line between Coimbra and Oporto, and when -they were completed I received a tender from Messrs. Peto and Betts, -saying they would execute the line for 10,000_l._ per mile, without the -land. - -As his Royal Highness the Prince Consort took considerable interest -in the improvement of Portugal, and as I had heard indirectly that -information respecting the progress of the railways would be gratifying -to him, I communicated with his Royal Highness’s secretary, and received -a command to go to Windsor. I went, and was received in the most affable -manner. The Prince was thoroughly acquainted with everything going on in -Portugal, and took great interest in the construction of railways in that -country. He thanked me for the information I had communicated, and wished -me every success. - -Towards the end of August all the plans, estimates, and specifications -of the line between Coimbra and Oporto were completed, and in the month -of September I went over and presented them in person. I was very kindly -received by his Majesty and by his ministers. When I arrived, I found -that M. de Soveral, the very clever Chief Secretary of the Portuguese -Embassy in London, was home on leave. He also took the warmest interest -in the establishment of railways. The dispute with Messrs. Shaw, Waring, -and Co. had not yet been settled, and consequently no new arrangement -could be made. I had frequent meetings with the Marquis de Loulé and M. -de Soveral on the subject, and fully explained to them that it would be -impossible to get any English contractors of influence to form a new and -powerful company of English capitalists to make railways in Portugal, -unless this matter could be honourably adjusted; and I added that I -thought the terms agreed upon with M. Fontes were, upon the whole, the -best that could be adopted. - -The Marquis listened with much attention to all my arguments, and finally -gave me instructions to see Messrs. Peto and Betts and their friends, -upon my return to England, in order to ascertain upon what terms they -would be willing to form a new company to complete the Northern Railway -to Oporto; and I was to inform him of the result, but not to commit -the Government in any way. He requested me, before I left Portugal, to -examine the port of Setubal, or, as the English call it, St. Ubes, a -little to the south of Lisbon. - -I accordingly proceeded to reconnoitre the port, and found that it was -formed by a river which ran a considerable distance into the interior. -St. Ubes was situated on the right bank of it, about four miles from -the bar, but the river here was so wide and shallow that it was only an -estuary. The opposite side being covered at high water, the returning ebb -and flood waters were expanded over such a wide space that the current -had not sufficient force to maintain a good channel, nor did it act upon -the bar powerfully enough to maintain a good passage over it. Moreover, -the estuary was exposed to the full effect of the south-westerly gales, -which, sweeping across the Atlantic with great violence, send a very -heavy swell across the bar, rendering it extremely dangerous to approach, -and driving a great quantity of sand into the mouth of the river; this -would materially reduce the depth, and render the navigation both -dangerous and difficult; and there was too little fresh water coming -down to be of much service in assisting the operation of the tide. I -soon saw what was necessary to be done to remedy to a great extent, if -not entirely to remove, these evils; this was confine the channel on -the opposite or sea side by a low line of wicker or fascine work, in -the first instance to the level of a little above half tide, and then -to raise it as required; the sand would soon accumulate behind it, and -thus the tidal and fresh waters, being always confined to the same -channel, would greatly improve it, and considerably lower the bar. I also -thought the channel for some distance above the town should be deepened, -embanked, and improved by dredging, and that below the town to the bar -the channel should be dredged also to assist the operation of the -current. I embodied these observations in a plan and report on my return -to Lisbon, and delivered them to the Marquis, with which he was much -satisfied. - -I now prepared to return to England, in company with my friend de -Soveral; but as the latter was desirous of breaking his voyage at Oporto, -for the purpose of ascending the Douro and visiting his estates, I agreed -to accompany him. We reached Pescoa de Ragosa, a very important place -in this district, being the centre of the port wine trade. Here is held -the market where all the port wine growers assemble at the end of the -vintage, and here come all the wine merchants from Oporto, and make their -purchases for the season. The veritable port wine district is a very -remarkable country. It is situated on the banks of the Douro, which are -here composed of lofty, undulating hills, clothed with rich soil, rising -rapidly from the river, about forty miles above Oporto, where the granite -formation, on which no vines will grow, ceases. The district consists of -the transition rocks above the granite; it extends about forty miles, -as far as the cataracts of St. Joao de Pesqueira and is about five or -six miles wide, including both sides of the valley of the Douro; one -side is exposed to the morning and the other to the evening sun, and the -reflected rays make the valley like an oven during the summer months, so -that no place could be more advantageously situated for the development -of the vine. No trees are allowed to grow upon the hillsides. The vines -are like so many gooseberry or currant bushes, and they are cut down -almost to the roots so that the nutriment applied to the plant may be -developed in producing the fruit to the greatest possible extent. The -vines are planted in rows, and the intervening space is carefully weeded, -so that the whole power of the sun is concentrated upon the vines; and -it is wonderful to see the quantity of fruit borne compared to the -extent of branches and leaves. When the vintage has been made, there are -a certain number of tasters who are appointed by the Government. These -men, who neither smoke, snuff, or drink, then examine the wine, which -they do by a saucer, much indented in the bottom, of pure silver, which -enables them to judge of the colour; then they smell it, and taste it -by the touch of the tongue without drinking any. By these three tests -they pronounce the quality of the vintage, and this, combined with the -quantity, determines the price. It is said that the wine is prepared -according to a certain standard for the English market; that is, the wine -is made to resemble as near as possible a vintage that has pleased the -English, who are the great consumers of port wine; this is done either by -mixing some old approved wine with the new, or adding brandy. There has -been a great deal of argument and doubt about adulteration. I will not -take upon myself to decide, but I will say this, that a good vintage of -port wine requires no doctoring. - -At Ragosa, after the vintage, all the great wine merchants of Oporto -assemble, and there make their purchases for the ensuing season. All -transactions are made in cash, for the wine growers are very important -and wealthy personages. The merchants are equally so, and take their -cash with them. I heard an anecdote when there, which says much for the -honesty of the Portuguese. M. Sandeman, one of the wealthiest and most -important wine merchants of Oporto, went up to the wine district after -the vintage one season, with his sons and friends--for it is generally -made a party of pleasure--to purchase wine for the ensuing season, and -they took 15,000_l._ in gold to make their purchases, the gold being -carried in sacks on mules, the whole party riding, as usual, for there -were no roads for carriages. The first night, having arrived at their -usual halting-place, just as they were sitting down to their supper, -old Sandeman said to his son, “George, I hope that you have taken good -care of the mules and the money?” “Yes, father,” said George; “it is -all right.” “Well, George,” said old Sandeman, “you had better go and -see.” George immediately went out to the stables, and after some minutes -came back in great consternation, and said, “Father, I can’t find the -mules with the money.” At this old Sandeman got in a great rage, and -said, “George, you shall have no supper until you find them.” The whole -party got up at the same time, and took lanterns and torches to look -after the lost money and mules. Away they went back several miles on the -road they had come, and there they found the mules, which had slipped -their halters, quietly feeding by the roadside, with the bags of gold -untouched. They returned with them to the inn with much satisfaction, -got the mules comfortably installed in their stables, having previously -relieved them of the gold bags, which they took to their bedrooms. Now -perhaps in no other country could you have found such an example of -honesty as this. It was well known before they started from Oporto that -the Sandemans were going up to the wine country to purchase wines for -the ensuing season; and as they were the most wealthy merchants of the -place, it was equally well known that they would buy the largest quantity -of wine, and would take the greatest amount of hard cash to pay for it; -therefore, if the natives wished to make a prize, here was an excellent -opportunity to do so. But quite the contrary, the natives were honest, -and had not the least idea of robbing, which they might have done, if so -disposed, most easily. - -From this place we proceeded leisurely to Guimaraens, one of the ancient -capitals of Portugal. The natives appeared different from any I had seen. -The better classes were dressed in jackets, ornamented with large silver -buttons, knee-breeches, leggings, and silver-buckled shoes; having -over all a loose, blue cloth cloak, and a large, conical, broad-brimmed -black felt hat. It seemed to be a place wholly _sui generis_, and -totally separated from the rest of the world. The well-to-do people -seemed to have nothing to do but to walk leisurely about conversing -with their friends, and smoking their cigarettes. There was no trade, -no bustle, nothing, as it were, moving; it was one of those places -where a man disgusted with the world would wish to bury himself. The -repose was something surprising to a person accustomed to active life. -We found a pretty good inn, and a convent with a few old nuns, who were -still allowed to live there, and who employed themselves in preserving -in a particular manner a very fine sort of plum that grows in the -neighbourhood. They fetch a high price in all European markets; I bought -a few to take to England. There is a splendid old Moorish castle outside -the town, which, although in ruins, was not in a very bad state. Upon -the whole I was much pleased with the place, so totally different from -anything I had seen either in Portugal or Spain. I should have liked -much to have spent several days there, but the inexorable time would not -permit; we therefore set out the next day for Braga, and passing through -the beautiful environs, which are a perfect garden, we continued our way -through a well-cultivated and picturesque country, and reached Braga soon -after midday. - -Braga, also one of the ancient capitals of Portugal, is a handsome town, -more modern than Guimaraens, also much more lively, and surrounded by -a rich, fertile, picturesque country. It is well built, with handsome -streets, and squares upon a moderate scale, with an appearance of quiet -imposing dignity. It is the residence of many old families, who seem to -enjoy their _otium cum dignitate_, and to be wholly independent of the -world. They appeared to be above the grovelling pursuits of trade, for -there was certainly little appearance of business about, yet withal we -could not help admiring its clean, comfortable, well-to-do appearance. - -From here we proceeded over a tolerable road towards Viana, the sea -being about a mile distant; and the intervening space, composed of rich -alluvial soil, was well cultivated. We passed several granite crosses, -erected near the village churches, one of which was extremely elegant, -beautifully worked in a species of Corinthian style. I never saw granite -so elaborately worked as in this part of Portugal, namely, the district -between the Douro and the Minho; in fact, they have no other stone but -granite, and no other people work it so well; but then the natives -are the most docile and industrious in Portugal. They are never idle; -constantly at work, either abroad or at home, and saving money. Large -numbers emigrate to the Brazils, where by their energy and industry they -may acquire ample fortunes, and return home to their native country, -where they buy an estate, build a handsome house, and spend the remainder -of their lives in tranquillity and enjoyment. - -On reaching Vigo, after passing through Viana, I found that I had to wait -two days for the steamer. I could not help remarking the superior beauty -of the Spanish as compared with the Portuguese women, a thing I could -not well understand, as the personal appearance of the men is about the -same in both countries, although the Spanish peasants are apparently more -robust than those of Portugal. - -Immediately on my return I set to work to carry out the instructions of -the Marquis de Loulé, and endeavoured to obtain powerful contractors -and wealthy and influential capitalists who would form a company to -undertake the railways in Portugal. I frequently had communications with -Messrs. Peto and Betts, who with their friends were perfectly ready to -come forward to form a company, provided that Messrs. Shaw, Waring, -and Co. were satisfactorily settled with. In these negotiations M. de -Soveral was indefatigable, and of immense service, as he was perfectly -acquainted with the views of his Government, and knew what would be -acceptable to them, and what they would not agree to. At last, towards -the latter end of December, certain conditions stating the terms upon -which they would form a company and find the capital were drawn up and -signed by Messrs. Peto and Betts, and seven other well-known capitalists, -and were submitted to the Portuguese Embassy, to be transmitted to the -Government for their approval. Towards the end of January, 1857, they -answered that they generally approved of the conditions proposed, with -one or two exceptions, which Peto, Betts, and Co. agreed to alter. The -Government then sent an official letter to Count Lavradio, Ambassador in -London, requesting that Sir Moreton Peto and myself would come out to -Lisbon _immediately_, to finally conclude the arrangements, in order that -a Bill might be prepared without delay to be laid before the Portuguese -parliament. In March, 1857, I accordingly proceeded to Lisbon. - -It is not my intention to enter into the unfortunate disputes between -Peto and Co. and the Portuguese Government--disputes which terminated in -the abandonment of what would have been for Portugal a great national -work. Doubtless, as in all these cases, there were faults on both sides; -and I believe that one of the main causes of the failure, on behalf of -Messrs. Peto and Betts, to carry out the works, was that their resources -were swallowed up by a great variety of speculations, some of which, as -we have seen, did not in the long run turn out very profitable, and they -were really unable to undertake them. I will proceed to relate briefly -the only other occasion on which I was connected with that firm. - -But first I may mention that I completed my work on ‘British and Foreign -Harbours’ (which had occupied what little leisure I could command during -some years) in 1854, having previously, in 1847, published a monograph on -Plymouth Breakwater. I may also add, that conjunction with the late Mr. -John Plews, I constructed a considerable extension of the Cardiff Docks -for the trustees of the Marquis of Bute; as it is fully described in the -above work, I need not here further refer to it. - -In the early part of 1859 I was asked to proceed to Tunis, in company -with one of Messrs. Peto and Betts’ agents, to examine into the -feasibility of constructing a railway from the Goletta to the city. I -accordingly started in March, and having embarked on board a French -steam-packet, reached Tunis after a four or five days’ passage, including -a stoppage, for some unexplained reason, of two days at Philippeville. - -The view of the Bay of Tunis cannot be compared in picturesque effect -with that of Bona, which we had just left; still there is something -wild and striking about it. On the east the bay is bounded by a lofty -ridge of bare irregular hills, with a narrow strip of level marshy land -bordering the bay. On the west it is bounded by the celebrated peninsula -of Carthage. In front, to the south, there is the Goletta, or channel to -the Lagoon, surrounded by the custom house and a small town, and beyond -is the Lagoon, extending about six miles, at the farther end of which -is the city of Tunis, seated upon a gentle eminence, bristling with -minarets, and a lofty chain of hills in the background, the whole having -a wild, uncultivated appearance, so that at first sight you were puzzled -to conceive whence supplies could be obtained for feeding the metropolis -of the kingdom. We got clear of the Turkish customs after a good deal of -delay, not from any fastidiousness of the officials, for they were easy -and good-natured enough to let anything pass, but from the confused and -blundering manner in which all business is transacted. Everything was -then bundled into a large boat, which was also laden with merchandise -of all kinds, as much as it would hold. We then entered, along with a -Colonel West, who had come out upon a shooting excursion, and set sail -for the capital across the Lagoon, which was about six miles long and -four or five miles wide. The channel was nearly in the centre, and had -five or six feet of water. We passed numerous flocks of wild geese, -ducks, cranes, and flamingoes, disporting themselves in the water. We -reached the landing quay of Tunis, outside the walls, about two or three -in the afternoon, and immediately proceeded to the only hotel in the -place, kept by a Frenchman, and, upon the whole, it was very clean and -comfortable; but before we could get to it we had to wade through a sea -of filthy mud in a narrow lane that was scarcely 12 feet wide, bounded -by the city wall on the one side, and a row of miserable buildings on -the other, showing little more than bare walls, the windows looking into -small courts on the inside, which were approached by solid well-barred -gateways. It was nearly dark before we got installed in our new domicile, -and then we dined at not a bad table d’hôte in the French fashion, passed -the evening agreeably, and went to bed early, rather tired after the kind -of knocking about we had had during the day. Fortunately the weather was -fine after the great quantity of rain which had lately fallen. The next -day was fine also, and after an early breakfast we got a carriage with -a couple of horses, and drove along the west side of the Lagoon to the -Goletta in order to select the line for the railway; nothing could be -more favourable, the country being--to use a homely phrase--as flat as a -pancake, and therefore required no particular exercise of the engineer’s -art. - -Having so far completed our investigation we adjourned to the examination -of the ruins of Carthage, of which scarcely anything remains, except -the cisterns for supplying the city with water, which are of massive -masonry, the walls being lined on the inside with a thick coat of stucco, -which was glazed, and presented an excellent, smooth surface. These -cisterns were covered with arches, so that the water was preserved from -the action of the sun, and was thus always kept cool and in the best -state for use. The water was brought, by means of an aqueduct, from a -fine and plentiful spring close by the mountain of Kegouan, about 40 -miles distant, and was carried with the requisite inclination by means -of tunnels pierced through the hills, and extensive lines of arched -aqueducts across the intervening valleys, some of these aqueducts being -above 60 feet high, and the total length of the tunnels several miles; -in fact, the whole aqueduct was a series of tunnels and bridges about -40 miles long, and is certainly a most extraordinary work, not to be -surpassed by anything of the kind in existence at the present day. The -conduit for the water was about 2 feet 6 inches wide and 3 feet deep. -In this single example we have nearly all the improvements of modern -times, namely, excellent water, an ample supply, and covered storing -reservoirs. The water required no filtering, but it has not been -ascertained whether it was distributed to each house; probably not; most -likely it was delivered to the fountains, where the natives sent for it. -As baths are known to have existed at Carthage, it is probable that the -water was supplied direct to them as well as to the houses of the more -wealthy citizens and to the palaces. Iron pipes were not then known, and -consequently they were obliged to carry the water on aqueducts, otherwise -they had no mean of resisting the hydraulic pressure. - -Besides these cisterns, one cannot make out distinctly any other -remarkable buildings; but there are plenty of remains of foundations of -walls, some of them of masonry and some of them of brickwork, showing -great solidity; there are also great quantities of pottery and fragments -of marble sculpture lying about. As to the celebrated arsenals and docks, -it is still more difficult to point out satisfactorily their extent, -form, and position; but from the accounts we find in ancient writers, -and from the well-known recorded fact that the Carthaginians were a -great commercial as well as warlike nation, it is evident that they must -have possessed the means of building, sheltering, and repairing both -classes of vessels, those for commerce and those for war. These docks -and arsenals must have been on the sea-shore; the peninsula is composed -of comparatively high land, and they could not have built them anywhere -else, for the low lands which border the peninsula on the south side were -not, so far as we can learn, included within the walls of the city, and -it was not likely that they would have left such important establishments -as these, upon which in a great measure their power depended, -unprotected. I repeat, therefore, and I believe it is confirmed by most -authorities, ancient as well as modern, that these docks and arsenals -were on the sea-shore; and as they would not have built them on the -northern side of the peninsula, which is so much exposed to the strong -northerly gales, they must have placed them on the eastern shore, which -is tolerably well protected by the opposite sides of the bay. Indeed, I -walked round the northern shores of the peninsula and carefully examined -them, and could find no traces of any works having been executed there; -but upon the eastern shore I could discover traces of considerable works. -The ships of those days were comparatively small and drew but little -water, and by running out moles or breakwaters of loose stone into the -sea, a sufficient space might have been enclosed to answer the required -purposes. We know that the ancestors of the Carthaginians did this to -a great extent at Tyre, and we can have no reason to doubt that they -adopted the same system at Carthage. This is a question still open to -discussion; but I think, after what has been stated, that the arguments -are in favour of the eastern shore; and until more decisive remains have -been found elsewhere, I must adhere to my conclusion, for we must not -forget that this is the weather shore, where all such works should be -carried out, so as to afford the greatest facility for egress and ingress. - -As the Bey was not then in Tunis, I determined to make use of the -interval by going to see the remains of the ancient city of Utica, about -twenty miles distant, west-north-west. My two companions were not very -well, and therefore thought that they had better remain at Tunis, in case -anything connected with our business should occur; so I determined to -go alone, as I was told that I should meet with no difficulty, for the -country was perfectly safe. I accordingly hired a carriage with three -excellent horses, and engaged a clever Frank servant, an Italian, half -Jew, half Mohammedan, who had lived many years in Tunis, and besides -English, French, and Italian, spoke the Arabic very well also. He was a -clean fellow, and was well recommended by our vice-consul. Being told -that I should find nothing on the way, I took a good provision basket -and plenty of cloaks. We started soon after noon over a wretched road, -or rather open track made by the peasants’ carts, and as the weather had -been very wet the wheels of the carriage were frequently half-way up to -the axles in mud. The country through which we passed was wild and lonely -in the extreme, not a creature to be seen. After having driven about -eight or ten miles we came to a kind of village, or cluster of about -half-a-dozen mud huts whitewashed, where there was a sort of café of the -roughest kind, and close by it there was a sort of château belonging -to some aga or district chief, surrounded by trees and a rude wall, -the whole having a most solitary and gloomy appearance. There we halted -about half an hour to refresh the horses, which were tired enough, and at -length we reached the caravanserai, a solitary building two stories high, -surrounded by a high mud wall. - -It would be difficult to conceive a wilder or more desolate spot. In -front was an extensive marsh, half covered with water, through which the -river pursued its devious course, the banks being covered with rushes; at -the back lay the dreary country through which we had passed; to the right -the marshy plain extended to the sea, some 10 miles distant, and to the -left it stretched as far as the eye could reach, bounded by blue hills of -considerable elevation. There was not a soul in the house but the kanghè -or master, and another man and a boy. He welcomed me, however, very -civilly, and showed me to the upper floor by an outside staircase; here I -found two rooms with bare walls, brick floor, a trestle for a mattress, a -wooden table, and a couple of rude chairs; to my great delight there was -a chimney-place, in which I soon lighted a wood fire. The kanghè brought -up a couple of tolerably clean mattresses, two oil lamps, and some bread, -and water, which was all he had. This, however, was of no consequence, as -I had come provided, and after a good supper, in spite of the loneliness -of the place I slept soundly. As there, was no road any farther, it was -necessary to provide horses to go to Utica the next day, which the kanghè -said he would do. At daybreak we mounted, and were just about starting -when we were joined by an aga, a fine handsome fellow, exceedingly well -mounted. He was accompanied by two or three servants, also well mounted -and armed. The aga saluted me very courteously, and said he was proud -to see Englishmen, and that if I was fond of sporting he would be most -happy to see me at his castle, and would show me some capital sport, -wild boars, deer, partridges, quail, &c.; for this kind invitation I -thanked him, but was obliged to decline on account of want of time. We -rode together along the marshy plain, our horses at times being up to -their knees in water, and crossed the river by a rough stone bridge, -immediately beyond which we reached the high land which bounds the river -on the west. Here we parted in the most courteous manner, and I continued -along the left bank for two or three miles farther, when I reached the -ruins of Utica, situated at the foot of the hills, at a height of about -30 feet above the level of the bottom of the valley, and about a mile -distant from the left bank of the river, and 5 miles from the sea-shore, -with nothing but a dreary flat marsh intervening. Utica was originally -seated on the sea-shore, and was a port of considerable importance; the -marshes that now exist have been gradually formed during the lapse of -centuries; and in this there is nothing remarkable, as there are many -similar examples, even to a much greater extent, at the mouths of rivers -in different parts of the world. - -Of the city nothing now remains but portions of the broken down walls, a -square tower near the middle, and some remains of foundations scattered -about. Nothing could be more desolate and solitary than the whole scene, -which afforded a most striking contrast to its former magnificence; and -reflecting upon its ancient compared with its present state, one could -not help remarking, “Alas, poor human nature!” - -On my return from Utica I found that His Highness the Bey had consented -to receive us at his palace, distant about 12 miles from Tunis, on the -following day at eleven o’clock. We accordingly started off about eight -o’clock, and got there in good time, and were presented to the Bey--who -was seated in great state and surrounded by his officers--by our -consul, Mr. Wood, and were most graciously received. The Bey was about -fifty-five, of the middle size, rather stout, with an open, frank, kind -countenance; he conversed in Arabic with the consul in the most genial -manner, said he was glad to see us, and was much pleased at the idea of -having railways in his kingdom, about which he had heard so much; he -said he would give us every assistance in his power, and hoped that this -would lead to other European improvements, that would tend so much to the -prosperity of his country. After about twenty minutes of very agreeable -conversation we retired, very much pleased with his Highness’s courteous -reception. In front of the palace there was an encampment of about 2000 -troops of all kinds, horse, foot, and artillery, whom the Bey was in the -habit of reviewing daily. - -The remainder of the story is soon told. We knew perfectly well that -the French were very jealous of any foreign capital or enterprise being -introduced into Tunis, that the consul was somewhat suspicious of us, -and that he and his spies were always on the watch: we were warned of -this, and advised to be very cautious. So well was our secret kept, that -the French consul had come to the conclusion that we were nothing but a -party of ordinary travellers, and was just getting rid of his suspicions. -On the other hand, the Bey and his Divan had agreed to grant a most -favourable concession, and there can be no doubt that the line would -have succeeded admirably in every respect. But in an evil moment Messrs. -Peto’s agents discovered that they could not make a proper report to -their employers without taking levels. In vain I represented the extreme -imprudence of such a proceeding; that it was a mere surface line, without -the slightest engineering difficulty, and which did not present the least -obstacle; moreover, that the land was to be conceded free of all cost, -and that, in short, there was nothing which men of their experience -could not estimate accurately without taking the smallest measurement. -They persisted in their intention, and, of course, the moment they got -out their instruments the French consul understood the whole affair, and -in an audience with the Bey threatened him with the vengeance of France -if the concession were granted. The poor Bey had no alternative but to -submit, and there the whole matter ended. - -Before leaving Tunis I saw all the different sights; amongst others, -serpent charming, which is quite a profession. The charmers display -considerable dexterity; indeed, it is a profession of long standing. The -northern portion of Africa, on account of its sandy and sultry climate, -is peculiarly well adapted for the breeding of serpents of the most -venomous kinds, and in consequence they attain an enormous size and -secrete a large amount of poison. The bites of many of the species are -fatal, and hence it has become for ages past the object of certain of the -natives to study the habits and characteristics of these reptiles and the -antidotes to cure any unfortunate individual who may by chance have been -bitten by them; indeed, the Roman armies during their campaigns in this -part of the world were always accompanied by a certain number of these -serpent charmers, and the profession exists at the present day. You find -them in Egypt and throughout the whole of the northern part of Africa, -and they not only practise the cure of serpent bites, but also collect -numbers of them for exhibition to the multitude, to show their power over -them, and by this means realize a considerable amount of money. At Tunis -I saw several of these serpent charmers, who were always surrounded by a -large crowd. They appeared to have complete control over the reptiles; -they always kept their eyes constantly upon them, and regulated their -movements by a wand in their hands, whilst an attendant boy kept time by -beating a small drum and blowing a pipe with a low monotonous sound. - -I was much surprised to find the natives so very civilized; we walked -about the town, in the suburbs, and in the country, without experiencing -the smallest molestation or incivility. I was told that robberies were -very rare, and that frequently large sums of money were sent by a single -messenger on a dromedary from Tunis to Tripoli without the least danger -of being robbed. There were scarcely any palm trees to be seen, but we -had plenty of the finest dates, which were brought from the interior, I -think Tafilet. - -Upon the whole I was much pleased with Tunis. It is a country possessing -great natural resources of all kinds, by which, if only properly -developed, this kingdom might be again rendered very powerful, as it -was in the time of the Carthaginians and Romans, when, it is said, it -contained above ten millions of inhabitants, whereas at present there are -little more than two millions. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - Surveys at Odessa and Vienna--Harbour at Ponta - Delgada--Ramsgate--Dagenham. - - -During the latter part of the year I had some correspondence with the -municipality of Odessa about paving their streets and making a complete -system of sewers for the city; and in the spring of the following year I -was requested by the municipality to come to Odessa, and to confer with -them as to the best means of carrying these works into effect, and the -cost of doing so. - -I accordingly started for that city; but when I arrived at Vienna I could -get no idea as to when the steamer would leave for Odessa. So to pass -away the time I determined to visit the Sömmering Mountain, over which -the Imperial Elisabeth Railway passes on the great line from Vienna to -Trieste. As that part of the line which crosses the Sömmering Mountain -was said to be a great feat of engineering, we determined to visit it, -and certainly it was a very creditable performance. The inclines were -very steep, and the curves very sharp and very numerous. Galleries were -cut through the rock, high embankments made, and bridges thrown across -the ravines, and the railway, having to wind round the sides of the -mountain, was very tortuous. The works, however, upon the whole were not -badly designed or executed, though I will not say whether a better line -might not have been found. The engines used were of the most powerful -kind. - -Having returned to Vienna we descended the Danube and reached the Sulina -mouth. This mouth of the Danube was selected as the most capable of -improvement, and considerable sums of money have been expended upon -it, under the direction of Sir Charles Hartley, an English engineer of -considerable reputation. The works designed by him consisted of two -embankments or moles carried out from the shore, one on each side, and -nearly parallel to each other, in an E.S.E. direction, for a considerable -distance seaward, having a good opening between them for the entrance. -These moles, by keeping the current of the river to one course, enable -it to act more effectually in deepening the channel and lowering the -bar. The operations of the current are assisted by dredging. The works, -I understand, have been very successful so far, although by no means -completed. An increased depth over the bar and in the channel has already -been obtained, which is a very great improvement, for on account of -the continual shifting of the channel, and its shallow and tortuous -course, it was at all times uncertain and frequently very dangerous. -When we passed, the new channel had not been completed; the captain of -our steamer therefore thought it advisable to come to anchor for the -night and wait until the following morning. There is a wretched place -called the town of Sulina, on the right bank of the river, near the -commencement of the moles; it consists of wooden houses, stores, shops, -and cafés, scarcely two feet above the level of the water, and surrounded -by marshes, that send forth the most pestiferous malaria. I was told that -fevers constantly prevail there, and I am not surprised at it, for a more -abominable, uninviting place I have seldom seen. Next morning we started -for Odessa soon after daybreak, and after a tolerably smooth passage -reached the western harbour at about four o’clock in the afternoon. - -The view of Odessa, at about two or three miles’ distance, as you -approach it from the sea, is rather pretty and imposing. It is situated -upon a calcareous sandstone cliff, about 40 feet above the sea, with a -very fine row of majestic stone buildings running the whole length from -north to south, having a spacious road, terrace, and garden between them -and the edge of the cliff. The town behind is for the most part well and -regularly laid out, with wide, spacious streets, at right angles to each -other, and some handsome shops and buildings, the residences of tradesmen -and merchants. A great number of wealthy nobles and landowners reside -here in winter, and houses worthy of the name of palaces, such as those -of the elegant and high-born Countess of Urrenzoff, the Governor-General -Prince Manukebè, Count Tolstoy, Mr. Maas the great banker, and numerous -others. The surrounding country, although the soil is rich, is open, with -very few trees, and has therefore a bleak, uncomfortable appearance. The -custom-house officers were very civil, to my surprise, and gave us very -little trouble, so we soon got permission to land, and immediately went -to the Hôtel de Londres, a very fine extensive building, situated in the -grand row of buildings already mentioned facing the sea. Here we obtained -handsome, spacious, well-furnished rooms, and lived very comfortably at a -moderate charge. - -The next day I called upon the Governor, Count Strogonoff; the Mayor, -Count Tolstoy; the English Consul, Mr. Grenville Murray, and several -members of the municipality. Having paid these formal visits of ceremony, -at which I was courteously received, I immediately began to inquire into -the best mode of paving and draining the city, where the best materials -were to be obtained and their prices; in fact, everything connected with -them. - -Before proceeding further it may be proper to describe the state of the -place as regards paving and sewers, which may be summed up in a few -words. There was neither one nor the other; and it is difficult to -conceive how such a fine and wealthy city could have been built, or could -have existed so long without them. First, with regard to the streets. The -soil is composed chiefly of sand mixed with clay, which during fine dry -weather makes a tolerably good road, but the moment it becomes saturated -with water, which is the case for a considerable portion of the year, it -is converted into one vast puddle, and the large and constant traffic -cuts it up into deep holes and gullies, so that in a comparatively short -time the road is a sea of mud, and almost impassable. During my stay -there were only a few days’ rain, but even this gave me a tolerable idea -of it, so that I could easily believe the account given to me by the -authorities and other inhabitants was by no means exaggerated. During -the worst state of the streets, the obstruction of bullocks and horses -trying to drag the loaded waggons and carriages was something dreadful, -and many a waggon was left irrevocably fixed in the mud with numerous -carcasses of horses and bullocks lying beside it. It was a singular thing -that nearly all the corn warehouses were in the upper parts of the town, -about a mile from the harbour where the corn was to be shipped, instead -of being close by. During the wet season it costs as much to get the corn -from the granaries to the harbour as to take it from Odessa to London. -The butchers’ shops were at the upper end of the town, from half to -three quarters of a mile from the eastern part, where all the principal -people live, and when provisions were required for the family they were -obliged to hire a carriage with three or four horses to get them; and -unless a family kept a regular store of provisions they ran a great risk -of being starved. The roads in the country round are not a bit better -than those in Odessa; during wet weather they are almost impassable. -About twenty-eight miles from Odessa, at a place on the River Dneister, -is a kind of depôt for the vast quantities of corn brought down from the -interior. Immense heaps or hills of corn were lying there when I visited -it. In wet weather these cannot be removed, and I was informed that a -great deal was burnt or allowed to rot because it could not be taken -away, either on account of the badness of the roads or the dangerous -state of the bar at the entrance of the river. - -The sewers were very simple. Gullies had been made along each side of -the streets, into which all the filth was thrown, so that in dry seasons -it accumulated there, creating the most offensive effluvia, and in wet -weather it would not run off, on account of the gullies being blocked -up with mud. It was impossible to find a city in a worse state, and it -was astonishing that such a great, wealthy, and luxurious city could -have so long existed in such a condition. As there was no stone in the -neighbourhood fit for paving the streets, granite or a similar hard stone -being the only kind fit for the purpose, the next question was where it -was to be found, how to get it, and the cost of doing so. Upon inquiry, -I heard that excellent granite might be obtained in any quantity from a -quarry situated on the river Bug, and on proceeding there I found that -very good stone might be got with great ease, and at a comparatively -trifling cost. Having made my report, I returned to England. - -In 1862 I was appointed chairman of the Civil Engineering Department -of the International Exhibition, assisted by the Marquis of Salisbury, -M. Bommart, M. Koch, of Berlin; M. Lelere, Belgium; M. Loehr, Austria; -Cesare Valerio, Italy; the Baron Baude, M. Mille, Mr. C. Manby, Mr. Kelk, -and Mr. Page. - -Our report, I believe, was entirely satisfactory. - -After this I was asked to examine the water supply of Vienna, and -accordingly, having reached that city, I turned my attention to the -following objects: - -First, to the mode there adopted for supplying the water; this I found to -be by means of steam pumping engines of inadequate power, which forced -the water through iron pipes to fountains in the different streets, -whence it was obtained and delivered into the houses by carts and -carriers. The supply was not enough for the wants of the town, neither -was the water sufficiently pure nor properly filtered. It contained a -good deal of vegetable matter at the best of times, as the water was -admitted through the porous soil adjoining the river into very small -reservoirs, and it had no time to deposit the alluvial matter with which -it was charged before it was delivered for use. Moreover, this method -of supplying the water by means of steam pumping engines was a constant -expense, and the more water that was required the greater would the -expense be. I found, also, that an English party had proposed to extend -and amplify the existing system, by erecting more powerful engines, and -by making receiving and filtering reservoirs upon a much larger scale -about three or four miles higher up the Danube, on the same side, where -the water was clearer and more free from the sewage of the city. Now, -when I considered that the population was even then between five and -six hundred thousand, and that it was daily increasing, this pumping -system appeared to me to be the worst plan possible to effect the desired -object, unless no other means could be found. I therefore determined -to explore the environs of the city, as I felt convinced, from the -geographical features of the neighbourhood, that there must be numerous -streams amply supplied with water, with their beds sufficiently elevated, -and with reservoir room to any extent, to afford, by gravitation, an -abundant supply of the best water to Vienna, not only for the present -number of inhabitants, but for three millions and upwards. In other -words, I proposed to conduct the water from some of these sources in a -covered aqueduct, simply by its own natural inclination, to a reservoir -situated above the tops of the loftiest houses, in the highest part -of the city; thus all pumping would be done away with, and a vast -yearly expenditure would be saved; the first cost of these works would -not exceed the first cost of the extended plan on the old system -above mentioned, as proposed to be made higher up the Danube. Further -investigation completely established the correctness of my opinion. - -On my return I took the railway to Trieste, passing by Baden, Neustadt, -up the line or valley of the Leitha, as far as the base of the Sömmering -ridge. Here I first visited the Fischa Dagnitz river, one of the -tributaries of the Leitha; it is a splendid stream, about twenty feet -wide, three to four feet deep, the water as clear as crystal, and flowing -over a gravelly bottom. During the height of summer the temperature -seldom exceeds 40 degrees of Fahrenheit. It is impossible to imagine a -finer stream; it has been analyzed and highly approved by some of the -first chemists, who pronounce it to be exceedingly pure. This water could -be conveyed by gravitation through a covered conduit to the top of a hill -overlooking Vienna, and from thence it could be delivered to the highest -parts of the city in ample quantity, without pumping or filtration. The -water of the Danube, even after filtration, cannot be compared with it. -The Fischa Dagnitz turned a number of mills in its course, and this -was the only objection to taking the water. But this was a loss that -could easily be compensated for by making reservoirs, to be supplied -by the surplus waters of this and other streams. The Fischa Dagnitz, -therefore, appeared to me to be decidedly the best source for supplying -Vienna with pure water, for any reasonable number of inhabitants. I next -examined the Leitha above the Dagnitz, and here I found that there was -a superabundant supply, although the water was by no means so good as -that of the Dagnitz. I examined several other tributaries to the Leitha, -passing over an extensive mass of _débris_, called the Steinfeld, where I -found that by damming some large reservoirs could be made, from which an -ample supply could be obtained of the same quality as that of the Leitha, -although by no means so good as that of the Fischa Dagnitz. It was quite -clear, therefore, that plenty of water could be obtained for Vienna now -and for all future time from this quarter. But not wishing to overlook -any source from whence a supply of water could be procured, I took the -railway from Vienna to St. Polten, a town on the road to Linz. - -Here I found a very fine and copious stream, though when I examined it, -it was nearly in its lowest state. The ground between it and Vienna was -very high, so that to a certain extent pumping must have been resorted -to, if this source of supply was adopted. Another objection was the -much greater distance as compared with the streams up the valley of the -Leitha. I felt therefore satisfied that it would not do, and that the -question lay between the Fischa Dagnitz and the tributaries of the Leitha -on the Steinfeld above mentioned. All these observations I embodied -in a report to the municipality of Vienna, and recommended the Fischa -Dagnitz; for although there might be a few feet less fall, still, taking -into account the far greater purity of the water, it was the best. The -municipality received my report, and returned me their thanks for it. At -all events, I had decided the question against taking the water from the -Danube. - -Having made these investigations and sent in my report upon them, it -now remained for the municipality to decide. They said they would take -time to consider, and accordingly appointed some of the most able and -scientific officers of their own body, as well as those attached to the -Government, to investigate the subject further. After above two years’ -examination these persons made their report, recommending that the -principle of gravitation as proposed by me should be adopted, and that -the supply should be taken from the tributaries of the Leitha in the -Steinfeld: this was in fact adopting my plan, although I preferred the -Fischa Dagnitz as the source of supply, as none could or did dispute the -superior quality of its water to all others. - -The municipality have been deliberating ever since on the best plan of -carrying this great work into effect, whether by a private company, or -whether they shall execute the works by contract and supply the water at -their own cost. This question, as far as I know, has not been settled, -although it has been now nearly six years in agitation; meanwhile the -city suffers materially from the want of a good supply of pure wholesome -water. - -In the spring of 1861 a Mr. Parkenscholz, and M. José de Conté, a member -of one of the wealthiest and most respectable families of St. Michael’s, -the principal island of the Azores, called and informed me that the -Portuguese Government had decided to make a harbour at Ponta Delgada, -the chief town of St. Michael’s, the cost of which was estimated at the -sum of 134,000_l._ I replied that I should be willing to undertake the -superintendence and construction of this harbour, provided that I was not -compelled to serve them beyond the term of four years, and that I was -not to be responsible either for the plan or for the amount estimated to -complete it. To these terms the Portuguese Government consented, and I -started for the Azores in September, 1861. - -We reached Ponta Delgada on the 20th September, and were very much -delighted with our first view of it. The town rose rapidly from the sea, -and presented a most interesting appearance. The spires of numerous -churches, starting up from the level of the surrounding houses, pierced -the blue sky, while here and there were gardens filled with the gayest -of flowers, and groves of orange, lemon, and olive trees, the whole -embosomed in a picturesque bay, backed by evergreen conical hills, -reminding one a good deal of Naples. - -On landing I was received with great ceremony, and was waited on by -the Junta at my hotel. The next day I attended a meeting of the Junta -at the Governor’s house, when we discussed all the various preliminary -operations that were necessary preparatory to commencing the harbour. - -It appeared desirable that the first stone should be laid before I left -the island, and preparations were ordered to be made accordingly. I -gave Mr. Plews full instructions as to what was necessary for this, and -having two days to spare I determined to accompany my friend, Mr. Thomas -Ivens, on an excursion to Furness, a celebrated watering-place, situated -near the eastern end of the island, about 27 miles distant. We started -on a couple of good donkeys, with another carrying some provisions, and -proceeded along the south shore over a very fair carriage road, for -about five miles, through some neat villages embowered in orange and -lemon orchards, passing also by comfortable villas and country houses, -and then struck in a north-easterly direction across the island over an -undulating well-cultivated country, chiefly growing Indian corn and other -cereals and green crops. When we reached the summit of this part of the -island we got a good view of the mountains to the eastward and of the -sea on the north and south sides. We halted for about an hour, and then -proceeded to a large town situated on the northern shore, surrounded by -rich gardens and fields, having every appearance of prosperity. From -thence we proceeded along the north shore over some very steep hills and -cliffs overlooking the sea, the road still good, until we got to a little -roadside inn about dark. There was, however, light enough from the stars -to find our way, so off we set again, and going over a very wild hilly -country got to the top of the pass which descended to Furness about ten -o’clock at night. Here the road ceased, and we found it necessary to get -off the donkeys and walk, for fear of being tumbled over their heads, -although they were very sure-footed. At a subsequent visit to this place -I crossed over the pass by daylight, and the view from the summit is -very fine, looking into what was formerly the crater of a volcano, which -is nearly two miles wide, surrounded by lofty rugged hills between 2000 -and 3000 feet high, the bottom of the crater valley being now covered -with rich verdure and gardens and tropical trees and plants of various -kinds. Near the crater was the little village of Furness, with its church -and white houses dotted about, and close by were the sulphurous hot -baths sending forth volumes of steam, the whole forming one of the most -picturesque and agreeable scenes imaginable. We got to the inn at the -bottom of the valley at about 12 P.M., thoroughly tired, having ridden -and walked for nearly eleven hours. The inn, considering all things, was -by no means bad. I got a good bed and supper, and soon fell asleep, while -my companion, Mr. Ivens, went to his family, who were stopping there. -After a sound night’s sleep I got up in the morning and took a warm -sulphur bath as hot as I could stand it, which was about 96°; but you -may have the water at almost any temperature, as it issues boiling from -the spring. Close by, within a few yards, is a cold chalybeate spring, -and not far distant is a vast extent of rich alum deposit, from which -great quantities may be extracted, and a manufactory had then commenced -operations. I walked about until midday, quite enchanted with the beauty -of the place, dined with my friend Ivens and his amiable family, and -about one o’clock in the afternoon mounted my donkey and started off -with the guide for Ponta Delgada, being determined if possible to get -there that night. We had a tolerably stiff hilly road fit only for -mules, donkeys, or horses, before we could get out of the valley. Having -ascended the summit of the first pass, we had a delightful view behind -over the delicious valley of Furness which we had just left. We then came -to a rather extensive lake, surrounded by evergreen hills of much less -elevation than those surrounding the valley; and on the opposite side -of this lake, which was two to three miles long and about a mile wide, -we observed the country house of our Consul, Samuel Vines, Esq., seated -on the side of a hill about 200 or 300 feet above the lake, embosomed -in woods; and at the foot of the hill, close by the water’s edge, was -a strong sulphur spring, of the same temperature as those of Furness, -and like them covered with clouds of steam. There was not a house near -it all round the lake. It was singular that he should have chosen such -a solitary spot. I continued along the south and west side of the lake, -which is bounded by hills covered with underwood and evergreens, but not -a house nor even a shed to be seen; only a few solitary cattle here and -there with a shepherd boy. Nothing could be more still or lonely; but at -the same time there was a degree of quiet and repose which gave to the -place a certain undefinable charm not to be resisted. - -Upon leaving the west end of the lake we ascended the hill over a rugged -path, passing through a wild, bare district, and from the summit enjoyed -a fine view of nearly the whole of the island, which was very beautiful -whichever way you looked. We now descended a very steep path, the view -changing at every turn. At last, about five o’clock, we reached the -clean, pretty town of Villa Franca, where I halted nearly an hour for -refreshment. - -Villa Franca, which is situated in a small bay on the sea-shore, was -formerly the capital of the island, but an earthquake having occurred -near, it was abandoned for Delgada. It is still a thriving little place, -with a rich surrounding country. There is a small island, a few hundred -yards from the shore, where a good harbour might be made. - -After leaving this town we had to take a rough road along the sea-coast -for a couple of miles, partly through deep sand, and partly among -scattered rocks, for there was no regular road. We then left the shore -and travelled over the cliffs by an equally bad path, sometimes over deep -chasms and sometimes up narrow glens, until we reached the high road -again, at which I was very glad, as it was now dark and very difficult to -find our way. We pushed forward with confidence, and the donkeys went on -very well; after passing through numerous villages, sometimes lying on -the sea-shore, at others a little distance inland, at last, much to my -satisfaction--for I was very tired--we reached Mr. Rodrigue’s comfortable -hotel about midnight. Old Rodrigue was surprised that I had made the -journey of between 50 and 60 miles in so short a time, for although it -was the month of September, the sun was very powerful, and the road for -many miles was very bad. - -Next day we had another meeting of the Junta, and they made all the -arrangements for laying the first stone of the new harbour, which was to -take place with every possible ceremony. I found that Mr. Plews had got -a couple of large stones well dressed for the purpose; the captain of -the port had provided the sheers and tackle for hoisting them; and the -Junta had procured in the town a very pretty silver trowel, a mallet, -and mortar holder. A commodious gangway had been prepared from the shore -to the west end of the old mole, fronting the area where the new pier or -mole was to commence, according to the plan approved of by the Government. - -The whole town was in motion at an early hour, and great numbers of -people came in from the neighbouring towns and villages, all dressed -in holiday costume. The town was decorated with the flags of various -nations, amongst which the Union Jack was particularly conspicuous. In -fact, it was considered a great national fête; the more so, as a work -such as this was intended to be had never been previously undertaken in -this island, or in the kingdom of Portugal itself. The procession was -marshalled at the Town Hall, and consisted of the band of the militia of -the island; then the governor, his secretary, and the Junta or committee -that was to conduct the work, followed by the principal officers, -merchants, and deputations from the chief towns in the island, with -their respective banners, closed by a number of the most respectable -inhabitants of the place; the lower orders, clad in their best, lining -the way by which we passed. Upon arriving at the place we were met -by the chief priest of the island, who, in a short prayer, invoked a -blessing from the Almighty that the enterprise might prosper. Then, upon -a signal being given, coins of the realm, together with a printed paper, -containing an account of the proposed work, the names of the governor -and Junta, the engineers, officers, &c., were placed in a glass bottle, -and deposited in the cavity of the lower stone, which had previously -been prepared and set. The governor having placed the glass case in the -cavity, I handed to him the silver trowel, with which he spread out the -mortar. The stone was lowered into its place, and the governor, having -previously adjusted it, gave the usual three taps with the mallet, and -the ceremony was finished with a discharge of guns from the fort, and -numerous showers of rockets from the town, amidst the cheers and vivas -of the bystanders, the band playing the national anthem. In the evening -a very handsome entertainment was given at M. José de Conté’s villa, -on the outside of the town, to which the Junta and principal officers -and merchants of the place were invited. The Portuguese band played -admirably during and after dinner, and we all retired much pleased with -the success of the day’s proceedings. The governor presented me with -the silver trowel, which I respectfully declined, and requested him to -keep it as a memorial of the happy day; which he, after some hesitation, -accepted, and I contented myself with the polished mortar holder, and the -next leading man of the Junta accepted the mallet. - -The next day I made final arrangements for my departure by the packet, -which was expected on its return from Fayal the day after. In the mean -time I had been considering the danger of the harbour as laid down or -rather approved by the Government, and found that if the west mole was -commenced at the east end of Fort San Bray, as proposed, the fort would -be exposed to a much heavier swell; but that by making it commence at -the western end of the fort this would be avoided; moreover, the sum of -600_l._ would be saved, and the harbour would be made so much larger. -This recommendation was afterwards adopted by the Government. I now took -my leave of the governor and all the authorities, and my other friends, -with my grateful thanks for their kindness and attention. - -The island, taken in a direct line from north to south, is about 40 miles -long, and from 7 to 9 miles wide. It is entirely volcanic. The east -and west ends exhibit the most powerful effects of the volcanic force. -In the former we see mountains raised to the height of about 3300 feet -above the level of the Atlantic, in the centre of which lies the valley -of Furness, the bottom being occupied by a lake that still sends forth -sulphurous vapours; and in the latter or west end we find mountains -of about 3000 feet, the centre of which is occupied by a large lake, -without any exhibition of existing volcanic action. Near the centre -of the island, which is the narrowest part, there are numerous minor -conical-shaped hills of less elevation, but all more or less showing -their volcanic origin. The island enjoys a most genial climate, and frost -or snow is of rare occurrence; but during the autumn and winter it is -visited by heavy gales from all quarters of the compass, which extend -over a distance of about 100 miles. During this period a great deal of -rain falls, and the climate may be said to be moist, much resembling that -of Madeira. Formerly a good deal of wine was produced here, but since -1855, when the oidium disease made its appearance, the vintage has been -very unsatisfactory; and although a certain quantity of wine, resembling -that of Madeira, is still made for home consumption, none is exported. -The principal productions of the island now are oranges and lemons, of -which vast quantities are annually exported to the north of Europe. The -district where these are produced is restricted to the centre of the -island, commencing at Ponta Delgada, and extending eastward about 7 or -8 miles. On the north it is bounded by the central ridge of hills, and -on the south by the sea, the width being about 3 or 4 miles, so that it -enjoys the full rays of the southern sun. These orange and lemon orchards -are cultivated with the greatest care, and wherever they are exposed to -the east, west, or southern gales are protected by high stone walls. On -the north the hills alone afford sufficient shelter. - -Towards the latter end of October the season commences, and continues -until about the end of February, during which time the harbour of Ponta -Delgada is continually crowded with shipping, whilst on shore the -inhabitants are busy packing the fruit in boxes; these boxes are made -from the wood brought chiefly from the forests that clothe the mountains -at the eastern end of the island. The vessels in which the fruit is -exported are principally small schooners, built rather short, capital sea -boats, and manned by the best of captains and sailors, who thoroughly -understand their profession. They go to sea in any weather, which is at -times most severe, rarely if ever meet with any accidents on the voyage, -and make the passage to England in from eight to ten days. It is true -they are sometimes driven ashore when they break from their moorings -in the exposed roadstead of Ponta Delgada during heavy gales from the -south-west to the south-east, to which it is exposed; but this will be -obviated by the new harbour, and was one of the objects of its being -made. Sometimes, during the prevalence of these gales, they are obliged -to slip their anchors, and run for shelter to the northern side of the -island, where they occasionally ship their cargoes, which is always done -by means of lighters from the shore. Immediately they are laden they -start with the first fair wind, however strongly it blows; they never -wait for weather, but as soon as laden they put to sea, and generally -make good, indeed, the best of passages. - -I met a young botanist who had come out in one of these vessels to Ponta -Delgada, for the purpose of making botanical researches in this and in -the neighbouring islands, in the month of March; they had an excellent -passage until they got within about a hundred miles of St. Michael’s, -when he said to the captain, “We shall be there to-morrow.” The captain, -an excellent sailor, looking at the signs of the weather, replied, “I -don’t think so. We are going to have a hard gale from the southward.” He -immediately ordered his mate to well batten down the hatchways, shorten -sail, and make all as snug as possible. The captain was right; the gale -from the south came a few hours afterwards, with a very heavy sea. - -The young botanist frankly confessed to me that he began to be terribly -afraid at seeing the tremendous sea running after them, and asked the -captain if there was any danger; when the captain coolly replied, “Never -fear: it is only a little loss of time. Go to your berth, and lie there -quietly. We shall get there safe enough, with a little patience.” The -captain then ordered the vessel to be hove-to, and there she lay as -comfortably as possible, never shipping a single sea, although the waves -were running mountains high. After about five or six days she entered -the bay of Ponta Delgada without having sustained the least damage. She -got her cargo of fruit aboard and returned directly, and made one of the -quickest passages that season to England. - -Besides oranges and lemons, St. Michael’s grows large quantities of -Indian corn, wheat, barley, potatoes, and other articles, of which -she exports largely to Portugal, and is considered the granary of the -kingdom; her exports are much larger than her imports, and she receives -back in return wine, oil, and manufactured goods. In fact, St. Michael’s -is looked upon by the Portuguese as their most productive and wealthiest -island. The population is extremely civil, hard-working, and industrious, -and the upper classes are wealthy, enterprising, and energetic, and send -some of the most talented deputies to the Cortes, who by their ability -and perseverance attain the highest offices in the State; for example, -the late Minister of Finance, Senhor Avila, who, although a rough -subject, was yet possessed of great talents and integrity. The island -also furnishes some very fine hardy sailors and soldiers; and I was told -that the other islands of Pico, Fayal, and St. Mary’s, although not equal -in extent or wealth, do the same. - -On the 9th of October (1863) I again left London for Lisbon by one of -the Royal Mail steamers, and reached it on the morning of the 13th -following, and on the 15th, in the evening, I started in the packet for -Ponta Delgada, which we reached on the morning of the 20th, after an -agreeable and tolerably smooth passage. I found that some considerable -progress had been made with the preliminary works; although these were -not so far advanced as they might have been, in consequence of the Junta -not having found the necessary funds. I had previously explained to them -in written reports, that the more complete the preliminary works were -made, and the larger the scale on which the operations were conducted, -the sooner the harbour would be completed, and the greater would be the -economy. I have already observed that the Government had approved of -a certain plan for the harbour without consulting me, and that it had -simply confided to me the charge of carrying the design into effect. -However, I felt it my duty to consider the plan more maturely, so as -to ascertain how far it was likely to answer the object intended; as, -for example, whether the estimate made was sufficient for the purpose, -and whether it could be done within the time stated. I could not at -first do this, because I had not had time sufficient to investigate the -local circumstances; however, upon my second visit, the experience of -my former one, combined with the observations which Mr. Plews had made -in the meantime, enabled me to master the subject; and upon carefully -considering the plan adopted by the Government, and comparing it with -the local experience which I had now obtained, I felt convinced that the -design would not effect the object proposed. Vessels would neither be -able to enter nor depart during the most dangerous and prevalent winds, -without the risk of being shipwrecked; neither could those vessels lying -in the harbour be considered safe. The plan was deficient in all the -qualities necessary for a good harbour; as regards the expense, it would -cost at least more than double the estimate; and as to the time, it -would be extremely difficult to state when the works would be completed. -Having clearly satisfied myself upon these points, I felt it my duty to -inform the Junta, so that they might report the same to the Government. -The Junta received my remarks very cautiously, and said that several -objections to the plan adopted had occurred to them; however, they did -not pretend to give any opinion upon the subject, and they requested -me to make a full report upon the plan adopted, together with all my -objections, and the cost of carrying it into effect. They also requested -me to prepare a new plan, according to what I conceived best adapted to -the local circumstances; also an estimate of the cost of carrying it into -effect; and said that as soon as they received them they would send them -to the Government, and would communicate to me their decision as early as -possible. This I accordingly did upon my return to England. - -This report was submitted by the Junta to the Government, and it was -decided that the plan I proposed was the best, and the Government ordered -it to be carried into effect. This decision was very gratifying to me, -for I was strongly convinced that I was right, and if the Government had -decided otherwise I felt that there was no alternative but to resign -my situation. The works were therefore ordered to be proceeded with -according to the new plan that I recommended. The Junta before I departed -arranged with me that the contract for my services should be limited to -five years from 1861, although I was previously informed that it should -only be for four years, the sum for my remuneration being the same for -five as for four years; this was certainly a loss to me, but I did not -wish to make any difficulty about it, as I was anxious that my plan -should be adopted. - -My design consisted simply of one mole or breakwater carried from the -west side of Fort St. Braz, and in such a direction that no eastern pier -would be required, as the opposite shore of the bay would answer that -purpose. The mole consists of two arms, one at the shore end, 2000 -feet long, and the outer end from 800 to 1000 feet long, with ample -depth within from 40 to 50 feet, and covering a water space of nearly -double the extent of the old plan. This new mole when finished will -have a strong promenade stone parapet 20 feet above the level of high -water, and a roadway below 40 feet wide, lined by a quay wall on the -inside, alongside of which the largest vessels may approach and take in -and deliver their cargoes at all times. Railways will be laid along the -quays, and cranes worked by steam will travel along them for loading and -unloading the vessels. - -This mole is now advanced outwards about 1600 feet, and if the Junta had -only followed my advice, it ought to have been finished by this time. -I always calculated that after the first year, when the whole of the -works were in full operation, from 1000 to 1200 tons of stone should be -daily deposited, whereas, upon an average they have not done half that -quantity, in consequence of their not employing sufficient plant in the -shape of waggons, trucks, cranes, locomotives, tools, &c.; however, that -is their fault, not ours. I have constantly made reports pointing out -these deficiencies. - -The quarries having now been opened, railways laid, and a sufficient -number of locomotives, waggons, and trucks having been provided for the -present, I proposed to the Junta that they should commence depositing -stone on the line of the great mole. The laying of the first, as -mentioned before, was simply a matter of ceremony, as they were really -not then in a position to commence the actual work. The Junta approved of -my proposal, and accordingly, two days before my departure, this ceremony -took place. About six waggons laden with blocks from two to five tons -weight were drawn by one of the locomotive engines from the quarries -to the end of the staging or platform in the line of the mole, and -were there deposited with great _éclat_. The locomotive then returned -with the empty waggons and brought six more, which were deposited in -the same manner, and this operation continued throughout the day. As -this mode of conducting the harbour works had never been before seen -on the island, it created much interest and astonishment amongst the -natives, and the ladies were particularly amused by taking a ride upon -the locomotive engines. I simply observe once for all that this mole was -to be constructed by depositing, from open staging in the line of the -mole, blocks of rough stone varying from a quarter of a ton to 10 tons -in weight, when they could be obtained. These blocks being deposited in -the sea, the waves would soon drive and consolidate them together, until -after a time the mass becomes immovable; in fact, the sea is the workman -or mason to arrange the stone deposited in such a manner that it shall -become fixed in its place; therefore, during the operation the more and -heavier the storms the better, the great point being that the stone shall -be carried out and deposited in such masses that the sea shall not break -through it, but merely act upon it, by drawing down the exterior or sea -slope to such an angle that it will stand after the heaviest storms. Now -my father, who commenced this system at the breakwater in Plymouth Sound, -and in other places, found that the sea slope of a mole or breakwater -constructed in this manner would stand an inclination of about 5 or 5½ to -1 for every foot perpendicular, and 1 to 1 on the land side, as I have -mentioned in a former chapter. - -Throughout all my experience I have found the same, therefore the -breakwater at Ponta Delgada was founded upon this principle. Five lines -of railway of the 7-feet gauge have been carried out upon the staging, -so that the top has a width of fully 50 feet; and as the works proceed -outwards another will perhaps be added, if circumstances require it, -which will make the width 70 feet. By keeping up a constant supply of -stone, there will always be sufficient for the waves to act upon until -the sea slope has attained its ultimate point of repose. As fast as -the large blocks of stone are deposited and washed into their place, -great quantities of quarry rubbish are supplied to fill up the minor -interstices and render the whole mass more solid, until the slopes are in -a fit state to be regularly formed and paved for receiving the parapet. - -For some years there had been constant complaint from merchants and -shipowners that they were taxed for Ramsgate harbour when their vessels -never did or could use it. These continued complaints, so often repeated, -at last had effect, and Parliament decided, in the year 1861, that the -passing toll of Ramsgate harbour should cease, and that only those -vessels that used it should pay, according to a certain tariff. The -trustees under whose direction the harbour had been made and maintained, -complained to the Government that without the passing toll they did not -see from whence funds could be derived to maintain it in a proper state -of efficiency, and therefore they requested to be relieved of their -responsibility, and tendered their resignations, which were accepted by -the Government, and an Act of Parliament was passed in the year 1862 -relieving the old trustees from their trust, repealing their Acts of -Parliament, and vesting the harbour, all its funds, and responsibilities, -in the Board of Trade. I succeeded my father in December 1821 as -engineer-in-chief to the harbour, at the same salary, namely, 210_l._ -per annum, which included travelling and office expenses of every kind, -the trustees paying the salary of the resident engineer themselves. The -harbour was in a very dilapidated state, in fact, it almost required -rebuilding, when it came under my direction, and monthly visits of two -and three days were necessary, besides attending the Board in London -once every fortnight examining accounts, correspondence, reports, and -plans, all of which required a good deal of labour and responsibility, -and which, if paid for according to the usual professional scale, would -have amounted to at least treble the sum of 200_l._, or more; but -considering the appointment to be permanent, and that upon retirement -I should be entitled to an adequate pension according to my years -of service, I thought it better not to decline. In the year 1822, a -committee was appointed by the House of Commons to investigate Ramsgate -harbour and everything connected with it. Mr. Wallace, afterwards Lord -Wallace, was chairman of this committee; he made a searching inquiry, and -found nothing wrong. I was examined at great length touching all works, -the mode of managing them, and what would be the total cost of doing so. -The cost it was extremely difficult if not impossible to state, for the -greater part of the works were under water, and failures and accidents -were constantly occurring without any previous warning, so that what was -sound one day was in ruin the next. - -As an example, I may mention the west pier-head: this upon examination -carefully from above appeared quite sound; not a crack could be seen -above low water. It is true that the projecting basement floor of the -lighthouse, which was not properly connected with the lighthouse tower -itself, and was little more than a mere shed, showed a slight subsidence, -but this outer part of the lighthouse was in no way connected with the -outer walls of the pier head; in fact, it rested upon the chalk filling -between the outer walls and the lighthouse. Now this chalk filling might -have subsided, by some leaks through the outer wall of the pier head, -without denoting any serious defects in the pier-head walls; however -the walls fell, with little or no warning, and the consequence was that -it was necessary to rebuild the whole pier-head, and the lighthouse -also, at a cost of nearly 20,000_l._ To a certain extent the same -thing occurred at the east pier-head; but this I observed in time, and -completely secured it at a cost of 2000_l._ The whole of the inner walls -of the east and west piers were completely undermined, although from -above they showed no signs of failure, and I was obliged to underpin them -to a depth of from 10 to 12 feet below low water of spring tides. The old -wooden sluices were worn out; and these it was necessary to replace. The -main entrance from the harbour to the basin was in such a dilapidated -state that it was necessary to take it down and rebuild it; this cost -18,000_l._ The quay walls of the inner basin were fast going to decay; -and I was obliged to take them down and rebuild them. All the filling -in between the outer and inner walls of the outer harbour had sunk in -numerous places, and it was unsafe for any person or carriage to go over -it; it was therefore imperative to take the whole of this out and refill -it with proper concrete. The pavement also was completely worn out, so -that we had to renew it. There was no means of supplying the ships with -fresh water, or of extinguishing fires. It was therefore necessary to lay -pipes with stop cocks and hoses round the piers and basin, connected with -the main water-pipes in the town. The whole of the sewage of the town was -discharged into the basin, and at low water it created a most offensive -effluvia, which rendered this part of the town unhealthy; I therefore -recommended that an intercepting sewer should be made round the basin, -so that all the sewage should be diverted from the town and harbour into -the sea, to the westward, and by this means it was carried away by the -tide, and a great nuisance taken away from the town. There was no regular -tide gauge to ascertain the exact rise and fall of the tide, so that the -harbour light at night could not be shown at the proper time, neither -could the day signal be hoisted to show when there was sufficient depth -at the entrance. This defect I remedied by establishing a self-acting -tide gauge in a well within the lighthouse at the west pier-head. The -pole of this tide gauge was connected with a cylinder and a clock hand; -on the cylinder was a roll of paper, and to the hand of the clock was -attached a pencil, which, as the rod or tide gauge rose and fell, marked -it on the paper; thus the rise and fall of every tide was indicated upon -the paper, and the clock showed the time, so that the rise and fall of -every tide was regularly registered and kept in a book from year to -year. I also established barometers at different parts of the harbour, -under lock and key, the latter of which was kept by the harbour-master; -these barometers were set every morning, and the rise and fall was -registered in a book, so that all the captains of vessels in the harbour -could ascertain as nearly as practicable the state of the weather; -rain gauges were also established, a regular account of the rainfall -being registered. Before my time the trustees had got an admirable time -clock, by Moore, for which they paid 200_l._, and Mr. Turner, one of -the chairmen of the trustees, got another clock from Dent’s, which cost -105_l._ These two clocks were kept in repair by a competent person, and -corresponded to a second with the Royal Observatory time at Greenwich, -hence every captain of a vessel starting from Ramsgate could carry -the correct time with him. Thus Ramsgate was provided with all the -instruments for ascertaining the correct time, the state of the tides, -together with the barometer, thermometer, the wind and rain gauges, and -everything necessary to indicate the probable state of the weather. - -All harbours ought to be provided with these instruments, and a regular -journal should be kept, forming a careful record of the observations made -from them. After the harbour was transferred to the Board of Trade I -still continued as principal engineer, at the same salary, viz. 315_l._ -per annum and travelling expenses. - -In the middle of the last century a breach was made on the left bank of -the Thames, near the village of Dagenham, and many thousand acres of the -adjacent lowlands were inundated. The most skilful engineers of the day -tried long and in vain to close the breach, but at last it was effected -by Captain Perie, at a cost of 20,000_l._; but although the breach was -closed, and nearly the whole submerged lands relieved from the water, -still a space amounting to about 100 acres, where the breach took place, -has ever since remained covered, and is called Dagenham Lake at the -present day. - -The position of this fine sheet of water being on the London side of the -Thames, its depth varying from 4 to 20 feet below low water of spring -tides, the great depth and width of the river in front of it and its -proximity to London render it admirably adapted for wet or floating -docks. For a long time it passed unnoticed, until, the trade of London -increasing, other docks were established on both sides of the Thames at -and close to London; the enormous cost of these and the high rates which -they were necessarily obliged to charge in order to get anything like -a remunerating dividend for the capital expended, induced enterprising -people to look out for some situation lower down the river where docks -could be established upon more moderate terms, and where consequently -the rates would be much lower. Amongst other places Dagenham Lake -attracted their notice, and very naturally so, for it possessed all -the requisites for making a complete establishment of the kind at a -most moderate cost, far below that which had been expended upon any of -the great dock establishments in London. Who were the first persons -who originated the idea of converting Dagenham Lake into a great dock -establishment I do not know, but amongst others, I am told, was Mr. -George Burge, the well-known contractor, about 1845. Subsequently Mr. -Crampton took up the idea, and proposed to convert Dagenham Lake into a -great dock establishment nearly twenty years ago, but the project never -came to maturity. At last Mr. George Remington, a well-known projector, -entered into it in 1854, and asked me to join him. On investigating -the subject I was satisfied of its intrinsic merits, and agreed to -co-operate in the undertaking. A Bill was therefore obtained in the year -1855 for this purpose. It was simply proposed in the first instance to -connect the Dagenham Lake with the Thames by means of a lock, together -with some small warehouses, landing wharves, and a railway to connect -it with the London and Tilbury line; the whole estimate of what it was -proposed to do there being confined to 120,000_l._, that is to say, -90,000_l._ subscriptions, and borrowing power of 30,000_l._ This, it -must be observed, was merely to commence the undertaking upon a moderate -scale; and it was intended to extend the quays and warehouse room in -proportion as the increased trade required it, for the floating basin -accommodation was equal to that of the largest docks in London, and the -depth of water in the river and in the dock was greater. The dock, if it -could be commenced upon this moderate scale, could not, it is true, have -been considered as a powerful rival to the other dock establishments, but -it would have relieved them from the greatest part of the lumber trade, -which they could not accommodate without great inconvenience and even -loss, such as the timber, guano, hemp, flax, coal trades, &c.; moreover, -it would give accommodation for laying up in ordinary the great number of -vessels which are always more or less unemployed in the port of London. -It is computed that of unemployed vessels there are generally about -150,000 tons; now these vessels, at a penny per ton per week, would -alone return 7000_l._ per annum, and as they require no superintendence -except from their owners, they alone would have paid 5 per cent. upon the -total capital of the Company, and all the other trade would have added -so much more to their income. It was quite clear that it would be to the -interest of all the unemployed vessels to lay up there, because they -could do so at half the expense compared with the other docks; for even -if they were to lie at their moorings in the river, although they would -be charged nothing, still their expenses would be a great deal more. -There was, besides, another trade open to these docks, that could not -be accommodated in any of the others, namely, the foreign cattle trade, -which is every day increasing, and which must continue to increase with -the population of the metropolis. - -The first Act, as I have already said, passed in 1855, and although -several attempts were made to form a company to carry it into effect, -they all failed. In 1862 another Act of Parliament was obtained, as the -original one had nearly expired. In the new Act the powers were enlarged, -and the works were extended to 300,000_l._, with power to borrow -100,000_l._ more; and it was again attempted to form a company to carry -it into effect, but failed. In 1865 a third attempt was made to form a -company, and by the aid of Messrs. Rigby, the well-known contractors of -the great Admiralty harbour at Holyhead, a company was at length formed. -Those gentlemen contracted for the works at a certain price, and agreed -to take a large number of the shares as well in payment. The works -commenced under my direction, in the month of May 1865, and proceeded -very well until the end of March 1866, when the Messrs. Rigby got into -difficulties, and were unable to complete their contract, and the -consequence was that the whole of the works were stopped. The state of -the money market ever since has been so depressed that it has hitherto -been impossible to find the money to carry them on, and thus this really -valuable concern remains still in abeyance. - -In 1866 another Act of Parliament was procured, enabling the Company to -obtain more land and to increase the works, so that ultimately, when -times become favourable, it is very probable that this great undertaking -will be carried out, and will form one of the largest and most important -dock establishments on the banks of the Thames. - -During the year 1866 it was attempted to obtain an Act of Parliament for -making a railway between Romford and the docks. It passed the House of -Commons, but when it got into the House of Lords its supporters drew back -and the Bill was abandoned. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - Retrospect--London Bridge--Sheerness Dockyard--Plymouth - Breakwater and Victualling Yard--Steam Vessels for the - Navy--Harbours--Railways--Broad and Narrow Gauge--Atmospheric - Railway--Water Supply and Sewage. - - -I have thus endeavoured to give, in the foregoing narrative, an account -of my professional and private life as near as my memory would serve. -I have not had a single date, or note-book, or journal to refer to; so -that many inaccuracies may have occurred, particularly with regard to the -dates, although the facts and circumstances are, I believe, pretty fairly -narrated. - -In my professional career I consider that I have executed the following -works: - -I. London Bridge. This was designed by my father, as far as the general -outline and proportions, but he did not live long enough to design any -details, such as the depth of the arch-stones and those of the inverted -arches between the main arches, or the adjustment of them, so that the -whole might be placed in a perfect state of equilibrium, not only as -regards the individual arches, but also with each other; neither was the -width of the foundations of the piers and abutments given, nor the extent -of piling necessary, the cornice and parapets, stairs, pilasters of the -piers and abutments, the construction of the cofferdams and centres; the -specification as to what materials should be used, and how they were to -be put together; the approaches to the bridge on both sides, or how they -were to be designed and put together; all these had to be worked out -and executed by myself. It is true that my brother George gave me his -advice when I required it, but still I was the sole engineer, and the -whole responsibility rested with myself. The execution of these works was -rendered much more difficult than intended by my father, for at his death -the site was that of the old bridge. But the Committee of the Corporation -of London insisted that the new bridge should be built immediately above -the old one, the latter to be left standing during the construction of -the new bridge. I was therefore obliged to build it in the deep hole -above the old bridge, which was from 25 to 30 feet below the level of -low-water mark of spring tides. - -II. The completion of the great works of Sheerness Dockyard. These, as -I have said, had been wholly designed by my father upon an entirely -original and novel plan of hollow walls, which he first carried into -effect at Great Grimsby Docks, in the year 1786. These walls, though -composed of a mass of materials of the same weight as ordinary dock -walls, were distributed over a wider area, and pressed less heavily upon -that surface in proportion to their extent, and therefore the soft, sandy -foundation upon which they were built was able to bear them without -yielding; the increased friction also produced by the increased surface -of their base enabled them to withstand with greater effect the lateral -pressure of the earth behind them; thus a double object was gained, -namely, security against both vertical and lateral pressure. - -When my father died, on the 4th of October 1821, the northern half of -the new dockyard, including the sea wall, the great basin, the three -large dry docks at the west end, and the mast ponds and locks, had been -nearly completed; so that it only remained to fix iron gates for the -dry docks and those of the mast and boat ponds, which had been already -designed and ordered, and were put into their places under my direction. -This portion of the dockyard, although comprising the most extensive and -costly part, was not the most difficult. The most arduous task still -remained, namely, the construction of the northern portion. Here was -the greatest depth of water, varying from 25 to 30 feet at low water of -spring tides, the worst foundation, and the situation was much exposed -to northerly and easterly winds. These obstacles were felt so strongly -by my father, that he originally contemplated carrying out the works by -means of the diving bell; but as so much experience had already been -obtained by the employment of cofferdams in similar constructions, where -they had been very successful, it became a question for my serious -consideration whether it would not be better to use cofferdams for the -northern portion of the dockyard, instead of employing the diving bell, -which would necessarily require much more time. After consulting with -the enterprising contractors, Messrs. Jolliffe, Banks, and Nicholson, -who had completed the works already made, and Mr. John Thomas, the -experienced resident engineer, we came to the unanimous conclusion that -it was perfectly practicable to construct the remainder of the works by -means of cofferdams; and although it would be rather more expensive, -nevertheless they could be done much better and far more speedily than by -the diving bell; and, indeed, they told me that my father had expressed -the same opinion before he died; and that there was little doubt but -that if he had lived he would have recommended cofferdams instead of -the diving bell. I consulted my brother George upon the subject, and he -was of the same opinion. We resolved to recommend that the remainder of -the works should be completed by cofferdams, and the Admiralty approved -of our recommendation. Messrs. Jolliffe, Banks, and Nicholson therefore -undertook the contract for these works at the sum of 845,000_l._, and -gave ample security; and they were most successfully finished for the -sum of 854,000_l._ in round numbers, or at about 9000_l._ beyond the -contract price, our estimate being nearly 900,000_l._; so that they were -actually completed for about 45,000_l._ below our estimate, and fully -three years sooner than they would have been if the diving bell had been -used. Of course the real merit of these works is due to my father; but -I claim some credit for having successfully carried them into effect, -for if any failure had taken place--and there was very great difficulty -and risk--I should have been blamed for it, and probably been ruined at -the outset of my career, as the whole responsibility rested with me; my -brother never went near them. - -III. I finished the Chatham dry docks, commenced by my father, at the -cost of 100,000_l._ In these there was nothing remarkable; after those of -Sheerness they were much less difficult, although of a somewhat similar -kind. - -IV. The next great work was the finishing of the great breakwater in -Plymouth Sound. The chief merit I claim for this is in adding the -benching or berm on the outside, at the base of the sea slope, which -breaks the sea before it reaches the slope and prevents it from acting -injuriously upon it. I also claim a certain portion of the credit -for arranging and executing the paving of the upper surface, and the -dovetailed masonry of the two ends of the breakwater. - -V. The design and execution of the Royal William Victualling -Establishment, at Stonehouse, near Devonport, I claim entirely as my -own, with the exception of the machinery, for which my brother George is -entitled to an equal share of credit with myself. This establishment, -including the cost of the land, amounted, I believe, to between -600,000_l._ and 700,000_l._ - -VI. The great basin, two building slips for first-rates, mast slip, and -the river wall in front, at the Royal Dockyard at Woolwich, costing -340,000_l._ - -VII. In company with Mr. Joseph Whidby, Mr. Walker, and Captain -Fullerton, of the Trinity House, I made a report for removing the bar, -by means of dredging, at the entrance of Portsmouth harbour, upon which -there was only 13 feet at low water of spring tides, which we estimated -at 55,000_l._; and it is singular that this important work was never -carried into effect until many years afterwards, when it proved to be -completely successful as far as it went. The bar was lowered 5 or 6 feet, -and it might be lowered 8 or 10 feet more, so as to enable the largest -class of vessels to enter and depart at low water of spring tides, which -would be of the greatest possible advantage to the public service; and -although the Admiralty have not carried the dredging far enough, still -there is now 18 feet at low water of spring tides, which enables the -largest class of vessels to pass the bar at half tide, instead of only -at high water as before. This fully proves the value and correctness -of our joint report; it only now requires that our recommendation -should be carried further, and there can be little doubt that it will -be successful. This great national harbour will be rendered accessible -at low water, and it ought to be, particularly after the enormous sums -that have been expended upon it, for unless the depth over the bar is -increased all improvements will be comparatively valueless. Mr. Murray -and myself wrote a joint report to the Admiralty, recommending that, in -order to assist the dredging operations over the bar, a sluice should -be erected across the entrance to Langston harbour, with the gates or -doors of the sluice pointing inwards, so that at high water they might be -shut, and all the water, or so much of it as might be required, should be -sent through Portsmouth harbour at ebb tide, to assist in scouring down -the bar. Of course, in order to render these works effective, it would -be necessary to enlarge the connecting channel between Portsmouth and -Langston harbour, so that all the Langston tidal water should flow out -through Portsmouth during the time of ebb. - -The Admiralty up to the present time have not adopted this report. They -must, however, in order to preserve the requisite depth over Portsmouth -bar, do either the one or the other, or both; that is to say, they must -increase the dredging operations, or send more tidal water over it, and -the latter can only be obtained from Langston; as this harbour is of -little commercial value, supposing that any partial silting up should -take place, the depth could be restored by dredging; but if both the -dredging of Portsmouth bar and the additional quantity of tidal water -from Langston harbour should be resorted to, the bar might be kept down -to the depth required, and Langston would not be injured. If these two -operations are skilfully conducted, so as mutually to assist each other, -the result will be successful, and this success is the more necessary, -in consequence of the quantity of land which is now being reclaimed from -Portsmouth harbour for the new works. - -VIII. The great flour mills and biscuit machinery at the Clarence -Victualling Yard, Portsmouth, were designed and executed by my brother -George and myself. The idea of the bread apparatus was proposed by M. -Grout, and worked out by ourselves. The great flour and biscuit mills at -Deptford were also designed and executed by my brother and myself. - -IX. The Thames Tunnel shield; the rolling machinery of the Bombay, the -Calcutta, and the Mexican mints; the machinery at Constantinople for -manufacturing small arms; numerous locomotive engines and tenders for -different railways, amongst them the ‘Satellite,’ for the Brighton -Railway, which was one of the first that travelled at the rate of 60 -miles an hour. The engines and machinery for several of Her Majesty’s -vessels of war, amongst which may be mentioned the ‘Bull Dog,’ the yacht -‘Elfin,’ and others; four iron vessels, engines, and machinery for the -Russian Government for the Caspian Sea, the first that were ever placed -there; two yachts for the Emperor Nicholas; the ‘Vladimir’ frigate; two -large screw vessels of war for the Baltic; three also for the Black Sea; -several for the Danube Company; cranes, sugar mills, diving bells, and -machinery; gantry cranes for the mahogany roofs of the West India Docks; -spinning and all kinds of machinery, from the year 1821 until the year -1852. - -X. The first sea-going screw vessel that was constructed, namely, the -‘Archimedes;’ and also the ‘Dwarf,’ 1839, the first screw vessel of war -that was introduced into the navy. - -XI. I recommended that the use of the Cornish high-pressure condensing -system should be introduced into the steam-vessels of the Royal Navy. -At that time they were entirely upon the system of Boulton and Watt, -when steam was only employed to the extent of 5 lb. pressure upon every -square inch. Now it was well known that the intensity of the power of -steam increased in a much greater ratio than the additional quantity of -fuel required to raise the temperature, so that high-pressure condensed -steam was much more economical than low pressure. There was a good deal -of prejudice against it, in consequence of the decided objections of -Boulton and Watt, and therefore it was not adopted at the time, but by -degrees this prejudice has been overcome, and now steam of 25 to 30 lb. -is employed in the Royal Navy, with great advantage and economy. - -XII. I may also say that I was the means of introducing oscillating -engines into the navy. These I believe were invented by a Mr. Witté, -of Hull, but in consequence of the extreme accuracy required in making -them, and some degree of prejudice against the vibratory action of the -cylinder, this very valuable invention was laid aside. The able and -ingenious Mr. Maudslay took it up, but was dissatisfied with it, and -abandoned it. Mr. John Penn, who had a small establishment for making -machinery at Greenwich, then adopted it, and commenced manufacturing -these engines upon a small scale for the steamboats on the Thames. He -improved on the idea, acquiring the greatest experience in constructing -the engines, and he was convinced that they could be made upon any scale -with equally successful results. It happened about this time that the -Admiralty required new engines of greater power for their official yacht, -the ‘Black Eagle,’ whose speed averaged little more than 8 knots an -hour, and they applied to Boulton and Watt, who had made the old engines -for the ‘Black Eagle.’ They said they could easily make more powerful -engines, but that these would necessarily be heavier, and sink the vessel -lower in the water, when the resistance would be so much increased that -very little additional speed would be gained, and therefore it would be -better to have an entirely new vessel. The Admiralty did not wish to -incur the expense, and the matter was likely to fall to the ground. Penn -heard of this, and, quite uninvited, sent in a tender to make new engines -for the ‘Black Eagle,’ double the power of the old ones, of the same -weight, and occupying the same space, for a sum, not, I think, exceeding -the cost of engines of the same power on the old method. He further -offered, if the Admiralty officers were not satisfied, to take them out, -and replace the old engines at his own expense. I happened to be present -upon other business with the Comptroller of the Navy, Sir Thomas Byam -Martin, when Penn’s tender was sent in, and after reading it he threw it -to me, and said, “Rennie, what do you think of that; should I accept it -or not?” I read Penn’s tender carefully, and knowing something about the -oscillating engine, and having a good opinion of it, I said I thought he -should accept it. “Then,” said he, “I will do so, and if it turns out -badly you shall have the blame.” “Very well,” I replied, “if it turns out -badly I will take the blame.” Penn’s offer was accordingly accepted. The -engines were made and fixed on board; all the conditions of the tender -were fully complied with, and the Admiralty were perfectly satisfied -with their bargain. From that time forward Penn became one of the chief -manufacturers of the Admiralty engines, and has continued to be so up to -the present time. - -The harbours which I made are described in my work on ‘British and -Foreign Harbours’; they were a portion of Kingstown, in Dublin Bay; -Donaghadee, Port Patrick, Port Rush, Warkworth, Sunderland, East -Hartlepool, Whitehaven; nearly rebuilding Ramsgate harbour; Ponta -Delgada, in the Azores. I designed harbours for Oporto; the Mattozenhas; -Viana, Aveiro, Figuera, and St. Ubes, for the Portuguese Government; also -for Douglas, Castleton, Peel, Ramsey, and Laxey, in the Isle of Man, -for the local authorities; and Redoubt Kalé, in the Black Sea, for the -Russian Government. - -XIII. London Bridge; Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens, and Staines Bridges, -besides finishing those at Crammond and New Galloway, designed by my -father. - -I laid out and carried through Parliament the Brighton Railway and the -Black wall Railway, in 1838; also the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, -in conjunction with my brother George, in 1827. In 1838 I designed the -Central Kent Railway, which, by passing through the centre of the county, -connected all the leading towns on the main line, besides reducing the -distance between the metropolis, Dover, and Folkestone to the minimum. - -I also projected a line for the Great Northern in the years 1844-45, -which was admitted to be the best and shortest line; but it unfortunately -failed in consequence of the late Mr. Francis Giles not having completed -the parliamentary surveys. I laid down a railway between Leeds and -Carlisle, that would have materially shortened the distance between the -important manufacturing town of Leeds, Carlisle, Glasgow, and the north -of Scotland; a line between Leeds and Bradford, and another between York -and Scarborough. Another, called the North Wales Railway, between Bangor -and Port Dyllaen, where I designed a capacious harbour and docks, that -would have been of the greatest advantage to Liverpool, avoiding the -dangerous navigation between that place and Port Dyllaen, and affording -an excellent point of departure for Ireland. I also made a design for a -new port for Holyhead, upon the principles laid down by my father, that -would have answered the purpose far better, and have saved in a great -measure the expense that has been incurred by the present ill-contrived -harbour, and which has not answered the object intended. - -In company with my friend Mr. George Remington, I designed the direct -London and Manchester Railway in the years 1844-45; this line would have -reduced the distance between London and Manchester to 176 miles, besides -affording railway communication to a number of the intermediate towns, -such as Bradford, Burton, Leicester, Congleton, and other places that -had not hitherto received the benefit of direct railway accommodation. -This line was pronounced by the Board of Trade to be the most important -and best laid down line that had been brought before Parliament, and -was strongly recommended by them; and it would have been carried, but -unfortunately there was another competing line by Mr. Rastrick, that was -ultimately abandoned by its promoters, who, before doing so, united with -us; but in doing this the reference books containing the names of the -owners and occupiers along both lines became mixed, and the result was, -that seven miles of the reference of the competing line was substituted -for seven miles of our line, and _vice versâ_. This was fatal, and the -Bill was consequently lost; and this valuable line, almost the best of -any in England, could never be resuscitated. The North-Western Railway, -thinking that they were safe from all competition, declined taking up -the line, though their interest imperatively called upon them to do so, -and further, would not unite with nor buy up the Midland from Leeds to -Rugby. The Midland Company then determined to make an independent line to -London, and took the identical course laid down by Remington and myself. -They have become a very formidable rival to the North-Western, and this -is precisely a similar case to that between the South-Eastern and the -London, Chatham, and Dover Companies. If the South-Eastern Company had -only adopted my Central Kent line, which was laid down in 1838, before -they had commenced their present line--and they promised to do so--the -London, Chatham, and Dover Railway would never have been made, and the -county of Kent would have been better served, many millions would have -been saved, and many thousand unfortunate shareholders would have avoided -ruin. - -I laid down lines for the kingdoms of Sweden and Portugal, which have -been more or less adopted, and projected a line from Odessa to Moscow. -Also the London, Brighton, and South Coast as far as Salisbury, and from -thence to Warminster, which has since been adopted. A line from London -to Birmingham, Leeds, and Carlisle; Leeds and Bradford; Dumfries and -Port Patrick; Newry and Enniskillen, in Ireland; Bangor to Port Dyllaen, -North Wales; Cannock Chase line, in Staffordshire, through an undeveloped -coal district, another of my lines which has since been carried into -effect. The East Lincoln, from Lynn to Great Grimsby; the direct London -and Norwich, from Bishop’s Stortford to Thetford, which would have -shortened the distance between London and Norwich and Yarmouth. All these -lines were laid upon the direct principle, that is, taking the shortest -distance that the nature of the intervening country would permit between -the two termini; this principle is now proved to be the correct one, and -if it had only been acted upon before, we may readily conceive the vast -amount of capital which would have been saved, while the counties through -which railways have been made would have received a much greater benefit; -whereas, by the system which has hitherto been adopted, a great number of -unnecessary lines have been constructed, and a constant competition and -rivalry have taken place between the different companies, and now, with -reduced dividends and increased charges, they find out their error, when -it is too late to be remedied. - -Another most important error has been committed by a too narrow gauge -having been adopted. My brother and myself, when we carried the Bill for -the Manchester and Liverpool through Parliament, in the year 1826--and -this may be considered almost the very commencement of the railway -system--after investigating the width between all the various carriage -wheels, whether for goods or passengers, we decided that the width of -gauge from centre to centre of the rails should be 5 feet 6 inches or 6 -feet. When Mr. George Stephenson became the engineer for executing the -line, he decided that the gauge should be only 4 feet 8½ inches from -centre to centre of the railway, for no other reason than that the gauge -between the old colliery rails was 4 feet 8½ inches; hence arose all the -subsequent difficulties. It was quite clear that 4 feet 8½ inches was too -narrow. Brunel, seizing on this mistake, proposed at once to make the -gauge 7 feet from centre to centre of the rails for the Great Western -Railway. This was as evidently too much as Stephenson’s was too little. -The power of a locomotive engine is in proportion to its weight, and -the greater the weight the greater the power, acting as it does by its -adhesion to the rails; and to increase the power of an engine upon the -narrow gauge could only be done with safety by increasing its length; -for if it be done by increasing the height, the centre of gravity would -be raised also, and the motion of the engine would be rendered unsteady; -and by increasing the length the engine would be less adapted for going -round sharp curves. Now in the ordinary traffic of goods, such as -coals, &c., extraordinary velocity was not required, and therefore the -width of the gauge was not of so much consequence, but when it came to -carrying passengers the case was wholly altered. Latterly the coaches -and mails had travelled at the rate of 10 and 12 miles an hour, whereas -goods were seldom carried at the rate of more than 3 miles an hour. If -passengers were to travel by railway it would not be less than 12 miles -an hour, and therefore it was at length necessary to provide for this -velocity, and more; otherwise, as there was a certain prejudice on the -outset against railway travelling, the latter could not expect to have -the preference. But when it was ascertained, as it was at the trial of -engines upon the Rainhill plane of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, -that the imperfect locomotives of that day could go at the rate of 30 -miles an hour, the whole case was changed; the carriage of goods, which -at first was most important, gave way to that of carrying passengers, -and it was evident that the whole system of locomotion, whether of -goods or passengers, must be absorbed by railways. It was therefore -more especially necessary that the question of the gauge should be most -carefully considered. I may be answered, certainly, that the improved -locomotive engines upon the narrow gauge realize a speed of 50 to 60 -miles an hour, and this is fast enough for anything; but then this cannot -be done without incurring greater risk than upon a broader gauge. The -Great Western realize a speed of 45 miles an hour without the least risk, -i.e. including stoppages, whereas the narrow gauge does not do more than -35 to 37 miles an hour, and that probably with a greater wear and tear of -the rails. A medium therefore between the two gauges, that is 5 feet 6 -inches or 6 feet, instead of 4 feet 8½ inches or 7 feet, appeared to my -brother and self the proper gauge; and if such had been adopted we should -never have heard of the 7-feet gauge, and the 5 feet 6 inches or 6-feet -gauge would have been universally adopted, to the great advantage of all. - -Before leaving railways, it may be proper to say something about the -atmospheric system. When an experiment was made on a large scale and -succeeded very well, it was subsequently reduced to practice upon the -Dublin and Bray Railway, between Kingstown and Dalkey, a length of -about 3 miles. Here it succeeded perfectly; the steepest incline was -completely mastered, and the smoothness and luxury of travelling were -unequalled. Brunel afterwards took it up, and employed it upon the South -Devon Railway. There it succeeded also perfectly as far as speed and -luxury of travelling were concerned. The difficulty however of making -the valve in the exhausting tube was so great that it was ultimately -abandoned, after having incurred great expense, and the locomotive system -was again resorted to. The Croydon Railway also adopted it, but gave it -up for the same reason as the South Devon. My brother and myself were -much taken with this system, and made several of the steam engines for -it, that answered their purpose perfectly, and we thought that by a -little more perseverance in it, the difficulties complained of might have -been overcome, but the proprietors would not listen either to Brunel -or ourselves. The Stephensons made a dead set against it, and, taking -the facts at the time, perhaps they were right; but it is very rarely -that a new invention succeeds at the first or second trial: it requires -time to ascertain the defects, and to study more minutely the remedy, -and, after a little while, the cure for the evil is found out. I should -not be surprised if ultimately the atmospheric system comes to life -again: indeed, the very strongest opponents of it have already adopted -it in London, with certain modifications, for conveying the mail bags -in London from the General Post Office to some of the railway stations, -with considerable success, and Mr. Rammell made an experimental line of -this kind at the Crystal Palace. The defects in the original lines were -principally those of workmanship, and can be remedied by degrees, as -is always the case whenever a principle is sound, for it only requires -perseverance to achieve ultimate success. - -XIV. Drainage of lowlands upon a large scale I have carried into effect -in several instances already described. The completion of the Eau Brink -Cut, the designing and making the Norfolk Estuary Cut below Lynn, and the -Marshland works, by means of which from 350,000 to 400,000 acres of land -are drained; the Nene Estuary Cut, by which about 150,000 acres of land -are drained; the improvement of the Witham between Boston and the sea, by -which the drainage of about 250,000 acres has been materially improved; -the Ancholme drainage, by which 50,000 acres of lowlands have been well -drained; altogether amounting to between 800,000 and 900,000 acres. - -XV. I may also say that I have embanked from the estuaries of the -Ouse, the Nene, and the Witham, about 6000 acres of fen land, which is -now more or less under cultivation. I have also laid down a plan, at -present being carried into effect, by which 32,000 additional acres -will be embanked from the estuaries of the Ouse and Nene; and another -plan for embanking 45,000 acres from the estuaries of the Welland and -Witham; indeed, my original plan of 1837 was for embanking from 150,000 -to 200,000 acres of land from the estuaries of the Ouse, Nene, Welland, -and Witham, and the Great Wash; and I have no doubt that in time this -will be effected, and another large and most valuable county--all rich -agricultural land--will be added to the kingdom. I also obtained an Act -for embanking 32,000 acres from the north side of the estuary of the -Thames, near Shoeburyness. I believe that, in addition to this, three -times the amount may be taken from this and other parts of the Thames -estuary. Let to these be added the lands which may be saved from the -estuaries of the Humber, the Forth, the Tay, the Clyde, the Solway, -Morecambe Bay, and the Mersey, altogether from 500,000 to 600,000 acres -of land may be reclaimed, or three large new counties may be added to the -kingdom, capable of producing annually an additional supply of 3,500,000 -quarters of corn, which, at 3_l._ per quarter, would, after deducting -20_s._ per quarter for the cost of production, add a revenue of about -6,000,000_l._ a year to the country. A great deal may be done in this -way also in Ireland. We should, however, deduct a million a year for the -first fifteen years to cover the cost of embankment. The clear annual -gain would be 5,000,000_l._ a year to the country; or, putting it in -another light, the land so acquired would maintain an additional number -of inhabitants. Besides this, large tracts of lowlands adjacent to these -estuaries might be greatly improved in their drainage, in connection with -the reclamation works, which would add considerably to their produce. - -The execution of all these works, besides draining the quantity of land -I have stated, and more than doubling its value, has also very greatly -improved the navigation. - -I also extended the Newry Ship Canal nearly two miles, which has a depth -of 16 to 18 feet, and is 130 feet wide, with an entrance lock 50 feet -wide. I deepened the old canal to Newry, so that large vessels, drawing -nearly 16 to 17 feet, can come up to the town. - -XVI. Soon after my father’s death, in 1821, when I may be said to have -entered my professional career upon my own account, I began to consider -the water question; that is to say, the best mode of economizing water, -so that those districts where it might be most required could be -supplied, as far as the physical geography of those places would render -it practicable. Generally speaking, there falls a certain quantity of -rain in every district during the year, and this, with more or less -regularity, at particular seasons and times. In some places the rain is -periodical, and falls in the course of three or four consecutive months; -in other countries it falls at different times, principally, however, -in the winter and autumn months. Now after the periodical rain is over, -the whole country is deprived of water throughout the remainder, or -about three-fourths, of the year. The remedy for this is to construct -reservoirs in the most convenient places, upon such a scale as the wants -of the country may require; in these reservoirs the surplus waters -should be stored during the periodical rains, to serve as a supply in -the dry season, not only for domestic purposes, but for irrigation, -navigation, &c.; the reservoirs should, in some cases, be covered, and in -others open, even to the extent of making them large lakes. They should -be provided with proper sluices and culverts, open or covered, as may -be required, and best adapted for distributing the water in the most -beneficial manner. - -Having obtained a sufficient supply, the next point to be attended -to is, to take care that the water shall not be polluted: in order to -effect this, in all thickly-peopled districts the sewage should not be -discharged into the river or watercourses, but into separate, isolated, -and well-ventilated tanks, and then be deodorized by mixing it with -earth, or subjecting it to any well-known process for this purpose, and -the refuse should be distributed for manure; thus the sewage, instead of -being a nuisance, will become valuable for agricultural purposes. - -By these means, regulated according to the particular circumstances -of each case, the whole question, viz. economy of water, which is so -very important in every respect, is solved. I have long endeavoured to -make it clearly understood, but in England we are slow to move in a -new direction. The enemy must be at our doors before we are prepared -to meet him, and then we begin in earnest. Such has been the case with -the water question: we carried drainage almost to the utmost extent, so -that the rainwater was discharged into the adjacent watercourses and -rivers with the greatest rapidity and was carried off to sea, and we -thought not a moment that the day would come when we should want it. -The universal cry was, “Only get rid of the water, and all will go on -well.” At the same time all the sewage matter was discharged into the -watercourses, the cry being, “Only get rid of the sewage, and our cities -and towns will be healthy, and we shall hear no more of it;” little -thinking that the streams would be polluted, and that water when most -wanted would not be forthcoming, and that even the moderate quantity -that could be obtained would be unfit for domestic purposes. The Thames -and all the great rivers and streams were converted into common sewers, -threatening to spread pestilence around them. The water that was to be -obtained for domestic purposes was polluted to such an extent, that -the malaria caused by the foul state of the watercourses was increased -by drinking the contaminated water that we fondly expected we had -got rid of. At last the public opened their eyes, and asked how all -this had arisen; then commissioners of all kinds were appointed by the -Government to investigate these important questions; and what is the -result? Precisely that which I mentioned years ago, namely, 1. That means -must be established for economizing water and for affording an ample -supply at all times. 2. That all sewage matter must be diverted or be -prevented from being discharged into the watercourses. 3. That as far as -practicable the sewage matter must be utilized for manuring the land. -All these three propositions, which constitute the whole elements of -these important questions, are now being carried into effect by Acts of -Parliament; better late than never, for if these terrible evils had been -allowed to exist much longer the consequences would have been most fatal. - -About four years ago I wrote two letters to ‘The Times,’ which were -printed in that journal, embodying my views upon this subject in a -detailed manner, according to the principles above described. I am -extremely glad that at the eleventh hour the subject is beginning to -be thoroughly understood, and it is to be hoped that now the proper -remedy will be employed; it is contained in the principles that I have -recommended for the last forty years. I may not perhaps claim the merit -of the whole; but this I must say in justice to myself, that I have -contributed in some degree to direct attention to the subject, and I most -sincerely trust that, having been made conscious of its importance, the -public will not be content until the question has been thoroughly sifted, -and the evils complained of successfully remedied. Up to the present -time neither compensating reservoirs for the due supply of water during -the dry seasons have been made, nor, with a few solitary exceptions, has -the sewage been excluded from the rivers, nor have the watercourses been -properly improved so as to prevent inundations of the adjacent lowlands. -In fact, the authorities have only just begun to get an idea of what -is required to obtain an ample supply of good water; but the more they -investigate the subject, the more they will find that only upon a right -understanding of the principles above recommended can this supply be -procured. Sewage matter has now been recognized as a fertilizing agent, -and the only points undecided with regard to it are the best modes of -deodorization, so as not to injure its manuring value, and the most -suitable method of applying it to the land, whether in a liquid or in a -solid state. - -With regard to water for domestic use, considerable progress has been -made: the water is conducted into covered reservoirs, where it is -excluded from the action of the atmosphere; it is also filtered, so that -all the alluvial and tangible vegetable matters are excluded; and the -best method of separating from it those injurious ingredients with which -it is chemically combined has made great progress. These, no doubt, -are considerable advantages gained, but unless the means of obtaining -an ample supply be used, the other advantages will be comparatively of -little service. It is true they will be valuable as far as they go, but -if there be a deficient supply of water, there will remain a great deal -to be remedied, therefore it will be necessary to secure an ample supply -by means of open reservoirs. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - - The Formation of Natural Breakwaters--The Society of Civil - Engineers--The Education of a Civil Engineer--Some Hints on - Practice--Estimating. - - -In the introduction to my work on ‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ I have -suggested a method by which shoals formed by alluvial deposits in the -open sea might be converted into effective breakwaters, so as to become -harbours of refuge; or the means of removing them altogether. It is well -known that many existing shoals form, to some extent, safe roadsteads at -certain times of tide, e.g. the Goodwin Sands, the banks outside Yarmouth -Roads, the banks off the coast of Holland, and many other places. These -are generally formed off alluvial shores, where the meeting of opposing -currents causes an eddy or line of stagnation, and the alluvial matter -held in suspension is deposited, forming a bank, according to the extent, -width, and direction of the eddy. In some instances, as in the case of -deltas of rivers, and along coasts where the waters are densely charged -with alluvial matter, these shoals, by continual deposit, are raised -to the level of high water of neap tides, when a succession of marine -vegetation appears on the surface, finally becoming a rich grass marsh; -except under special circumstances, the land is seldom raised higher, and -where there is no flow of tide the same result takes place at the medium -level of the waters. - -In other cases, as in the open sea, where the waters are exposed to -violent agitation by the wind, these deposits not only rarely reach the -level of high water, but, except under particular circumstances, seldom -exceed the level of half-tide, and often the banks remain many fathoms -below low water, though even in their lowest state they are far above the -bottom of the sea. As all these banks are composed of alluvial matter, we -can only ascribe the different levels, first, to the variable quantity of -alluvium with which the waters are charged; secondly, to the degree of -agitation to which the waters are exposed; and thirdly, to the velocity -and extent of the opposing currents which produce the banks. Having -thus stated generally the causes that produce these banks, I now come -to my proposition, namely, the best mode of utilizing them for making -harbours of refuge, or the method for clearing them away where they may -be injurious. - -With regard to the first, it is only necessary to increase the power of -the depositing eddy by means of artificial works, to raise the banks -to any height required; by this means they may be rendered permanent -breakwaters at the least expense. Secondly, where these shoals are -injurious they may be removed by diverting the course of one or both -currents, so that the line of stagnation shall be destroyed; the action -of the sea will then gradually remove the shoal. Thus we have the means -in our power of converting these sandbanks into most valuable harbours -of refuge, or of removing them where they are found to be injurious. -This I do not pretend to call an invention, but simply an idea, and -I am not aware that it has been suggested before. Modern engineers -have not sufficiently directed their attention to the construction of -harbours. It is a very simple affair to build piers or breakwaters of -any extent, provided the requisite means are forthcoming, but it is a -totally different thing to ascertain whether, after these works have been -constructed, they will answer the purpose originally intended. - -When President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, during the years -1845-6-7, I drew up detailed reports of the history of the profession -from its commencement in Great Britain up to that time, showing what had -been done in every department, by whom, and at what date. These reports -are published in their ‘Transactions.’ Subsequent presidents have to -some extent adopted a similar course; but with all due respect to them, -they have not taken that large and scientific view of the profession of -a civil engineer which it is imperatively necessary to adopt in order to -keep the profession up to that high tone which its importance requires, -not only for its own credit, but for the benefit of the world at large. -Perhaps there is no profession (with all proper respect to others) that -has conferred so much benefit upon mankind as that of the civil engineer. -Its objects are clearly defined in the two mottoes belonging to the -Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, which was the first of the kind -established in this country, having originated with Smeaton, Mylne, -and my father, namely, “_Omnia numero pondere et mensurâ_;” Ὦν φύσει -κρατοῦντες τέχνῃ νιχώμεθα. Up to that date the profession of a civil -engineer may be said to have been unknown in Great Britain; previous to -that time we were simply known as “_vulgar mechanics_”--men who toiled -with their hands, as masons, bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, &c. -But those who so called us would have entertained a very different -idea of the “mechanics” if they had been forced to dispense with their -services. Let me ask how could the various and complicated operations -which alone render modern trade, and therefore modern civilization, -possible, be carried on without the aid of the mechanic, _alias_ the -civil engineer? - -The object of the Smeatonian Society was merely a social gathering in -the form of a club, to assemble the members at dinner at certain times, -when they could discuss in a friendly manner the various subjects -connected with their profession, and to endeavour to obliterate all -those rivalries and jealousies which unfortunately are too common -amongst professional men of all classes. The society was to serve as a -rallying point for the profession, and it was believed that when their -members increased sufficiently (for there was little more than a dozen -engineers in the kingdom at the time who were counted as such) the -society might extend its usefulness by reading papers, discussing them, -and publishing them regularly to the world, in the same manner as the -already established scientific societies; this has since been done by -the Institution of Civil Engineers. But I think the time has now arrived -when that Institution should be enlarged, and take a wider sphere. It -has hitherto been confined too much to the class practising purely -engineering works; but the mechanical engineers now form a body which -must be treated with every deference. It is very true that the latter -are freely admitted into the institution, but there seems to be a tacit -understanding amongst the former that they should not attain the honour -of becoming presidents and vice-presidents. It is true that the late Mr. -Field, a most distinguished mechanical engineer, was elected president, -and served his time; but this, I believe, arose more from his having been -one of the earliest members of the institution than from any respect -due to the particular class of the profession to which he belonged. -Now there cannot be a greater mistake than this. Every member of that -institution, to whatever class he belongs, from the moment he is elected -should be in every respect upon precisely the same footing as those -who are now considered the governing class, and the ablest man should -be chosen from each grade as president or vice-president alternately, -so that each department should successively occupy the chair. Also, -instead of choosing the president and council by rotation, according to -seniority, the acknowledged best men in every department should be chosen -as officers. And further, the institution thus regulated should have -the power of giving certificates of competency after the candidates for -admission have been duly examined by independent examiners; and until -they have received these certificates they should not be allowed to -practise. This is the rule in every other learned profession, and there -can be no reason why it should not be adopted by the engineers. It is the -only method by which it can take rank amongst the learned professions; -and as no other requires more scientific knowledge, or is entrusted with -a greater portion of responsibility or a larger amount of trust, or where -failure becomes more disastrous, it is quite clear that no man should be -allowed to practise it unless he has passed a proper examination, and has -received a certificate of competency from proper authorities. - -Against this proposal it may be argued, that many illiterate men, -although of great original genius, would be excluded if their competency -were tried by such a test. My reply is, let them not be tried only -by the ordinary rules of scientific books, but also by the general -principles which the candidate professes, and let those principles be -tested, to prove how far they are in accordance with sound philosophy. -A man like Stephenson or Brindley, although illiterate, may understand -these principles perfectly, and yet may not be able to explain them. -Nevertheless, let him be examined, but in a different manner from the -ordinary routine, and it will soon be discovered whether his profession -and his practice are founded upon true mechanical and philosophical -principles. - -If these examinations are properly conducted every possible objection -will be abolished, and no scientific educated engineer, or any illiterate -person of true scientific genius, will be prevented from pursuing the -profession, whilst only the speculator and charlatan will be excluded. -By this means the public will be assured that the works for which they -subscribe the funds will be conducted in the best manner, and most -probably to a successful termination. At present, the system upon which -public works are carried on is wholly wrong. There is no system. Any -man without business, competent or not, dubs himself engineer, starts a -project, well or ill founded, as the case may be, _generally the latter_, -and issues a prospectus to the public, to obtain the necessary funds to -carry his proposal into effect. Next he gets a contractor to back him -by taking a certain number of shares, provided that he has the contract -at his own price. The shares he looks upon as good for nothing, and -therefore adds so much more to his ordinary profits, so that instead of -receiving 10 or 12 per cent. upon his cost price, which is the usual rule -of the trade, he gets double, with the shares into the bargain, all of -which is added to the capital of the undertaking; and in order to carry -into effect this wasteful policy, the contractor generally stipulates for -two or three of his own nominees to be placed upon the board, to “_look -after_” his interests, so that, in point of fact, he pays himself pretty -nearly what he likes. The engineer, who ought to be his master, loses -all control over him, and in many cases becomes little better than his -servant. This is certainly a most discreditable state of things, and has -been the cause of the most wasteful expenditure, and the ruin of many -valuable undertakings, and it will always continue to be the case so long -as the present system prevails. - -The real object of the civil engineer is to promote the civilization -of the world, by the proper application of all the great mechanical -means at his command, and to take a high, independent position as a -scientific man, thoroughly versed in his profession both theoretically -and practically, and wholly independent of contractors, and all sinister -influences. Unless he can do this, he never will be held in that esteem -and respect, or take that high position without which no professional -man can properly discharge the duties that he owes to himself and to the -public. - -Against what I have said it may perhaps be urged that I assign too high a -place to the profession to which my father and myself have had the honour -to belong; but I think that when the subject has been calmly and fairly -considered it will be generally admitted that I have not done so without -reason. Without wishing for a moment to depreciate the merits of any -other body of men, I think it will be conceded that the objects proposed -by the engineer, and the acquirements, knowledge, and experience that he -must possess before he can practise successfully, are at least equal to -those of any other profession, particularly after the practical examples -exhibited to the world of the great benefits that engineering has already -conferred upon mankind. Therefore are we entitled to be ranked amongst -the most learned professions, and to receive all the honours they have -most justly earned; and I trust the time is not far distant when this -justice will be accorded to them. - -Before concluding this sketch of my career I will offer a few -observations as to what I consider, from my experience, the best plan -of education for the profession of a civil engineer. Hitherto there has -been no regular system. A youth leaves school about the age of seventeen -or eighteen, without any previous training, and his parents, thinking -that he has got a mechanical turn, as it is termed, decide at once to -make him a civil engineer, whether he likes it or is fit for it or not. -They then send him, with a considerable premium, to an engineer of some -standing and practice, who, unless special conditions are made (and -very few engineers will make them), will not undertake to teach him the -profession. The pupil is sent into the office, and placed under the -direction of the principal assistant, who directs him to do whatever is -required, if he can do it, whether drawing, writing, or calculating, or -anything else; and if he wishes to learn anything, he must find it out -himself: neither the principal nor assistant explains the principles or -reasons of anything that is done. If he prove to be steady, intelligent, -and useful, keeps the regular office hours, and evinces a determination -to understand thoroughly the why and wherefore of every kind of work -that is brought before him, and by this means acquires some practical -knowledge, he will soon attract the notice of his employer, and will -be gradually transferred from one department to another, until the -expiration of his pupilage, which varies from three to four years; then, -if he really has acquired a competent knowledge of the profession, and -the employer thinks his old pupil can be of further service to him, he is -engaged at a moderate salary, to be employed in such capacity as he is -fit for. If during his pupilage he has made but little progress, nothing -beyond mere routine, he is discharged with a certificate according to his -merits, and sent into the world, to find his way forward as best he can. - -Now it should be understood that the pupil only learns one part of his -business, such as the construction of railways, canals, improvement of -rivers, docks, drainage, harbours, and waterworks, and the buildings -connected with them; but there is another and very important part of -civil engineering, namely, _the mechanical department_, of which he -remains totally ignorant. Nor will he gain any insight into the raising -of coals, iron, or any other geological product. Now, in order to form -a good civil engineer, in my opinion it is absolutely necessary that he -should be well acquainted with all these different branches. To this -it may be replied, that it is not necessary an engineer should be -acquainted with all departments of the profession, but only with the -one to which he intends more particularly to devote himself. Now this -is a very great mistake, for they are all so intimately connected, that -without having a general knowledge of the whole you cannot practise -in any one department with complete success; for whenever you have to -rely upon the resources of another department you can never make sure -of being thoroughly well served, unless you are yourself a tolerable -judge of work. I repeat, then, that an engineer who has studied only -one department cannot be termed properly educated. And the question -arises, what is the best mode of education for a pupil to obtain this -multifarious, and, as I contend, absolutely necessary, information, to -enable him to practise the profession of a civil engineer in the most -enlightened, scientific, and practical manner? My answer is this: Let -him first get a sound elementary education in the several departments of -arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, geography, geology, -astronomy, chemistry, land and hydrographical surveying, as well as -grammar, English composition, history, French, German, and Latin, -according to the improved system of modern education; every youth of -ordinary talents has a tolerably fair knowledge of these at seventeen or -eighteen. What then should be the training for an engineer? First let him -go through the best course of modern education at his command, including -the elements of geometry, mathematics, and the physical sciences, not -excluding Latin and Greek, in spite of the prejudice against them now -frequently expressed. Then let him be apprenticed for two or three years -to some good steam engine and machinery manufacturer, where he should -learn to make drawings and calculations, handle tools, make models, -steam-engine machinery, and put machinery together. By this means, -if he applies his mind to it properly, he may become a practical as -well as theoretical mechanician, which is the soundest basis for good -engineering; indeed, without this it is impossible for an engineer to be -thoroughly successful, but being well grounded in this most important -knowledge, all the others will become comparatively easy. Having gone -through this apprenticeship, let him bind himself for three or four years -to some well-known civil engineer, of large practice in railways, docks, -harbours, waterworks, canals, drainage, rivers, &c. In this office the -pupil will learn everything connected with these departments, and as -they are founded more or less upon practical mechanics, he will soon -find that from his previous mechanical education he has already acquired -considerable knowledge of them, and it will only be necessary to apply -those principles, modified according to the particular circumstances -required: in fact, the principles are the same, although applied upon a -larger scale. - -In laying down a railway the young engineer will have to consider the -particular local, geographical and geological features of the country -through which the line is to pass, and the extent of mechanical power -that will be necessary to work it effectually, consistent with the cost -of making the cuttings and embankments. Here is a purely mechanical -question, which the pupil’s previous instruction will enable him to -decide, and which he could not do without this instruction. - -If it be a question of improving a river, the quantity of water flowing -through it, the inclination of its bed, the extent and levels of the -district which it has to drain, will reduce themselves to the laws of the -pressure and movement of fluids, which are explained under the general -theorems of hydraulics and hydrostatics, supplemented by certain rules -derived from practical experience, such as friction, &c. - -Again, if it be the making of a harbour, the student must first -thoroughly examine the nature of the locality, that is, its geographical -position and geological character. As regards the former, whether the -harbour is to be at the mouth of a river, whether that river discharges -its waters into a bay, or through a projecting exposed line of coast -where the main tidal currents run continuously and rapidly past it. With -regard to the latter, whether the adjacent coasts be flat and alluvial; -or elevated, but still composed of soft alluvial or sandy and calcareous -soil, easily abraded or worn away by the passing currents; or whether -they be composed of the harder or primary rocks. He must also carefully -consider the strength and the direction of the currents. All these -various conditions must be carefully weighed before coming to a decision. - -In constructing close harbours, the same observations must be made. Each -of these cases requires a totally different kind of treatment, and the -correct method can only be ascertained by a thorough investigation and -knowledge of the local circumstances, such as winds, tides, currents, -coasts, &c., so that the harbour when constructed may afford every -facility for ingress and egress, safety when within, and not be liable to -any deposit. - -In order to give the requisite supply of water to canals it is imperative -that sufficient reservoirs should be established chiefly at the high -level if possible, also at each intervening ascent and descent; but -it is most desirable that there should be only one high level, and -generally speaking this may obtained; but when, from particular local -circumstances, this cannot be done, then the high levels, even at -considerable extra expense, should be reduced to as few as practicable. -The same may be said with regard to railways, but in the case of canals -it is always absolutely necessary that there should be reservoir space -to supply the greatest amount of lockage that may be required during -the season when there is the least quantity of rainfall. The rainfall in -any given district may always be ascertained by proper rain gauges; and -whenever it has been found that there is no probability of obtaining a -sufficiency of water to pass the amount of trade that may be expected -over any given length of canal, then the high level must be lowered -sufficiently to obtain the required supply. When, from peculiar local -circumstances, this cannot be done, then it will become necessary to -erect steam engines of the requisite power to pump back the water from -the lower to the higher levels. But as a rule it will be found, that by -laying out a canal properly, and by storing sufficient water to answer -all the required lock supply at proper places, pumping back will only be -necessary in extreme cases. This, however, is a question of detail that -will be governed by the local circumstances of each particular case. -With regard to the construction of canals, that must be regulated by -the quantity of trade to be passed, and the charges that it will bear; -but, within certain limits, the larger the canal the better. In the case -of ship canals for seaborne vessels, it is advisable to construct them -wherever they can be made at a reasonable cost, and there is traffic -enough to pay a fair interest upon the capital. - -In the drainage of extensive districts of lowlands, whether bordering -upon rivers or otherwise, it is the better plan, with some exceptions, -to divide the lowland from the highland waters, and to discharge them by -separate outfalls; because if they are both discharged by one outfall, -the highland water, coming from a higher level, and naturally having the -greatest velocity, will force its way first to the outfall, and until -it is discharged the lowland water cannot get off, but will accumulate -upon and inundate the adjacent lands. Again, if only one outfall be -provided, a much more extensive system of main and interior drains -will be required, as these latter must serve as reservoirs to contain -both waters until they can be discharged by the common outfall; but by -keeping them distinct from each other, the highland water may readily be -discharged into the upper part of the rivers or watercourses, whilst the -lowland water may be made to discharge itself at the lowest point the -outfall will admit of, and will get off before the highland water can -reach it. Moreover, the highland water, being discharged so much higher -up the watercourses or rivers, will scour out their channels as well as -the outfall, prevent them from filling up, and preserve them in the best -state both for drainage and navigation. These catchwater drains for the -highland waters will also be found very useful for supplying the lowland -districts with fresh water for cattle, domestic purposes, and irrigation -during the summer and dry seasons, when fresh water is so much needed for -the lowlands. This system was first introduced by my father, in 1805, in -the drainage of the extensive district of lowlands bordering upon the -river Witham, between Boston and Lincoln, amounting to about 150,000 -acres. - -Generally speaking, before attempting to improve the interior drainage of -any lowland district, it is necessary, in the first place, to examine the -state of the outfall, and how far it is capable of improvement; before -this is ascertained it is impossible to lay down any effectual plan. In -order to make the outfall effective it should be improved to the greatest -extent practicable, so that the low-water line or level may be reduced -to the lowest point. Having done this, the interior drainage may be laid -out accordingly. When this is combined with the catchwater system above -described, the drainage may be rendered as complete as possible, as far -as it can be upon the natural principle of gravitation. When the water -cannot be discharged from the outfall at all times by gravitation, we -must enlarge the main and tributary drains, so that they may serve as -reservoirs to contain the drainage water during the time that the outfall -sluice is closed in consequence of the water in the river or the sea, -where the outfall sluice may be placed, being higher than the level of -the water in the main and interior drains. No land can be considered as -properly drained unless the surface of the water in the adjacent drains -can be kept from 2 to 3 feet below the surface of the adjacent lands -at all times. There must be no stagnation of water; at the same time -there must always be the means, as far as practicable, of supplying the -land with that proper degree of moisture necessary for nourishing the -soil, either from the direct rainfall or from the water discharged into -the catchwater drains from the adjacent highlands; and if these be not -sufficient, then they may be supplemented by reservoirs of the proper -dimensions attached to them. The best mode of arranging this is, of -course, a matter of detail, keeping always in view the great principle of -a thorough drainage and an ample supply of fresh water. The system that I -have above explained is based upon the soundest principles of theory and -practice, and therefore I feel no hesitation in recommending it. - -With regard to the sewerage and drainage of towns, the same principle -may be adopted, modified according to local circumstances. The drains -here will require greater fall or inclination. The sewage should not -be discharged into the watercourses, but into separate depôts at a -proper distance from the dwellings. These depôts should be thoroughly -ventilated, and the sewage deodorized by mixing it with earth, or some -other suitable substance, that will not impair its value, and then it may -be sold for manure; and thus instead of becoming a nuisance it may be -turned to profitable account. - -All rivers in densely populated countries should have their flood waters -stored in capacious reservoirs, with proper sluices, in the main or -adjacent subsidiary valleys, so that during the dry seasons there may -be always an ample supply of good water for domestic and agricultural -purposes, irrigation, and navigation. The reservoirs will also be -advantageous in preventing the too frequent inundations and consequent -devastation caused by floods. - -In waterworks gravitation should be adopted wherever practicable, so -that the source of supply shall be placed at such an elevation that it -may command the highest part of the buildings to be supplied, thus all -artificial power for pumping will be avoided. But in most cases, except -where natural lakes can be found, it will be necessary to make settling -or filtering reservoirs, from which the water when sufficiently pure -may be delivered into the supply reservoirs, and both of these should -be capacious enough to contain a sufficient supply for a month, more -or less, according to the particular local circumstances. Last, but -not least, the quality of the water for the proposed supply should be -thoroughly tested chemically, in order to ascertain its purity; it should -be as soft as possible, and be free from vegetable as well as all other -matter prejudicial _to health_; and it must be obtained in sufficient -quantity to guarantee a supply of thirty gallons a day to each inhabitant -of the town, with the means of augmenting the supply at the same rate for -any increase of inhabitants. The conduit which is to supply the service -reservoir should be covered throughout, as well as the service reservoir, -which of course should be occasionally cleansed; the other, or settling -reservoir, near the fountain head, need not be covered if made large -enough; that also should be cleansed as often as is necessary. - -Where the water cannot be supplied by means of gravitation, then the -artificial method of pumping by steam engines or water-wheels, or other -means, must be adopted; but in this case also settling, filtering, -and service reservoirs must be employed, as already described. It is -unnecessary to remark that in all cases the reservoirs and conduits -should be made thoroughly water-tight and impervious to any drainage -water from the adjacent districts. - -Docks may be divided into two classes, viz. floating and dry docks; the -former may be designated as enclosed spaces filled with water, penned up -to such depth as may be required for floating vessels of all classes. -These docks or basins must be rendered water-tight, and in most cases it -is necessary to surround them with nearly vertical walls, to economize -space and to enable vessels to come alongside and discharge and receive -cargoes. - -With regard to the situation of these docks and designing the plans for -them, this depends upon the local circumstances and the requirements of -the particular class of vessels that they are to accommodate, and the -trade that is to be carried on in them. Without a thorough knowledge of -all these circumstances it is impossible to give anything like a correct -opinion as to their dimensions, mode of designing them, or any other -particulars. I may say generally, however, that as these docks are always -situated contiguous to some river or harbour, either with or without the -tidal ebb and flow, the position and direction of the entrances to the -docks become of the greatest importance, in order that they may not be -too much exposed, and that vessels may be enabled to enter and depart -with the greatest facility; and in such part of the river or harbour -where there is the greatest depth of water and the best channel outwards -and inwards. There should also, as far as possible, be the means of -supplying the basins with clear water, in order to diminish the amount -of deposit within; there should also be a smaller or entrance basin -adjoining the outer lock, the level of water in which can be more readily -adjusted with that of the adjacent river or harbour, so that vessels may -be taken into the docks with the greatest despatch out of the reach of -the currents in the outer harbour, and without the necessity of lowering -the surface of the water in the inner basin. - -Floating docks in general should have dry docks attached to them, for the -purpose of repairing vessels; and these dry docks should communicate by -means of a tunnel or culvert with the tidal river or harbour. - -With regard to the warehouse accommodation for receiving and delivering -the different classes of merchandise brought to or taken out of the -vessels frequenting the docks, these should as far as possible be made -fire-proof, and should be properly adapted for the reception of the -different articles placed in them, so that they may be stowed away in the -most convenient manner and be readily accessible. Where space will permit -it is desirable to keep the warehouses as low as possible; by this means -the damage in the event of fire will be greatly reduced, and the expense -of taking in and delivering goods considerably diminished, and the cost -of construction lessened also. - -Between the warehouses and the edge of the dock there should be -sufficient space for a road all round the warehouses; and between the -road and the edge of the dock there should be landing-sheds, so that the -cargoes of vessels, when discharged, may be placed there, to be examined -and sorted, and from thence taken away to their destination, or delivered -into the warehouses, as occasion may require. All inflammable articles, -such as oils, naphtha, turpentine, tar, pitch, jute, hemp, flax, &c., -should be stowed away in low warehouses or covered sheds, completely -isolated, and with the interior divided into distinct compartments, -with access round each. These compartments should be no larger than -necessary. Railways should be laid along all the quays, and should be -carried through the ground floors of the whole of the warehouses, while -the upper floors should also have rail or tramways through each division -of goods, with the necessary turn-tables at their intersection with each -other. These railways should be worked either by steam power or horse -traction, as may be most advisable. All the quays and warehouses should -be supplied with a sufficient number of cranes, of the requisite strength -to lift and stow away the heaviest goods. These cranes should be worked -either by hydraulic, steam, vacuum, manual, or animal power, as may be -most advisable; in fact, they should be so designed that they may be -worked either by the one or the other, as may be required. - -Fresh water should be laid round all the quays and warehouses, through -iron or glazed earthen pipes, and there should always be an ample supply, -either for vessels frequenting the docks, or for extinguishing fires; -and for this purpose capacious tanks or reservoirs should be established -at the most convenient places; and if these reservoirs cannot be made at -a sufficient height so as to command the highest warehouses, then the -water should be forced through the hose attached to the supply-pipes -by steam or other power, as shall be found most advisable. Gas, also, -in properly fitted pipes, should be distributed over the quays and -warehouses, and the movable lights should be as few as possible; those -that are used should be properly guarded, so that all risk of fire from -them may be avoided. No lucifer-matches should be permitted in any part -of the establishment, nor should smoking be allowed. By these means the -probabilities of fire will be reduced; and if, notwithstanding these -precautions, a fire should break out, there will be the most ample -provision for extinguishing it in the shortest possible time, and with -the least damage to the property. - -With regard to architecture, that strictly belonging to the office of the -civil engineer is of the most simple character. The buildings should be -laid out in the best manner, and the most convenient for their respective -purposes, and thoroughly substantial. At the same time, their exterior -appearance should possess a certain degree of symmetry and dignity, so as -to impress upon the spectator the idea that they are thoroughly adapted -for their purpose. The materials should be chiefly iron, stone, and -brick; and timber should only be used when absolutely necessary. At the -same time, although it is not altogether necessary, the civil engineer -should have a thorough knowledge of the five orders of architecture, -and the mode of applying them; the principles of constructing and -equilibrating arches of all kinds must be thoroughly understood; and if -he intends to combine the practice of domestic and public architecture -with that which is only strictly necessary for civil engineering, then he -must enter more largely into the subject, and study the different ancient -and modern styles of building. - -Surveying and levelling will also form an important part of his -duties. In order to understand them it is necessary that he should -know thoroughly plane and spherical trigonometry, and the calculations -necessarily connected with them. He should also have a certain knowledge -of astronomy, to enable him to calculate the tides and other phenomena -connected therewith, and to be able to lay down correct charts of any -harbour or sea coast, with the soundings, currents, and winds prevailing -there. - -Geology will form another important department of study, without which he -cannot understand the nature of the materials that he will have to deal -with, such as stone, lime, cements, earths, &c.; the angles at which they -will stand in making deep cuttings and embankments; the best and most -durable kind to be employed in any particular work, the proper mode of -working it, and how to place it in the best position so as to resist the -effects of the atmosphere or running water, the concussion of waves, &c., -in the most effectual manner. The study of geology will further enable -him to account for the formation of shoals and any given line of coast, -together with the operation of the currents upon them, and the best mode -of remedying their disastrous effects; also the best plan for designing -and constructing harbours on each particular coast or situation. - -Again, by having a thorough knowledge of the strata and formation of any -given district of country, he will be enabled to ascertain where water -may be found, and in what quantity; and if he practises mining, he will -be able to predict with tolerable certainty where different kinds of -minerals may be obtained, such as coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, gold, -silver, &c., and the mode of working them to the greatest advantage. - -In fact, geology combined with mineralogy he will find to be of most -essential service in almost every department of civil engineering. - -_Embankments._--This is another department of engineering which requires -a good deal of skill and judgment, particularly along an exposed open -coast, where lowlands are to be protected against the encroachments of -the sea. The first point is to select the line of embankment in such a -manner that there shall always be in front of it a good foreshore, so -that the force of the sea may be broken before it reaches the embankment; -that is to say, where practicable, to have a certain extent of green or -outlying marsh in front of it, so that the embankment when completed -will seldom have a head of water to contend with at high tide of above -six or seven feet. And even with this moderate depth at high water, when -exposed to the action of a heavy gale of wind, there will for three or -four hours be a considerable broken sea, calculated to do a great deal -of damage, if the embankment be not properly constructed. Now, if the -embankment have a good green foreshore in front, with sea slope of about -5 or 6 to 1, well sodded up, a facing of clay about 18 inches thick, 6 -feet above the highest level of spring tides, the top being 6 feet wide, -with back slopes of 2 to 1, with a back ditch 10 feet from the foot -of the inner slope, the interior of the embankment being composed of -sound earth well rammed or pressed together, so as to make it solid--an -embankment of this kind will be able to resist such a pressure as we may -ordinarily expect it to be exposed to. - -There may be extraordinary cases where this will not be sufficient. When -these occur it will be necessary to pave the surface with stone, about 9 -inches thick, or with fagots. The former is, however, decidedly the best -plan, as it will be permanent, whereas fagots are constantly rotting, and -require renewal. - -If the sea shows a tendency to carry away the foreshore, it must be -prevented, by means of jetties so disposed as to collect the alluvial -matter held by the sea water in suspension. These, if properly designed -and constructed, will generally have the desired effect. - -In cases where the water outside is deep and the sea face of the -embankment may be exposed to a head of water of 12 feet and upwards, -much greater precautions must be taken to guard against accident. The -sea slopes of the embankment must be increased to 7 or 9 to 1, well -faced with clay and paved with stone, having the foreshore in front well -protected with jetties. In fact, no two cases will be alike: each must -be treated separately according to the particular local circumstances, -and therefore it is impossible to design a proper plan for any embankment -without knowing all the local circumstances. The general principle is -that the sea face of the embankment should never be less than from 4 -or 5 to 1. In some particular cases a less slope will do, say 3 to 1. -This, however, certainly depends upon local circumstances. The base of -the outer slope should be particularly watched, and if any crack appears -to be forming, it should be immediately stopped by jetties carried out -as far as necessary. In forming embankments it is usual, when it can -be done, to take the earth from the outside of the sea slope, but this -should never be done within less than 10 yards from the base of the -slope, and these “_floor pits_,” as they are termed, should generally not -exceed 12 to 18 inches in depth, and be increased in width in proportion -to the quantity of earth required for the bank; at every 10 or 15 yards, -in the longitudinal direction, the earth should not be removed, but left -to form small cross banks between the floor pits, so as to prevent any -current being formed in them; thus these floor pits will soon be filled -up by the alluvial matter brought in by the tide, when the outside slopes -of the bank are neither exposed to the heavy lash of the waves nor to -strong currents. Then if they are covered with good grass sods properly -laid on and beaten into the face of the bank it may suffice, but not -otherwise. If this should not answer the slope must be increased and, if -necessary, paved with stone as above mentioned. When good clay cannot be -obtained to face the bank, then the best of the earth that can be got -must be employed, mixed with straw, well puddled with water, and laid -upon the surface of the bank in a moist state about 18 inches thick, and -then faced with stone about 9 inches thick, well rammed edgeways into it. -In cases where it is necessary to protect any line of coast against the -ravages of the ocean, the measures to be adopted will depend upon the -form and geological character of the coast to be so protected, whether -low flats and alluvial, or cliffs composed of rocks more or less hard, -and easily acted upon by the waves, rain, and atmosphere. In the former -case it will generally be found that the coast is surrounded by extensive -flat sands, and that the water holds a large quantity of alluvial matter -in suspension. The great object, therefore, should be to cause this -alluvial matter to be deposited in such form and in such places as are -best adapted to our purpose. Now this may generally be effected in an -inexpensive manner, considering the object to be attained, by a series -of jetties, either composed of stakes wattled together with fagots, or -lines of loose stones disposed in such a manner that they shall break the -rising and falling waters, and make them stagnant between the jetties, -so that they may deposit their alluvial matter. In the first instance -these jetties need not be raised more than two feet above the level of -the sand, and when the sand or alluvial soil has accumulated up to the -top, they may be again raised to a similar height, and so on until the -soil in front of the coast has been converted into a green marsh; thus -there will not only be formed a protection to the coast invaded by the -sea, but fresh land may be gained in front of it and embanked from the -sea. It is impossible to explain the precise disposition and direction -of these jetties and works without a thorough knowledge of the locality, -and such circumstances as its exposure to winds, tides, and currents. -The principle however is to check the currents gradually, and in such a -way as to prevent any strong current from being formed; for if a new and -strong current should be created, not only will the alluvial matter not -be deposited, but the works themselves will be carried away, and all the -labour and expense will be wasted. It is generally advisable that such -works should be commenced near the shore, and worked downwards towards -the sea; thus, if they are properly managed, no deep pools or strong -currents will be formed behind them; and the required process of filling -or silting up will proceed regularly seaward, always increasing the -protection required, and obtaining additional land as they proceed. - -In some cases, where the sea is heavy, it may be necessary to have -stronger jetties or works to relieve and protect the minor ones above -described; but these should only be resorted to in places where the -others are insufficient, or in greatly exposed situations; wherever the -minor works will suffice, as they will in most cases if properly applied -and constructed, the less heavy works are resorted to the better, as -the great object is to lead not drive Nature; that is, to work with her -instead of against her. By this means a few bricks and stakes will do -a great deal more than far greater and more expensive works. So far as -regards low alluvial coasts, these, if properly managed, will be found -comparatively easy to deal with. - -When we come to rocky coasts that are wearing away by the combined action -of the sea below and the rains and atmosphere above, and where there is -little or no alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters, that might -be collected so as to form a protecting deposit at their base, then we -must adopt a different system, but not altogether ignoring the other when -it can be made useful. In this latter case we must secure the bases of -the cliffs at least up to high-water mark by means of retaining walls, -where the rock itself is not hard enough to resist the action of the sea. -These walls need not be carried higher than absolutely necessary. In some -cases a mere footing will do; in others, the wall may be carried up to -half tide; and in others up to the full high-water mark; and although the -rock may be naturally soft, yet if its surface be protected by harder -stone, even of a very moderate thickness, it will be quite sufficient -to resist further encroachment by the sea. As these retaining walls -will be founded upon a base of solid rock, there is very little fear of -their being undermined; therefore, when I said before that it would be -necessary to carry these retaining walls up to high-water mark, it must -be understood as applying only to those rocks that are easily abraded by -the sea. - -There is another point to be attended to. The base being secured, we -must look to the cliff above. Here, from the effect of rains, the water -frequently cannot get away, accumulates behind at the top, and sinks -through the fissures, when partly by hydraulic pressure and partly by -the effects of frost, large masses are detached and fall below; and as -this is continually occurring, the progress of decay goes on increasing. -Having secured the base, the next thing, where practicable, is to slope -off the upper surface of the cliff, so as to prevent it from overhanging, -and then to make a drain at the back to carry off any water that may -lodge there. By these means, if properly carried into effect, the base -of the cliff being protected against the sea from below and rainwater -from above, there is every probability that it will be preserved, in all -ordinary cases. In extraordinary cases additional measures must be taken -to meet them upon the same principles. With regard to retaining walls -of brickwork or masonry, these should be always in excess of strength -beyond the pressure, whether vertical or lateral, that they may have to -resist. When the pressure is simply lateral, then the mean thickness -of wall built of masonry and brickwork--the mean thickness, generally -speaking, of the main body of the wall--should be about one-fourth of -the height, besides counterforts at the back at certain distances from -each other, regulated according to the particular circumstances. These, -upon the average, including the thickness of the main wall, will make the -total mass to be equal to nearly one-third of the total height. My father -frequently made these walls curved in the front as well as at the back, -the front being struck from a radius whose centre was level with the top -of the wall, and of such a length that the face of the wall should batter -one-fifth of the total height; the back of the wall should be struck from -a centre at the same level as the other, but a little longer, so that -at the base the wall might be about 2 feet thicker than at the top, in -addition to two or three footings of 6 inches each; and the base of the -wall was made to incline backwards, according to the radius from whence -it was struck. - -These walls, when they are to rest upon alluvial soil, must be founded -upon a platform composed of piles of a sufficient length and thickness, -driven at right angles to the line of the foundation, until with the -blow of a ram weighing 15 cwt. and falling 20 feet they will not move -one-eighth of an inch. These piles should be driven in regular rows, -longitudinally and transversely, about 3 feet apart, and hooped and shod -with wrought-iron hoops and shoes. At the front, immediately under the -tie of the wall, there should be a row of grooved and tongued sheeting -piles driven close together, and to the same depth as the others, about -6 inches thick, having a waleing or longitudinal brace 6 inches thick -and 12 inches wide, well bolted in each side of the top of the sheeting -piles. The loose earth should be taken out to about a foot in depth, and -the space filled in with stone or brickwork to the level of the pile -heads, which should be carefully trimmed, then covered with sills about -12 inches square, well spiked down to them. The spaces between the sills -should be well faced with brickwork, and the whole surface should then be -covered with 6-inch plank, properly spiked down to the sills below. Upon -this platform the masonry and brickwork of the wall should be built. The -wall should be carefully backed up as it proceeds with sound earth or -clay, or clay mixed with one-sixth of gravel or concrete, as shall be -deemed most advisable. These curved walls, if properly constructed, are -stronger and more economical than the ordinary walls. - -In some cases, as in that of Sheerness, for example, the foundation is so -bad that a totally different plan must be adopted. At Sheerness it was -necessary that the base of the walls should be increased, distributing -the weight over a wider area, so that each superficial foot of the -superincumbent mass should have a larger bearing, thus greatly relieving -the pressure over every part. - -The foundation upon which the walls were built was as bad as possible, -being composed of nothing but loose running silt and sand. Upon such a -foundation walls of the ordinary kind would not have stood; my father -therefore saw the necessity of designing some new construction, upon the -principles above mentioned. He had previously adopted something similar -for the docks at Great Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, in 1786, which design -was carried into effect with great success. The walls at Sheerness and at -Great Grimsby were built both upon the same principle, modified according -to local circumstances. Sheerness docks were finished altogether in the -year 1826, and they have stood ever since. - -I believe that I have now enumerated all the chief points to which the -education of a civil engineer should be directed. Whilst he continues in -an engineer’s office, whatever business is brought before him, he should -always endeavour to thoroughly understand the reasons for which such and -such a work is proposed to be made, and the principles upon which it is -to be constructed; and if he finds, according to his previous education, -difficulties either in the principle or construction, he should modestly -state his doubts to his superior; if no explanation is given, he has -simply to do as he is ordered, making notes of his doubts, and when the -work is carried into effect he will then be able to ascertain how far he -was right or wrong. If the work turns out to be a failure, his previous -calculations will show him that he was right; but if the work succeeds, -his calculations were wrong, and he should carefully go over them again -to ascertain his error. He should follow the same process when he has -to design and carry into effect any work upon his own responsibility, -and if he is in doubt as to any point, let him consult some one of his -professional brethren in whom he has confidence. When he is consulted -on similar occasions by another engineer, let him give his advice and -opinion to the best of his power; by this means he will gain the respect -of his colleagues, and every one will be ready to help him when required. - -Let him be particularly careful about his estimates; and after he has -estimated _fully_ the probable cost of a work, let him add an allowance -of quite 15 per cent. for contingencies, which in all engineering works -are so numerous and varied that it is almost impossible to foresee them. - -We should always recollect that the great object of all engineering works -is to produce a fair return for the capital expended upon them, or, in -other words, that they should pay. If, after due calculation, it is found -there is no chance of that, they should not be undertaken; for although -it may be very gratifying to the professional reputation of an engineer -to have executed a great work, it is but a poor consolation to his -subscribers to find that their money has been comparatively thrown away -without any adequate return. - -Upon these grounds, therefore, I think it is better that the engineer -should confine himself strictly to his business, that is, of designing -and estimating any proposed work in the best possible manner to ensure -the object intended. Let those who are most competent ascertain whether -there is a sufficient prospect of traffic to pay a good return for the -required capital; and so long as the engineer executes the work for his -estimate, he cannot be blamed if the work does not pay a sufficient -return. In fact, the whole commercial value of a work depends upon its -cost, and therefore it is so important that the estimate should be -adhered to as closely as possible, for if this be much exceeded the -commercial calculation falls to the ground, and then the subscribers -have just reason to complain. Against this I have heard it argued that -if correct estimates were always made, and the ultimate cost of many -works was known beforehand, they would never have been carried out, -although notwithstanding the increased cost they have finally proved to -be very valuable. This is certainly to some extent true; many inventions -and discoveries have ruined the original promoters, yet have ultimately -conferred the greatest benefits upon mankind; and many enterprises -that have ruined the original undertakers have greatly enriched their -successors. Still there can be no excuse for an engineer knowingly -underestimating the cost of a work; he is undoubtedly bound to make a -fair, honest estimate of every work committed to his charge, so far as -his judgment goes; having done that his duty is discharged; nothing -further can be expected of him than to see that the work entrusted to his -care is strictly carried into effect according to that estimate. - - * * * * * - -Since the summer of 1866 I have done scarcely anything. The great crisis -and subsequent panic that occurred at that time paralysed the commercial -world. I considered my advancing years (I was then seventy-two), and -the great hazard and uncertainty of carrying on business, and thought -it most prudent to retire. After the harassing and anxious life that I -had led for so many years, I felt my health so shaken as to require -complete repose. But I hope, if God spares me, to be still useful to the -profession and my country, by completing a work on the drainage of the -fens and lowlands of Great Britain, and hydraulics generally. I also -design to write a history of engineering, enlarged from my Address to -the Institution of Civil Engineers, and a life of my revered father. All -these I have already sketched out, and I hope to complete them, if it -please God to spare my life a few years longer. - -My apology for the present work is this: I think it is the duty of -everyone who has led an active professional life faithfully to record -the various works in which he has been engaged, the failures as well as -the successes, detailing the causes of both; for we frequently learn -more from the former than from the latter. I believe I have in this -book faithfully done this. From unavoidable circumstances I have been -obliged to trust entirely to memory while writing these pages, having -been totally precluded from consulting notes or memoranda of any kind; I -hope, therefore, that any inaccuracies that may be detected by the reader -will be pardoned, though I believe that in the main my statements will be -found correct. - -Like others, I have had to contend with professional jealousy; but I -believe I have on all occasions done justice to my rivals, and I have -never wilfully attempted to injure anyone. Naturally of a very sanguine -temperament, I am but too apt to view things in a favourable light, and -to judge well of those with whom I come in contact; as a consequence -of this I have often been deceived by those in whom I have placed the -greatest confidence. This sanguine disposition has been the cause of -many disappointments; but it has also enabled me to bear up successfully -against failure, and still to look forward with hope to the future. -Whenever a misfortune has occurred I have endeavoured to forget it as -soon as possible; I always called to mind the words of the great Duke of -Wellington, who said, _There is no use in looking back and brooding over -the past; forget it, and apply your energies to the future, and do better -next time_. This many people either cannot or will not do; hence they -succumb. Doubtless everyone has his trials, and some are much better able -to get through them than others; nevertheless, a very little reflection -will show that what is past cannot be helped, and that by brooding over -misfortune we do no good, but only waste our energies and invite failure -in everything else. - -The motto of life should be, Forward! We must expect to be checked, -thwarted, and baffled in our endeavours to attain success; but these -obstacles, instead of totally arresting our progress, should serve only -to increase our energy. Like a river, impeded in its course, in silence -waits till its accumulated strength sweeps the obstruction from its -path, and it flows on majestically as before--so should we make every -difficulty we encounter add to our strength, instead of increasing our -weakness. Nevertheless, since “’tis not in mortals to command success,” -we may sometimes struggle in vain; and fortune ever against us, we may be -overcome at the last; but even then we have this satisfaction--we have -fought a good fight; we have done the best we could; we have done our -duty to the best of our ability, and that is all that can be required of -us. To do my duty has been my endeavour through life; and probably if I -had adhered to it more strictly I might have done a great deal better. -Nevertheless, little as I have done, I should not have accomplished half -so much had I not kept that one object in view, as far as my physical -and mental powers would permit; and this is no small consolation. The -old motto, “_Nil desperandum_,” should be constantly on our lips, and -should act like the spur on a jaded steed. Affairs are never so bad but -they might have been worse, and they may generally be mended by energy -and perseverance, and a determination to make the best of everything. We -may not be able to accomplish all we aspire to achieve; nevertheless by -refusing to yield to misfortune we shall escape the reproach of cowardice -and faintheartedness. When we suffer a defeat, let us calmly consider the -cause of it, and nine times out of ten we shall find that it is through -our own fault; these lessons of experience should be carefully laid to -heart, and serve for our future guidance. - -I have never deemed wealth desirable for mere personal gratification, but -only in so far as it would have enabled me to help others, to promote -the advancement of science and the well-being of my fellow creatures; -this would have conferred the greatest happiness upon me, but it has -been denied by the Almighty Disposer of events, and most probably with -justice, that it might be done better by other hands. I therefore humbly -bow to the Almighty’s decision; and if I have done the best I could in -His sight, I am amply rewarded. I, however, most deeply regret that I -have not done more. I return my most fervent thanks to the Almighty that -He, out of His great mercy, has allowed me to do the little I have done; -and I most devoutly hope that He through His Son Jesus Christ will pardon -my shortcomings; and I say with all reverence, Bless the Lord for all His -mercies! - -DAWLISH, _December 9, 1867_. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Aberdeen, 10, 15. - - Acts of Parliament, 7, 159, 199, 200, 204, 205, 208, 209, 212, 223, - 238, 399, 405. - - Adventures in Greece, 102. - - Adventures in Portugal, 352. - - Adventures in Spain, 266, 269, 273. - - Ægina, 78. - - Africa an island, 141. - - Aga, a Turkish, 118, 120, 131. - - Aiasolok, 114. - - Albion flour mills, 286. - - Alderson, Baron, 238. - - Alexandria, 131. - - Alpheus, river, 98. - - Ancholme level, 224. - - Ancona, 44, 46. - - Antiparos, 107. - - Antwerp, 29. - - Apollo, temple of, 119. - - Approaches, London Bridge, 183-188, 197. - - Aqueducts, 325, 369. - - Arches, 6, 22, 25, 32, 150, 173, 178-180, 189, 275. - - Ardres, 27. - - Argos, 82. - - Assouan, 144. - - Astonishing the natives, 66. - - Athenæum Club, 250. - - Athens, 73, 104. - - Athens, Maid of, 105. - - Atmospheric railway, 421. - - Atreus, hall of, 81. - - Austria, 279. - - - Baden, 282. - - Bairam, the, 124. - - Baird, Mr., 254. - - Balloon, 190. - - Bangor Suspension Bridge, 244. - - Banks, Sir Joseph, 248. - - Bar at Portsmouth Harbour, 411. - - Barcelona, 274. - - Barrier banks, 216. - - Barrow, Sir John, 249. - - Bedford, Duke of, 199, 202, 205. - - Bedford level, the, 158. - - Belem, 324, 326. - - Belgium, 26. - - Benching, 167. - - Bentinck, Lord George, 208. - - Bentinck, Lord William, 207, 208. - - Berne, 37. - - Bessemer, 233. - - Beveland, St., 317, 321. - - Bey of Tunis, 373. - - Bitter lakes, 139. - - Blackett, 234. - - Black Sluice Commissioners, 221. - - Blackwall Railway, 293. - - Blast-pipe, 243, note. - - Blenkinsop, 233. - - Boats, bridge of, 129. - - Boiler, multitubular, 242. - - Boston Corporation, 219. - - Boswell, Captain, 33. - - Boulton, 233, 413. - - Bouyukderé, 126. - - Bradley, Dr., 5, 31. - - Bradshaw, Mr., 237. - - Braga, 364. - - Bramley fall, 177. - - Breakwaters, 165, 397, 410. - - Breakwaters, natural, 427. - - Bridges, 6, 7, 22, 27, 30, 37, 40, 129, 150, 180, 275. - - Bridges, suspension, 244. - - Bridgewater Canal, 236, 237. - - Brigands, 54, 55, 69, 92, 267. - - Brindisi, 57. - - Brindley, 237. - - Bristol and Chepstow Railway, 299. - - ‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ 20, 75, 78, 198, 367, 415. - - Brooke, Sir Arthur de Capel, 248. - - Bronsted, Chevalier, 61. - - Broussa, 121. - - Brown, Mr. James, 290. - - Bruges, 29. - - Brunel, 239. - - Brussels, 28. - - Buckenshaw, 241. - - Bull fight, 329. - - Burge, Mr., 301, 310, 344. - - Burney, Dr., 3. - - Business, introduction to, 4. - - Byron, Lord, 87. - - - Cadiz, 264. - - Cairo, 132. - - Calamata, 87, 96. - - Canals, 39, 132, 138, 237, 244, 261, 284, 308. - - Canova, 48. - - Cannock Chase Railway, 296. - - Cardiff docks, 367. - - Carlists, 264, 269, 271, 273, 275. - - Carrara, 151. - - Carthage, 369. - - Cartwright, General, 123. - - Cast-iron dock gates, 165. - - Cast-iron rails, 228, 240. - - Catchwater drains, 52, 219, 226, 240. - - Central Kent Railway, 300. - - Chæronæa, lion of, 101. - - Chapman, William, 243. - - Charles XV. of Sweden, 308. - - Chatham dry dock, 22, 165, 410. - - Chatmoss, 238. - - Cholera, 270, 278. - - ‘Chronicles of Old London Bridge,’ 193. - - Church, General, 54. - - Civil Engineers, Institute of, 428. - - Civita Vecchia, 46. - - Clarence Yard, Portsmouth, 46. - - Cleopatra’s needle, 133, 145. - - Coal tax, 184, 196. - - Cobden, Mr., 299. - - Cofferdams, 175, 409. - - Cog-wheels, 231, 233. - - Coimbra, 347. - - Commissioners, Eau Brink, 158. - - Conduits, 127. - - Conolly, 252. - - Conservators of the Thames, 7. - - Consort, the late Prince, 208, 358. - - Constantinople, 122, 126. - - Continent, tours on the, 26-30, 36-154, 252-283, 304-399. - - Convents, 68, 77, 82, 99, 104, 274, 275, 330, 364. - - Conway Suspension Bridge, 244. - - Copeland Islands, 18, 19. - - Copenhagen, 314. - - Copais, lake, 101. - - Coquet river, 291. - - Corfu, 57. - - Corinth, 71. - - Cornish high-pressure engines, 413. - - Corporation of London, 7, 173, 174, 182. - - Coronation in Lisbon, 341. - - Cort, Mr., 233. - - Crampton and Morris, 301. - - Croker, John Wilson, 156, 158, 195, 250. - - Cronstadt, 257. - - Cross Keys bridge, 204. - - - Dagenham lake, 403. - - Danube, 377. - - Daunemora, 305. - - Davy, Sir H., 31, 48, 248, 250. - - Death of Mr. Rennie, Sen., 155. - - Demetrius, 64, 144. - - Denver Sluice, 198, 199. - - Deptford Dockyard, 21, 22. - - Diving bell, 162, 286, 409. - - Docks, 257, 403, 442-445. - - Dog, anecdote of, 39, note. - - Donaghadee, 19, 198, 415. - - Donaldson, Professor, 113. - - Downie, Colonel, 271. - - Drainage, 51, 199, 421, 422, 438. - - Durham, Earl of, 292. - - Dutch system of embanking, 217, 318. - - Duty on stone, 34. - - - Eastern Counties Railway, 293. - - Eau Brink Commissioners, 158, 199, 212. - - Eau Brink drainage, 198, 309. - - Edfou, temple of, 136. - - Edge rails, 240. - - Education for Civil Engineer, 433-455. - - Egypt, 133. - - Elvas, 351. - - Embankments, 132, 140, 214-218, 446. - - Embankment, Thames, 192, 196. - - Engineering works, 407-426. - - Engineers, 294, 428, 431, 433. - - Engineers, Dutch, 323. - - Engineer to the Admiralty, 158. - - Engines (_see_ Locomotives, Steam engines). - - Engines, condensing, 171. - - Engines, high-pressure, 171, 230. - - Ephesus, ruins of, 114. - - Epidauros, 79. - - Estimating, 454. - - Estremoz, 350. - - Evaporation, 142. - - Everest, Sir George, 3. - - Evidence before Parliamentary committee, 185. - - Exeter, Marquis of, 298. - - Exhibition, International, 381. - - - Fens, drainage of the, 199. - - Ferguson, Mr. James, 16. - - Fernando, Dom, 325. - - Field of the Cloth of Gold, 27. - - Fischa Dagnitz, 383. - - Fish Street Hill, 183. - - Fishmongers’ Hall, 186. - - Fleet, Russian, 252. - - Florence, 150. - - Foley, Mr., 86. - - Fontes, M., 325, 335, 339, 349. - - Foulkes, Sir William, 207, 211. - - Fox, Williams, and Co., 168. - - Francis, Emperor of Austria, 281. - - Freibourg, 37. - - Frere, Mr., 122. - - Fruit vessels of St. Michael’s, 392. - - - Gallery of Illustration, 195. - - Gantry crane, 287, 289. - - Gauges, railway, 239, 418. - - Gell, Sir W., 48, 78. - - Geneva, 36. - - Genoa, 152. - - Geographical Society, Royal, 248. - - Geology, 445. - - George III., 20. - - George IV., 34, 146, 195. - - Gibraltar, 264. - - Giles, Mr. Francis, 5, 17, 20, 21, 220, 285, 297. - - ‘Gipsey Queen,’ the, 302. - - Gonsalvi, 50. - - Gotha Canal, 308. - - Gothenburg, 305. - - Government workshops, 289. - - Granada, 265. - - Grand Sluice, 221. - - Granite, 10, 15, 144, 177, 335. - - Great Northern Railway, 224, 297. - - Greece, adventures in, 102. - - Greenlaw, Dr., 1. - - Grey, Earl, 189, 291. - - Groves, Dr., 145. - - Guildford, Lord, 58. - - Guimaraens, 363. - - Gwilt, Mr. Joseph, 26. - - Gwynne, Nell, 287. - - - Hackworth’s engine, 242. - - Harbours, 54, 152, 198, 274, 290, 333, 336, 386, 399, 415, 437. - - Hartlepool, 291. - - Hartley, Sir Charles, 338. - - Hellespont, 129. - - Hetton Colliery railways, 235. - - High-pressure engines, 171, 230. - - Holland, 316-324. - - Hollingsworth, Mr. James, 5. - - Hollow walls, 164, 408. - - Holyhead road, 244. - - Hospitality, Portuguese, 353. - - Humber, 224. - - Huskisson, Mr., killed, 246. - - - Imperial Elisabeth Railway, 377. - - Inventions, new, 232. - - Ionian Islands, 54, 56. - - Ireland, drainage in, 422. - - Iron mines, 305, 310, 315. - - Irrigation, 137. - - Ismaila, lake, 139. - - Ivens, Mr. Thomas, 386. - - - Jackson, Colonel, 249. - - Jackson, Sir John, 26. - - Jeffreys, Mr., 191. - - Jessop, Jonas, 167, 243, 285. - - Jessop, William, 241. - - John, King, 205. - - Jolliffe and Banks, 8, 34, 160, 192, 200, 222, 226, 409. - - Jones, Mr., 6. - - Jones, Mr. R. L., 173, 178, 183, 185. - - - Kalavatha, 85, 101. - - Kennet and Avon Canal, 20. - - Kurds, adventure with, 116, 120. - - - Lagoons of Venice, 41. - - Lakes, 37, 101, 138, 139, 403. - - Land, reclaiming from the sea, 214, 216, 318, 322. - - Leghorn, 151. - - Leicester, Earl of, 211. - - Leonardi da Vinci, 39. - - Lerna, 183. - - Lesseps, M., 140. - - Levelling, 445. - - Lisbon, 324. - - Litigation, 212, 296. - - Livadia, 100. - - Liverpool, Lord, 182. - - Locomotives, 230-234, 240, 302. - - London and Birmingham Railway, 243, 247. - - London and Brighton Railway, 245. - - London Bridge, 172-192, 263, 407. - - London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, 286, 301. - - London streets, 194. - - Lonsdale, Earl of, 236. - - Lowther, Lord, 243. - - Lynn, 199, 212. - - Lynn Corporation, 210. - - Lunzi, Count, 61. - - - Machinery, 286, 287, 412. - - Madrid, 271. - - Magnesia, 115, 121. - - Mahmoud, Sultan, 123. - - Maid of Athens, 75. - - Maina, 88. - - Maitland, Sir Thomas, 54, 58. - - Malaga, 265. - - Malta, 145. - - Mamelukes, 134. - - Manchester and Liverpool Railway, 246. - - Man, Isle of, 290. - - Mantinea, 85. - - Manzanilla wine, 269. - - Marathon, 102. - - Marathonesi, 90. - - Marble, Parian, 106. - - Marcet, Dr., 37. - - Marine engines, 414. - - Marriage, Oriental, 123. - - Marsh fever, 320. - - Marshland drainage, 199. - - Martin, Sir T. B., 414. - - Mayo, Dr. H., 3. - - Mediterranean, 140. - - Mehemet Ali, 133. - - Melville, Lord, 17, 22, 158, 164. - - Menai Straits bridge, 180. - - Merthyr Tydvil, 231. - - Messenia, 97. - - Meston, Mr., 8. - - Metropolitan Railway, 303. - - Metternich, Prince, 280. - - Mezzofanti, 44. - - Middle Level Corporation, 206, 210. - - Milan, 39. - - Miletus, ruins of, 119. - - Milman, Dr., 3. - - Mint, 30, 286. - - Mitylene, 109. - - Mola di Gaeta, 149. - - Moles, hollow, 46. - - Montague, Mr., 85. - - Monte Serrata, 275. - - Moore, 50. - - Morat and Bienne lakes, 37. - - Morgan, Lady, 50. - - Morea, tour through, 77. - - Moscow, 261. - - Mosques, Turkish, 125. - - Murchison, Sir Roderick, 250. - - Mycene, 81. - - - Napier, Sir Charles, 59. - - Naples, 53, 147. - - Napoleon, Louis, 308. - - Napoli di Romania, 79. - - Nash, 194. - - Natur Geforsches, 280. - - Negropont, 101. - - Nene outfall, 199, 205. - - Newcomen, 228. - - Newry ship canal, 423. - - Nicholas, Emperor, 253, 259. - - Nile, 131, 134, 137, 138, 141, 143. - - Norfolk Estuary, 208, 218. - - Northfleet, 21. - - Nyanza, lake, 138. - - - Oçana, 351. - - Odessa, surveys at, 377, 378. - - Old London Bridge, 172, 174, 181, 192. - - Olympus, Mount, 121. - - O’Neil, Mr., 349. - - Oporto, 325, 331. - - Orchomenus, 101. - - Order of knighthood, 308. - - Oscar, King of Sweden, 307. - - Oscillating engines, 413. - - Ostend, 30. - - Ottoman troops, 125. - - Ouse, 158, 206, 212. - - Ovar, 342. - - Owen, Colonel, 332. - - - Pæstum, 147. - - Palmerston, Lord, 196. - - Paris, 194. - - Paris, cholera in, 279. - - Parliamentary committees, 185, 295, 297. - - Parliament, petition to, 191. - - Paros, quarries at, 106. - - Parthenon, the, 74, 75. - - Patras, 64, 98. - - Pedro, Dom, 339. - - Peel, Sir Robert, 247. - - Penn, Mr. John, 414. - - Perceval, Mr., death of, 168. - - Perkins, Mr., 172. - - Peterhead, 11, 15, 17. - - Petersburg, St., 253, 256. - - Peter the Great, 257. - - Peto, Betts, and Co., 211, 302, 340, 348. - - Phigalian marbles, 96. - - Picture galleries, 150. - - Piers, curved, 53. - - Piers, open, 147. - - Piles for London Bridge, 175. - - Pinto, Basto, and Co., 344. - - Piræus, 72, 75. - - Pitfour, 16. - - Pitt, Mr., 17, 22, 163. - - Pius VII., 51. - - Platen, Count, 308. - - Plymouth Breakwater, 165, 410. - - Polyænus, 129. - - Pompey’s Pillar, 133. - - Ponta Delgada harbour, 385-398. - - Pontine Marshes, 51. - - Pont Sans Pareille, 27. - - Porcelain manufactory, 344. - - Port Patrick, 19, 20. - - Port Said, 139. - - Portsmouth Harbour, 410. - - Portugal, 324, 352. - - Portuguese bull fight, 329. - - Portuguese railways, 339, 343, 345, 353. - - Port wine district, 341. - - Prevot, M., 67, 73. - - Priene, 118. - - - Quarries, ancient Egyptian, 144. - - Quarries, granite, 11. - - Quarries, marble, 106, 151. - - - Rails, 240-242. - - Railways, 132, 228, 243-248, 284, 292, 294, 299, 328, 339, 367, - 415-418, 436. - - Railway gauges, 239. - - Railways in Sweden, 304, 307. - - Railway mania, 294, 307. - - Rainhill, competition of engines at, 240. - - Raleigh Club, 250. - - Ramadan, the, 127. - - Ramsgate Harbour, 161, 399. - - Reclaimed land, 421, 422. - - Red Sea, 139. - - Regent Street, 194. - - Religious fanaticism in Turkey, 125. - - Remington, Mr., 291, 404. - - Rennie, Mr. George, 167, 244, 263, 287. - - Rennie, Mr., Sen., 7, 20, 21, 31, 36, 145, 162, 163, 165, 168, 172, - 180, 193, 198, 199, 205, 219, 286. - - Reservoirs, 127. - - Retaining walls, 451. - - Rhone, 38. - - Rigby, Messrs., 405. - - Roads in Portugal, 344. - - Robbers (_see_ Brigands). - - ‘Rocket,’ the, 240. - - Rolling machinery at the Mint, 30. - - Romans, the, 192. - - Rome, 47. - - Rosen, Count, 304, 309. - - Roskilly, Dr., 148. - - Royal Society, 248. - - Royal William Yard, Stonehouse, 170, 410. - - Rubens, 29. - - Rummery Mill, 199. - - Russia, 252. - - Russian society, 256. - - Rutland, Duchess of, 196. - - - Sadlier, John, M.P., 310. - - Saldanha, Duke de, 325. - - Salisbury, Marquis of, 182. - - Salvatierra, 349. - - Samuda, Messrs., 302. - - Sandeman, Messrs., 333, 362. - - Savery, 228. - - Scalo, 99. - - Scheldt, the, 316. - - Schleswig, 312. - - Schooldays, 2. - - Scott, Mr., 121, 188. - - Scotland, surveys in, 17. - - Screw steamers, 288, 413. - - Sea-walls, 448. - - Sebastopol, 258, 287. - - Serpent charmers, 136, 375. - - Seville, 269. - - Sewage, 425. - - Sewers, 401. - - Shaw, Waring, and Co., 341, 349. - - Sheerness Dockyard, 22, 163, 408, 453. - - Shelley, 2. - - Ship canal, 284. - - Sierra Morena, 270. - - Simplon Pass, 37. - - Smeaton, 162, 193, 228. - - Smeatonian Society, 429. - - Smirke, Sir Robert, 195, 197. - - Smyrna, 110, 121. - - Smyth, Admiral, 60, 66. - - Society at Rome, 48. - - Society in London, 263. - - South Eastern Railway, 286, 300. - - South Wales Railway, 299. - - Southwark Bridge, 7, 17, 22-26, 30, 34. - - Spain, 264. - - Spanish peasantry, 268. - - Sparta, 87. - - Spezzia, 151. - - ‘Spry’ sloop of war, 133, 145, 154. - - Stages, floating, 31. - - Stationary engines on railways, 294. - - Steam engines, 228-235, 287, 413. - - Steam engine, Watt’s experiments with, 229. - - Steam gun, the, 172. - - Steam pumping, 161. - - Steam vessels, 171, 258, 287, 302. - - Stephenson, George, 235, 240, 247, 293. - - Stephenson, Robert, 32, 132, 180, 206, 210, 247. - - St. Michael’s, 385, 398. - - Stockton and Darlington Railway, 20, 235. - - Stroganoff, Count, 126. - - Suez Canal, 138-143. - - Sulina, 378. - - Sun-and-planet wheel, 229. - - Surveying, 445. - - Sweden, 304. - - Swedes, character of, 314. - - Swedish iron, 316. - - Swedish railways, 310. - - Switzerland, 36. - - Sword manufactory, Toledo, 272. - - - Tagus, 324, 327. - - Taste, Committee of, 95. - - Taygetus, Mount, 88, 92, 95. - - Teddington Lock, 193. - - Telford, Mr., 167, 180, 191, 198, 200, 221, 244, 247, 308. - - Temples, 71, 74, 77, 82, 119, 136. - - Terracina, 53. - - Tertulia, Spanish, 271. - - Thames, 193, 404, 422. - - Thames frozen over, 6. - - Thames Street, 183, 185. - - Thames Tunnel shield, 412. - - Thorwaldsen, 49. - - Thurtle, Mr., 146. - - Tide gauge, 401. - - Tide level of Thames, 193. - - Timsah, lake, 139. - - Tiryns, 81. - - Toledo, 272. - - Trafalgar Square, 195. - - Travellers Club, 248. - - Travels, 26-30, 36-154, 252-283, 304-399. - - Tredcroft, 2. - - Trevithick, 230, 233. - - Trench, Sir F., 196. - - Trent, 224. - - Trent Valley line, 247. - - Tripolitza, 84. - - Trophonius, cave of, 101. - - Tunis, surveys in, 367. - - Turks, 65, 71, 76, 79, 86, 99, 102, 112, 125, 126. - - Tyne, 20. - - - Ubes, St., 360. - - Utica, 371. - - - Valley of the Po, 39. - - Vandyke, 29. - - Vauxhall Bridge, 6. - - Venice, 40. - - Vent-pipes on conduits, 127. - - Venus, temple of, 71. - - Vermuyden, 324. - - Verona, 40. - - Viana, 337. - - Vienna, 280. - - Vienna, water supply of, 384. - - Vignolles, Mr., 236, 246. - - Vivian, 230, 233. - - Vostizza, 99. - - - Walker, Mr. James, 209. - - Wallace, Lord, 410. - - Warehouses, 442. - - Warsaw, 262. - - Wash, the, 204, 207, 214. - - Water-carriers in Portugal, 326. - - Waterloo Bridge, 30-35, 50. - - Waterloo, field of, 28. - - Water supply, 127, 128, 369, 384, 401, 423. - - Waterwheels, 193. - - Waterworks, 441. - - Watt, 171, 228, 413. - - Welland, river, 207. - - Wellington, Duke of, 182, 184, 188, 246, 282. - - Wellington Street, Strand, 195. - - Werry, Mr., 112. - - Whidbey, Mr. Joseph, 166. - - Whittlesea Mere, 205. - - Wildmere Fens, 219. - - William IV., 189. - - Wilson, General, 253. - - Wisbeach Corporation, 202. - - Witham outfall, 207, 222, 224. - - Wolves, 119. - - Wooden rails, 228. - - Woolwich Dockyard, 21, 22, 410. - - Wright, Captain, 133. - - Wrought-iron rails, 241. - - Wyatt, Sir Philip, 196. - - - Xerxes, 129. - - - Yacht, Russian Emperor’s, 258-260. - - Yagers, Tyrolese, 147. - - Yarborough, Earl of, 227. - - Yeats, Mr., 8. - - York, Duke of, 177. - - Young, Dr., 8. - - Young, Mr. John, 204. - - - Zante, 57, 62. - - Zoological Society, 251. - - THE END. - - LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, - STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Autobiography of Sir John Rennie, -F.R.S., Past President of the Ins, by John Rennie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR JOHN RENNIE *** - -***** This file should be named 54347-0.txt or 54347-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/3/4/54347/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |