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diff --git a/old/54550-0.txt b/old/54550-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7650b10..0000000 --- a/old/54550-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7614 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Ancient Civilizations of Mexico and Central -America, by Herbert Joseph Spinden - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Ancient Civilizations of Mexico and Central America - Third and Revised Edition - - -Author: Herbert Joseph Spinden - - - -Release Date: April 14, 2017 [eBook #54550] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF MEXICO -AND CENTRAL AMERICA*** - - -E-text prepared by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 54550-h.htm or 54550-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54550/54550-h/54550-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54550/54550-h.zip) - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - - - - - [Illustration: Funerary Urn from a Zapotecan Tomb - - The cylindrical urn is concealed behind the human figure. The dress - of the human figure consists of a cape, apron, and a widespreading - headdress. Over the face is worn a mask. Height, 15½ inches.] - -American Museum of Natural History - -ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS -OF -MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA - - -[Illustration: Series logo] - - -by - -HERBERT J. SPINDEN - -Formerly Assistant Curator, Department of Anthropology - -Handbook Series No. 3 - -Third and Revised Edition - - - - - - -New York -1928 - -Publication -of the -Anthropological Handbook Fund - - - - - PREFACE - - -This little book is intended as a general commentary and explanation of -the more important phases of the ancient life and arts of the Indians of -Mexico and Central America, and especially of their history. The -substance of it is drawn from many sources, for the anthropologist must -mould together and harmonize the gross results of several sciences. -Archæology, ethnology, somatology, and linguistics all make their -special contributions and we are only on the threshold of our subject. -In the Mexican and Central American field we find the accumulated -writings that result from four hundred years of European contact with -the Indians and in addition a mass of native documents and monumental -inscriptions expressed in several hieroglyphic systems. - -The general method of this book will be to take up in order the -recognized “horizons” of pre-Columbian history, beginning with the -earliest of which we have knowledge. In relation to each horizon we will -examine the records and discuss the principal developments in arts, -beliefs, and social structures. The introductory chapter is designed to -put before the reader such facts as may be necessary for a ready -understanding of the discussions and explanations that will follow. - -The Mexican Hall of the American Museum of Natural History furnishes -illustrations of most of the facts given herewith. This Hall contains -both originals and casts brought together by various expeditions of the -Museum and of other scientific institutions. The principal patrons of -science whose names should be mentioned in connection with the -upbuilding of these collections are: Willard Brown, Austin Corbin, R. P. -Doremus, Anson W. Hard, Archer M. Huntington, Morris K. Jesup, James H. -Jones, Minor C. Keith, the Duke of Loubat, William Mack, Henry Marquand, -Doctor William Pepper, A. D. Straus, I. McI. Strong, Cornelius -Vanderbilt, Henry Villard, William C. Whitney. But thanks are also due -to innumerable persons who have contributed single specimens and small -collections as well as those who have placed information at the disposal -of the scientific staff. The principal collectors have been: George -Byron Gordon, Aleš Hrdlička, Carl Lumholtz, Francis C. Nicholas, -Marshall H. Saville, Eduard Seler, Herbert J. Spinden, and John L. -Stephens. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - Preface 5 - Introduction 13 - Geography and Natural Environment. History of European - Contact. Languages. Ethnology. Physical Types. - - - CHAPTER I - The Archaic Horizon 45 - Stratification of Remains. The Cemetery under the Lava. - Invention of Agriculture. Archaic Figurines. Ancient - Customs. Archaic Pottery. Stone Sculptures of the Archaic - Period. Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. - - - CHAPTER II - The Mayan Civilization 73 - Architecture. Massive Sculptural Art. Minor Arts. The Serpent - in Mayan Art. The Human Figure. Design. Composition, and - Perspective. The Mayan Pantheon. How Mayan History has - been Recovered. Sequences in Art. Books of Chilam Balam. - The Mayan Time Counts. Elements of the Day Count. The - Conventional Year. The Calendar Round. Mayan Numbers. The - Long Count. Dates of Dedication. Hieroglyphs. Codices. - Correlation with Christian Chronology. The Mayan Eras. - Astronomical Checks on the Correlation. Astronomical - Observatories. The True Year. The Lunar Calendar. Venus - Calendar. Summary of Mayan History. - - - CHAPTER III - The Middle Civilizations 153 - The Olmeca or Rubber People. Zapotecan Culture. Mitla. - Totonacan Culture. The Toltecs. Quetzalcoatl and the - Toltec Era. San Juan Teotihuacan. Xochicalco. Tula. - Cholula. The Frontier Cities of the Northwest. Santa Lucia - Cozumalhualpa. The Chorotegan Culture. Isthmian Gold Work. - - - CHAPTER IV - The Aztecs 201 - Mayas and Aztecs compared to Greeks and Romans. The - Chichimecas. Aztecan History. Social Organization. The - Tecpan or Temple Enclosure. The Calendar Stone. Stone of - Tizoc. Contlicue. Mexican Writing. Aztecan Religion. - Conceptions of the Universe. Ceremonies. Poetry and Music. - Minor Aztecan Arts. The Tarascans. Southern Mexico. - Aztecan Influence in Central America. - A Cross-Section of New World History 249 - Bibliography 255 - Index 259 - - - - - MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Page. - Funerary Urn from a Zapotecan Tomb _Frontispiece_ - Map of Mexico and Central America showing the Principal - Archaeological Sites with a Detail Insert of the Valley of - Mexico _Facing_ 45 - Diagram of American Chronology _Facing_ 253 - - - PLATES - - - I. _a_, Village Scene in Arid Mexico; _b_, In the Humid Lowlands 15 - II. _a_, Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of Guatemala; - _b_, A Spanish Church at the Village of Camotan on the - Road to Copan 23 - III. _a_, View of the Island Town of Flores in Lake Peten; _b_, - The Sacred _Cenote_ at Chichen Itza 28 - IV. _a_, A Guatemalan _huipili_; _b_, Pouches of the Valiente - Indians 40 - V. _a_, Zapotecan Girl from the State of Oaxaca; _b_, Lacondone - Man from Southern Mexico 42 - VI. _a_, Cuicuilco. A view showing cobblestone facing of mound and - lava in contact with apron or causeway; _b_, Archaic Site - under Lava Flow near Mexico City 50 - VII. Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offering Evidence - of Ancient Customs and Arts and also showing a Quality of - Caricature or possibly Portraiture 54 - VIII. Two Stages in the Stone Sculptures of Costa Rica 60 - IX. _a_, Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period; _b_, Typical Site - of the Archaic Period 62 - X. Widely Distributed Female Figurines 65 - XI. Distribution of the Archaic Culture 69 - XII. Distribution of Agriculture in the New World 70 - XIII. A General View of the Ceremonial Center of Copan 72 - XIV. _a_, View of the Plaza at Copan from the Northwestern Corner; - _b_, View Across the Artificial Acropolis at Copan 74 - XV. _a_, Model of the Temple of the Cross, Palenque, designed to - show the Construction; _b_, Detail of Frieze on the Temple - of the Cross 76 - XVI. A Temple of Hochob showing Elaborate Facade Decorations in - Stucco 80 - XVII. A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor at Uxmal 82 - XVIII. _a_, Realistic Designs on Vases from Chamá, Guatemala; _b_, - The Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylindrical Vase - from Copan 85 - XIX. Stela 13, Piedras Negras 96 - XX. _a_, Top of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan; _b_, Analogous Detail of - Stela 4, Yaxchilan 102 - XXI. Development in Style of Carving at Copan 107 - XXII. Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in the Codex - Tro-Cortesianus 116 - XXIII. Typical Mayan Inscription 122 - XXIV. Page 24 Dresden Codex 130 - XXV. _a_, Detail of the Dresden Codex showing _Tzolkin_ used in - Divination; _b_, Analysis of the above _Tzolkin_, - according to Förstemann 134 - XXVI. General View of Monte Alban from the North 152 - XXVII. Detail of Monte Alban showing Wall Foundations and Small - Cell-like Rooms 155 - XXVIII. Zapotecan Art: Incense Burners, Funerary Vases of Portrait - Type, Cruciform Tomb with Geometric Decoration 158 - XXIX. _a_, Sculpture of Stone of the Early Zapotecan Period; _b_, - Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension 162 - XXX. Laughing Head of the Totonacs 166 - XXXI. _a_, An Elaborately Carved Stone Collar; _b_, A Palmate - Stone from the State of Vera Cruz 168 - XXXII. The Temple of Xochicalco before Restoration 174 - XXXIII. Two Views of the Principal Pyramid in the Citadel at - Teotihuacan 176 - XXXIV. _a_, Partial View of the Great Pyramid at Cholula; _b_, A - View at La Quemada 181 - XXXV. Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the State of - Guerrero 186 - XXXVI. _a_, Finely Carved Ceremonial Slab found at Mercedes, Costa - Rica; _b_, Stone Figure from Costa Rica; _c_, Ceremonial - Slab decorated with Monkeys, Mercedes, Costa Rica 192 - XXXVII. _a_, The Gold Work of the Ancient Mexicans; _b_, Ornament - of Gold from Costa Rica 196 - XXXVIII. A Page from the Tribute Roll of Moctezuma 200 - XXXIX. A Page from the Codex Telleriano Remensis 202 - XL. Serpent Head at Bottom of Balustrade, Great Pyramid, Mexico - City 206 - XLI. Sahagun’s Plan of the Tecpan in Mexico City 212 - XLII. The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs 214 - XLIII. The Shield Stone at Cuernavaca 216 - XLIV. The Newly Discovered “National Stone” of Mexico 220 - XLV. Sculpture representing Coatlicue, the Serpent-Skirted Goddess 222 - XLVI. Page from the _Tonalamatl_ Section of the Codex Borbonicus 228 - XLVII. _a_, Picture of Tlaloc, the God of Rain, and of Ehecatl, - the God of Winds, in the Codex Magliabecchiano; _b_, - Mexican Genealogical Table on Amatl Paper 230 - - - TEXT FIGURES - - - 1. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic Record of - the Aztecs 13 - 2. A Mexican Picture of a Volcanic Eruption 16 - 3. Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare 20 - 4. The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, personified as a Demigod 20 - 5. Spanish Ship in the Aubin Codex 22 - 6. Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and Moctezuma brings him - Gold 25 - 7. Aztecan Canoe. Lienzo de Tlaxcala 26 - 8. Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon 37 - 9. Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians 37 - 10. Atzcapotzalco Destroyed 47 - 11. Diagram of Culture Strata at Atzcapotzalco 48 - 12. _Teocentli_ or Mexican Fodder Grass 51 - 13. Archaic Figurines from Central Mexico 55 - 14. Archaic Figurines—Zapotlan, Jalisco; Tampico, Vera Cruz; and - Cuesta Blanca, Salvador 55 - 15. Archaic Figurine from Salvador 56 - 16. Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines 57 - 17. Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies 58 - 18. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from Morelos, - Mexico 59 - 19. Series showing the Modification of a Celt into a Stone Amulet 61 - 20. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples 77 - 21. Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in Northern Yucatan 78 - 22. Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook, Yucatan 84 - 23. Design on Engraved Pot representing a Tiger seated in a Wreath - of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan 86 - 24. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing Serpent issuing - from a Shell Salvador 86 - 25. Mayan Basket represented in Stone Sculpture 88 - 26. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas 90 - 27. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Decorative Purposes 91 - 28. Upper Part of Serpent Head made into a Fret Ornament 92 - 29. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan 93 - 30. Types of Human Heads on the Lintels of Yaxchilan 94 - 31. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela 11, Seibal 95 - 32. The Ceremonial Bar 98 - 33. The Manikin Scepter 99 - 34. The Two-Headed Dragon 100 - 35. Gods in the Dresden Codex 101 - 36. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on Stelæ at Piedras - Negras showing the Increase in Flamboyant Treatment 105 - 37. Grotesque Face on the Back of Stela B, Copan 108 - 38. Jaguar in Dresden Codex with a Water Lily attached to Forehead 108 - 39. Late Sculpture from Chichen Itza 109 - 40. The Twenty Day Signs 112 - 41. The Nineteen Month Signs of the Mayan Year 115 - 42. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas 119 - 43. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions 121 - 44. The Normal Forms of the Period Glyphs 121 - 45. Face Forms of Period Glyphs 121 - 46. Hieroglyphs of the Four Directions 127 - 47. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element _kin_ 127 - 48. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden Codex 132 - 49. Diagram of the Astronomical Base Line at Copan giving Readings - at April 9 and September 2 138 - 50. Representations of the Moon 142 - 51. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Series 142 - 52. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent Heads 156 - 53. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with Hieroglyphs on Zapotecan - Monuments 157 - 54. Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla 161 - 55. Wall Paintings of Mitla 163 - 56. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines 165 - 57. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan Teotihuacan 178 - 58. Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations in Several Colors 180 - 59. Vessel with “Cloisonné” Decoration in Heavy Pigments 184 - 60. The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative Painting with Wax - at Totoate, Jalisco 185 - 61. Jaguar Head on Disk-Shaped Stone, Salvador 187 - 62. Front View and Profile View Serpent Heads in Chorotegan Art 190 - 63. Jaguar Design associated with Figurines that still retain - Archaic Characters, Costa Rica 191 - 64. Jaguars from painted Nicoyan Vases 191 - 65. Highly Conventionalized Jaguar Motive 193 - 66. Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on Dishes from Mercedes, - Costa Rica 194 - 67. Panels containing Crocodiles painted in White Lines on Large - Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica 194 - 68. Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow Line Ware of - Mercedes, Costa Rica 194 - 69. Conventional Crocodiles from Costa Rica and Panama 197 - 70. Pictographic Record of the Fighting near the Springs of - Chapultepec 207 - 71. Details from the Stone of Tizoc 219 - 72. Detail showing the Construction of the Face of Coatlicue 223 - 73. Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials 224 - 74. Phonetic Elements derived from Pictures and used in Mexican - Place Name Hieroglyphs 224 - 75. Aztecan Place Names 225 - 76. Aztecan Day Signs 226 - 77. Variant Forms of Aztecan Day Signs 226 - 78. Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce 227 - 79. Analysis of Mexican Record 231 - 80. Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water 232 - 81. A Mexican Orchestra 241 - 82. Mexican Blanket with the Design that represents interlacing - Sand and Water called “Spider Water” 243 - 83. The Year Symbol of Southern Mexico 245 - 84. Year Bearers in the Codex Porfirio Diaz ascribed to the - Cuicatecan Tribe 246 - 85. A Page from the Codex Nuttall, recording the Conquest of a - Town situated on an Island of the Sea 247 - 86. The God Macuilxochitl, Five Flower, as shown in a Mexican - Codex and in Pottery from Southern Mexico 248 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - - Geography and Natural Environment. - -Unfortunately the terms “Mexico and Central America” are not mutually -exclusive. Central America is a natural division comprised between the -Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Isthmus of Panama. Mexico is a political -division that includes several states in Central America, namely, -Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, and the territory of Quintana Roo. -The ancient high cultures of Mexico hardly extended as far north as the -Tropic of Cancer and the region beyond this is of slight interest to us. -Positions south of Mexico will often be referred to the areas of the -modern political units although these have no immediate relation to -pre-Spanish conditions. These political units are: Guatemala, British -Honduras, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. - - [Illustration: Fig. 1. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the - Pictographic Record of the Aztecs called Codex Telleriano Remensis.] - -Although lying within the tropics, the territory extending from the -Isthmus of Panama to Central Mexico exhibits great extremes of climate -and topography and hence of plant and animal life. The year is -everywhere divided into a wet and a dry season but the relative duration -of each depends upon land form and altitude. The coast of the Pacific is -considerably drier than that of the Atlantic. Three climatic zones are -generally recognized, namely, the _Tierra Caliente_ (Hot Land), _Tierra -Templada_ (Temperate Land), and _Tierra Fria_ (Cold Land), and in some -regions each of these has an arid and a humid strip. The change from -luxuriant forests to open thorny deserts is often very sudden. On the -high plateau or _Tierra Fria_ the natural warmth of the latitude is -largely overcome by the altitude. In the Valley of Mexico snow falls -only at rare intervals, yet chilling winds are common in the winter. -Much of the plateau from Mexico south into Guatemala is open farming -land well suited to the raising of maize and wheat where water is -sufficient. The shoulders of the mountains bear forests of pine and oak -while the highest peaks are crowned with perpetual snow. - -A description of the mountains, rivers, and lakes will help towards an -understanding of the problems that are before us. The broad plateau, -crossed by irregular ranges of mountains, that occupies the states of -New Mexico and Arizona continues far south into Mexico. On the western -rim the Sierra Madre lifts a great pine-covered barrier, beyond which -the land drops off quickly into the hot fringe of coastal plain -bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. The highest -mountains of the western Sierra Madre are El Nevado and Colima, the -first a snowy peak 14,370 feet high and the second an active volcano -12,278 feet high. On the eastern rim of the central plateau the second -Sierra Madre is less continuous but it culminates in the loftiest peak -of all Mexico—the wonderful cone of Orizaba. This mountain rises from -the tropical jungles well into the region of perpetual snow and attains -an elevation of 18,314 feet above the sea. Its name in Aztecan is -Citlaltepetl, which means Star Mountain. Two other famous peaks of -Mexico are Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, both names being pure Aztecan. -The first means Smoking Mountain and the second White Woman. These -volcanic crests rise into the snowy zone from the table-land which is -itself about 8,000 feet above the sea. - - - Plate I. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Village Scene in Arid Mexico. Cactus and other - thorny shrubs are ever present. The houses of the natives are of - adobe with thatched roofs.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) In the Humid Lowlands. The view shows part of - the plaza at Quirigua with one of the monuments almost concealed in - vegetation of a few months’ growth.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 2. The Smoke reaches the Stars, a Mexican - Picture of a Volcanic Eruption in the Codex Telleriano Remensis.] - -In southern Mexico the plateau area enclosed between the principal -sierras narrows perceptibly, because the shore line of the Pacific and -the mountain range that parallels it swing more and more towards the -east. At the Isthmus of Tehuantepec a low valley separates the highland -area of Mexico from that of Central America. This second table-land is -not so wide as the one we have just considered and is more deeply -dissected by rivers. The mountains of Guatemala rise to a considerable -altitude, the highest being Tacaná with 13,976 feet elevation. Active -volcanoes are numerous and earthquakes frequent and often disastrous. -The Volcan de Agua and the Volcan de Fuego (Volcano of Water and Volcano -of Fire) look down upon Ciudad Vieja and Antigua Guatemala, the old -Spanish capitals which each in turn destroyed. The cordillera still -presents its most abrupt front to the Pacific and on the eastern side, -in Guatemala and Honduras, there are high forest-bearing ridges between -the river systems. The Cockscomb Mountains in British Honduras are a low -outlying group. In southern Nicaragua the main chain is broken by a low -broad valley that extends from ocean to ocean. In Costa Rica and Panama -a single range stretches midway along the narrow strip of land, with -peaks that rise above 11,000 feet. - -The lowland strip on the Pacific side of our area is a narrow fringe. -Like the central plateau it is for the most part arid, but irrigation -makes it productive. The lowlands of the Atlantic side are generally wet -and heavily forested. The greatest land mass of uniformly low elevation -is the Peninsula of Yucatan. In eastern Honduras and Nicaragua there are -extensive river valleys of low elevation. - -The river systems of Mexico and Central America flow into the two -bounding oceans or into lakes which have no outlets. Several closed -basins occur on the Mexican table-land. The Rio Nazas and the Rio Nieves -flow into salt marshes in the northern state of Coahuila. But the most -important interior basin is the Valley of Mexico. In this mountain -enclosed valley, whose general level is 7,500 feet above the sea, there -are five lakes which in order from north to south are named Tzompanco, -Xaltocan, Texcoco, Xochimilco, and Chalco. The last two contain fresh -water, since they drain into Lake Texcoco, but the rest are more or less -brackish. Lake Texcoco is by far the largest, although its area has been -greatly reduced by natural and artificial causes since the coming of the -Spaniards. - -The largest river of Mexico is the Rio Lerma which takes the name Rio de -Santiago during its deep and tortuous passage from Lake Chapala to the -Pacific. Farther to the south is the Rio de las Balsas which likewise -flows into the western ocean. The name means “River of the Rafts” and is -given because of a peculiar floating apparatus made of gourds tied to a -wooden framework that is used on this stream. Flowing into the Gulf of -Mexico are several large streams, among which may be mentioned the -Panuco, Papaloapan, Grijalva, and Usumacinta. The last is by far the -greatest in volume of water, and with its maze of tributaries drains a -large area of swamp and jungle in which are buried some of the most -wonderful ruined cities of the New World. - -In the northern part of Yucatan there are no rivers on the surface on -account of the porous limestone. Instead there are great natural wells -called _cenotes_ where the roofs of subterranean rivers have fallen in. -Many of the ancient cities were built near such natural wells. - -Passing to the south the most important river of Guatemala is the -Motagua, which has cut a fine valley through a region of lofty -mountains. In Honduras there are several large rivers, including the -Uloa, Patuca, and Segovia. The lake region of Nicaragua is drained by -the San Juan River that flows into the Caribbean Sea. Nearly all the -streams of Central America that flow into the Pacific are short and -steep torrents. An important exception is the Lempa River that forms -part of the interior boundary of Salvador. - -Concerning lakes, mention has already been made of Chapala and Texcoco, -the most important in Mexico. The former is about fifty miles in length. -In the state of Michoacan there are a number of beautiful lakes -intimately connected with the history and mythology of the Tarascan -Indians. The most famous is called Patzcuaro. In southern Yucatan the -shallow body of water known as Lake Peten also has a distinct historical -interest. Several lakes in Guatemala are well known on account of the -rare beauty of their situation. Lake Atitlan is surrounded by lofty -mountains, and Lake Izabal, or Golfo Dulce, is famous for the luxuriance -of the vegetation that screens its banks. Lakes Nicaragua and Managua -are well known on account of their connection with the much-discussed -canal projects. The Island of Ometepe in Lake Nicaragua bears an active -volcano. - -In regard to the geology it is only necessary to point out a few of the -more important characters. The highlands which bear so many active and -quiescent volcanoes naturally show great masses of eruptive rocks, some -due to recent action and others much more ancient. Porous tufa is a -common material for sculptures in many parts of Mexico and Central -America. In other places there are great beds of softer and finer -grained material also of volcanic origin. In these places, such as Copan -in western Honduras and Mitla in southern Mexico, building in stone -received its greatest development. The soft greenish stone of Copan -seems to be a solidified mud flow permeated with volcanic ash rather -than a true lava flow of melted rock. Limestones are also common and -important in the economic development. In some regions there are beds of -a hard, blue limestone going back to the Carboniferous epoch. This stone -makes an excellent cement after burning. The Peninsula of Yucatan is a -great plain of limestone of much more recent formation. Like our own -Florida it was once a coral reef which was lifted above the sea by some -natural agency. This limestone gets older and more solid as we approach -the base of the peninsula but at best is rather porous and -coarse-grained. - - [Illustration: Fig. 3. Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare. From the - Mayan Codex, Tro-Cortesianus.] - -The fauna and flora present great variation. In the moist lowlands the -monkeys play in the tree tops and the jaguar lies in wait for its prey. -Alligators and crocodiles infest the rivers and swamps. Two small -species of deer and the ocellated turkey are important items in the meat -supply of Yucatan, that includes also the iguana, the peccary, and -various large rodents. The tapir and manatee are the largest animals of -the lowlands but neither seems to have been of great significance to the -natives. Bats are frequently represented in the ancient art and a bat -demon appears in several myths. - - [Illustration: Fig. 4. The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, personified as - a Demi-god. Dresden Codex.] - -Upon the highlands of Mexico the Toltecan deer is still hunted, together -with the wild turkey that is the parent of our domestic birds. The -turkey was, in fact, domesticated by the Mexican tribes. It probably -occurred southward over the Guatemalan highlands, but is now extinct in -this latter region. In the southern part of Central America the place of -the turkey as an item of diet is taken by the curassow, a yellow-crested -bird with black plumage. The coppery-tailed trogon, the famous quetzal, -was sacred in ancient times and is now the emblem of Guatemala. This -beautiful bird occurs only in the cloud cap forest zone on the high -mountains of southern Mexico and Guatemala. Blue macaws, parrots, -paroquets, and humming birds contributed their gay plumage to adorn -headdresses and feather-covered cloaks. These and many other birds -doubtless flitted about in the aviary of Moctezuma. The black vulture, -the king vulture, and the harpy eagle are other conspicuous birds often -figured in the ancient art. The coyote, ocelot, and puma are the -principal beasts of prey on the highlands. - -Among the characteristic trees of the lowlands may be mentioned the -palm, which occurs in great variety, the amate and ceiba, both of which -attain to large size, as well as mahogany, Spanish cedar (which is not a -cedar at all but a close relative of the mahogany), campeche, or -logwood, rosewood, sapodilla, and other trees of commerce. Upon the -higher mountain slopes are forests of long-leaf pine and of oak. In the -desert stretches the cactus is often tree-like and there are many shrubs -that in the brief spring become masses of highly-colored blossoms. - -Some of the principal crops of Mexico and Central America have been -introduced from the Old World, including coffee, sugar cane, and -bananas. Other crops such as maize, beans, chili peppers, cocoa, etc., -are indigenous. Among the native fruits may be mentioned the aguacate, -or alligator pear, the mamey, the anona, or custard apple, the -guanabina, jocote, and nance. - - - History of European Contact. - -The great area with which we are concerned has been in touch with Europe -since the beginning of the sixteenth century. Columbus, on his last -voyage in 1502, landed on the northern coast of Honduras and rounded the -stormy cape called Gracias à Dios. Later he skirted the shore of Costa -Rica and Panama and entered the body of water which was named in his -honor Bahia del Almirante—Bay of the Admiral. He brought back -sensational news of the gold in possession of the natives, which they -had told him came from a district called Veragua. After a few years of -stormy warfare the Spaniards established themselves firmly in this -golden land. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who emerged from the bickering mob -as the strongest leader, was the first white man to cross the Isthmus. -This he did in 1513, grandiloquently laying claim to the Pacific Ocean -and all the shores that it touched in the name of Spain. The crown -appointed the greedy and black-hearted Pedrarias Davila governor of -Darien and in 1517 he succeeded in having Balboa beheaded on a flimsy -charge. Colonization and exploration went forward rapidly. In 1519 the -old city of Panama, now in ruins, was founded. The rich region around -the Nicaraguan lakes was discovered by Gil Gonzalez Davila and the city -of Granada was founded in 1524. The exploration from the southern base -came in contact with that from the north in Salvador shortly after this -event. - - [Illustration: Fig. 5. Spanish Ship in the Aubin Codex.] - - - Plate II. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of - Guatemala.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) A Spanish Church at the Village of Camotan on - the Road to Copan.] - -Let us now direct our attention to the conquest of Mexico. Perhaps the -Portuguese were the first to sight the mainland of Yucatan in 1493. -There is little to prove this except one or two charts or maps made in -the first decade of the sixteenth century that show the peninsula in its -proper location. In 1511 or 1512 a ship from Darien was wrecked and some -of the sailors were cast upon the coast of Yucatan. Most of them were -killed and sacrificed, but two survived. One of these survivors was -Geronimo de Aguilar, who later was rescued by Cortez and became his -guide and interpreter. - -The first accredited voyage of discovery to Mexico was one under the -command of Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, which sailed from Cuba in -February, 1517. He coasted the northern and eastern shores of Yucatan. -When he attempted to obtain water he was worsted in a serious battle -with the Maya Indians. His expedition finally returned to Cuba in a sad -plight. The next year Juan de Grijalva set out to continue the -exploration of the new land with the stone-built cities. He landed at -Cozumel Island and took possession. He explored the eastern coast of -Yucatan as well as the northern and western ones, discovered the mouth -of the large river that bears his name, and proceeded as far as the -Island of Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera Cruz. - -The next year Hernando Cortez was sent out by Velasquez, the governor of -Cuba, to conquer the new land. He landed at Cozumel Island and rescued -Geronimo de Aguilar. Then he followed the coast to the mouth of the -Grijalva River where he disembarked and fought the important battle of -Cintla, the first engagement in the New World in which cavalry was used. -After a signal victory Cortez continued his way to Vera Cruz. Here delay -and dissension seemed about to break the luck of the invaders. - -Although the Mexicans were somewhat inclined to regard the Spaniards as -supernatural visitants and to associate their coming with the fabled -return of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent, still Moctezuma refused to -grant an interview to Cortez. The Totonacan city of Cempoalan opened its -gates and became allies of the invaders. Finally, at the instigation of -their stout-hearted captain, the Spaniards destroyed their ships on the -shore in order to steel their resolution through the impossibility of -retreat. Then the little band of 450 white men with their retinue of -natives marched towards the highlands. The route led past Jalapa and -over the mountains to the fortified city of Tlaxcala. This city, after a -skirmish, likewise enlisted in the Spanish cause, a course that came -easy because Tlaxcala was a traditional enemy of Tenochtitlan, the -ancient Mexico City, and had withstood the attacks of the Aztecs for -many years. From here Cortez passed to the sacred city of Cholula where, -suspecting treachery, he caused many of the inhabitants to be massacred. - - [Illustration: Fig. 6. Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and - Moctezuma brings him Gold. Codex Vaticanus 3738.] - -In the Spanish histories one hears much concerning the omens, the -prophecies, and the vain appeals to the gods that became more and more -frequent and frantic as the invaders approached the capital. Arriving at -Ixtapalapan they entered upon the great causeway leading out to the -Venice-like city in the lake. Accepting the inevitable, Moctezuma and -his nobles met the Spaniards and conducted them to the Palace of -Axayacatl, which was prepared for their habitation. This took place in -November, 1519. The fears of Moctezuma were soon fulfilled, for he was -taken prisoner and held as a hostage of safety in his own capital. - - [Illustration: Fig. 7. Aztecan Canoe. Lienzo de Tlaxcala.] - -Meanwhile Velasquez, convinced of the unfaithfulness of Cortez, -dispatched Narvaez to capture the rebellious agent. But Narvaez was -himself captured and his soldiers went to augment the army of the -victor. - -Alvarado had been left in command of the garrison at Tenochtitlan during -the absence of Cortez. The time approached for the great feast of -Tezcatlipoca and the Spaniards, fearing the results of this appeal to -the principal Aztecan god, resolved to be the first to strike. The -multitude assembled in the temple enclosure was massacred and after this -deed the soldiers fought their way back to the stronghold in which they -were quartered. The Aztecs were thoroughly aroused by this unwarranted -cruelty as well as by the cupidity of the Spaniards. Cortez hastened -back to take personal charge; but in spite of victories in the storming -of the pyramids and in other hand-to-hand contests, the invaders were so -weakened that their condition was truly alarming. Moctezuma died in -captivity and the last restraint of the natives was removed. - -The night of June 30, 1520, is famous as La Noche Triste—The Sad -Night—for on this night the Spaniards attempted to steal out of the city -that had become untenable. The natives were warned by a woman’s shriek -and a desperate encounter took place on the narrow causeway loading to -Tlacopan. The bridges were torn down and the Spanish soldiers in armor -were hemmed in between the deep canals. At last, however, the firm land -was reached. Here, instead of following up the victory, the natives -permitted the Spaniards to re-form their ranks. A few days later Cortez -was able to restore something of his lost prestige by the decisive -victory at Otumba, after which he continued his retreat to the friendly -Tlaxcala. - -A year was spent in recuperation, in building boats for an attack from -the lake, and in putting down the Aztecan outposts. In the meantime the -natives were suffering from a dreadful visitation of smallpox, -introduced by the Spaniards, and Cuitlahuac, the successor of Moctezuma, -had died of this disease after a rule of eighty days. Finally -Tenochtitlan was besieged again. The buildings were leveled to the -ground as the Spaniards advanced. - - - Plate III. - - [Illustration: (_a_) View of the Island Town of Flores in Lake Peten - where the Last Capital of the Itzas was located.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) The Sacred _Cenote_ at Chichen Itza into which - Human Beings were thrown as Sacrifices, along with Objects of Jade - and Gold.] - -The brave defense of Cuauhtemoc availed for naught against cannon and -steel armor. On the 13th of August, 1521, the conquest of Tenochtitlan -was achieved and the spirit of a warlike people forever broken. - -The Valley of Mexico having been taken, numerous expeditions were sent -out to subdue the more distant provinces and to establish colonies. -Alvarado invaded the south and by 1524 he had captured Utatlan and other -native strongholds on the highlands of Guatemala and had invaded -Salvador. Cortez himself undertook a wonderful march from Vera Cruz to -the Gulf of Honduras to punish an unruly subordinate. His course lay -through the swamps and jungles of the Usumacinta Basin, thence across -the savannahs of southern Yucatan to Lake Peten, and, finally, over the -mountains to Lake Izabal and the Motagua River. Even today much of his -route would be called impassable for an army. Puerto Cortez, on the -northern coast of Honduras, was founded at the conclusion of this -expedition. The exploitation of Yucatan and Tabasco was granted to -Francisco Montejo, who began the conquest of this low-lying territory in -1527. The first campaigns were disastrous and heartbreaking. Several -short-lived Salamancas were founded, one of them at Chichen Itza. But -the odds were too great and by 1535 all the Spaniards had been killed or -expelled. The son of Montejo renewed the struggle. In 1540 Campeche was -founded and early in 1542 the city of Mérida was established upon the -site of an earlier Mayan town. - -Progress was also rapid in the north. Nuño de Guzman departed in 1529 on -a mission to conquer Michoacan and the great northern province known as -New Galicia. His rule was marred by many acts of cruelty. In 1538 -Coronado, the successor of Guzman, led his army northward to the land of -the Pueblo Indians and then out into the Great Plains. Before the first -English settlement was made in North America the power of Spain was -firmly established, not only throughout Central America and Mexico, but -also in the southwestern part of the United States. - -The spiritual conquest was no less remarkable than the territorial. The -priests accompanied and even preceded the armies with the doctrine of -the cross. The rough and ready characters that enliven the wonderful -drama of this period had the vices of greed and cruelty, but nearly all -were imbued with a pride of religion, if not with the true flame. The -firmness and bigotry on the one hand and the open sympathy on the other -with which the Catholic fathers met the practical problems before them -resulted in vast achievements. Either by accident or design certain -patron saints and efficacious shrines of special interest to the natives -were not long in becoming known. The Virgin of Guadeloupe and the Black -Christ of Esquipulas brought many converts to the foreign faith. Church -building was carried on apace. The various religious orders became rich -and powerful and exerted a strong influence upon civil administration. - -The later history of this great region can be passed over briefly. -Cortez was the first governor general of Mexico but he was soon shorn of -his power as dictator at large. The First Audiencia was appointed in -1528 and is noteworthy simply by reason of its misrule. The Second -Audiencia, beginning two years later, put through some excellent reform -laws. The first Viceroy, the great and good Mendoza, arrived in 1535 and -for fifteen years the land prospered under his rule, which was benign -without being weak. He was succeeded by Luis de Velasco, who emancipated -many of the enslaved Indians. The long line of viceroys continued until -1821, when Spain was forced to relinquish her provinces in America. -Among the greatest of the viceroys was Bucareli, the forty-sixth in -line, who ruled Mexico from 1771-1779 while the United States of America -were just beginning to feel the pulse of life. - -During the viceregal period in Mexico the region to the south was ruled -by the captain general of Guatemala. The dominion was subdivided into -five departments corresponding to the modern republics of Guatemala -(which then included the Mexican state of Chiapas), Honduras, Salvador, -Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Panama was ruled from the South American -province of New Granada. - -Weakened by Napoleonic wars and rent by internal dissensions, Spain -found herself in the first two decades of the nineteenth century unable -to maintain her waning power in America. Bolivar and his brother -patriots raised the standard of revolt in South America in 1810 and in -the same year war for independence broke out in the north. Hidalgo, the -parish priest of Dolores, rang the liberty bell of Mexican freedom on -the 16th of September, 1810. This beloved patriot was captured the year -following, and shot, but the revolution, once begun, was continued under -Morelos and other leaders. After 1815 the cause seemed hopeless, but in -1820 there was a new uprising and General Iturbide, who was sent to put -it down, turned his army against the government and established himself -as emperor. Central America was also included in this Mexican empire. -The rule of Iturbide soon became unpopular and in 1823 he abdicated his -throne. The Mexican republic that was then instituted continued until -the French intervention in 1861. During this time the most noteworthy -events were the war with the United States in 1846-47 and the passing of -the reform laws under Benito Juarez that freed Mexico from the -oppressions of the church. - -As a result of the French intervention Maximilian of Austria was made -emperor. This unfortunate ruler, who did much to beautify Mexico City, -was dethroned and shot in 1867. The republic was then re-established. - -The other republics of Central America formed a federal union at the -time the first Mexican empire came to an end in 1823. This union was -preserved till 1839 and several later attempts were made to restore it. -The five republics have had such tempestuous careers as a result of -warfare, usurpation, and political brigandage that their material and -social development has been stunted. Several are now, however, on the -high road to stability. - -Panama was until 1903 a part of Colombia. British Honduras had its -origin in the concessions given to English logwood gatherers and to the -fact that pirates found refuge behind the coral reefs that line the -shores. The English claim to the Mosquito Coast rested upon a similar -flimsy basis, and was finally abandoned. - - - Languages. - -The twenty distinct stocks of related languages formerly recognized in -Mexico and Central America have now been greatly reduced. Of those that -remain, some occupied small areas and had little in the way of dialectic -variation, while others stretched over wide territories and were divided -into many mutually unintelligible tongues, which, in turn, were -subdivided into well-defined dialects. Several stocks are now -approaching extinction through the substitution of Spanish. A number of -languages, however, are still spoken by hundreds of thousands of -natives. - -The language having the greatest geographical extension within the area -under consideration is the Mexican, or Nahuan, now consolidated with the -Piman, Shoshonean, etc., in a great stock called the Uto-Aztecan. In its -extent this stock may be compared to the Indo-Iranian of the Old World -which comprises most of the modern and ancient languages of Europe as -well as those of a large part of Asia. Within the United States are the -numerous Shoshonean tribes found as far north as Idaho, reaching into -California on the one hand and into Texas on the other. In southern -Arizona and northwestern Mexico come the Piman group. East of the Sierra -Madre are the Tarahumare and the Tepehuane. These languages are mutually -unintelligible, although morphologically related, and all are subdivided -into dialects. The relationship is proved through laborious comparison -and analysis of the words and grammar, in the same way as the -philologist proves that Persian, Greek, Russian, English and Welsh are -all cognate tongues. Farther to the south are still other divisions of -the stock; including the Huichol and Cora of the mountainous region -north of Guadalajara and the Mexican or Aztecan of the Valley of Mexico -and adjacent country. The Mexican language is still spoken by a million -or more natives and is divided into a number of dialects. Properly the -Aztecs are a single tribe whose chief city was Tenochtitlan, the ancient -Mexican City. They first appear on the page of history as the Mexitin, -along with the closely related Chalca, Xochimilca, etc. The people of -Central Mexico called their language Nahuatl, meaning “clear speech” and -nicknamed their relatives to the south, Pipil, or “boys” because they -spoke awkwardly. Mexican colonies were widespread before the coming of -the Spaniards and during the Conquest the distribution of this nation -was made still greater. The Mexicans, and especially the natives of -Tlaxcala, accompanied the Spaniards on military expeditions against -other tribes and as a consequence many place names in southern Mexico -and Guatemala were translated into their language. There were, however, -large groups of Indians of Mexican stock already located in southern -Guatemala and in Salvador. Still farther south were the Niquirao of -Nicaragua and a little-known group called the Sigua in Costa Rica. - -The wide geographical distribution of Uto-Aztecan languages has an -undeniable historical significance. The numerous tribes represent a very -wide range in culture albeit nearly all are dwellers of arid or -semi-arid regions. Some like the Paiute, are miserable “diggers” willing -to eat anything that will support life; others like the Comanche are -warlike raiders; more progressive tribes like the Hopi have adopted -agriculture and developed interesting arts and customs; while the -highest members of the group are among the most civilized nations of the -New World. It seems clear that language can be used as a basis of -classification over a much greater stretch of time than can other social -habits summed up as “culture.” Particular phases of art, religion, and -government develop and disappear, but the grouping of sounds used to -express ideas remains as proof that peoples now far apart -geographically, as well as in their habits and achievements, were once -close together. The peculiar distribution of the Uto-Aztecan languages -may indicate a general southward movement of the stock. - -The second most important linguistic stock is the Mayan, now spoken by -over half a million people. This stock has only one outlying member, -namely, the Huasteca of northern Vera Cruz. The other twenty-one -languages cover a continuous area in the Mexican states of Yucatan, -Tabasco, and Chiapas, and in the republic of Guatemala. The most -important language of the group is the Maya proper, which is spoken by -the natives of Yucatan and by the Lacandone Indians of the Usumacinta -Valley. The Tzental, Quiché, Cakchiquel, Chol, and Chorti are other -prominent languages. - -In the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec are the Zapotecan and -Mixtecan stocks, which differ widely in sound and structure from the -Mayan and Nahuan tongues that hem them in. West and east of the Valley -of Mexico are, respectively, the Tarascan and Totonacan stocks, which -show no great amount of subdivision. In Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa -Rica are several language groups that have never been carefully studied. -It seems likely that some of these will be consolidated when words and -grammatical structures are better known. The Chiapanecan languages were -spoken in three localities on the Pacific side of Nicaragua and Costa -Rica, while a fourth division occupied a small area far to the northwest -on the banks of the Chiapas River. It is now believed that the Otomi -group, as well as a number of minor languages, including the Mazatecan, -belong in a single stock with the Chiapanecan. If this supposed -connection should prove true a northern movement of the stock would be -pretty surely indicated. Several members of the Subtiaban stock show the -same south to north movement and here there is evidence that the -migration took place some three centuries before the coming of the -Spaniards. Parts of the Isthmian region were held by tribes having -linguistic affiliation with South America and it is not unlikely that a -considerable back flow from South America made itself felt along the -Atlantic coast of Central America, if we may judge by ethnological -features and by suggested linguistic connections. - -The great Hokan stock has now been extended from California across -northern Mexico to Texas, taking in the Seri and numerous other tribes -of low culture. For the most part these tribes are extinct or at least -have lost the ancient speech. - - - Ethnology. - -To a less extent than the native languages the old-time customs still -hold out against the tide of European influence. In regions not easily -accessible on account of deserts, mountains, or tropical jungles, there -are a number of Indian tribes that preserve in a large measure their -ancient arts and ideas. But the study of these remnant peoples has not -been very thorough. - - [Illustration: Fig. 8. Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 9. Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians showing - Two-Headed Austrian Eagle.] - -The Pima, Seri, Tarahumare, Tepehuane, and other tribes of the extreme -north and northwest of Mexico have until recent times been comparatively -unmodified by Spanish influences. Basketry, textiles, and pottery have -been maintained by them as well as many religious ceremonies. Farther -south among the Cora and Huichol there also are surviving arts. The -woven fabrics of these Indians are very beautiful but introduced ideas -are frequently seen. For instance, a very common motive in Huichol -textile art is the two-headed Austrian eagle evidently taken from the -coins of Charles V. Crowns similar to those worn by the two-headed eagle -are often shown on the heads of rampant animals. But most of the motives -are doubtless of native origin. - -Among the Huichol and Tarahumare the curious _peyote_, or _hikule_ -worship may be studied. A small variety of cactus is eaten, which -induces ecstasy or stupor accompanied by color visions and peculiar -dreams. Elaborate ceremonies are associated with the eating and -gathering of this plant. The religious cult of the peyote has swept over -a large portion of the Great Plains Area of the United States and is -known even to Indians in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. There can -be no doubt that the narcotic action of the peyote was known to the -Aztecs, who made a ceremonial use of it under the name _teonanacatl_. An -intoxicating drink called _teswin_ is commonly made in northern Mexico -from the heart of the mescal plant. It takes the place of the famous -_pulque_, the ancient beverage of the Mexican highlands. Hunting dances -in which are employed regalia and ceremonial objects of great interest -occur among the Huichol and neighboring tribes. The so-called “god’s -eyes” made of yarn strung spider-web fashion over crossed sticks are -practically identical with the “squash blossoms” of the Pueblo Indians. -There are also real temple structures, or “god houses,” which are very -significant when we consider the former importance of the temple among -the more highly civilized peoples to the south. In these and other -respects the Huichol culture is about midway between the culture of the -Southwestern Pueblo tribes and that which formerly existed in central -Mexico. - -Elsewhere in northern and central Mexico it is possible to find many -suggestions of ancient Indian ways of living. In nearly all the outlying -villages the old-time thatched huts are still used, while baskets, gourd -vessels, wooden bowls, earthen pots, and other household objects hark -back to native origins, although often modified by European contact. For -instance, glazing is commonly seen on the modern pottery. Many travelers -in Mexico bring away as souvenirs pieces of pottery from Guadalajara and -Cuernavaca. These wares are made by Indians, but in decoration they have -only slight traces of the ancient art of the Mexicans. - -In dress there are noteworthy survivals. The _serape_ made either on the -narrow hand loom or on a crude form of the Spanish tread loom is a -picturesque element in the national dress that is rapidly disappearing -from view. Time was when the rich plantation owner wore a gayly colored -blanket on _fiesta_ days. The most famous centers for the manufacture -and sale of blankets were the cities of Saltillo and San Miguel. The -Saltillo pattern shows a medallion consisting of concentric diamonds in -various colors upon an all-over design in stripes. The motives are -minute geometric figures skilfully interlocked. The colors are rich and -permanent and are combined in a very pleasing manner. Saltillo blankets -must be classed among the finest textile products of the world. The best -period was before 1850. San Miguel blankets show characteristically a -rosette instead of a diamond in the center. Many beautiful blankets come -from other localities in Mexico. The Chimayo blankets have the same part -Indian, part Spanish origin and are made by the Spanish-speaking natives -in the mountain valleys of New Mexico. - - - Plate IV. - - [Illustration: (_a_) A Guatemalan _huipili_ decorated with Highly - Conventionalized Animals in Embroidery.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Pouches of the Valiente Indians of the Chiriqui - Lagoon, Panama.] - -In southern Mexico there are many towns of Indians where the women still -wear the finely embroidered huipili. This old-time garment varies -considerably in different towns but as a rule it is a simple sack-like -gown cut square at the neck and with short sleeves. Sometimes it is -shortened to a blouse, and is worn with a skirt; at other times a short -huipili is worn over a longer one. An easily visited town where the -natives still wear the old-time dress is Amatlan, within an hour’s walk -of Cordova. The women of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec have a gorgeous -costume of which the most remarkable feature is a wide ruff worn around -the neck or on the back of the head. The Mayan women of Yucatan wear -white huipili with needlework in color around the bottom. On the -highlands of Guatemala the huipili is usually a blouse. The skirt -sometimes consists of a strip of cloth wrapped several times around the -body. - -An interesting ceremony which survives in some parts of Mexico and -Guatemala has as its principal feature a lofty pole with a swivel -arrangement at the top to which long ropes are attached. These ropes are -wound round the swivel and performers, who may be dressed like birds, -attach themselves to the rope ends. During the process of unwinding the -performers whirl dizzily around the pole descending lower and lower and -swing in a wider and wider circle till they reach the ground. - -The Lacandone Indians live in the marshy jungles that border the winding -Usumacinta. They speak the same tongue as the Maya Indians of Yucatan -but in the matter of culture they have acquired little from the -Spaniards. They still weave simple garments and make pottery vessels. In -hunting they use the bow and arrow, the latter usually tipped with a -point of stone. In their religious practices they use incense burners -which are comparable to those of the sixteenth century. - - - Plate V. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Zapotecan Girl from the State of Oaxaca, - wearing a Turban-Like Headdress made of Yarn.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Lacandone Man from Southern Mexico. Wavy hair - is sometimes seen among the few members of this Mayan tribe.] - -The Caribs occupy the greater part of the north coast of Guatemala and -Honduras, running east from the port of Livingston on the Gulf of -Amatique. These people, originally of South America and later of the -West Indies as well, were deported by the English from the Island of St. -Vincent in 1796. They have now established themselves in the new land -where they raise the manioc or cassava root and press out the poisonous -juice in a basketry tube as do their kindred in the Orinoco Valley. Long -before the forcible immigration it is likely that the Caribs, who were -cannibalistic in habit, had raided the shores of Central America in -their seagoing canoes. A significant passage in the chronicles of the -Mayas states that naked man-eating savages visited Yucatan long before -the coming of the Spaniards. - -The Mosquito Indians of the east coast of Nicaragua and Honduras have a -very considerable negro admixture. They are fishermen of low culture. -Farther inland are found the Sumo who flatten the heads of their -children and who hold strange feasts in honor of the dead in which the -dancers are masked so that none may be recognized. A string is stretched -over the tree tops from the grave to the feasting place and over this -string the ghost of the dead person is supposed to walk. When everyone -has fallen in a drunken stupor from _mishla_ the ghost of the dead man -departs for the land of the dead. These Sumo Indians build large houses -with open sides and are very skilful at fishing with bow and arrow and -steering their canoes through white rapids. They practise polygamous -marriages, weave cotton, and make interesting beadwork ornaments. - -In the narrow Isthmian region there are tribes of Indians that resist -manfully the inroads of civilization. Perhaps the best known of these -are the San Blas Indians who inhabit the mountain fastnesses east of the -Canal Zone. In northern Costa Rica the Guatuso and Talamanca tribes -still maintain to a considerable degree their old native character. - - - Physical Types. - -Minor physical differences in stature, head form, and facial expression -mark off pretty clearly the tribes of this area from each other. The -stature is lowest among the Mayas and Mazatecs, the average being about -5 feet 1 inch, while among the Tarascans, Tlaxcalas, and Zapotecs, it -averages about 5 feet 3 inches. The other tribes of Central America and -of central Mexico fall between these extremes. In northern Mexico the -stature increases considerably, average measurements for the Yaqui being -in excess of 5 feet 6 inches. To make up for their lack of height the -southern Indians are sturdy and heavy muscled, with deep chests. Their -hair is usually black and straight, but occasionally wavy. Light beards -and mustaches are sometimes worn, especially by the Mayas. The eyes are -so dark brown as to appear black to the casual observer. They are set -rather wide apart and while usually horizontal they seem, in some -instances, to have a slight Mongoloid tilt. Noses vary greatly but are -often finely aquiline. The cephalic index (obtained by dividing the -breadth of the head by its length and multiplying the result by 100) is -rather high. The Mayas are strongly round-headed with an index of 85.0 -while their linguistic relatives, the Tzendals, have a medium index of -76.8. The other tribes of southern Mexico fall between these extremes. -No long-headed peoples are found in this area although in northern -Mexico some tribes approach the long-headed type. - - [Illustration: Map of Mexico and Central America showing the Principal - Archæological Sites with a Detail Insert of the Valley of Mexico. - High-resolution Map] - - - - - Chapter I - THE ARCHAIC HORIZON - - -In 1910 an actual stratification of human products was found in the -environs of Mexico City in which three principal culture horizons could -be readily discerned. A collection made at the time, illustrating the -objects characteristic of the three strata, is on exhibition in the -American Museum of Natural History. In parts this stratification -verified theories of culture succession already held by students working -in this field. Since that time careful research in several localities -has been carried on and many authentic specimens from the three layers -have been brought together. - -The stratigraphic series concerns sedentary life after the invention of -agriculture. Presumably a nomadic horizon preceded that of the first -farmers, but few traces of this have so far been reported from southern -Mexico and Central America. The earliest known specimens of the lowest -level are not rudimentary but are well stylized, and opinions vary as to -the length of time necessary for a theoretical formative stage. It seems -necessary to consider this old civilization as a stratigraphic unit -admitting the probability that true beginnings await the archæologist’s -spade. - -The culture of the lowest stratum is here called archaic, a word meaning -old, but not necessarily primitive. The word “horizon” carries an -implication of chronological succession, but it would not be wise to -insist that archaic remains everywhere represent a dead chronological -level. Archaic art is oldest in its place of origin, the highlands of -Mexico and Central America, and in or near this general region, it was -first succeeded by higher types. On the margin of its distribution -archaic art, or at least the most striking traits of archaic art, lasted -into much more recent times, and in some places may even have survived -till the coming of the Spaniards. Even when every allowance is made for -independent expressions which may find nearly the same form, it seems -that remarkable homogeneity and continuity can be demonstrated for -products of the archaic civilization of the New World. - -Most of the evidence of the old civilization consists of ceramic -objects, but there is also some stonework including implements, -ornaments, and crude statues. Common household pottery shows local -variations, but as a rule the archaic wares can be recognized as such by -qualities of paste, shape, and decoration. The motives are simply -geometric or realistic and there is a lack of formalized designs. One -process of decoration has wide distribution and seems to have been -invented well along in the archaic period. This is the process of -negative painting in which the lines of the decorative pattern, -originally applied in wax or pitch, stand out in the natural surface -color of the pot against an over-painted background. This “batik” -pottery extends from central Mexico to northern Peru. - -The most interesting and important objects of archaic art in clay are -human figurines executed in peculiar styles. These not only reflect -details of dress, etc., but also seem to stand for a set of religious -ideas. Especially a type of figurine representing a nude female appears -to be an agricultural fetish, symbolizing the fecundity of Mother-Earth. - - - Stratification of Remains. - -Atzcapotzalco was once an important center of the Tepanecan tribe -situated on the shores of lake Texcoco. It was an early rival of -Tenochtitlan, the Aztecan capital, and was conquered and partly -destroyed in 1439. The principal modern industry of Atzcapotzalco is -brick-making, and several mounds and much of the surface of the plain -have been removed for this purpose. In the mounds are found many pottery -objects of the late Toltecan period, while on the surface of the ground -are encountered fragments of the typical Aztecan pottery in use when the -Spaniards arrived. - - [Illustration: Fig. 10. Atzcapotzalco Destroyed. The temple burns at - the Place of the Ant.] - -The stratification of the plain varies in different places so far as the -thickness of the different strata is concerned, but the order is always -the same. At one locality it is as shown in Fig. 11. First comes a layer -of fine soil of volcanic ash origin, probably deposited by the wind. -This is five or six feet in thickness, yellowish at the top, and much -darker towards the bottom, with streaks and discolorations. The Aztecan -pottery is found close to the surface, while Toltecan pottery occurs in -the middle and lower sections. Underneath the soil layers lies a thick -stratum of water-bearing gravel mixed with sand. This gravel stratum is -possibly the old bed of a stream that formerly entered Lake Texcoco near -this point. In some places it is fifteen or eighteen feet in thickness. -Scattered throughout the gravel are heavy, waterworn fragments of pots -as well as more or less complete figurines of the archaic type. - - [Illustration: Fig. 11. Diagram of Culture Strata at Atzcapotzalco.] - - - Temple mounds of Toltecan period. - Surface finds of Aztecan period. - Remains of Toltecan period. - Deep stratum of water-bearing gravels containing remains of archaic - period. - Bed rock of hard clay. - - -At other sites, such as Colhuacan, the Toltecan layer is of greater -thickness and the archaic layer of lesser thickness. The remains extend -below the present level of the water and may indicate that considerable -changes have taken place in the level of the lake. But we must remember -that many of the ancient settlements were built over the water and that -land was made in ancient times, as it is today in the gardens of -Xochimilco, by deepening canals. Archaic remains are also common on the -denuded tops of hills which may once have been covered by soil. - -A stratification of archæological remains has recently been determined -in Salvador. - - - The Cemetery under the Lava. - -An ancient cemetery lying under lava has recently been explored in -Copilco, a suburb of Mexico City. The lava swept down from Mount Ajusco -in some cataclysm perhaps 3000 years ago, covering many square miles of -territory to the depth of thirty or forty feet, and burying such -villages as chanced to lie in its path. (See Pl. VI_b_). The discovery -of human remains was made several hundred feet back from the original -front of the lava flow in a quarry where lava rock was being removed to -build roads. Tales of clay figurines found under the lava in this quarry -had been current for years, but no serious investigation was made until -human burials were met with in the earth under the great lava cap. Then -a series of tunnels was dug and a considerable number of ancient burials -were uncovered, but not moved from their original position. One now -enters an electric-lighted graveyard and sees human bodies lying exactly -as they have lain for untold centuries, with the funeral offerings -beside them. This enormously important find gives us an historical level -in mid-Archaic. - -Another site, at Cuicuilco, on the opposite side of the lava flow, has -received attention from archæologists. Here a great round mound rises in -terraces faced with cobblestones. It is surrounded by the lava flow and -some persons have assumed that the mound was already abandoned and in -decay when the lava flow took place. Perhaps, however, the mound was -built on a piece of land that the lava flow had spared. There are no -contacts between the lava and the mound except at the ends of two -projecting aprons or causeways. The pottery at this site is sufficiently -different from that found at Copilco. - - - Plate VI. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Cuicuilco. A view showing cobblestone facing of - mound and lava in contact with apron or causeway.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Archaic Site under Lava Flow near Mexico City. - A local museum has been established at this site in electric-lighted - tunnels.] - - - Invention of Agriculture. - -Before examining in greater detail the art of the Archaic Horizon let us -consider its real significance. It is generally admitted that America -was originally populated from Asia, but on a culture level no higher -than the Neolithic. The simple arts of stone chipping, basketry, -fire-making, etc., were probably brought over by the earliest -immigrants, but there is abundant evidence that pottery-making, weaving, -and agriculture were independently invented long after the original -settlement. The cultivated plants in the New World are different from -those of the Old World and there is a vast area in northwestern America -and northeastern Asia, upon the only open line of communication, where -agriculture and the higher arts have never been practised. - - [Illustration: Fig. 12. _Teocentli_ or Mexican Fodder Grass.] - -Now the invention of agriculture is an antecedent necessity for all the -high cultures of the New World. It is equally clear that this invention -must have taken place in a locality where some important food plant grew -in a wild state. By far the most important food plant of the New World -is maize. While this plant has changed greatly under domestication, -botanists are inclined to find its nearest relative and possible -progenitor in a wild grass growing on the highlands of Mexico and known -by the Aztecan name _teocentli_, which means sacred maize. It is known -that maize is at its best in a semi-arid tropical environment. It cannot -be brought to withstand frost although the growing season can be cut -down to meet the requirements of a short summer. Geographically its use -extended from the St. Lawrence to the Rio de la Plata and from sea level -to an elevation of fifteen thousand feet in tropical regions. The -Mexican highlands occupy the central position in the area of its -distribution and archæological evidence strongly points to this region -as being the cradle of agriculture and the attendant arts. Besides -maize, the most widely distributed food plants of the New World are -beans and squashes. Certain other plants were cultivated in more -restricted areas and may have had different places of origin. For -instance, manioc was doubtless brought under cultivation in a humid -lowland region, probably the Amazon Valley, and the same may be said of -sweet potatoes. The common potato was found under domestication in Peru -and there is no very good evidence that its use extended into Central -America. - -Irrigation would have been necessary before agriculture could have been -developed to any great extent on the highlands of Mexico. Although -irrigation is often looked upon as a remarkable sequel of the -introduction of agriculture into an arid country, yet from the best -historical evidence at our command we should rather regard it as a -conception which accounts for the very origin of agriculture itself. The -earliest records of cultivated plants are from Mesopotamia, Egypt, -Mexico, and Peru where irrigation was practised. In these regions are -also seen the earliest developments of the characteristic arts of -sedentary peoples, namely, pottery and weaving, and the elaborate social -and religious structures that result from a sure food supply and a -reasonable amount of leisure. - -If this theory is true we must admit that below the Archaic Horizon we -should find traces of a horizon of non-agricultural peoples, living a -nomadic life without pottery. Unfortunately, such peoples make fewer -objects and scatter them more widely than do sedentary agriculturists. - -No one on the basis of present knowledge can offer more than an opinion -concerning the date of the invention of agriculture in the New World. -The thick deposits left by the sedentary peoples argue great age and the -wide area of homogeneous products argues slow change. In the most -favored regions archaic art may have been succeeded by higher forms -shortly before the time of Christ, and perhaps 5000 years is not too -long a time to allow for the diversities of the domesticated plants of -America. - - - Archaic Figurines. - - - Plate VII. - - [Illustration: Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offering - Evidence of Ancient Customs and Arts and also showing a Quality of - Caricature or possibly Portraiture. These are probably late products - since they come from Tepic and Jalisco, where archaic art maintained - itself long after its disappearance from central Mexico.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 13. Archaic Figurines from Central Mexico. The - first three specimens are from under the lava at Copilco.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 14. Archaic Figurines—Zapotlan, Jalisco; - Tampico, Vera Cruz; and Cuesta Blanca, Salvador.] - -Archaic art is characterized by figures of men and women modeled in clay -and sometimes painted. The forms are peculiar and the technique well -standardized. Most are modeled in a flat gingerbread fashion into a -gross shape. Upon this gross shape special features are indicated by -stuck-on ribbons and buttons of clay and by gougings and incisings with -some pointed instrument. Modeling was done entirely by hand, moulds -being as yet unknown. The figurines are usually from two to five inches -in height and often represent nude women in sitting or standing -positions with the hands upon the knees, hips, or breasts. The heads are -characteristically of slight depth compared with their height, the limbs -taper rapidly from a rather plump torso and hands and feet are mere -knobs with incised details. When the figures are intended to stand -erect, as is often the case, the feet show signs of having been pinched -between the thumb and finger of the potter so that they have a forward -and backward cusp and a broad base of support. Groovings are seen in -connection with the hair, eyes, mouth, fingers, toes, and details of -dress and ornament. Paint is often added to this surface to indicate -tattooing, textile patterns, etc. - - [Illustration: Fig. 15. Archaic Figurine from Salvador.] - -The eyes of the archaic images—and the mouths as well—are made according -to several methods. First, there is the simple groove; second, a groove -across an applied ball or button of clay; third, a round gouging made by -the end of a blunt implement held vertically; fourth, a round gouging in -an applied ball or button of clay; fifth, two gougings made with a round -or chisel-edged implement held at an angle. The second form of eye, -which resembles a grain of coffee, and the fifth form with the double -gouging made from the center outward, are found from the northern limits -of archaic art in Mexico as far south as Colombia and Venezuela. - - [Illustration: Fig. 16. Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines.] - -The technique of manufacture naturally changes somewhat with the -increase in size. There is also reason to believe that the largest -hollow figures come from the end of the Archaic Period in Mexico, and -especially those that have been found in the state of Jalisco and the -territory of Tepic. The eyelids are often rather carefully modeled and -sometimes an eyeball is put in between the lids. These and perforated -eyes seem to be the latest characters to be developed in the archaic art -and it is significant that they are not found over such a wide area as -the first five types of eyes given above. - - - Ancient Customs. - -We may gather much of an ethnological nature from the study of these -quaint figures. Articles of dress and adornment are shown as well as -musical instruments, weapons, etc. Headdresses may consist of fillets, -turbans, and objects perched on one side of the head. Noserings and -earrings are abundantly represented and in considerable variety. We may -be sure that weaving was rather highly developed because many garments -such as shirts, skirts, and aprons are painted or incised with geometric -designs. Body painting, or tattooing, appears to have been a common -usage. Among weapons the _atlatl_, or spear-thrower, was already known -and knobby clubs seem to have been popular. Men are shown beating on -drums and turtle shells, while women nurse children and carry water. -Since the large figures of clay are often found in tombs it is not -impossible that they were intended to be portraits of the dead. Many -have a startling quality of caricature. - - [Illustration: Fig. 17. Textile Designs painted on Archaic - Effigies.] - -Archaic art is a pretty certain index of the religion then in vogue. -There is a notable absence of purposely grotesque or compounded figures -representing divinities such as will be found in the later horizons. We -miss entirely the characteristic Mexican gods such as Tlaloc and -Ehecatl. Dogs are frequently modeled in clay and were apparently -developed into a rather special domestic breed. Snakes are sometimes -found as a plastic decoration on pottery but there are few signs of -serpent worship. We can find no evidence that human sacrifice was -practiced. The presence of human figurines in graves has already been -mentioned and the suggestion made that some of them may have been -intended as portraits of the dead. Nude female figurines in sitting or -standing position have an unbroken distribution from Mexico into South -America and it is not unlikely that the primitive agriculturists -associated them with fertility and used them as amulets to secure good -crops. The male figurines may have been votive offerings for success at -arms. - - - Archaic Pottery. - -The ordinary pottery of the Archaic Period from Mexico and Central -America is heavy and simple in shape. The globular bowl with a -constricted neck is a common form as well as wide-mouthed bowls with or -without tripod supports. Lugs and handles are very common. When plain, -tripods are large, hollow and rounded, with a perforation on the under -side, but they are often modified into faces and feet. Many vessels are -decorated by the addition of modeled faces enabling us to make a direct -connection with the figures in clay already described. - - [Illustration: Fig. 18. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic - Period, from Morelos, Mexico.] - - - Plate VIII. Two Stages in the Stone Sculptures of Costa - Rica. Note that in the first series (_a_) the human body is adapted - to the surface of a boulder with the arms, legs, and face in low - relief and with eyes, nose, and mouth all protruding, while in the - second series (_b_) the limbs are rounded and partly freed from - the body. Both are of archaic type but probably not of great age. - - [Illustration: (_a_)] - - [Illustration: (_b_)] - -In fact the decoration of pottery of this early period is predominantly -in relief. Paint is sparingly used and then only in the simplest -geometric fashion. There is a general lack of conventionalized motives -presenting animals and other natural forms in highly modified ways. In -later ages the painted decoration is much concerned with the serpent, -but except for a few winding serpents in relief, this motive is not seen -on the pottery of the Archaic Period. - - [Illustration: Fig. 19. Series showing the Modification of a Celt - into a Stone Amulet. State of Guerrero, Mexico, probably late - Archaic.] - - - Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period. - -The earliest stone sculptures are recognized first by resemblance to the -ceramic art just described and second by a quality which they possess of -being archaic in an absolute sense. The greater difficulty of working -stone as compared with clay and the longer time required in the process -makes stone art less subject to caprice than ceramic art. Perhaps the -most primitive examples of stone sculpture are boulders rudely carved in -a semblance of the human form with features either sunken or in relief. -The arms and legs are ordinarily flexed so that the elbows meet over the -knees. The eyes and mouths in the most carefully finished pieces -protrude, but the face has little or no modeling. Many celts are -modified into figures by grooves, and faces are frequently represented -on roughly conical or disk-shaped stones. - - - Plate IX. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period. This - resembles the pottery as regards style: the eyes protrude and the - limbs are carved in low relief against the body.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Typical Site of the Archaic Period. The use of - pyramids may have begun towards the end of this period.] - -We know very little from actual excavations concerning houses of the -Archaic Period. It is likely that they were small and impermanent, -possibly resembling the modern huts. The pyramidal mound as a foundation -for the temple may have been developed towards the end of the Archaic -Period. It would be interesting to determine whether adobe moulded into -bricks was known at this time, as it was at a later time in the same -region, or whether walls were built up out of fresh mud possibly -reinforced by slabs of stone. - - - Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. - -The curious objects of ceramic art that we have found deeply buried -under the débris of higher civilizations in the Valley of Mexico can be -traced far and wide. They are encountered, for the most part, in arid -and open country, and since we have every reason to believe that the -earliest agriculture was developed under irrigation, it is but natural -to find the use of agriculture spreading first into other arid regions. -And if there was an association between the fertility of Mother-Earth -and little fetishes representing women then these fetishes would spread -as part of the agricultural complex. - -It now seems possible that the cult of the female figurine reached our -Southwestern states on the earliest level of agricultural life. In sites -belonging to Basket-Maker III—the archæological level of the first -Pueblo pottery—little female fetishes are found and, indeed, are -symptomatic of this early culture. They are cruder than anything as yet -found in Mexico, but not necessarily older. With them occurs a primitive -maize doubtless introduced from the south. - -In the Isthmian region, on the other side of the Mexican and Central -American cradle of New World agricultural civilization, there are small -figurines quite similar to the archaic figurines of Mexico and Salvador -as regards pose and bodily proportions. These are mostly on the level of -the first Mayan civilization even in cases where the coffee-grain eye is -used. Around the Nicaraguan lakes the figurines of nude females were -cast in moulds, a device entirely unknown on the Archaic Horizon in -Mexico. In the Nicoya Peninsula of Costa Rica the figurines are -skilfully modeled with painted designs in black on a dark brilliant red, -which may represent tattooing. In the Chiriqui Province of Panama the -figurines belong in a ceramic group characterized by the use of highly -conventionalized alligators or crocodiles. It has already been stated -that designs of the Archaic Horizon in Mexico are either geometric or -naïvely realistic. There is another matter that deserves attention: some -of these southern types of the female fetish occur in distinctly humid -lands and this, by itself, is a strong argument against great antiquity. - -The Isthmian female fetish must have been implanted on the Archaic -Horizon even though the present examples are mostly from post-archaic -times. Perhaps future archæological investigation will reveal early -stations of a purely archaic type in desert parts of Costa Rica and -Panama. Till then a controlling fact is that Mayan religious art avoids -all references to sex and cannot, therefore, possibly be held -responsible for the culture trait of the female fetish. But this fetish -does agree with a pre-Mayan concept, as we have seen. - - - Plate X. Widely Distributed Female Figurines: - - [Illustration: (_a_) Nicaragua.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Panama.] - - [Illustration: (_c_) Venezuela.] - - [Illustration: (_d_) Island of Marajo, Brazil.] - -The ancient gold work of Costa Rica and Panama also reflects the -technique of archaic art, although most of it, to judge by the religious -significance of many of the subjects and designs, was made long after -the Archaic Period. Just as the pottery figurines were built up by the -addition of ribbons and buttons of clay to a generalized form so the -patterns for gold castings were made by adding details in rolled wax or -resin to a simple underlying form of the same material. - -In Colombia and Venezuela archaic art is common in arid and mountainous -territory. Local developments confuse the issue of time. Various -cultural successions took place here, the Quimbaya, Sinu, and Tairona -Indians having developed civilizations with possible Mayan affiliations -in some features. The archaic figurines of Colombia are decorated with -designs made by the process of negative painting through the medium of -wax. This process is pretty generally distributed from central Mexico to -northern Peru. The indications are that it was invented long before the -rise of the Mayas, and once invented remained popular. - -As regards Venezuela the figurines of men and women from the Eastern -Andes are often strikingly similar to those of Mexico, especially in -such matters as eyes made by double gougings. As a rule, these figurines -are painted. Around Lake Valencia they are made without paint, but in -combination with pottery designs showing the beginnings of -conventionalization. Here there is added the circumstance that wild -Carib tribes, coming down the Orinoco, drove the earlier inhabitants out -over the West Indies. This flight must have taken place centuries before -the coming of the Spaniards. - -The archæology of the lower Amazon is best known from the remains found -on the Island of Marajo where female figurines exhibit close similarity -in pose to specimens from Venezuela and Mexico. This culture of Marajo -seems to have been disrupted before the coming of Europeans. But it may -be significant that crude fetishes representing women are used at the -present time by tribes on the margins of the old Amazonian culture area. -The earliest level at Ancon, Peru, yields ware recalling northern -products. Nude females, apparently of somewhat later time, however, are -in standing rather than sitting pose. It seems, then, that the trail of -dissemination of agriculture and the ancillary arts can be followed -across the northern part of South America and southward along the Andes -to Peru. The greatest similarities must be sought in the oldest objects -and some leeway granted in the case of marginal survivals. - -It is proper to speak of agriculture, pottery-making, and weaving as the -great civilizing complex. Few inventions could break down the ordinary -boundaries of language and environment, as these had done. Yet, after -the discovery of America, the horse, introduced by the Spaniards, spread -rapidly through native tribes, modifying their lives greatly. It is -capable of demonstration that with the horse went two types of -saddle—the pack saddle and the riding saddle. Similarly in the first -rapid spread of agriculture went pots and woven garments. - -Two maps of the New World are given herewith: the first showing the -extent of the Archaic Horizon and the second the final distribution of -pottery among the American Indians and the final distribution of -agriculture. The agricultural area is subdivided according to, first, -the arid land type where irrigation is generally practised; second, the -humid land type; and third, the temperate land type. The first type of -agriculture appears to be the earliest and the range coincides, for the -most part, with the range of the archaic pottery art. - - - Summary. - -In concluding this section let us sum up the general facts of ancient -American history as these appear in relation to the archæological -evidences of the Archaic Horizon. - -I. Pre-Archaic Horizon - - The peopling of the New World from Asia by tribes on the nomadic plane - of culture. - -II. The Archaic Horizon - - Invention and primary dissemination of agriculture, together with - pottery-making and loom-weaving. Homogeneous culture with undeveloped - religion and unsymbolic art adjusted to arid tropics. - -III. Post-Archaic Horizon - - Specialized cultures in North, Central, and South America dependent - upon agriculture. Strong local developments in esthetic arts, - religious ideas, and social institutions. Agriculture extended to - humid tropical and temperate regions. - - - Plate XI. - - [Illustration: Distribution of the Archaic Culture. The areas in - solid black show the distribution of figurines of the archaic type; - the areas in dots show the probable extension of pottery on the - Archaic Horizon; the dotted lines give the ultimate extension of - pottery.] - - - Plate XII. - - [Illustration: Distribution of Agriculture in the New World. The - dotted line gives the limits of pottery; solid black, agriculture in - arid regions of considerable altitude, mostly with irrigation; - dotted areas, agriculture under humid lowland conditions; lined - area, agriculture under temperate conditions.] - -We will now make an effort to analyze still further the historical -levels in the Post-Archaic Horizon. - - - Plate XIII. - - [Illustration: A General View of the Ceremonial Center of Copan. - After a model and drawing by Maudslay. The artificial acropolis with - temples on pyramids and with sunken courts is in the foreground and - beyond is seen the Great Plaza in which monuments are set up. The - Copan River has cut into the side of the acropolis and made a - natural cross-section.] - - - - - Chapter II - THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION - - -The wonderful culture of the Mayan Indians to which we will now turn our -attention was developed in the humid lowlands of Central America and -especially in the Yucatan Peninsula. Artists are everywhere of the -opinion that the sculptures and other products of the Mayas deserve to -rank among the highest art products of the world, and astronomers are -amazed at the progress made by this people in the measuring of time by -the observed movements of the heavenly bodies. Moreover, they invented a -remarkable system of hieroglyphic writing by which they were able to -record facts and events and they built great cities of stone that attest -a degree of wealth and splendor beyond anything seen elsewhere in the -New World. - -The Mayan culture was made possible by the agricultural conquest of the -rich lowlands where the exuberance of nature can only be held in check -by organized effort. On the highlands the preparation of the land is -comparatively easy, owing to scanty natural vegetation and a control -vested in irrigation. On the lowlands, however, great trees have to be -felled and fast-growing bushes kept down by untiring energy. But when -nature is truly tamed she returns recompense many fold to the daring -farmer. Moreover, there is reason to believe that the removal of the -forest cover over large areas affects favorably the conditions of life -which under a canopy of leaves are hard indeed. - - - Plate XIV. Photographs by Peabody Museum Expedition. - - [Illustration: (_a_) View of the Plaza at Copan from the - Northwestern Corner. This view shows the monuments in position and - the steps which may have served as seats.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) View Across the Artificial Acropolis at Copan. - A sunken court is shown and the bases of two temple structures of - the Sixth Century.] - -The principal crops of the Mayas were probably much the same as on the -highlands, with maize as the great staple. Varieties favorable to a -humid environment had doubtless been developed from the highland stock -by selective breeding as agriculture worked its way down into the -lowlands. Archaic art appears along the edges of the Mayan Area in the -state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, and in the Uloa Valley, Honduras. In both -these regions are also found clay figurines that mark the transition in -style between the archaic and the Mayan, as well as finished examples of -the latter. There can be no doubt, then, that the archaic art of Mexico -marks an earlier horizon than the Mayan. Whether or not it was once laid -entirely across the Mayan Area cannot be decided on present data but it -seems unlikely. We have already seen that this first art was distributed -primarily across arid and open territory. - -With their calendarial system already in working order the Mayas appear -on the threshold of history 600 years before the Christian Era, -according to a correlation with European chronology that will be -explained later. The first great cities were Tikal in northern Guatemala -and Copan in western Honduras, both of which had a long and glorious -existence. Many others sprang into prominence at a somewhat later date; -for example, Palenque, Yaxchilan or Menché, Piedras Negras, Seibal, -Naranjo, and Quirigua. The most brilliant period was from 300 to 600 A. -D., after which all these cities appear to have been abandoned to the -forest that soon closed over them. The population moved to northern -Yucatan, where it no longer reacted strongly upon the other nations of -Central America and where it enjoyed a second period of brilliancy -several hundred years later. - - - Plate XV. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Model of the Temple of the Cross, Palenque, - designed to show the Construction. The building has three entrances - separated by piers. The middle partition is thickened to support the - weight of the roof comb which is a trellis for stucco decoration. - The sanctuary is a miniature temple in the inner chamber. The walls - are built of slabs of limestone set in lime cement.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Detail of Frieze on the Temple of the Cross. - The upper band is the sky with stars and planets. A reptilian - monster occupies the main panel with human figures as supplementary - decorations upon his legs. The Temple of the Cross represents the - highest achievement of the First Empire architects, Fifth Century - after Christ.] - - - Fig. 20. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples: - - [Illustration: (_a_) Structure 42.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Structure 23.] - - - Architecture. - -The idea of a civic center is admirably illustrated in Mayan cities, -particularly those of the first brilliant period. The principal -structures are built around courts or plazas and there is usually an -artificial acropolis which is a great terraced mound serving as a common -base or platform from which the individual pyramidal bases of several -temples rise. At some sites this acropolis is a natural hill which has -been trimmed down or added to, but at other sites it is entirely -artificial. At Copan there is an especially fine example of artificial -platform mound rising from one end of the Great Plaza and affording -space for several temples, as well as for sunken courts with stepped -sides that may have been theatres. The river washing against one side of -this great mound has removed perhaps a third of it and made a vertical -section that shows the method of construction. It is apparent that the -mound was enlarged and old walls and floors buried. - - [Illustration: Fig. 21. Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in - Northern Yucatan: _a_, upper cornice; _b_, medial cornice; _c_, - upper zone; _d_, lower zone; _e_, wooden lintels; _f_, exterior - doorway; _g_, interior doorway; _h_, offset at spring of vault; _i_, - cap stone.] - -Mayan buildings are of two principal kinds. One is a temple pure and -simple and the other has been called a palace. The temple is a -rectangular structure crowning a rather high pyramid that rises in -several steps or terraces. As a rule the temple has a single front with -one or more doorways and is approached by a broad stairway. The pyramid -is ordinarily a solid mass of rubble and earth faced with cement or cut -stone and rarely contains compartments. Some temples have but a single -chamber while others have two or more chambers, the central or innermost -one being specially developed into a sanctuary. The so-called palaces -are clusters of rooms on low and often irregular platforms. These -palaces may have been habitations of the priests and nobility. The -common people doubtless lived in palm-thatched huts similar to those -used today in the same region. - -The typical Mayan construction is a faced concrete. The limestone, which -abounds in nearly all parts of the Mayan Area, was burned into lime. -This was then slaked to make mortar and applied to a mass of broken -limestone. The facing stones were smoothed on the outside and left rough -hewn and pointed on the inside. It is likely that these facing stones -were held in place between forms and the lime, mortar, and rubble filled -in between. The resulting wall was essentially monolithic. The rooms of -Mayan buildings are characteristically vaulted but the roof is not a -true arch with a keystone. The vault, like the walls, is a solid mass of -concrete that grips the cut stone veneer and that must have been held in -place by a false work form while it was hardening. The so-called -corbelled arch of overstepping stones was doubtless known to the Mayan -builders but was little used. Taking the single rectangular room as the -unit of construction the width was limited to the span of the vault, -which seldom exceeded twelve feet, while the length was indeterminate. - - - Plate XVI. - - [Illustration: A Temple at Hochob showing Elaborate Façade - Decorations in Stucco. Probably ninth century. The design over the - door represents a grotesque front view face of which the eyes can - still be plainly made out. At either side of the door the design - represents a serpent head in profile. Photograph by Maler.] - -The first variation from the temple with one rectangular room was the -two-roomed structure with one chamber directly behind the other. In this -case there were two vaulted compartments separated from each other by a -common supporting wall pierced by one or more doorways. The inner room -was naturally more dimly lighted than the other one and as a result was -modified into a sanctuary, or holy of holies, enhanced by sculptures and -paintings, while the outer room developed gradually into a portico. The -outer wall was cut by doorways till only pier-like sections remained, -and finally these piers were replaced by square or round columns. The -development of the Mayan temple may be traced through a thousand years -of change and adjustment. - -Much attention was paid by Mayan builders to the question of stability -which was accomplished directly by keeping the center of gravity of the -principal masses within the supporting walls rather than by the use of -binding stones. The cross-section of a two-roomed temple of late date -will illustrate how this was done. There are three principal masses, one -over the front wall, one over the medial partition, and one over the -back wall. The roof where these sections join is of no great thickness. -The central mass is symmetrical and, if the mortar has the proper -cohesiveness, very stable. For the front and back masses the projection -of the upper or frieze zone tends to counterbalance the overhang of half -the vault. In the earlier temples the upper zone of the façade often -slopes backward so that the balance is not so perfect. - - - Plate XVII. - - [Illustration: A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor at - Uxmal, a Building of the Second Empire, probably Thirteenth Century. - The veneer character of the cut stone comes out clearly. Peabody - Museum photograph.] - -So far we have given brief space to the question of elevations. Taken -vertically there are three parts to the Mayan building: first, the -substructure or pyramidal base; second, the structure proper; third, the -superstructure. In the case of temples the structure proper is one story -in height. Two and three stories are rather common in palaces, but the -upper stories are in most cases built directly over a solid core and not -over the rooms of the lower story. The upper stories, therefore, recede, -so that the building presents a terraced or pyramidal profile. One -building at Tikal is five stories in height, in three receding planes, -the three uppermost stories being one above the other. In a tower at -Palenque we have an example of four stories but this is unusual. - -On top of the building proper, especially if it is a temple, we -frequently find a superstructure. This is a sort of crest, or roof wall, -usually pierced by windows. When this wall rises from the center line of -the roof it is called a roof comb or roof crest, and when it rises from -the front wall it is called a flying façade. The highest temples in the -Mayan Area are those of Tikal that attain a total height of about 175 -feet, counting pyramid and superstructure. - - - Massive Sculptural Art. - -The decoration of Mayan buildings may be considered under three heads: -first, interior decoration; second, façade decoration; third, -supplementary monuments. In many temples at Yaxchilan, Tikal, etc., are -found splendidly sculptured lintels of stone or wood. At Copan we see -wall sculptures that adorn the entrance to the sanctuary and at Palenque -finely sculptured tablets let into the rear wall of the sanctuary. -Elsewhere are occasional examples of mural paintings, sculptured door -jambs, decorated interior steps, etc. - -The façade decorations of the earlier Mayan structures are freer and -more realistic than those of the later buildings. In many cases they -consist of figures of men, serpents, etc., modeled in stucco or built up -out of several nicely fitted blocks of stone. Grotesque faces also -occur. In the later styles, decoration consists largely of “mask -panels,” which are grotesque front view faces arranged to fill -rectangular panels, but there is an increasing amount of purely -geometric ornament. The masked panels represent in most instances a -highly elaborated serpent’s face which sometimes carries the special -markings of one of the greater gods. These panels, considered -historically, pass through some interesting developments. Angular -representations of serpent heads in profile are sometimes used at the -sides of doorways. - - [Illustration: Fig. 22. Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook. - Yucatan.] - -The supplementary monuments are stelæ and altars. These are monolithic -sculptures that are often set up in definite relation to a building -either on the terraces or at the foot of the stairway. The stelæ are -great plinths or slabs of stone carved on one or more sides with the -figures of priests and warriors loaded down with religious symbols. The -altars are small stones usually placed in front of the stelæ. Many stelæ -and altars are set up in plazas and have no definite architectural -quality. - - - Plate XVIII. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Realistic Designs on Vases from Chamá, - Guatemala, representing the Best Mayan Period in Pottery.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) The Quetzal as represented on a Painted - Cylindrical Vase from Copan. Bands of hieroglyphs are commonly found - on Mayan Pottery.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 23. Design on Engraved Pot representing a Tiger - seated in a Wreath of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 24. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing - Serpent issuing from a Shell. Salvador.] - - - Minor Arts. - -While the richly ornamented temples and the great monoliths attract -first attention as works of art, the humbler products of the potter, the -weaver, and the lapidary also attained to grace and dignity. - -The Mayas were expert potters and employed a variety of technical -processes in the decoration of their wares, such as painting, modeling, -engraving, and stamping. We can only take time to examine a few examples -of the best works, leaving the commoner products practically -undescribed. Suffice it to say, that tripod dishes were much used, as -well as bowls, bottle-necked vessels, and cylindrical vases, and that -the common decorative use of hieroglyphs serves to mark off Mayan -pottery from that of other Central American peoples. The realistic -designs are drawn in accordance with the highest principles of -decorative art. Serpents, monkeys, jaguars, various birds, as well as -priests and supernatural beings, are used as subjects for pottery -embellishment. Geometric decoration is also much used. - -The polychrome pottery is rare and exceptionally beautiful, with designs -relating to religious subjects. The background color of these -cylindrical vases is usually orange or yellow, the designs are outlined -in black, and the details filled in with delicate washes of red, brown, -white, etc. The surface bears a high polish made by rubbing. Plate XVIII -reproduces the design units on two vases from Chamá, Guatemala. The -first example pictures a seated man with a widespreading headdress made -of two conventional serpent heads from the ends of which issue the -plumes of the quetzal. The hieroglyphs are Mayan day signs—Ben and Imix -on the left and Kan and Caban on the right. The second example presents -a god before an altar. This god has the face of an old man and his body -is attached to a spiral shell. This divinity was probably associated -with the end of the year. - - [Illustration: Fig. 25. Mayan Basket represented in Stone - Sculpture.] - -In the next illustration an engraved design on a bowl from northern -Yucatan is given. A jaguar attired in the dress of man is seated in a -wreath of water lilies. After the vessel had been formed, but before it -had been fired, this design was made by cutting away the background and -incising finer details on the original surfaces. Other designs in relief -were obtained by direct modeling or by stamping. The stamps were moulds -or negatives made from bas-relief patterns. - -The textile arts of the ancient Mayas can be recovered in part from a -study of the monuments since the designs on many garments are reproduced -in delicate relief. The designs are mostly all-over geometric patterns, -but borders reproducing the typical “celestial band,” a line of -astronomical symbols, are also seen. The techniques of brocade and lace -were understood by the ancient weavers. In the minor textile art of -basketry the products must also have ranked high; a typical basket -pictured on a lintel is given in Fig. 25. - -Jade and other semi-precious stones were carved by the Mayas into -beautiful and fantastic shapes. There was a considerable use of mosaic -veneer on masks and other ceremonial objects. Metal was unknown during -the first centuries of Mayan florescence, later it was rare and could -not be used for tools, but the working of gold and copper in the -manufacture of ornaments was on a high plane. - -Having now passed in brief review the objective side of Mayan remains, -let us turn our attention to the subjective. - - - The Serpent in Mayan Art. - -Mayan art is strange and unintelligible at first sight, but after -careful study many wonderful qualities appear in it. In the knowledge of -foreshortening and composition, the Mayas were superior to the Egyptians -and Assyrians. They could draw the human body in pure profile and in -free and graceful attitudes and they could compose several figures in a -rectangular panel so that the result satisfies the eye of a modern -artist. - -But, unfortunately for our fuller understanding, the human form had only -a minor interest because the gods were not in the image of man and the -art was essentially religious. The gods were at best half human and half -animal with grotesque elaborations. The high esthetic qualities were -therefore wasted on subjects that appear trivial to many of us. But, as -we break away more and more from the shackles of our own artistic -conventions, we shall be able to appreciate the many beauties of ancient -American sculpture. - - [Illustration: Fig. 26. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas. - The serpent with a human head in its mouth is from Yaxchilan. In - this example the writhing movements of the serpent’s tail are - probably intended by the added scrolls. The plumed serpent is from - Chichen Itza.] - -The serpent motive controlled the character of Mayan art and was of -first importance in all subsequent arts in Central America and Mexico. -The serpent was seldom represented realistically, and yet we may safely -infer that the rattlesnake was the prevailing model. Parts of other -creatures were added to the serpent’s body, such as the plumes of the -trogon or quetzal, the teeth of the jaguar, and the ornaments of man. -The serpent was idealized and the lines characteristic of it entered -into the delineation of many subjects distinct from the serpent itself. -Scrolls and other sinuous details were attached to the serpent’s body -and human ornaments such as earplugs, noseplugs, and even headdresses -were added to its head. Finally, a human head was placed in the -distended jaws. The Mayas may have intended to express the essential -human intelligence of the serpent in this fashion. The serpent with a -human head in its mouth doubtless belongs in the same category as the -partly humanized gods of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It illustrates the -partial assumption of human form by a beast divinity. The features -combined are so peculiar and unnatural that the influence of Mayan art -can be traced far and wide through Central America and Mexico by -comparative study of the serpent motive. - - [Illustration: Fig. 27. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for - Decorative Purposes: _a_, body; _b_, ventral scale; _c_, dorsal - scale; _d_, nose; _e_, noseplug; _f_, incisor tooth; _g_, molar - tooth; _h_, jaw; _i_, eye; _j_, supraorbital plate; _k_, earplug; - _l_, ear pendant; _m_, curled fang; _n_, tongue; _o_, lower jaw; - _p_, beard; _q_, incisor tooth.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 28. Upper Part of Serpent Head made into a Fret - Ornament: _a_, Ixkun; _b_, Quirigua; _c_, _d_, _g_, Copan; _e_, - Naranjo; _f_, Seibal.] - -A typical serpent head in profile (with the human head omitted) as -developed by the Mayas for decorative purposes is reproduced in Fig. 27 -with the parts lettered and named. It will be noted that the lines of -interest in this design are either vertical or horizontal, although the -parts themselves have sinuous outlines. Two features of the typical -serpent’s body enter widely into the enrichment of all kinds of -subjects. One of these is the double outline which is derived from the -line paralleling the base of the serpent’s body and serving to mark off -the belly region. The second feature is the small circle applied in -bead-like rows to represent scales. The profile serpent head is also -seen in scrolls and frets that elaborate many details of dress worn by -the human beings carved on the monuments. The front view of the -serpent’s head is usually extended to fill an oblong panel and is often -used to decorate the base of a monument or the façade of a building. -There are several monsters closely connected with the serpent that will -be discussed as the description proceeds. - - - The Human Figure. - -The human beings pictured on Mayan monuments are captives, rulers, and -priests or worshippers. The captives are poor groveling creatures, bound -by rope, held by the hair or crushed under foot to fill a rectangular -space over which the conqueror stands. The rulers and priests are hard -to distinguish from each other, perhaps because the government was -largely theocratic and the ruler was looked upon as the spokesman of -divinity. The spear and shield of war served to mark off certain human -beings from others who carry religious objects such as the Ceremonial -Bar and the Manikin Scepter. - - [Illustration: Fig. 29. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan - showing Man holding Two-Headed Serpent with a Grotesque God’s Head - in each of its Mouths.] - -Elaborate thrones on several monuments are canopied over by the arched -body of the Two-headed Dragon that bears symbols of the planets. Over -all is seen the great Serpent Bird with outstretched wings. Upon the -throne is seated a human being who may safely be called a king and a -line of footprints on the front of the throne may symbolize ascent. On -other monuments the commanding personage wears the mask of a god and -wields a club to subdue or scatters grain to placate. On the great -majority of monuments the human beings, richly attired in ceremonial -regalia and carrying a variety of objects, possibly present the great -warriors and priests of the day. Many of the early sculptures are stiff -and formal, but in a number of instances the quality of actual -portraiture is convincing. - - [Illustration: Fig. 30. Types of Human Heads on the Lintels of - Yaxchilan.] - - - Design, Composition, and Perspective. - -It is difficult to compare directly the graphic and plastic arts of -different nations where the subject matter is diverse unless we compare -them in accordance with absolute principles of design, composition, and -perspective drawing. The Mayas produced one of the few really great and -coherent expressions of beauty so far given to the world and their -influence in America was historically as important as was that of the -Greeks in Europe. Set as we are in the matrix of our own religious and -artistic conventions, we find it difficult to approach sympathetically -beauty that is overcast with an incomprehensible religion. When we can -bring ourselves to feel the serpent symbolism of the Mayan artists as we -feel, for instance, the conventional halo that crowns the ideal head of -Christ, then we shall be able to recognize the truly emotional qualities -of Mayan sculptures. - - [Illustration: Fig. 31. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela 11, Seibal. - The man wears an inlaid mask, an elaborate headdress, and a collar - of shell and jade.] - - - Plate XIX. - - [Illustration: Stela 13, Piedras Negras. This shattered monument is - one of the finest examples of Mayan sculpture, showing a fine sense - of composition and a considerable knowledge of perspective. Dated - March 27, 511 A. D.] - -It is generally recognized that design to be successful must contain -order of various sorts (in measurements, shapes, directions, tones, -colors, etc.). In the simpler forms of decorative art the restrictions -of technical process, as in basketry, may impose order, but in freehand -sculpture it must come from an educated sense of beauty involving -selection and the reproduction of the finest qualities. Design at its -highest is embodied in the Mayan hieroglyphs. Given spaces had to be -filled with given symbols and the results attained were uniformly -excellent. Although the influence of the serpent led to the great use of -tapering flame-like masses in nearly all Mayan designs, still dominant -vertical and horizontal lines of interest were maintained. - -The panel and lintel sculptures show composition achieved by simple and -subtle methods. The sweeping plumes of headdresses were skilfully used -to fill in corners, while blocks of glyphs were placed in open spaces -that might otherwise distract the attention. Many compositions appear -overcrowded to us, but this fault decreases with knowledge of the -subject matter. Also, the Mayas appear to have painted their sculptures -so that the details were emphasized by color contrast. - -In perspective as applied to the human figure the Mayas were far ahead -of the Egyptians and Assyrians, since they could draw the body in front -view and pure profile without the distortions seen in the Old World. -They were even able to make graceful approximations of a three-quarters -view, as may be seen in Plate XIX, where the raising of the nearer -shoulder has a distinct perspective value. - - [Illustration: Fig. 32. The Ceremonial Bar. A Two-Headed Serpent - held in the Arms of Human Beings on Stelæ: _a_, Stela P, Copan; _b_, - Stela N, Copan.] - - - The Mayan Pantheon. - -We have seen that during the earliest culture of Mexico and Central -America there were no figurines of individualized gods, simply -straightforward representations of human beings and animals. With the -Mayan culture, however, we enter upon an epoch of rich religious -symbolism. The serpent, highly conventionalized as we have just seen, -and variously combined with elements taken from the quetzal, the jaguar, -and even from man himself, appears as a general indication of divinity. -The Ceremonial Bar, essentially a two-headed serpent carrying in its -mouths the heads of an important god, is one of the earliest religious -objects. The heads that appear in the mouths are usually those of a -Roman-nosed or of a Long-nosed god. Other representations of divinities -are combined with the Two-headed Dragon that also has reptilian -characters; still others appear as headdresses and masks on human -figures. Strange to say, the gods are supplementary to the human figures -on all the early sculptures. In the codices, however, they are -represented apart from man, as engaged in various activities and -contests. Mayan religion was clearly organized on a dualistic basis. The -powers for good are in a constant struggle with the powers for evil and -most of the benevolent divinities have malevolent duplicates. In actual -form the gods are partly human, but ordinarily the determining features -are grotesque variations from the human face and figure. While beast -associations are sometimes discernible, they are rarely controlling. -Sometimes, however, beast gods are represented in unmistakable fashion, -good examples being the jaguar, the bat, and the moan bird. All of these -have human bodies and animal heads. - - [Illustration: Fig. 33. The Manikin Scepter, a Grotesque Figure with - one Leg modified into a Serpent.] - -The head position in the Mayan pantheon may with some assurance be given -to a god who has been called the Roman-nosed god and who is probably to -be identified with Itzamna. According to Spanish writers Itzamna was -regarded by the Mayas as the creator and father of all, the inventor of -writing, the founder of the Mayan civilization, and the god of light and -life. This Zeus of the Mayas is represented in the form of an old man -with a high forehead, a strongly aquiline nose, and a distended mouth, -toothless, or with a single enlarged tooth in front. On the ancient -monuments he is frequently seen in the mouths of the Ceremonial Bar and -also in association with the sun, moon, and the planet Venus. In the -codices he is shown as a protector of the Maize God and in other acts -beneficial to man. There is, however, a malevolent aspect of this god or -possibly another being who imitates his features but not his qualities. -This being may be an old woman goddess who wears a serpent headdress and -who is associated with destructive floods, the very opposite of -life-giving sunshine. - -Of almost equal importance to the Roman-nosed god is a god whose face is -a more or less humanized serpent. His proper name is Ah Bolon Dzacab. - - [Illustration: Fig. 34. The Two-Headed Dragon, a Monster that passes - through many Forms in Mayan Sculpture. It apparently symbolizes - calamities at inferior conjunction of Venus and the Sun. Copan.] - -On the early monuments this god is shown in connection with the -Ceremonial Bar. He also appears at a somewhat later date as the Manikin -Scepter, an object in the form of a manikin that is held out by a leg -modified into a serpent’s body. Since a celt is usually worn in the -forehead of the manikin it has been suggested that this curious object -represents a ceremonial battle-ax. The face of the Long-nosed god is -frequently worn by high priests and rulers either as a headdress or, -more rarely, as a mask. It is possible that this divinity was regarded -as primarily a war god but in the codices he is evidently a universal -deity of varied powers. Especially he is shown in connection with water -and maize and it seems likely that his principal function was to cause -life-giving rain. A malevolent variant of the Long-nosed god has a bare -bone for the lower jaw, a sun symbol on his forehead, and a headdress -consisting of three other symbols. This head is associated with the -Two-headed Dragon, a monster which brings calamity at times of the -inferior conjunction of Venus and the Sun. - - [Illustration: Fig. 35. Gods in the Dresden Codex: God B, the - Long-Nosed God of Rain; God A, the Death God; God G, the Sun God.] - -Ah Puch, the Lord of Death, was the principal malevolent god. His body -as figured in the codices is a strange compound of skeletal and -full-fleshed parts. His head is a skull except for the normal ears. His -spinal column is usually bare and sometimes the ribs as well, but the -arms and legs are often covered with flesh. As added symbols black spots -and dotted lines are sometimes drawn upon his body and a curious device -like a percentage sign upon his cheek. The Death God in complete form is -rarely shown in the earlier sculptures, although grinning skulls and -interlacing bones occur as temple decorations. As has already been -pointed out, Mayan religion was strongly dualistic and the evil powers -are usually to be identified by death symbols such as a bare bone for -the lower jaw, or the percentage symbol noted above on the cheek. Death -heads of several kinds are frequent in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. - - - Plate XX. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Top of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan, dealing with the - Heavens. The Sky God is seen in the center with the moon at the left - and the sun at the right. Below these is the Two-Headed Dragon - bearing planet signs and additional heads of the Sky God.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Analogous Detail of Stela 4, Yaxchilan. The - moon is at the right and the sun at the left. The figure in the sun - is male and that in the moon, female. The faces of the Sky God hang - from the lower part of the Two-Headed Dragon, being attached to it - by symbols of the planet Venus.] - -The Maize God, figured so frequently on the ancient monuments and in the -Mayan codices may be the same that in the time of the Conquest was -called Yum Kaax, Lord of the Harvest. He is represented as a youth with -a leafy headdress that is possibly meant to represent an opening ear of -maize. The _kan_ sign, a grain of maize, is constantly associated with -him. He appears to be at the mercy of the evil deities when not -protected by the good ones. - -Space considerations forbid a further study of Mayan gods. Suffice it to -say that several other divinities are shown in the sculptures and -codices including a somewhat youthful appearing war god, as well as a -more mature and grotesque war god called Ek Ahau, the Black Captain. -There is an old god with a shell attached to his body, a god with the -face of a monkey who is associated with the North Star, a god in the -form of a frog and another in the form of a bat. In the Spanish accounts -we can also glean scanty information concerning Ixchel, Goddess of the -Rainbow and mate of Itzamna; Ixtubtun, patroness of jade carvers; -Ixchebelyax, patroness of the art of weaving and decorating cloth, etc. - - - How Mayan History has been Recovered. - -The arrangement of Mayan remains on a time scale is now an accomplished -fact thanks to a correlation which permits us to read the dates on -ancient monuments in terms of the Gregorian calendar and the Christian -era. Early attempts to achieve this result met with widely varying -results. Most of these attempts were made by developing a single line of -evidence and some were based on assumptions that can now be disproved. -But no single line of evidence should be deemed sufficient to decide -this all important question. - -The general course of Mayan history is indicated unmistakably by four -principal lines of evidence capable of being correlated with each other. -These are:— - -1. Stratigraphic sequences in pottery, stylistic sequences in sculpture, -structural sequences in architecture, etc. - -2. Traditional history preserved in the Books of Chilam Balam and -representing a knowledge of past events at the time of the Spanish -Conquest. - -3. Dates inscribed on a great number of monuments in terms of the -ancient Mayan time counts. - -4. Astronomical checks on these inscribed dates. - -The artistic position of a monument may be used to validate the -contemporaneous character of an inscribed date, otherwise interpretable -as referring to the past or future, or it may serve to fix a repeating -date in a single historical setting. The events in the traditional -history of the Books of Chilam Balam, meager enough when taken alone, -have the valuable quality of reaching back into the time of the First -Empire when the use of dates on temples and monuments was much in vogue. -They permit a richly documented past to be tied in, as it were, to a -poorly documented terminal period. - - [Illustration: Fig. 36. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on - Stelæ at Piedras Negras showing the Increase in Flamboyant - Treatment. The interval between (_a_) and (_b_) is 125 years, that - between (_b_) and (_c_) is 45 years.] - -Before the matter of the ancient inscribed dates can be understood, -however, the somewhat complicated mechanism of the Mayan calendar must -be explained, as well as the system of hieroglyphs and the notation of -numbers. Then there is the problem of correlation which necessitates -delicate adjudications of evidence. Finally we must take up the proofs -which demonstrate the astronomical achievements of the Mayas which, in -reverse, provide checks upon the correctness of the day for day -correlation itself. We must proceed slowly and carefully, without much -following of by-ways, however attractive they may appear. We will begin -with stratigraphy and stylistic sequence. - - - Sequences in Art. - -The study of Mayan ceramics reveals developments as regard shapes, -fabrics, and designs. Specimens recovered from sealed cysts under stelæ -at Copan establish true associations with the higher forms of art and -can be used far and wide in comparison with pottery finds in Salvador, -Guatemala, etc. Vaillant has found stratigraphic sequences in a -collection of funerary vessels obtained at Holmul, where graves occurred -under the floors and within the filled-in chambers of a buried temple. - -As regards sculpture we find at Copan a remarkably homogeneous series of -stelæ on which a royal or priestly personage stands erect and in front -view. A Ceremonial Bar is held symmetrically in the two arms and the -body is partly covered with rich and elaborate ornament. The amount of -relief, the proportions of the body, the forms of the Ceremonial Bar, -etc., all pass through a harmonious development. The earliest monuments -show a crude block-like carving of the face, with protruding eyes, while -the latest monuments have fully rounded contours. At Tikal the stelæ -show, for the most part, human figures in profile, but unmistakable -development can be seen in general quality of carving as well as in -specific details. - - - Plate XXI. Development in Style of Carving at Copan. - - [Illustration: Stela 9 (9.10.10.0.0, 383 A. D.).] - - [Illustration: Stela 5 (9.13.15.0.0, 447 A. D.).] - - [Illustration: Stela N (9.16.10.0.0, 502 A. D.).] - - [Illustration: Stela H (9.17.12.0.0, 523 A. D.).] - - [Illustration: Details of architecture showing analogous - development.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 37. Grotesque Face on the Back of Stela B, - Copan.] - -In making comparisons in art it is always necessary to consider similar -things. At many other Mayan cities than the two named above it is -possible to obtain satisfactory evidence of sequence in art forms by -cutting out similar details from different masses. Thus at Naranjo, when -we examine all the Ceremonial Bars, we find a remarkable development of -flamboyant detail on the later monuments. At Quirigua the faces on the -tops of the altars may be compared with the same result. At Piedras -Negras the heads of the Two-headed Dragon that occur in exactly similar -positions on four monuments likewise show a steady modification towards -flamboyancy as may be seen from Fig. 36, where the front heads are put -side by side. - - [Illustration: Fig. 38. Jaguar in Dresden Codex with a Water Lily - attached to Forehead.] - -Still other lines of evidence on historical sequence are to be gained -from a study of architecture. Not only is it possible to determine the -general developments that hold true of the entire Mayan Area but also in -a given city it is sometimes possible to arrange the buildings in their -order of erection according to dependable criteria, both decorative and -structural. - - [Illustration: Fig. 39. Late Sculpture from Chichen Itza. The - headdress resembles that worn by the rulers on the highlands of - Mexico.] - -The earliest temples have narrow vaulted rooms, heavy walls, and a -single doorway. The rooms increase in width, the walls decrease in -thickness, the doorways multiply till the spaces between them become -piers and finally columns. The support for the heavy roof comb taxed the -structural ingenuity of the Mayan architects. The solving of this -problem is marked by successive advances and since mechanical science -goes forward rather than backward the relative order of structures is -fairly certain. Moreover, many buildings are closely associated with -dated monuments, tablets, lintels, or stelæ. Still another evidence of -architectural sequence is seen in structures that have been enlarged by -the addition of wings or by the enclosing of the old parts under new -masonry. - - - Books of Chilam Balam. - -We now turn to a very different kind of history, the digests of ancient -chronicles in the Mayan language but in Spanish script which managed to -survive in the so-called Books of Chilam Balam along with other texts, -ceremonial and medical. There are five chronicles, the two longest -covering 68 katuns before the coming of the Spaniards in 1517. We now -know that these katuns were time units consisting of 7200 days, or -nearly 20 years, and that they were designated by their final day which -was always a day called Ahau associated with a number, 1 and 13, in a -peculiar sequence. A katun with the same designation returns in 13 × -7200 days or about 256 years. Such a completion, counted especially from -a Katun 8 Ahau, was called the “doubling back of the katuns” or, as we -would say, the completion of a cycle. The count of the katuns used in -the chronicles was really part and parcel of a fuller count just as a -year ’22 implies a position in one of the centuries of our Christian -era. - -The chronicles unfortunately give few names of chieftains and cities and -few outstanding events. Chichen Itza is the city most fully concerned -and an early occupation is recorded, then an abandonment for some two -and a half centuries. After its re-establishment the Toltecs enter -Yucatan and capture this capital. The first part of the chronicles has -the atmosphere of myth rather than history, but a calendarial adjustment -of some kind is mentioned in one place. This was an event which took -place in 503 A. D. as we shall see in another place. - -The first rough correlation between the time count on the ancient -monuments and the time count in the chronicles was made on the theory -that a dated lintel at Chichen Itza had to be placed in the first -occupation of the city: when this was done the beginning of the -chronicles was found to proceed from an important round number in the -old day count while the abandonment of Chichen Itza coincided with the -abandonment of all the cities of the Mayan First Empire. We must now -turn attention to the famous calendar. - - - The Mayan Time Counts. - -The passage of time, seen in finer and finer degree in the course of -human life, the succession of summer and winter, the waxing and waning -moons, the alternation of day and night, the upward and downward sloping -of the sun, and the swinging dial of the stars, are phenomena that no -human group has failed to notice. Longer periods than those included -within the memory of the oldest men (presenting an imperfect reflection -of the memory of men still older) are found only in those favored -centers where a serviceable system of counting has been developed. -Mythology has a content of history but hardly of chronology. Tradition, -when organized by the priesthood, may be reasonably dependable for -perhaps two hundred years. - -The year and the month are the basis of all primitive time systems, the -former depending on the recurring seasons, the latter on recurring -moons. Both of these are expressed in days. Unfortunately, the day is -not contained evenly in either the month or the year, nor do these -larger time measures show any simple relation to each other as regards -length. The history of the calendar is one of compromise and correction. - -The Mayan calendars were made possible by: first, the knowledge of -astronomical time periods; second, the possession of a suitable notation -system; third, the discovery of a permutation system of names and -numbers. - - - Elements of the Day Count. - -There is reason to believe that the Mayas had first a lunar-solar -calendar of twelve months of thirty days each, making a year of 360 -days, and that they reduced the number of days in the formal month to 20 -and raised the number of months in the year from 12 to 18. These changes -permitted a close adjustment of the units of time with their vigesimal -system of counting. With a truer knowledge of the length of the year an -extra five day month was added to make a year of 365 days. Beyond this -the “leap year” error was calculated but not interpolated. As proof that -the lunar month of thirty days preceded the formal month of twenty days, -it need only be pointed out that the name for this period, _uinal_, -seems to be connected with the name for moon, _u_, and that the -hieroglyph for moon has the value, twenty, in the inscriptions and -ancient books. - - [Illustration: Fig. 40. The Twenty Day Signs. The first example in - each case is taken from the inscriptions and the second from the - codices.] - -Before entering into a fuller discussion of the astronomical and -notational facts let us turn for a moment to the third fact, the -permutation system. The origin of the cycle[1] known by the Mayan name -_tzolkin_ and the Aztecan name _tonalamatl_, book of the days, has never -been satisfactorily explained. It is a permutation system with two -factors, 13 and 20. The former is a series of numbers (1-13) and the -latter a series of twenty names as follows:— - - - 1. Imix - 2. Ik - 3. Akbal - 4. Kan - 5. Chicchan - 6. Cimi - 7. Manik - 8. Lamat - 9. Muluc - 10. Oc - 11. Chuen - 12. Eb - 13. Ben - 14. Ix - 15. Men - 16. Cib - 17. Caban - 18. Eznab - 19. Cauac - 20. Ahau - - -These two series revolve upon each other like two wheels, one with -thirteen and the other with twenty cogs. The smaller wheel of numbers -makes twenty revolutions while the larger wheel of days is making -thirteen revolutions, and after this the number cog and name cog with -which the experiment began are again in combination. Thus, a day with -the same number and the same name recurs every 13 × 20 or 260 days. - -This 260 day cycle corresponds to no natural time period and is an -invention pure and simple. It is the most fundamental feature of the -Mayan time count and of the time counts of other nations in Mexico and -Central America. We may perhaps assume that the twenty names were -originally those of the twenty days in the modified lunar months. But -the thirteen numbers have no recognized prototype. The formal book of -days generally was considered to begin with 1 Imix for the Mayas and -with a corresponding day for the other Mexican and Central American -nations. But it can be made to begin anywhere and proceed to an -equivalent station that is always 260 days removed. - - - PERMUTATION TABLE - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 - 1 Imix 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 - 2 Ik 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 - 3 Akbal 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 - 4 Kan 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 - 5 Chicchan 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 - 6 Cimi 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 - 7 Manik 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 - 8 Lamat 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 - 9 Muluc 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 - 10 Oc 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 - 11 Chuen 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 - 12 Eb 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 - 13 Ben 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 - 14 Ix 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 - 15 Men 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 - 16 Cib 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 - 17 Caban 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 - 18 Eznab 5 12 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 - 19 Cauac 6 13 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 - 20 Ahau 7 1 8 2 9 3 10 4 11 5 12 6 13 7 - - - The Conventional Year. - -It has been stated that the Mayas arrived at a conventional 365 day year -made up of eighteen months of twenty days each plus a short period of -five days that fell after the eighteen regular months had been counted. -The Mayan month names are as follows:— - - - 1. Pop - 2. Uo - 3. Zip - 4. Zotz - 5. Tzec - 6. Xul - 7. Yaxkin - 8. Mol - 9. Chen - 10. Yax - 11. Zac - 12. Ceh - 13. Mac - 14. Kankin - 15. Muan - 16. Pax - 17. Kayab - 18. Cumhu - 19. Uayeb (five additional days) - - - [Illustration: Fig. 41. The Nineteen Month Signs of the Mayan Year. - The first example in each case is taken from the inscriptions and - the second from the codices. The last details are signs for zero.] - -Since there are twenty days or positions in the month and likewise -twenty distinct day names in the _tzolkin_, falling in regular order, it -follows that each day would always occupy the same month position were -it not for the offset at the end of each year caused by the short Uayeb -period. As it is, any day name occupies the same month position during -the course of an entire year and a position five days in advance during -the course of the following year. Since five is contained four times in -twenty there can be only four shifts, the fifth year showing the same -arrangement as the first. The following table gives the month positions -of each day name during the changes of four consecutive years as these -are recorded in the ancient inscriptions. - - - Plate XXII. - - [Illustration: Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in the - Codex Tro-Cortesianus. In the center is Itzamna, the God of the Sky, - and his spouse, under what has been called the celestial tree. The - band of hieroglyphs that frames in this picture contains the twenty - day signs of the Mayan month. The figures on the outside are - arranged in four groups, according to the four directions of the - compass. At the top or east we again see Itzamna and his mate. In - the north, or right hand quarter, human sacrifice is shown and the - Death God sits opposite the God of War. In the east and in the south - are also shown pairs of divinities. A series of dots running from - one day sign to another covers the _tzolkin_ or 260 day cycle of - names and numbers.] - - Ik Manik Eb Caban 0 5 10 15 - Akbal Lamat Ben Eznab 1 6 11 16 - Kan Muluc Ix Cauac 2 7 12 17 - Chicchan Oc Men Ahau 3 8 13 18 - Imix Cimi Chuen Cib 4 9 14 19 - -Thus Ik occupies 0 position the first year, 5, the second year, 10 the -third, 15 the fourth, and 0 the fifth. While Manik that belongs to the -same set has position 5 the first year, 10 the second, etc. It will be -noted that Imix, the first day of the formal permutation of the -_tzolkin_ is never the first day of a month. - - - The Calendar Round. - -But this assignment of particular day names to particular places in the -month does not close the problem. Each day name is associated in the -_tzolkin_, or permutation, with a day number. While it is true that each -day can occupy only four month positions in as many years, it must be -remembered that the day numbers associated with these names can run the -whole gamut of 13 changes. Thus, although Ik must always occupy the -fifth position in the months during a certain year, nevertheless it will -have numbers which fall in the sequence 1, 8, 2, 9, 3, 10, 4, 11, 5, 12, -6, 13, 1, etc. The complete cycle of variations must run through the -least common multiple of 260 (the permutation) and 365 (the conventional -year) or 18,980 days. This cycle is commonly known as the Calendar -Round. A Mayan day fixed in a month, or let us say a calendar round -date, has four parts to its name, thus, 11 Ahau 18 Mac. We describe a -day as Tuesday, July 4, meaning “Tuesday the third day of the seven day -week occupies the fourth position in the month of July.” Similarly the -Mayan date 11 Ahau 18 Mac may be read “the day named Ahau as eleventh -day in a thirteen day week occupies the eighteenth position in the month -Mac.” Owing to leap year corrections the European date given above does -not recur at regular intervals, but a Mayan day recurs infallibly in 52 -calendar years, never sooner, never later. - -So far we have considered two kinds of Mayan dates, first the _tzolkin_ -date, recurring every 260 days, secondly the calendar round date -recurring every 18,980 days. Before we can understand a third and much -more important kind of date, namely a date which states, in addition to -the calendar round designation, the total number of days since a -beginning day called 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, located far in the past, we must -direct our attention to the matter of numbers and notation. - - - Mayan Numbers. - -The three most common numerical systems in use in the world are all -derived from man’s anatomy. The quinary system is based on counting the -fingers of one hand, the decimal system on counting those of both hands -and the vigesimal system, which prevailed in Central America, is based -on counting all the fingers and all the toes. The vigesimal system is -seen in imperfect form in our count of scores, where seventy years are -three score and ten. - -The Mayan name for one was _hun_: they had simple names to 9 and -composite ones from 10 to 19, much as in English, and twenty was _hun -kal_, one score. The ascending values in the vigesimal scale were as -follows:— - - Mayan Numbers Arabic Equivalents - - hun 1 - 20 hun = 1 kal 20 - 20 kal = 1 bak 400 - 20 bak = 1 pic 8,000 - 20 pic = 1 cabal 160,000 - 20 cabal = 1 kinchil 3,200,000 - 20 kinchil = 1 alau 64,000,000 - 20 alau = 1 hablat 1,280,000,000 - -They invented signs for zero and discovered the principle of “local -value” in the writing down of numbers centuries before these ideas -(which are fundamental to higher mathematics) were known in the Old -World. The notation of numbers had its simpler and more complicated -phase. In the simpler phase 1 was represented by a dot, 2 by two dots, 5 -by a bar, 6 by a bar and dot, 15 by three bars, etc. The commonest sign -for zero was a shell while a picture of the moon stood for twenty. In -the more elaborate notation a series of twenty faces of gods represented -the numerals from 0 to 19. - - [Illustration: Fig. 42. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas.] - -The straight vigesimal system was doubtless used by the Mayas in -ordinary counting, but in counting time a very important change was -introduced in the third position. Also the names were modified: _hun_ -was called _kin_ which means sun or day. In the second position _kal_ -was called _uinal_ which means month and 18 of these were taken to form -a _tun_, stone, which was the third unit. The _tun_ then had a value of -18 × 20 = 360 days, making a conventional year about five and a quarter -days less than a true year. Twenty _tuns_ made a _kaltun_ or _katun_ and -above this period the numeral system proceeded as before and in the -ascending values the names already given were merely combined with -_tun_, if Gates is right in his clever suggestion. For years it has been -customary to speak of the fifth period as cycle for want of a native -term: this will now be called _baktun_. One _hablatun_, the highest -period with a name, has the astonishing value of 460,800,000,000 days. -However, the highest numbers fall considerably short of this potential -limit. - -In our decimal system the number 347,981, for instance, is really:— - - 3 × 100000 - 4 × 10000 - 7 × 1000 - 9 × 100 - 8 × 10 - 1 × 1 - -When written out in a horizontal line each “position” has a value ten -times that of the “position” to the right of it. It is understood that a -digit which stands in a “position” is to be multiplied by 1, 10, 100, -1000, etc., as the case may be. The Mayas, using the principle of -position, ordinarily write their bar and dot numerals in columns. But we -can partially transcribe a Mayan number in imitation of our own system -by putting dots or dashes between the positions or periods. The number -in five positions given below is transcribed as 9.12.16.7.8. - - [Illustration: Mayan numerals] - - 9 × 144000 1,296,000 - 12 × 7200 86,400 - 16 × 360 5,760 - 7 × 20 140 - 8 × 1 8 - 1,388,308 - -We read this date: 9 baktuns, 12 katuns, 16 tuns, 7 uinals, and 8 kins. -It is convenient to remember that a tun is a little less than a year, a -katun a little less than 20 years and a baktun a little less than 400 -years. But the count is really of days, not years. - - [Illustration: Fig. 43. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions. - In most cases these are the faces of gods. Reading from left to - right: the values are 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 44. The Normal Forms of the Period Glyphs. - Reading from left to right: baktun, katun, tun, uinal, kin.] - -Although the numerical values are expressed by position alone in some -cases, in other cases use is made of Period Glyphs to make assurance -doubly sure. These Period Glyphs represent the basic value of the -positions which are to be multiplied by the accompanying numerals. For -examples, see Figs. 44 and 45. - - [Illustration: Fig. 45. Face Forms of Period Glyphs. From left to - right: introducing glyph, baktun, katun, tun, uinal, kin.] - - - Plate XXIII. - - [Illustration: Typical Mayan Inscription.] - - - Introducing Glyph - Initial Series - 1. 9 baktuns (cycles). - 2. 14 katuns - 3. 13 tuns (written 12 by error) - 4. 4 uinals - 5. 17 kins - 6. 12 Caban (day) - Supplementary Series - 7. glyph F - 8. (a) glyph D, (b) glyph C - 9. (a) glyph X, (b) glyph B - 10. (a) glyph A (30 day lunar month) - 10. (b) 5 Kayab (month) - Explanatory Series - 11, 12, 13 and 14a, possibly explain the dates - Secondary Series - 14b, 3 kins, 13 uinals - 15a, 6 tuns (to be added) - Period Ending Date - 16. 4 Ahau 13 Yax (9.15.0.0.0) - - - The Long Count. - -Many early monuments of the Mayas have inscriptions with an enlarged -Introducing Glyph containing a variable element indicating the title or -principal subject matter of the inscription. Next follows the number of -elapsed days from the epoch of a Mundane Era. This starting point is -uniformly the day 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu and the complete Initial Series date -not only states the number of elapsed days, but also the name and number -of the day reached and its position in a Mayan month. - -The Initial Series is normally followed by a Supplementary Series which -concerns the lunar calendar, and often there are numbers of days to be -added to or subtracted from the Initial Series date: these are called -Secondary Series. Also Period Ending dates are used, these being merely -abbreviated dates which correspond to indicated round numbers in the day -count. - -The Initial Series analyzed in Plate XXIII actually records the number -1,401,217. This number does not, however, reach the day 12 Caban -declared immediately after it or the month position 5 Kayab recorded in -glyph 10b. When 13 tuns are corrected to 12 tuns on the theory that the -sculptor did not follow copy, we do reach 12 Caban 5 Kayab. Another -check comes when we add the Secondary Series of 2423 days and reach 4 -Ahau 13 Yax ending an even katun. - - - Dates of Dedication. - -Initial Series dates are especially common on stelæ at cities of the -First Empire, mostly located in the southern part of the Mayan Area. -While it is impossible to read much of the texts which accompany these -dates nevertheless it is a remarkable fact that when we arrange the -monuments in their artistic order we find that the inscribed dates in -the great majority of cases fall in the same order. This leads us to -conclude that the dates are practically contemporaneous with the carving -and setting up of the monuments. Now the above is especially true when -the inscription gives a simple Initial Series date. When more than one -date is given the historic one appears in most instances to be the -latest, but in a few instances it appears to be a specially emphasized -intermediate date. In addition, then, to contemporaneous dates there are -some that refer to the past and others that refer to the future. - -Some writers have assumed that the stelæ and other inscribed monuments -were primarily time markers set up at the end of hotun (or five year) -periods. This seems an unnecessarily narrow view. We can demonstrate -that some inscriptions deal with astronomical facts covering long -stretches of time. It is also apparent that many of the sculptures -represent conquests and it is extremely likely that portraits of actual -rulers are to be seen in certain carvings. It would be too much to -expect events to happen regularly at the end of time periods and as a -matter of fact we find at different cities repeated dates that do not -occupy such positions. These repeated dates would seem to recall events -of special importance to the city in question. - -The running co-ordination between the apparent order of the artistic -styles and inscribed dates permits us to measure very accurately the -rate of change in art which was rapid, indeed, at certain times. The -style of carving, on the other hand, enables us to put into definite 52 -year periods many of the calendar round dates—if these are to be -regarded as contemporaneous. The result is that for the First Empire, as -it has been called, there is an exceedingly accurate chronology. After -the fall and abandonment of the great southern cities dates are rare and -we have to fall back upon remnants of history preserved after the coming -of the Spaniards. - - - Hieroglyphs. - -Mayan hieroglyphs resemble the Egyptian and Chinese hieroglyphs only in -being “sacred writing” that is not based upon an alphabet. The styles -and symbols are entirely different. No Rosetta Stone has yet been -discovered to give us inscriptions in more than one system of writing in -Central America. The great use of hieroglyphic inscriptions on monuments -was characteristic of the earlier period of Mayan history and at a later -time the writing was reduced to books. Bishop Landa obtained what he -supposed was a Mayan alphabet, but what he really obtained was a list of -signs representing among other sounds the particular sounds he had asked -for. - -The phonetic use of syllables rather than of simple sounds or letters is -probably an important feature of Mayan writing. Many hieroglyphs are -pictographic and consist of abbreviated pictures of the thing intended -or of some object connected with it. Often a head stands for the entire -body. The following list practically exhausts our knowledge of Mayan -hieroglyphs:— - - 1. The signs for the twenty named days of the calendar. - - 2. The signs for the nineteen months of the Mayan year. - - 3. The face signs for numbers from zero to nineteen inclusive. - - 4. Period glyphs in two styles for place values in the numerical - notation. - - 5. The symbols for the four directions and for the colors associated - with them. - - 6. The hieroglyphs of several gods and ceremonies. - - 7. The symbols of Heaven and Earth, the Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, - Jupiter, and a few astronomical phenomena such as conjunctions. - - 8. Hieroglyphs for special times of the year such as solstices and - equinoxes. - - 9. Signs meaning era, or base from which a numerical count is made, - completion, etc. - -Some of these have recently been solved, thanks to mathematical and -astronomical calculations, others rest on the calendarial forms given by -Landa. There are some phonetic elements in Mayan writing and some -ideographic elements. It seems likely that the gist of the Mayan -inscriptions which deal with history will be solved in somewhat the same -fashion as those that deal with astronomy. The matter is, however, most -perplexing. So far not a single place name or personal name has been -definitely recognized and translated. In spite of the hundreds of glyphs -recovered at the sites called Copan and Palenque, for instance, we do -not know the real names of these cities or even their symbols. We may -expect to find signs referring to tribute and common objects of trade -and others referring to birth, death, establishment, conquest, -destruction, and other fundamentals of individual and social existence. -These signs, taken with directives, connectives, and dates, would make -possible the recovery of the main facts of history. There seems no -possibility of purely literary inscriptions. While progress necessarily -will be slow there is no reason for despair and without doubt the -greater portion of Mayan inscriptions will finally be deciphered. - - [Illustration: Fig. 46. Hieroglyphs of the Four Directions: East, - North, West, South.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 47. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element - _kin_: _a-b_, _kin_; _c_, _li-kin_; _d_, _chi-kin_; _e-f_, - _yax-kin_; _g_, _kan-kin_.] - -As an example of the phonetic use of signs in the building up of -hieroglyphs let us take the common sign _kin_, meaning “sun.” This sign -appears regularly in the glyphs for the world directions east and west, -the Mayan names being _likin_ and _chikin_, and also in the month sign -_Yaxkin_, and sometimes in that for _Kankin_. It also appears as the -sign for the lowest period in the time count having the value of a -single day and called _kin_ (Fig. 47). Now this kin sign also appears in -many undeciphered hieroglyphs and in some of these it seems likely that -it has a phonetic value. Other signs with definite values in several -glyphs are _yax_, _tun_, _zac_, etc. This general method of writing is -seen in more decipherable form among the Aztecs. The glosses of the -early priests that have proved so great a help in the case of the -Aztecan writing are absent from the few Mayan documents. - - - Codices. - -Only three ancient Mayan books or codices are known to exist and these -are more or less incomplete. They have all been reproduced in facsimile -and are known by the following names: Dresden Codex, Peresianus Codex, -Tro-Cortesianus Codex. - -These illuminated manuscripts are written on both sides of long strips -of amatl paper, folded like Japanese screens. The paper was given a -smooth surface by a coating of fine lime and the drawings were made in -black and in various colors. From the early accounts we know that books -were also written on prepared deerskin and upon bark. Concerning their -subject matter we are told that the Mayas had many books upon civil and -religious history, and upon rites, magic, and medicine. The three books -named above have been carefully studied. They treat principally of the -calendar and of associated religious ceremonies. - -A page of the Dresden Codex containing some interesting calculations is -reproduced herewith. The numbers with the digits one above the other are -transcribed in two diagrams. In the upper diagram the bar and dot -numerals are simply put over into Arabic numerals and the Mayan system -of periods or positions is retained. In the lower diagram these numbers -are reduced entirely to the Arabic system. The columns are lettered at -the top, the hieroglyphs are counted off in sixteen rows at the left and -the separate groupings of numbers are shown in five sections at the -right. - -Among the hieroglyphs the Venus sign is especially prominent. At the -base of column B is given a number in five periods that, counted from -the normal beginning day 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu leads again to this day which is -recorded at the bottom of column A. The long number in column C, -similarly counted from 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, leads to 1 Ahau 18 Kayab, -recorded at the bottom of B. The day 1 Ahau 18 Uo is reached by another -calculation which will be explained later. At the base of A is a number -in three periods which amounts to 2200. Not only is this the difference -between the long numbers in B and C (1,366,560 - 1,364,360 = 2200) but -it is also the number of days by which 1 Ahau 18 Kayab precedes 4 Ahau 8 -Cumhu. In other words we deal in this passage with the end of the -seventy-second calendar round after the original 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu and with -a new point of departure 2200 days earlier, which is some way involved -with the calendar of Venus. - -Let us now make a new beginning in the lower left hand corner of this -page. In G5 we find the number 2920 which as we have already seen is -exactly the number of days consumed in eight years of 365 days or five -synodic revolutions of Venus of 584 days. We will now see how the Mayan -scholars arrived at 13 × 2920 or 37,960, the calendar round of Venus. If -we proceed towards the left in section 5 we find the second number, F5, -is 5840 which equals 2 × 2920, the third is 8760 or 3 × 2920, and the -fourth is 11,680 or 4 × 2920. The addition is continued in sections 4 -and 3 till we reach 35,040 or 12 × 2920. To be sure the scribe made a -slight error in one place, writing a 5 for an 8 but this is caught up by -the day signs 9 Ahau, 4 Ahau, 7 Ahau, 12 Ahau, etc., that fall at -regular intervals of 2920 days. - - - Plate XXIV. - - [Illustration: Page 24 Dresden Codex.] - - [Illustration: Diagram showing partial reduction of Mayan numbers - into Arabic numbers in the calculation shown on page 24 of the - Dresden Codex (Plate XXIV).] - - A B C D E F G - - 1 Hieroglyphs 1 1 - 1 15 10 5 - 2 1 16 10 5 - 3 14 6 16 8 - 0 0 0 0 - 4 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau - 5 1 2 - 6 5 9 4 1 - 7 14 11 12 5 - 4 7 8 5 - 8 0 0 0 0 - 9 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau - 10 4 4 4 3 3 - 17 9 1 13 - 11 6 4 2 0 - 12 0 0 0 0 - 13 6 Ahau 11 Ahau 3 Ahau 8 Ahau - 14 3 2 2 2 4 - 9 9 4 16 8 0 - 15 9 9 16 14 12 10 - 16 9 0 0 0 0 - 16 13 Ahau 5 Ahau 10 Ahau 2 Ahau - 6 0 16 1 1 5 - 2 0 0 12 4 16 8 - 0 5 [8] 6 4 2 - 4 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 0 0 0 0 - 8 Cumhu 18 Kayab 18 Uo 7 Ahau 12 Ahau 4 Ahau 9 Ahau - - [Illustration: Diagram showing complete reduction into Arabic - numbers of the calculation shown on page 24 of the Dresden Codex - (Plate XXIV).] - - A B C D E F G - - Hieroglyphs 151,840 113,880 75,920 37,960 1 - 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau - 185,120 68,900 33,280 9,100 2 - 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau - 35,040 32,120 29,200 26,280 3 - 6 Ahau 11 Ahau 3 Ahau 8 Ahau - 23,360 20,440 17,520 14,600 4 - 2,200 1,366,560 1,364,360 13 Ahau 5 Ahau 10 Ahau 2 Ahau - 4 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 11,680 8,760 5,840 2,920 5 - 8 Cumhu 18 Kayab 18 Uo 7 Ahau 12 Ahau 4 Ahau 9 Ahau - -From section 3, the calculation jumps to section 1 where the numbers in -the original are partly destroyed. They have, however, been restored -with perfect assurance since the days in all instances are 1 Ahau and -therefore must be separated by multiples of 260 days. The number in G1 -has been restored as 5-5-8-0 or 37,960 or 13 × 2920. It contains 260 an -even number of times and therefore every successive period of 37,960 -days begins with the same day, 1 Ahau. It also equals 13 × 8 × 365 days -or 104 years and 13 × 5 × 584 days or sixty-five revolutions of Venus. - - [Illustration: Fig. 48. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden - Codex. The figure at the left beats a drum while the one on the - right plays a flageolet. The sound is indicated by scrolls. The head - on the pyramid is that of the Maize God and it rests upon the sign - _caban_, meaning earth.] - -The three numbers to the left in F1, E1, and D1 are respectively 2, 3, -and 4 times 37,960. The last number, 151,840 days is therefore equal to -416 years or exactly 8 calendar rounds of 18,980 days. - -The numbers in section 2 are more difficult to explain but they possibly -have to do with corrections and correlations of astronomical periods. If -we add to 1 Ahau 18 Kayab the number of days in E2, (68900), we arrive -at a day 1 Ahau 13 Mac. This day is prominent in more detailed -calculations elsewhere in the Dresden Codex. If we add to the same 1 -Ahau 18 Kayab the number in D2 we arrive at 1 Ahau 18 Uo recorded at the -bottom of C. Space permits no further explanation but the reader will -see from the foregoing the method of experiment and cross checking that -must be applied to the decipherment of the Mayan manuscripts. -Fortunately, the relationships of numbers are absolute and the -coincidences between the recorded numbers and astronomical periods are -too close and frequent to be dismissed as accidental. - -In addition to rational calculations dealing with astronomy one sees in -the Mayan manuscripts many arrangements of the _tzolkin_ supposed to -bring to light good and bad days and to forecast events. A section of -the Dresden Codex showing a condensed _tzolkin_ is presented along with -a diagram of its parts. At the top and right are seventeen hieroglyphs -containing the symbols of the four directions, and of at least three of -the principal gods. At the right is a column of five day signs with the -number 3 at the head of the column. The permutation is divided into five -parts of fifty-two days each and each part is subdivided into four -groups of thirteen days each. It begins with 3 Akbal, the day sign at -the top of the column, and after the four subdivisions of thirteen days -each have been counted we arrive at the day 3 Men, the second day sign -in the column. The count is repeated till the 260 days have been -exhausted and we come back again to 3 Akbal. In the diagram the red -numbers of the codex are represented by Roman numerals and the black -numbers by Arabic numerals. Since the count in this example begins with -3 and the addition is always 13, or exactly one round of numbers, the -resultant days always have the number 3. - - - Plate XXV. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Detail of the Dresden Codex showing _Tzolkin_ - used in Divination.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Analysis of the above _Tzolkin_, according to - Förstemann.] - - III 1 2 5 6 9 10 13 - East * North * West * South - 3 4 7 8 11 12 14 - God B † Woman Good God G ‡ * - Days - 13 III 13 III 13 III 15 - 1 God E - Akbal 16 - 2 (Image 1) (Image 2) (Image 3) Week of - 13 days - Men 17 - Ahau - 3 - Manik - 4 - Cauac 13 - - - Image 1: God B—rain and sky god of good powers. Holds Kan (maize) sign - in his hand. - Image 2: Goddess with serpent headdress possibly connected with - floods. Holds Kan sign in hand. - Image 3: God K—benevolent sun god. - If space had been larger God E (the maize god) would probably have - been drawn next. - - -The three pictures of gods give us an inkling into the significance of -this particular table of chances. All of the gods carry the _kan_ or -maize sign in their hands. The first god is the benevolent rain god and -the third is the benevolent sun god. Between them is seated the -malevolent goddess of floods with a serpent on her head. The maize god -is not shown but his hieroglyph is given. This _tzolkin_ probably deals -with agriculture and may be an attempt to determine lucky days for -planting. - - - Correlation with Christian Chronology. - -The day for day correlation rests broadly on the placing of the date on -the Lintel of the Initial Series at Chichen Itza in the first occupation -of that city according to the chronicles. More specifically it rests -upon statements in Mayan and Spanish documents relating to the -completion of tuns and katuns in the never-languishing day count. Also -consideration must be given the so-called Year-Bearers, these being the -first days of current years which furnish the designations for such -years. Bishop Landa has a specimen Mayan year with its equivalent days -in the Spanish calendar; this is the year 12 Kan corresponding to -1553-1554 A. D. and the day 12 Kan is found in the Long Count position -12.9.17.9.4, 12 Kan 2 Pop, July 26, 1553, Gregorian Calendar. - - - The Mayan Eras. - -The zero of the Mayan day count, reached by subtracting 12.9.17.9.4 or -1,799,104 days from the position declared above, is shown to be October -14, 3373 B. C. in the backward projection of the Gregorian calendar. The -Gregorian readings are preferable to the Julian because they preserve -the actual times in the tropical year, but it is sometimes useful to use -the days of the Julian Period which can always be found by adding 489384 -to the Mayan number. - -Now Mayan history does not reach back to the zero date which must be -regarded as a theoretical beginning or Mundane Era. The earliest object -with a contemporary date is the Tuxtla Statuette with May 16, 98 B. C. -It appears, however, that the really historic beginning of the day count -was 7.0.0.0.0, 10 Ahau 18 Zac, August 6, 613 B. C. The calendar of -months was probably inaugurated in 580 B. C. when 0 Pop, New Year’s day, -coincided with the winter solstice. A third era, 9.0.0.0.0, 8 Ahau 13 -Ceh, February 10, 176 A. D., is the one used in the Mayan chronicles. - - - Astronomical Checks on the Correlation. - -The first astronomical checks which develop from the correlation -explained above are dates which reach the equinoxes, solstices, etc., -further marked by special hieroglyphs which are to be explained as -ideographs of these stations in the natural year. For instance the most -emphatic date in the three famous temples of the Sun, the Cross, and the -Foliated Cross at Palenque is one written 9.12.18.5.16, 2 Cib 14 Mol, -September 23, 430 A. D., which coincides with the autumnal equinox. In -connection with this repeated date we find two glyphs both of which are -admirable ideographs of the equinox. One is Ahau, a face explained as -that of the Lord of Day, but here half covered with starry eyes, and the -other is the Kin or sun symbol, half darkened with cross-hatching. At -Comitan a round number date exactly coinciding with the equinox has a -variant of this second ideograph. - -Other strong proofs concern Venus and the Moon. Hieroglyphs of these -heavenly bodies are found in combination with dates and these later -actually reach significant phases of the planets in question. For Venus -the phase chosen is commonly the first appearance as Morningstar four -days after inferior conjunction, or what is known as the heliacal -rising. Records of the Moon are prominent when a new or full phase -coincides with a round number in the day count. - - - Astronomical Observatories. - -One of the most interesting pieces of evidence in support of the -correlation explained above has to do with a giant sun dial at Copan. -Two stelæ stand on opposite sides of the valley establishing a line -which runs about 9 degrees north of west. When observation is made from -the eastern marker the sun sets behind the western stone two times -during the course of a year, once shortly after the vernal equinox and -once shortly before the autumnal equinox. Now the Mayan chronicles state -that the calendarial New Year was “counted in order” during a certain -Katun 13 Ahau which extended from 491 A. D. to 511 A. D. Altar U at -Copan was observed to record two New Year’s dates equaling April 9 in -conjunction with another date, equaling September 2, 503 A. D., and -falling in the required interval covered by Katun 13 Ahau. These dates -were such as might be reached by just such a base line as exists at -Copan and it was first believed that they were exactly reached by it. -Careful reconsideration of the evidence in the inscriptions and a -re-survey of the line of sight led to the interesting conclusion that -the sun dial of Copan was originally set up in 392 A. D. to give sunset -coincidences on April 5 and September 6. About 490 A. D. the stones were -re-adjusted to give the April 9 and September 2 which are recorded on -Altar U and still later a third and present arrangement was effected -giving April 12 and August 30. Each pair of dates is “reciprocal” in the -sense that one member marks the same interval after the Spring equinox -that the other does before the Fall equinox. The shifting seems to have -been decided upon by astronomical congresses, and the purpose was to fix -propitious times of planting the crops. - - [Illustration: Fig. 49. Diagram of the Astronomical Base Line at - Copan giving readings at April 9 and September 2. Slight shifts were - made in this line: at an early time it was arranged to read April 5 - and September 6 and at a later time April 12 and August 30.] - -Other Mayan observatories at Uaxactun and Chichen Itza have lines of -sight which mark exactly the positions of the sun (the summer solstice, -etc.), and all in all the evidence deduced from these observatories is -in complete agreement with the correlation of the Mayan and Christian -time counts originally effected on the evidence in sixteenth century -documents. - - - The True Year. - -The base line at Copan yielded accurate data on the exact length of the -tropical year, a period varying by a difficult fraction from 365 full -days. The tropical year is the time measured by the revolution of the -earth around the sun and by the recurring seasons. No agricultural -people could neglect this natural time period with its obvious relation -to planting and harvest. - -Reference has already been made to the notational 360 day year (tun) of -the Mayas and to their formal calendar year (haab) of exactly 365 days. -The calendar year kept running ahead of the true year by the -accumulating amount of the days which we intercalate on leap years but -the Mayas wisely made no such intercalations since to have done so would -have thrown their day count out of gear with the moon and other planets -and the somewhat defective calendar based upon these minor heavenly -bodies. Therefore the months of the Mayan year like those of the ancient -Egyptian year slowly moved through the seasons. But the Mayas calculated -an almost exact correction for the excess of the true year over the -vague 365 day year. This excess amounts to about .24 of a day and their -correction seems to have been one day in four years for short periods -while for long periods they made 29 calendar rounds (1508 calendar years -or 550,420 days) equal 1507 tropical years. This is a remarkably -accurate adjustment, much closer, in fact, than that of our present -Gregorian calendar. This great cycle is comparable to the 1460 year -Sothic cycle of the Egyptians in so far as that relates to the flooding -of the Nile, but the Egyptian arrangement has an error of about twelve -days for the cycle while the Mayan arrangement is accurate to a very -small fraction of a day. - -In the calendars of various Guatemalan and Mexican tribes the slow -shifting of the months is attested by actual statements of early Spanish -writers. But the conventional 365 day year was, after all, sufficiently -accurate for most purposes since associations between the months and the -seasons would hold reasonably true for the average lifetime. - - - The Lunar Calendar. - -The apparent revolution of the moon around the earth was taken by the -Mayas as the basis of a lunar calendar distinct from the civil calendar, -but used in combination with it for various ceremonial purposes. Now the -average duration of a lunar revolution is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, -2.87 seconds. Twelve lunations amount to a little more than 354 days and -are therefore far short of a true year. Primitive peoples whose -principal interest is to keep the moon in adjustment with the seasons -have an occasional thirteenth month in their luni-solar calendars. - -The Metonic cycle of the Greeks, an equation of 19 tropical years, 235 -lunations and 6940 days, has been regarded as a remarkable achievement -in observation. The Mayas discovered the same equation and with their -system of designating days were able to use it with much greater ease -than the Greeks since one katun minus one tzolkin gives exactly the -required number of days:— - - 1. 0. 0. 0 = 7200 days - 13. 0 = 260 days - 19. 5. 0 = 6940 days - -This interval is used prominently in several calculations at Copan and -Quirigua. - -On pages 51 to 58 of the Dresden Codex is found a remarkable lunar -calendar covering 405 lunations or nearly 33 years. The lunar -revolutions are arranged in groups of five or six, the former calculated -at 148 days and the latter at 177 or 178 days. These are the necessary -intervals between eclipses. The total amounts to 11,960 days which -exactly contains the tzolkin and therefore forms a cycle. It is a -remarkable fact that 405 lunar revolutions amount, according to modern -calculations, to 11,959.888 or only O.112 of a day less than the Mayan -lunar calendar. Therefore this re-entering series can be used nine -times, or nearly 300 years, before an error amounting to one whole day -has accumulated. There is also evidence that the Mayas used the great -cycle of 29 × 52 calendar years, or 1507 tropical years, in connection -with the moon and here the error for 18,639 lunations is about .64 of a -day. - -The Supplementary Series in Long Count dates is probably to be -interpreted as the statement of the day reached by the Initial Series in -a lunar calendar with an accumulated error; that is, the Mayas had an -uncorrected lunar count as well as an uncorrected calendar year. Glyph C -records a number of complete lunations which is never in excess of six; -Glyph D gives the number of days in the current lunation when these are -19 or less and Glyph E, which has the basic value of 20, finishes the -count of a current lunation. There is some evidence that the Mayan lunar -calendar in the fifth century A. D. had receded about four days from the -true positions of the moon, the count being made from the new or -conjunctional phase. When, however, a new or full phase actually -coincided with an important round number in the day count special record -of the fact was made. - - [Illustration: Fig. 50. Representations of the Moon: _a_, sun and - moon hieroglyphs; _b_, moon from a “celestial band”; _c_, moon - hieroglyph used for 20 in codices.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 51. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Series: - _a_, moon glyph; combined with the numeral 9 or 10 to indicate a 29 - or a 30 day lunar month.] - -The lunar table in the Dresden Codex does not apply precisely to records -of the First Empire but possibly may be adjusted to the times of the -Second Empire. The indications are, however, too complicated to be -examined in detail. - - - Venus Calendar. - -Mayan astronomers reached a remarkable knowledge of the movements of the -planet Venus and evolved a Venus calendar based essentially on the -correspondence between 8 calendar years of 365 days each and 5 apparent -or synodical revolutions of Venus of 584 days each. Venus whirling on an -inside orbit actually makes thirteen revolutions around the sun in very -nearly the same time that the earth makes eight revolutions and -therefore passes between the earth and the sun five times (the -difference between 13 and 8) during the course of this astronomical -period of 2920 days. Just before inferior conjunction the planet -disappears as evening star and a few days later emerges as morning star. -The mean length of the synodical revolution of Venus is 583.92 days and -the actual length may vary about four days from this mean. While the -Mayas standardized the Earth year at 365 days and the Venus year at 584 -days, they were fully aware of the amount of error in each case, and -made proper correction for it without resorting to the devices of -intercalation or excision. - -We have seen that the Mayas manipulated the year and the lunation in -combination with the tzolkin or permutation of 20 days and 13 numbers. -They also found a round of these elements in combination with the phases -of Venus. Since the period of 2920 days is divisible by 20 but not by 13 -it had to be taken 13 times before the round of the Venus calendar was -reached. - -In the Dresden Codex five pages are devoted to this round of the Venus -calendar. Each Venus year of 584 days is divided into four parts of 236 -days for the phase of morning star, 90 days (superior conjunction), 250 -days (evening star) and 8 days (inferior conjunction). These divisions -agree closely enough with actual appearance. But we must remember that -the observations were made without instruments and that the planet -cannot be seen by the naked eye when close to the sun. Moreover we must -expect beliefs as to the nature of this planet, personified as a god, to -supplement the knowledge gained from actual observations. The -obscuration of Venus at inferior conjunction seems to have been greatly -dreaded especially when a round number in the day count fell within the -eight days of its duration. A grotesque two-headed monster apparently -ruled this fatal period: on the front head is seen the symbol of Venus -and on the rear head the symbol of the sun, both associated with -elements of death. - -The Venus calendar seems to have taken form in the sixth century B. C. -on the basis of heliacal risings of the planet as morning star in sets -of five making an eight year cycle. The dates in the Mayan calendar -especially emphasized in connection with Venus are 19 Xul, 18 Kayab, 12 -Yax, 6 Zip, and 5 Kankin standing exactly 584 days apart, while the -corresponding dates in the Gregorian calendar are April 12, November 17, -June 24, January 29, and September 5. When these sets of dates, one in a -fixed and the other in a vague calendar are carried back to a common -focus they are found to correspond very closely with the proper -astronomical phase of Venus. The maximum difference of the true -positions of Venus from the positions in the Venus calendar is then only -two days, plus or minus. - -The coincidences of the 8 day period of obscuration of Venus at inferior -conjunction with the following round numbers in the day count was -memorialized by important monuments:— - - 9.14.0.0.0, 6 Ahau 13 Muan, Feb. 4, 452 A. D. Venus rises as - morning star - 9.17.0.0.0, 13 Ahau 18 Cumhu, Mar. 27, 511 A. D. Venus invisible - during conjunction - 10.0.0.0.0, 7 Ahau 18 Zip, May 17, 570 A. D. Venus invisible - during conjunction - 10.3.0.0.0, 1 Ahau 3 Yaxkin, July 6, 629 A. D. Venus about to set - as evening star - -The Venus table in the Dresden Codex, the introductory page of which has -been explained in an earlier section (see Plate XXIV) emphasizes the -same Mayan and Gregorian positions of Venus as the ancient monuments but -this table was evidently intended to be used between the Tenth and -Thirteenth centuries A. D. The point of departure for the table is -9.9.9.16.0, 1 Ahau 18 Kayab, April 12, 363 A. D., which does not -coincide with an heliacal rising of the planet, although April 12 and 18 -Kayab occur in other connections at the time of the inauguration of the -Venus calendar in the Sixth century B. C. But in the Lunar table we find -10.19.6.1.0, 4 Ahau 18 Kayab, November 20, 950, which does reach an -heliacal rising of Venus as morning star. - - - Summary of Mayan History. - -A brief summary of Mayan history is given below:— - - - Protohistoric Period - - 613 B. C. to 176 A. D. 7.0.0.0.0 to 9.0.0.0.0 - -The counting of days apparently began on August 6, 613 B. C. and the -civil calendar in perfected form was inaugurated about 580 B. C. when 0 -Pop coincided with the winter solstice, while the Venus calendar emerged -half a century later. The calendarial inventions, the numerical notation -and the hieroglyphic system may, perhaps, be credited to the genius of -one man afterwards deified as Itzamna. The earliest contemporary Mayan -date occurs on a jade statuette from San Andres Tuxtla, and is May 16, -98 B. C. The next earliest one is on the jade tablet known as the Leyden -Plate and is November 17, 60 A. D., having reference to the Venus -calendar. This is followed almost immediately by several contemporary -dates on monuments at Uaxactun which also are of astronomical import. -The design on the Leyden Plate shows that the characteristic details of -Mayan drawing had already been developed and we may surmise that during -the protohistoric period the early carvings were on wood instead of -stone and that the peculiar religion of the Mayas was even then -beginning to crystallize around the serpent, the jaguar, etc. - - - Early Period - - 176 A. D. to 373 A. D. 9.0.0.0.0 to 9.10.0.0.0 - -During these ten katuns the great cities of the south make rapid strides -towards grandeur. Pyramidal mounds are erected and temples built upon -them. Public squares are laid out and in these are set up stelæ and -altars. The leading early cities are Palenque, Tikal, and Copan, where -the dated monuments and temples mark rapid progress in the arts of -sculpture and architecture while the subject matter of inscriptions -reveals growing ability in astronomy and mathematics. Low angular relief -characterizes stone sculptures and the profile presentation of the human -figure is now handled more skilfully than front view. - - - Middle Period - - 373 A. D. to 471 A. D. 9.10.0.0.0 to 9.15.0.0.0 - -Some of the most beautiful monuments of the Mayas belong to this middle -period. While archaism does not entirely disappear there is freshness, -purity of style, and straightforwardness of presentation about the -sculpture of this age. Flamboyancy is not apparent. At Copan the Great -Mound was practically carried to completion during this period, an -enormous undertaking which absorbed so much energy that few stelæ were -set up. The best series of monuments from the middle period are seen at -Naranjo and Piedras Negras. - - - Great Period - - 471 A. D. to 629 A. D. 9.15.0.0.0 to 10.3.0.0.0 - -Many cities flourished in the culminating years of Mayan civilization. -In addition to those already mentioned Quirigua, Ixkun, Seibal, Nakum, -Cancuen, Yaxchilan, Toniná, and Kobá were important centers while a -complete list of the sites with dated monuments would show many more -names. The territorial extension reaches from northern Yucatan to the -Guatemalan highlands and from southern Vera Cruz to central Honduras. -Art passes through interesting changes with tendencies towards -flamboyancy. Architecture makes great advances: rooms become wider, -walls thinner and forms more refined and pleasing. The calculations deal -more and more with complicated astronomical subjects and dates belong -less and less in the category of contemporary history. The first age of -Mayan civilization, called the First Empire, comes to an end with Katun -3 of Cycle 10, a date registered at Uaxactun which, strangely enough, -also boasts the earliest stela with a contemporary date. It is indicated -that Uaxactun was occupied for 561 years while the range of dates at -Tikal is 394 years. Abandonment of all the sites of the First Empire -took place within something like fifty years. What caused this collapse? -Civil war? Social decadence? Failure of food supply? Or perhaps some -overwhelming epidemic? There is good reason for believing that the -sudden appearance of yellow fever may have had a part in the -catastrophe. References in the Chronicles to the First Empire are very -brief and do not help us find the answer to this mystery. - - - Transition Period - - 629 A. D. to 964 A. D. 10.3.0.0.0 to 11.0.0.0.0 - -Most of the Mayas surviving the collapse of the First Empire seem to -have found a second home in western Yucatan, especially in the region -called Chakunputun in the Chronicles. Here the rainfall is much less and -the forest environment not nearly so luxuriant. Certain cities, which -probably date from this transitional period, such as Hochob, -Dzibilnocac, Rio Bec, etc., have very beautiful architecture showing -advances over that of the First Empire in some features. Dated documents -are so rare as practically to be non-existent. It seems probable that -Mayan learning had been reduced to books for there is ample evidence -from the succeeding period that astronomical and calendarial knowledge -had been conserved from ancient times. At the end of these lean -centuries, the Mayas made their way still farther north. Chichen Itza -which had been a provincial city of the First Empire was reoccupied and -the Mayan renaissance known as the Second Empire began. - - - Period of the League of Mayapan - - 964 A. D. to 1191 A. D. 11.0.0.0.0 to 11.11.10.0.0 - -The first phase of the Mayan renaissance was pretty clearly centered in -Chichen Itza although the earliest date which may be contemporary is -probably that of the Temple of the Initial Series at Holactun. The -inscription shows a survival of the ancient method of counting time and -is now believed to treat of the interval between March 9, 1012 A. D. and -November 14, 1016 A. D. Other cities rising to splendor during the -Second Empire are Kabah, Labna, Sayil, and Izamal. The time of -foundation for Uxmal is rather difficult to determine. According to -tradition it was the capital of Toltec immigrants into Yucatan, but when -or how they arrived cannot be answered definitely. The League of Mayapan -was organized as an alliance between Chichen Itza and Uxmal in the -second half of the twelfth century, and Mayapan was built as a -neutralized capital of church and state under the inspiration of a -Toltec noble named Quetzalcoatl. Finally, Izamal and Chichen Itza -rebelled and Inetzalcoatl conquered the latter city in 1191 and made it -the capital of a Maya-Toltec state. - - - Period of Mexican Influence - - 1191 A. D. to 1437 A. D. 11.11.10.0.0 to 12.4.0.0.0 - -The helpers of Hunac Ceel bore Mexican names and belonged to the Toltec -nation. Hunac Ceel is identified in one place with Kukulcan, the name -meaning “plumed serpent” in the Mayan language, and in another place -with Quetzalcoatl which has the same significance in the Mexican -language. In Chichen Itza sculptural art and architecture have many -clear analogies to works in the Valley of Mexico. The building called -the Castillo seems to have been built by Quetzalcoatl, being the first -structure in which serpent columns and other structural ideas of this -ruler were given expression. The Temple of the High Priest’s Grave is a -developed example of the new style bearing the date December 31, 1339 A. -D. The elaborate Group of the Columns with the famous Temple of the -Warriors, may be still later. - -In the first half of the fifteenth century civil war and epidemic -disease brought about a second depopulation of the stone-built cities -including Chichen Itza, Mayapan, Uxmal, and probably also numerous other -sites in the region of Uxmal. The last monument at Mayapan may declare -the date September 28, 1437. - - - Modern Period - - 1437 A. D. to the present day. - -After the second general abandonment of urban life the Mayas seem to -have been divided into many warring factions. Temples were still -regarded as sacred and some constructions in stone and mortar were still -made, as we know from the first Spanish descriptions of towns on the -east coast of Yucatan. Tulum probably represented this last phase and -this site on a cliff overlooking the Caribbean is probably the city -compared to Seville by the coasting expedition of Grijalva in 1518. A -monument at Tulum is believed to record the last setting up of a katun -stone by the Mayas on 12.8.0.0.0, 2 Ahau 3 Pop, August 5, 1516, almost -exactly 2129 years after the Mayas began to count every day in order. - -At the present time certain ancient ideas still persist among the -Lacandone Indians of the lowlands and among the Quiché, Cakchiquels, and -several other tribes of the highlands. But the old glory of the Mayan -civilizations has passed away never to return. A prophetic vision of -this end is found in one of the Mayan Books of Chilam Balam which -relates to events immediately after the founding of Merida. - -“It was then that the teaching of Christianity began, that shall be -universal over our land. Then began the construction of the church here -in the center of the town of Tihoo: great labor was the destiny of the -katun. Then began the execution by hanging, and the fire at the ends of -our hands. Then also came ropes and cords into the world. Then the -children of the younger brothers (the Indians) passed under the hardship -of legal summons and tribute. Tribute was introduced on a large scale -and Christianity was introduced on a large scale. Then the seven -sacraments of the word of God were established. Let us receive our -guests heartily: our elder brothers (the white men) come!” - - - Plate XXVI. - - [Illustration: General View of Monte Alban from the North. The - mounds are arranged around courts in an orderly manner.] - - - - - Chapter III - THE MIDDLE CIVILIZATIONS - - -The influence of the Mayan civilization when at its height (400 to 600 -A. D.) may be traced far beyond the limits of the Mayan area. Ideas in -art, religion, and government that were then spread broadcast served to -quicken nations of diverse speech and a series of divergent cultures -resulted. Most of these lesser civilizations were at their best long -after the great Mayan civilization had declined, but one or two were -possibly contemporary. It will be the aim in the present chapter to -emphasize the indebtedness of these lesser civilizations to the Mayas as -well as to comment upon their individual characters. - -We will first proceed northwest into Mexico and then southeast into the -Isthmus of Panama. The environment under which the Mayas developed their -arts of life continues in narrowing bands westward along the Gulf of -Mexico and southward across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The most -westerly Mayan city of importance seems to have been Comalcalco. But -there is also a large ruin near San Andres Tuxtla and it may be -significant that the earliest dated object of the Mayas (the Tuxtla -Statuette) came from this region. In other words, the cradle of Mayan -culture may have been in this coastal belt where arid and humid -conditions exist side by side and where the figurines of the archaic -type are found together with those of the Mayas. Unfortunately, the -archæology of this part of Mexico has been little studied. - - - The Olmeca or Rubber People. - -The Olmeca may be placed in the humid region of southern Vera Cruz and -western Tabasco which the Aztecs of later times called Nonoalco. This -region is frequently mentioned in the most ancient of the Mexican -traditions, doubtless symbolizing in a general way the civilizing -contacts with the Mayas. Rubber is called _olli_ in the Mexican language -and while the earliest known specimens of rubber are those found in the -Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza, the ceremonial and practical uses of the -material are mostly mentioned in connection with the Olmeca and Totonac -peoples. Rubber was used for incense, for water-proofing purposes, to -tip drumsticks, etc. A large rubber ball was also used in a sacred game -which may be compared to basket ball since the goals were rings set high -up in the parallel walls of a specially constructed court. - -According to Ixtlilxochitl’s history the Olmeca came before the Toltecs -and were the first to extend their civilizing rule over parts of the -Mexican highlands. Some authorities think the Olmeca were a Mayan tribe -but it is quite possible that they spoke Mexican. They may have fled -south at the breakdown of the Toltec empire for we find in Nicaragua at -the time of the Conquest a group of this name with traditions pointing -to the far north. The ruins found in 1927 by the writer at Cerro de las -Mesas, west of Alvarado Lagoon, may possibly be ascribed to this people. -The site contains seventeen monuments, several of which are dedicated to -Quetzalcoatl and must be referred to the thirteenth century. Bars and -dots are used in connection with day signs to record dates which may -belong to the calendarial system appearing on Zapotecan monuments. - - - Plate XXVII. - - [Illustration: Detail of Monte Alban showing Wall Foundations and - Small Cell-like Rooms.] - - - Zapotecan Culture. - -In the State of Oaxaca the Zapotecan Indians attained to a high degree -of civilization, but a study of their culture shows they were profoundly -indebted to the Mayas for many ideas. Monte Alban, the White Mountain, -overlooking the modern City of Oaxaca is the principal archæological -site in point of size and may have been the ancient capital. It was -abandoned before the coming of the Spaniards, however, and Mitla appears -to have taken its place. - - [Illustration: Fig. 52. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent - Heads. The first two examples are from Palenque and the second two - from Monte Alban.] - -Unfortunately no extensive traditions have come down to us to help in -the restoration of Zapotecan history, or in that of the neighboring -Mixtecs. Although the art, hieroglyphic writing, and calendar system -were pretty clearly derived from the Mayas, nevertheless there was time -and opportunity for these to develop interesting characters of their -own. It is impossible to tell from the record whether the Zapotecs ever -embarked on a career of empire: the area in which the full complex of -the characteristic products occurs is practically limited to the area at -present occupied by the tribe. It is quite possible that the Zapotecs -were conquered by the Toltecs in the twelfth century and that such -similarities as exist between the forms of Zapotecan sculptural art and -those of the Toltec cities of Xochicalco and Teotihuacan in central -Mexico, on the one hand, and those of Pipil and Chorotegan sites in -Guatemala and Salvador, on the other hand, are to be explained by -intercommunications under the Toltec régime. - - [Illustration: Fig. 53. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with - Hieroglyphs on Zapotecan Monuments.] - -Monte Alban and Mitla stand in strong contrast to each other, the first -crowning a mountain ridge, the second occupying a valley site. Monte -Alban has no buildings intact, but shows a vast assemblage of enormous -pyramids and platforms. Mitla has only one small pyramid, but boasts a -series of finely preserved temples on low platform bases. In Monte Alban -we find monolithic monuments comparable to the stelæ of the Mayas, and -carrying hieroglyphic inscriptions: also pottery figurines and jade -amulets in a style which follows rather closely the models developed in -the early cities of the humid lowlands. At Mitla there are none of these -things: instead, the architectural decoration shows a most interesting -use of textile designs treated in a mosaic of cut stones. It is apparent -then that a long record of high culture is to be found in the Zapotecan -field. - - - Plate XXVIII. Zapotecan Art: - - [Illustration: Incense Burners.] - - [Illustration: Funerary Vases of Portrait Type.] - - [Illustration: Cruciform Tomb with Geometric Decoration.] - -At Monte Alban there are one or two narrow vaulted chambers in mounds, -but on the tops of the mounds the few excavations have disclosed only -simple cell-like rooms which probably had flat roofs. Some hints of -ancient architectural decoration can be picked up here and there. -Figures similar to those modeled in bold relief on the fronts of the -cylindrical funeral urns (see frontispiece) seem to have been used over -doorways, somewhat after the fashion of the Mayan mask panels. - -The hieroglyphs that are found on the stelæ of Monte Alban and on stone -slabs from other sites, resemble the Mayan hieroglyphs in the use of bar -and dot numerals, but the day and month signs have never been identified -with either the Mayan or Aztecan system, although almost certainly -dealing with the same type of calendar. Lintels with lines of -hieroglyphs on the outer edge have been found in burial chambers at -Cuilapa and Xoxo. The forms at the former site are clearly and -beautifully drawn, while at the latter site they are degenerate and -probably merely decorative. - -In Zapotecan funerary urns a close connection with Mayan art can easily -be demonstrated. The urns are cylindrical vessels concealed behind -elaborate figures built up from moulded and modeled pieces. Many of -these built-up figures clearly represent human beings while others -represent grotesque divinities or human beings wearing the masks of -divinities. The purely human types have a formal modeling in high -relief, the head usually being out of proportion to the rest of the -body. The pose is ordinarily a seated one with the hands resting on the -knees or folded over the breast. Details of dress are very clearly shown -including capes, girdles, aprons, or skirts and headdresses. Necklaces -are often worn with a crossbar pendant to which shells are attached. -Headdresses are made of feathers and grotesque faces and are often very -elaborate. As for the divine types the jaguar and a long-nosed reptile -are the most common. The latter has a human body and may possibly be an -adaptation of the Mayan Long-nosed God. - -The funerary urns are found in burial mounds called _mogotes_ which -contain cell-like burial chambers. The urns are not found within these -cells but on the floor in front of them, in a niche over the door, or -even on the roof. They are frequently encountered in groups of five and -seem never to contain offerings. - -Other Zapotecan pottery is mostly made of the same bluish clay used in -the urns. This clay is finely adapted to plastic treatment but never -carries painted designs. The pottery products include pitchers of -beautiful and unusual shapes, dishes with tripod legs modeled into -serpent heads, incense burners, bowls, plates, etc. Of the same clay are -also made whistles in realistic forms, and moulded figurines. Painted -pottery also occurs in forms and designs of rare beauty, but it is much -less characteristic of the Zapotecan province than the unpainted ware. - -Carved jades of splendid workmanship have been recovered in the -Zapotecan region and there is reason to believe that this semi-precious -stone was obtained here in the natural state. Many of the pieces are -smoothed only on the front, while the back retains its old weathered and -stream-worn surface. Beautiful examples of gold work found in this -region must be given a late date. - -Splendid manuscripts were obtained by the Spaniards in the Zapotecan -region, but the pictures of the gods as well as the hieroglyphs show -strong Aztecan influences. These will be discussed briefly in a later -section. Some accounts have been preserved of the special features of -Zapotecan religion which mark them off rather sharply from the Aztecs, -however. - -The high priests of the Zapotecans were called “Seers” and the ordinary -priests were “Guardians of the Gods” and “Sacrificers.” There was a sort -of priestly college where the sons of chiefs were trained in the service -of the gods. The religious practices included incense burning, -sacrificing of birds, and animals, and letting of one’s own blood by -piercing the tongue and the ear. Human sacrifice was made on stated -occasions and was attended by rites of great solemnity. The Zapotecs -never went to the blood excesses that stain the annals of the Aztecs. - - [Illustration: Fig. 54. Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla, - showing the separately Carved Stones.] - - - Plate XXIX. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Stone Sculpture of the Early Zapotecan Period - showing Rulers seated upon Thrones before an Altar.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension, found in - Zapotecan Tomb.] - -The 260 day cycle of the time count, was subdivided into four periods of -65 days and each period was under control of a single god and was -associated with one of the cardinal points. Each period of sixty-five -days was further divided into five groups of thirteen days for a -ceremonial reason. Some authorities have considered that the general -form of the Central American calendar originated in the region of the -Isthmus of Tehuantepec and spread to the north and to the south. But -dependable history in the Mayan area goes back much farther than in the -Zapotecan region and renders such a guess extremely hazardous. - - - Mitla. - -The famous temples of Mitla are the best-preserved examples of -architecture on the highlands of Mexico and are peculiar in form and -decoration. The word Mitla is a corruption of the Aztecan word -_Mictlan_, place of the dead. This site was the burial ground of -Zapotecan kings and may have been a place of pilgrimage. It was -conquered by the Aztecs in the last decade of the fifteenth century. -While the architecture belongs in a class by itself the frescoes have -the distinct character of the Aztecan period. - - [Illustration: Fig. 55. Wall Paintings of Mitla, resembling in style - the Pictographic Art of the Codices from Southern Mexico.] - -The remains at this site have already been contrasted with those at -Monte Alban. There is one fairly large mound at Mitla but it has no -surviving superstructure. The temples are placed on low platforms which -usually contain cruciform tombs. The buildings are carefully oriented -and are assembled in groups of four which almost enclose square paved -courts. The heavy walls have surfaces of cut stone and a filling of -concrete or rubble and are ornamented with longitudinal panels of -geometric designs arranged according to a carefully worked out plan. The -geometric patterns are based on textile art and the mosaics of -separately carved stones which fit neatly together preserve for us the -ancient designs on belts and mantles. The chambers are long and narrow -and formerly had flat roofs which have completely vanished. The wide -doorways usually have two piers which help to support the lintel blocks. -These are carefully trimmed stones of great length and weight. All the -outer surfaces of the Mitla temples were sized with plaster and painted -red and the frescoes, traces of which can still be seen in several -buildings, are in red and black upon a white base. Various gods and -ceremonies are represented in these frescoes, but only the upper portion -of the bands can be made out in detail. - -Cruciform tombs are found under several of the temples at Mitla as well -as at a number of neighboring sites such as Xaaga and Guiaroo. In these -tombs the designs in panels appear on the inside and are carved directly -on large blocks of stone. Pottery remains are rare in the cruciform -tombs of the Mitla type but a few examples of gold work have been -discovered in them. - -Within a short distance of Mitla is a fortified hill with several heavy -walls that still stand to the height of perhaps twenty feet. In the flat -valley between this hill and the ruins a considerable number of -potsherds are plowed up in the field. - - - Totonacan Culture. - -In the central part of the state of Vera Cruz are found the remains -commonly referred to the Totonacan Indians. These Indians are southern -neighbors of the Huastecas who are an outlying Mayan tribe. The -Totonacan language is according to some authorities thrown into the -Mayan stock. If not truly Mayan it contains many loan words. This -apparent connection in language is all the more interesting in view of -the character of Totonacan art which also shows a strong strain of Mayan -feeling and technique in certain products but an unmistakable likeness -to the archaic art of the Mexican highlands in certain other products. -The pottery faces in the archaic style are advanced beyond the average -of such work and probably represent a late phase. - - [Illustration: Fig. 56. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines.] - -A series of eyes showing Totonacan modifications of the styles prevalent -on the archaic pottery heads of the Highlands is given in Fig. 56. In -some cases we find the simple single or double groove eyes and in other -cases these eyes are made more conspicuous by the use of black -bituminous paint. The eyeball is developed at the end of the series. - - - Plate XXX. - - [Illustration: Laughing Head of the Totonacs, remarkable example of - Freehand Modeling in Clay. Heads of this type probably served as - decorative details on temple fronts.] - -The smiling or laughing faces have a much higher technique and are -perhaps the finest examples of clay modeling from the New World. These -heads have tubular extensions at the back and were possibly set into -temple walls. The faces and foreheads are broadened in accordance with -the esthetic type of a forehead flattening people. While the faces vary -so much in minor details as to create the impression that they are -portraits of actual persons they are alike in method of modeling. Nearly -all are laughing or smiling in a very contagious fashion. Sometimes the -tip of the tongue is caught between the teeth, sometimes the corners of -the mouth are pulled down as if the smile were reluctant, and there are -other individual variations in the expressions of lively and -unrestrained mirth. - -Perhaps the most famous objects found in Totonacan territory are the -so-called “stone collars” or “sacrificial yokes.” In size and shape -these resemble horse collars, but in contrast to somewhat similar -objects from Porto Rico they are usually open while the latter are -closed. Nothing is really known concerning their use but there has been -no lack of fanciful surmises. The most popular explanation is that the -yokes were placed over the necks of victims about to be sacrificed. It -is evident that the yokes were intended to be placed in a horizontal -position because there is a plain lower surface and the ends are -frequently carved with faces that are right side up only when the plain -side is down. These yokes represent the richest and most elaborate works -of art in the entire region since they are carved in the most finished -manner from single blocks of exceedingly hard stone. - -Other peculiarly shaped stones are found in the Totonacan area and are -carved according to the same splendid technique. The “paddle-shaped” -stones have been found in considerable numbers and their use, like that -of the stone yokes, is absolutely unknown. It is evident from the -carving that they were intended to be stood on end. - - - Plate XXXI. - - [Illustration: (_a_) An Elaborately Carved Stone Collar, an Example - of the Best Sculpture of the Totonacan Indians.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) A Palmate Stone from the State of Vera Cruz. - Two grotesque figures are holding snakes in their mouths.] - -The designs on the sacrificial yokes and paddle stones are largely -reptilian, but there are examples where the turkey, the coyote, as well -as the human motive are treated somewhat after the manner of the Mayas. -Plumed serpents, monkeys, centipedes, and crocodiles are interestingly -drawn on pottery. An important site is Papantla where a remarkably -ornate pyramid rising in six terraces may be seen, as well as massive -sculptures in the same style as the works of art described above. The -front wall of each terrace on all four sides of the pyramid, except for -the space occupied by the stairway, is divided into a series of niches -neatly made of cut stone. Formerly each of these niches may have served -to shelter the statue of some god. Many fine remains of Totonacan art -have been recovered from the Island of Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera -Cruz. This island retained its ancient sacrificial character in the time -of the Spanish conquerors. It is apparent, however, that the culture had -already changed greatly if we may judge by the ruins of Cempoalan, the -Totonacan capital in the sixteenth century. The art of this city is -largely Aztecan. - - - The Toltecs. - -Mexican history is greatly concerned with the Toltecs, the name meaning -People of Tula, or Tollan, “place of the reeds.” Evidence is -accumulating that this Tula was not the comparatively insignificant ruin -on the northern edge of the Valley of Mexico, but instead was the great -city of San Juan Teotihuacan. The lesser Tula may have been founded -about 1200 A. D., just before the collapse of Toltec power. - -Archæology tells a more detailed and convincing story of the Toltecs -than does recorded history. In the stratified remains at Atzcapotzalco, -the objects accredited to the Toltecs overlie those of the first potters -of the Archaic Period and are in striking contrast to them. The -principal motives of Toltec decorative art are obviously related to the -earlier more brilliant work of the Mayas. The pyramids of the Toltecs -exceed in size those of the Mayas but are of inferior construction, -adobe bricks with concrete facing taking the place of rubble and cut -stone. The temples that crowned these pyramids were also of less solid -construction and no single example is now intact. Vaulted ceilings were -replaced by flat timbered ceilings or high pitched roofs of thatch. -Sometimes in wide rooms columns were used as additional support for roof -beams. The groundplans of buildings other than temples show small rooms -arranged in an irregular fashion round courts. - -The ceremonial game of _tlachtli_ resembling basket ball was an -important feature of Toltec religion. It may have been obtained from the -Olmeca, but at any rate spread far and wide under the Toltec régime. -Another feature of Toltec religion was the worship of the sun’s disk -which is reflected in various sculptures. Also this people are supposed -to have invented _pulque_, made from the fermented sap of the agave. The -reclining type of sculpture known as Chacmool, after the famous example -found at Chichen Itza in northern Yucatan, may be a relic of a peculiar -Toltec cult in which drunkenness figured. Human sacrifice was another -feature of the religion of the Mexican highlands in contrast to that of -the lowland Mayas. On the economic side Toltec culture rested on the -earlier Archaic civilization, but on the artistic and ceremonial side it -was largely inspired by the Mayas through the mediation of the Zapotecs, -Olmecs, and Totonacs, but with new emphasis on certain aspects and -several important innovations. The language of the Toltecs seems to have -been essentially the same as that of the Aztecs who succeeded them. - -The Toltecs made a radical departure in social policy in that they took -to war and expropriation as a means of building up national wealth, -thereby paralleling, somewhat ineffectively to be sure, the political -methods of Europe and Western Asia. There had been war before their time -in Central America, but not apparently for aggrandizement. The Mayas, -and most other Mexican and Central American nations, developed excess -food supply which released many persons for the pursuit of art and -science. Perhaps it was pressure of population upon food supply in an -arid land that directed the Toltecs towards tribute taking. At least the -fact is reasonably clear that this people did embark upon a short-lived -career of conquest and that they levied tribute of precious stones and -precious metals and secured by the same means an augmented food supply. - -There is confusion and reduplication in the lists of Toltec rulers and -only three great names in succession can be regarded as certain. These -are Huetzin, Ihuitimal, and Quetzalcoatl, although it seems probable -that there was a still earlier chieftain named Mixcoatl or Mixcoamazatl -and that two successors of Quetzalcoatl were Matlaxochitl and Nauyotl, -the last-named also figuring as the first lord of Colhuacan. Then follow -various dynastic lists for several Mexican tribes which flourished -between the downfall of the Toltecs and the coming of the Spaniards. - - - Quetzalcoatl and the Toltec Era. - -The chronology of the Toltecs and their successors is greatly dilated in -several historical compilations made after the Spanish conquest by -intelligent natives who interpreted fragments of ancient pictographic -year counts then surviving in Mexico. Thanks to a modern survey of -materials much more extensive than those which Chimalpahin, -Ixtlilxochitl, etc., had at their disposal, we are now able to avoid the -errors of these writers. - -In the original pre-Spanish chronicles important events are recorded in -connection with fifty-two year signs falling in regular order and then -repeating. In the well-intentioned attempts to restore Mexican history -entire cycles are interpolated in several places and the rulers are -given lives of impossible length. In the case of Ixtlilxochitl we -possess, fortunately, the principal documents which this descendant of -the Texcocan kings attempted to interpret. Also in the case of the -Annals of Quauhtitlan, an early compilation made by a nameless student -of ancient history, we are in position to adjudicate wide errors in -chronology. There is an annotation on this manuscript reading “6 times 4 -centuries, plus 1 century, plus 13 years, today the 22nd of May 1558.” -The “centuries” are the native cycles of fifty-two years and the total -on this basis would amount to 1313 years. Subtracted from 1558 the -beginning would be found in 245 A. D., while the years set down by the -compiler in an unbroken series reach back to 635 A. D. But there is no -pre-Spanish support for written history, outside the Mayan area, of -anything like this antiquity. - -The Toltec Era was established by Quetzalcoatl, after a simplified model -of the Mayan calendar, on August 6, 1168 A. D., this date corresponding -to a day 1 Tecpatl (1 Flint) in the first position of a month Toxcatl. -This day gave its name to the entire year and its hieroglyph was one of -a series of fifty-two used to designate years in the pictographic -records. Most of the Mexican year counts begin with the particular sign -1 Tecpatl which corresponds to 1168-69 A. D. In others there is -reference to a day 7 Acatl 1 Panquetzaliztli in a year 2 Acatl (February -16, 1195 A. D.) upon which a new fire ceremony, established by -Quetzalcoatl in accordance with Mayan usage, was celebrated at intervals -of fifty-two years. - -The conclusions are supported by evidence in Guatemalan chronicles and -also in records of the Mayas for we have already seen that Quetzalcoatl -conquered Chichen Itza in 1191 A. D. The three great Toltec emperors, -Huetzin, Ihuitimal, and Quetzalcoatl, swept over an area extending from -Durango to Nicaragua, the three seats of their government being -Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, Chichen Itza in Yucatan, and -Iximché in Guatemala. - -Quetzalcoatl probably spent his youth in Yucatan, returning to his -highland home with strange religious and social ideas. His opposition to -the Toltec idea of human sacrifice was followed by a war of cults. -Quetzalcoatl began the construction at Tula with serpent columns like -those of his lofty temple in Chichen Itza. Also he appears to have -founded Cholula as a special center for his humane religion. His death -occurred in connection with a prognostication in the Venus calendar of -the Mayas, for the year 1 Acatl, 1207-08 A. D. - -Quetzalcoatl, perhaps the most remarkable figure in ancient American -history, was emperor, artist, scientist, and humanist philosopher. He -established orders of knighthood as well as the coronation ceremony used -by the later Mexican kings. He developed the various industrial arts and -built up a wide trade in cotton, cacao, and other products. As a patron -of the peripatetic merchant he appears under the name Nacxitl, which -means Four-way Foot. Apotheosis being an idea strongly fixed among the -Toltecs, Quetzalcoatl was deified as Ehecatl, God of Winds, on account -of his support of the Mayan god of rainstorms, and for his astronomical -work he was further deified as God of the Planet Venus. - - - Plate XXXII. - - [Illustration: The Temple at Xochicalco before Restoration. The - lower part of the picture shows the sculptured base of the temple - pyramid. The walls of the temple itself are seen above.] - - - San Juan Teotihuacan. - -This name Teotihuacan means Where the Gods (i.e., the deified dead) -Dwell. This enormous ruin is located on the eastern margin of the Valley -of Mexico. The principal features of Teotihuacan are two great pyramids -and a straight roadway lined with small pyramids. There are also several -groups of buildings of which the lower walls and the bases of the piers -are still to be seen as well as some interesting fragments of fresco -painting. The smaller of the two great pyramids is called the Pyramid of -the Moon. It is located at the end of the roadway which is commonly -called the Pathway of the Dead. The Pyramid of the Sun is situated on -the east side of the roadway. This pyramid is about 180 feet in height -and rises in four sloping terraces. The temple which formerly crowned -its summit has entirely disappeared. Explorations conducted by the -Mexican government showed that this pyramid was enlarged from time to -time and old stairways buried under new masonry. On the south side of -the small stream that flows through the ruins is a group of buildings -called the Citadel. - - - Plate XXXIII. Two Views of the Principal Pyramid in the Citadel at - Teotihuacan. - - [Illustration: (_a_) General view of the original mass of the - pyramid at the back with the reconstructed addition in front.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) View of stairway and various walls covered up - and preserved by the addition.] - -In 1921 the Mexican Government undertook a restoration of the Citadel, -following the discovery of remarkable sculptures on the principal -pyramid. It appears that in ancient times this pyramid was enlarged by -an addition to one side and the richly ornamented terraces and stairway -buried (Plate XXXIII). The sculptured stones from the other three sides -of the temple were allowed to fall into neglect by the Toltecs or were -carried away and put to other uses, but the portion buried was kept in -its original state. The colors are still bright in many places and the -great heads of plumed serpents and obsidian butterflies sometimes retain -their inset eyes of obsidian. The decoration is a repeated motive. The -head of the feathered serpent projects outward from the terrace walls -and from the balustrade of the stairway, while the body is in low -relief. The tail of the serpent has a rattle, and the body is covered -with feathers. Shells are seen below the serpent where the body arches -and just in front of the tail is a massive head with two rings on the -frontal. This doubtless represents the Obsidian Butterfly, a divinity of -great importance among the Toltecs, which is represented unmistakably in -frescoes at Teotihuacan as well as on pottery. The Citadel well deserves -its name, since it is a great enclosure, much like a fort, with -buildings upon its bulwarks, and with steep outer walls, which could -easily be defended. - -A few large sculptures have been found at Teotihuacan. But the site is -chiefly remarkable for pottery figurines and heads that are picked up by -thousands. The heads present such a marked variety of facial contour and -expression that it would seem as if every race under the sun had served -as models. It is very likely that these heads formed part of votive -offerings, being attached to bodies made of some perishable material. -The heads were seldom used to adorn pottery vessels, although many -modern and fraudulent vases are so adorned. Dolls with head and torso in -one piece and with movable arms and legs made of separate pieces were -known. The face of Tlaloc, the Rain God, is fairly common in Teotihuacan -pottery but other deities have not surely been identified. It is not -improbable that the God of Fire is personified as an old man with -wrinkled face, but somewhat less likely that Xipe is represented in the -faces that look out through the three holes of a mask. The jaguar, the -monkey, the owl, and other animals are also modeled with excellent -fidelity. The Mayan convention of the human face in the open jaws of the -serpent is not unknown. - - [Illustration: Fig. 57. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan - Teotihuacan.] - -A number of beautiful vases painted in soft greens, pinks, and yellows -have been recovered at Teotihuacan. These colors would not stand the -kiln and they were applied after the vessel had been burned. According -to one method, the outside of the vessel was covered with a fine coating -of plaster upon which the design was painted exactly as in fresco. -According to a second method the effect of _cloisonné_ was cleverly -achieved. This technique is most characteristic of the region northwest -of the Valley of Mexico and will be described later. Incised or engraved -designs are commonly met with on pottery vessels at Teotihuacan. No -inscriptions have been found at this ruin, in spite of the many years of -exploration. - - - Xochicalco. - -Let us now pass over in brief review several ruins which belong to the -Toltecan period. Xochicalco, the House of the Flowers, is a large ruin -near Cuernavaca. The position seems to have been chosen primarily for -defense. The rounded ridge that drops off into deep valleys on either -side is laid out in courts, terraces, and pyramids. Only one building -offers evidence of the sculptural skill of the ancient habitants. It is -a temple, standing upon a rather low platform mound. The sides of the -platform mound are decorated with great plumed serpents, seated human -figures, hieroglyphs, etc. Parts of the sculptures also remain on the -low walls of the temple itself which is now roofless. The stone carving -at Xochicalco resembles that of Monte Alban especially as regards the -hieroglyphs and is probably of somewhat later date than Teotihuacan. All -in all the conclusion seems safe that writing was unknown outside the -Mayan area before Quetzalcoatl devised ways and means. - - - Tula. - -Building stone of good quality was available at this site and in -consequence sculptures are plentiful. Particularly famous are the great -sculptured columns which represent feathered serpents and gigantic human -figures. The drums are mostly mortised and the columns are crowned by -true capitals. These architectural features at Tula find their closest -counterpart at the Mayan city of Chichen Itza in northern Yucatan. The -_tlachtli_ or ball court occurs at Tula and the groundplans of -complicated “palaces” can also be made out. - - - Cholula. - -The sacred city of Cholula, in the environs at Puebla, is chiefly famous -for its great pyramid. This structure is more or less irregular in shape -but the base averages more than a thousand feet on the side and the -total height, now somewhat reduced, was probably close to two hundred -feet above the plain. Compared with the Pyramid of Cheops, it covers -nearly twice as much ground and has a much greater volume, but lacks of -course, in height. As already noted, the pyramids of the New World are -simply foundations for temples and thus always have flat tops. The great -mound of Cholula is a solid mass of adobe bricks of uniform size laid in -adobe mortar. The pyramid was evidently faced with a thick layer of -cement of which a few patches still remain. Two other large mounds exist -at Cholula. One of these has been partially destroyed and now stands as -a vertical mass of adobe bricks while the other is overgrown with brush -and cactus. - - [Illustration: Fig. 58. Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations - in Several Colors. The pottery of Cholula ranks high in design and - color.] - - - Plate XXXIV. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Partial View of the Great Pyramid at Cholula - which rises from the Level Plain in Three Broad Terraces. A Spanish - church has been built upon the top of this pyramid and a roadway - leads up the badly eroded mound.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) A View at La Quemada. Cylindrical columns built - up of slabs of stone supported the roofs of some of the structures. - The use of columns was characteristic of late Toltecan times.] - -Unlike the other Toltecan cities Cholula was still inhabited and a place -of religions importance when Cortez arrived in Mexico. But the figurines -and pottery vessels that are found at this site belong for the most part -to an epoch earlier than that of the Aztecs. Quetzalcoatl was the patron -deity of Cholula and in the decorative art the serpent is finely -conventionalized. A pottery shape frequently met with at Cholula is the -flat plate bearing polychrome designs. - - - The Frontier Cities of the Northwest. - -An important culture area is located upon the northwestern limits of the -area of high culture in ancient Mexico. The best known and most -accessible ruin is La Quemada, “The Burned” which is situated a day’s -ride from the city of Zacatecas. This site was found in a deserted and -ruinous condition by the Spaniards in 1535 and there is little doubt -that it had been abandoned several centuries previous. La Quemada has -been popularly associated with Chicomoztoc, “The Seven Caves,” a place -famous in Aztecan mythology, but this association rests upon no -scientific basis. It is simply an unauthoritative attempt to invest a -forgotten city with a legendary interest. Chicomoztoc, where the Aztecs -came out of the underworld might be compared with our own Garden of Eden -and its exact location is just as much an eternal riddle. La Quemada is -a terraced hill resembling Monte Alban and Xochicalco. The retaining -walls of terraces and pyramids as well as the walls of buildings are -still well preserved. These walls consist of slabs of stone set in a -mortar of red earth. Perhaps the most noteworthy structure is a wide -hall containing seven columns built of slabs of stone in the same manner -as the walls. All in all the architectural types as well as the observed -contacts in art point to a late epoch of the Toltecan period. Other -ruins of the same character as La Quemada occur at Chalchihuites on the -frontier of Durango and at Totoate, etc., in northern Jalisco. - -The most important artistic product from this northwestern region is a -peculiar kind of pottery which might be described as cloisonné or -encaustic ware. Examination shows that this pottery was first burned in -the usual way so that it acquired a red or orange color. Then the -surface was covered with a layer of greenish or blackish pigment to the -depth of perhaps a sixteenth of an inch. A large part of this surface -layer was then carefully cut away with a sharp blade in such a way that -the remaining portions outlined certain geometric and realistic figures. -The sunken spaces, from which the material had just been removed, were -then filled in flush with red, yellow, white, and green pigments. The -designs on this class of pottery are thus mosaics in which the different -colors are separated by narrow lines of a neutral tint. The geometric -motives show a marked use of the terrace, the fret, and the scroll. The -realistic subjects are presented in a highly conventionalized manner and -have few stylistic similarities to the figures from the Valley of -Mexico. Representative collections of this ware from Totoate, already -referred to, and from Estanzuela, a hacienda near Guadalajara, are on -exhibition in the American Museum of Natural History. - -Cloisonné pottery of a somewhat different style sometimes occurs at -Toltecan sites in the Valley of Mexico, such as Tula, Teotihuacan, and -Atzcapotzalco, but fresco pottery which resembles it at first glance is -more characteristic. It appears that the cloisonné process was taken -over from the embellishment of gourd dishes in connection with which it -still exists over a large part of Mexico and Central America. - - [Illustration: Fig. 59. Vessel with “Cloisonné” Decoration in Heavy - Pigments. This example comes from a mound at Atzcapotzalco and dates - from late Toltecan times. Trade pieces of this ware have been found - at Pueblo Bonito in New Mexico and Chichen Itza in Yucatan.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 60. The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative - Painting with Wax at Totoate, Jalisco.] - -Another common method of ceramic decoration taken over was that of -negative painting similar to the process used with cloth in making batik -designs. This process still exists in Central America as regards gourd -dishes although discontinued on pottery. Negative painting appears to be -an ancient process of exceedingly wide distribution. It is especially -common in Jalisco and Michoacan, the Valley of Toluca, Nicaragua, Costa -Rica, Panama, and Colombia, and sometimes occurs in Yucatan and Peru. -The design was painted in wax or some other soluble or combustible -paint, then the entire surface was covered with a permanent paint. When -the pot was burned the design came out in the natural color of the clay -against a black, or sometimes a red field. The design was often made two -layers deep by applying simple masses of red over the sizing before the -impermanent paint of the design proper was put on. In the northwestern -region of central Mexico now under consideration the negative painting -technique is associated with conventionalized designs representing -turtles (Fig. 60). Another ware with designs in white is concerned with -derivatives of the turtle motive. Then there are the remarkable copper -bells in the form of turtles made by coiling, that have been found in -nearby Michoacan. - - - Plate XXXV. - - [Illustration: Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the State of - Guerrero. The face at the top apparently represents a monkey, but - serpents have been introduced between the eyes and the eyebrows. The - other highly conventionalized faces are probably those of serpents.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 61. Jaguar Head on Disk-Shaped Stone. Salvador.] - -It is difficult to place time limits for the artistic styles that once -existed in this northwestern region. The archaic culture seems to have -lasted longer here than farther south; next followed the northern flow -of Toltecan culture which later receded and finally came a rather thin -layer of Chichimecan or Aztecan culture. We may tentatively conclude -that the forgotten cities of the Zacatecan subculture flourished after -1000 A. D. The question should be settled because of its connection with -the dating of Pueblo ruins farther north. - - - Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa. - -The zonal distribution of rain forests in southern Mexico and Central -America is especially important, as has been pointed out, in connection -with the spread of Mayan-type civilizations. The Olmeca and Totonacs who -were among the first to feel the cultural effects of the Mayan -ascendency occupied lands of heavy precipitation. The Zapotecan and -Mixtecan areas were partly wet and partly dry. The Toltecs seem -originally to have been desert dwellers but they extended their -conquests over tribes living in the humid tropics and made much of -cacao, rubber, copal, etc., obtained by trade and tribute from such -subject peoples. - -Along the Pacific coast below the Isthmus of Tehuantepec lies a rain -belt containing ruined cities which flourished between 1000 to 1300 A. -D., or on the historical level of the Toltec expansion. The sculptural -art at these sites resembles the works attributed to the Olmecs in -Tabasco and Vera Cruz on the one hand and to the works of the Chorotega -of lower Central America on the other. One such ruin is Quiengola near -the modern city of Tehuantepec, another occupies a ridge above Tonalá -and there is a cluster of sites in the environs of Santa Lucia -Cozumalhualpa in southern Guatemala, extending into western Salvador. - -Whether or not the sculptures of Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa are to be -credited to the Pipil, a Mexican tribe, is far from certain, but human -sacrifice and other Toltec religious ideas are plainly presented. We -find here elaborate speech scrolls comparable to those of Xochicalco and -the Toltec work at Chichen Itza. Also there is evidence of the -ceremonial importance of cacao in this region, the god of this economic -plant being pictured in the form of a jaguar. - -A peculiar type of pottery centered in southern Guatemala and western -Salvador from which region it was distributed far and wide by trade. -Although a few examples of this ware are found at Copan it is clear from -the designs that most of the pieces belong to a time subsequent to the -abandonment of this Mayan city. The ware has a semi-glaze which is the -result of lead in the clay. Because paint could not be applied to this -ware, the esthetic idea of shape was allowed to develop itself without -hindrance. This pottery is now referred to as plumbate ware. - - - The Chorotegan Culture. - -Passing south and east from the Mayan area we find remains of a rich and -in many ways peculiar art, consisting mostly of pottery and stone -carvings, to which the name Chorotegan is applied. This name means -Driven-out People. It was first used in connection with several tribes -of the Chiapanec-Otomi stock dispossessed of a fertile area about Lake -Nicaragua by the intrusive Mexican-speaking Nicarao. The Chorotega were -not, however, totally dispossessed since they continued to hold the -Peninsula of Nicoya in Costa Rica as well as other pieces of territory. -In an archæological sense the name Chorotegan fittingly can be extended -to eastern parts of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras, since the -inhabitants of this stretch of land were also dispossessed some time -before the coming of the Spaniards. Or perhaps they voluntarily migrated -northward towards the end of the Toltec rule and are to be identified -with the Otomi, Tlappaneca, and Mazateca of southern and central Mexico. -The Tlappaneca and Otomi are definitely associated with introduction -into Mexico of the peculiar cult of Xipe, God of the Flayed. This cult -was clearly of southern origin and indeed still survived at Nicaragua at -the time of the Spanish Conquest. The Mazateca were found in transit by -Cortez, in the southern part of the Peninsula of Yucatan, living in -palisaded villages. Similar palisaded villages once flourished in -Honduras. The wild South American tribes who replaced the eastern -Chorotega exhibit a cultural non-conformity with the archæological -remains of the region they now occupy. - - [Illustration: Fig. 62. Front View and Profile View Serpent Heads in - Chorotegan Art. Although derived from Mayan models they have - undergone great changes and have become highly conventionalized.] - -Close analysis shows that many of the decorative motives in Chorotegan -art were developed from those of the Mayas. The serpent and the monkey -furnish the majority of the designs that are surely Mayan but each of -these is carried so far away from the original that only an expert can -see the connections. The arms and legs of the monkeys are lengthened and -given an extra number of joints while the heads degenerate into circles. -The tongues of the serpents are elongated and bent downward at the end. -All the open spaces are treated with scallops or fringes of short lines. - - [Illustration: Fig. 63. Jaguar Design with Mayan Affinities - associated with Figurines that still retain Archaic Characters. - Costa Rica.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 64. Jaguars from painted Nicoyan Vases.] - -There is also in Chorotegan art a crocodilian motive that may be -peculiar to the Isthmian region although it has Mayan affinities. The -jaguar is also important in this ancient art. Among the most interesting -vases are those that have a modeled head projecting from one side -(jaguar, monkey, or bird) and two of the three legs of the vessel -modified into animal legs. On these elaborate vessels there are bands of -painted decoration mostly concerned with the crocodile. - - - Plate XXXVI. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Finely Carved Ceremonial Slab found at - Mercedes, Costa Rica. The three large figures on the end as well as - the smaller ones on the bottom represent crocodiles. Keith - Collection.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Stone Figure from Costa Rica. This sculpture in - lava rock is one of the finest pieces ever discovered in this - region. The lines on the body probably represent tattoo marks.] - - [Illustration: (_c_) Ceremonial Slab decorated with Monkeys. - Mercedes, Costa Rica. These ceremonial slabs may be developments of - metates or corn grinders. Keith Collection.] - -The extremely elaborate metates (stones upon which maize was ground) -from southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica probably were made by -the producers of the peculiar pottery art already described. These were -carved out of solid blocks of lava with stone tools. It is not unlikely -that these elaborate metates were used as ceremonial seats since few of -them show signs of use. The jaguar is perhaps the most common motive -used in the decoration of these metates. The back is broad and slightly -dished, the head projects from the center of one end and the tail swings -in a curve from the other end to one of the feet. - - [Illustration: Fig. 65. Highly Conventionalized Jaguar Motive. The - principal features of the head as well as the outline of the leg - survive in highly modified form. From the southern end of Lake - Nicaragua.] - -At Mercedes remarkable stone slabs were found during the excavations -conducted by Mr. Minor C. Keith. These are now on exhibition in the -American Museum of Natural History. The sculptures in relief on these -slabs are by all odds the finest from the Isthmian area. Human beings, -crocodiles, monkeys and birds are all used to decorate these carefully -and laboriously made pieces whose use is entirely unknown. Statues in -the full round have also been unearthed in quantity at Mercedes which -gives every evidence of having been a large city with a long career. - - [Illustration: Fig. 66. Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on - Dishes from Mercedes, Costa Rica.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 67. Panels containing Crocodiles painted in - White Lines on Large Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 68. Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow - Line Ware of Mercedes, Costa Rica.] - -We may be reasonably sure that the stone slabs date from a fairly late -epoch because an undoubted “Chacmool” exhibiting the same style of -carving has been discovered here. The “Chacmool,” a half reclining -figure with the knees drawn up, the body supported in part upon the -elbows and a bowl for incense or other offerings in the pit of the -stomach, gets its fanciful name from Le Plongeon who discovered the -original at Chichen Itza. But the unmistakable sculptures of this type -were apparently developed by the highland tribes and the cult was -introduced into northern Yucatan during the period of Mexican influence. -In addition to Chichen Itza examples have been found at Cempoalan, the -historic Totonacan capital near Vera Cruz, at Texcoco, in the Valley of -Mexico, at Jhuatzio in the Tarascan region, as well as at Chalchuapa far -to the southeast in Salvador. All of these occurrences indicate a late -Toltecan horizon for its distribution. - - - Isthmian Gold Work. - -Metal-working was unknown to the Mayas of the First Empire, but is -abundantly illustrated in cities of the Second Empire, especially -Chichen Itza where the pieces are predominantly of Costa Rican and -Colombian manufacture evidently secured in trade. We are therefore -justified in concluding that the splendid Isthmian gold work came into -being after 630 A. D. and was typically developed by 1200 A. D. The -“wire technique,” essentially a cast rather than a soldered filigree, -characterized metal working as far south as southern Colombia and is -also the dominant mode in Mexico. In addition to plain and hollow -casting, two kinds of gold plating were carried to perfection by the -ancient metal workers: one a heavy plating over copper and the other a -thin gilding. The manner in which this plating was done is still -uncertain. It has been suggested that the molds were lined with leaf -gold or sprinkled with gold dust before the baser copper was poured in. -Also acids are said to have been used to dissolve out copper from the -surfaces. Many ornaments are of pure beaten gold and have designs in -_repoussé_. - - - Plate XXXVII. - - [Illustration: (_a_) The Gold Work of the Ancient Mexicans excited - the Wonder of the Spanish Conquerors. Comparatively few examples, - however, have come down to us.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Many Ornaments of Gold are found in the Graves - of Costa Rica and Panama. The Keith Collection contains a very fine - series of these pieces illustrating all the forms as well as the - technical processes.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 69. Conventional Crocodiles from Costa Rica and - Panama.] - -The gold objects are found in stone box graves along with pottery and -stone carvings. Gold is taken from only a small percentage of the -graves, probably those of chiefs. A systematic rifling of the ancient -cemeteries has been going on since the arrival of the Spaniards, but the -finds have mostly been thrown into the melting pot. The burial places -are sometimes marked by low platforms built over a group of graves. An -iron rod, giving forth a hollow sound when the stone cysts are struck, -is used by the searchers. Human bones are found in these graves, but -seldom in a state of good preservation. - -Mr. Minor C. Keith’s collection of gold work from Costa Rica and Panama -is unexcelled and illustrates the range of technical processes as well -as of ornamental forms. Human forms are represented with peculiar -headdresses and with various objects carried in the hands and often they -are joined in pairs. Many of the most beautiful amulets are frogs -arranged either singly or in groups of two or three. These figures are -all provided with a ring on the under side for suspension. Lizards, -turtles, and crocodiles are frequently modeled as well as clam shells, -crabs, and monkeys. But perhaps the most frequent amulets are those that -picture birds with outspread wings among which may be recognized -vultures, harpy eagles, gulls, man-of-war birds, and parrots. The larger -and more elaborate pieces of gold work cast considerable light on the -ancient religion of the natives since beast gods are figured in half -human form. Bells of copper and gold were much used in gala dress and -were doubtless an object of trade with the tribes farther north. - - - Plate XXXVIII. - - [Illustration: A Page from the Tribute Roll of Moctezuma, showing - the Annual Tribute of the Eleven Towns pictured at the Bottom and - Right. The tribute consisted of: (_a_) Two strings of jade beads; - (_b_) Twenty gourd dishes of gold dust; (_c_) A royal headdress; - (_d_) Eight hundred bunches of feathers; (_e_) Forty bags of - cochineal dye; (_f-g_) Warrior’s costumes; (_h_) Four hundred and - two blankets of this pattern; (_i_) Four hundred blankets; (_j_) - Four hundred and four blankets; (_k_) Four hundred blankets. The - towns are: (1) Coaxalahuacan; (2) Texopan; (3) Tamozolapan; (4) - Yancuitlan; (5) Tezuzcululan; (6) Nochistlan; (7) Xaltepec; (8) - Tamazolan; (9) Mictlan (Mitla); (10) Coaxomulcu; (11) Cuicatlan, in - the State of Oaxaca.] - - - - - Chapter IV - THE AZTECS - - -The Aztecs were the dominant nation on the highlands of Mexico when -Cortez marched with his small army to conquer New Spain. The horrible -sacrifices that they made to their gods and the wealth and barbaric -splendor of their rulers have often been described. But their history in -point of time covered short space and their art and religion was based -in a large measure on achievements of the nations that had preceded -them. - - - Mayas and Aztecs compared to Greeks and Romans. - -A remarkably close analogy may be drawn between the Mayas and Aztecs in -the New World and the Greeks and Romans in the Old, as regards -character, achievements, and relations one to the other. The Mayas, like -the Greeks, were an artistic and intellectual people who developed -sculpture, painting, architecture, astronomy and other arts and sciences -to a high plane. Politically, both were divided into communities or -states that bickered and quarreled. There were temporary leagues between -certain cities, but real unity only against a common enemy. Culturally, -both were one people, in spite of dialectic differences, for the warring -factions were bound together by a common religion and a common thought. -To be sure the religion of the Mayas was much more barbaric than that of -the Greeks but in each case the subject matter was idealized and -beautified in art. - - - Plate XXXIX. - - [Illustration: Page from the Codex Telleriano-Remensis showing a - Native Manuscript with Explication by the Spaniards. The death of - Chimalpopoca and the election of his successor, Itzcouatl, is - recorded, as well as the capture of Atzcapotzalco.] - -The Aztecs, like the Romans, were a brusque and warlike people who built -upon the ruins of an earlier civilization that fell before the force of -their arms and who made their most, notable contributions to -organization and government. The Toltecs stand just beyond the foreline -of Aztecan history and may fitly be compared to the Etruscans. They were -the possessors of a culture derived in part from their brilliant -contemporaries that was magnified to true greatness by their ruder -successors. - - - The Chichimecas. - -The term Chichimecas was applied by the more civilized tribes of the -Mexican highlands to those nomads outside the pale who dressed in skins -and hunted with the bow and arrow. Some of these wandering groups spoke -Nahuan dialects, but the term was also applied to the Otomis who spoke a -distinct language. Possibly through having been reduced in war certain -of these wandering groups were drawn into civilization and when the -Toltecan cities began to decline, they advanced to considerable power -and prestige. In fact, the Aztecs may be considered as originally -Chichimecan, along with the people of Texcoco. In later times, these -city-broken nomads looked back with considerable pride on their lowly -origin. The early life in the open is pictured interestingly in several -documents including the Map of Tlotzin and the Map of Quinatzin. - -We have already seen how the splendid culture of the Toltecan cities -broke down under the weight of civil war about 1220 A. D. To be sure, -Cholula appears to have kept alive the flame of Toltecan religion and -art up to the advent of the Spaniards. Atzcapotzalco, Colhuacan, and -other towns near the lakes that had been established during the Toltecan -period were able to hold their own for a time against the newer order. - -Xolotl, founder of the dynasty of Texcoco, makes his first appearance in -the Valley of Mexico in 1225, five years after the dispersion of the -Toltecs, according to the Codex Xolotl. He viewed the abandoned cities -but neither he nor his immediate successors chose to lead a sedentary -life. The first date appears too early because it seems unlikely that -the reigns of Xolotl and his son actually covered ninety years. The -foundation of Texcoco took place in the reign of Techotlala and -Ixtlilxochitl, his son, fell a victim to the murderous policy of -Tezozomoc, the famous tyrant of Atzcapotzalco. Nezahualcoyotl, who -regained the throne in 1431 was a great poet, philosopher, and law -maker. The rulers of Texcoco were as follows:— - - THE DYNASTY OF TEXCOCO - - Nomadic Chieftains - - Xolotl 1225-1284 - Nopalli 1284-1315 - Tlotzin 1315-1324 - Quinatzin 1324-1357 - - Sedentary Chieftains - - Techotlala 1357-1409 - Ixtlilxochitl 1409-1418 - (Interregnum) 1418-1431 - Nezahualcoyotl 1431-1472 - Nezahualpilli 1472-1515 - Cacama 1515-1520 - - - Aztecan History. - -The history of the Aztecs has a mythological preamble in common with -other nations of Mexico. The Chicomoztoc or Seven Caves must not be -considered historical but simply man’s place of emergence from the -underworld. The general conception of an existence within the earth that -preceded the existence upon the earth is found very widely among North -American Indians. It is likewise impossible to locate the Island of -Aztlan, that served, according to several codices, as the starting place -of the Mexican migration. The northern origin for the Aztecan tribe to -which so much attention has been paid need not have been far from the -Valley of Mexico, since in their entire recorded peregrination they -hardly traveled eighty miles. - -Owing to the ineffectiveness of the Mexican time count Aztecan -chronology is far from fixed. The year was known by the day with which -it began and as this day ran the permutation of four names and thirteen -numbers a cycle was fifty-two years in length. No method of keeping the -cycles in their proper order seems to have been devised except the -laborious one of putting down every year in sequence whether or not an -event occurred in it. According to different authorities the year 1 -Stone which begins the historical account in the Aubin Codex was 648, -1064, or 1168 in the European calendar, each date differing from the -others by multiples of fifty-two years. The last base, 1168, is correct; -this being the epoch of the Toltec Era established by Quetzalcoatl. - - - Plate XL. - - [Illustration: Serpent Head at Bottom of Balustrade, Great Pyramid, - Mexico City. The same excavations showed that the Great Pyramid was - enlarged several times and this sculpture seems to have been buried - under the walls long before the coming of the Spaniards. Compare - Serpent Balustrade at Chichen Itza.] - -The wandering tribes, among which may be mentioned the Chalca, -Xochimilca, Tlahuica, Huexotzinca, Tepaneca, and Azteca, pushed their -way into the region of the lakes and were allowed to live in less -desirable locations as vassals to the established tribes. The -“peregrinations” relate the succession of stops and the length of each -stop. The Aztecs themselves made twenty or more stops lasting from two -to twenty years. Finally, about 1325, they reached Chapultepec and for a -number of years lived in comparative peace and quiet. Their bad manners -and growing power excited the enmity of several nearby towns and in 1351 -the Aztecs, under their chieftain Huitzilihuitl, were worsted in a -fierce battle. Remnants of the tribe, including Huitzilihuitl and his -daughter, sought the protection of Cozcoztli, king of Colhuacan. They -soon were able to repay his support in a war with Xochimilco. The first -actual settlement on the site of the future Tenochtitlan was made in -1364 and in 1376 Acamapictli, a noble allied to the royal house of -Colhuacan, was elected to be the first war chief of the new city. - - [Illustration: Fig. 70. Pictographic Record of fighting near the - Springs of Chapultepec, “Hill of the Grasshopper.” Aubin Codex.] - -One of the first improvements undertaken by the new city was in the -matter of water supply. Rights were secured to the famous spring of -Chapultepec, an important gain because the brackish waters of the lake -were not fit to drink. A double water main of terra cotta was laid from -the springs to the town. New land was made, probably after the manner -still to be seen in the famous floating gardens of Xochimilco by -throwing the soil from the bed of the shallow lake into enclosed areas -of wattle work. Gradually a Venice-like city, traversed by canals and -admirably protected from attack, rose from the lake. At the coming of -the Spaniards there were three causeways leading to the shores of the -lake and each of these was protected by drawbridges. There was a city -wall upon which were lighthouses for the guidance of homecoming -fishermen. There were palaces and market places and a great central -plaza called the Tecpan, where were situated the principal temples. - -The Spaniards destroyed the ancient city, blocking up the canals with -the débris of temples, and building the new City of Mexico over the -leveled ruins. Ancient relics are brought to light wherever excavations -are made. In 1900 many sculptures and ceremonial objects were uncovered -in Escalerillas street near the Cathedral. Recently a building near the -National Museum was torn down for replacement and in digging for new -foundations part of the base of the great pyramid was found. This had -been enlarged several times, as could be seen by the stairways -successively buried under new walls. At the bottom of the balustrade of -one stairway a great serpent head of stone was found in its original -position (Plate XL). - -The Aztecs count their history as a great people from their first war -chief Acamapichtli who commenced his rule in 1376 (Codex Aubin). The -names and the order of the succeeding war chiefs are the same in several -records, but the dates are found to vary slightly. - - Acamapichtli 1376-1396 - Huitzilihuitl 1396-1417 - Chimalpopoca 1417-1427 - Itzcouatl 1427-1440 - Moctezuma I 1440-1469 - Axayacatl 1469-1482 - Tizoc 1482-1486 - Ahuitzotl 1486-1502 - Moctezuma II 1502-1520 - Cuitlahua 1520 - Cuauhtemoc 1520-1521 - -After throwing off the yoke of their early overlords, the Tepanecas, by -the subjection of Atzcapotzalco at the beginning of the brilliant reign -of Itzcouatl, the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan entered into a three-cornered -league with Texcoco and Tlacopan (Tacuba). This was an offensive and -defensive alliance with an equal division of the spoils of war. Soon the -united power of these three cities dominated the Valley of Mexico and -began to be felt across the mountains on every side. Tenochtitlan -gradually assumed the commanding position in the league, and although -Texcoco continued to be an important center the third member was -apparently much reduced. The great votive stone of Tizoc records some of -the earlier conquests of the Aztecs. At the arrival of Cortez only a few -important cities such as Tlaxcala retained their independence. But the -crest of power had then been passed and it seems pretty certain that the -remarkable city in the lake would in time have suffered the fate of -other self-constituted capitals both in the Old World and the New. - - - Social Organization. - -Spanish historians often liken Tenochtitlan to the seat of an empire and -speak of the ruler as one who had the power of an absolute monarch while -other and more recent writers have declared that the tribal organization -of the Aztecs was essentially democratic. The truth doubtless lies -between these extremes. The people were warlike by nature and all men, -except a few of the priesthood, were soldiers. Honors depended largely -upon success in war and warriors were arranged in ranks according to -their deeds. The common warriors formed one rank and next came those who -had distinguished themselves by definite achievements which gave the -right to wear certain articles of dress or to bear certain titles. The -chiefs were elected for an indefinite term of office from the most -distinguished fighters and could be removed for cause. - -But while the offices of state were elective there was, nevertheless, a -tendency to choose from certain powerful families and at least the -foundation of an aristocratic policy. A chief was succeeded by his son -or brother except when these candidates were manifestly unfit. In the -actual succession of the great war chiefs of Tenochtitlan, a peculiar -system seems to have been followed in that the candidates from the older -generation were ordinarily exhausted before the next lower generation -became eligible. Thus Huitzilihuitl, Chimalpopoca, and Itzcouatl were -all sons of Acamapichtli, and the last and greatest was born of a slave -mother. Then followed Moctezuma Ilhuicamina I, the son of Huitzilihuitl. -This chief had no male heirs but the children of his daughter ruled in -order: Axayacatl, Tizoc, and Ahuitzotl. Moctezuma II was the son of the -first of these as was Cuitlahua, while Cuauhtemoc, the last Aztec ruler, -was the son of Ahuitzotl. This peculiar succession was not in vogue in -Texcoco, where son succeeded father and the lawful wife was chosen from -the royalty of Tenochtitlan. In the various annals, the genealogies are -often indicated and the evidence that aristocracies existed is too -strong to be overthrown. There are even cases of queens who succeeded to -the chief power after the death of the royal husband. - -It is extremely doubtful whether the Aztecs ever had what might be -called clans. We have seen that there were originally eight closely -related tribes constituting the Mexica or Mexici nation. The Aztecs -themselves are said to have been divided into seven groups that were -first reduced to four or five and then increased to about twenty. It is -not clear that these were exogamic kinship groups. They were probably -military societies taking into their membership all the men of the -tribe. The name _Calpolli_, or “great house,” which was applied to them -seems to have referred to a sort of barracks or general meeting place in -each ward or division of the city where arms and trophies were kept and -the youth educated in the art of war. The title in land was held by the -_calpolli_ and the right of use distributed among the heads of families -who held possession only so long as the land was worked. Each _calpolli_ -seems to have had a certain autonomy in governmental matters as well as -a local religious organization. It is curious to find in Salvador, far -to the south, the word _calpolli_ applied to the platform mounds that -surround courts in the ancient ruins. This use of the word may indicate -that the “great houses” of the different societies were ordinarily the -principal buildings of the city and that they were used for civil, -military, and religious purposes. - -In forming judgment on the fundamentals of social organization among the -Aztecs we must remember that no clear case of kinship clans has been -reported south of the area of the United States. Among the Cakchiquels, -a Mayan tribe of the Guatemalan highlands, two royal houses are reported -from which the ruling chief was alternately drawn. The Zotzils have been -explained as a bat clan because their name is associated with the word -for bat and because a bat god appears to have been their patron deity. -The Mazatecas and Mixtecas, Deer people and Cloud people, also have -clanlike names but in all cases these are designations of entire tribes, -not of subdivisions of tribes. - - - Plate XLI. - - [Illustration: Sahagun’s Plan of the Tecpan in Mexico City. After - Seler. Among the details shown are: (_a_) The two great temples; - (_b_) The _Quauhxicalli_ or eagle bowl; (_c_) One of the - _Callimecatl_, or priest houses; (_e_) An eagle house or warriors’ - shrine; (_f_) The _Teotlachtli_ or ball court of the gods; (_g_) - _Tzompantli_ or skull rack; (_h_) The temple of Xipi; (_i_) The - _Temalacatl_ or Gladiator Stone; (_k_) The _Colhuacan Teocalli_ or - temple of Colhuacan; (_l-m_) The gods 5 Lizard and 5 House - respectively; (_n_) Dance courts; (_o_) _Coatenamitl_ or Serpent - Wall, so called because it was decorated with heads of serpents.] - -Tenochtitlan was divided into four quarters and each quarter subdivided -into a number of wards. An under chief was elected from each of the -subdivisions which are doubtless to be identified with the _calpolli_, -and an over chief from each of the four quarters. Above these stood the -war chief of the entire tribe who was likewise elected, but within the -limits of a fixed aristocracy. A second great chief, who seems to have -been a peace officer with some important relation to the priesthood, was -nominally equal to the war chief, but practically much less powerful. -The real center of the home government was a council made up of all the -chiefs. In time of war the war chief was in supreme command and could -either delegate his rights or act in person. Just how much the -priesthood intervened in governmental affairs cannot be definitely put -in words, but their power was doubtless great. Certain lands were -cultivated in common for the officers of church and state and much of -the tribute from conquered provinces was devoted to their needs. - - - The Tecpan or Temple Enclosure. - - - Plate XLII. - - [Illustration: The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs. This great stone - represents the disk of the sun and the history of the world. It may - be analyzed as follows, reading outward from the center. - - Central or cosmogonic portion: The day sign 4 Olin with details in - the arms representing four epochs of the world; with the face of the - sun god in the center and minor hieroglyphs that may represent the - four directions just outside the Olin symbol. - - Band of day signs beginning at the top and reading towards the left. - - Bands of conventional rays of the sun and other details such as the - embellishment of the sun with turquoise and eagle feathers. - - The outer circle of two great reptiles that may indicate the - universe. - - Invisible edge of the disk bears representations of Itzpapalotl, the - obsidian butterfly which is symbolical of the heavens.] - -The ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan has been transformed into the -civic center of Mexico City. The Cathedral, the National Palace, and the -Zocolo, or Plaza Major, mark the site where once stood the famous Tecpan -or temple enclosure. Within the serpent walls, according to Sahagun, -there were twenty-five temple pyramids, five oratories, sundry fasting -houses, four bowl-shaped stones, one disk-shaped stone, a great stepped -altar, a “star column,” seven skull racks, two ball courts, two enclosed -areas, a well, three bathing places, two cellar-like rooms, a dancing -place, nine priest houses, a prison for the gods of conquered nations, -arsenals, work places, etc. A native plan of the Tecpan, much -simplified, occurs in the Sahagun manuscript. The great pyramid rose in -several terraces and was surmounted by two temples each three stories in -height, one dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and the other to Tlaloc. Each -temple contained an image of the god to which it was dedicated and a -sacrificial altar. The walls were encrusted with blood of human victims -whose hearts, still beating, had been torn out for divine food and whose -bodies had been rolled down the steep flight of temple stairs. The -foundations for the great pyramids were laid in 1447 by Moctezuma I, the -pyramids were completed in 1485 while Tizoc was war chief and the final -dedication ceremonies were held in 1487. - -Several very interesting large sculptures and many minor objects have -been unearthed on the site of the Tecpan. In 1790 and 1791 were found -three famous monoliths, the Calendar Stone, the Stone of Tizoc -(Sacrificial Stone), and the Statue of Coatlicue. Since 1897 many fine -pieces of pottery and several sculptures have been excavated near the -Cathedral and placed in the Museo Nacional. - - - Plate XLIII. - - [Illustration: The Shield Stone at Cuernavaca. This Aztecan - sculpture carved upon a boulder in the City of Cuernavaca shows a - shield, a bundle of war arrows, and a war banner. The sculpture - records the conquest of Cuernavaca or more properly Quauhnahuac, - capital of the Tlahuican nation.] - - - The Calendar Stone. - -The great sculptured monument known as the Calendar Stone or Stone of -the Sun, is the most valuable object that has come down intact from the -time of the Aztecs. It is a single piece of porphyry, irregular except -for the sculptured face. It now weighs over twenty tons and it is -estimated that the original weight was over twice as much. The -sculptured disk is about twelve feet in diameter. This great stone was -transported by men over many miles of marshy lake bottom before it could -be placed in position in front of the Temple of the Sun in the temple -enclosure that has just been described. The stone was doubtless thrown -down from its original position by the soldiers of Cortez and may have -been lost to sight. We know, however, that it was exposed to view about -1560 and was then buried by order of the archbishop of Mexico City lest -its presence should cause the Indians to revert to their original pagan -beliefs. It was rediscovered in 1790 and was afterwards built into the -façade of the Cathedral where it remained until 1885, when it was -removed to the nearby museum. - -The Calendar Stone is not only a symbol of the sun’s face marked with -the divisions of the year but it is a record of the cosmogonic myth of -the Aztecs and the creations and destructions of the world. In the -center is the face of the sun god, Tonatiuh, enclosed in the middle of -the symbol called Olin. Tonatiuh is often represented by a much simpler -sign of a circle with four or more subdivisions resembling those of a -compass which are intended to represent the rays of the sun. Olin is one -of the day signs and means movement, or perhaps earthquake. It has also -been explained as a graphic representation of the apparent course of the -sun during the year. The history of the world, according to the Aztecan -myth, is divided into five suns or ages, four of which refer to the past -and one to the present. The present sun is called Olin Tonatiuh because -it is destined to be destroyed by an earthquake. The day signs of the -four previous suns are represented in the rectangular projections of the -central Olin symbol beginning at the upper right hand corner and -proceeding to the left. They are 4 Ocelotl (jaguar); 4 Ehecatl (wind); 4 -Quauhtli (rain); 4 Atl (water), and they refer to destruction, first, by -jaguars, second, by a hurricane, third, by a volcanic rain of fire, -fourth, by a flood. It is claimed by some that the year 13 Acatl (reed) -recorded at the top of the monument between the reptile tails refers to -the first year of the present sun. The fifth sun will end with the day 4 -Olin, that is expressed in the central symbol already described. For -this reason a fast was held on each recurrence of this day. Outside of -the Olin symbol but between its arms are four hieroglyphs of uncertain -meaning. Next to this area dealing with the great ages of the world -comes a band of the twenty day signs of the Aztecan month. Outside of -this band are several others which probably represent in a -conventionalized manner the rays of the sun and the turquoise and eagle -feathers with which the sun disk was believed to be decorated. Finally, -outside of all, are two plumed monsters meeting face to face at the -bottom of the disk. In each reptile face is seen a human face in -profile. These reptiles are probably to be identified as the Xiuhcoatl -or Fire Serpents. - -The newly discovered National Stone pictures the Calendar Stone in -vertical position on a mound and at the head of a flight of steps. The -dates on the side of the stairway are 1 Tochtli and 2 Acatl, 1506 and -1507, indicating that the Calendar Stone was dedicated in connection -with the New Fire Ceremony. The design on the back of this new-found -monument pictures the eagle on the cactus, symbolic of the founding of -Tenochtitlan. Other sculptures adorn the sides, the top, and the bottom -of the stone. - - - Stone of Tizoc. - -The Sacrificial Stone or Stone of Tizoc is believed to have been carved -by order of Tizoc, the war chief who ruled from 1482-1486, as a memorial -offering to Mexican arms on the completion of the great temple to the -Mexican God of War. The stone was a _quauhxicalli_, or “eagle bowl.” -This name was given to large bowls which were used to hold the blood and -the heart of human victims sacrificed to the gods. The same name was -extended to the large drum-shaped stone, under consideration, which has -a pit in the center and a sort of canal running from the center to one -side which may have been intended to drain off the blood. Human -sacrifice actually took place on this stone but it is pretty certain -that it was not one of the _temalacatl_ or “gladiator stones” on which -were staged mortal combats as ceremonies. According to description the -gladiator stones were pierced by a hole in the center so that one or -more captives could be bound fast by a rope. - - [Illustration: Fig. 71. Details from the Stone of Tizoc: _a_, - Huitzilopochtli, Aztec War God; _b_, Figures representing a captured - town; _c_, Name of the captured town (Tuxpan, place of the rabbit).] - - - Plate XLIV. - - [Illustration: The newly discovered “National Stone” of Mexico. The - front view shows the Calendar Stone in position and the year signs 1 - Rabbit and 2 Reed (1506 and 1507 A. D.). The sculpture on the back - is an eagle on a cactus, recording the foundation of Mexico City - (Tenochtitlan). On all the other surfaces priests and religious - symbols are drawn.] - -On the top of the Stone of Tizoc is a representation of Tonatiuh, or the -sun’s disk, much less complex than that which we have seen on the -Calendar Stone but with many similar parts. On the sides of the stone -are fifteen groups of figures, each group representing a conqueror and -his captive. The victorious soldier appears each time in the guise of -the war god, Huitzilopochtli, or his wizard brother Tezcatlipoca. The -left foot of the figure ends in two scroll-like objects that may -represent the humming bird feathers that formed the left foot of -Huitzilopochtli. But Tezcatlipoca also had a deformed foot. Moreover, on -the side of the headdress is a disk with a flame-shaped object coming -out of it. This may represent the smoking mirror of Tezcatlipoca. The -captive wears costumes that change slightly from one figure to the next. -Over the head of the captive in each instance is the hieroglyph of a -captured town or district. - -Nearly all the place name hieroglyphs have been deciphered. The list is -interesting historically because it gives the principal conquests up to -the reign of Tizoc. Starting at the side directly across the stone from -the groove or drain we see that the figure of the victor has behind his -head a hieroglyph that represents a leg. This is the hieroglyph of Tizoc -and the victim in this case represents the district of Matlatzinco in -the Valley of Toluca. This district was brought under subjection by -Tizoc himself. Among the other conquered cities are such well-known ones -as Chalco, Xochimilco, and Colhuacan in the vicinity of Lake Texcoco and -Ahuilizapan (Orizaba) and Tuxpan that are more distant. - - - Coatlicue. - - - Plate XLV. - - [Illustration: Monstrous Sculpture representing Coatlicue, the - Serpent-Skirted Goddess, who was regarded as the Mother of the - Gods.] - -The famous statue of the Earth Goddess, Coatlicue, “the goddess with the -serpent skirt,” is one of the most striking examples of barbaric -imagination. The name Teoyamiqui is often given to this uncouth figure, -but the identification is faulty. Like the other great sculptures we -have just examined, it doubtless occupied an important place in the -great ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, but no ancient reference to it -is extant. This goddess is reported to have been the mother of the gods. - - [Illustration: Fig. 72. Detail showing the Construction of the Face - of Coatlicue from Two Serpent Heads meeting End to End.] - -The statue may be described as follows: The feet are furnished with -claws. The skirt is a writhing mass of braided rattlesnakes. The arms -are doubled up and the hands are snake heads on a level with the -shoulders. Around the neck and hanging down over the breast is a -necklace of alternating hands and hearts with a death’s head pendant. -The head of this monstrous woman is the same on front and back and is -formed of two serpent heads that meet face to face. The forked tongue -and the four downward pointing fangs belong half and half to each of the -two profile faces. - - - Mexican Writing. - -The means of record employed in Mexican codices are in part pictographic -and in part hieroglyphic. The sequence of the historical events in these -native manuscripts is often indicated by a line of footprints leading -from one place or scene of action to another. Historical records of this -type resemble old-fashioned maps and some are actually called maps. The -names of towns in these documents are represented by true hieroglyphs -and often the character of the country is indicated by pictures of -typical vegetation, such as maguey plants for the highlands and palms -for the lowlands. The day or the year in which took place the foundation -of the town or whatever event is intended to be recorded is usually -placed in conjunction with the hieroglyph or picture. Conquest is -indicated by a place name hieroglyph with a spear thrust into it or by a -temple on fire, while warfare is a shield and bundle of lances encircled -by footprints. - - [Illustration: Fig. 73. Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials: left to - right, gold; turquoise; mosaic of precious stones; _chalchihuitl_, - or jade; mirror of obsidian.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 74. Phonetic Elements derived from Pictures and - used in Mexican Place Name Hieroglyphs.] - - - _tlan_ from _tlantli_, teeth - _cal_ from _calli_, house - _mix_ from _mixtla_, cloud - - -A few examples of Nahuan hieroglyphs will now be given to illustrate -this interesting method of writing. It must be remembered that there is -nothing in the nature of a connected narrative. The hieroglyphs or word -pictures are limited to geographical and personal names, including the -names of gods, to months, days, numbers, objects of commerce and a few -objects or ideas of ceremonial import. Some of the signs are in no -degree realistic and have a definite meaning by common consent alone, -such as the symbol for gold (Fig. 73). Others are abbreviated and -conventionalized pictures of objects. Thus the head of a god or of an -animal frequently appears as the sign of the whole. But the most -important and interesting word signs are rebuses in which separate -syllables or groups of syllables are represented by more or less -conventionalized pictures. The whole word picture is a combination of -syllable pictures which indicate phonetically the word as a whole. Very -often advantage is taken of puns on whole or partial words, while color -and position are also employed to indicate sounds and syllables. - - [Illustration: Fig. 75. Aztecan Place Names.] - - - Caltepec - Itztepec - Atepec - Pantepec - Mistlan - Itzlan - Petlatlan - Tecalco - - -In Fig. 74 are given a few of the more common syllable pictures. The -name of the object represented is cut down by the elimination of _tl_, -_li_, etc., that form the nominal endings. Thus, the picture of water, -_atl_, becomes the sign for the sound _a_, that of stone _tetl_ is cut -down to the syllable _te_. Several of these syllable pictures are -combined to represent a whole word. - - [Illustration: Fig. 76. Aztecan Day Signs.] - - _Cipactli_ _Ehecatl_ _Calli_ _Cuezpallin_ _Coatl_ - Crocodile Wind House Lizard Snake - _Miquiztli_ _Mazatl_ _Tochtli_ _Atl_ _Itzcuintli_ - Death Deer Rabbit Water Dog - _Ozomatli_ _Malinalli_ _Acatl_ _Ocelotl_ _Quauhtli_ - Monkey Herb Reed Jaguar Eagle - _Cozcaquauhtli_ _Olin_ _Tecpatl_ _Quiahiutl_ _Xochitl_ - Vulture Movement Stone Rain Flower - - [Illustration: Fig. 77. Variant Forms of Aztecan Day Signs: _a, - acatl_, arrow; _b, mazatl_, deer foot; _c, malinalli_, jaw bone; _d, - itzcuintli_, dog’s ear; _e, ozomatli_, monkey’s ear; _f, ocelotl_, - jaguar’s ear.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 78. Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce: - _a_, 1; _b_, 20; _c_, 400; _d_, 8,000; _e_, ten faces carved from - precious stone; _f_, twenty bags of cochineal dye; _g_, one hundred - bales of cocoa; _h_, four hundred bales of cotton; _i_, four hundred - jars of honey of tuna; _j_, eight thousand leaf bundles of copal - gum; _k_, twenty baskets each containing sixteen hundred ground - cacao nibs; _l_, four hundred and two blankets.] - -The hieroglyphs of the twenty days of the month (see Fig. 76) are -frequently represented, but those of the eighteen months are not nearly -so well known. As for the gods, the faces are usually pictured, -especially when these are grotesque, but sometimes details of dress or -an object connected with a special ceremony is sufficient to recall the -divinity. The Mexican system of numbers was based on twenties. The units -were figured by dots, the twenties by flags, the four hundreds by a -device like a tree that represented hair, and the eight thousands by the -ceremonial pouches in which copal incense was carried. - - - Plate XLVI. - - [Illustration: Page from the _Tonalamatl_ Section of the Codex - Borbonicus. The thirteen days run along the bottom of the page and - up the right side of the large division. The period covered is - one-twentieth of the _Tonalamatl_ of 260 days. At the left of each - day is seen one of the nine Lords of the Night, so-called, in - orderly succession. In the divisions above or to the left of the - days are the thirteen gods of the Hours of the Day in connection - with the Thirteen Birds. The patron goddess of this division of the - _Tonalamatl_ is Itzpapalotl, the obsidian butterfly. The other - pictures relate mostly to mythological instances and the details of - ceremonies. For instance, the broken tree represents Tamoanchan, a - legendary site, and the sacrifice of twenty birds is indicated by - the flag attached to the bleeding head of a decapitated bird.] - - - Aztecan Religion. - -The religion of the Aztecs, like that of the Mayas, was a polytheism in -which special divinities controlled the powers of nature and the -activities of men. The gods were perhaps further advanced towards human -form and attributes than were those of the earlier culture to the south, -but definite characterization was still accomplished by grotesque -features and certain animal connections were still evident. The matter -is confused beyond the point of analysis. The mythologies often ascribe -different origins to the same deity. One god is addressed by many names, -descriptive or figurative, that are intended to bring out the various -aspects of his power. Overlapping functions make it impossible to assign -each god to his special province. There are universal gods, there are -special gods, and there are patron gods of trade guilds. Moreover, there -are foreign gods, some recent, some ancient. - -The religion of central Mexico had its objective, ritualistic side, -which appealed directly to the understanding of the masses, and its more -subtle theological or philosophical side seen, for instance, in the -poems written by priests and rulers. It was a mixture of spirituality -and the grossest idolatry. The ceremonial calendar, with a description -of the feasts and sacrifices occurring at different times of the year, -has been preserved in a number of documents. Pageants, incense-burning, -and human sacrifice gave a strong dramatic quality to the religious -rites. - - - Plate XLVII. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Pictures of Tlaloc, the God of Rain, and of - Ehecatl, the God of Winds, in the Codex Magliabecchiano.] - - [Illustration: (_b_) Mexican Genealogical Table on Bark Paper. The - names of most of the individuals are given by hieroglyphs attached - to the head or the seat. Original in the American Museum.] - -The conception of a supreme deity is seen in _Ometeuctli_, the Lord of -Duality, a vague god-head and creator who is sometimes addressed in some -of the religious poems as the “Cause of All.” In the background of the -popular religion was the belief in the Earth Mother and the Sky Father -and in the divinity of the Sun, the Moon, the Jaguar, the Serpent, and -whatever else was beautiful, powerful, and inexplicable. Tezcatlipoca, -by reason of his magic and his omniscience, was placed at the head of -the pantheon of active gods. Huitzilopochtli was, however, the favorite -god of the Aztecs through his relation to war. Tlaloc, the god of rain, -was naturally of great importance to agriculturists living in a rather -arid region. Tonatiuh, the Sun God, was a more or less abstract deity -who acted in part through other gods. But the list is too long to be -repeated here. - - [Illustration: Fig. 79. Analysis of Mexican Record. 1, the year Two - Reed, 1507; 2, eclipse of the sun; 3, earthquake at place pictured - at 4; 5, the town, of Huixachtitlan. In the temple (6) was held (7) - the new-fire ceremony at the beginning of a 52-year period. In this - year were also drowned in the River Tuzac (8) two thousand warriors - (10) which the vultures devoured (9).] - -The special gods of principal Mexican cities were as follows:— - - Tenochtitlan Huitzilopochtli - Texcoco Tezcatlipoca - Tlaxcala Camaxtli - Cholula Quetzalcoatl - Cuauhnahuac Xochiquetzalli - -Of gods with a foreign origin perhaps the most important were -Quetzalcoatl and Xipe. The former was introduced long before the Aztecs -raised their banner of war and was the Long-nosed God of the Mayas, -introduced under the patronage of Quetzalcoatl, the powerful emperor of -the Toltecs. The worship of Xipe is said to have originated in a town in -southern Mexico. It had certainly taken a strong hold on the Aztecs of -Mexico City and was likewise known as far south as Salvador. It has -recently been demonstrated that the people of Yopico, specially given to -the worship of Xipe, originated in Nicaragua. - - [Illustration: Fig. 80. Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water.] - - - Conceptions of the Universe. - -Cosmogonic myths, the world over, are unscientific attempts to explain -the creation of the universe, to outline the powers of the gods and to -trace the development of nature. The cosmogonic myths of Mexico and -Central America are characterized by multiple creations. The Aztecan -belief in five suns each standing for a world epoch is paralleled in -fragments of Mayan mythology. Creation is not emphasized so much as -destruction. The sequence of the suns is figured on the Calendar Stone, -and in one of the codices, besides being explained in some of the early -writings of Spanish priests and educated natives. The first sun was -devoured by a jaguar and in the resulting darkness the inhabitants of -the earth were devoured by jaguars. The second sun was destroyed by a -hurricane, the third by a rain of fire, and the fourth by a flood. One -human pair escaped each cataclysm and lived to repopulate the world. The -fifth or present sun will be destroyed by an earthquake. - -Notions of the shape and character of the universe are pretty well -defined in Aztecan lore. The widespread belief that the universe -consists of three superimposed worlds, the upper or sky world, the -middle world of living men and the under world of the dead, is found in -a developed form. The upper world is divided into thirteen levels. The -uppermost four levels are called _Teteocan_, the abode of the gods, and -are considered to be invisible. The creator of all, Ometeuctli, Lord of -Duality, dwells with his spouse in the highest heaven and under him in -order are the Place of the Red God of Fire, the Place of the Yellow Sun -God and the Place of the White Evening Star God. The inferior heavens, -called _Ilhuicatl_, are given over to the visible celestial activities. -There is one heaven for the storms, another for the blue sky of the day, -the dark sky of the night, the comets, the evening star, the sun, the -stars, etc. - -The under world is _Mictlan_, the Place of the Dead. Nine divisions are -commonly given and in the lowermost of these lives _Mictlanteuctli_, the -Lord of Death, and his mate. The idea of future blessing or punishment -is not entirely absent from the minds of the Aztecs. Warriors killed in -battle go to the House of the Sun, in one of the upper worlds, as do -women who die in childbirth. _Tlalocan_, the lowermost heaven, is a sort -of terrestrial paradise for others. _Mictlan_ is, however, the common -abode of the dead, and the wretched soul can reach it only after a -journey set with horrors. - -The cult of the quarters is intimately associated with the concept of -the universe. With the four cardinal points a number of others are -sometimes taken including the zenith, the nadir, and the middle. The -sacred numbers 4, 5, 6, and 7 may thus conceivably be derived from the -points of space, but it would be very unsafe to assume that they are -necessarily so derived. The general concept of a universe divided into -quarters, fifths, or sixths is a powerful conventionalizing factor in -mythology, religion, and art. Prayers, songs, and important acts are -repeated in identical or in systematically varied form for each point of -space. In Mayan and Aztecan codices the symbolism of the four directions -is often manifest. - - - Ceremonies. - -Ceremonialism was intensely developed in Mexico and the dramatic quality -of many Aztecan rites of human sacrifice has probably never been -equaled. We are apt to think only of the gruesome features of human -sacrifice and to overlook the spiritual ones. The victim was often -regarded as a personification of a god and as such he was fêted, clothed -in fine garments, and given every honor. Efforts were made to cause the -victim to go willingly to his death uplifted by a truly religious -ecstasy. It was considered unlucky that he should grieve or falter. - -The religious calendar was given over to fixed and movable feasts. The -fixed feasts were eighteen in number and each came on the last day of a -twenty-day period and gave its name to that period. These eighteen -periods correspond with the Mayan uinals or months, but since dates were -rarely given in relation to them, they do not have the same calendrical -importance. The five days that rounded out the 365-day year were -considered unlucky. - -Each of the eighteen feasts of the year was under the patronage of a -special divinity and each had a set of ceremonies all its own. In some -cases the ceremonies were really culminations of long periods of -preparation. Thus, on the last day of the month Toxcatl there was -sacrificed a young man, chosen from captured chieftains for his beauty -and accomplishments, who for an entire year had been fitting himself for -his one turn on the stage of blood and death. This intended victim, -gayly attired and accompanied by a retinue of pages, was granted the -freedom of the city. When the month of Toxcatl entered he was given -brides, whose names were those of goddesses, and in his honor was held a -succession of brilliant festivals. On the last day there was a parade of -canoes across Lake Texcoco and when a certain piece of desert land was -reached, the brides and courtiers bade farewell to the victim. His pages -accompanied him by a little-used trail to the base of an apparently -ruined temple. Here he was stripped of his splendid garments and of the -jewels that were symbols of divinity. With only a necklace of flutes he -mounted the steps of the pyramid. At each step he broke one of the -flutes and he arrived at the summit, where the priests waited, knife in -hand, a naked man whose heart was to be offered to the very god he had -impersonated. This ceremony is given only as an example, but it -illustrates two characteristics that are seen in several other -sacrifices, namely, the paying of homage and honor to the intended -sacrificial victim, and, secondly, the necessity of keeping the victim -in a happy frame of mind. - -The eleventh feast of the year was called Ochpaniztli, “the feast of the -broom” and was celebrated in honor of the goddess known as Toci, or -Teteoinnan. The first of these names means “our female ancestor” and the -second one means “the mother of the gods.” She was a goddess of the -earth and her symbol was the grass broom with which the earth was swept. -She also exerted an influence over the arts of the hearth, such as -weaving. Her pictures in the codices show her with a broom in one hand -and a shield in the other while about her head is a band of unspun -cotton into which are stuck spindles wrapped with thread. - -During this month the roads were repaired, the houses and plazas swept, -and the temples and idols refurbished. According to the text in the -Codex Magliabecchiano there were human sacrifices in the temples which -fronted on the roads and there were great dances and carousals. Those -sacrificed were afterwards flayed as in the feast of Xipe and their -skins worn by dancers. The picture that accompanies this revolting -admission is itself devoid of any morbid symbols. It shows a kneeling -woman holding out the broom and shield. She wears a white dress and a -neckless of jade beads with golden bells for pendants. Below her are two -standing men who bear in their hands offerings of ripe fruit. - -Sahagun gives details of a terrible drama that was enacted during this -twenty-day month. For the first eight days there was dancing without -song and without the drum. After this prologue a woman was chosen to -impersonate the patron goddess and to wear her characteristic dress and -ornaments. With her was a retinue of women skilled in medicine and -midwifery. For four days these persons divided in opposing ranks and -pelted each other with leaves and flowers. While this harmless ceremony -and others like it were being acted out, the greatest care was taken -that the woman who played the rôle of the goddess and who was marked for -death should not suspect her fate. It was considered unlucky, indeed, if -this victim wept or was sad. When her time to die had come she was -clothed in rich garments and given to understand that she should be that -night the bride of a rich lord. And under such a beguiling belief she -was led silently to the temple of sacrifice. There without warning an -attendant lifted her upon himself, back to back, and her head was -instantly struck off. Without delay the skin was stripped from her warm -body and a youth, wearing it as a garment, was conducted in the midst of -captives to the temple of the War God, Huitzilopochtli. Here in the -presence of this mighty god the youth himself tore out the hearts of -four victims and then abandoned the rest to the knife of the head -priest. Thus closed the terrible drama which began with an innocent -battle of flowers and ended in an orgy of blood. - -The twelfth month passed under two names. It was called Pachtli after a -plant with which the temples were decorated and Teotleco which signifies -“the arrival of the gods.” The principal feast was held, as usual, on -the twentieth day when the great company of gods was supposed to return -from a far land. One god, very youthful and robust, arrived on the -eighteenth day, being able to outwalk the others, while a few very old -and infirm divinities were late in getting to the feast. The one who -arrived first was called Telpochtli or Titlacauan but in reality he was -the great Tezcatlipoca in disguise. - -In anticipation of this return, the temples, shrines, and household -idols were decorated with branches. The youths who did this work were -repaid in corn, the amount varying from a full basket to a few ears. A -novel manner of attesting the earliest presence of divinity is related. -Some cornmeal was spread in a circular mass upon the ground. During the -night the high priests kept vigil and from time to time visited this -circle of cornmeal. When he saw a footprint in the center he cried out, -“Our master has come.” Then there was a burst of music and everyone ran -to the great feast in the temple. Much native wine was drunk, for this -was considered equivalent to washing the tired feet of the travel-worn -gods. As a final act of the celebration there was a dance in costume -around a great fire and several unfortunates were tossed alive into the -flames. - -Space will not permit a further examination of the eighteen fixed -feasts. The movable feasts were mostly in definite relation to the -_tonalamatl_ and were thus subject to repetition every 260 days. The -permutation of twenty day names and thirteen numbers is pictured in -Mexican codices in two or more stereotyped forms, but these are very -complete. In the commonest form the entire cycle is divided into twenty -groups of thirteen days each and each group is presided over by a -special divinity. There are other repeating series of gods, sacred -birds, etc., that preside over the individual days in these groups. The -_tonalamatl_ was much used in Mexico in connection with foretelling -events. The days were lucky, indifferent, or unlucky, and the future -life of a child was believed to be locked up in the horoscope of his -birthday. - -Other feasts were held in relation to longer time periods. There were -important festivals held in connection with the planet Venus with -especially elaborate ones falling at intervals of eight years. Still -another ceremony was held at the completion of a fifty-two year period, -when the set of years were figuratively bundled up and laid away and a -new sacred fire lighted. - - - Poetry and Music. - -The languages of Central America were capable of considerable literary -development. This is seen especially in the songs that were used in -different religious ceremonies of the Aztecs, as well as in the -reflective poems written by educated natives. Several very fine pieces -have been preserved, and while there is no rhyme, there is much rhythm. -When recited by a person speaking fluently the native tongue these poems -are very impressive. Of course, translation is always hazardous, and -fundamental differences in language, such as exist between English and -Aztecan, make it almost impossible. The most famous poet whose name has -come down to us was Nezahualcoyotl, or Famishing Coyote, who was a ruler -of Texcoco and died at the advanced age of eighty years in 1472. A few -verses from one of his poems on the mutability of life and the certainty -of death have been translated as follows:— - - All the earth is a grave, and naught escapes it; nothing is so perfect - that it does not fall and disappear. The rivers, brooks, fountains and - waters flow on, and never return to their joyous beginnings; they - hasten on to the vast realms of Tlaloc, and the wider they spread - between their marges the more rapidly do they mould their own - sepulchral urns. That which was yesterday is not today; and let not - that which is today trust to live tomorrow. - - The caverns of earth are filled with pestilential dust which once was - the bones, the flesh, the bodies of great ones who sat upon thrones, - deciding causes, ruling assemblies, governing armies, conquering - provinces, possessing treasures, tearing down temples, flattering - themselves with pride, majesty, fortune, praise and dominion. These - glories have passed like the dark smoke thrown out by the fires of - Popocatepetl, leaving no monuments but the rude skins on which they - are written. - -Another example will serve to emphasize the strain of sadness and the -vision of death that characterize so many Aztecan poems. - - Sad and strange it is to see and reflect on the prosperity and power - of the old and dying king Tezozomoc; watered with ambition and - avarice, he grew like a willow tree rising above the grass and flowers - of spring, rejoicing for a long time, until at length withered and - decayed, the storm wind of death tore him from his roots and dashing - him in fragments to the ground. The same fate befell the ancient King - Colzatzli, so that no memory was left of him, nor of his lineage. - - [Illustration: Fig. 81. A Mexican Orchestra: 1, log drum; 2, kettle - drum; 3-4, flageolets; 5, gourd rattle; 6, turtle shell. Manuscrit - du Cacique.] - -The Aztecs held concerts in the open air where poems were sung to the -accompaniment of the drum and other simple instruments. Songs were also -sung at banquets and in the stress of love and war. The common musical -instruments of the Aztecs vary but little from those in use elsewhere in -Mexico and Central America. There were two kinds of drums. One was a -horizontal hollowed-out log with an H-shaped cutting made longitudinally -on its upper surface so as to form two vibrating strips which were -struck with wooden drumsticks having tips of rubber. The second sort of -drum was an upright log also hollowed out and covered with a drumhead of -deerskin. Conches were used for trumpets. Resonator whistles with or -without finger holes were made of clay in fanciful shapes. Flageolets -were constructed of clay, bone, or wood and flutes were made of reed. -Resounding metal disks and tortoise shells were beaten in time. Many -sorts of gourd and earthenware rattles were employed as well as notched -bones which were rasped with a scraping stick. Copper bells of the -sleigh bell type were exceedingly common. The marimba, however, that is -such a favorite musical instrument today in Central America is of -African origin and fairly recent introduction. No stringed instruments -were known to the ancient Mexicans nor does the pan-pipe appear to have -been used in this area although common in Peru. - - - Minor Aztecan Arts. - -Some of the great sculptures of Tenochtitlan have already been described -and references have been made to the native books painted in brilliant -colors on paper and deerskin. Objects of minor art comprise pottery -vessels, ornaments of gold, silver, copper, jade, and other precious -materials, textiles, pieces of feather work, etc. - -The best known ceramic products are made of orange colored clay and -carry designs in black that sometimes are realistic, but more often not. -The tripod dishes with the bottoms roughed by cross scoring were used to -grind chili. Heavy bowls with loop handles on the sides and a channel -across the bottom were seemingly made to be strung on ropes. They may -have held pitch and been used for street lights. The pottery figurines -of the Aztecan period are nearly all moulded and lack the sharp detail -of the earlier examples. They often represent deities wearing -characteristic dress and carrying ceremonial objects. - -Comparatively few specimens of ancient gold work in Mexico escaped the -cupidity of the Spanish conquerors, but these attest a remarkable -proficiency in casting. The moulds were made of clay mixed with ground -charcoal and the melting of gold was accomplished by means of a blow -pipe. The technique seen in Costa Rican gold work according to which -details falsely appear to be added by soldered wire, was followed in -Mexico. Modern Mexican filigree bears little relation to the ancient -Indian work, but is probably of Moorish origin. The examples of Aztecan -gold work include finger rings, earrings, nose and lip ornaments, -necklaces, and pendants. - -Among the precious and semi-precious stones known to the Aztecs, the -most valuable in their eyes was turquoise. This was probably obtained by -trade from the Pueblo Indians. It was mostly cut into thin plates and -used in the manufacture of mosaic objects. Red jasper, green jade, jet, -gold, and shell of various colors was also used in these mosaics. Jade -was highly prized and was known as _chalchihuitl_. Ornaments of -obsidian, a black volcanic glass, and of crystal quartz, are fairly -common and others of opal and amethyst have been found. Pearls and -emeralds were secured in trade from the south. - - [Illustration: Fig. 82. Mexican Blanket with the Design that - represents interlacing Sand and Water called “Spider Water.”] - -The textile decorations in vogue at the coming of the Spaniards can be -restored from the pictures in codices. Mantles were often demanded as -tribute and the designs are given on the conventional bundles in the -tribute lists. Garments with certain designs served as insignia of -office for several of the priesthoods. Feather mosaic was highly prized -and was made according to several methods. Capes as well as shields and -other objects were covered with brilliant feathers so arranged as to -bring out designs in the natural colors. - - - The Tarascans. - -The Aztecs while by far the most important tribe in the fifteenth -century did not dominate all the surrounding peoples. For instance, most -of the State of Michoacan was controlled by the Tarascan tribe who -defeated every expedition sent against them. The list of Tarascan towns -is a long one but Tzintzuntzan which means the “Place of the Humming -Birds” was the capital and principal stronghold. The ancient history of -the Tarascans is little known. Large and striking specimens of archaic -art were formerly accredited to this people, but without good reason. It -is likely that archaic characters in art were maintained in Michoacan -after they had passed away in central Mexico, but we cannot be sure that -the Tarascans were the ancient inhabitants. There is some evidence, -however, of culture which can be associated with them. The peculiar -T-shaped mounds called _yatacas_, which rise in terraces and are faced -with stone slabs laid without mortar, may have been built by this tribe. -Sculptures of rather fine quality are occasionally found, an example -being a reclining god of the type made famous by the “Chacmool” of -Chichen Itza. Many fine copper celts have been unearthed in this highly -mineralized mountain region. When the Spaniards came the Tarascans were -skilled in weaving and were particularly famous for feather mosaics and -feather pictures made largely of the brilliant plumage of humming birds. -The use of the _atlatl_ or spear-thrower survives among the present-day -Indians who also make gourd vessels covered with colored clays in -pleasing geometric and floral designs. - -The Otomis are a tribe of central Mexico even less cultured than the -Tarascans and there is some evidence that they entered this region from -the south only a few centuries before the Spaniards. Their relatives, -the Matlatzincas of the Valley of Toluca, had more interesting arts. - - [Illustration: Fig. 83. The Year Symbol of southern Mexico. It is - combined with the four year bearers, House, Rabbit, Reed, and Stone. - In the second detail the day 6 Serpent in the year 12 Rabbit is - recorded.] - - - Southern Mexico. - -Somewhere about the middle of the fifteenth century Moctezuma I planted -an Aztecan colony at Uaxyacac on the edge of the Zapotecan territory to -protect the trade route to Tabasco. This name gave rise to the modern -Oaxaca. From this point expeditions were sent out which harrassed the -Zapotecs to the south and the Mixtecs to the west. In the Tribute Roll -of Moctezuma II more than twenty Zapotecan towns are listed as paying -tribute that consisted of gold disks and gold dust, jadeite beads, -quetzal feathers, cochineal dye, fine textiles, etc. Very little is -preserved concerning the traditional history of southern Mexico, but it -is presumed that the Zapotecan culture before the Aztecan ascendency was -a development of that implanted many centuries before when Monte Alban -flourished and which we have already examined. As for the Mixtecs we -only know that they produced pottery of great beauty somewhat similar to -that of Cholula. - - [Illustration: Fig. 84. Year Bearers in the Codex Porfirio Diaz - ascribed to the Cuicatecan tribe: Wind, Deer, Herb, and Movement.] - -Some of the finest pre-Cortesian codices that have come down to us are -probably of Zapotecan and Mixtecan origin although reflecting to some -extent the religion of the Aztecs. Several of these have been -interpreted by Doctor Seler in terms of Aztecan religion and art. Among -the documents from southern Mexico that belong to the late period are:— - - - Codex Borgia - Codex Vaticanus 3773 - Codex Bologna - Codex Féjervary-Mayer - Codex Vindobonensis - Codex Nuttall or Zouche - - - [Illustration: Fig. 85. A Page from the Codex Nuttall, recording the - Conquest of a Town situated on an Island of the Sea. The conquerors - come in boats and the conquest is indicated by a spear thrust into - the place name hieroglyph. The crocodile, flying fish, and the sea - serpent are represented in the water.] - -Several _lienzos_ or documents written on cloth are also from this -region. The Lienzo of Amoltepec which is a fine example of this class is -conserved in the American Museum of Natural History. The documents from -southern Mexico are distinguished by details of geometric ornament that -resemble the panels of geometric design on the temples of Mitla. They -record historical events, give astronomical information and present much -pictographic evidence on various ceremonies and religious usages. In -giving a date a somewhat different method is used than we have seen in -the historical records from the Valley of Mexico. There is a definite -year sign (Fig. 83) and with it is combined the year bearer, or initial -day of the year, and often the particular day of the event. -Unfortunately, this is not entirely satisfactory because no month signs -are recorded and a day with a certain name and number frequently occurs -twice in one year. The year bearers are the same as among the Aztecs for -most of the documents, namely, Knife, House, Rabbit, and Reed, but in a -manuscript ascribed to a tribe in southern Mexico called the Cuicatecs, -the year bearers are Wind, Deer, Herb, and Movement (Fig. 84). Conquest -of a town is shown by a spear thrust into the place name. Individuals -are often named after the day on which they were born. Thus 8 Deer is a -warrior hero in the Codex Nuttall and 3 Knife is a woman who also plays -a prominent part. In some of the manuscripts from southern Mexico we see -details that are very close to those in the codices of the Mayas. - - [Illustration: Fig. 86. The God Macuilxochitl, Five Flower, as shown - in a Mexican Codex and in Pottery from southern Mexico.] - - [Illustration: ... and in Pottery.] - - - Aztecan Influence in Central America. - -The influence from the late Mexican cultures can be traced far to the -south. Decorative motives that show affiliations to those of the Aztecs -and their immediate predecessors are found as far south as Costa Rica -but the strain is thin and not to be compared with the evidences of -culture connection over wide territories that are found on earlier -horizons. There was clearly a brisk trade in gold in Aztecan times -between the Isthmus of Panama and Mexico. - -After the breakdown of the civilization of the humid lands of Central -America, following the Mayan cataclysm, the abandoned regions appear to -have been repopulated by a stream of tribes from South America who swept -up the coast of the Caribbean Sea and across the peninsula of Yucatan, -as far as Tehuantepec. There was also a strong northern movement of -tribes along the Pacific Coast seen most clearly in the distribution of -languages belonging to the Chiapanecan or Chorotegan stock. The early -historic records show the Mazateca in transit from their old home in -Costa Rica to their new one in northern Oaxaca. Cortez in 1526 found -these Indians in Yucatan. - - - A Cross-Section of New World History - -This survey of ancient history in Mexico and Central America discloses a -condition which doubtless holds true of the archæological record in -other parts of the world. The earliest sedentary culture was by far the -most homogeneous and widespread. This means it modified slowly and -lasted for ages. At the same time, owing to the connection of the -archaic complex with agriculture, the initial spread may have been -rapid. The plants domesticated by the American Indians were developed -far beyond the wild types, much farther indeed, than the domestic plants -of the Old World. This development must have extended over many -centuries. The first horizon of agriculture was based on plants of an -arid highland environment. The second horizon of agriculture was based -on these same plants after they had been slowly modified to fit a humid -lowland environment, as well as on certain new plants of humid lowland -origin. - -The Maya civilization was specialized to the wet lowlands of the tropic -zone and while the influence exerted by this dominant culture of the New -World was felt over a great area, the exact characters were not -reproduced elsewhere. Trade relations can be traced from Yucatan to -Colombia on the one hand and on the other to New Mexico. The cycle of -the Mayan civilization was comparatively short and the cycles of the -resultant civilizations were even shorter. All New World history must be -referred ultimately to the horizons of culture described above, with the -standard chronology of the Mayas as the only definite scale. - -In the cross-section of New World history presented herewith the -horizontal measures represent space and the vertical measures represent -time. The line A-B-C-D begins at Victoria Island and ends at Cape Horn, -cutting across the culture areas named on the diagram. Over a large part -of this cross-section the “horizon of recorded history” is in fact the -time of the first European exploration, but in Colombia and Peru, there -are well-defined traditions giving lists of kings, while in Central -America there is exact chronology going back 2000 years before the -coming of the white man. Below this and within it there are -archæological records of culture sequence which in some regions, such as -the Pueblo Area, have been nicely classified. On the basis of trade -relations and diffused ideas in material and esthetic arts the marginal -chronology can be tied in with that of the central standard section of -history. Of course, all dates earlier than the first recorded ones are -theoretical. The beginning of agriculture in America is put at 4000 B. -C.—it may be earlier, but can hardly be much later. - -In the Pueblo or Southwest Area a single type of flint corn, doubtless -introduced from the south, appears on the first agricultural level. -Contacts with Mexico and Central America are inferable during Basket -Maker II and III, the latter stratum having female fetishes roughly -comparable with those of the Archaic Horizon of Mexico. Later Southwest -evolution is autochthonous until the end of Pueblo III when the concepts -of the Plumed Serpent, the Eagle Man, Four-direction symbolism, etc., -come from Mexico with Toltec trade. Culture sequence in the Southwest is -about as follows:— - - Pueblo V Modern 1692 to present time - Pueblo IVb Early Historic 1538 to 1692 - Pueblo IVa Protohistoric 1200 to 1538 - Pueblo IIIb Toltec Trade 1000 to 1200 - Pueblo IIIa Urban Developments - Pueblo II Small House - Pueblo I Proto-Pueblo - Basket Maker III First Pottery - Basket Maker II First Agriculture - Basket Maker I Nomadic - -In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru culture successions are now being worked -out. The best criterion of age is found in metals which enter Central -America from South America after the fall of the First Mayan Empire, -i.e., after 630 A. D. The technology of metal working is continuous from -southern Colombia to central Mexico. Negative painting with wax has a -wider and perhaps earlier distribution, reaching Ecuador and Peru in -association with tripod pottery which is otherwise rare in the Andean -region. Various motives of design link the two continents, especially on -the Toltec-Chorotegan level. Between 1000 and 1200 A. D. civilization -seems to have been generally stabilized, but this halcyon age was -followed by disorganization and far-reaching migrations. The pre-Spanish -horizons of southern Peru are tentatively arranged as follows by A. L. -Kroeber, the apparently earlier material of Ancon being omitted for lack -of the cross-ties. - - III. Inca - IIc. Late Ica - IIb. Middle Ica - IIa. Epigonal - Ib. Late Nasca - Ia. Early Nasca - -The early Nasca civilization was far from primitive being characterized -by pyramids, fine textiles, and some metal. Mayan strains have been -recognized in Chavin and Recuay in Peru and various sites in Ecuador. - -The dynamic forces in the history of man in the New World have a -tremendous bearing upon the present and future state of the world. The -debt which we owe to the ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central -America becomes apparent when we list the more important agricultural -plants, fibers, gums, dyes, etc., which were taken over by Europeans -from the American Indians. - - - Food Plants Cultivated by American Indians - - - Maize - Potatoes - Sweet potatoes - Tomatoes - Pumpkins - Squashes - Lima beans - Kidney beans - Peppers - Cacao - Pineapples - Nispero - Barbados cherry - Strawberries - Persimmons - Papaws - Guava - Arracacha - Peanuts - Oca - Cashew nut - Jocote - Star apples - Paraguay tea - Alligator pear - Chirimoya - Sour sop - Sweet sop - Custard apple - Cassava - - - Important Economic Contributions of American Indians - - - Fibers - Cotton - Henequen - Pita - Medicines - Tobacco - Cinchona (Quinine) - Cascara Sagrada - Cocaine - Ipecac - Sarsaparilla - Domesticated Animals - Alpaca - Llama - Guinea pig - Dog (perhaps Old World) - Muscovy duck - Turkey - Gums - Rubber - Copal - Peruvian Balsam - Chicle - Dyes - Añil (Indigo) - Cochineal - Logwood - Fustic - - - Diagram of American Chronology - - [Illustration: ... showing regions and eras.] - - - Showing regions: - ARCTIC - CANADIAN FOREST - GREAT PLAINS - SOUTHWEST - CENTRAL MEXICAN - MAYAN - COLOMBIAN - AMAZON FOREST - PERUVIAN - SOUTHERN PLAINS - SOUTHERN FOREST - Eras: - Horizon of Recorded History - Second Horizon of Agriculture (Humid) - First Horizon of Agriculture (Arid) - Nomadic Non-Agricultural Horizon - Primary Invasion from Asia via Alaska on upper Paleolithic or lower - Neolithic, without agriculture, pottery or loom weaving. - 15000-10000 BC. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -A brief list of books on Mexico and Central America is appended. These -books may be consulted in the Museum Library as well as others referred -to in the more complete bibliographies that will be found in the works -cited. - -Bancroft, H. H. _The Native Races of the Pacific States._ 5 vols. New -York and London, 1875-1876. - -Bandelier, Adolph F. _On the Distribution and Tenure of Lands and the -Customs with Respect to Inheritance, among the Ancient Mexicans._ -(Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and -Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 384-448, Cambridge, 1878.) - -_Social Organization and Mode of Government of the Ancient Mexicans._ -(Twelfth Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and -Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 3, Cambridge, 1879.) - -Bowditch, C. P. _The Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical -Knowledge of the Mayas._ Cambridge, 1910. - -Bransford, J. F. _Archæological Researches in Nicaragua._ (Smithsonian -Contributions to Knowledge, XXV, Art. 2, pp. 1-96, 1881.) - -Brinton, D. G. _The Maya Chronicles._ Philadelphia, 1882. (No. 1 of -Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature.) - -_The Annals of the Cakchiquels._ The original text with a translation, -notes and introduction. Philadelphia, 1885. (No. 6 of Brinton’s Library -of Aboriginal American Literature.) - -_Essays of an Americanist._ Philadelphia, 1890. - -Bulletin 28. _Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems -and History._ Twenty-four papers by Eduard Seler, E. Förstemann, Paul -Schellhas, Carl Sapper and E. P. Dieseldorff. Translated from the German -under the supervision of Charles P. Bowditch. (Bulletin 28, Bureau of -American Ethnology, Washington, 1904.) - -Charnay, D. _The Ancient Cities of the New World._ Trans. by J. Gonino -and H. S. Conant. London, 1887. - -Dias Del Castillo, Bernal. _The True History of the Conquest of Mexico, -1568._ 3 vols. (Translated by A. P. Maudslay. Hakluyt Society, London, -1908.) - -Förstemann, E. _Commentary of the Maya Manuscript in the Royal Public -Library of Dresden._ (Papers, Peabody Museum, IV, No. 2, pp. 48-266, -1906.) - -Gann, T. _Mounds in Northern Honduras._ (Nineteenth Annual Report, -Bureau of American Ethnology, part 2, pp. 661-692, Washington, -1897-1898.) - -Hartmann, C. V. _Archæological Researches in Costa Rica._ (The Royal -Ethnographical Museum in Stockholm, Stockholm, 1901.) - -_Archæological Researches on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica._ (Memoirs, -Carnegie Institute, vol. 3, pp. 1-95, 1907.) - -Holmes, W. H. _Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui._ (Sixth Annual -Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 3-187, Washington, 1888.) - -_Archæological Studies among the Ancient Cities in Mexico._ -(Publications, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895-1897.) - -Joyce, T. A. _Mexican Archæology._ An Introduction to the Archæology of -the Mexican and Maya Civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York and -London, 1914. - -_Central American and West Indies Archæology._ Being an Introduction to -the Archæology of the States of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and the -West Indies. New York, 1916. - -_Maya and Mexican Art._ London, 1927. - -Kingsborough, Lord. _Antiquities of Mexico._ 9 vols., folio. London, -1831-1848. - -Lehmann, W. _Methods and Results in Mexican Research._ Trans. by Seymour -de Ricci. Paris, 1909. - -_Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise in Mittelamerika und Mexico -1907-1909._ (Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Band 42, pp. 687-749, 1910.) - -_Zentral Amerika. Die Sprachen Zentral-Amerikas in ihren Beziehungen -zueinander sowie zu Süd-Amerika und Mexiko._ In zwei Banden. Band 1. -Berlin, 1920. - -Lothrop, S. K. _Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua._ (Contributions, -Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. VIII, 1926.) - -Lumholtz, C. _Unknown Mexico._ 2 vols. New York, 1902. - -_Symbolism of the Huichol Indians._ (Memoirs, American Museum of Natural -History, vol. 3, part 1, 1900.) - -_Decorative Art of the Huichol Indians._ (Memoirs, American Museum of -Natural History, vol. 3, part 4, 1904.) - -MacCurdy, G. G. _A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities._ (Memoirs, -Connecticut Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, 1911.) - -Maudslay, A. P. _Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the -Knowledge of the Flora and Fauna of Mexico and Central America._ -_Archæology_, 4 vols. of text and plates. London, 1889-1902. - -Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vols. 1-5. Reports on excavations and -exploration by Gordon, Maler, Thompson, and Tozzer. - -Morley, S. G. _An Introduction to the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs._ -(Bulletin 57, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1915.) - -_The Inscriptions at Copan._ (Publication 219, Carnegie Institution of -Washington, Washington, 1920.) - -Peñafiel, A. _Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo._ 3 vols. Berlin, -1890. - -_Nomenclatura geografica de Mexico._ Mexico, 1897. - -Sahagun, Bernardino de. _Histoire générale des Choses de la -Nouvelle-Espagne._ (Edited and translated by D. Jourdanet and Rémi -Siméon.) 1880. - -_Historia de las cosas de Nueva España._ (Portfolio of illustrations -from two Sahagun manuscripts copied under direction of F. del Paso y -Troncoso and issued by the Mexican Government. Florence, 1922.) - -Saville, Marshall H. _Turquois Mosaic Art in Ancient Mexico._ -(Contributions, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. VI, -1922.) - -_The Wood-Carver’s Art in Ancient Mexico._ (Contributions, Museum of the -American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. IX, 1925.) - -Schellhas, P. _Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts._ 2nd -edition revised. (Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss A. M. -Parker, Papers, Peabody Museum, vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 7-47, 1904.) - -Seler, E. _Die alten Ansiedelungen von Chaculá im Districkte Nenton des -Departments Huehuetenango der Republic Guatemala._ Berlin, 1901. - -_Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach- und -Alterthumskunde._ 5 vols. Berlin, 1908-1923. - -_Codex Vaticanus No. 3773 (Codex Vaticanus B). An Old Mexican Pictorial -Manuscript in the Vatican Library._ (Translated by A. H. Keane.) Berlin -and London, 1902-1903. - -Spinden, H. J. _A Study of Maya Art._ (Memoirs, Peabody Museum, vol. 6, -1913.) - -_The Reduction of Maya Dates._ (Papers, Peabody Museum of American -Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 6, no. 4, Cambridge, -1924.) - -Squier, E. G. _The States of Central America: their Geography, -Topography, Climate, Population,_ etc. New York, 1858. - -Stephens, J. L. _Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan._ 2 vols. New -York, 1841. - -_Incidents of Travel in Yucatan._ 2 vols. New York, 1843. - -Thomas, C. _A Study of the Manuscript Troano._ (U. S. Geographical and -Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to -American Ethnology, V, pp. 1-224, 1882.) - -Thomas, C., and Swanton, John R. _Indian Languages of Mexico and Central -America._ (Bulletin 44, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1911.) - -Tozzer, A. M. _A Comparative Study of the Mayas and Lacandones._ New -York, 1907. - -_A Maya Grammar, with Bibliography and Appraisement of the Works Noted._ -(Papers, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard -University, vol. 9, Cambridge, 1921.) - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]The word _cycle_ is applied in this book to re-entering series, or - wheels, of days. These all contain the _tzolkin_ or _tonalamatl_ - without a remainder. The word _period_ is applied to fixed numbers - that do not contain the _tonalamatl_. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Acropolis, artificial, 72, 74, 77. - Adobe, 63; - houses, Mexican, 15. - Agriculture, connection with archaic art, 249; - distribution of, 68, 70, 71; - distribution in the New World, 67, 68, 70; - influence on Mayan culture, 73; - invention of, 45, 51-53, 67, 251; - spread and development of, 63, 70, 250. - Ah Puch, Lord of Death, 101. - Alphabet, of Landa, 125. - Altars, Mayan, 84; - Quirigua, 108. - Amulets, archaic figurines as, 61; - gold, 198. - Animals, domestication of, 20, 59, 253. - Annals of Quauhtitlan, 171, 172. - Arch, in Mayan architecture, 79. - Archaic, art, 45-46, 53-57, 58, 75, 244; - art, on borders of Mayan area, 75; - art, local developments of, 63-68; - culture, 187, 249; - culture, distribution of, 63-66, 69; - culture, figures, 60, 61, 62; - figurines, 53-57; - horizon, 45-71; - horizon, extensions of, 63-68; - pottery, 46, 59-61; - sites, 50; - stone sculptures, 61-63. - Architecture, early period of the Mayas, 146; - great period of the Mayas, 147; - historical sequence determined by, 108-109; - Mayan, 77-83; - Mitla, 157, 163-164; - Monte Alban, 159; - period of the League of Mayapan, 149; - transition period, Mayan, 148; - types of, La Quemada, 182-183; - Zapotecan, 159. - Art, archaic, 45-46, 53-57, 75, 244; - archaic, characterization of, 53; - archaic, Colombia, and Venezuela, 66-67; - archaic, local developments of, 63-68; - bat, represented in, 20; - Chorotegan, 190-195; - decorative, Isthmian region, 64, 66; - high development of Mayan, 73; - massive sculptural, 83-84; - Mayan, 89, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150; - Mayan, human figure in, 93-94; - Mayan, sequences in, 106-109; - Mayan, serpent in, 89-93; - motives, Huichol, 37-38; - Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 188; - Tarascan, 244-245; - Toltecan, influenced by Mayan, 169, 170; - Totonacan, close correspondence to Mayan, 165, 166, 167; - Zapotecan, influenced by Mayan, 159. - Arts, minor, Aztecan, 242-244; - Mayan, 87-89. - Astronomical, base line, Copan, 138; - checks, on correlation with Christian chronology, 136-137; - observatories, Mayan, 137-139. - Astronomy, Mayan knowledge of, 73, 111, 133. - _Atlatl_, 58, 244. - Atzcapotzalco, 203, 204, 209; - stratification at, 47-48, 169. - Aztecan history, 204-209. - Aztecs, 34, 201-249; - and Mayas, compared to Greeks and Romans, 201-203. - - - B - _Baktun_, defined, 120. - Bar and dot numerals, 119, 120, 128, 154, 157, 159. - Basketry, Mayan, 88. - Bats, represented in ancient art, 20. - Bells, Aztecan, 241-242; - copper, 187; - copper and gold, 198. - Ben, Mayan day sign, 87. - Birds, Mexico and Central America, 20-21. - Blankets, Mexican, 39, 243. - Brilliant period, Mayan civilizations, 75, 77, 147-148. - Buildings, Mayan, 78; - Mitla, 164. - - - C - Caban, Mayan day sign, 88. - Cakchiquels, 151, 211. - Calendar, annual, Mayan, 110, 111; - Central American, 163; - ceremonial, Aztecan, 229; - lunar, Mayan, 140-142; - lunar-solar, Mayan, 112; - Mayan, scheme as presented in Codex Tro-Cortesianus, 116; - religious, Aztecan, 235-236; - system, Zapotecan, 156; - Venus, Mayan, 143-145. - Calendar round, Mayan, 117-118. - Calendar Stone, 214, 215-219, 233. - _Calpolli_, Aztecan, 211, 213. - Cannibalism, 43. - Captives, as represented in Mayan art, 93. - Caribs, characterization of culture, 43. - Caricature, in archaic figurines, 54, 58. - Carving, development in style at Copan, 107; - on Mayan monuments, 108; - stone, at Xochicalco, 179. - Celts, copper, Tarascan, 244; - stone, 63. - Cemetery, at Copilco, 49-51. - Cempoalan, 25, 169, 195. - _Cenote_, 18; - sacred, at Chichen Itza, 28, 154. - Cephalic index, Mexico and Central America, 44. - Ceremonial, bar, Mayan, 93, 98, 99, 108; - regalia, depicted in Mayan art, 94. - Ceremonies, Aztecan, 234-239; - Mexican, 41. - Chacmool, 170, 194-195, 244. - Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water, 232. - Chapultepec, 207. - Chiapanecan languages, 35-36. - Chichen Itza, 28, 110, 139, 149, 150, 170, 173, 179, 188, 244. - Chichimecas, 203-204. - Chicomoztoc, 182, 204. - Chiefs, Aztecan, 210, 213; - Texcoco, 204; - Toltecan, 171; - war, Aztecan, 208-209; - Zapotecan, 161. - Chilam, Balam, Books of, 109-111, 234. - Chimayo blankets, 39. - Cholula, 25, 180-182, 203. - Chorotegan culture, 157, 189-195. - Chronology, archaic horizon, 45-46; - Aztecan, 205; - bases of Mayan, 103-106; - diagram of New World, opposite 253; - Mayan, 250; - Mayan, correlation with Christian, 75, 110-111, 135-136; - Mayan, established by dated monuments and style of sculpture, - 104, 106, 107; - Peruvian, 252; - Southwestern, 251; - Toltecan, 173. - Cities, Mayan, 75. - Civilization, Mayan, 73-151, 250. - Civilizations, middle, in Mexico and Central America, 153-198. - Clans, kinship, 210-211. - Climate, Mexico and Central America, 13-14. - _Cloisonné_ pottery, 178, 183-184; - San Juan Teotihuacan, 178. - Coatlicue, 215, 221-223. - Codex, Aubin, 205, 206, 208; - Borbonicus, 228; - Magliabecchiano, 230, 236; - Nuttall, 246, 247; - Telleriano-Remensis, 202; - Tro-Cortesianus, 116; - Xolotl, 204. - Codices, Mayan, 128-135, 248; - Mayan gods in, 99, 100, 103; - Mexican, 223; - southern Mexico, 163, 246-247. - Colhuacan, 203, 207; - stratification at, 48-49. - Collectors, specimens in Mexican Hall, 6. - Colonization, Central America, by Spaniards, 22; - Mexico, 29. - Columns, sculptured, at Tula, 179. - Comalcalco, 153. - Commerce, Aztecan objects of, 227. - Composition in design, Mayan, 94-97. - Conquest, history of Spanish, 22-32; - of Mexico, 22-31; - symbol for, 247, 248. - Construction of walls, La Quemada, 182-183; - Mayan, 78, 79, 81, 83; - Mitla, 157-158, 164. - Copan, 19, 72, 74, 77, 83, 85, 138, 139, 141, 146, 147, 188. - Copilco 49, 50. - Cora, 33, 37. - Coronado, 30. - Correlations, dates with style of carving in Mayan monuments, 104, - 106, 107, 110, 111, 124-125; - Mayan and Christian chronology, 135, 136-137. - Cortez, Hernando, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 209, 217, 249. - Crocodile motive, in Chorotegan art, 191, 193; - Isthmian region, 194, 197. - Crops, indigenous and introduced, Mexico and Central America, 21; - principal, Mayan region, 73, 75. - Cross-section, typical, Mayan temple, 76, 78. - Cuauhtemoc, 29. - Cuicuilco, 49, 50, 51. - Cuitlahuac, 27. - Cult, of the quarters, Aztecan, 234; - of Xipe, 189. - Culture, Carib, 43; - Chorotegan, 189-195; - horizons, stratification of, 45-46; - Huichol, 38; - Lacandone Indians, 41; - Mayan, 73-151; - Mosquito Indians, 43; - peoples speaking Uto-Aztecan languages, 34-35; - sequences of, 250-252; - southern Mexico, 245-248; - strata, Atzcapotzalco, 48; - Sumo Indians, 43; - Tarascans, 244-245; - Toltecs, 169-171, 203; - Totonacan, 165-169; - Zapotecan, 156-163. - Cycle, defined, 113. - - - D - Dances, hunting, Huichol, 38; - Mosquito Indians, 43. - Dates, of dedication, Mayan, 123-125; - early Mayan, 146, 153; - Mayan, 96, 107, 117-118, 122, - 123; - on National Stone, 218; - Olmeca, 154, 156; - Toltecan, 172-173. - Day, count, Mayan, elements of the, 112-114; - signs, Aztecan, 218, 225-226; - signs, hieroglyphs used on Mayan pottery, 87-88; - signs, Mayan, 112, 125; - signs, Zapotecan, 159. - Death God, Mayan, 101, 116. - Decoration, Mayan buildings, 83; - Mayan pottery, 85, 87-88; - pottery, archaic period, 59, 61. - Decorative motives, Chorotegan art, 190-193; - distribution of, 252. - Dedication, dates of, Mayan, 123-125. - Design, composition and perspective, Mayan, 94-98; - on Leyden plate, 146; - on Mexican blanket, 243; - motives, archaic pottery, 46, 61; - motives, Costa Rica, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197. - Designs, archaic horizon, 64; - on blankets, 39; - developed in negative painting, 184-185; - geometric, at Mitla, 164, 246; - Mayan pottery, 85-88; - polychrome pottery, 87; - realistic, Mayan pottery, 85, 87; - textile, archaic, 58; - textile, Aztecan, 243; - textile, Mayan, 88; - Totonacan sacrificial yokes and paddle stones, 167; - woven, Huichol, 37, 38. - Dogs, domestication of, 58-59. - Donors, collections in Mexican Hall, 6. - Dresden Codex, 101, 128, 130, 134, 141, 142, 143, 145. - Dress, shown in archaic figurines, 57; - Mexico and Central America, 39-41; - modern Mexican, 39. - Drums, Aztecan, 240-241. - Dyes, 253. - - - E - Early Period, in Mayan history, 146-147. - Earrings, archaic figurines, 57. - Economic contributions, of American Indians, 253. - Ehecatl, God of Winds, 58, 226, 230. - Ek Ahau, war god, Mayan, 103. - Elevations, Mayan buildings, 81-83. - Environment, Mayan, 153; - Mexico and Central America, 13-21. - Ethnology, 36-44, 57-59. - European contact, history of, 22-32. - Exploration, of Central America, by Spaniards, 22; - Mexico, 22, 29. - Eyes, archaic sculptures, 63; - color and Mongoloid tilt, 44; - Totonacan figurines, 165; - types of, on archaic figurines, 56-57, 64. - - - F - Façade decoration, Mayan, 83-84. - Face numerals, Mayan inscriptions, 121, 126. - Fauna, Mexico and Central America, 20-21. - Feast, in connection with planet Venus, 239; - of the twelfth month, 237-238. - Feasts, Aztecan, 235-239; - Sumo, 43. - Feather mosaics, Aztecan, 243-244; - Tarascan, 244. - Fertility, female figurines associated with, 46, 59, 63. - Fetishes, female, Southwestern Pueblo, 251. - Figurines, archaic, 46, 53-57; - archaic, at Atzcapotzalco, 47; - archaic, Colombia and Venezuela, 66-67; - archaic, Isthmian region, 64, 65; - archaic, Nicaragua, 64; - archaic, Salvador, 56, 64; - clay, transition period, 75; - female, Basket-Maker III, 63-64; - female, distribution of, 59, 63-64; - female, Island of Marajo, 67; - pottery, Aztecan, 242; - pottery, San Juan Teotihuacan, 177-178. - Filigree, modern Mexican work, 243. - First Empire, Mayan, 111, 123, 142, 148, 195, 251. - Flageolets, Aztecan, 241. - Flora, Mexico and Central America, 21. - Flores, 28. - Flying façade, Mayan buildings, 83. - Food plants, cultivated by American Indians, 253; - most widely distributed in the New World, 52. - Frescoes, Mitla, 163-164. - Frontier cities, of the northwest, 183-187. - Fruits, native, 21. - Funerary urns, Zapotecan, 159, 160; also frontispiece. - - - G - Games, ceremonial Toltecan, 170; - sacred, Olmeca, 154. - Genealogical table, Mexican, 230. - Genealogies, Aztecan, 210. - Geography, Mexico and Central America, 13-21. - Geology, Mexico and Central America, 19-20. - Gladiator stones, 219. - Glaze, on modern Mexican pottery, 39. - Glyphs, introducing, 122, 123; - period, Mayan, 121, 123, 126; - supplementary series, 123, 141, 142. - God houses, Huichol, 38. - God of War, Mayan, 103. - God’s eyes, Huichol, 38. - Gods, Aztecan, 225, 229, 231; - beast, Mayan representation of, 99; - in Dresden Codex, 101; - Mayan, 89, 98-103, 135; - Mexican, 58, 229, 230-232; - represented in pottery from San Juan Teotihuacan, 178. - Gold work, ancient, Isthmian region, 66; - Aztecan, 242-243; - in cruciform tombs, 164; - Isthmian, 195-198; - Mayan, 89; - Zapotecan, 160. - Gourd vessels, Tarascan, 245. - Government, Aztecan, 209, 213; - theocratic of the Mayas, 93. - Graves, Isthmian, gold objects found in, 198. - Great Mound, Copan, 147. - Great Period, Mayan history, 147-148. - Great Pyramid, Mexico City, 206, 208. - Grooving, archaic figurines, 56. - Groundplans, Toltecan buildings, 170; - Yaxchilan temples, 77. - Guatuso, 44. - Gums, 253. - - - H - _Haab_, defined, 139. - _Hablatun_, defined, 120. - Hair form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44; - Lacandone, 42. - Headdresses, archaic figurines, 55, 57; - Zapotecan funerary urns, 159-160; - Zapotecan, 42. - Head form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44. - Hieroglyphs, Aztecan, of precious stones, 224; - containing phonetic element _kin_, 127; - decorative use on pottery, Mayan, 87-88; - of the Four Directions, 126, 127; - Mayan, 73, 97, 125-128; - Mayan, Venus and the Moon, 137; - Nahuan, 224; - on stelæ at Monte Alban, 159; - on the Stone of Tizoc, 221; - at Xochicalco, 179; - Zapotecan, 160-161. - History, Aztecan, 204-209; - Chichimecan, 203-204; - cross-section of New World, 249-253; - of European contact, Mexico and Central America, 22-32; - Mayan, 136; - Mayan, recovery of, 103-106; - Mayan, summary of, 145-151; - summary in relation to archaeological evidences, on the - archaic horizon, 68, 71; - Toltecan, 171-175; - traditional, southern Mexico, 245-246. - Hochob, 80, 148. - Hokan linguistic stock, distribution of, 36. - Horse, introduction of, 67-68. - Hotun periods, 124. - Houses, adobe, Mexican, 15, 39; - archaic period, 63; - Mayan, 79. - Huastecas, 35, 165. - Huichol, 33, 37. - _Huipili_, decorated, 40, 41. - Huitzilihuitl, 207, 210. - Huitzilopochtli, 215, 221, 231, 237. - Human, form, carved in stone, archaic period, 61, 63; - form, in Mayan art, 89, 93-94, 106-108. - Hunac Ceel, identification of, 150. - Hunting implements, Lacandone, 41. - - - I - Ilhuicatl, inferior heavens, 233. - Imix, day sign, Mayan, 87; - first day of formal permutation, 114. - Incense burners, Lacandone, 41. - Incised designs on pottery, 88. - Influence, Aztecan, in Central America, 248-249; - Mayas, on other civilizations, 170; - Mexican, in northern Yucatan, 150. - Initial Series dates, 123, 124, 135, 141, 149. - Inscriptions, hieroglyphic, 103; - hieroglyphic, on Mayan monuments, 123-125; - Mayan, face numerals on, 121; - Mayan, Great Period, 141-148; - Mayan, typical, 122. - Invention of agriculture, in the New World, 45, 51-53, 67, 251. - Irrigation, in the New World, 17, 52-53, 63. - Itzamna, 99, 103, 116. - Ixchel, Goddess of the Rainbow, 103. - Ixtapalapan, 26. - Ixtubtun, Mayan goddess, 103. - - - J - Jade, carving of, Mayan, 89; - Zapotecan, 160; - work in, Aztec, 243. - Jaguar design, Chorotegan art, 191, 193. - - - K - Kan, day sign, Mayan, 88; - maize sign, 135. - Katun, defined, 110, 120. - Kukulcan, 150. - - - L - Lacandone Indians, 35, 41, 151. - Lakes, Mexico and Central America, 17, 18-19. - Land laws, Aztecan, 211. - Language, Toltecan, 170; - Totonacan, 165. - Languages, Central America, 239; - Mexico and Central America, 32-36. - La Quemada, 182, 183. - League, Aztecan, 209; - of Mayapan, 145, 149. - Leyden Plate, 146. - Lienzo of Amoltepec, 246. - Linguistic stocks, Mexico and Central America, 32-36. - Lintels, Mayan sculptured, 83, 97; - Zapotecan, with hieroglyphs, 159. - Long count, Mayan, 123, 141. - Long-nosed God, Mayan, 98, 100, 101, 160, 232. - Lunar, calendar, Mayan, 112, 140-142. - Lunar-solar calendar, Mayan, 112. - - - M - Macuilxochitl, God Five Flower, 248. - Maize God, Mayan, 99, 100, 103. - Maize, distribution of use, 52; - most important food of the New World, 52; - staple, in Mayan region, 75. - Manikin Scepter, 93, 99, 100. - Manioc, cultivation of, 52; - use and preparation by Carib, 43. - Marimba, origin of, 242. - Mask panels, on Mayan structures, 84, 159. - Matlatzincas, 245. - Mayan civilization, 73-151; - linguistic stock, distribution of, 35-36. - Mayas, and Aztecs, compared to Greeks and Romans, 201-203. - Mazatecas, 189. - Medicines, 253. - Metal, ornaments made of, Mayan, 89; - working, technology of, 251-252; - Zapotecan, 145. - Metates, elaborately sculptured, 193. - Metonic cycle, Greeks, 140. - Mexican, Hall, American Museum, 5-6; - influence, period of, in Mayan history, 149-150. - Mexitin, 34. - Mictlan, 163, 233, 234. - Mictlanteuctli, Lord of Death, 233-234. - Middle Period, in Mayan history, 147. - Migrations, Aztecan, 205-207; - indicated by distribution of linguistic stocks, 35-36. - Mitla, 19, 156-157, 163-165, 246. - Mixtecan stock, 35. - Mixtecas, 156, 246. - Moctezuma, 25, 26, 27, 215, 245. - Modeling, archaic figurines, 53, 55-57; - archaic sculptures, 63; - clay, San Juan Teotihuacan, 178. - Modern Period, Mayan history, 150. - _Mogotes_, Zapotecan burial mounds, 160. - Monkey, in Chorotegan art, 190-191. - Monte Alban, 152, 155, 156, 246. - Month, Mayan, twenty day signs of, 113; - signs, of Mayan year, 115; - signs, Zapotecan, 159. - Months, Aztecan, 227; - Mayan, length of, 115; - Mayan, names of, 115. - Monuments, Mayan, dated, 123-125; - sequence of Mayan determined by style of sculpture, 106-109. - Moon, representations of the, 142. - Mosaic, feather, Aztecan, 242; - feather, Tarascan, 244; - masks and ceremonial objects, 89. - Mosquito Indians, 43. - Mound, artificial, at Copan, 77, 147; - at Cholula, 80; - at Cuicuilco, 49, 51. - Mounds, at Atzcapotzalco, 47; - foundation for temples, 77; - Mayan, 146; - at Monte Alban, 152, 157; - Tarascan, 244; - Zapotecan, 160. - Mountains, Mexico and Central America, 14-16. - Music, Aztecan, 240-242. - Musical instruments, Aztecan, 240-241. - Mythology, Aztecan, 204, 217, 229, 232-233; - Mayan and Aztecan, 229. - Myths, cosmogonic, 232-233. - - - N - Nahuan linguistic stock, distribution of, 33, 203. - Naranjo, 75, 108, 147. - Nasca, 252. - National Stone, Aztecan, 218, 220. - Negative painting, 46, 66, 184-185, 187, 252. - New Fire Ceremony, Aztecan, 218; - Toltecan, 173. - Nezahualcoyotl, 204, 239. - Niquiras, 34. - Nose form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44. - Noserings, on archaic figurines, 57. - Notation system, Mayan, 111, 118-121. - Numbers, Aztecan, 227, 234; - Mayan, 118-121; - Mexican system of, 227-229; - Zapotecan system of, 157. - - - O - Observatories, astronomical, Mayan, 137-139. - Obsidian, Aztecan ornaments of, 243. - Ochpaniztli, eleventh feast of the year, 236. - Olin, Aztecan day sign, 214, 217, 218. - Olmeca, 154-156, 187. - Ometeuctli, Lord of Duality, 231, 233. - Organization, political, Mayan, 201; - social Aztecan, 209-213. - Ornaments, precious and semi-precious stones, Aztecan, 243; - shown on archaic figurines, 57. - Otomi, 36, 189, 203, 245. - - - P - Pachtli, twelfth month, Aztecan, 237-238. - Paddle-shaped stones, Totonacan, 167. - Painting, archaic figurines, 57, 64; - archaic pottery, 61; - body, shown on archaic figurines, 58; - on Mayan pottery, 87; - negative, on pottery, 46, 66, 184-185, 187, 252; - Zapotecan pottery, 160. - Palaces, structure of Mayan, 78-79. - Palenque, 75, 76, 83, 146, 156. - Palmate stone, 168. - Pantheon, Mayan, 98-103. - Papantla, pyramid at, 167, 169. - Peregrinations, Aztecan, 205-207. - Peresianus Codex, 128. - Period, defined, in Mayan time count, 113; - glyphs, Mayan, 121, 126. - Permutation system, Aztecan, 238; - Mayan, 111, 113-114. - Perspective, in Mayan design, 94, 97. - _Peyote_ worship, Huichol and Tarahumare, 38. - Phonetic use of signs, Mayan hieroglyphs, 125, 127. - Physical types, 42, 44. - Pictographic hieroglyphs, Mayan, 125. - Piedras Negras, 75, 96, 105, 108, 147. - Pima, 36. - Pipiles, 34, 157, 188. - Place names, Aztecan, 225. - Plants, food, cultivation of, in the New World, 51, 249-250. - Poetry, Aztecan, 239-240. - Polychrome pottery, Cholula, 180, 182; - Mayan, 87. - Portraiture, in archaic art, 54, 58; - in Mayan art, 94, 124; - Totonacan art, 166. - Post-Archaic Horizon, 68-71. - Potato, cultivated in Peru, 52. - Pottery, archaic, 46, 59, 61, 165; - Atzcapotzalco, 47; - Aztecan, 215, 242; - from Cholula, 180, 182, 246; - Chorotegan, 191-193; - cloisonné, San Juan Teotihuacan, 178; - at Cuicuilco, 51; - distribution of, 63-64, 69, 70; - Lacandone, 41; - Mayan, 85, 86, 87-88; - Mitla, 164-165; - modern Mexican, 39; - northwestern region of Mexico, 183-184; - polychrome, Cholula, 180, 182; - polychrome, Mayan, 87-88; - San Juan Teotihuacan, 178; - with semi-glaze, 188-189; - Zapotecan, 160. - Pouches, Valiente Indians, 40. - Pre-Archaic Horizon, 68. - Priests, in Mayan art, 93; - Zapotecan, 161. - Protohistoric Period, Mayan history, 145-146. - Pueblo Viejo, 23. - _Pulque_, 38, 170. - Pyramid, Cholula, 180-181; - Mayan, 78-79; - Monte Alban, 157; - San Juan Teotihuacan, 175-176; - Toltecan, 169, 170. - - - Q - Quetzalcoatl, 25, 149, 171, 205, 232; - and the Toltec era, 171-175. - Quichés, 151. - Quinatzin, map, 203. - Quirigua, 15, 75, 108, 141. - - - R - Rank, among the Aztecs, 209-210. - Rattles, Aztecan, 241. - Religion, Aztecan, 229-232; - as evidenced by archaic art, 58; - Isthmian region, 198; - Lacandone Indians, 41; - Mayan, 99-103, 146, 201; - Toltecan, 170; - Zapotecan, 146. - River systems, Mexico and Central America, 17-18. - Roman-nosed God, Mayan, 98, 99, 100. - Roof comb, on Mayan buildings, 76, 83, 109. - Roofs, Mayan buildings, 81. - Rooms, Mayan buildings, 79, 81, 109. - Rubber, uses of, 154. - Ruins, Usumacinta Valley, 18. - Rulers, Toltec, 171. - - - S - Sacrifices, Aztecan, to the gods, 201; - human, 215, 219, 229; - human, archaic horizon, 59; - human, Aztecan, 229, 234, 235; - human, in sacred cenote, 28; - human, shown on sculptures, 188; - human, Toltecan, 179; - human, Zapotecan, 161. - Sacrificial yokes, Totonacan, 167, 168. - Saltillo blankets, 39. - San Andres Tuxtla, 146, 153. - San Blas Indians, 44. - San Juan Teotihuacan, 169, 175-179. - San Miguel blankets, 39. - Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 187-189. - Sculptural art, massive, 83-84. - Sculptures, archaic, 61-63; - common material for, 19; - developments in, as a check to chronology, 104; - Mayan, Early Period, 146; - Mayan, Middle Period, 147; - San Juan Teotihuacan, 177; - Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 188; - sequence in style, 106-108; - style, correlated with dates, 124-125; - Tenochtitlan, 242; - at Tula, 179; - wall, at Copan, 83; - Zapotecan, 162. - Second Empire, Mayan, 149, 195. - Seibal, 75, 95. - Seri, 36. - Serpent, archaic pottery, 59, 61; - in Chorotegan art, 190-191; - conventional, of the Mayas, 91, 92-93; - heads, comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan, 156; - heads, on Mayan buildings, 84; - motive, importance in Mayan art, 89-93; - in religion of the Mayas, 98. - Shield stone, Cuernavaca, 216. - Sky God, 102. - Slabs, sculptured stone, from Costa Rica, 192, 193, 194; - Zapotecan, 162. - Smiling faces, Totonacan, 165-167. - Social organization, Aztecan, 209-213. - Songs, Aztecan, 239, 240. - Southern Mexico, culture of, 245-248. - Spear-thrower, Tarascan, 244. - Speech scroll, 188. - Stability, Mayan buildings, 81. - Stature, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44. - Stelæ, Mayan, 84, 106; - Zapotecan, 157. - Stocks, language, distribution of, 32-36. - Stone, collars, Totonacan, 167-168; - great development of building in, Copan and Mitla, 19; - sculpture in, 60-63; - yokes, 167; - Zapotecan art in, 160. - Stratification, archaeological, at Atzcapotzalco, 47-48, 169; - Mexican sites, 45-46, 47-49; - in Salvador, 49. - Structure, two-roomed, Mayan, 79-81. - Subtiaban stock, 36. - Sumo Indians, culture of, 43. - Sun God, Aztecan, 217, 231. - Suns, sequence of, in Aztecan mythology, 233. - Superstructures, on Mayan buildings, 83. - Supplementary series, 123, 141, 142. - Syllables, phonetic use of Mayan, 125, 127. - Symbolism, religious, Mayan, 95, 98, 234. - - - T - Talamanca, 44. - Tarahumare, 33, 36. - Tarascan, culture, 244-245; - stock, 35. - Tarascans, 44. - Tattooing, shown on archaic figurines, 56, 58. - Tecpan, 208, 209, 212, 213, 215. - Temple, of the Cross, model of, 76; - enclosure, Tenochtitlan, 212, 213, 215; - structure of Mayan, 78, 79, 81, 83; - of the Sun, Aztecan, 217; - at Xochicalco, 179. - Temples, Mayan, 78-83, 109, 146, 150; - Mitla, 163-164; - Tenochtitlan, 212, 213, 215; - Toltecan, 170; - Zapotecan, 157. - Tenochtitlan, 25, 26, 27, 29, 34, 47, 209, 210, 213, 219, 242. - _Teocentli_, sacred maize, 51, 52. - _Teonanacatl_, peyote, use of, 38. - Teotihuacan, 157. - Teotleco, twelfth month, Aztecan, 237-238. - Tepanecas, 47, 205, 209. - Tepehuane, 33, 36. - _Teswin_, 38. - Teteocan, 233. - Teteoinnan, 236. - Texcoco, 172, 195, 203, 204, 209, 239. - Textile, art, Cora and Huichol, 37; - art, Mayan, 88; - decoration, Aztec, 243; - designs, on archaic effigies, 58. - Tezcatlipoca, feast of, 26. - Tikal, 75, 83, 146, 148. - Time, count, Aztecan, 205; - Mayan, 111; - Toltecan, 172; - Zapotecan, 161, 163. - Time-relations, in New World culture, 249-252. - Tizoc, stone of, 209, 215, 219-221. - _Tlachtli_, Mexican ball game, 170, 179. - Tlacopan, 209. - Tlaloc, God of Rain, 58, 178, 215, 230, 231. - Tlalocan, 234. - Tlappaneca, 189. - Tlaxcala, 25, 27, 34, 44, 209. - Tlotzin, map of, 203. - Toltec, era, and Quetzalcoatl, 171-175. - Toltecs, 110, 149, 154, 156, 169-171, 203, 232. - Tomb, cruciform, near Mitla, 158, 164. - _Tonalamatl_, Aztecan, 113, 228, 238-239. - Tonatiuh, the Sun god, 217, 221, 231. - Topography, Mexico and Central America, 14-19. - Totonacan, culture, 165-169; - stock, 35. - Totonacs, 187. - Toxcatl, Aztecan month, 235. - Traditions, Colombia and Peru, 250; - Mayan, 104. - Transition Period, Mayan history, 148-149. - Trees, Mexico and Central America, 21. - Tribes, Indian, Mexico and Central America, 33, 34, 35, 36. - Tribute, lists, Aztecan, 243; - roll, 200, 245; - taken by Toltecs, 171. - Tripod vessels, archaic period, 59. - Tro-Cortesianus Codex, 128. - Tropical year, 139. - Tula, 169, 173, 179. - Tulum, 150, 151. - Tun, defined, 139. - Tuxtla Statuette, 146, 153. - Turquoise, Aztec work in, 243. - Two-Headed Dragon, 93, 100, 101, 102, 105, 108. - Tzendals, 44. - Tzintzuntzan, Tarascan capital, 244. - Tzolkin, defined, 113, 115, 117, 118; - in Dresden Codex, 133-135; - origin of, 113; - permutation table, 114. - - - U - Uayeb period, Mayan, 115. - Uaxactun, 139, 146, 148. - _Uinal_, lunar month, 112. - Universe, Aztecan conceptions of the, 232-234. - Urns, Zapotecan funerary, 159-160. - Uto-Aztecan languages, distribution of, 33-35. - Uxmal, 149, 150; - House of the Governor at, 82. - - - V - Vault, Mayan buildings, 79. - Venus, Aztecan festivals in connection with, 239; - calendar, Mayan, 143-145, 146. - Viceroys, Spanish, in Mexico, 31. - Vigesimal system of counting, Mayan, 118, 119. - Volcanoes, Mexico and Central America, 16, 19. - - - W - Wall construction, La Quemada, 182-183; - Mayan, 76, 79, 81-83; - Mitla, 161, 164. - War God, Aztecan, 219, 237; - Mayan, 103. - War, importance in Aztecan organization, 209-210; - Toltecan, 170-171. - Weapons, shown in archaic figurines, 58. - Weaving, shown in archaic figurines, 57-58; - Cora and Huichol, 37; - Lacandone, 41; - Mayan, 88; - Tarascan, 244. - Whistles, Aztecan, 241. - Writing, hieroglyphic, Mayan, 73; - Mayan and Aztecan, 125-128; - Mexican, 223-229. - - - X - Xcalumkin, 134. - Xipe, 178, 189, 232, 236. - Xkichmook, 84. - Xochicalco, 157, 179. - Xochimilco, 48, 207. - Xolotl, 204. - - - Y - _Yatacas_, Tarascan mounds, 244. - Yaqui, 44. - Yaxchilan, 75, 83, 94, 102. - Year, bearers, Cuicatecan, 246, 247; - conventional, Mayan, 114-117; - length of Mayan, 112; - Mayan, the true, 139-140; - symbol, southern Mexico, 245. - Yellow fever, presence in Central America, 148. - Yokes, sacrificial, 167; - designs on, 167, 168. - Yum Kaax, Lord of the Harvest, 103. - - - Z - Zapotecan stock, 35. - Zapotecs, culture of, 44, 156-163. - Zero, invention of sign for, Mayas, 119. - Zotzils, 211. - - - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS AND GUIDE LEAFLETS - - -The following may be secured from the American Museum of Natural History -in New York City. 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