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diff --git a/old/54349-0.txt b/old/54349-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5bf02d0..0000000 --- a/old/54349-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2178 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Printing in Relation to Graphic Art, by George French - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Printing in Relation to Graphic Art - -Author: George French - -Release Date: March 12, 2017 [EBook #54349] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING IN RELATION TO GRAPHIC ART *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Larry B. Harrison and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - The Imperial Press - - - - - Printing in Relation - to Graphic Art - - By George French - - [Illustration] - - Cleveland - The Imperial Press - 1903 - - - - - Copyright, 1903, by George French - - - - -Contents - - - PAGE - - Prefatory Note vii - - Introduction 1 - - CHAPTER I - Art in Printing 11 - - CHAPTER II - Pictorial Composition 23 - - CHAPTER III - Type Composition 31 - - CHAPTER IV - Proportion and the Format 41 - - CHAPTER V - Color 51 - - CHAPTER VI - Tone 63 - - CHAPTER VII - Light and Shade 71 - - CHAPTER VIII - Values 77 - - CHAPTER IX - Paper 83 - - CHAPTER X - Style 93 - - CHAPTER XI - The Binding 105 - - CHAPTER XII - Specifications 115 - - - - -Prefatory Note - - -It is not the purpose of this book to try to establish a claim for -printing that it is an art. It is hoped that it may show that the -principles of art may be applied to printing, and that such application -may lead to improvement in some essentials of printing. - -Thanks are due to several experts in printing who have read the proofs, -and have given wise and acceptable counsel. - -I desire to acknowledge that aid has been freely sought from books upon -art, and that in some instances forms of expression have been adopted -from them. No originality is claimed for the allusions to art, nor for -art terms and formulas employed. - - September, 1903. - - - - -Introduction - - -Because it is difficult to perfectly transfer a thought from one mind -to another it is essential that the principal medium through which such -transference is accomplished may be as perfect as it is possible to -make it. - -It is not wholly by means of the literal significance of certain forms -of words that ideas are given currency, whether the words are spoken or -printed. In speaking it is easy to convey an impression opposed to the -literal meaning of the words employed, by the tone, the expression, the -emphasis. It is so also with printed matter. The thought or idea to be -communicated acquires or loses force, directness, clearness, lucidity, -beauty, in proportion to the fitness of the typography employed as a -medium. - -It is not primarily a question of beauty of form that is essential in -printing, but of the appropriateness of form. Beauty for itself alone -is, in printing, but an accessory quality, to be considered as an aid -to the force and clarity of the substance of the printed matter. - -An object of art illustrating forms and expressions of beauty subtly -suggests esthetic or sensuous emotions, which play upon the differing -consciousnesses of beholders as their capacities and natures enable -them to appreciate it. The impulse received from the art object is -individually interpreted and appropriated, and its value to the -individual is determined by each recipient, in accord with his nature, -training, and capacity. - -The motive of a piece of printing is driven into the consciousness of -the reader with brutal directness, and it is one of the offices of the -typographer to mitigate the severity of the message or to give an added -grace to its welcome. - -The book has become such a force as had not been dreamed of a -generation ago. The magical increase in the circulation of books, -by sale and through libraries, is one of the modern marvels. It is -inevitable that the gentle and elevating influence of good literature -will be greater and broader in proportion to the increase of the -reading habit, for despite the great amount of triviality in literature -the proportion of good is larger than ever before, and the trivial has -not as large a proportion of absolute badness. The critical are prone -to underrate the influence of what they esteem trivial literature upon -the lives of the people who read little else. It is certain that there -is some good in it, and that it affects the lives of those who read it. -Even the most lawless of the bandits of the sanguinary novels has a -knightly strain in his character, and his high crimes and misdemeanors -are tempered with a certain imperative code of homely morality and -chivalry. The spectacular crimes are recognized by the majority of -readers as the stage setting for the tale--the tabasco sauce for the -literary pabulum. They are not considered to be essential traits of -admirable character. The cure for the distemper it is supposed to -excite resides in the sensational literature of the day; it is as -likely to lead to better things, it may be, as it is likely to deprave. - -The cultivating power of any book is enhanced if it is itself an object -of art. If it is made in accord with the principles of art, as they are -applicable to printing and binding, it will have a certain refining -influence, independent of its literary tendency. - -If we are to subscribe to the best definition of esthetics, we are -bound to recognize in the physical character of the books that are read -by masses of people a powerful element for artistic education, and one -lending itself to the educational propaganda with ready acquiescence -and inviting eagerness. - -The business and the mechanics of printing have attained a high degree -of perfection. The attention bestowed upon the machinery of business, -the perfection of systems and methods, has brought commercial and -mechanical processes to a degree of perfection and finish that leaves -slight prospect of further improvement, more illuminating systems, or -more exact methods. The business of printing is conducted in a manner -undreamt of by the men who were most consequential a generation ago. -Only a few years have passed since the methods that now control in -the counting-rooms of the larger printshops were unknown. Now all is -system; knowledge, by the grace of formulas and figures. - -A like condition prevails in the work rooms: in the composing-room and -the pressroom. The processes incident to printing have been improved, -in a mechanical way, until little is left for hope to feed upon. The -trade of the printer has been broken into specialized units. The "all -'round" printer is no more. In his place there is the hand compositor, -the "ad" compositor, the job compositor, the machine operator, the -make-up man, the pressman, the press feeder, etc., each a proficient -specialist but neither one a printer. To further mechanicalize the -working printers, the planning of the work has been largely taken into -the counting-room, or is done in detail at the foreman's desk. So -every influence has been at work to limit the versatility and kill the -originality of the man at the case. The compensatory reflection is the -probability that the assembly of results accomplished by expert units -may be a whole of a higher grade of excellence. - -The process of specialized improvement has been carried through all -the mechanical departments, and has had its way with every machine -and implement, revolutionizing them and their manipulation also. The -time is ripe for a new motive of improvement and advance to become -operative. The mechanical evolution may well stay its course. It has -far outstripped the artistic and the intellectual motives. It is quite -time to return to them and bring them up to the point reached by the -mechanics of the craft, if it be found not possible to put them as far -in advance as their relative importance seems to demand. - -It is not difficult to conclude that certain principles of art have -been influential in printing since the craft was inaugurated by -Gutenberg and Fust and their contemporaries, but it appears that the -relation between printing and the graphic arts has not yet been fully -and consciously acknowledged. Some of the older rules and principles of -printing are in perfect harmony with the principles and rules of art, -and undoubtedly had their origin in the same necessity for harmony that -lies in human nature and that was the seed of art principles. - -Printing touches life upon so many of its facets, and is such a -constant constituent of it, that it requires no special plea to raise -it to the plane of one of the absolute forces of culture and one of -the most important elements of progress. This postulate admitted, and -the plea for the fuller recognition of the control of art principles -in printing needs to be pressed only to the point of full recognition, -and it requires no stretch of indulgent imagination to find printing -successfully asserting a claim to be recognized as an art. It is -manifest that printing is not an art in the sense that painting is -an art. Painting has no utilitarian side. It is, with it, art or -nothing. Printing is 99-100ths utilitarian. It is essentially a craft. -If there is a possibility latent in it of development of true art -through refinement and reform in its processes, and the application of -art principles, to the end that the possibility of the production of -occasional pieces that can demonstrate a claim to be art be admitted, -it is all that can be hoped. This is claiming for printing only that -which is conceded to the other crafts. There is no claim put forward -for silversmiths that their work is all artistic; the chief part of -it is very manifestly craftsmanship, yet examples that are true art -constantly appear. The same is true of wood carving, of repoussé work -in metals, and of many crafts. It may be true of printing, and will be -when printers themselves become qualified to view their craftsmanship -from the point of view of the artist, and feel for it that devotion -which is always the recognizable controlling motive of artists in other -graphic arts, and in those crafts that verge upon the graphic arts. - - - - -Art in Printing - - -There is this vital difference between other objects of art and -printing: That our association with them is purely voluntary, and that -printing forces itself upon us at all times and in every relation of -life. It is impossible for a person of intelligence to remove himself -from the influence of printing. It confronts him at every turn, and in -every relation of life it plays an important and insistent part. - -Such examples of art as a painting or a piece of statuary exert a -certain influence upon a restricted number of persons; and it is at -all times optional with all persons whether they submit themselves to -the influence of such art objects. We are able to evade the influence -of other forms of art, but we are not able to ward off printing. To -it we must submit. It is constantly before our eyes; it is forever -exerting its power upon our consciousness. It is quite possible that -we may not at present be able to refer any quality of mind, or any -degree of cultivation, directly to printing, in any form it may have -been presented to us; but it is easily conceivable that printing has a -certain influence upon our esthetic life which has been so constant and -so habitual as to have escaped definite recognition. - -If we engage our minds in some attempt to realize the quality and -extent of pleasure and profit derivable from the constant influence of -printing that conforms to artistic principles, we may perceive that -it may be a most powerful and effectual agency for culture. It is -understood that it is the gentle but constant influence that moulds -our habits and lives the more readily and lastingly. If therefore it -is possible for us to conceive that the printed page of a book may -illustrate and enforce several of the more elemental and important -principles underlying graphic art, we may thereby realize that printing -may readily be employed in the character of a very powerful art -educator, if because of certain inalienable limitations it must be -denied full recognition as a member of the sisterhood of arts. - -The book page may be regarded as the protoplasm of all printing. If -we examine the relation of principles of art to the book page we will -be able to appreciate the exact importance of those principles in the -composition of any other form of printing, and to so apply them as to -secure results most nearly relating printing to graphic art. - -It is the chief characteristic of this uncertain dogma of art in -printing that its limitations and variations defy the conventional -forms of expression, and almost require a new vocabulary of art terms. -It assuredly requires a new and a different comprehension of the terms -of art, and a distinctly varied comprehension of the word art itself. -It has ever been a stumbling block to printers that the word art as -applied to their craft must be given a more limited significance -than is given it in its usual acceptance. If we can come at some -intelligible appreciation of what we mean by art in printing the way -will be opened for the application of that motive to the work of the -presses. - -If we recognize at once the fact that we do not mean exactly what a -painter means when we use the word art with reference to printing, we -will have taken the vital step toward a comprehensible employment of -the term, as well as qualified ourselves for an understanding of the -results we desire to achieve. - -It is essential that we do not fall into the error of supposing -that scientific accuracy is art. It is destructive of art, and the -temptation to put too much stress upon exactitude is a mistake the -printer must guard himself from with the most sedulous care. It is -agreeable to recognize the touch of the artist, in printing as in other -arts, and scientific accuracy is certain to obliterate individuality. -It is not the cold, lifeless abstraction, the shining exemplar of all -the precepts and rules of art, that we love and desire, but the human -note speaking through the principles and rules. If the artist is not -the dominant note, and the rules submerged by the personality, there -is no value in the object of art. The picture is interesting because -the artist expresses through it his appreciation, his interpretation, -of a beautiful thought or a lovely thing. This is what puts the -most faithful photographs outside of the pale of art, and compels -the idealization of the performance of the camera before it can be -considered to be artistic. The photograph is not, usually, true to our -view of life. If it is indeed true to life it represents a view of -life that is quite strange to us, and often distasteful. We are not -familiar with the uncouth animal the photograph shows us the horse in -action to be, and we will not accept that caricature as the real horse. -The horse that is real to us is the animal we see with our eyes, and -the horse in art must be the animal we see plus the artist's logical -idealization. The facts are the same with regard to nearly all of the -work of the camera, and with regard to other attempts at scientific -accuracy in art. It is foreign to our experience, and does violence to -our ideals. We actually see no such automatons as photography shows us -men in action are, and we can never accept such disillusionment. If it -is attempted in the name of art we will turn upon art and throw it out -of our lives. - -It is the irredeemable fault of some processes employed in printing -that they are too scientifically accurate. This is the legitimate -argument against the halftone plate as contrasted with the line -engraving or the reproductions of pen-and-ink work, etc. The halftone -is too accurate. It brings us face to face with the stark reality, -and brushes away all the kindly romance nature has made a necessary -adjunct to our powers of vision. Attempts to restore this quality to -halftones with the graver are only partially successful, as the defect -is too deep seated, too radically fundamental. Some other processes, -other than reproductive processes, employed in printing are exposed to -this danger of too much scientific accuracy, producing results that -have no warmth, no sympathy, no human power. Printing is peculiarly -the victim of this cold formality of sentiment, and must be considered -as upon that plane. But this fact makes the obligation to be alive to -every opportunity to mitigate its severity the more pressing upon -every printer who dreams of his work as of an art, and the closer the -sympathy between the printer and the culture of art the more warmth and -humanity he will be able to infuse into his work. - -Some of the principles of art have a fundamental relation to printing, -while some have an influence upon it so illusive as to defy definition, -and compel us to look upon the connection as something no more -substantial than feeling. Indeed, the whole matter of the application -of art principles to printing may not unfairly be considered to be one -of feeling; involving the saturation of the printer with the rules and -tenets of art and the adding thereto of a fine discrimination tempered -by a resolute philistinism, and then the play of his cultivated -individuality upon the typography. - -Principles and rules of art for the printer's guidance must be more -mobile than can be permitted for the guidance of the painter, the -draughtsman, the engraver, or the sculptor, because the medium for the -expression of the printer's conception is so nearly immobile. It is -the reverse of the general conception: The rule must adapt itself to -the medium and to the circumstances, at least so far as the measure -of its observance is concerned, if not in some emergencies where -its principle is also at stake. It is conceivable in printing that -emergencies may occur making it imperative to ignore the primary rules -of composition, of proportion, of balance, or of perspective; it may -be necessary to even do violence to principles relating to color or to -tone. Such emergencies must be exceedingly rare, but that we are forced -to regard them as possible emphasizes the subtle difference between art -and art in printing. There can be no good art if the principles of art -are violated in execution; there may be good printing if the principles -of art are occasionally modified or even ignored. - -The motive of printing is not primarily an art motive. It is a -utilitarian motive. In printing therefore art is to be invoked for -guidance only so far as it will lend itself to the expression of the -motive. It is never, in printing, "art for art's sake"; it is ever art -for printing's sake. We do not print to illustrate art, nor to produce -objects of art. We print to spread intelligence--to make knowledge -available to all who will read. A painted picture, if of a high order -of art, is meant to appeal to a sentiment but slightly connected -with the "story" of the picture. The appreciative observer of a good -painting gives little thought to the "story," to the literary motive, -but is absorbed in seeking for the artistic motive, in order that he -may yield himself to the charm of the work of art; he seeks "art for -art's sake." - -In printing it is the "story" that is told; it is the literary -motive that must be considered, first and most anxiously. Nothing -may interfere--not even art. The shaft of the "story" must go, swift -and true, straight into the comprehension of the reader. This is the -constant anxiety of the printer. The literary motive must not be -encumbered. It must be freed from the mechanics of the printed page -absolutely. This is the printer's problem. He must not seek to attract -to his mechanics. It is the essence of his art that he liberate ideas -and send them forth with no ruffled pinions, no evident signs of the -pent-house page from which they wing their way. - -The printer's work and the painter's art exactly reverse their -processes, as their motives are opposed; but they must both work -with the same tools, measurably. Everything with the painter is -plastic, except his art. Everything is immobile with the printer, -except his art; and of that he hopes to employ only so much as will -gild the prosaic commercialism of the motive he must express. The -chief principles and tenets of art are all applicable to the craft of -printing, in some degree. Drawing, composition, harmony, balance, -proportion, perspective, color, tone, light-and-shade, values, etc., -are qualities of graphic art that apply to printing with varying -force, according to the exigencies of each particular case in hand, -and particularly according to the comprehension and cultivation of -the printer. It is always possible to explain the beauty and power of -any piece of printing by reference to the same principles that are -responsible for the excellencies of other works of graphic art. It is -therefore logical to assume that those principles which explain the -excellencies of printing are responsible for them. - -It is evident that the value of these art qualities in printing must -depend upon the care and intelligence exercised in their application. -They are refinements upon the usual and primary practices of printing, -and unless they can be employed with full sympathy and knowledge, as -well as with the artistic spirit and comprehension, they will appeal to -the printer in vain. - -The question with the printer is: Is it worth while to give my work all -the beauty and distinction and power possible? If it is decided that it -is profitable to execute work as worthily as it is possible to execute -it, the printer will not be satisfied if he does not devote himself to -a study of this phase of his craft, and a study of sufficient breadth -and thoroughness to give him a reliable basis of knowledge and the -resultant self-confidence. Having proceeded thus far he will not fail -to apply all these art tenets to the full extent of his knowledge and -their adaptability. - - - - -Pictorial Composition - - -While too much science is often deadly to art, the true basis of -pictorial composition is rigidly scientific, and all of the principles -governing it are of use and importance to the printer, especially in -planning displayed work and in title pages. - -Composition is that quality which gives a picture coherence, "the -mortar of the wall." It was not esteemed of importance by the old -masters, and many of their works do not show that they knew or cared -for that which distinguishes a picture from a map, a group photograph, -or a scientific diagram. It is the absence of composition, balance, -unity, that makes ordinary photographs something other than true works -of art. It is not primarily truth of representation that is necessary -in a work of art, but truth of idealization; and that quality is -beyond the conscious reach of the camera's lens. It is a redeeming and -a justifying element added by the imagination of the artist. There -may be a picture, by a photographer or by a painter, having all the -requisite component parts to make it a work of art; there may be, for -example, a woman, an axe, a road, a mountain, trees; but these thrown -together upon a canvas do not make a work of art unless they are -properly composed, even if they are arranged in an order satisfying to -the realist, and each faultlessly executed. It is not the same thing to -paint and to make pictures; to print and to execute artistic printing. - -The application of the rules of composition to pieces of printing made -up in a whole or in part of "display" types is obviously essential -to their beauty. It is the touch of beauty given to science that -produces art. In printing the matter of securing balance and unity is -at once more simple and more difficult than in painting. The component -parts to be dealt with are more rigid and restricted, but are purely -conventional and precise. The painter's conception is given balance -and unity through the original drawing and color-scheme corrected and -perfected by constant scrutiny and by tests and continual alterations. -The printed piece must be balanced by a wise choice and skilful -arrangement of the types, and a careful distribution of white space and -black ink, or color. The actual center of a canvas is the center of -attraction in a picture perfectly balanced. This does not mean that an -equal amount of paint must be spread upon every quarter of the canvas, -nor that objects of equal visual importance in themselves must be -equally distributed over it. A tiny dot of distinctive paint, placed a -certain distance from the center of the canvas, may perfectly balance -an object ten times its size which is placed relatively nearer the -center. Balance in printing must not be understood to mean that there -must be an equal distribution of weight over all quarters of the piece, -but that there must be a compensatory distribution of weight. - -In his lucid and interesting book upon "Pictorial Composition" Mr. H. -R. Poore gives a series of "postulates" which embody his ideas upon the -subject, and are expressed in terms intelligible to the non-artistic -as well as to those whose familiarity with art enables them to grasp -more technical phrases. To the printer it is only necessary to suggest -that he interpret "units" as meaning features in his work and he will -be able to appreciate that these art rules may not infrequently stand -him in good stead, especially when he is perplexed with some piece of -work that he is having difficulty in making "look right." Those of Mr. -Poore's "postulates" that appear to apply easily to printing, and may -be more profitably studied and heeded by printers and others interested -in typography, are here given: - - All pictures are a collection of units. - - Every unit has a given value. - - The value of a unit depends on its attraction; of its character, - of its size, of its placement. - - A unit near the edge has more attraction than at the center. - - Every part of the picture space has some attraction. - - Space having no detail may possess attraction by gradation and by - suggestion. - - A unit of attraction in an otherwise empty space has more weight - through isolation than the same when placed with other units. - - A unit in the foreground has less weight than one in the distance. - - Two or more associated units may be reckoned as one and their - united center is the point on which they balance with others. - -In the application of the rules of composition to graphic art it is -possible to minutely subdivide the topic and refer to specific examples -and explicit rules for practice. The selection of the particular kind -of balance to be sought depends upon the placement of the important -item or subject, which is in itself chiefly important in the scheme of -balance as giving the keynote, furnishing the starting point. There is -the balance of equal measures, which is a picture or piece of printing -which may be cut into four equal parts, by horizontal and vertical -lines drawn through its center, with each part showing equal weight; -the balance of isolated measures, where the chief item is placed away -from the center and has one or more isolated spots to compensate, -skilfully placed; the horizontal balance; the vertical balance; the -formal balance; the balance by opposition of light and dark measures; -balance by gradation; balance of isolation, and other varieties of -balance more technical and more especially adapted to the painter's -uses. Each of these variants of the basic rules of composition may be -of special value to the printer, if he studies the subject sufficiently -to gain a clear comprehension of how each applies in printing. - -This is one of the art subjects that the practical printer may deem of -too slight consequence to merit his careful attention. But if it is -desired to produce printing of power--power to pleasurably attract the -eye of those persons who possess either an instinctive or a cultivated -taste for art--it is essential that the work adhere closely to the -rules governing pictorial composition. The eye is a relentless judge. -Here, as in all printing, the esthetic motive is identical with the -business consideration. There is a double motive for the best printing, -the esthetic and the business motive, and it is impossible to separate -them, or consider either apart from the other. It is unnecessary to -attempt to evade the force and meaning of the new appreciation of the -basis of good printing, as it leads so surely to financial as well as -esthetic betterment, and should be congenial to the tastes of every -printer who has advanced in his craft beyond the standards of the -wood-sawyer. - - - - -Type Composition - - -The composition of type is the first task an apprentice is required to -undertake when he goes to "learn the trade," and his ideas regarding -its importance rarely rise above the level of the drudgery of his early -days at the case. But little of the effort to improve the quality -of printing has as yet extended back to this primary proceeding, -the setting of the type, yet in this fundamental operation lies the -possibility for very great improvement and distinction, and for -lamentable failure. - -Progress in typography has been slower, and it has reached a less -advanced position, than have other branches of the printing craft. -Presswork for example has become so nearly perfect as to leave -little room for the exercise of the critic's art; and the choice and -manipulation of paper leaves little hope for radical advance. Type is -set as it was set one, two, three generations ago, for the most part. A -few printers have given this subject special study, and are executing -book pages that are the wonder and despair of the craft. Their -distinction has been rather easily won. It is quite possible to detect -the source of it, and not difficult to draw the same results from the -same fount. - -It has become a habit to accept the composed page of type as the -foundation upon which to erect a fine piece of printing. The real -foundation lies somewhat further back. There can scarcely be -distinction in a printed piece unless its source is in the successive -steps of progress that antedate the composition of the type. The final -artistic result must be clearly conceived in the mind of the printer -before he drops one type into the stick. His scheme must be fully -developed, and it must be consistent in all its details. - -The type for a piece of printing should be selected to give adequate -expression to the literary motive, to properly emphasize the subject -matter, with the view to the production of a handsome and worthy piece -of printing. To secure this latter quality in printing is the primary -object of the typesetter, and therein lies the proof of his skill -and of his taste. Whether the type selected is the best possible for -a given piece of work may be a debatable question, but however it -succeeds or fails in this particular, the printer may manipulate it -in such a manner as will result in a consistent and artistic example -of typography. He may use the sizes which should be in conjunction; -he may avoid the common anachronism of lower-case and capital-letter -lines in the same piece; he may place his white space so that it will -not only be agreeably proportioned to the black or other color of the -print but so that it will be as important an element of strength as the -ink-covered surface; he may adjust the margins. - -These points are all vital, but none of them more so than the use -of lower-case and capital-letter lines in conjunction. The capital -letters of the ordinary font of type do not lend themselves gracefully -to the making of complete words. They are not designed for such work. -The lower-case letters are designed to stand together, but it is -impossible to combine many capital letters without making noticeable -gaps and breaks and some awkward connections. But the objection to -capital-letter lines in conjunction with lower-case lines does not -rest chiefly upon this point. There are fonts of type from which -capital-letter lines scarcely subject to the criticism suggested -may be set. The objection is not urged against capital-letter lines -in a prohibitive sense, but because their intrusion in a company of -lower-case lines destroys harmony. A like deplorable effect is produced -by the use of inharmonious series of type for the same piece of -typography. The war of styles of type is as destructive to artistic -effect as the poorest execution can be. In the old days the apprentice -was taught to alternate lower-case and capital-letter lines in job -printing, and avoid using two lines of the same series in conjunction. - -No one of the small refinements which are now being applied to -composition has worked so radical an improvement as the newer ideas -relative to spacing, and the perception that the spacing between words, -the leading between lines, and the degree of blackness of the face of -the letter, must have a balanced relation. This has operated to abolish -the conventional em quadrat after the period, and to produce a page of -type-matter which lends itself readily to securing tone and optical -comfort. - -The activity and the fecundity of the type founders in producing -new type faces has operated, in the first instance, to furnish new -excuse for discord. Then a reaction began, and the liberality of the -founders in making complete lines and elaborate series of type faces is -suggesting uniformity in scheme and supplying material for consistent -execution. The elaborate specimen books are scarcely a temptation to -restraint however, nor do they tempt to classicism. Too much type at -the hand of the printer is a positive detriment. Until quite recently -a very large proportion of the new faces had no warrant for existence. -They were abortions, based upon the fantastic ideas of designers who -exhibited little knowledge of art or of history. The more recent -product of the foundries is much more creditable, and it appears that -the designing of type has been taken in hand by artists of capacity, -who are actuated by motives worthy of their ambitions and guided by -historical research that is true in aim if not always profound. - -The typographic tendency is distinctly toward better things. It lags, -however. It is not on the level of the other processes of printing. We -are yet compelled to admit that presswork is far ahead of composition -in development, as is the facility for compounding and handling inks -and the selection and the manipulation of paper. - -In this vitally fundamental matter we have made little real progress. -The disciples of better things are not honored with a following. They -are regarded with mild interest by a few of the more progressive ones, -with distinct disapproval by the many conservatives, and with utter -indifference by the mass. Yet they will win. That there is impending -a considerable reform in the composition of type is certain, and -the reform will consist in the general adoption of the refinements -now practiced by a few: In a closer study of the matter of spacing -and leading, with a view to bringing the tone of the page up to near -the artistic requirements; in a better balance between body type and -chapter and page headings; in a better, more consistent and uniform -management of the folio; in order that those features may be actually -the guiding and subsidiary features in typography that they assuredly -are in the literary scheme of the book. - -The time is coming when a book page will be planned to harmonize with -and express the literary motive; to promote ease and pleasure in -reading; and to satisfy the innate sense of artistic harmony which is -felt and appreciated by the cultivated reader, even if, as must often -be the fact, he is quite unconscious of the existence of such a demand. - -It is upon a basis somewhat like this that books should be planned: -Make one page that meets the requirements of art and of the literary -motive, and base the book upon it. Such is not the general custom. -It is more the fashion to fix the size of the book and accommodate -the page to the arbitrary scheme, forcing the type and the format to -adequate proportions. There are books that are artistically ruined by -the use of type of an inharmonious face, or that may be one size too -small or too large; there are many books that are, typographically, -abortions, because of neglect to conform to certain very simple tenets -of art, when they might as easily have been exemplars of artistic -motives and a comfort and delight to each cultivated reader. - -It is doubtless because these neglected essentials are so simple and -so easily incorporated that it is so difficult to obtain recognition -and currency for them. But we may rejoice that books are beginning -to receive some of this kind of attention, even in the big printing -factories, where books are made very much as barrels of flour are -turned out of the great northwestern mills, or as bags of grain are -discharged from the modern reapers marching in clattering procession -over the horizon-wide wheat townships. - - - - -Proportion and the Format - - -It is a delicate and essential matter to fix upon the length of the -type page, and a difficult question to fix the margins. There is a -mass of literature bearing upon these matters, but they cannot in -every case be decided according to arbitrary rules. It is usually -safe to be guided by the usual rules in proportioning a page of type, -and in placing the page upon the paper. A thorough understanding of -the principles of art as they may be applied to printing will suggest -occasional infractions of mechanical rules in the interests of good -art. Exactly what is to be the procedure in every instance cannot be -formulated into rules, but it is always possible to explain justifiable -infractions of rules by reference to principles of art. When it is -found impossible to thus justify departures from rule, precedent or -convention, it is evident that art would have gained if the rules had -been adhered to. - -The treatment of the format of a book has become somewhat of a moot -question, though it is evident that the advocates of the strictly -conventional method are gradually drawing practical printers into -agreement with them, and that their opponents rely upon the spirit of -philistinism for their chief justification, confining their arguments -largely to contradiction unfortified by either logic or precedent. -Philistinism is not entirely evil, but the present is not a time -of such slavish conformity as to clothe it with the appearance of -a virtue. Protest is the instinctive spirit of today. In printing -there is too much of it. We need more conformity, if conformity be -interpreted not to mean blind adherence to precedent but a large and -active faith in the saving virtue of demonstrable principles. - -Proportion, balance, in a limited sense composition as understood in -art, and optics must be considered in adjusting the format of a book. -The size and shape of the book must determine the exact dimensions -of the page and the margins. The leaf of the ordinary book which is -generally approved is fifty per cent longer than it is wide. This -proportion is often varied, and for different reasons, but it may be -accepted as a standard. - -The margins of a correctly printed book are not equal. The back margin -is the narrowest, the top a little wider than the back, the front -still wider, and the bottom, or tail margin, the widest of all. Why -this scheme for margins has grown to be authoritative, and adopted by -good bookmakers, is not entirely clear. Nearly all the literature upon -the subject is devoted to attempts to justify the custom instead of -explaining its origin. The best justification that can now be offered -is the evident fact that the custom is agreeable to publishers, to -authors, and to discriminating readers. - -It is often alleged that there is some law of optics that is in -agreement with the custom, but it might be difficult to establish such -a claim though it is not necessary to attempt to refute it. We are -accustomed to this arrangement of the margins in the best books, and -that to which we have become accustomed requires no defense, scarcely -an explanation. It is certain that the format of a book appeals to us -as right only where this arrangement of unequal margins is strictly -observed. It is easy to imagine that our eyes rest more contentedly -upon the pair of pages before them when those pages incline toward the -top of the leaves and toward each other. The eye of the bookish person -is undeniably better satisfied if the margins are proportioned as -specified. There may be grounds for doubting the claim that the reasons -for such satisfaction are optical; there are some plausible arguments -to support such a contention. It is a question for oculists. - -The other reasons for the evolution of the book format into its present -form are logical. If they do not lead to the conclusion that art has -been served and justified in full they assuredly do not lead to a -contrary conclusion. The early paper makers produced a sheet that was -uneven in shape and variable in size, and the pressman was compelled to -make large allowance on the front and tail margins. The back and top -margins could be reckoned, as when the sheet was folded by the print -they would be uniform. The front and tail margins were made wide enough -to allow for the unevenness of the paper and for the trim. It was -inevitable that the allowance should be too great, and that to preserve -the proper form and proportion for the book the front and tail margins -should occasionally be left wider than the back and head margins. This, -it may be imagined, did much to fix the present custom. The ancient -handmade papers were thicker on the fore edge of the sheet than in the -center, and as the bookbinder could not beat the edges flat they had to -be trimmed off. - -In the old days books were taken more seriously than they now are, and -studious readers desired to annotate their copies of favorite books. -The front and tail margins were used for this purpose, and they were -therefore given their larger proportion of the sheet. In the fifteenth -century this motive for wide margins was recognized by all printers, -and many of them went so far as to provide printed annotations for all -four of the margins. - -There were other motives for fixing the margins as we have them. -Whether the optical and the artistic motives, purely as such, may -explain the modern format more logically than the historical motives -do, may be debatable. The question is not vitally important. We wish to -see the format of our books made as the best practice makes it, whether -our taste is inherited as a habit or is acquired through our artistic -cultivation. - -Accepting therefore the dictum as it stands, without pressing an -inquiry as to its authority or its legitimacy, it remains something -of a problem to fix the margins and place the page of a book. When -all suggestions and rules are considered it will be found that it -is not often that the ordinary book page will submit gracefully to -variation of the rule that the length be determined by cutting the -page into two triangles, the hypotenuse of either of which shall be -twice the width of the page. The page-heading should be included in -this measurement, but if the folio is placed at the foot, either in -bare figures or enclosed within brackets, it need not be included. -This formula must often be disregarded, especially when the book is -not to be proportioned in conventional dimensions. No other form is as -satisfactory however, and it is quite within the bounds of the practice -of the better bookmakers to consider it as the approved conventional -page. Whenever it is varied the guide must be a general sense of -appropriateness, having consideration for all the other varied elements. - -There are other rules. One that was much in vogue at one time, and is -esteemed now by some good printers, makes the type page one-half more -in length than its width. This rule is restricted in its application. -It will not do for a quarto page, nor for a broad octavo. Another rule -provides that the sum of the square inches on the back and top margins -shall be one-half the sum of the square inches on the front and tail -margins. This is difficult to apply in practice, for obvious reasons, -except as a test to determine the correctness of margins already fixed. - -The margins must be adjusted with the intent to make the two pages -lying exposed to view properly harmonize with the book leaf, and adjust -themselves to the tyrannical optical demands of the eyes of the -reader. This requires a very strict and careful adherence to rules well -understood by good printers, as well as a courageous disregard of those -rules when the exigencies of the case demand it. There are many other -things to consider. The general character and purpose of the book must -be taken into account, the size of type, and whether it is to be leaded -or set solid, the quality and weight of paper, etc. A bible, guide -book, or directory, need not have wide margins, nor a book printed on -small type and thin paper; and a book the type for which is not leaded -should be given less margin than is allowed for a page of leaded type. -While the same general scheme for margins is applicable to nearly all -good books, of whatever shape and size, when the contents and object do -not dominate the physical character, it is obvious that the dimensions -cannot in all cases be fixed according to the same formulas. A quarto -page must have wider margins than an octavo, but they must bear a like -relative proportion to each other. A quarto page must be proportioned -differently than an octavo; it must be shorter by about one-seventh. - -The width of the margins must in some degree depend upon the amount -of white in the page of type, upon the tone of the type page. This -involves the character of the type face quite as much as the spacing -and leading given it, as some type faces have such light lines as to -give the page a very light tone, even when the type is set solid and -the spacing is close, other types have such heavy lines as to demand -wide spacing, leading, and wide margins, to bring the tone down to a -proper degree of grayness. - -Consideration of all these questions affecting the format, and -especially the margins, of a proposed book lead to the conclusion -that it is good practice to select the paper as the first step in the -planning of a book that is intended to be made upon artistic lines, and -upon this foundation to build the typography and the binding, according -to the rules of harmony and of proportion. - - - - -Color - - -In art, color is not essential to some forms and processes, as -engraving, etching, charcoal work, and the various forms of crayon -work; and in printing, it is absent from the large percentage of work -done in black and white. - -This limitation of the application of the word "color" in printing is -quite arbitrary. If we speak in the strictest sense we must consider -that black and white work is color work. White is the concentration of -all the rays of the solar spectrum, the epitome of all colors; while -black is the appearance of the substance that most nearly rejects all -reflections of the spectrum colors; and black and white are as truly -colors as are red, violet, vermilion, or any of the other brilliant -tints. Yet as it is usual to allude to black and white as some other -qualities than color, and as they affect us so differently, it is -deemed to be more convenient to consider them in relation to light and -shade, tone, and values, and to confine the meaning of "color" to the -tints shown by the spectrum. This is not an insignificant distinction -when employed in relation to printing, as much of the beauty and -power of the plainly printed book page is due to the apportionment -of black and white--black type and white paper. So when we speak of -color in printing it must be understood that the word is not used in -its broadest, nor in its most exact, sense; but in an arbitrarily -restricted sense, applying exactly as it is applied by printers in -actual practice. - -The printer's understanding of color, his appreciation of its -usefulness and power, is approaching toward the high esteem in which -it is held by the painter. He is coming to know that it is a high -quality of his work, and that by it he is able to suggest several other -qualities that are vital, such as lights, shadows, perspectives, etc. - -There are no explicit rules for the guidance of the printer in the use -of color. There are certain fundamental principles, and many rules -deduced from them, a thorough acquaintance with which will enable -him to avoid serious blunders and greatly aid him in the working out -of a scheme; but that sense of rightness which the successful artist -or craftsman occasionally experiences, cannot be won by the mere -following of the letter and the spirit of rules. How true this is -becomes apparent when the work of the best printers is examined with -intelligent care, and it seems absolute when the meager list of great -painter colorists is reviewed: Titian, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Paul -Veronese, Rubens, Velasquez, Delacroix, and a few with less claim to -the title. All that is known about color has been absorbed by hundreds -of artists; yet out of a great army of successful students there have -come so few good colorists that their names can be spoken in ten -seconds. - -To effectively deal with color a fair understanding of what science is -able to tell of its essential properties and powers is necessary as a -basis. To this may be added such of the deductions and rules as have -been formulated by the great painters and the students. - -The important starting point is this: To realize that color is not -a material existence, not a substance, not a fixed fact equally -appreciable by all and equally demonstrable to all. It is a sensation; -and a sensation not of the same force or quality for different -individuals. Of itself it depends upon the waves of the ether in -space; for us it depends upon the power and truth of our eyes. One may -truthfully see a color that is quite another thing to another person, -if there should chance to be a difference radical enough or defects -serious enough in the eyes of either. The laws governing light are -of great importance to the colorists. There are subtleties that have -important practical application which cannot be guessed otherwise than -by direct reference to science. In no other way can a printer know for -example what colors are complementary or what effect a certain color -will have upon another when they are used together. - -There are many curious facts about color which do not appear to be -regulated by laws at all similar to those we are accustomed to apply -in other matters; that there is this universal and radical difference -is of great importance to those who use color in printing. It is -interesting to realize that color is produced by light waves, the -different colors by waves of different lengths, or greater frequency; -that red appears to the eye when the light wave is 1/39000 of an inch -in length, or when the frequency of the vibration is 392 quadrillions -per second, by the American system of enumeration. It may be also of -practical money value to the printer to know such facts, and to always -be conscious of a fact more likely to be of practical use, namely, that -the sensation of color is produced upon our sensory nerves in a manner -closely analogous to that which produces the sensation of harmony: by -ether waves set in motion in a different way. These sensory nerves -are the most easily entered avenues to our pleasurable sensations; -far more delicate and responsive than the different brain organs to -the more obvious consciousnesses, as personal regard and literary -appreciation, etc. - -The printer handling color is making an appeal of the most subtle and -delicate nature, vastly more so than is made by the type matter that -may form the body of the piece of printing he is embellishing with -color. - -There are three primary colors--red, yellow, and blue--and three -composite colors, which can be formed by mixings of primary -colors--green, orange, and violet. It is of importance to the -printer to know which of these colors are complementary and which -uncomplementary. Complementary colors are those that may be used in -close conjunction without one unfavorably affecting the other. This -is the secret of complementary, or harmonious, colors: Will they -make white if mixed? This means a natural and perfect union of the -light rays reflected from the color scheme upon the eye's retina, -and so passed along to the sensory nerves--the telegraph line from -the physical world to the appreciative brain. It appears that those -complementary color schemes which can be perfectly justified are -such as reflect light rays nearest like the rays that show us white. -Red and green, the two most pronounced and vigorous colors, are -complementary. When mixed in the proper proportions they produce white, -but this does not mean that they weaken each other when otherwise used; -when placed side by side they enhance each other's power and brilliancy -by reflection. Their very intimate relation is further shown by the -fact that red, by itself, is bordered by a faint halo of green, and -green by a tinge of red. Yellow and indigo also make white by mixing, -and easily reveal traces of each other when properly manipulated. This -interchange between complementary colors is carried still further: The -shadow of a color does not show the color itself, but the complementary -color to which it is most nearly related. - -There is a curious law of optical mixture to deal with--that tendency -of the eye to unify the color scheme which changes colors when used -in combination upon a piece of printing or upon a canvas. This -sometimes so changes the expected effect of a color scheme that has -been carefully studied as to render it inadvisable to use it. It is -generally found that optical mixture verifies the taste and judgment -of the colorist who has been faithful to the complementary color laws, -and helps him to a harmony, rather than condemns his work. Optical -mixture is too nearly a mere name for a manifestation of the relation -of complementary colors to trouble the printer, though a consciousness -of it and its effect may at times aid him in producing some delicate -effects. - -The reasons for desiring reliable knowledge of these qualities of -colors are clear. Brilliancy is obtained by using complementary colors -side by side, because each gives to the other its favorable halo of -color; and dulness of coloring follows the use of uncomplementary -colors side by side because each partially kills the other with its -unfavorable halo of color. - -Careful observance of this law of colors will not give perfect harmony -to the color scheme, but it will give one of the more important -elements of harmony. But there is an important exception to be noted. -The law of contrast claims attention, though it cannot produce harmony. -Strong effects may be obtained by ignoring these rules relative to -harmony, or by boldly employing pronounced discords and seeking to -so mitigate the discord as to tempt the attention to divide itself -between the contrasting colors. Red and blue in the national flag are -so tempered with pure white as to subdue their fierce antagonism. -And so it may be with other examples--there must be either some -overpowering sentiment or some skilful expedient, like breaking the -main colors into lower tints, to ease the transit from one to the -other. A good piece of color work need not be composed of different -colors. It may be composed of different shades of the same color, or -of tints very nearly related. This requires a good workable knowledge -of perspective and of that rather elusive and indefinite quality known -in painting as "values"; which chiefly means that each tint employed -in a piece of work shall be placed as it would appear in nature and -shall properly harmonize with every shade or color in the piece. Such -a composition as this is difficult for a letter-press printer, less so -for a lithographer, with exactly the kind of delicate manœuvering that -delights some painters. It involves such fine discriminations as are -necessary to show the difference between a white handkerchief and white -snow, between a gray house and a gray sky, between a green tree and a -green mountain, between a carnation pink and a pink muslin gown. - -It is well to appreciate the difference between color and colors, -and to recognize the fact that good color does not necessarily alone -mean the degree of brightness or contrast, but is oftener found in -accordance, mellowness and richness. Color does not always mean bright -color. There is beginning to be seen some low keyed color work, simple -in color composition. It is a good sign. It is only the masters who -are able to successfully cope with the high keyed compositions, and the -masters are, as they ever were, scarce. - -The wise choose, when there is a choice, such harmonies as may be -indicated by mahogany wood and Cordova leather; Indian red instead -of brick red, peacock blue instead of sky blue, olive green instead -of grass green; golden browns, garnet reds, Egyptian yellows, deep -tones of brown, green, and orange. These colors are not gay, flippant -nor flimsy; they are dignified and good style; they have a quality of -beauty inherent in them--a depth; and they may be in keeping with a -motive in the printed piece that means something other and better than -a shock to the color sense. - - - - -Tone - - -No quality of printing is of more general importance than tone. It -has great weight as a purely artistic attribute, and it has a great -physiological value. If the tone of a page of print is not right--if -it does not conform very closely to the standard set up by the rules -of art--it will not be "easy" reading, and will severely try eyes that -are not absolutely normal and perfectly strong. Here as elsewhere, and -as is the unvarying rule, the art standard is the standard required by -hygiene and common sense. - -It is of the greatest importance that a printed page shall be toned, -with respect to the proportion of visible white paper and black type, -in strict accord with the requirements of art, which are identical with -the rules that guard healthy eyesight. - -Tone in painting has a radically different meaning in America from -the meaning attached to the term in England and in France, and it -appears to be less important. The American meaning of the word tone -as an element in painting is that it refers to the dominant color of -a picture; that is, as one would note that the prevailing color of -a certain picture is red, of another yellow, of another blue. This -makes of tone a mere descriptive adjective of small value as an aid to -a critical estimate or as a guide in creation. To the printer, this -meaning of the term would bar it out of his curriculum. The English -understanding of tone is quite different, and it appears more worthy -of acceptance. It is, at all events, the meaning that must be accepted -by printers if they are to derive any benefit from a study of tone -as a possible aid in their craft. The English consider tone to be -"the proper diffusion of light as it affects the intensities of the -different objects in the picture; and the right relation of objects -or colors in shadow to the parts of them not in shadow and to the -principal light." - -It is easier, and may be clearer, to think of tone in a piece of type -composition, or in a black-and-white engraving prepared for printing, -somewhat as we think of tone in music. And we find upon getting further -into the subject that it is expedient to take advantage of the extreme -comity at present existing between England and America and let the two -meanings of tone merge into a more general one for the benefit and -use of the printer in practice. The painter's estimate of the tone -of a painting may be understood by applying a test cited by a writer -upon art: "If the canvas were placed upon a revolving pin and whirled -rapidly around, the coloring would blend into a uniform tint." The -color tone of a painting must then be the dominant color, modified by -the subordinate colors. If the color tone be yellow for example, as -it is in some of the good work of Dutch artists, there must be enough -yellow so that it will be a yellow blur if the piece is spun rapidly -around. - -In black-and-white printing tone must mean depth of color, and -diffusion of color, and the tone can scarcely be otherwise than -some shade of gray. If it is advantageous to strive for a certain -harmony between literary motive and type motive an appreciation of -the technical meaning of tone and the utilization of the unique test -suggested may be of great assistance to the printer of black-and-white -work. - -The printer has to consider the tone of his piece in a different light -than the painter. The latter has only his canvas to take account of, -and he works his canvas to its edge. The printer has his page of type -and his margins. This blends the question of tone in a very practical -way with questions bearing upon the format--with the question of -proportion for example, and with the important question of the balance -of the margins; and while the determination of the tone of the type -page itself, irrespective of the margins, involves one weighty question -in optics, the placing of the type page upon the leaf involves another, -quite different in nature but none the less important from an artistic -point of view. - -It is easily perceived that the element of tone is of considerable -importance in what is erroneously called "plain" composition, the -black-and-white book page. In color printing it is apparent that the -knowledge of tone is of more practical importance, as colored printed -pieces should show a decided preponderance of that tone which best -illustrates or translates the idea that the piece is conceived for -the purpose of expressing. It may be important that a certain piece -emphatically presents to the eye a certain shade of red. It must be -just enough given over to the red to produce the effect required--no -more, no less. There must be red everywhere, but not too much. The -simple test will show the printer whether he is overloading his -piece with the dominant color or whether he has not yet used enough. -The color scheme must be keyed to the required pitch of color, as a -piece of music written in a certain key must be kept free from notes -belonging to another key. But not absolutely free, of necessity; short -notes of another key, and very few of them, may be introduced. So a -touch of a radically different color may be thrust into a composition -without ruining it, as a bit of brick red or small patch of blue in a -monotone, or a little green or yellow in a red composition, but not -enough to show plainly when we apply the whirling test. - -This more obvious meaning of the term tone seems to be applicable to -printing, at least to the extent of informing and modifying the mind of -the printer. The more important significance of the term in painting -means but little to the printer, as it deals in modifications and -gradations in color not practicable in typography, and applying, so far -as printing in general is concerned, to engravings. - - - - -Light and Shade - - -Light and shade means nearly the same as the English idea of tone, -to the printer, as it has to do with the distribution of light and -shadow in such a manner as will best illustrate the motive of the -painter. This important element in graphic art has its value for the -printer. It is only necessary to note the part played by light and -shade--"light-tone"--in any work of art to conceive how important is -its office in good printing, particularly in the printing of the modern -process engravings. Some of the older Japanese and Chinese paintings -are nearly devoid of light and shade, and are therefore given that -appearance of flatness and false perspective which is their distinctive -characteristic. Egyptian and Assyrian wall painting, and many Italian -paintings of the medieval period, lack this quality, and they sharply -emphasize its importance in graphic art. In nature it is more important -than in art. We can recognize no form except by the aid of light and -shade, neither a grain of sand nor a mountain, nor any other physical -thing. It is probable that every piece of good printing owes some of -its excellence to this element of light and shade; and as directly to -tone. Light and shade has reference to the proper proportion of light -to shadow, and of shadow to light; not to the proper proportion of -light to shade in a composition. That is tone. Is there light enough -to supplement the shadow, and thus bring the object illustrated into -such reasonable harmony with nature as to warrant us in accepting it -as a faithful picture of nature? Does the composition, in other words, -appear natural to an untrained vision? - -It is the persistent study of this question of light and shade which -has rescued the halftone engraving from the pit of oblivion into -which it seemed destined to fall during its early days, and placed -it in the forefront of illustrative processes. Probably the halftone -of today, which in competent hands is a superb and exact recorder of -nature, is not strikingly better in any other detail than it was in its -early days except the one quality of light and shade. This variety of -illustration was as flat and as expressionless as a Chinese painting -until artist, engraver, and printer conspired to give it expression -and verisimilitude by working up its capacity to bring light and shade -fully and broadly to its task. There can be no rule that will apply -to this employment of light and shade. Rules there are, but they -apply with truth only to one experience--that which prompted their -formulation. The eye of the printer is the guide. This is the reason -why he should study this question, and others of similar artistic -value, from the point of view of the artist, not from the viewpoint of -the printer. - - - - -Values - - -The quality in a painting which is known as "values" may quite easily -be regarded by the printer as signifying to him the same as tone. -Careful study will show him that there is a difference, and also -that value is a vital element in his work which has for him a real -significance. Value may not unfairly be considered to be an element -of tone. It relates to the intensity of light; not the brilliancy of -color, but the capacity that resides in color to reflect light. In -color printing the value of the most common colors ranks with yellow -first, then orange, green, red, blue, and violet. That is, yellow is -capable of reflecting more light from the same quantity of sunlight -than any other color, and violet less than any other color. Scientists -have reckoned that chrome yellow reflects 80 per cent of light, green -40 per cent, etc. These figures serve no very practical purpose, -because the reflecting power of any tint is dependent upon the other -colors employed. Colors are dependent upon each other for their value -as well as for their intensity and their harmony. It is not difficult -to treat this matter of value in a mathematical way, as is suggested by -Prof. J. C. Van Dyke: "Let the chrome yellow with its 80 per cent of -light represent a sunset sky in the background; let the green with its -40 per cent represent the grass in the immediate foreground; and let -the orange-red with its 60 per cent represent the sail of a Venetian -fishing vessel upon the water of the middle distance. Now we have the -three leading pitches of light in the three planes of the picture," and -the problem would stand thus: 40:60::60:80 and the result will indicate -the relative power of the value in the picture. - -Interesting, but not especially useful, the "practical" printer says. -No, not unless there is recognizable in this, as in all that has been -said about art in printing, the subtle relation between the vital -elements of graphic art and those refinements of knowledge and practice -which tend to bring printing nearer to the arts. The connection is -there, and is evident to the seeing eye. In nature and in life the -sense of values is of such importance that without it objects would not -have relative positions; all would be a jumble of shades and tones, -objects and colors; we would stumble, as we could not see depressions; -we would grasp an arm or the empty air, when we attempted to seize -a hand; we could not judge distances. It is upon the extent and the -thoroughness of the printer's knowledge of this question of values -that the degree of refinement and truth he is able to impart to a -certain class of work depends, and hence its money value to him and its -intrinsic value to his patrons. - - - - -Paper - - -Paper is as important an artistic or esthetic element in the well-made -book as it is as a technical element; and it is likewise to be regarded -from the point of view of the optician and the physiologist. - -It is possible to select a paper for any book that will lend itself to -the artistic scheme of the book. It has not long been possible to do -this. The product of the skilled paper maker has more than quadrupled, -in artistic variety, during the few years last past, until it is -now the fault of its designer if a book intended to be harmoniously -artistic is not as true to its motive in paper as in typography or -binding. But it is evident that paper for a book cannot be selected -without reference to the typography, the plates, and other mechanical -features. A grade of paper that would be appropriate for the printing -of a rugged-faced type (like Caslon) upon, would not do at all for a -conventional type, such as the Scotch face, it might be discovered, -even though the paper, in texture and finish, seemed to be peculiarly -appropriate for the literary motive. There are certain type faces which -may be printed upon paper that is milk white, and certain other faces -that lend themselves more readily to the production of harmonious tonal -effects when the paper has a "natural" tint, or is thrown strongly -toward a brown color. Either of these combinations, or any similar -combination, may harmonize unfavorably with the literary motive, or -with the scheme for proportion and balance, or with the tone and values -element, and though admirable in itself have to be finally rejected. - -The weight and texture of the paper have to be considered as minutely -and as carefully, and with the same principles in full view. A delicate -and shy literary motive must not be given the massive dignity of heavy -handmade paper and large and strong type. Such a scheme is harrowing to -a sensitive reader's nerves and rudely subversive of the more obvious -and elemental artistic principles. - -It is a complex and an involved process to select the proper paper for -a given piece of printing, and the rightful decision of either of the -component elements involves the rightful decision with reference to -each of the others. It is impossible to consider the question of paper -apart from a consideration of the typography, the illustrations, the -format, and the binding; and it is not possible to consider either of -these elements apart from the literary motive, which must always be the -foundation of the structure. - -Paper is one of the group of coördinately important elements in a piece -of artistic printing, and only one, and never otherwise than strictly -coördinate. It may not be considered by itself, unless possible -disaster be consciously and deliberately invited. - -Therefore before the specifications for a book or other piece of -printing are otherwise fixed, it is necessary to decide upon the -paper to be used. It is one of the elements of printing over which -the printer exercises no control except the liberty of choice. He can -choose the paper he wishes to use, but he cannot adapt it. He can adapt -his typographic plan and his color scheme, and adjust them to the paper -in such fashion as will result in harmony for the completed work, but -his paper he is obliged to take as the paper-maker furnishes it. For -this reason, and because the paper is actually a foundation element -in printing, it is necessary that printers know about paper, and that -those who essay to execute work of a high standard be familiar with its -history, composition, and methods of manufacture. - -Too much importance will not be likely to be attached to the history -of paper, for it runs parallel with the record of the advance of -civilization and learning, and it has been an indispensable factor in -that advance. When we note the important part played by paper in the -complicated scheme of our twentieth century lives, we may gain some -faint appreciation of its place and relative importance as a factor -of life. As a factor in printing it has been customary to place paper -first in the list. It is a safe practice, though the versatility of the -paper makers is yearly making it less essential to do so. Yet, when -all the progress in paper making has been considered, it paradoxically -remains that the selection of paper by the printer is not the simple -matter it was only a few years ago. - -With the progress of the art of printing during the last quarter of -the nineteenth century there has come complexity in all its branches. -Type has been wondrously multiplied, inks are in greater profusion, and -varieties of paper have rapidly multiplied. The good printer of today -needs to know the history of the evolution of type, ink, and paper, if -he hopes to be able to cope successfully with the problems facing him. - -One reason for this particularity of knowledge is the tendency of -the laity to study the technical phases of printing. Type founders -have courted the attention of large consumers of printed matter and -of large advertisers, and the lay knowledge of type has led to a -like result regarding paper. So that it at present happens that the -printer's patron is able to dictate the style of typography he desires, -and the quality and tint of paper he prefers. This predicates knowledge -on the part of the printer; and in the case of paper it necessitates -expert knowledge. Type is type, speaking somewhat loosely, and, -whatever the crotchet a consumer of printing may get into his head it -is not likely to cost more than about so much a pound. It is otherwise -with paper, and generally it is more the color, texture, and appearance -the patron wishes than the intrinsic value, and the printer must make -a choice that shall satisfy the artistic exigencies of the case, as -well as consider its financial aspects. One paper may be unsuited for -a particular piece of work, and another of the same tint, weight, and -price may be exactly suitable; and the reason may lie in so obscure a -cause as the peculiar process of manufacture, or the chemical nature of -material used by certain paper mills, or a slight variation in finish -that may affect ink in a different manner. - -A bright and observing printer inevitably becomes more or less versed -in paper. He handles it continually, and cannot avoid recognizing -certain more evident differences. What is learned in this way is good -knowledge, but it takes a long time to get a comprehensive acquaintance -with paper, and there has not in the meantime been built up that -flawless reputation for good work which all printers regard as the very -best capital. - -The printer who knows about paper knows about its history, its -composition, and the methods of manufacture. To him wood-pulp paper is -not all the same, and he knows what he means when he speaks of "all -rag" or "handmade." He knows that paper made wholly of wood varies in -goodness according as it is made by this or that process--mechanical -wood, soda, or sulphite; and knows that "all rags" may be all cotton, -or all linen, or a combination of rags, or a combination of wood and -rags, or indeed all wood, or some vegetable fiber not specified. It is -not the mere exhibition of this sort of knowledge that particularly -signifies; it is that it adds greatly to the printer's power to execute -good work, as it places him in a position to select the most suitable -paper, and insures his reputation. It enables him to execute a piece of -work intended to endure a long time in a manner that will preserve its -beauty, so that it will not fade or turn a dirty brown or yellow color, -as well as to make his paper play its legitimate rôle as the most -important inflexible art element he will usually find it necessary to -deal with. A knowledge of paper in this thorough sense is even more -desirable if a printer presumes to arrogate to himself the title and -qualities of an artist. It is scarcely too radical to assert that the -esthetics of printing depend for exemplification more upon paper than -upon typography. It has been said that type, ink, and paper go to the -making of good printing. This formula may be reversed and made to -read paper, ink, and type, since so much of the effect of decorative -printing depends upon the paper and the ink. If these two harmonize -properly it remains that the type must not interfere but must play the -negative rôle of conformity. It is the paper that is selected first, -then the ink, and lastly the typography is brought into the scheme. -Typography, as an ornate art, has dwindled, and the skilled constructor -of wonderful effects with types and rule is no longer esteemed in the -job room. The arbiter of style sits in the counting-room, and turns the -leaves of the paper and type specimen books before the critical eyes of -the patron. The job is built upon a paper sample, and the designer sees -it completed in his mind before he sends it to the compositor. - - - - -Style - - -Style is that subtle atmosphere pervading literary, artistic and -handicraft work that suggests the cultivated personality of the author. -It is not a usual nor a clear conception of style to consider the term -as applicable to inferior work. The word, as used to designate quality, -has come to mean positive and recognizable merit, and generally -also that indefinite but powerfully distinctive merit indicating -individuality. - -The word is used somewhat in this sense, though more broadly, in -descriptive art nomenclature, as when the style of a Rubens or of a -Titian is spoken of; and in art it often appears that the word is -used more commonly to designate a school or a genre of painting, -than to point to the work of any particular person of the present or -the recent past. Yet it is noted that whenever an artist is able to -attract favorable attention through the exercise of talents markedly -his own, he is at once credited with a style that is distinctively and -peculiarly his. It is quite fair and just therefore to consider that -style in printing means that quality of beauty or distinction which is -to be directly referred to the printer, rather than those meritorious -qualities that owe their existence to careful following of established -rules and principles, concerning which all printers have, or may have, -a working knowledge. There are some printers whose work is so redolent -of a peculiar style as to be recognizable to observing persons; and -such work has a quality that may almost be said to be narrow. The -possessor of a style pronounced enough to have attracted attention is -also usually limited in his range; is, in fact, an exponent of his own -peculiar style and is but little else. - -Style does not absolutely involve excellence; only a distinctive -individuality. That individuality may produce printed work that may be -wholly bad, or it may be the hall mark of a supreme excellence. This is -the technical meaning of the word. In usage the word style is generally -understood to imply excellence, and a high grade and peculiarly -distinctive excellence. The derivation of the word is suggestive of -the accepted appreciation of its scope. It is the Latin name for an -iron pen, but it has come to signify not only the art that wields the -pen but it is applied to the whole range of the productive activities -of man; to music, painting, architecture, sculpture, dancing, acting, -tennis and baseball playing; to burglary and picking of pockets, and to -printing. - -In printing, style is an element of value, and may be accorded as -careful attention as is given to the type outfit, to the presses, or to -the employes. We can perhaps think of half a dozen printers who have -made great reputations and considerable fortunes through having a style -that appealed singularly to purchasers of printed matter. What is there -in the work of Mr. De Vinne's press that gives the name a distinct -value? Why do publishers announce in their advertisements that certain -books are printed by De Vinne? Mr. De Vinne's style is valuable to him -and to the publishers who employ him to make books for them. - -Probably there is not an intelligent printer who may read this who -does not recognize the value of style in printing, and who does not, -more or less seriously, struggle to acquire for himself a distinctive -style, and chiefly because he knows that the possession of a style -that appeals to the buyers of printed matter is almost the only sure -means of gaining new clients and holding old ones, and obtaining -profit-making prices. While there are many printers who will be -inclined to scout the idea that the possession of a style of their own -would be of financial advantage to them, it is a fundamental element -in success. There needs must be some diggers of ditches, hewers of -wood and drawers of water, and it is probably true that the great bulk -of printing will continue to be done by workmen, a small proportion -of it by artisans, and an almost infinitesimal portion by artists. -Nevertheless, there is a gravitation toward the artisan class, and from -it to the sparse company of the artist printers. - -"The only way," says an acute literary critic, "to get a good style is -to think clearly." That is in literature. - -In printing, the only way to get a good style is to know thoroughly. -Yet it is not all to know. The knowledge must be expressed, and it must -be expressed in a manner agreeable to those to whom printed matter is -to appeal. They do not always know the point of view of the printer, -even if he has a style that is admirable. So his style must, after all, -be subordinate to clearness and comprehensibility. - -In a piece of printing it is necessary to bring out "the extreme -characteristic expression" of the central motive. That is, if the piece -of printing is intended to promote the sale of a certain substance or -article it is desirable that all the suggestive power residing in the -types be brought into play to drive the motive home. This is however a -secondary quality of style. The primary quality is that which attracts -the eye, and style for the printer may be limited to those qualities -that do most attract the eye quickly and agreeably. - -The secondary literary constituent of style, which is harmony, takes -first rank in printing. The three essentials of printing style may be -generalized as knowledge, harmony, and expressiveness. In literature -they are thought, expressiveness, and harmony, or melody, as some have -it. The greatest of these is, of course, knowledge--knowledge of the -fundamentals which go to the making of the best printing. - -It is not possible to teach style. It is almost as impossible to -acquire style. This seems like a paradox, but a paradox is not always a -symbol of hopelessness. Style must be born in a man--style in any art -or profession. "Style," a writer has recently said, "is gesture--the -gesture of the mind and of the soul." We can eliminate the last clause, -and call style in printing the gesture of the mind, the evidence of -the amount and degree of knowledge possessed by the mind, tempered, -arranged, given distinction, by the born talent, aptitude, or whatever -it may be termed, which is the seed germ of style. We do not hesitate -to accept the obvious theory that artists are born, not made. Some -claim for printing that it is an art. Why then should we hesitate to -admit that a printer capable of cultivating and expressing a genuine -style must depend upon something other than mere knowledge; something -deeper and more subtle than knowledge, which is able to mould knowledge -into style? - -Style, in the highest sense, is given to but few, and we cannot -hope that printers will be more favored, in proportion, than the -practitioners of other graphic arts. But they may be as highly favored, -if they avail themselves of the opportunities for culture that are open -to them, as they are open to other artists, and not otherwise. While it -is not to be expected that the printing art will produce Morrises or -Bradleys with great profuseness, it is to be frankly admitted that in -the grade next below--the grade of talent, that is, as distinguished -from the grade of genius--there is not found the high average of -attainment among printers that rules in other graphic arts. The reason -is as obvious as the fact: Printers are not students, in the sense that -painters, etchers, engravers, illustrators, and even photographers, -are students. Printers (the progressive ones) have in recent years -become close observers and good imitators, but there are few who have -attempted to qualify themselves for original work by thorough study -of those principles of graphic art that vitally control printing. The -artist, in any other line than printing, comes to the practice of his -art only after prolonged study and mastery of the principles and the -laws governing it. Not so with the printer. - -The time has arrived when eminence in printing means much more than -good work along existing lines. It means a radical departure and -the full recognition of the power and value of art in printing. We -have been rather hesitant in accepting this word, art, as applying -legitimately to printing, and we have been hesitating merely because -we have seen the term so freely and ignorantly applied to work that -merited no better name than archaic; to work that, while it usually -possessed the common virtues of good mechanical execution, was wholly -deficient in those qualities which fairly entitled it to be called -artistic. But we must put away this prejudice against an innocent -and needed term, and boldly reclaim it from the philistines. We must -reinstate in the public mind, and in our own minds, the thing and the -name that fittingly describes the thing. We must make art printing mean -art printing. - -Style should be the goal of the printer who cherishes hopes of -distinction or of wealth. We have said that style is born in a -man, not acquired by him. This is true, if we consider the highest -development of style. But we are all capable of greatly improving our -style by study. We cannot improve upon it in any other way. It is -almost useless for us to observe the good work of others, for this -purpose. We must go beyond that. The first step is to keenly realize -the need. We are on a par with every other person who wishes to truly -understand any art. We cannot arrive at that understanding by merely -wishing it. There is no understanding of art except through study of -art. - -We may spend a lifetime looking at the great paintings of the world -and then know so little about them as to appreciate but a tithe of the -rich store of culture and pleasure they hold in reserve for us. We may -cultivate a taste for paintings by putting ourselves frequently under -their influence, as we may build up a taste for literature by strenuous -reading. But knowledge, as distinguished from acquaintance, gives us a -very different conception of a painting, or a piece of sculpture, or -an example of any form of art, and reveals to us new beauties. So it -is in printing. We cannot do good color printing unless we understand -color as an artist understands it; we cannot get the best results from -a halftone engraving unless we understand tone, light and shade, and -values, as an artist understands them. We are not sure of our ground -with regard to a page of plain type matter unless we know something -conclusive about the fundamentals of art. - -We cannot take one pronounced step toward acquiring style until we -realize the need, the vital need, of a good foundation knowledge of -art--not in a historical sense, but in a technical sense--for the -technique of printing that is better than good. - - - - -The Binding - - -It is a pity that bookbinding and printing have drifted so far apart, -since they are so intimately related. A good book cannot be produced -without the coöperation of both crafts, and that coöperation ought -to be of a much closer nature. The printing and the binding of a -book should be done by artists or craftsmen actuated by a unity of -purpose and effort similar to the unity that must prevail in the book -if it is to express anything worthy. In the production of books of -a high excellence it is necessary that the binding shall chord with -the general nature as expressed through the printing and as fixed by -the literary body. This result can only be assured if the printers -and the binders work in close harmony. When it is manifestly present -in the book of today it is necessary to assume that the agreeable -result follows the effects of some influence outside of printers and -binders, brought strongly to bear upon each, rather than the result of -a harmonious understanding of the artistic proprieties of the case by -either the printer or the binder. Binding has a double significance: It -is essentially artistic, and emphatically a mechanical process. In its -artistic phase it rivals printing; it is considered to be quite apart -from printing, in fact, since there is a pretty decided cult in binding -that takes no cognizance of typography or of literary character. With -this collector's estimate of bindings we are not here concerned. The -desire to cheapen production has led to serious deterioration in the -quality of binding, of the ordinary library editions of books, during -the past century. Machine methods, unobjectionable when used upon very -cheap books but disastrous to the lasting quality of library books, -have obtained an undesirable vogue, and they are so capable of cleverly -simulating good work that they have been a very active agent in the -decay of good binding practice. The results of the more recent binding -methods are extremely lamentable, and those results have but partially -made themselves manifest. The next generation, and the generations -after the next, will suffer for the sins of the binders of the books -issued during the last half of the nineteenth century. The twentieth -century may achieve no more creditable record, but the sinning will -be in the light and will not be due to ignorance. The English Society -of Arts charged a special committee with the task of investigating -the cause of the decay in bindings, and the report of this committee -may be one impulse urging publishers to require better workmanship and -better methods. This committee formulated five specifications against -prevailing methods, each of which constitutes a defect of a radical -nature recognizable and curable only by bookbinders or experts in -bookbinding. Books are, this committee found, sewn on too few and too -thin cords; the slips are pared down too much and are not always firmly -enough laced into the boards; the use of hollow backs is condemned; -headbands are not sufficiently strong to hold the leather of the back -against the strain of taking the book from the shelf; leather used is -often far too thin; leather is wetted and stretched to such a point -that little strength is left to resist wear and tear. - -It must be noted in extenuation that at least one of the counts in -this indictment may be partially condoned, upon the ground that the -fault crept into bookbinding practice with the intent to facilitate -the reading of the book and not to cheapen its production. The hollow -back was adopted for the twofold purpose of allowing the book to be -opened easily and flatly and to preserve the tooling and gilding on -the back. This form of back need not be always reckoned as bad. It is -quite possible to bind a book well and use the hollow back, and it is -extremely easy to use the hollow back to cover sins that ought not to -be condoned in a binding. - -The life of a book depends upon its binding. The leading idea in -planning a binding for a good book should therefore be to strive for -strength, durability, and convenience. To beautify a book in its -binding should be the secondary motive. But the idea of beauty, through -harmony and the application of elementary art precepts, may always be -considered with the strictly utilitarian processes, and the book may -be brought into close accord with the requirements of art without any -strain for art efforts being apparent nor any economical or mechanical -purpose being strained or perverted. This can be effected by arranging -the binding to tone with the literary and typographic motives, and -studying to have all details harmonious--such as the lettering on the -side and back; the design of the stamp for the cover, if there be a -stamp; the material for the cover, its texture and its color, etc. - -It is manifestly impossible to put into print specific directions -for the binding of a book to bring it within the meaning of the term -"artistic" while it does not depart from the ordinary in quality or -form. It is quite easy to perceive however that for a book of a certain -literary quality a binding consisting of a buckram back and paper -sides is exactly appropriate, while a cloth binding with a gilt stamp -is obviously not harmonious. If the title-stamp on the back of a book -is made of type unlike that used for the title-page there is a jarring -note that might easily have been avoided. The motive of a book should -extend its influence to, and envelope, every process necessary for its -completion; it should be as apparently in control of every detail of -the visible binding as of the typography, the format, and the paper. -It produces an agreeable impression upon the reader if he discovers -this artistic unity in a book he hopes to extract literary profit or -enjoyment from--if the typography, the format, the paper, and the -binding all tone to the same key, and that key in harmony with the -literary motive. - -This much of art is possible for all bindings. When they rise above -this mere expression of harmony, of unity, there is a widely different -question involved. Then there must be art for art's sake, rather than -art for the book's sake; and of bindings that are in and of themselves -works of art we have for the present nothing to say. - -As to exactly what constitutes a proper binding for a given book there -may be differences of opinion, especially if the inquiry be pushed -so far as to involve questions of art, or questions concerning the -artistic qualities of harmony and unity. There are however certain -broad lines which may be indicated within which worthy bindings must -be brought, leaving plenty of latitude for individuality in taste and -in judgment. What these basic requirements are is perfectly known to -practical bookbinders and to publishers; to many printers as well. -They should be as familiar to the lay mind, and every book should have -printed somewhere in it a clear statement of the specifications of its -binding. Its typography is visible; so is its format and its paper. The -vital parts of its binding are concealed, from the expert as from the -tyro, and every purchaser of an ordinary book stands to lose heavily if -the foundations of its binding are not honestly laid. - -The specifications for the binding of a fine book should show, then, -that the cover material is all leather of some one of the approved -sorts and properly manufactured, sheets carefully folded, single leaves -guarded round the sections next to them, all plates guarded, guards -sewn through, and no pasting or overcasting; end papers sewn on and -made of good paper, board papers of good quality of paper or vellum; -edges to be trimmed and gilt before sewing, or left uncut; sewing to be -with ligature silk around five bands of best sewing cord; back to be -as nearly flat as possible without forcing it and without danger of its -becoming concave in use; boards to be of the best black millboard, and -the five bands laced in through two holes; headbands to be worked with -silk on strips of vellum or catgut or cord, with frequent tiedowns, -and "set" by pieces of good paper or leather glued at head and tail; -lettering to be legible, in harmony with the typography of the book or -with the decorations; decorations such as may be wished. - -These skeletonized specifications may be modified in some particulars -if they are to be applied to grades of books below the best, but great -care and good judgment must be exercised to guard against an extent -of deterioration which will bring the book below its standard of -utility and beauty. For library books, for example, the covers may be -half leather or any of the several serviceable cloths; the end papers -may dispense with the board papers; the edges may be cut guillotine -and colored instead of gilt, or the top only may be gilt; the sewing -may be done with unbleached thread and the tapes may be reduced to -four of unbleached linen; the boards may be of split gray stock or of -strawboard with black board liner, and the tapes may be attached to -portion of waste sheet inserted between the boards; the headbands may -be omitted and cord substituted, or they may be worked with thread or -vellum. - - - - -Specifications - - -The paper in this book is French handmade, 16 × 20--29, imported by the -Japan Paper Company of New York, and catalogued as No. 333. - -The type is a liberal modification of the Caslon, 12 point. It was -designed and cast by the Boston branch of the American Type Founders -Company, and had never been used until set for this book. - -The binding is according to the specifications of the Society of Arts, -of London. The sheets are folded with special care, end papers are made -with zigzag and sewn on, edges are uncut, signatures are sewn with -unbleached thread over three unbleached linen tapes, back left nearly -square, boards of the best black millboard, covers of imported marbled -paper, and the backs of art vellum, with paper label. The binding was -executed by the regular force of workmen and in the regular routine of -commercial work. - -The composition of the type was by a journeyman and an apprentice, and -the presswork was done on a half super royal Colt's Armory press. No -attempt has been made to execute the work in other than the ordinary -manner, with ordinary appliances and ordinary workmen. All the material -is such as is regularly carried in stock by dealers. - - - - - THIS EDITION CONSISTS OF 935 NUMBERED COPIES PRINTED AT THE - IMPERIAL PRESS CLEVELAND, OHIO, IN NOVEMBER, 1903, OF WHICH THIS - IS NUMBER 506 - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Note: - -Duplicate chapter title pages removed by Transcriber - -Page 35, "cristicism" changed to "criticism" (subject to the criticism -suggested) - -The edition number "506" is handwritten (OF WHICH THIS IS NUMBER 506) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Printing in Relation to Graphic Art, by -George French - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRINTING IN RELATION TO GRAPHIC ART *** - -***** This file should be named 54349-0.txt or 54349-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/3/4/54349/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Larry B. 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