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diff --git a/old/54548-0.txt b/old/54548-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5accacd..0000000 --- a/old/54548-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2547 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert, by Natt Noyes Dodge - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert - -Author: Natt Noyes Dodge - -Release Date: April 14, 2017 [EBook #54548] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POISONOUS DWELLERS OF THE DESERT *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - POISONOUS - DWELLERS - OF THE DESERT - - - Popular Series No. 3 - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - - [Illustration: _Deserts of the Southwest are not desolate expanses - of sand as many persons believe. This photograph, showing vegetation - in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, is a typical - illustration of the variety and density of plant growth in the - Sonoran desert area of northwestern Mexico and southwestern - Arizona._] - - - - - POISONOUS - DWELLERS - OF THE DESERT - - - by NATT N. DODGE - - TWELFTH EDITION (revised), 1970 - -Published in co-operation with the National Park Service by the -Southwest Parks and Monuments Association in keeping with one of its -objectives, to provide accurate and authentic information about the -Southwest. - - [Illustration: Association logo] - - Southwest Parks and Monuments Association - Globe, Arizona - (formerly Southwestern Monuments Association) - - Copyright, 1952, by the Southwestern Monuments Association - Box 1562, Gila Pueblo, Globe, Arizona 85501 - - Published October 21, 1947 - Second printing, revised, October, 1948 - Third printing, revised, December, 1948 - Fourth printing, revised, January, 1952 - Fifth printing, June, 1953 - Sixth printing, March, 1955 - Seventh printing, December, 1957 - Eighth printing, revised, January, 1961 - Ninth printing, revised, March, 1964 - Tenth printing, June, 1966 - Eleventh printing, August, 1968 - Twelfth printing, revised, August, 1970 - - Printed in the United States of America - by PABSCO Printing and Business Supply Co. - Globe, Arizona - - - - - CONTENTS - - - ILLUSTRATIONS vi - EDITORIAL NOTE ABOUT INSECTICIDES vii - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii - GIANT DESERT CENTIPEDE 3 - SCORPIONS 4 - Treatment of scorpion stings 6 - Where scorpions live 7 - BLACK WIDOW SPIDER 7 - Where black widows live 8 - Black widow bites 9 - Treatment of black widow bites 9 - Control of black widows 10 - BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER 10 - Where found 11 - The brown recluse bite 11 - Treatment for bite of the brown recluse spider 12 - TARANTULAS 13 - CONENOSE BUG (cross bug, bellows bug, Walpai tiger, kissing bug) 14 - Habitat of conenose bug 14 - Treatment of conenose bites 16 - Control of conenose bugs 16 - ANTS, WASPS, HORNETS, BEES 17 - Ants and velvet ants 18 - Control of ants 19 - Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, bees 19 - HONEYBEE 20 - How a bee stings 21 - Treatment of bee stings 22 - PUSS CATERPILLAR 23 - ARIZONA CORAL SNAKE 24 - RATTLESNAKES 25 - Where rattlesnakes are found 25 - Protective clothing 26 - Rattlesnake relatives 26 - The sidewinder 26 - Helpful precautions 27 - First-aid for rattlesnake bite 27 - BACK-FANGED SNAKES 30 - GILA MONSTER 31 - Food and habits 32 - Poison of the Gila monster 33 - HARMLESS CREATURES MISTAKENLY BELIEVED POISONOUS 34 - BANDED GECKO 35 - SOLPUGID 36 - JERUSALEM CRICKET 36 - VINEGAROON 37 - REFERENCES CITED 39 - INDEX 40 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Deserts of the Southwest _Frontispiece_ - Map of western United States viii - Centipede 2 - Enlarged view of under side of centipede’s head 2 - Deadly and non-deadly scorpions 4 - Giant desert hairy scorpion in alert position 5 - Underside of black widow spider 8 - Brown recluse spider 11 - Tarantula 13 - Conenose bugs 15 - Common ant 16 - Wasp 17 - Velvet ant 18 - Bumblebee 19 - Honeybees on the honeycomb 20 - Poison mechanism of worker bee 21 - Puss caterpillar 23 - Arizona coral snake 24 - Western diamondback rattlesnake 25 - Sidewinder or “horned” rattlesnake 27 - Poison mechanism of the rattlesnake 28 - Western black-headed snake 29 - Sonora lyre snake 30 - Gila monster 31 - Underside of the Gila monster 32 - Poison mechanism of the Gila monster 33 - Two adult banded geckos 35 - Solpugid or sun spider 36 - Jerusalem cricket (sand cricket or chaco) 37 - Vinegaroon 38 - - -EDITORIAL NOTE ABOUT INSECTICIDES - -Recommendations given in previous editions of this book regarding use of -DDT and other “hard” pesticides are withdrawn in this 12th edition. We -advise, until questions about merits and dangers of these products are -resolved, that you contact a local agency before deciding what -pesticides, if any, to use. - -We believe that every citizen should make a real effort to become -informed about pesticides and potential changes in them, for use or -non-use will likely have great impact on mankind’s future use of this -earth. - - -ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - -The author has conducted no original research, but has simply assembled -information provided by others who have made painstaking scientific -investigations into the lives, habits, and poisons of desert creatures. -To these men all credit for the information contained herein is due. - -The writer considers it a privilege to present partially herein the -results of work conducted by Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, Poisonous Animals -Laboratory, Arizona State University, on scorpions and other poisonous -creatures. - -Valuable assistance has been obtained from Dr. Howard K. Gloyd, former -director of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. To Laurence M. Klauber and -the late C. B. Perkins, formerly of the San Diego Museum of Natural -History, are expressed our thanks for much valuable information relative -to poisonous snakes. - -The help and cooperation of Dr. Sherwin F. Wood of Los Angeles City -College has made possible inclusion of the section on the conenose bug. - -The late Dr. Forest Shreve, for many years director of the Desert -Laboratory in Tucson, and the late Dr. Charles Vorhies, zoologist at the -University of Arizona, proved to be founts of knowledge regarding plant -and animal life of the desert. The late Dr. C. P. Russell, of the -National Park Service, checked many statements to assure accuracy. - -We are indebted to Dr. W. Ray Jones, physician and hobby beekeeper in -Seattle, Washington for his findings on, and treatment of, bee-sting -poisoning. Also to Dr. F. A. Shannon of Wickenburg, Arizona for his -especially helpful commentary. We take this opportunity to thank Dr. -Paul Wehrle, entomologist, University of Arizona, and Dr. W. J. Gertsch -of the American Museum of Natural History, for kindly checking the -contents for authenticity. - - [Illustration: _Map of western United States and Mexico showing - location of deserts_] - - - - - Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert - - -The late Dr. Forrest Shreve of the Desert Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona, -stated that the principal characteristic of a desert is “deficient and -uncertain rainfall.” From our grammar school geographies we gained the -impression that a desert is a great expanse of sand piled into dunes by -the wind, without moisture or vegetation, a land of thirst, desolation, -even death. - -Although sand dunes devoid of vegetation are characteristic of the -Sahara and some other deserts of the world, those of the United States -support a variety of plant and animal life which, through generations of -adaptation, are able to meet the conditions imposed by this environment -(see frontispiece). Persons who misunderstand our deserts fear them, -while others who have visited them become fascinated and return -periodically or settle down and live in them. - -Some of the creatures living in deserts are known to be poisonous to -man. Western thriller fiction of press, screen, and TV has emphasized -and exaggerated this fact, developing in many people a wholly mistaken -fear of the desert and its inhabitants. In contrast, other persons may -under-estimate the possibility of injury from these animals and become -careless. - -It is the purpose of this booklet to discuss accurately the various -poisonous dwellers of the desert, as well as to debunk some of the -superstitions and misunderstandings which have developed. - -A majority of the poisonous creatures in the desert are by no means -restricted to that environment. Rattlesnakes, for example, so often -associated with the arid regions of the West, occur in nearly every -section of the United States. - -“A poison,” states _Encyclopedia Brittanica_, “is a substance which, by -its direct action on the mucous membrane, tissues, or skin, or after -absorption into the circulatory system can, in the way which it is -administered, injuriously affect health or destroy life.” A poisonous -creature may be defined as one which produces a poison for the -administering of which it has developed a special mechanism. - -Since, due to personal differences, the bite or sting of a poisonous -creature may injuriously affect the health of one person and not that of -another, and since the poison of one individual creature may be -insufficient to cause an unpleasant reaction, while that from several -hundred might produce severe illness or even death, it is difficult to -determine which creature should be included in a publication of this -nature. The writer, therefore, has exercised his judgment in discussing -in the following pages such creatures as he feels may offer a menace to -the welfare of a visitor to the desert. In addition, a few paragraphs -are included for the defense of several harmless desert dwellers which -are mistakenly believed poisonous and which, as a result, have been -mercilessly persecuted. - - [Illustration: _Giant desert centipede_] - - [Illustration: _Enlarged view of underside of centipede’s head, - showing the double pair of jaws._ - (Photographs by Marvin H. Frost Sr.)] - -It should be understood that the author has not himself conducted -scientific research among the desert animals regarding which he writes. -The material in this book is a digest of the findings of various -competent scientific and medical authorities, and has been carefully -checked for accuracy and authenticity. - -Don’t be frightened as a result of reading this booklet. The desert is -just as safe—perhaps safer—for homemaking as many other parts of our -country. - - - - - Giant desert centipede - (_Scolopendra heros_) - - -Many species of centipedes of various sizes and colors are found -throughout the world. The majority are small, harmless, and not -sufficiently numerous to be considered seriously, even as pests. - -Usually they are found under boards, in cracks and crevices, in -basements and closets, and in other moist locations where they hide -during the day and venture forth at night in search of small insects for -food. - -The large, poisonous desert centipede attains a length of 6 or even 8 -inches and has jaws of sufficient strength to inflict a painful bite. -Glands at the base of the jaw produce poison which causes the area about -the bite to swell and become feverish and painful. Persons who have been -bitten report that the swelling and tenderness may persist for several -weeks, that the bite sometimes suppurates and is difficult and slow to -heal. - -_Because the bite of even a large centipede is usually a painful -inconvenience rather than a serious injury, no specific treatment has -been developed. Application of an antiseptic such as iodine immediately -following receipt of the bite, working it well into the fang punctures, -is advised. Bathing the site of the bite with strong ammonia will bring -relief if done immediately, while soaking the area in a solution of hot -Epsom salts may shorten the period of discomfort. Prompt treatment by a -physician will reduce duration and intensity of pain._ - -Although the bite of a large centipede is no joke, it is not cause for -fear or worry. Exaggerated stories of the deadly effects of the bite, -and reports that the tip of each leg carries a poisonous spur, have -caused many persons to be overly afraid of centipedes. Hysteria and -shock resulting from this unfounded fear probably have been the cause of -more suffering than the bites themselves. - -The tip of each of the 42 legs of the giant desert centipede is equipped -with a sharp claw. It is possible when the centipede scurries across a -person’s arm or leg for these claws to make pin-point punctures. -Infection introduced through these tiny openings readily leads to the -belief that poison has been injected. Prompt application of an -antiseptic will greatly reduce the possibility of infection. - - [Illustration: _Left_: _Yellow, slender-tailed. Deadly species._ - Centruroides sculpturatus - _Center_: _Striped-tail. Not deadly._ - Vejovis spinigeris - _Right_: _Desert hairy. Large, not deadly._ - Hadrurus hirsutus] - - - - - Scorpions - - -More deaths have occurred in Arizona from scorpion sting than from the -bites and stings of all other creatures combined. It is apparent that -scorpions are dangerous, that all persons should be informed regarding -them, and that details of first-aid treatment should be common -knowledge. - -In some parts of the South, scorpions are called “stinging lizards.” -This is unfortunate because it has caused many people to think of -lizards as poisonous and capable of stinging. - -Not all scorpions are deadly. Danger from the two deadly species (one -shown above) which look so much alike that only an expert can tell them -apart, is greatest to children under 4 years of age. Unless prompt -action is taken small children might succumb to the poison from a single -sting from an individual of either of the deadly species. Older children -may die from the effect of several stings, and adults, especially those -in poor health, may suffer serious injuries. - -Of the more than 20 species of scorpions recorded in Arizona where -detailed studies have been made, the two deadly forms have been found -only across the southern portion of the State and in the bottom of Grand -Canyon. As far as is now known, no other deadly species occur in the -Southwest, except in Mexico where there are several. - -It is important, then, that all persons should recognize the deadly -species. Study the photograph. Note that the deadly species (left) is -about 2 inches in length, is straw colored, and that its entire body, -especially the joints of the legs, pincers, and “tail,” are long and -slender. It has a streamlined appearance. This is in contrast with the -stubby or chunky appearance of the many non-deadly species. - -Scorpions sting, they do not bite. The pincers at the head end of the -body are for the purpose of holding the prey, which consists primarily -of soft-bodied insects, while the scorpion tears it to pieces with its -jaws. - -The sting is located at the extremity of the “tail” and consists of a -very sharp, curved tip attached to a bulbous organ containing the -poison-secreting glands and poison reservoir. The sting is driven into -the flesh of the victim by means of a quick, spring-like flick of the -“tail.” Muscular pressure forces the poison into the wound through two -tiny openings very near the sting tip. Thus the poison is injected -beneath the skin, making treatment difficult, as the impervious skin -renders surface application ineffective. - -Whereas the poison of non-deadly species of scorpions is local in -effect, causing swelling and discoloration of the tissues in immediate -proximity to the point of puncture, that of the deadly species is -general over the entire body of the victim. There is intense pain at the -site of the sting but very little inflammation or swelling. - - [Illustration: _Giant desert hairy scorpion in alert position._] - -According to Kent and Stahnke[1], “the victim soon becomes restless. -This increases to a degree that, in cases of small children, the patient -is entirely unable to cooperate with attendants. It turns, frets, and -does not remain quiet for an instant. The abdominal muscles may become -rigid, and there may be contractions of the arms and legs. Drooling of -saliva begins, and the heart rate increases. The temperature may reach -103 or 104 degrees. Cyanosis (skin turning blue) gradually appears, and -respiration becomes increasingly difficult, causing a reaction not -unlike that observed in a severe case of bronchial asthma. Involuntary -urination and defecation may occur. In fatal cases the above symptoms -may become so marked that apparently the child dies from exhaustion. - -“In cases that recover, the acute symptoms subside in 12 hours or less. -In the adult, symptoms as enumerated may be encountered, but as a rule -they are less severe. Numbness is usually experienced at the site of the -sting. If one of the appendages is stung, the member may become -temporarily useless. Two cases of temporary blindness have been -experienced. Some patients complain of malaise (discomfort) for many -days following the sting. One patient developed a tachycardia (rapid -heart) lasting two weeks.” - - -Treatment of scorpion stings - -Dr. Stahnke recommends the following treatment for a person stung by one -of the deadly scorpions: - -_“First, apply a tight tourniquet near the point of puncture and between -it and the heart.... As soon as possible, place an ice pack on the site -of the sting. Have a pack of finely crushed ice wrapped in as thin a -cloth as possible. Cover and surround the area for about 10 to 12 -inches. After the ice pack has been in place for approximately 5 -minutes, remove the tourniquet._ - -_“If a person is stung on the hand, foot, or other region that can be -submerged completely, place the portion, as soon as possible, in an -ice-and-water mixture made of small lumps of ice (about half the size of -ice cubes) in a proportion of half ice and half water. Treatment should -not be continued longer than 2 hours._ - -_“NEVER put salt in the water. After the first 15 minutes, the hand or -foot must be removed for relief for 1 minute every 10 minutes in the -iced water.”_ - -_Dr. Stahnke continues: “If the patient is less than 3 years old, if the -patient has been stung several times, or if the patient has been stung -on the back of the neck, anywhere along the backbone, or on an area of -deep flesh like the buttock, thigh, or trunk of the body, or especially -on the genital organs, medical assistance should be obtained at once.”_ - -_Dr. F. A. Shannon advises that no person with disease involving the -circulation of the extremities should use iced water. Morphine is a -necessary tool in controlling pain, and barbiturates are useful for -control of convulsions._ - -Several hospitals in southern Arizona keep a supply of scorpion -antivenin and, in any case, the patient should be taken to a hospital as -quickly as possible. In all cases the first-aid treatment should be -applied and maintained until the patient is under the care of a -physician. - -With adults, in case a physician is not available, the iced-water -treatment usually proves sufficient. Generally, after 2 hours of -iced-water use, there is no longer any danger, but should symptoms -reappear, treatment should be resumed. - -Scorpion antivenin for stings of _Centruroides sculpturatus_ and _C. -gertschi_ is available at the Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, -Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. The recommended method of -treatment is the “L-C” method. The L stands for ligature and C for -cryotherapy (tourniquet and ice pack treatment). - -_Treatment is as follows: “As soon as possible (after the sting has been -received) inject intramuscularly or subcutaneously, 5 to 10 cc. of -natural serum or 3 cc. of the concentrated. In serious cases, inject -intravenously.” No immediate untoward results have been noted, but some -cases of skin irritation develop later._ - -In cases of scorpion poisoning when antivenin is not available, the -following treatment is recommended[12]: - -“_Use morphine with extreme caution. It has not been found effective in -the usual doses. Barbiturates are more effective and less dangerous. -Bromides in large doses are apparently of value. In those cases -characterized by severe pulmonary edema (accumulation of fluid in the -lungs) atropine is indicated along with general supportive measures. -Compresses, using a fairly concentrated ammonium hydroxide solution, -have been found helpful if applied within a few moments. If applied for -the first time about 10 minutes after the sting, no apparent benefit is -attained.”_ - - -Where scorpions live - -Scorpions normally remain in hiding during the day, coming out in search -of insects at night. The deadly species are commonly found under bark on -old stumps, in lumber piles, or in firewood piled in dark corners. It is -not unusual to find them in basements or in linen closets. Adults may -find an unpleasant surprise in a shoe or a piece of clothing taken from -a closet or dresser drawer. Legs of cribs or children’s beds may be -placed in cans containing kerosene or in wide-mouthed jars. - -Moral: Keep your garage, basement, and premises in general, clean, tidy, -and free from insects on which scorpions feed. Screen children’s cribs, -and pull the sheets clear back before putting the youngsters to bed. -Shake out your shoes before putting them on, and inspect sheets, -blankets, or clothing which have been in closets or drawers. - - - - - Black widow spider - (_Lactrodectus mactans_) - - -Although spiders in general produce venom with which to paralyze their -prey, only a very few have fangs of sufficient length or power to -penetrate human skin, or venom of sufficient quantity or potency to -affect human health. - -There are two poisons present in spider venom: a toxin which cause local -symptoms, and a toxalbumin producing general symptoms. In those spiders -whose bites produce systematic disturbances it is believed that the -latter poison predominates. - - -Where black widows live - -Black widows spin their webs in crevices between rocks, under logs or -overhanging banks, in abandoned rodent holes, and in rock and wood -piles. Indoors they are most frequently encountered in dark corners of -garages, basements, and stables. - - [Illustration: _Underside of black widow spider showing - characteristic red “hourglass” mark on the abdomen by which this - species may be recognized._] - -A favorite and especially dangerous location in which a black widow -establishes her home is beneath the seat of a pit toilet. Such a -location is ideal for the spider because it is dark, is not usually -disturbed, and insects, especially flies, upon which the spiders feed, -are abundant. Humans using the toilet, unaware of the presence of the -spider, arouse her by breaking or agitating her web, and offer -especially tender and susceptible portions of their anatomies for her -bite. - -Pit toilets in warm climates should always be built with hinged seats -which should be raised and inspected frequently. As a further -precaution, the underside of the seats should be treated with creosote, -an effective repellent. - -Although the majority of people now recognize the black widow, some do -not, hence they kill all dark-colored spiders on general principles. -This is neither necessary nor desirable. - -The female black widow is a medium-sized, glossy black, solitary spider -with a globular abdomen spectacularly marked on the underside with a -bright red spot roughly the shape of an hourglass. The normal position -of the spider is hanging upside down in her web so that the “hourglass” -is plainly visible if she is below the level of the eye. Her overall -length is 1 to 1¼ inches. - -The males are much smaller and, like the immature females, are grey in -color and variously striped and spotted. - -Adult females spin egg cocoons during the warm season; each cocoon -contains approximately 300 to 500 eggs which hatch in about 30 days. As -many as nine broods per year have been recorded. The young grow fast but -do not mature until the following spring or summer. - - -Black widow bites - -Although black widows ferociously pounce upon insects or other spiders -much larger than themselves which become entangled in their webs, they -are by nature retiring and bite humans only when restrained from escape -by contact with the body of man. - -The fangs, which are about one-fiftieth of an inch in length, serve to -inject from two large glands the venom which is reported to be much more -virulent per unit than that of the rattlesnake. - -There is some pain and swelling at the site of the bite. The pain -spreads throughout the body, centering at the extremities, which become -cramped, and over the abdomen, where the muscles become rigid. There is -nausea and vomiting, difficulty in breathing, dizziness, ringing in the -ears, and headache. Blood pressure is raised, eye pupils are dilated and -the reflexes are overactive. Medical records, according to Bogen[2], -show that “despite its severe symptoms, arachnidism (poisoning by -spider, tick, or scorpion) is, in the majority of cases, a self-limiting -condition, and generally clears up spontaneously within a few days,” -although cases of death resulting from black widow bites are on -record[3]. - - -Treatment of black widow bites - -_Since the venom of the black widow, among other properties, appears to -affect the nervous system, its effect is almost instantaneous, and most -first-aid measures are of little value._ - -_Stahnke has found that the iced-water treatment (as described in detail -in the scorpion section of this booklet) is beneficial. The points of -puncture should be treated with iodine, the patient kept as quiet as -possible, and an ice pack applied or the part submerged in iced-water, -and a physician summoned immediately._ - -_Baerg[4] recommends hot baths—as hot as the patient can endure. These -should be used only in cases of advanced poisoning, never immediately -after the bite is received._ - -_Internal use of alcohol is dangerous, and a person bitten when -intoxicated would have much less chance of recovery._ - -Professional treatment consists mostly in the use of opiates, -hydrotherapy, and similar measures to alleviate the acute pain. Of more -than 75 different remedies used, three seem to be outstanding as -palliatives: spinal puncture, intravenous injections of Epsom salts, and -intramuscular administration of convalescent serum when given within 8 -hours. Dr. Charles Barton, of Los Angeles, recommends intramuscular or -intravenous injection of calcium gluconate, 10 cc. in a 10 per cent -solution. The patient should be encouraged to drink as much water as he -will. He usually leaves the hospital on the fourth day. Recent -experiments with an injection of neostigmine followed by one of atropine -have had encouraging results, and the use of ACTH in several cases has -had spectacular results, according to _Readers’ Digest_ (Nov. 1951, p. -45). - - -Control of black widows - -Because of their wide distribution and secretive habits, black widows -are difficult to control. Basements, outbuildings, and garages should be -cleaned frequently, and black widow webs and eggs destroyed. If -accessible, the spider may be dislodged from her web with a broom, and -smashed. The use of a blowtorch, where there is no fire hazard, is -effective for both spiders and egg cocoons. Insect sprays, in general, -are ineffectual. - - - - - Brown recluse spider - and its venomous relatives - - -Until recently the black widow was considered the only spider in the -United States dangerous to man. In 1955, physicians in Missouri and -Arkansas began treating persons suffering from the bite of the brown -recluse spider, whose poison caused serious damage to the skin at the -site of the puncture and often produced a severe systemic reaction -sometimes fatal to young children. - -The spider is approximately ⁵/₁₆ inch in length, dark brown to fawn, -with long legs. A violin-shaped spot on the upper side of the -cephalothorax (head portion) is the only noticeable identification -giving rise to another common name—fiddleback spider. It is also known -as brown spider, or brown house spider. - -Little has been published on its life history, but it has been reported -from Kansas, Illinois, the Gulf Coast, and from Tennessee to Oklahoma. -It is extending its territory westward and has recently been reported -from southeastern New Mexico and southern California. People are -contributing to the rapid geographical spread of this species by -unknowingly carrying it across state lines in their luggage. The brown -recluse spider, according to Paul N. Morgan, research microbiologist at -the Little Rock, Arkansas, Veterans Administration Hospital, -“constitutes a hazard to the health of man, perhaps greater than the -Black Widow.” - - [Illustration: _Brown recluse spider_ - (Photo—Division of Dermatology Dept. of Medicine U. of Arkansas Medical - Center)] - - -Where found - -It is found in open fields and rocky bluffs but thrives particularly -well in outhouses, garages, dark closets, storerooms, and in piles of -sacking or old clothing. Its web is large and irregular. - - -The brown recluse bite - -Because of the spider’s nocturnal and retiring habits few people are -bitten, in spite of a large spider population. According to an article -in the August, 1963 Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society, “there may -be mild transitory stinging at the time of the bite, but there is little -associated early pain. The patient may be completely unaware he has been -bitten, and the spider is seldom seen. Only after 2 to 8 hours does -pain, varying from mild to severe, begin. After several days an ulcer -may form at the site of the bite. The venom appears to contain a -spreading factor resulting in a spread of the necrosis or tissue -destruction. In some instances, the ulcer may be so large that skin -grafting is required, but the graft may take poorly or not at all. “The -bite may also produce serious systemic symptoms including fever, chills, -weakness, vomiting, joint pain, and a spotty skin eruption, all -occurring within 24-48 hours after the venom injection.” - - -Treatment for bite of the brown recluse spider - -Physicians at the University of Arkansas Medical Center, Little Rock, -prefer the prompt administration of corticosteroids, stating, “Large -doses given early may completely prevent the gangrenous response as well -as the systemic reaction. The dosage schedule which we have found most -effective is: 80 mg. of methylprednisolone (Deep-Medrol) intramuscularly -immediately followed by one or two additional doses of same amount at -24-48 hour intervals. Subsequently, step wise decrease to 40, 20, 10 -mg., every 24-48 hours, depending on the patient’s response, is carried -out.” - -Dr. Herbert L Stahnke, Director of the Arizona Poisonous Animals -Research Laboratory, reports that an antivenin has been prepared in -South America to control both the local and general symptoms from the -bite of a closely related species of _Loxosceles_. He states, “locally -there seems to be a favorable response to hydroxyzine, 100 mg. four -times a day. I would say that cryotherapy, as we recommend it, would -prevent all symptoms. I would recommend that the site of the bite be -packed in crushed ice for 6 to 8 hours, after which the patient should -be kept warm to the point of perspiration with the ice pack continuing -for a total of 24 hours. In other words, treated like a pit viper bite, -but over a much shorter period of time.” Avoid narcotics (morphine, -demerol, dilaudid, codeine, etc.) since they enhance the systemic -effects. - -Although the brown recluse has not yet been reported in Arizona, it may -be expected at any time, according to Dr. Mont A. Cazier, professor of -zoology at Arizona State University at Tempe. In the meantime, studies -are being made of the several close relatives of _Loxosceles reclusa_ -known to be present in the state. Among these is _L. unicolor_, first -collected near Littlefield and Virgin Narrows in 1932. Equally poisonous -with _reclusa_ is the similar _L. laeta_, also found in Arizona. Other -members of the genus, _L. deserta_ and _L. arizonica_, have been known -to live in Arizona and elsewhere in the Southwest for more than three -decades, but no studies have been made of their venom. Dr. Willis J. -Gertsch, world famous authority on spiders, believes that there may be -as many as 20 species of _Loxosceles_ in the Southwest. Several reports -by persons who have been bitten by spiders describe reactions similar to -those caused by the bite of the brown recluse. - -According to Dr. Findley E. Russell, toxicology researcher of the -University of Southern California Medical School, the “venom” injected -by the brown spider is not really a toxin but a complete chemical that -inhibits the normal action of infection-fighting antibodies in the human -anatomy. - - - - - Tarantulas - (_Avicularia_ sp.) - - -Known to naturalists as bird spiders, the large hairy members of the -genera _Avicularia_, _Dugesiella_, and _Aphonopelma_ of the arid -Southwest are commonly called tarantulas. - - [Illustration: _Tarantula_ - (Photo by Marvin H. Frost Sr.)] - -This name originated in southern Italy where, centuries ago, according -to a story, in the little town of Tarantum (now Taranto) there developed -an epidemic of “tarentism” supposedly resulting from the bite of a large -wolf spider (_Lycosa tarantula_). Victims were affected with melancholy, -stupor, and an irresistible desire to dance. Presumably, the Neapolitan -folk dance, Tarentella, came about as a result of an effort to develop a -cure for tarentism. - -Early day immigrants brought to the western hemisphere both the -unreasoning fear of spider bites and the name “tarantula,” which they -applied to the large and fearsome-looking bird spider of the Southwest. -Since that time this superstitious fear has become established among the -uneducated and uninformed people of the southwestern United States, -where the bird spiders are numerous. - -It has been spread and aggravated by prolific writers of western -thrillers, published in the pulp-paper magazines. Fantastic tales in -which the big spiders followed their victims, sprang upon them from -distances of from 6 to 10 feet, and inflicted painful bites resulting in -lingering, agonizing death have had wide circulation and have found a -credulous audience. - -Tarantulas are nearsighted, and their habit of pouncing upon -grasshoppers and other large insects on which they prey is probably the -basis for exaggerated stories of their jumping abilities. Their strong, -sharp fangs can inflict a painful bite, but they use them only rarely in -defense against human molestation. Stahnke states that any effects -produced appear to be the result of bacterial infection rather than that -of poison, although a mild poison is present. Treatment of tarantula -bite with iodine or similar antiseptic is recommended. - -One species of _Avicularia_ and several of _Aphonopelma_ range -throughout the Southwest where they are active during spring, summer, -and autumn months. They live in web-lined holes in the ground, usually -located on south-facing slopes. The males are commonly encountered -traveling across country, and are particularly noticeable as they cross -a highway. - -Preying upon insects, these large and interesting desert dwellers are -beneficial rather than harmful to mankind, and deserve protection. - -Unfortunately, many become the innocent victims of the wholly -unwarranted fear in which they are held because of the fantastic stories -regarding their purported poisonous characteristics. - - - - - Conenose bug - (Kissing bug, Bellows bug, Walpai tiger, Cross bug, others) - (_Triatoma_ sp.) - - -Although not limited to the deserts of the Southwest, conenose bugs, of -which there are several species, are commonly associated with -subtropical climates. - -Certain South American species of the family _Reduviidae_ are disease -carrying and there is evidence the conenoses in San Diego County, -California, are infected with a disease-producing flagellate. Lack of -large bug populations in close contact with man and ineffective -transmission habits protect man in the Southwest from disease contacts. -However, the site of the bug’s bite becomes inflamed, and swelling may -spread over an area up to a foot in diameter. - -In general appearance, conenose bugs resemble assassin and squash bugs, -with protruding eyes at the base of a cone-shaped snout and are about -the same size. Some species are considerably smaller, while others -attain a length of an inch or more. - - -Habitat of conenose bugs - -Since conenose bugs subsist upon animal blood which they suck from the -capillaries by inserting the stylets of the proboscis, they seek -locations where there is a source of blood. These include livestock -barns, poultry houses, and human habitations. - - [Illustration: _Conenose bugs_—Triatoma protracta - _Adult male (rounded abdomen); Adult female (pointed abdomen)_ - (Photo courtesy of Dr. Sherwin F. Wood)] - -Studies conducted by Wehrle[5] show that conenoses are parasitic on -woodrats and breed in the dens of these rodents. They are also found in -meadow vole (mouse) nests. Early in May the winged conenose adults begin -dispersal flights, invading human habitations in the vicinity of woodrat -dens. Although reported as most active in May and June, they may be -expected throughout the summer until October, and are much more numerous -in the country than in cities. - -During the daytime, the insects remain hidden under rugs, between -quilts, or even in bedding or behind drapes. They may be seen during the -evening on ceiling beams, walls, curtains, and around windows. They are -alert and difficult to catch. - -Conenose bugs do not attack people until the victim is quiet or asleep, -and may take blood without awakening the host. Immediately after being -bitten, however, the victim is awakened by severe itching. The area -about the puncture swells and becomes red and feverish. Welts at the -point of puncture are hard, and may be 1 to 3 inches in diameter. - -About 5% of the people repeatedly bitten develop severe allergic -reactions with burning pain and itching at the site of the bite, itching -on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, neck, and groin; general -body swelling, and a nettle-like rash over the body. Some persons feel -ill, with light depression followed by quickening of the pulse. Others -are faint, weak, and nauseated. In very severe allergy these symptoms -may lead to anaphylactic shock and unconsciousness. - - -Treatment of conenose bites - -Although a specific treatment for conenose bites has not been developed, -some physicians use epinephrine. More promising results appear possible -with antihistamine preparations (under doctor’s prescription) such as -benadryl and pyribenzamine, which have been effective by mouth, and in -severe reactions, by intravenous injections. - -Matheson[6] writes: “When a blood-sucking insect bites, it is always -possible that the proboscis may be contaminated with pathogenic -organisms. If such organisms become localized near the point of puncture -or gain access to the blood stream, results may be serious. It is always -wise to use some disinfectant such as alcohol, tincture of iodine, etc., -and to press out the blood, if possible, from bites made by insects.” -Antibiotics are frequently necessary to control the extremely high -percentage of secondary infections. - -Physicians recommend the application of a hot Epsom salt pack over the -point of puncture as soon as possible after the bite has been received. -Application of antiphlogistine alleviates the severe itching. ACTH is -recommended by some physicians. Hydrocortizone ointments reduce the skin -eruptions and local pain. - - -Control of conenose bugs - -Prevention is more satisfactory than treatment, and since conenoses live -in woodrat dens, these rodents should be eliminated from the vicinity. -Weatherstripping around all permanent doors and screen doors, -tight-fitting, holeless screens in all windows, and fine screens in -fireplace chimneys will help to keep the bugs out of houses. -Occasionally they may be seen on walls and ceilings in the evening, and -may be killed with a flyswatter. - -If impossible to keep the insects out of the house, sleeping persons may -be protected by the use of mosquito netting. It is especially important -that the beds of babies and young children should be safe-guarded -because of the danger from scorpions. - - [Illustration: _Common ant_] - -Bedding should be shaken thoroughly just before children retire, because -both scorpions and conenose bugs have a habit of concealing themselves -in bedding during the daytime. - - - - - Ants, wasps, hornets, bees - - -Stinging insects all belong to the group _Hymenoptera_ and consist of -the families _Apidae_ (honeybee, etc.), _Bombidae_ (bumblebee), -_Vespidae_ (wasps and hornets), _Sphecidae_ (thread-waisted wasps), -_Mutillidae_ (velvet ants), and _Formicidae_ (the ants). - - [Illustration: _Wasp_] - -_In general, the only treatment recommended for insect stings is to -bathe the parts with ordinary liquid household bluing just as soon as -possible after the sting has been received, and apply hot compresses. -However, certain specific treatments are advised, depending upon the -particular species or condition._ - -Some persons are extremely susceptible to insect bites and stings, and -preliminary work has been done in trying to immunize those sensitive -individuals, but, in general, with very little success. The problem of -immunizing or desensitizing persons who are allergic to insect bites and -stings is one of considerable importance, as such unfortunate persons -will testify. - -Because of the fact that honeybees are of such great economic -importance, not only as producers of an important food but also as -pollenizers of fruit, vegetable, seed, and other crops, they will be -discussed separately from the other stinging insects. - -Everyone is familiar with ants, wasps, hornets, and bumblebees, and -there are very few persons who have not had unpleasant experiences with -one or more of these groups of insects. - - -_Ants and velvet ants_ - -Velvet ants, which are in reality wingless wasps and not true ants, are -not as well known as the others, although the little creatures that -scurry about like brightly dyed bits of cotton are quite numerous in the -desert. - -The primary purpose of the sting is to paralyze or kill their prey, -although it becomes more important as a weapon of defense with insects -which do not prey upon or parasitize other creatures. Although the -solitary insects use their poison as a means of personal defense if -attacked or imposed upon, the social insects such as ants, social wasps -and hornets, honeybees, and others, rally to the defense of their nests -and in mass attacks against an intruder may cause painful and sometimes -serious injury. - -Although the small amount of poison introduced beneath the skin by the -sting of one of these creatures usually causes only temporary -discomfort, there are sometimes after effects which may be more intense -and of longer duration with some persons than with others. In general, -stinging insects may be considered more as a nuisance than a menace, -although a person attacked by a large number, or subjected to their -stings for some length of time, might receive serious and perhaps fatal -injuries. Known deaths have been caused by the sting of imported fire -ants in southeastern States. The species is believed to be spreading. -Treatment by a physician may include the use of ACTH and calmitol. - -Although ants and velvet ants are commonly considered as wingless, they -are, actually, winged. Male velvet ants have wings whereas the females -are normally without wings. The females have a very effective sting, and -if picked up or pinched they make every effort to use it, at the same -time emitting a peculiar faint squeaking sound. - -True ants, of which there are hundreds of species, are social insects -living in colonies containing the mother, or queen, which becomes -wingless after fertilization; numerous workers, or non-fertile females; -and young winged males and females. - - [Illustration: _Velvet ant_] - - -_Control of ants_ - -Ants of various species are numerous on the desert, some of them -becoming serious household pests, difficult to control. - -There are effective ant poisons on the market, but the surest method of -control is to find the nest and destroy it. Ants that are household -pests usually are either grease eaters or sweet eaters, and the proper -poison for the specific type should be obtained in attempting to rid the -house of these insects. - - -_Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, bees_ - -Wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, and bees of many species are common in -the desert, some species being solitary in habit while others live in -colonies or nests which they defend with great pugnacity. - - [Illustration: _Bumblebee_] - -Although humans have little to fear from these insects if they leave -them strictly alone, some species select nest sites beneath overhanging -eaves or in attics or lofts, thus becoming persistent pests. They are -usually tolerated until one or more members of the family are stung. - -Other species are attracted to human habitations by the presence of -sweets or other edibles, and make persistent nuisances of themselves. -They are capable of inflicting painful injuries, and are greatly feared -by many persons. - -_Not usually serious, these injuries do not respond to any treatment -that has yet been developed. Immediate application of strong ammonium -hydroxide (household ammonia) is a home treatment which has_ _been found -helpful for ant stings, and, in most cases, for the stings of other -insects._ - -_A piece of ice held at the point of puncture will relieve the pain and -burning sensation in the majority of cases of insect sting._ - -_In serious cases, of course, the services of a physician should be -obtained immediately._ - - - - - Honeybee - (_Apis mellifera_) - - -At first thought it may seem unjustified to include the common honeybee -in a discussion of poisonous creatures of the desert. Although the -honeybee is not a desert native, having been imported from Europe, it -has established itself in the wild state throughout the Southwest in -locations providing adequate moisture and sufficient nectar-producing -flowers. - - [Illustration: _Honeybees on the honeycomb_] - -Throughout much of the United States honeybees are encountered in -numbers only in apiaries operated by beekeepers, or in bee trees where -the insects have established themselves. In the desert climatic -conditions are ideal for honeybees, and they have become widespread and -well established. - -They obtain water at springs, seeps, waterholes, cattle tanks, dripping -faucets, and leaking water containers, often congregating in such -numbers around sources of water that they become a distinct nuisance to -men and to animals. Individual honeybees are frequently found in -flowers, or may fly in through an open automobile window, and sting one -of the car’s occupants. Small children sometimes receive stings while -playing on white clover lawns or going barefoot. Farm boys may be -severely stung as a result of molesting beehives or throwing stones at -bees’ nests in trees or caves. - -Normally, poison introduced by the sting of a honeybee is local in -effect and little more than a painful inconvenience to the person stung. -There are many cases on record, however, of persons and domestic animals -receiving stings from so many of the enraged insects that serious and -even fatal results have followed. - -During the past half century, medical records show a number of deaths -each resulting from a single sting. Jones[7] made an intensive study of -this problem and was able to show conclusively that occasional -individuals become supersensitive to honeybee venom. If persons in such -condition receive even the small amount of poison injected by a single -sting, the resulting excessive susceptibility may be fatal unless proper -treatment is administered immediately. To such persons the honeybee is -definitely a poisonous and dangerous creature. - - [Illustration: _Poison mechanism of worker bee, greatly enlarged._] - - 1. Poison sack or reservoir. - 2. Muscles which force sting into flesh and pump poison from sack. - These muscles continue operating for as long as 20 minutes - after the sting has been torn from the bee’s body. - 3. Sheath within which shafts of sting slide. - 4. Barbed tip of sting. These barbs hold the sting in the flesh of the - victim so securely as to tear the sting from the body of the - bee. - - -_How a bee stings_ - -The poison-injecting mechanism of the worker bee is located within the -extremity of the abdomen and consists of a barbed sting at the base of -which is attached a sack, or reservoir, containing the poison. Male bees -(drones) have no sting, and the queen reserves hers for possible use in -battle with a rival queen. - -In the act of stinging, the bee forces the tip of the sting through the -skin of the victim, where it becomes imbedded, being held by the barbs. -In escaping the bee tears away, leaving the sting, poison sack, and -attached muscles and viscera. Incidentally, this rupture results in the -death of the bee. - -Capillarity and the spasmodic movement of the attached muscles force the -poison from the sack through the hollow shaft of the sting into the -wound. - - -_Treatment of bee sting_ - -_To counteract this, the first thing that anyone should do when stung by -a honeybee is to SCRAPE out the sting. This may be done with a knife -blade or even with the fingernail, although the latter is far from -sanitary. NEVER PULL OUT THE STING, because in grasping the protruding -poison sack between the thumb and forefinger, the sack is certain to be -pinched and the poison squeezed into the wound._ - -_Since, under normal conditions, it takes several seconds for the -contents of the sack to work into the puncture, prompt removal of the -sting with the attached sack prevents much of the poison from being -injected._ - -_Application of strong household ammonia just as soon as the sting is -scraped out is helpful in allaying the pain._ - -_If a person receives a great number of stings, a physician should be -summoned at once. The victim should be undressed, put in bed, and all of -the sting scraped out. All parts of the body that have received stings -should be covered with cloths soaked in hot water and wrung out. These -applications should be as hot as the victim can endure._ - -Persons who are supersensitive to bee-sting venom show the following -symptoms when stung: the skin over the entire body breaks out in lumpy -welts, palms of the hands and soles of the feet itch. This is followed -by headache, nausea, and vomiting. Breathing becomes labored and heart -action is rapid and weak. - -As soon as such symptoms are noted, a physician should be summoned or -the victim taken to a hospital. Treatment consists of frequent, small, -hypodermic injections of epinephrine in the ratio of one part of -epinephrine to 1,000 parts of water. Dr. W. Ray Jones[7], who developed -and perfected this treatment, reports that it is immediately effective -and recommends that all commercial beekeepers provide themselves with -hypodermic kits and a small supply of epinephrine. - -Even persons who are apparently immune to bee-sting venom through having -received bee stings during the course of many years of work in the -apiary, may suddenly develop supersensitivity. The treatment is -relatively simple, may be self-administered, and has already proved -effective in treating serious cases of excessive susceptibility -resulting from supersensitive persons receiving bee stings. - -Experimental use of calcium lactate to counteract “sting shock” -indicates a high degree of success. Physicians should investigate “Death -by Sting Shock,” p 234, _Science News Letter_, April 9, 1955. Use of -antihistamines or a hormone of the cortizone family has had some -success. - - - - - Puss Caterpillar - (_Megalopyge opercularis_) - - -Superficially resembling a tiny, light, golden-yellow kitten, the puss -caterpillar is a short, bushy larva of a small gray-brown moth with -whitish underwings. When disturbed, the caterpillar rears back on its -hind legs and “makes a face.” The species has long been widespread -throughout the southern states feeding on the foliage of oak, elm, plum, -and sycamore trees. They have been found also in truck gardens and -orchards. Recently they have invaded the desert mountains of the -Southwest, having been reported by Stahnke as especially numerous in the -Globe-Miami area of Arizona, feeding on the foliage of oaks. - - [Illustration: _Puss caterpillar_ - (Courtesy Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke)] - -Because of their long, silky hairs, children are tempted to touch them. -Under the hairs are small protrusions, each bearing a circlet of very -small spines resembling tiny porcupine quills. The venom is injected -when these spines pierce the child’s skin and the tips break off, -producing a burning, itching, irritated, inflamed area. The welts, -ranging in size from a dime to a dollar, are sometimes followed by -severe muscle cramps and headache. Not lethal, the toxin may cause -enough sleeplessness in a child to reduce his resistance to other -infections. - -Treatment suggested by Dr. Bernard J. Collopy, Assistant Medical -Director of the Miami-Inspiration Hospital of Miami, Arizona, consists -of immersing the inflamed area in iced water for thirty minutes. Remove -for one minute at ten minute intervals for relief from the cold. The -skin may blister and peel at the site much as in the case of a first -degree burn, but should heal completely in ten days. Some physicians -suggest an opiate for relief of pain in severe cases. Cooling lotions -may be applied to relieve the itching. - - - - - Arizona coral snake - (_Micruroides euryxanthus_) - - -The coral snake, of which there are two species in the United States, -belongs to the _Elapine_ group, which is represented in the Old World by -the cobras and other poisonous snakes. These two species, the coral -snake of the Gulf States, and the smaller Arizona coral snake whose -range extends into the desert lands of southern New Mexico and Arizona, -are the only representatives of the _Elapine_ group found in this -country. - - [Illustration: _Arizona coral snake_ - (Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)] - -The Arizona coral is shy and secretive in its habits, timid rather than -pugnacious, and it is so rarely seen that little is known of its habits. - -The poison mechanism of the coral snake is somewhat different from that -of the pit viper group, to which the copperheads, cottonmouths, and -rattlesnakes belong. The teeth of the coral are short, and to be -effective the coral snake must chew rather than strike its victim. - -The Arizona coral snake is so small—rarely reaching 2 feet in length—and -its mouth is so tiny, that it would be very difficult for it to bite an -adult human. It is conceivable that a small child playing with one might -be bitten. - -Because of its close resemblance to several ringed or banded snakes of -the desert and also to the Arizona mountain kingsnake, or “coral” -kingsnake, of the ponderosa pine highlands of the Southwest, a brief -description of the Arizona coral snake is indicated. One of the -beautifully spectacular snakes of the desert, it is marked by bands of -dark red, cream, and black, which encircle the body. Superficially the -markings of the Arizona mountain kingsnake and other tricolored ringed -snakes appear similar. However, the red of the kingsnake and of others -is usually brighter, and the black bands narrower than those of the -coral. - -Definite identification is provided by the relationship of the colors to -each other, the arrangement on the Arizona coral snake being red, cream, -black, cream, red, cream, black, cream. The bands of the Arizona coral -snake entirely circle the body and its snout is black. - - - - - Rattlesnakes - (Genus _Crotalus_, spp.) - - -Thirty species and subspecies of rattlesnakes occur in the United -States, more than half of this number being found in the Southwest. -Because they have been killed on sight for years, their numbers have -been considerably reduced in densely populated areas. For this reason, -together with emphasis placed upon their poisonous characteristics by -some writers of western thriller fiction, rattlesnakes are considered by -many people to be a serious menace in the thinly populated portions of -the arid West[8]. - - [Illustration: _Western diamondback rattlesnake_ (_Crotalus atrox._) - (Photo by Earl Jackson)] - - -_Where rattlesnakes are found_ - -In the hot desert regions of the Southwest rattlesnakes are usually -abroad at night during the summer months, as they have no controlling -system for body temperature and cannot endure the heat at ground surface -during the hours of sunlight. In spring and autumn they may be -encountered in the daytime but during December, January, and February -they are in hibernation and are rarely or never seen. - -Their food consists principally of lizards and small rodents such as -ground squirrels, rats, mice, pocket gophers and young rabbits. They are -sometimes found along irrigation canal banks where they go for water, -and because they find rodents congregating there for the same reason. -Unless surprised, cornered, teased, handled, or injured, a rattlesnake -usually will try to remain hidden or will endeavor to crawl away rather -than strike. Because they are attracted to places where small rodents -abound, they are sometimes encountered around barns and outbuildings. -They occasionally enter abandoned structures in search of food or to -escape from the heat of the sun. - - -_Protective clothing_ - -Because a rattlesnake may be met at almost any time, except during the -winter months, by a person who lives, works, or visits in the desert, he -should be ever alert. If hiking or climbing through country where -rattlesnakes are known to be abundant, he should wear clothing that will -protect him from a possible bite. - -Pope[9] states that records kept during 1928 and 1929 show that 98 per -cent of snake bites occurred below the knee or on the hand or forearm. -When in snake country, the hiker should wear knee-high boots or -leggings, and should never place his hand on a rock or ledge above the -level of his eyes. In other words, watch your step, and look before you -reach! Apparently rattlesnakes may strike at a quick movement and are -very sensitive to the body warmth of a nearby warm-blooded creature. - - -_Rattlesnake relatives_ - -Rattlesnakes belong to the group known as the pit vipers, which includes -the cottonmouths and the copperheads. The latter do not occur in the -desert, so they do not come within the province of this publication. -Snakes of the pit viper group are characterized by a noticeable -depression, or pit, found almost halfway between the eye and the -nostril, but slightly lower, on each side of the head. - -Of the several species found in the desert, some, such as the western -diamondback rattlesnake have a wide range, while others are restricted -to limited areas. Some species attain large size, while others are quite -small; some are inclined to be pugnacious, while others are more or less -docile. All are dangerous! - -It is not within the scope of this publication to enter into a -discussion of the many species, so the reader who wishes to pursue that -subject further is referred to Klauber’s publication on the -rattlesnakes[10]. - - -_The Sidewinder_ - -There is one rattlesnake of the desert that should be especially -mentioned: the sidewinder, or the little horned rattlesnake. It is -called sidewinder because of the peculiar method of locomotion that -enables it to progress in the sandy habitat which it frequents. Unable -to get sufficient traction in loose sand by moving as other snakes do, -it throws a portion of its body ahead as a loop, thus serving to anchor -or pull the rest of the body ahead. Thus it progresses sideways in a -looping, or winding, motion most interesting to observe. - - [Illustration: _Sidewinder or “horned” rattlesnake_] - -Although the term sidewinder is often used loosely in referring to other -species of rattlesnakes, it actually applies only to this particular -species—_Crotalus cerastes_. - - -_Helpful precautions_ - -In snake country, it is important to take a flashlight along whenever -there is occasion to go outside at night in summer to be sure that there -are no rattlesnakes lying across your path. If you sleep out of doors. -keep your bed off the ground if possible. The widely believed statement -that, “a rattlesnake will not crawl across a hair rope” is not true, -although such a statement will often precipitate an argument. - -Persons much in the field should provide themselves with a suction-type -snakebite kit, and should know how to use it. Although you stand 200 -chances of being killed by an automobile to one of dying from snakebite, -the price of a suction-type kit is cheap insurance against that -possibility. - - -_First aid for rattlesnake bite_ - -_If, in spite of all precautions, you or some companion should be bitten -by a rattlesnake, first-aid should be rendered at once. This is not_ -_difficult if you have a snakebite kit, and it is possible even if you -do not._ - -_The following steps are quite universally accepted:_ - -_1. Apply a tourniquet a short distance above the bite (that is between -it and the heart) but do not make it too tight. This prevents the blood -and lymph carrying the poison from being spread rapidly through the -body. The tourniquet should be loosened for a few seconds every 20 -minutes._ - -_2. Make a short cut about one-fourth inch deep and one-fourth inch long -near each fang puncture with a sharp, sterile instrument. A knife or -razor blade sterilized in the flame of a match will do._ - -_3. Apply suction to the cuts. If no suction cup is available, the mouth -will do if it contains no open sores._ - -_4. If antivenin is available, administer it according to instructions, -but, if possible, this should be left to a physician. (Recent -experiments with antivenin indicate that, in some cases, its reaction -may be harmful and that it should be administered only under the care of -a physician.)_ - -_5. Get the patient to medical help as soon as possible, continuing the -first-aid treatment enroute. Keep the patient quiet and do not let him -get frightened or excited. Rather than require the patient to walk or -otherwise exercise, medical aid should be brought to him._ - -_6. If medical help is not available, and if Epsom salts can be -obtained, apply cloths soaked in a strong, hot solution of Epsom salts -over the cuts. The sucking, however, should be continued for at least -half an hour, preferably for an hour or more. Never give alcoholic -stimulants or use permanganate of potash. Snakebite kits give complete -instructions; follow them carefully._ - - [Illustration: _Poison mechanism of the rattlesnake_ - Redrawn from Dr. Fox] - - 1. Poison gland. - 2. Hollow fang. - 3. Poison duct. - 4. Constrictor muscle. - 5. Eye. - 6. Nasal opening. - 7. Pouch enclosing fangs (not shown in drawing). - 8. Tongue. - -Rattlesnake venom contains digestive enzymes which attack and destroy -tissue, and because of this and the possibility of bacterial infection -introduced by cutting the skin, another method of treatment—cryotherapy -(treatment with cold)—advocated by Dr. Herbert L. Stahnke, Poisonous -Animals Laboratory, Arizona State University, seems to be gaining more -and more support. This technique is designed to prevent and control the -chemical action of the venom and of bacteria, as well as minimizing -stress. This latter action is extremely important, since recent research -work has indicated that the physiological products produced by the body -under stress may more than double the toxic effects of the venom. -Cut-and-suction, or any similar treatment, tends to greatly increase -stress. - -The following description of treatment is excerpted from “American -Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,” Volume 6, Number 2, March, -1957, _The Treatment of Snake Bite_, by Herbert L. Stahnke, Fredrick M. -Allen, Robert V. Horan, and John H. Tenery: - -_1. Place a ligature (tight tourniquet) at once between the site of the -bite and the body, but as near the point of entrance of the venom as -possible._ - -_2. Place a piece of ice on the site while preparing a suitable vessel -of crushed ice and water._ - -_3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well above -the point of ligation._ - -_4. After the envenomed member has been in the iced water for not less -than 5 minutes (N.B. research has shown that the danger generally -attributed to a ligature is not present when the member is -refrigerated), remove the ligature, but keep the member in the iced -water for at least 2 hours._ - -_5. Pack the envenomed member in finely crushed ice. This hypothermia -must continue for approximately 24 hours, and the patient must not be -permitted to chill, since this increases body stress._ - -_6. Change from hypothermia to cryotherapy. This is accomplished as -follows: after the first 24 hours following the bite, the patient should -be kept somewhat uncomfortably warm—that is, to the point of -perspiration—and encouraged to drink much water. This step is -exceedingly important. Unless the patient is kept uncomfortably warm the -proteolytic portion of the venom will not leave the site of the bite. -Consequently, when hypothermia is stopped, the concentration of this -part of the venom is greater and the tissue destruction will be -proportionately increased. Hypothermia should be avoided entirely if -this step is not meticulously observed._ - - [Illustration: _Western black-headed snake_ (Tantilla eiseni). - (Courtesy San Diego Natural History Museum)] - - [Illustration: _Sonora lyre snake_ (Trimorphodon lambda). - (Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)] - -_7. The warm-up period after Cryotherapy is important. This must be done -gradually. Remove the member from the crushed ice and place it in ice -water (without ice). Allow the water to warm to room temperature._ - -Dr. Walter C. Alvarez in the _Santa Fe New Mexican_, 8-18-57: “Recently, -Dr. Wm. Deichmann, John E. Dees, M. L. Keplinger, John J. Farrell, and -W. E. MacDonald Jr. reported that hydrocortizone is a life-saving drug -when given to animals that have suffered poisoning from rattlesnake -venom. Instead of only the 17% of the untreated animals that survived, -75% of treated animals were saved.” - - - - - Back-fanged snakes - - -The southwestern desert regions are credited with harboring several -genera of snakes whose grooved back teeth indicate that they may have -poisonous properties. Of these, the Sonora lyre snake[11] (_Trimorphodon -lambda_) and the Mexican vine snake (_Oxybelis aeneus auratus_) are the -only species of sufficient size to be considered as even remotely -dangerous to mankind. Species of the genera _Tantilla_ (black-headed -snake), _Hypsiglena_, and _Sonora_ are too small and too difficult for -the amateur to identify to be considered in this publication. - - - - - Gila monster - (_Heloderma suspectum_) - - -More conflicting statements are made about the Gila (HEE-lah) monster -than about any other desert reptile. Some persons insist that it is not -poisonous, others are sure that even its breath is poisonous: that it -spits or blows its poison: that the animal has no anal opening, hence -undigested fecal matter remains in the body, decays, and is the basis of -its poison; and so on. - - [Illustration: _Gila monster_ (Heloderma suspectum).] - -Here are the facts. The lizard is poisonous and its bite may be serious, -possibly fatal[13]. Its breath is not poisonous, and although the animal -seems to have a chronic case of halitosis, this has nothing to do with -its dangerous properties. It does not spit poison, but when angered it -frequently hisses, the outcoming blast of air sometimes carrying -droplets of saliva. It has a normal anal opening and voids fecal matter -in a perfectly normal manner. It is not a walking septic tank as many -persons believe. - -Largest of the lizards native to the United States, and the only species -found in this country which is poisonous, the Gila monster rarely -attains a length of 2 feet. Average specimens are smaller. Its beady -skin, heavy body, short legs, and waddling gait set it apart from all -other lizards except its close relative, the also poisonous _Heloderma -horridum_ of Mexico. The Gila Monster is a spectacular black and corral -color, while the other is black and yellow. - -Gila monsters are found in southern Arizona, their range extending -northwestward into the southern tip of Nevada and southwestern Utah. - - [Illustration: _Underside of Gila monster showing anal opening. This - photograph is advanced as proof that the Gila monster is a perfectly - normal creature in this respect._ - (Photo courtesy of Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Tempe, - Arizona)] - - -_Food and habits_ - -Food consists chiefly of bird and reptile eggs, young rodents, and such -small or juvenile creatures as it is able to capture. It is especially -fond of hen eggs and may be kept in captivity for a long time without -other food. It is also fond of clear water, which seems strange because -of the scarcity of this liquid in the natural habitat of the lizard. If -provided with a basin of water it may lie partly submerged for hours. - -Occasionally encountered ambling across stretches of open desert, -especially in the spring, the Gila monster is normally docile and bends -every effort toward escape among the stiff stems of some bush or beneath -the protecting spine-clad stems of a cactus plant. Sometimes an -individual with a “chip on its shoulder” may be met, or one in a normal -state of mind may be teased or prodded into anger, when it advances with -open mouth, sputtering and hissing. - -When aroused, the Gila monster is remarkably agile, making quick turns -of its head to snap at nearby objects. If it secures a grip, it hangs on -with bulldog-like tenacity, grinding the object between its teeth. - -Gila monsters reproduce by means of eggs which are about 2½ inches long -with a tough, parchment-like skin. From 5 to 13 eggs are deposited by -the female in a hole which she scoops in moist sand in a sunny location. -After laying the eggs, she covers them with sand, and leaves them for -the heat of the sun to hatch. - - [Illustration: _Poison mechanism of the Gila monster_ - Redrawn from Dr. Fox] - - 1. Poison gland. - 2. Grooved tooth. - 3. Poison duct. - 4. Opening, poison duct. - 5. Eye. - 6. Dissected lower jaw. - -The Gila monster’s tail serves as a storehouse of nourishment, being -thick and heavy in times of plenty, and thin and rope-like in the early -spring when the reptile first appears after months of hibernation, -during which time it has lived on the reservoir of fat stored in its -tail. - - -_Poison of the Gila monster_ - -The poison of the Gila monster is produced by glands in the lower jaw. -To be most effective, the poison must be ground into the wound through -action of the grooved teeth, the process taking a little time. Bitten -persons who immediately have broken away sometimes show no effects of -the venom, therein lying the basis for the widespread statement that -Gila monsters are not poisonous. - -Bitten persons who have been unable to release themselves show symptoms -of poisoning similar to persons suffering from rattlesnake bite, -although the poison is more neurotoxic in action. Breathing and heart -action are speeded up, followed by a gradual paralysis of the heart and -breathing muscles. - -_Treatment is essentially the same as that for rattlesnake bite, which -is described earlier in this booklet. A physician should be summoned at -once. Stimulants are dangerous, and no one should be permitted to give -the patient any alcohol whatever._ - -Prevention is much simpler than cure, so Gila monsters should be allowed -to mind their own affairs unmolested. Normally they are not pugnacious, -and it would be very difficult for one to bite a human unless it were -being teased or handled or were stepped upon by a bare-footed child. -Please do not kill or capture Gila monsters. These interesting lizards -are a unique feature of native desert wildlife threatened with -extinction. Please leave them for other people to see and enjoy. -Furthermore, the Gila monster is protected by State law. - - - - - Harmless Creatures Mistakenly Believed Poisonous - - -Practically everyone is aware of the widespread fear of snakes exhibited -by people of all races and in all walks of life. This fear although -largely emotional, is rationalized by many persons with the statement -“Well, it MIGHT be poisonous.” Other persons believe that there is some -rule of thumb, such as a flat or triangular-shaped head, by which all -poisonous snakes may be recognized. A great many persons kill all -snakes, just on general principles. Thus the innocent suffer with the -guilty, the harmless with the dangerous. - -As scientists explore deeper and deeper into the intricacies of animal -behavior and obtain more and more knowledge of the ecological -relationships among animals and between animals and plants, it becomes -increasingly clear that these relationships present a delicate balance -or adjustment of nature. Epidemic diseases, disasters such as fires and -floods, and radical climatic changes may upset or alter these -relationships, sometimes with far-reaching effects. - -But the greatest and most persistent disturber of the biological peace -is MAN. Almost every time man reduces or destroys one phase of nature, -he releases, in so doing, previously unrecognized forces which turn on -him in a manner that he least expects. Snakes, in general, live on small -rodents, thereby helping to maintain a balance whereby rodents are -unable to increase to such a point that they get out of nature’s -control. Kill all of the snakes in a given area, and some of the control -on rodent population is removed with a resulting increase in the -destruction of vegetation and consequent damage to farmers’ crops. So if -you must kill snakes, by all means limit your activities to those which -are known definitely to be poisonous. - -One of the purposes of this booklet is to familiarize the desert dweller -or visitor with the snakes that ARE poisonous. All the rest are -harmless, in fact they are generally beneficial to mankind, even though -their heads may be triangular in shape. A given territory is capable of -supporting a rather definite number of snakes. Kill the harmless ones -and those that come in to take their place may be poisonous species. - -In all parts of the country certain creatures, particularly reptiles, -are credited with supernatural powers for causing injury or aid to human -beings. Among aboriginal peoples, these superstitions are a part of -their religion and have a powerful effect upon their thinking. For -example, among the Hopi Indians of northern Arizona, snakes may be -messengers who, if properly indoctrinated, will convey to the rain gods -expressions of the people’s need for moisture in order that their crops -may mature. - -Even among a people who for years have had the benefit of scientific -knowledge, superstitions persist. The hoopsnake and the milksnake offer -cases in point, and there will be readers of this booklet who will toss -it aside in anger because it states that both of these myths are without -substantiation in fact. - - [Illustration: _Two adult banded gecko lizards_] - -These imaginary tales are passed from generation to generation and are -the strongest in regions where the percentage of uneducated people is -high. This situation exists in the South and Southwest. Many persons who -have been denied educational opportunities are extremely credulous and -have a long list of creatures to each of which they credit injurious or -helpful powers. A majority of these creatures are perfectly harmless, -but they are too numerous to be given space in this publication. -However, it seems only fair to mention a few of the commonest of these -persecuted species in the hope that they may be recognized as not only -harmless, but in many cases actually beneficial to man. Thus may their -unwarranted persecution be somewhat reduced. - - - - - Banded gecko - (_Coleonyx variegatus_) - - -Quite small, with velvety skin and delicate markings making it appear -fragile and semitransparent, this lizard has little to inspire fear. -Hiding away during daylight hours in dark and preferably moist retreats, -it comes forth at night in search of insects for food. - -It is rarely seen unless disturbed in its hiding place, which may be in -the corner of a closet or cupboard beneath the sink. If captured, it -struggles to escape, emitting a faint, high-pitched squeak. - -Although the banded gecko is sometimes mistaken for the young of a Gila -monster, in general the desert people accuse it of no definite crime, -stating merely “we have heard that it is very poisonous,” and in -consequence, kill it whenever they find it. - - - - - Solpugid - (_Eremobates_ sp.) - - -Probably because of its large and prominent jaws, the solpugid, -_Eremobates sp._, which is closely related to the spiders, is greatly -feared. - - [Illustration: _Solpugid or sun Spider_] - -“Anything so ugly MUST be poisonous,” seems to be the principal basis -for its unhappy reputation. - -It is often found inside buildings where it has gone in search of insect -prey, and Mexican families living in adobe houses with dirt floors are -reported to be terrorized by it. In Mexico and in many parts of the -Southwest it is known as _niña de la tierra_ or child-of-the-earth. - -The range of the solpugid or sun spider is by no means limited to the -desert, but its reputation as a poisonous creature seems to be much -worse in the Southwest than elsewhere. - -The solpugid not only is perfectly harmless to man but does not rely on -poison in capturing its prey, as it has no venom glands whatever. - - - - - Jerusalem cricket - (_Stenopelmatus_ sp.) - - -Whereas the solpugid is called child-of-the-earth in the southern -portions of the Southwest, in the northern part of this territory -another creature, the Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or _chacho_ is -reported as imbued with the same dangerous qualities evidently credited -to any creature to which this name has been applied. - - [Illustration: _Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or chacho_ - (Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)] - -Although quite common, the Jerusalem cricket, _Stenopelmatus_ sp., is -shy and nocturnal in its habits. Its striking appearance is due to its -head which is round, bald, and with markings on top that form, with the -use of a little imagination, a simple, smiling face. It is this that -suggests to the Spanish-speaking people of the Southwest, who -occasionally dig it from its burrow, the name “_niña de la tierra_.” The -Navajo Indians call it _woh-seh-tsinni_, meaning Old Man Bald-head. - -By the superstitious natives, this creature is believed to be highly -venomous and frequently the death of a horse or cow is blamed by the -owner on a “_chacho_” that has crawled into the hay. - -Actually, the Jerusalem cricket is harmless and may be handled with -perfect impunity by anyone, although it may inflict a painful nip. - - - - - Vinegaroon - (_Trithyreus_ sp.) - - -Since people coming from Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas bring the -majority of tales regarding the deadly characteristics of the little -vinegaroon or whip-tail scorpion, fear of it is apparently more -widespread over the cotton belt as a whole than within the desert -regions of the Southwest. - - [Illustration: _Vinegaroon_ - (Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)] - -The name vinegaroon stems from the fact that when the little creature is -injured or smashed it gives off the odor of an acetate similar to that -of acetic acid, the principal ingredient of vinegar. - -Equipped with a massive pair of pincers, the vinegaroon, like the -solpugid, gives an impression of fierceness which is probably the basis -for much of its reputation as a dangerous criminal. However, the pincers -are used in catching and holding prey and have no poison mechanism in -connection. - -The hairlike posterior appendage, or tail, is without any protective or -offensive mechanism whatever, so that the creature is perfectly harmless -insofar as human beings are concerned. - -In fact, like the solpugid and the banded gecko, its food habits cause -it to rid the world of a great many insects during the course of its -life and many of its victims are certain to be noxious to the interests -of mankind. - -All of these creatures, then, are not only harmless, but are actually -beneficial to man, and they deserve to be freed from the persecution -resulting from ignorance and superstition, and to be permitted to live -in their normal relationship with other creatures. - - - - - REFERENCES CITED - - -[1]Kent, Melvin, and Stahnke, H. L., “Effect and Treatment of Arizona - Scorpion Stings,” _Southwestern Medicine_, April, 1939, pp. 12-121, - 124. - -[2]Bogen, Emil, “Poisonous Spider Bites,” _Journal of the American - Medical Association_, Vol. 99, No. 24, December 10, 1932. - -[3]Thorp, Raymond W., and Woodson, Weldon D., _Black Widow, America’s - Most Poisonous Spider_, University of North Carolina Press, 1945. - -[4]Baerg, W. J., “The Effects of the Bite of _Latrodectus mactans_,” - _Journal of Parasitology_, Vol. IX, No. 3, March, 1933, pp. 161-169. - -[5]Wehrle, L. P., “Observations on Three Species of _Triatoma_,” - _Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society_, Vol. XXIV, No. 3, - June, 1939, pp. 145-154. - -[6]Matheson, Robert, _Medical Entomology_, Charles C. Thomas, Baltimore, - Md., 1932. - -[7]Jones, W. Ray, King County Medical Association, Seattle, Washington. - -[8]Githens, T. H., “Snake Bite in the United States,” _Scientific - Monthly_, August, 1935, pp. 163-167. - -[9]Pope, Clifford H., _Snakes Alive and How They Live_, Viking Press, - New York, 1942. - -[10]Klauber, L. M., _Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and - Influence on Mankind_, 2 vol., University of California Press, - Berkeley, 1956. - -[11]Cowles, R. B., and Bogert, C. M., “Observation on the California - Lyre Snake, _Trimorphoden vandenburghi_, Klauber. With notes on the - Effectiveness of Its Venom,” _Copeia_, July 16, 1935. - -[12]Stahnke, Herbert L., _Scorpions_, Arizona State University - Bookstore, Tempe, Arizona, 1949. - -[13]Loeb, Leo, and collaborators, _The Venom of Heloderma_, Carnegie - Institution of Washington, 1913. - - - - - PUBLICATIONS YOU MAY WISH TO READ - - -Comstock, John Henry: “_The Spider Book_,” Comstock Publishing Co. Inc., - Ithaca, N. Y., 1948. - -Klauber Laurence M.: “_Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and - Influence on Mankind_,” 2 volumes, University of California Press, - Berkeley, 1956. - -Minton, Sherman A. Jr.: “_Snakebite_,” Scientific American, p. 114, - January, 1957. - -Shannon, Federick A.: “_Comments on the Treatment of Reptile Poisoning - in the Southwest_,” reprinted from Southwestern Medicine, Volume - XXXIV, No. 10, October, 1953. - -Stahnke, Herbert L.: “_Scorpions_,” Poisonous Animals Research - Laboratory, Tempe, Arizona, 1956. - -Stahnke, Herbert L.: “_The Treatment of Venomous Bites and Stings_,” - Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory, Tempe, Arizona, 1958. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - About deserts and poisons 1 - Acknowledgements vii - Ants 17-19 - _Aphonopelma_ 13 - _Apis mellifera_ 20 - Arizona coral snake 24-25 - Arizona mountain kingsnake 24-25 - Assassin bug 14 - _Avicularia_ 13-14 - - - B - Back-fanged snakes 30 - Banded gecko 35 - Bees 17, 19, 21-22 - Bellows bug 14 - Black-headed snake 30 - Black widow spider 7-10 - _Bombidae_ 16 - Brown house spider 10 - Brown recluse spider 10-12 - Brown spider 10 - Bumblebee 17, 19 - - - C - Centipede 2-3 - _Centruroides_ 4-7 - Chacho 36-37 - Child-of-the-Earth 36-37 - _Coleonyx variegatus_ 35 - Conenose bug 14-17 - Coral king snake 24-25 - Coral snake 24-25 - _Crotalus_ 25 - - - D - Desert, a definition 1 - Desert hairy scorpion 5 - Desert scientists vii - Deserts of the United States (map) viii - _Dugesiella_ 13 - - - E - _Eremobates_ 36 - - - F - Fiddleback spider 10 - _Formicidae_ 17 - - - G - Gecko 35 - Giant desert centipede 2-3 - Gila monster 31-33 - - - H - _Hadrurus hirsutus_ 4 - Harmless creatures 34 - _Heloderma_ 31 - Honeybee 17, 20-22 - Hornet 17, 19 - Horned rattlesnake 26-27 - _Hymenoptera_ 17 - _Hypsiglena_ 30 - - - I - Insecticides vii - - - J - Jerusalem cricket 36-37 - - - K - Kissing bug 14 - - - L - _Latrodectus mactans_ 7 - Lizard 31-32, 35 - _Lycosa_ 13 - Lyre snake 30 - - - M - Mexican vine snake 30 - Mountain kingsnake 24-25 - _Micruroides euryxanthus_ 24 - _Mutillidae_ 17 - - - N - _Niña de la tierra_ 36-37 - - - O - _Oxybelis_ 30 - - - P - Pesticides vii - Poison (definition) 1 - Poisonous animals (definition) 1 - Poison lizard 31-33 - Publications you may wish to read 39 - - - R - Rattlesnakes 25-30 - _Reduviidae_ 14 - References cited 39 - - - S - Sand cricket 36-37 - _Scolopendra heros_ 3 - Scorpions 4-7 - Sidewinder 26-27 - Solpugid 36 - _Sonora_ 30 - Sonoran Desert Frontispiece - _Sphecidae_ 17 - Spiders 7-14 - _Stenopelmatus_ 36-37 - Striped-tail scorpion 4 - Slender-tail scorpion 4 - Squash bug 14 - - - T - _Tantilla_ 30 - Tarantula 13-14 - _Triatoma_ 14 - _Trimorphodon_ 30 - _Trithyreus_ 37 - - - V - _Vejovis spinigeris_ 4 - Velvet ant 17-18 - _Vespidae_ 17 - Vinegaroon 37-38 - - - W - Walpai tiger 14 - Wasps 17, 19 - Western diamondback rattlesnake 25 - Whip-tail scorpion 37 - - - Y - Yellowjackets 19 - - - This booklet is published in cooperation with the National Park Service - by the - SOUTHWEST PARKS AND MONUMENTS ASSOCIATION -_a non-profit distributing organization pledged to aid in preservation and -interpretation of Southwestern features of outstanding national interest_. - - -The Association lists for sale many excellent publications for adults -and children and hundreds of color slides on Southwestern subjects. We -recommend the following items for additional information on the -Southwest and the National Park System: - -YOUR NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM IN THE SOUTHWEST. IN WORDS AND COLOR. Jackson. -500 word articles on each National Park Service area in the huge -Southwest Region, with full-color photograph for 54 of the 56 areas -listed. Most authoritative treatment possible, by 32-year former career -N.P.S. employee, with every text checked for accuracy by Regional Office -and each area’s superintendent. Also contains “How to Get There” -appendix. 64 pages, 56 full-color illustrations, color cover, paper. - $1.95 - -100 DESERT WILDFLOWERS IN NATURAL COLOR. Dodge. Descriptions and -full-color portraits of 100 of the most interesting desert wildflowers. -Photographic hints. 64 pp., full-color cover, paper. - $1.50 - -100 ROADSIDE WILDFLOWERS OF SOUTHWEST UPLANDS IN NATURAL COLOR. Dodge. -Companion book to author’s 100 Desert Wildflowers in Natural Color, but -for higher elevation flowers. 64 pages and full-color cover, paper. - $1.50 - -FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS. Dodge and Janish. More than 140 of the -most interesting and common desert plants beautifully drawn in 100 -plates, with descriptive text. 112 pp., color cover, paper. - $1.00 - -FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MESAS. Patraw and Janish. Companion volume to -the Desert flowers booklet, but covering the plants of the plateau -country of the Southwest. 112 pp., color cover, paper. - $1.00 - -FLOWERS OF THE SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS. Arnberger and Janish. Descriptions -and illustrations of plants and trees of the southern Rocky Mountains -and other Southwestern ranges above 7,000 feet elevation. 112 pp., color -cover, paper. - $1.00 - -MAMMALS OF THE SOUTHWEST DESERTS (formerly Animals of the Southwest -Deserts). Olin and Cannon. Handsome illustrations, full descriptions, -and life habits of the 42 most interesting and common mammals of the -lower desert country of the Southwest below the 4,500-foot elevation. -112 pp., 60 illustrations, color cover, paper. - $1.00 - -MAMMALS OF SOUTHWEST MOUNTAINS AND MESAS. Olin and Bierly. Companion -volume to Mammals of Southwest Deserts. Fully illustrated in exquisitely -done fine and scratchboard drawings, and written in Olin’s masterfully -lucid style. Gives description, ranges, and life habits of the better -known Southwestern mammals of the uplands. Color cover, paper - $2.00 - -Cloth - $3.25 - - [Illustration: SPMA and NPS logos] - - - Write For Catalog - _SOUTHWEST PARKS AND MONUMENTS ASSOCIATION_ - Box 1562—Globe, Arizona 85501 - - -12th Edition (Revised) 8-70—20M - - - - - ERRATUM - - -On page 29, we regretfully acknowledge a typographical error. Step 3 of -the cryotherapy treatment should read: - - _3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well above - the point of ligation._ - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Tweaked the order of the Table of Contents to match the text. - -—Incorporated the “erratum” (from an inserted slip) into the text. The - erroneous Step 3 replicated Step 2. - -—Inserted references to unreferenced endnotes at apparently-appropriate - places. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poisonous Dwellers of the Desert, by -Natt Noyes Dodge - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POISONOUS DWELLERS OF THE DESERT *** - -***** This file should be named 54548-0.txt or 54548-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/5/4/54548/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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