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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #54552 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54552)
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-Project Gutenberg's Dutch and Flemish Furniture, by Esther Singleton
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Dutch and Flemish Furniture
-
-Author: Esther Singleton
-
-Release Date: April 15, 2017 [EBook #54552]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                      DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FRONTISPIECE. _Bed by Daniel Marot._
-]
-
-
-
-
-                      DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE
-
-
-                                   By
-                            ESTHER SINGLETON
-             Author of “French and English Furniture,” etc
-
-
-                     _With numerous illustrations_
-
-
-                               NEW YORK:
-                          THE McCLURE COMPANY
-                     44–60 EAST TWENTY-THIRD STREET
-                                  1907
-
-
-
-
-  _Butler and Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, France, and London_
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                                PREFACE
-
-
-No special inducement need be held out to an educated Englishman at the
-present day to take an interest in a particular field of the arts and
-crafts of the Low Countries. Long before the nobles of Flanders, France
-and England were associated in attempts to free the holy places from the
-pollution of infidel possession, the dwellers on the opposite coasts of
-England, Normandy and the Netherlands had been bound together by many
-dynastic and trade bonds. As we follow the course of history, we find
-that the interests of the English and the Flemings were inextricably
-connected; and there was a constant stream of the manufactures of the
-Low Countries pouring into English ports. The English supplied much of
-the raw material upon which the Flemings depended for subsistence. In
-mediaeval days the inhabitants of the Low Countries could always be
-forced by English statecraft to help the Plantagenet kings in their
-continental intrigues by the mere cutting off of the supply of wool.
-Later, the community of tastes and interests in Reformation days drew
-the races closer together; and all through Elizabethan days, and then
-onwards till the close of the Marlborough campaigns, the inhabitants of
-England and the Netherlands were on terms of intimate acquaintance,
-socially and industrially.
-
-In the following pages, therefore, constant evidence will appear of the
-influence of the arts and crafts of the Low Countries on English
-manufactures and importations. Trade rivalry frequently gave rise to
-coolness between England and Holland, and to an inglorious war in the
-days of the Merry Monarch. The latter period I have treated at
-considerable length on account of the importance of the Oriental trade
-on the interior decorations of Dutch homes.
-
-On taking a general survey of the Decorative Arts of the Low Countries,
-we notice several well-defined periods and influences.
-
-Materials are too meagre for us to learn much about domestic interiors
-during the Dark Ages, but we know that, in common with England and
-Northern France, Scandinavian Art largely prevailed.
-
-The feudal lords of the territories that now formed the Netherlands were
-enthusiastic in assuming the cross; and for two centuries the arts and
-crafts of Byzantium and the luxury of the East dominated Western Europe.
-
-About 1300 the influence of Byzantium had waned, and the Gothic style
-was bursting into full bloom. For the next two centuries it held full
-sway, and was then pushed aside by the Renaissance, which made itself
-felt at the end of the fifteenth century.
-
-At the end of the sixteenth century we find the Renaissance fully
-developed; and for the next fifty years Flanders is the willing slave of
-Rubens and his school. The Decadence quickly follows.
-
-The provinces that now constitute Holland and Belgium went hand in hand
-in the Decorative Arts until about 1600. If there was any difference,
-Holland was more influenced by German and Flanders by French Art. After
-the establishment of the Dutch trade with the Far East at the beginning
-of the seventeenth century, Dutch and Flemish Art diverge.
-
-In the following chapters I have tried to trace these influences and
-developments.
-
-In illustrating the book I have gone to the original works of the great
-masters of design—De Vries, Van de Passe, Marot and others. As for Dutch
-interiors, nothing can convey a clearer idea of the home than the famous
-pictures by the Great and Little Masters—Jan Steen, Teniers, Rembrandt,
-Cocques, Metsu, Maes, Terburg, Dou, Weenix, Van Hoogstraten, Troost,
-etc., etc., many of whose famous canvases are reproduced here.
-
-I also include photographic reproductions of authentic examples of Dutch
-and Flemish furniture preserved in the Cluny, Rijks, Stedelijk and other
-museums.
-
-In my attempt to reconstruct Dutch and Flemish interiors of past days, I
-have consulted not only histories, memoirs and books of travel, but
-wills and inventories as well.
-
-I wish to thank Mr. Arthur Shadwell Martin for valuable research and aid
-for both text and illustrations.
-
-                                                                   E. S.
-
-
-
-
-                                CONTENTS
-
-
-                                CHAPTER I
-
-                                                                   PAGES
-
- THE MIDDLE AGES                                                    1–29
-
-      Ecclesiastical Art—Wood-carving and Carvers—Primitive
-      Character of the Furniture of Castles and Mansions—
-      _Huchiers_—_Menuisiers_—A Typical Bedroom—_Dinanderie_—
-      Wood-work and panelling—Chest, _banc_, _bahut_, sideboard,
-      _dressoir_, credence, table and chair—Embroideries—
-      Definition of _Chambre_—Textiles and Tapestries—
-      Ecclesiastical Hangings—Tapestry-weavers—Tapestry of
-      Philip the Bold—Flemish Looms—Cordovan and Flemish
-      Leathers—Goldsmith’s Work—Glass and Glass-workers—Guilds
-      of St. Luke.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER II
-
- THE BURGUNDIAN PERIOD                                             31–62
-
-      The luxurious Dukes of Burgundy—Possessions of the House
-      of Burgundy—The Burgundian Court—Household of Philip the
-      Good—the Feast of the Pheasant—the Duke of Burgundy at the
-      Coronation of Louis XI—Arras Tapestries—Sumptuous
-      _Dressoirs_ and their Adornments—Celebrations in honour of
-      the Knights of the Golden Fleece—Luxury of Charles the
-      Bold—Charles the Bold at Trèves—Furnishings of the Abbey
-      of Saint-Maximin—Charles the Bold’s Second Marriage—
-      Furnishings of the Banqueting Hall at Bruges—Descriptions
-      by Olivier de la Marche—Aliénor of Poitiers’ Descriptions
-      of the Furniture of the Duchess of Burgundy’s Apartments—
-      Rich _Dressoirs_—the _Drageoir_ and its Etiquette—the
-      Etiquette of the _Escarbeau_—Philip the Bold’s Artisans—
-      Flemish Carving—the _Forme_ or _Banc_—Burgundian
-      Workmanship—Ecclesiastical Work—Noted Carvers—Furniture of
-      the Period—the “Golden Age of Tapestry”—Embroideries—
-      Tapestry-weavers of the Low Countries—Introduction of
-      Italian Cartoons—Goldsmiths’ Work—Furniture of the
-      Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER III
-
- THE RENAISSANCE: PART I                                           63–96
-
-      Dawn of the Renaissance—The Transitional Period—Coffers
-      and _Bahuts_—Court of Margaret of Austria—Perrèal’s Style—
-      Margaret’s Tomb by Perrèal—Taste of the Regent—Margaret’s
-      Tapestries, Carpets, Table-covers and Cushions—Her Curios—
-      Flemish Tapestries—Cartoons by Bernard van Orley—William
-      de Pannemaker—English Tapestries—Last Days of the Gothic
-      Style—Guyot de Beaugrant, Lancelot Blondeel and Peter
-      Pourbus—Stalls in the Groote Kerk, Dordrecht—Carvings in
-      Haarlem—Invasion of the Renaissance—Walnut, the Favourite
-      Wood for Furniture and Carving—Versatility of the Artists—
-      the Fleming as Emigrant—the Renaissance in Burgundy—Hugues
-      Sambin—Sebastian Serlio—Peter Coeck of Alost—Pupils of
-      Peter Coeck—Lambert Lombard—Francis Floris, the “Flemish
-      Raphael”—the Craze for Numismatics—Hubert Goltzius—
-      Cabinets of the Sixteenth Century—Italian Furniture—
-      Characteristic Features of Renaissance Furniture—
-      Ornaments, the Arabesque, Pilaster, Cartouche, _Cuirs_,
-      Banderole and Caryatid—Publications of Decorative Design—
-      Alaert Claes, Lucas van Leyden, Cornelis Bos and Martin
-      van Heemskerck.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IV
-
- THE RENAISSANCE: PART II                                         97–129
-
-      Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—
-      Charles V a Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in
-      Spain—Gilded Leather—Wealth of the Nobles in the
-      Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at Namur—Antwerp in the
-      Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin—Cornelis and James
-      Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries—Jacques van
-      Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second Period
-      of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs,
-      _Armoires_, Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass
-      Cupboards—Windows and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the
-      Artists of the Low Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de
-      Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—Wood-carving—Music and
-      Musical Instruments.
-
-
-                                CHAPTER V
-
- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (FLEMISH)                                   131–167
-
-      Renewed Italian Influence—Rubens: his Studio, his House,
-      his Pupils, his Influence, his Successors—Seventeenth
-      Century Wood-carvers—Development and Tendencies of
-      Furniture—Crispin van den Passe—Rembrandt’s Goods and
-      Chattels—Old Belgian Houses—The Pitsembourg—Kitchens—
-      Leather-hangings—Tapestry—Marquetry—Chairs—Masters of
-      Ornamental Design—The “Auricular Style.”
-
-
-                               CHAPTER VI
-
- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (DUTCH)                                     169–202
-
-      Famous Dutch Architects—The Royal Palace on the Dam, Het
-      Loo, The Mauritshuis and Huis Ten Bosch—Interior Carvings—
-      Specimens of Rooms and Ceilings in the Rijks Museum—Love
-      of the Dutch for their Houses—Miniature Dutch Houses and
-      Models of Old Amsterdam Houses in the Rijks Museum—
-      Architecture of the Seventeenth Century—A Typical Dutch
-      Home—The _Luifel_, _Voorhuis_ and _Comptoir_—Interior
-      Decorations and Furniture—Dutch Mania for Cleaning—
-      Descriptions by Travellers of Dutch Houses and Cleaning—
-      Cleaning Utensils—House and Furniture of Andreas Hulstman
-      Janz, in Dordrecht—Inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt,
-      wife of the painter, in Delft—“Show-Rooms” and their
-      Furnishings—Cooking Utensils—Bedroom in the House of Mrs.
-      Lidia van der Dussen in Dordrecht—The Cradle and
-      “Fire-Basket”—The Baby’s Silver—The “Bride’s Basket”—The
-      “Bride’s Crown” and “Throne”—Decorations for a Wedding—
-      Description by Sir John Lower of the Farewell
-      Entertainment to Charles II at the Hague.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER VII
-
- THE IMPORTANCE OF PORCELAIN                                     203–235
-
-      Rise of Dutch Taste in Decorative Art—Influence of Foreign
-      Trade in the Dutch Home—Accounts of Porcelain by Mediaeval
-      Travellers: Edrisi, Ibn Batuta and Shah Rukh—Quotation
-      from Pigapheta—A Great European Collection—Monopoly of
-      Trade by the Portuguese—Quotation from Pyrard de Laval—
-      Portuguese Carracks—Voyages to Goa and Japan—Porcelain and
-      Cabinets—Mendoza’s Description of Earthenware—Dutch and
-      English Merchants—Presents to Queen Elizabeth—Dutch
-      Expeditions and Establishment of the Dutch East India
-      Company—Embassy to the Emperor of China in 1655—
-      Descriptions of the Manufacture of Porcelain—Manufacture
-      and Potters of Delft—Quotation from d’Entrecolles on
-      Porcelain and Oriental Trade—Prices—Tea—Tea-drinking—A
-      Dutch Poet on the Tea-table—Chrestina de Ridder’s
-      Porcelain—Prices of Porcelain in 1653.
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VIII
-
- THE DUTCH HOME                                                  237–270
-
-      Love of porcelain—The Amsterdam Mart—Prices of China in
-      1615—Oriental wares before 1520—Luxury of the Dutch
-      Colonists—Rich Burghers in New Amsterdam—Inventories of
-      Margarita van Varick and Jacob de Lange—Dutch Merchants in
-      the East—Foreign Views of Dutch Luxury—Dutch Interiors
-      after the Great and Little Masters—House-furnishing by a
-      young married couple—The Linen Chest—Clothes Chests and
-      Cupboards—The Great _Kas_—The Cabinet—The Toilet—
-      Table-covers—Foot-warmers—Looking-glasses—Bedsteads—Tables
-      and Chairs—Woods—Kitchen Utensils—Silverware—Household
-      Pets.
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IX
-
- DUTCH FURNITURE UNDER FRENCH AND ORIENTAL INFLUENCE             271–293
-
-      The Dutch Craftsmen in the Employ of Louis XIV—Huguenot
-      Emigration—Marot—The Sopha—Upholstery—The Bed—Chairs—
-      Sconces—Tables—Rooms—English and Dutch Alliances—Hampton
-      Court—Queen Mary—Looking-glasses—Chandeliers—
-      Chimney-pieces—The _style refugié_—John Hervey’s
-      Purchases—Oriental Furniture manufactured after European
-      Patterns—Complaints of Home Manufacturers—Trade with the
-      Indies—“Prince Butler’s Tale”—Enormous Importations—
-      Imported Textiles—Foreign Textiles for Upholstery.
-
-
-                                CHAPTER X
-
- FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES            295–327
-
-      Lacquer—Oriental Methods—European Importations and
-      Limitations—Prices—An Ambassador’s Report—_Singerie_,
-      _Chinoiserie_ and _Rocaille_—The Dutch Decadence—Interiors
-      of Cornelis Troost—Mirrors—Wealth and Luxury of Dutch
-      Merchants—Court Contrasts—Tapestry—Brussels as a Centre of
-      Art and Luxury—Eighteenth Century Furniture—The Empire
-      Style in the Low Countries—Dutch Homes of the Nineteenth
-      Century—The Maarken House and Furniture—Typical Farmhouse
-      and Furniture—Country Seats and Town Houses—Hindeloopen
-      Houses and Furniture—A Friesland House—Canal Boat
-      Furniture—Dutch Love of Symmetry—Collectors and
-      Collections.
-
-
-
-
-                             ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-    PLATE                                                    FACING PAGE
-
-          Bed by Daniel Marot                             _Frontispiece_
-
-       I. Choir-Stall                                                  4
-
-      II. Bedroom (Fifteenth Century) and Figs. 1–5                    8
-
-     III. Flemish Dressoir (Fifteenth Century), and Figs.             14
-            6–9
-
-      IV. Credence (Fifteenth Century)                                38
-
-       V. Coffer in Flemish Style                                     66
-
-      VI. Flemish Coffer or Huche                                     68
-
-     VII. Huche, or Bahut (Sixteenth Century)                         70
-
-    VIII. Cabinet (Sixteenth Century)                                 84
-
-      IX. Armoire (Burgundian School)                                 86
-
-       X. Bedroom, by De Vries                                        92
-
-      XI. Flemish Bedstead (1580) and Figs. 10–18                     94
-
-          Bed, Tables, Chair and Footstool, Flemish                  106
-            Chairs. Figs. 19–25
-
-     XII. Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan                  108
-
-    XIII. Bedstead, by De Vries                                      110
-
-     XIV. Bedstead, Rijks Museum                                     112
-
-      XV. Armoire, Rijks Museum                                      114
-
-     XVI. Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries                    116
-
-    XVII. Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries                    118
-
-   XVIII. Flemish Armoire and Figs. 26–27                            120
-
-     XIX. Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries. Design for               122
-            Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock
-
-      XX. Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries. Design for               124
-            Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock
-
-     XXI. Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert            126
-
-    XXII. Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert            128
-
-   XXIII. Lady at Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer                          132
-
-  XXIIIA. Spinet, by Ruckers                                         134
-
-    XXIV. Interior, by Barthol van Bassen (Seventeenth               136
-            Century) and Figs. 28–30
-
-     XXV. Panelled Bedstead, Rijks Museum                            144
-
-    XXVI. The Sick Woman, by Jan Steen, and Figs. 31–34              146
-
-   XXVII. Woman with a Parrot, by Jan Steen                          148
-
-  XXVIII. Flemish Chair, Cluny Museum                                154
-
-    XXIX. Flemish Chair Cluny Museum                                 156
-
-     XXX. Chairs, Cluny Museum                                       158
-
-    XXXI. Marquetry Cabinet, Rijks Museum                            160
-
-   XXXII. Kitchen, Stedelijk Museum                                  162
-
-  XXXIII. Chairs, Rijks Museum                                       164
-
-   XXXIV. Chairs, Rijks Museum                                       170
-
-    XXXV. Chairs, Rijks Museum                                       172
-
-   XXXVI. The Oyster Feast, by Jan Steen, and Figs. 35–37            248
-
-  XXXVII. The Sick Lady, by Hoogstraten                              250
-
- XXXVIII. Interior, by J. Koedyck                                    252
-
-   XXXIX. The Music Lesson, by Terborch                              254
-
-      XL. Interior, by J. B. Weenix                                  256
-
-     XLI. Breakfast, by G. Metsu                                     258
-
-    XLII. Interior, by Jan Steen                                     260
-
-   XLIII. Kas of Ebony and Ivory, Rijks Museum                       262
-
-    XLIV. Dutch Kas, Cluny Museum                                    264
-
-     XLV. Flemish Chair, Cluny Museum                                266
-
-    XLVI. “Buire,” by Mosyn, Auricular Style                         268
-
-          Screen in the Style Refugié. Fig. 39                       272
-
-   XLVII. Carved Oak Bahut, Cluny Museum, and Fig. 38                274
-
-          Sophas, Lower part of Chair, Lambrequins. Figs.            276
-            40–45
-
-  XLVIII. Bed and Bedroom, by Marot                                  278
-
-    XLIX. Mirrors and Sconces, by Marot                              280
-
-       L. Mirrors, by Marot                                          282
-
-      LI. Mirrors, Console Table and Candlestands, by                284
-            Marot
-
-     LII. Tables and Mascarons, by Marot                             286
-
-    LIII. Clocks and Details, by Marot                               288
-
-     LIV. Interior, by Cornelis Troost                               298
-
-          Cabinet from Liège, Dutch Mirror Frame. Figs.              300
-            46–47
-
-      LV. Interior, by Cornelis Troost                               302
-
-     LVI. Room in the Stedelijk Museum                               308
-
-    LVII. In Bruitlaen, by Artz                                      312
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-                            THE MIDDLE AGES
-
-  Ecclesiastical Art—Wood-carving and Carvers—Primitive character of the
-      Furniture of Castles and Mansions—_Huchiers_—_Menuisiers_—A
-      Typical Bedroom—_Dinanderie_—Wood-work and panelling—Chest,
-      _banc_, _bahut_, sideboard, _dressoir_, _credence_, table and
-      chair—Embroideries—Definition of _Chambre_—Textiles and
-      Tapestries—Ecclesiastical hangings—Tapestry-weavers—Tapestry of
-      Philip the Bold—Flemish Looms—Cordovan and Flemish Leathers—
-      Goldsmith’s Work—Glass and Glass-workers—Guilds of St. Luke.
-
-
-In the turbulent days of the Middle Ages, the goods of the Church were
-the only ones respected, and, sometimes, not even those. The castles
-afforded protection to those in their immediate vicinity, but rival
-feudal ambitions rendered the calling of a luxurious craftsman more or
-less precarious. The abbey walls always sheltered a community of
-carpenters, joiners, leather-dressers, iron-workers, goldsmiths,
-sculptors, painters and calligraphists.
-
-Towards the end of the Crusades, the new organization of the Communes,
-after the period of anarchy, becomes firmly established. Industry,
-commerce and art begin to make rapid strides in the towns, and craftsmen
-form themselves into corporations that receive special privileges from
-their titular overlords. So long as the artists of the ecclesiastical
-school remained under the protection of the monastic houses, they
-naturally followed a hieratic road. The ornamentation they were called
-upon to produce for the Church, they reproduced when luxurious furniture
-was required in domestic life. The great Corporations, however, as they
-grew in wealth and power, demanded something superior to, or at least,
-different from, the work of their forerunners. In the monastic houses,
-it was long before this influence made itself felt; but among the
-secular clergy it received a hearty welcome.
-
-The distinguishing character of Mediaeval work is the freedom of
-execution allowed to the workman. The architect decided on heights,
-dimensions, dispositions of parts and profiles of stalls, or _armoires_;
-but the details were left to be worked out by the artistic ability of
-the skilled workman. Individual expression was allowed full play, while
-the original conception of the designer was respected.
-
-Gradually, as the Communes became more powerful and were able to afford
-stable protection to their members, the spirit of association and
-solidarity tended to break away from exclusively ecclesiastical art.
-
-The art of wood-carving was developed principally in the production of
-choir-stalls and altar-pieces. The building of a beautiful temple to the
-glory of God was usually begun by some pious founder from motives of
-gratitude or repentance. It was dedicated to some patron saint, and the
-work was carried out under the supervision of some abbey or other
-religious house. Often the church or cathedral was originally the abbey
-church itself. In early Mediaeval days, the arts and sciences were
-confined to the cloister, and the embellishment of the Holy House was a
-labour of love. Many an obscure monk put all that was beautiful and
-fanciful in his nature into the production of carvings in stone and wood
-that have never been surpassed.
-
-The precise date at which choir-stalls were introduced into churches is
-not known; but it is certain that they were in general use as soon as
-the Pointed Style was finally established, that is to say, not later
-than the thirteenth century. When the sanctuary was railed off from the
-rest of the church, the priests, in their light garb, naturally wanted
-to be protected from cold, damp and draught by woodwork, which, like the
-high back of a settle, enclosed the choir.
-
-The stall is composed of several parts: the socle, the tablet, or seat,
-half of which can be raised, as it turns on hinges, the half thus
-raised, called the _miséricorde_, serves as a support for a person
-resting, half standing, half sitting; the _paraclose_, or sides that
-separate it from the adjoining stalls [the forward extremities of these
-are called _museaux_ (snouts)]; the arm rest; the high back; the daïs,
-or baldaquin; and, lastly, the woodwork at each end of a set of stalls,
-called _jouées_ (cheeks).
-
-With the exceptions of the socle and seat, every part of the stall in
-all the great Gothic churches has received very richly carved
-ornamentation, which is often remarkable for its profusion of detail.
-
-The _miséricorde_ is ordinarily decorated with foliage and fruits; but
-it often presents fantastic objects, such as dragons, sirens, dogs,
-bears, and hybrid monsters of every kind. Frequently also we find
-personages in ridiculous and gross attitudes, and all sorts of human and
-animal caricatures. The _paraclose_ is decorated with Gothic tracery in
-the earliest examples; and later with foliage, tendrils and branches of
-elegant curve. These are usually open-work, the pierced oak producing a
-charmingly light and graceful effect. Sometimes here also we find human
-and animal forms. The high backs are enriched with bas-reliefs, the
-subjects of which are by no means taken exclusively from the Old or New
-Testament. On the contrary, here the carvers have given free rein to
-their fancy by reproducing scenes of private life, and graceful
-compositions of flowers and fruits with little animals intermingled.
-Sometimes the subjects are framed in clusters of _colonnettes_, or in
-pilasters decorated with niches containing statues. Sometimes also
-statues of considerable size adorn this woodwork. The _jouées_ receive
-the most beautiful decorations, and frequently these side entrances to
-the stalls are ornamented by statues. The daïs, which at first was
-merely a shelter of boards on an inclined plane over the whole range of
-stalls, began to assume great importance in the fifteenth century. It
-curved into vaultings; and very soon each seat received a separate daïs
-decorated with _ogives_, pinnacles, little steeples, pendentives,
-_culs-de-lampe_ and crockets; and the skilful carver did not hesitate to
-introduce delightful statuettes into the company of all these
-decorations.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE I.—_Choir-Stall._
-]
-
-A fine example of a Mediaeval carved oak stall is shown in Plate I. By
-the richness of the carving it must originally have held an important
-position in some choir. Richly ornamented with Gothic shafting and
-tracery, it is a splendid example of architectural furniture. The
-_miséricorde_ represents a knight fighting with a dragon. The scene
-depicted with the chisel on the back is the favourite _Judgment of
-Solomon_. Around the elbows are various animals and men on all fours.
-The side scrolls under the daïs are decorated with angels playing
-trumpets.
-
-The names of the carvers who embellished the Mediaeval choirs have, as a
-rule, been lost; and fire and iconoclasm have destroyed most of their
-work. Some few relics, however, of the splendour of wood-carving as it
-existed before the Renaissance are still to be found. For elaborate oak
-carving of the fifteenth century, it would be hard to find a more
-interesting example than the carved oak stalls in the great church of
-Bolsward (Broederkerk) in Holland. This was built in 1280 A.D.; but the
-richly carved late Gothic choir stalls date from about 1450.
-
-One of the earliest churches of the Low Countries is that of Nivelles.
-The convent was founded about 650 A.D. by Ita, wife of Pepin of Landen.
-The Romanesque church, built in the eleventh century, somewhat spoilt by
-bad restoration, still stands. On the high altar is the shrine of St.
-Gertrude, which was carved in 1272 by the _orfèvres_ Nicolas Colars, of
-Douai and Jackenon of Nivelles. This work of art is famous for the
-delicacy and beauty of its details.
-
-The Protestant Church of Breda (Hervormde Kerk), built in 1290, also
-contains notable carving, especially on the side entrances of the stalls
-(_jouées_). The choir was consecrated in 1410, and here the carvers gave
-free rein to satire on the clergy, representing the monks in various
-comical attitudes.
-
-Examples of ecclesiastical furniture of Mediaeval days are naturally
-scarce, as might be expected on the “Battlefield of Europe.” It is
-indeed astonishing that so much has survived after the ordeal by fire
-and sword to which the Netherlands have been so often subjected.
-Occasionally we come across a muniment chest. An interesting one, the
-front of which is perforated with quatrefoils, is to be seen in Notre
-Dame, Huy. This dates from 1225. Two others in the same treasury are by
-the hand of Godefroid de Claire, called “the noble high goldsmith”;
-these, however, have lost their original character, having been restored
-in 1560 by Jaspar, a Namur goldsmith.
-
-The ordinary movable furniture of a castle or Mediaeval mansion was of a
-very primitive character. It must be remembered that in those days
-merchants travelled from town to town in veritable caravans. Nobles
-whose business or pleasure induced them constantly to be changing their
-residence, also travelled with an escort and baggage-train that
-resembled a small army. The necessary furniture and goods for the
-comfort of the household were carried in carts and on the backs of
-mules. The wooden furniture was, therefore, primitive. The tables
-consisted of boards and trestles; the beds were of similarly elemental
-construction; and what seats were taken along were also of the folding
-variety. The beds and benches were supplied with cushions carried in
-chests, and the walls were hung with printed linen or tapestry, while
-the floors were covered with rugs, or, in the majority of cases, with
-odoriferous plants, rushes, or straw. Luxury chiefly declared itself in
-rich products of the goldsmith’s art, which were displayed on buffets of
-shelves rising like steps. These customs prevailed for several
-centuries.
-
-Pieces of furniture of earlier date than 1400 are exceedingly rare; and
-those existing had a religious destination, and are preserved in, or
-taken from, churches and convents.
-
-In the fourteenth century, as Gothic Art blossomed after the disturbing
-influence of the Crusades, carving entered more extensively into the
-decoration of furniture, as it was more highly developed in
-ecclesiastical art. The cabinet-makers of the period were skilful
-carvers: in France and Flanders these _huchiers-menuisiers_ were called
-upon to supply royal and princely castles with artistic furniture, the
-accounts of which have come down to us. We find not only carved oak, but
-also tables inlaid with ebony and ivory. The chief feature, however, of
-interior decoration during the fourteenth century was the hangings. The
-Genoese and Venetians still had a monopoly of the trade with the Levant;
-and Europe was supplied by the Italians with Oriental rugs, tablecloths
-and hangings. The Flemish looms also produced rich stuffs for upholstery
-and chamber hangings, which were often sumptuously embroidered.
-
-Through the fourteenth century, wood-carving kept pace with the lovely
-stone sculpture of the cathedrals. We learn there was no light furniture
-in palace or castle, but that even in the lady’s chamber there were only
-benches, trestles, forms, faldstools and armchairs. The wood-carver
-carved these with a mass of bas-reliefs and bosses; the carpenters
-surrounded them with panelling; and the artists painted them red and
-decorated them with white rosettes.
-
-In studying the arts and crafts of the Middle Ages, we must always bear
-in mind the fact that art was not specialized. The workmen were
-thoroughly trained, and their artistic talents had free play. We find
-many men who were at once architects, sculptors, painters, goldsmiths
-and image-makers. This condition existed till the middle of the
-seventeenth century.
-
-In the Middle Ages, the carpenter made the household furniture which
-formed an integral part of the dwelling; and he was quite capable of
-giving to it the Gothic ornamentation in vogue.
-
-It was not till the fourteenth century that the increase of luxury and
-the progress of the arts demanded a division of labour; and that the
-_huchiers_ and joiners formed separate bodies from the carpenters. The
-_huchiers_, who then became exclusively what we should now call joiners
-and cabinet-makers, devoted their attention especially to all that
-required ornate treatment in carving, such as doors, windows, shutters
-and panelling, as well as chests, benches, bedsteads, chairs, dressers
-and wardrobes. These were largely fixtures and formed part of the
-permanent woodwork of a hall, or bedroom. The mouldings and other
-ornaments were carved directly out of the oak, and not applied.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE II.—_Bedroom (Fifteenth Century)._
-
-  Fig. 1: AIGUIÈRE (Fifteenth Century); Fig. 2: AIGUIÈRE (Fourteenth
-    Century); Fig. 3: BRACKET CANDLESTICK; Fig. 4: BED, CHAIR, AND STOOL
-    (Fourteenth Century); Fig. 5: BAHUT AND CHAIR (Fifteenth Century).
-]
-
-Before the great artists of the Netherlands arise, we must go to the
-miniatures of early manuscripts in order to form a correct idea of a
-Mediaeval interior. We usually find a very simple arrangement of
-furniture, which consists of a bed, a bench, an armchair and some kind
-of _dressoir_, or sideboard. The floor is tiled, or tessellated; and
-sometimes the bed stands on a rug or carpet, which also covers part of
-the adjoining floor space. The windows with small leaded panes are
-supplied with shutters of two or three wings: these are sometimes
-covered with leather fastened with large brass-headed nails. The
-chimney-piece is always wide and high; the funnel shape of this occurs
-in the earliest examples. The shelf above the opening is usually adorned
-with glass, plate or earthenware. The armchair stands beside, or near,
-the bed; the _dressoir_ is close by; and the settle is beside, or
-sometimes in front of, the fire. The bed is often nothing but a long
-chest on short legs with a mattress and pillows on top; and this is
-moved out in front of the fire in case of need. The curtains and canopy
-are suspended by cords from the rafters, as is also the chandelier.
-
-This same arrangement of furniture occurs in a picture of the
-_Salutation angélique_ in the Louvre, by an unknown Flemish painter: it
-has been attributed both to Lucas van Leyden and Memling. This room,
-reproduced in Plate II, is one of the middle class at the end of the
-fifteenth century. The walls are bare, the ceiling shows open rafters of
-natural wood, and the floor is tiled. The panes of the windows are
-leaded, and the inner shutters, which are trebly hinged so as at need to
-fold into the thickness of the wall, are, moreover, divided in two
-parts, so that only the top may be opened if needed. The other window
-has a window seat. The high chimneypiece is furnished with the lateral
-shelves in use throughout Mediaeval times from the twelfth century
-onward. The chimney diminishes in size as it rises, like an inverted
-funnel. In summer time, when the fire was not needed, the fireplace was
-masked by a wooden screen to prevent draughts. In front of this, with
-its back to the screen, was placed the high-backed settle, which in
-winter faced, or was placed laterally to the cheerful blaze of the
-hearth. The bench shown in this picture is made of plain boards, with a
-little plain Gothic carving below the seat. For comfort, it is supplied
-with three red cushions. The bed, which is raised on a low platform, is
-also furnished with red curtains, bolster and counterpane. The tester is
-suspended by cords from the ceiling. Beside the head of the bed is a
-chair, and next to that a credence, which is used as a wash-hand stand.
-On it are placed a ewer and shallow basin. These, and the brass
-chandelier hanging above, are of the manufacture of Dinant, a metal ware
-known all over Europe under the name of _Dinanderie_. The chandelier has
-six branches, each a grotesque form of some animal, and the top of it is
-surmounted by the figure of a seated quadruped. It is raised and lowered
-by a pulley and chain.
-
-The ewer, or _aiguière_, standing on the credence, is an excellent
-specimen of _Dinanderie_ of the fifteenth century; it has a double
-spout, as shown in Fig. 1. Other examples of _Dinanderie_ of this period
-are represented in Fig. 2, a grotesque _aiguière_; and Fig. 3, a bracket
-candlestick of very graceful form.
-
-_Dinanderie_ became celebrated as early as the thirteenth century.
-Although made at first in Dinant, its manufacture spread throughout the
-valley of the Meuse, and _Dinantairs_ were established in various cities
-and towns in the Netherlands, Germany, England and France. In 1380, one
-Jehan de Dinant, living at Rheims, furnished some articles to the King.
-Among the copper and brass ware delivered at this period to the royal
-household and to the establishments of other great personages by this
-workman, we find all kinds of kitchen articles, cooking utensils, stoves
-of all sizes, wash-basins, kettles for heating water for the bath,
-barbers’ basins, large boilers of all kinds, warming-pans for the beds,
-candlesticks, chandeliers, and _aiguières_ (ewers).
-
-The permanent woodwork of the apartments in Mediaeval days was
-furniture, without being “movables,” just like the carved oak in the
-choir of a cathedral. The panelling contained cupboards and wardrobes;
-bedsteads were contrived in the timbered lining of the walls; and the
-woodwork readily lent itself to the adaptation of window seats, settles
-and benches. It may easily be understood how the woodwork of a room
-might conceal a whole series of shelves to which sliding panels, or
-panels opening outwards as doors, gave access. These various
-compartments served as cabinets for curios, bookcases, glass and plate
-cupboards, wardrobes and larders. When one of these compartments was
-made as a separate piece of furniture to stand by itself out against the
-flat wall of a room, it was called a cabinet, or _armoire_. As late as
-the middle of the seventeenth century, however, the _armoire_ was
-generally part of the fixed woodwork. _Relai_ was another name for it.
-Thus in 1635, Monet defines _armoire_, _armaire_, _aumoire_ as a
-“_reservoir pratique en la muraille à servir et garder tout chose_”; and
-Cotgrave (1673) has: “_Relai_” as “_armaire_, a hole or box contrived in
-or against a wall.”
-
-The plain box, or chest, was the origin of all the developments of
-Mediaeval furniture. It had many uses: it contained the treasures and
-valuables of the lord; it was used as a packing-case or trunk for
-travelling; with supports at the four corners and back, and arms added
-above, it served as a chair or settle, with a seat that could be lifted
-on hinges; raised also on legs and supplied with a daïs, it became a
-_dressoir_, credence, or sideboard; chest-upon-chest superimposed,
-developed into the elaborate _armoire_; and, finally, supplied with a
-head and foot rail and made comfortable with mattress or pillows, it
-served as a bed.
-
-In the old manuscripts of the Middle Ages, we find many illustrations of
-the developments of the chest and its various uses. Fig. 4 shows a long
-chest with short solid legs on which bedding is laid, and over which a
-canopy with curtains has been raised. By its side is a chair, the seat
-of which is manifestly the lid of a small chest. The chest-bed and chair
-stand on a carpet: the floor is tiled. The shape of the pillow is
-characteristic of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The carving of
-the panels in bed and chair show the “linen fold,” which was so popular
-in the Netherlands and which was laid in even more intricate folds by
-the English carvers. Gothic tracery in furniture, in combination with
-the “linen-fold” is shown in the chair of Fig. 5, which exhibits also
-another chest, or _bahut_. The original illustration shows flames
-leaping up the chimney, against which the bed is closely placed. The
-cushions, with heavy tassels at each corner, are similar in shape to
-those in Fig. 4.
-
-There were several varieties of the chest, known by various names, such
-as _huche_, _bahut_ and _arche_. The _huche_ usually had a flat top: it
-was the oldest and simplest form—a plain oblong box. As time wore on the
-_huche_ gave its name to the cabinet-makers (the _huchiers_) of the
-Middle Ages. They made windows, doors, panels, shutters, _bancs_,
-_bahuts_, _armoires_, credences, and whatever else was required; and the
-guild of _huchiers_ was one of the largest corporations of the period.
-
-The _huchiers_ were particularly distinguished for their execution of
-choir-stalls and splendid carving. The _huche_, at first a very simple
-piece of furniture, was later decorated with beautiful paintings and
-rich carvings; moreover, it was enriched and strengthened with chiselled
-and pierced iron hinges and locks.
-
-The chests until the thirteenth century were works of simple carpentry.
-The faces consist of plain surfaces which are ornamented with paintings
-on linen or leather; and further adorned with hinges and clamps of
-pierced and wrought metal.
-
-The _bancs_, benches or settles, were made in the Middle Ages by the
-_huchiers_. They were made of planks and often had backs and arms. In
-the fifteenth century, they were enriched with sculpture and surmounted
-by a canopy or daïs. They were also called _formes_ or _bancs d’œuvre_.
-The Cluny Museum possesses many fine examples of this period, both civil
-and religious. In the halls and bedrooms of the Mediaeval _châteaux_ the
-_banc_ is often seen placed laterally before the wide chimney-piece, and
-its high back was very useful in keeping off the draughts. It may be
-thought that their rigid form and absence of upholstery rendered them
-uncomfortable, but the numerous soft cushions with which they were
-supplied quite atoned for the absence of upholstery. (_See_ Plate II.)
-
-The chief use of the Mediaeval sideboard was the display of ornate
-plate, crystal and similar articles. The kitchen dresser with its
-shelves holding plates and dishes set upright against the wall is a
-lineal descendant of the old _dressoir_. The shelves of the _dressoir_
-were regulated by etiquette: every noble person could have a _dressoir_
-with three shelves; others, only two; royalty had four and five.
-
-According to some authorities, the difference between the _dressoir_ and
-the buffet is simply this: the _dressoir_ was intended to display the
-articles taken from the buffet, and had no drawers and no cupboard; the
-buffet, on the other hand, contained both drawers and cupboards. The
-buffet of our dining-rooms and our cellarets that close with lock and
-key, are therefore survivals of the _credence_ of the Middle Ages.
-
-Sometimes the _credence_ and _dressoir_ were combined in one piece, or
-rather the _dressoir_ served as a _credence_. A small one shown in the
-illuminated MS. of the _Histoire de Gérard, Comte de Nevers_, has but
-one shelf, upon which the silver platters are arranged, leaning against
-the back, which is covered with some kind of fabric. The cupboard
-serving as a _credence_ is covered with a cloth on which are placed
-three silver ewers—_aiguières_. This was, therefore, more of a buffet
-than a _dressoir_, for the real _dressoir_, as we have seen, was
-composed of shelves (_gradins_) and had a back (_dorsal_), or sometimes
-a daïs of stuff or sculptured wood.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE III.—_Flemish Dressoir (Fifteenth Century)._
-
-  Figs. 6–7: DRESSOIRS (Fifteenth Century); Fig. 8: TABLE ON TRESTLES;
-    Fig. 9: METAL CHAIR.
-]
-
-Varieties of the _dressoir_ of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
-appear in Plate III, and Figs. 6 and 7; and a _credence_ of the
-fifteenth century of Gothic decoration from the Cluny Museum, Paris, on
-Plate IV.
-
-The Mediaeval table was a simple affair, with either fixed or movable
-supports. In nine cases out of ten, either in hall or cottage, it
-consisted simply of a board and trestles. In court and castle, kings and
-nobles sat only on one side, the other being left free for service, and
-for a clear view of the mummers, jongleurs and minstrels who entertained
-the company during the feast. These boards and trestles could be readily
-folded up and packed away in carts for travelling. A good example of the
-fifteenth century table of this construction occurs in a picture of Mary
-Magdalen at the feet of Jesus, by Derick Bouts (1410–1475). This is
-represented in Fig. 8.
-
-We have seen that the chest with its various developments—chair, bench,
-bed and _dressoir_—furnished the Mediaeval chamber. The ordinary hall
-contained merely a plain buffet and a table, consisting of boards and
-trestles, with simple forms for seats. Chairs there were none, except
-for the lord and honoured guests at the head of the board. It must not
-be supposed, however, that there was no attempt at comfort or decoration
-in the homes of the Middle Ages. It would be difficult to attach too
-much importance to the use of cushions and hangings.
-
-We have already seen one form of chair in Figs. 4 and 5, which show a
-box with a lid for the seat, on which is a cushion. This chair has arms
-and a high panelled back. The common stool, faldstool, or _escarbeau_
-also appears in Fig. 4. The rigid square high-backed chair, however, was
-not the only form known in the Middle Ages. The type represented in Fig.
-9 was in great favour. This chair is reproduced from a miniature by
-Jehan de Bruges (fl. 1370). This form of chair, with curved lines in the
-back, arms and supports, was a great favourite, not only in the
-Netherlands, but throughout Europe for several centuries. Sometimes it
-was made of wood, and carved on the extremities of the back, arms and
-legs; and sometimes it was made of wrought metal, brass, silver and even
-gold. In the latter case it was probably plated. Sometimes the
-inventories mention chairs of great value and very precious workmanship.
-Some of them were even ornamented with enamel. These were the work of
-the _orfèvre_. Brass and copper chairs of this type were made in large
-numbers by the skilful smiths of Dinant. Naturally they were comfortably
-and sumptuously upholstered. An inventory of 1328 contains an item of a
-chair of copper garnished with velvet.
-
-Flanders was always famous for its woven stuffs: wool was the staple on
-which its prosperity depended. The Duke of Burgundy recognized this when
-he chose the Golden Fleece as the emblem of his great Order of
-Knighthood. Apart from the looms, the art of the needle was also held in
-high esteem; and ladies of high and low estate devoted much of their
-time to embroidery.
-
-Everything was embroidered: vestments and cloths for the church; shoes,
-gloves, hats and clothes of men and women; and cushions and draperies
-for the house. Notwithstanding the lavish use of tapestry, the taste for
-embroidered materials was ever on the increase. The entire furnishings
-for a bedroom were often the product of the needle; for instance, the
-“embroidered chamber” of Jane of Burgundy, Queen of Philip V, at her
-coronation at Rheims in 1330, was ornamented with 1321 parrots, with the
-arms of the King, and 1321 butterflies, with the arms of Burgundy.
-
-In Mediaeval days, the word “_chambre_” had a broader signification than
-it has to-day. By _chambre_ was meant the whole of the rugs, curtains,
-hangings and upholstery that adorned a bedroom. There was a distinction
-drawn between “_court pointerie_” and “_tapisserie_.” “_Court
-pointerie_” included everything pertaining to the bed, such as the daïs,
-mattress, head-board, etc. The “_tapisserie_” was changed every season
-like the altar cloths and vestments of church and clergy. Cords were run
-across the rafters, and the curtains and canopies were hung on these
-with hooks. Thus the rooms at the various seasons received such names as
-the “Easter,” “Christmas,” or “All Saints’ Chamber.” Then again the
-rooms were named after the subjects (mythological, historical, romantic
-or religious), of the tapestry that adorned them, such as the Chamber of
-the Cross, of the Lions, of the Conquest of England, of Queen
-Penthesile, of the Nine Paladins, of the Unicorn and Maiden, etc., etc.
-
-Plate II shows how the canopy and curtains of the bed were usually
-supported. Sometimes, however, the hangings were attached to the rods by
-means of tenterhooks.
-
-The inventories and chronicles of the Middle Ages frequently mention
-textiles; but it is difficult to know from the numerous terms the old
-scribes employ whether they are describing woollen and silk tapestry,
-brocades, damasks, velvets, or embroidered material. The fabrics are of
-many varieties, and their names vary with the details of production and
-places of manufacture, as well as the material of which they are
-composed, and the subjects they depict.
-
-A great deal of Byzantine tapestry, with other hangings and carpets, was
-brought into Western Europe, by those returning from the First Crusade
-(1096–1099); and after 1146, when Count Robert of Sicily brought home
-from his expedition into Greece some captive silk-workers, and
-established a manufactory for brocades and damasks at Palermo, beautiful
-materials were carried northward from Italy.
-
-During the early centuries the use of tapestry was very extensively
-devoted to the decoration of churches, and therefore represented scenes
-from the Scriptures, and lives of the Saints and the Virgin.
-
-Cathedrals and monasteries were very rich in hangings of tapestry,
-brocades, and embroideries of various kinds, as well as stuffs on which
-ornaments were laid and sewn. About 985, the Abbot Robert of the
-monastery of Saint Florent of Saumur, ordered a number of curtains,
-carpets, cushions, _dossers_ and wall-hangings, all of wool; and,
-moreover, had two large pieces of tapestry made in which silk was
-introduced, and on which lions and elephants were represented upon a red
-background.
-
-In 1133, another Abbot of the same monastery had two _dossers_ made to
-hang in the choir during festivals. On one of these the twenty-four
-elders of the Apocalypse with citharas and viols were depicted. The
-hangings he got for the nave, represented centaurs, lions and other
-animals.
-
-On all festal occasions, the cathedrals were beautifully decorated with
-superb tapestries. Some of them served as hangings and door-curtains,
-others draped the altars, while the seats and backs of the benches were
-covered with pieces called _bancalia_, _spaleriae_, and _dossalia_.
-Tapestries also covered the baldachins, or canopies; and foot-carpets,
-called _substratoria_, _tapetes_, _tapeta_, or _tapecii_ were lavishly
-spread upon the ground.
-
-During the thirteenth century tapestries came into general use for
-hangings in private mansions. It is not unlikely that Baldwin, Count of
-Flanders, who came into power in 1204, stimulated the work of the
-Netherland looms; for, from the very opening years of the thirteenth
-century, the Flemish weavers adopted brighter colours in their
-tapestries; and Damme, the poet of Bruges, received all kinds of goods
-from the East, including “seeds for producing the scarlet dye.”
-
-This was the period when the _Roman_ was in full flower, and the
-tapestries naturally turned from Biblical to heroic stories. The artists
-and weavers now begin to devote their energies to the production of
-secular subjects. The stories of _Paris and Helen_, _Æneas_, and others
-from Grecian mythology, become as popular as those inspired by the
-Bible.
-
-High-warp workers were established in Paris, Arras, Brussels and Tournay
-in the first half of the fourteenth century; but it is not until the
-reign of Charles V (1364–1380) that they are explicitly described in the
-inventories. The King was a collector of French and Flemish tapestries:
-he had more than 130 armorial tapestries and 33 “_tapis à images_” that
-decorated the walls.
-
-The Dukes of Anjou, Orleans, Berry and Burgundy, had very valuable sets.
-Charles VI also had fine pieces. He bought from Nicholas Bataille, a
-Flemish worker, who calls himself a citizen of Paris in 1363, about 250
-hangings. Bataille produced many superb pieces for the wealthy houses of
-the day, and many sets for Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. A
-fellow-worker, Jacques Dourdain, who died in 1407, made tapestries for
-the Duke of Burgundy, to whom he sent in 1389 _The Conquest of the King
-of Friesland by Aubri the Burgundian_, _The Story of Marionet_, _Ladies
-setting out for the Chase_, _The Wishes of Love_, _The Nine Amazons_,
-_The History of Bertrand Duguesclin_, and _A History of the Romance of
-the Rose_. The latter must have been very choice, as it was woven “in
-gold of Cyprus and Arras thread.” He also furnished this rich patron
-with other hangings, the greater number of which were cloth of gold.
-
-The marriage of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, to the daughter and
-heir of the Count of Flanders, in 1369, greatly helped the Flemish
-tapestry-workers, who soon equalled those of Paris. For instance, the
-Duke gave an order to Michel Bernard of Arras for a fine piece, called
-_The Battle of Rosbeck_, of colossal dimensions. It measured 285 square
-yards, and cost 2,600 _francs d’or_. Other sets purchased from the Arras
-looms were: _The Coronation of Our Lady_, _The Seven Ages_, _Story of
-Doon de la Roche_, _History of King Pharaoh and the People of Moses_,
-_Life of St. Margaret_, _The Virtues and Vices_, _History of Froimont de
-Bordeaux_, _Story of St. George_, _Story of Shepherds and
-Shepherdesses_, _Life of St. Anne_, _Story of Percival the Gaul_, _Hunt
-of Guy of Romany_, _History of Amis and Amile_, _History of Octavius of
-Rome_, _History of King Clovis_, _History of King Alexander, and of
-Robert the Fusileer_, _History of William of Orange_, and a _Pastoral_.
-
-The Flemish looms thus early acquired a great reputation, rivalling
-those of the midland and northern provinces of France. Paris, Arras,
-Brussels and Tournay were the chief centres for the most beautiful
-high-warp tapestry. Arras was celebrated as early as 1311, when
-Marchaut, Countess of Artois, paid a large sum for “a woollen cloth
-worked with various figures bought at Arras”; and in 1313 she ordered
-from the same town “five cloths worked in high warp.” The name became
-generic: the Italians called all woven tapestries _Arazzi_; the
-Spaniards, _Panos de raz_; and the English, “Arras,” a name that was
-used for many centuries. Polonius hides “behind the arras,” in _Hamlet_,
-and Spenser, in _The Faerie Queen_, says:
-
-       Thence to the hall, which was on every side
-       With rich array and costly arras dight.
-
-                                               Book I., Canto iv.
-
-Agnes Sorel owned a superb specimen at her _Château de Beauté_ in 1350.
-It is described as “a large piece of Arras, on which are pictured the
-deeds and battles of Judas Maccabaeus and Antiochus, and stretches from
-one of the gables of the gallery of Beauté to the other, and is the same
-height as the said gallery.”
-
-During the troublous times in France under Charles VI, the Paris looms
-ceased to work, and Flanders supplied all the tapestry that came to
-France. In 1395, the Duke of Orleans orders his treasurer to deliver to
-Jaquet Dordin, “merchant and bourgeois of Paris,” 1,800 francs for
-“three pieces of high-warp tapestry of fine Arras thread.”
-
-Leather was also extensively used during the Middle Ages for interior
-decoration: it was hung upon the walls and beds; it was spread upon the
-floors; and it covered the seats and backs of chairs, coffers, cabinets,
-shelves, folding stools, frames, frames for mirrors, and all kinds of
-boxes both large and small. In 1420, we hear of a piece of Cordovan
-called _cuirace vermeil_ “to put on the floor around a bed,” and also a
-“chamber hanging” of “silvered _cuir de mouton_, ornamented with red
-figures.” Charles V of France had “fifteen _cuirs d’Arragon_ to put on
-the floor in summer,” and the Duke of Burgundy’s inventory of 1427
-mentions “leathers to spread in the chamber in summer time.”
-
-The Duke of Berry had twenty-nine great _cuirs_ among his possessions,
-which were used to cover the walls, beds and chairs.
-
-Leather made a very sumptuous, durable and decorative wall-hanging. The
-patterns of flowers, foliage, arms, devices and other figures were
-richly gilded, and stood out in high relief from the brilliant
-backgrounds of red, blue, green, orange, violet, brown or silver.
-Although the use of gilded leather (_cuirs dorés_) did not become
-general until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the art of
-gilding, silvering, painting and goffering leather had long been known.
-It is more than probable that the First Crusaders brought home
-specimens; but it is certain that Cordova was making beautiful gilded
-leathers in the eleventh century. The most beautiful, as well as the
-most beautifully worked, leathers came from Spain, where they were often
-called _Guadameciles_, from Ghadames in Africa where they were prepared
-for many years, and from which town the Moors carried the art into
-Cordova. Ebn’ Abd el Noûr el Hamîri el Toûnsi (of Tunis), in his
-geographical work written in the twelfth century, thinks it worth while
-to mention that the _djild el Ghadâmosi_ comes from Ghadames. The monk,
-Theophilus, in his _Diversarum artium Schedula_ shows how well Arabian
-leather was known, and describes the methods of preparing it for
-decoration; but from what he says it appears that leather was used at
-that period only for the coverings of chairs, stalls, benches, stools,
-etc., and not for wall-hangings.
-
-From Cordova the manufacture spread into Portugal, Italy, France and
-Brabant. The great centres for gilded leathers in the Middle Ages were
-Cordova, Lille, Brussels, Liège, Antwerp, Mechlin and Venice; and each
-town impressed a special style upon its productions, which
-_connoisseurs_ are able to recognize.
-
-The Cordovan leathers are stamped with patterns of very high relief,
-gilded and painted, the designs consisting of branches or large flowers
-in the style of the textiles of Damascus and India. The South Kensington
-Museum has a very fine collection of Spanish leathers ornamented with
-foliage, flowers, vases, birds and pomegranates. The colours of the
-background are green, blue, white, gold, red, etc.
-
-The Flemish leathers are very similar to those of Cordova, but the
-relief is less pronounced and the designs are more delicate. The
-hangings of Flanders are almost exclusively made of calfskin, and they
-were highly prized throughout Europe.
-
-Generally speaking, the earliest specimens of gilded leathers resemble
-on a large scale the miniatures in the manuscripts: there is little or
-no perspective, and the subjects are like those of the contemporary
-tapestry drawn from sacred or mythological stories. The details of the
-faces, ornaments, costumes, arms, etc., are stamped by hand-work and
-finished with a brush; and the background, instead of representing sky,
-is ornamented by guilloches (twisted bands) in gold and colour, applied
-by means of a goffering iron.
-
-The Low Countries were almost as celebrated for their _orfèvrerie_ as
-for their tapestries. Celebrated schools of goldsmith’s work existed in
-the Netherlands during the tenth and eleventh centuries in Waulsort
-under the direction of d’Erembert, in Stavelot and in Maestricht; and
-the diocese of Liège had an important _atelier_ for enamel-work in the
-twelfth century. A very skilful goldsmith named Godefroid de Clerc
-worked in the town of Huy in the first half of the thirteenth century,
-and another was Friar Hugo, who made in the Abbaye d’Oignies the famous
-pieces now in the treasury of the Sisters of Notre Dame in Namur.
-
-The principal towns of Flanders, Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Liège and
-Brussels, possessed in the thirteenth century skilful goldsmiths who
-followed the principles of the School of the Rhine. In 1266, the
-Brussels goldsmiths formed an important Corporation to which John III,
-Count of Hainault, granted privileges. It was in the fourteenth century
-particularly that the Flemish goldsmiths acquired a great reputation.
-
-A great deal of the goldsmith’s work during these centuries was
-ornamented with _niello_, the style of decoration following the Rhenish
-School.
-
-The goldsmiths were sculptors, chisellers and engravers, as well as
-designers; and, moreover, modelled beautifully in wax. When their works
-were cast in silver, they ornamented these themselves with beaten
-bas-reliefs, or traced delicate patterns upon the surface of the metal
-with the burin. Wishing to make the figures stand out more prominently,
-they used cross-hatchings on the background and cut out the shadowy
-parts, which they then filled with black enamel. This made the uncovered
-portions of the silver shine with more brilliancy. To this effective
-work was given the name _niello_ (_nigellum_), on account of its colour.
-This black enamel was used to ornament the chalices and other church
-vessels, the hilts of swords, handles of knives, and particularly the
-handsome little coffers, or cabinets, which, with the _bahut_, comprised
-the furniture that the bride always carried to her new home. These
-little boxes were usually of ebony, ornamented more or less with
-incrustations of ivory, shell, mother-of-pearl, _pietra-dura_, or
-_niello_, according to the wealth of the respective families. When
-decorated with _niello_, the designs consisted of simple ornaments or
-arabesques, single figures or groups.
-
-Western Europe made no glass in Mediaeval days: what was used in church
-and castle all came from the East. In the early inventories, whenever an
-object of coloured glass is found, it is always accompanied by a mention
-of its Oriental origin. It is doubtful whether even plain glass was
-manufactured in England, France, Germany or the Netherlands before the
-close of the Crusades. The efforts made as late as the fourteenth
-century by several French and German princes to attract glass-blowers to
-their dominions shows how scarce they were.
-
-In 1338, we find a feudal noble giving a portion of his forest to a
-certain Guionet, who was acquainted with the methods of glass-making, to
-set up a glass factory, on condition of supplying his house every year
-with one hundred dozen bell glasses, twelve dozen little vase-shaped
-glasses, twenty dozen hanaps, or cups with feet, twelve amphorae, and
-other objects. As in all the other industrial arts, Flanders was well to
-the fore in the manufacture of plain glass. Before 1400, glass factories
-existed there; but the products were only white glass, not gilded nor
-enamelled. The Flemish wares, however, were highly prized, and were
-freely exported to other countries. In 1379, we find in the inventory of
-Charles V of France: “_Ung gobelet et une aiguière de voirre blant de
-Flandres garni d’argent_.”
-
-To have glass mounted in silver shows how precious it was considered in
-those days. Moreover, the royal accounts of the end of the fourteenth
-century prove that Charles VI accorded high protection and recompense to
-the Flemish glass-blowers who established their industry in France.
-Before the end of the fifteenth century, we find entries that would seem
-to show that the Low Countries were no longer exclusively dependent on
-the Orient for coloured and enamelled glass. In the inventory of Charles
-the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1477), we read: “_Une coupe de voirre jaune
-garny d’or; ... une couppe de voirre vert garny d’or; ... un pot de
-voirre de couleur vert, garny d’or; ... un aiguière de voirre vert
-torssé garny d’or; ... deux petis pots de voirre bleu espez, garnis
-d’argent doré; ... ung voirre taillé d’un esgle, d’un griffon et d’une
-double couronne garny d’argent_.” These, however, may have come from
-Venice, which city had in the latter half of the fifteenth century
-learned from the Greeks the secret of making coloured, gilded and
-enamelled glass.
-
-Painting on glass was never held in higher honour than during the
-fifteenth century: castles and mansions were adorned with coloured
-windows like the churches; and, therefore, a considerable number of
-windows of this period have survived. The Cathedrals of Tournay, Dietz
-and Antwerp offer splendid examples. In M. Levy’s _Histoire de la
-peinture sur verre_, are the names of several Flemish glass-painters
-that have escaped oblivion.
-
-The principal schools that fostered all forms of Decorative Art were the
-Guilds of St. Luke. They sprang up in every prosperous city, and were
-very close corporations of trades unionism. The idea probably originated
-in Italy. A Society of St. Luke was established in Venice before 1290,
-and another in Florence in 1349. One Gerard de Groote organized a
-brotherhood of this kind in Cologne in the fourteenth century; and
-Societies of St. Luke were founded in Flanders in the fifteenth century.
-These Guilds exerted the greatest influence upon taste and skill, for in
-these Societies of Guilds of St. Luke, side by side with the Masters of
-Painting and Sculpture, were placed what we may call the Masters of the
-Decorative Arts. There were workers in stone and marble including
-mosaics in colour for the decoration of churches and chapels; workers in
-enamel and ceramics for vases, panelling and pavements; workers in wood,
-sculptors and carvers for the altar fronts, canopies, choir stalls, etc.
-(these _menuisiers_ also worked in marquetry and _intarsie_, and
-produced furniture for the sacristy, coffers, _bahuts_, etc., and
-pontifical seats); glass-workers who produced windows, panels and
-embroideries with glass beads for decoration; metalworkers, including
-goldsmiths, bronze-workers, who made sacred vessels, luminaries, fonts
-ornamented with _repoussé_-work, chiselling, engraving, incrustation
-with precious stones and _niello-niellure_; leather-workers (including
-makers of harness for wars and tourneys); gilders, setters of jewels;
-bookbinders; illuminators and painters of manuscripts; weavers and
-embroiderers of tapestries, silken stuffs, etc.
-
-Society benefited by development of these arts very greatly, and the
-sumptuous adornment of the churches soon extended to private dwellings.
-Carved panels, or panels inlaid with precious woods, soon decorated the
-walls of wealthy houses that were further enriched by magnificent
-tissues of silk and gold, tapestries or panels of stamped leather as a
-background for pictures beautifully framed in carved and gilt wood. In
-marquetry furniture, the most remarkable objects were the coffers for
-jewels, and the cabinets (_stipi_), in ebony, shell and ivory,
-embellished with gilt, bronze, and the dower chests, “_arches de
-mariage_.”
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER II
-                         THE BURGUNDIAN PERIOD
-
-  The luxurious Dukes of Burgundy—Possessions of the House of Burgundy—
-      The Burgundian Court—Household of Philip the Good—the Feast of the
-      Pheasant—the Duke of Burgundy at the Coronation of Louis XI—Arras
-      Tapestries—Sumptuous _Dressoirs_ and their Adornments—Celebrations
-      in honour of the Knights of the Golden Fleece—Luxury of Charles
-      the Bold—Charles the Bold at Trèves—Furnishings of the Abbey of
-      Saint-Maximin—Charles the Bold’s Second Marriage—Furnishings of
-      the Banqueting Hall at Bruges—Descriptions by Olivier de la
-      Marche—Aliénor of Poitier’s Descriptions of the Furniture of the
-      Duchess of Burgundy’s Apartments—Rich _Dressoirs_—the Drageoir and
-      its Etiquette—the Etiquette of the _Escarbeau_—Philip the Bold’s
-      Artisans—Flemish Carving—the _Forme_ or _Banc_—Burgundian
-      Workmanship—Ecclesiastical Work—Noted Carvers—Furniture of the
-      Period—the “Golden Age of Tapestry”-Embroideries—Tapestry-weavers
-      of the Low Countries—Introduction of Italian Cartoons—Goldsmiths’
-      Work—Furniture of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.
-
-
-The most luxurious prince of his age was Philip the Bold, Duke of
-Burgundy (1342–1404), son of John the Good, King of France. By its
-alliances, conquests and inheritances, the House of Burgundy attained
-such wealth and power as to overshadow the French throne itself. Under
-his grandson, Philip the Good, the Burgundian Court displayed greater
-splendour than any other in Europe. The reigning dukes were powerful
-protectors of the arts. Their immense resources, drawn from the Flemish
-hives of industry, enabled them to indulge their taste for architecture,
-painting, sculpture, illuminated books, tapestry, goldsmiths’ work and
-sumptuous furniture. They were also insatiable collectors of everything
-that was curious and rare. Any able artist, sculptor, architect,
-goldsmith, or image-maker, driven from home by the perpetual civil wars
-in England, France and Italy, was sure of refuge and employment at the
-Court of Burgundy. Thus, for a century and a half, the Low Countries
-were the most important art centre of Europe. Dijon and Brussels, the
-capitals of the Burgundian dominions, were Meccas of Mediaeval Art; and
-Tournay, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Dinant, and many other industrial centres
-swarmed with craftsmen who produced all that was luxurious and beautiful
-for domestic comfort and decoration.
-
-The house of Burgundy constantly increased its possessions. Some idea of
-its power is gained by a list of Philip the Good’s titles. He was Duke
-of Burgundy, of Brabant, of Lothier, of Luxembourg; Count of Flanders,
-of Artois and of Burgundy; Palatine of Hainault, of Holland, of Zeeland,
-of Namur and of Charolais; Marquis of the Holy Empire; and Lord of
-Friesland, of Salins and of Mechlin.
-
-The brilliance and luxury of the Burgundian Court are attested by many
-chroniclers. The pages of Philip de Comines, Olivier de la Marche, and
-others are full of descriptions of feasts and pageantry from which we
-can form an idea of the luxurious appointments of the palatial dwellings
-of the day. Foreigners also, who were well acquainted with other
-European courts, bore witness to Burgundian splendour. One of these, Leo
-von Rozmital, who visited the courts of Europe in 1465–7, saw the Duke
-of Burgundy’s treasures. His suite was overpowered by the magnificence.
-The scribe, Tetzel, tried to enumerate and describe these marvels, but
-gave up the task in despair, noting “there was nothing like it in the
-whole world and that it far exceeded the Venetian collection.”
-
-The son and successor of John the Fearless, Philip the Good (1396–1467),
-was even more luxurious than his grandfather, Philip the Bold. His Court
-was unequalled in Europe, and when in attendance upon the King of
-France, his retinue completely eclipsed royalty. His palaces in
-Brussels, Dijon and Paris were sumptuously furnished; and his
-collections of tapestries, silver, gold, jewels, embroideries,
-illuminated manuscripts and printed books excited the admiration of the
-travellers and chroniclers of the age. His household, composed of four
-great divisions—the _Panetrie_, _Échansonnerie_, _Cuisine_ and _Écurie_,
-with subordinate departments, was subject to the strictest rules of
-etiquette and was adopted as a model by the Spanish sovereigns of the
-sixteenth century. The ceremonies of the levee, procession, council,
-audience, service of spices, banquet, etc., were selected as precedents
-for Vienna and Paris, as well as Madrid.
-
-One of Philip’s most celebrated banquets—the Feast of the Pheasant,
-which took place at Lille in 1454—will serve to give a glimpse of the
-Court entertainments in his day. The large hall was hung with tapestry
-representing the labours of Hercules, and was encircled by five tiers of
-galleries for the spectators. The _dressoir_ of enormous size was
-adorned with gold and silver vessels, and on either side of it stood a
-column. One of these had attached to it a carved female figure from
-whose breast flowed a fountain of hippocras; and to the other was
-fastened by an iron chain a live lion from Africa, a great curiosity in
-those days. The three great tables were covered with the most ingenious
-productions of the cooks, confectioners and machinists. “On a raised
-platform at the head of the first table sat the Duke. He was arrayed
-with his accustomed splendour—his dress of black velvet serving as a
-dark ground that heightened the brilliancy of the precious stones,
-valued at a million of gold crowns, with which it was profusely decked.
-Among the guests were a numerous body of knights who had passed the
-morning in the tilting-field, and fair Flemish dames whose flaunting
-beauty had inspired these martial sports. Each course was composed of
-forty-four dishes, which were placed on chariots painted in gold and
-azure, and were moved along the tables by concealed machinery.” As soon
-as the company was seated, the bells began to peal from the steeple of a
-huge pastry church with stained windows that concealed an organ and
-choir of singers, and three little choristers issued from the edifice
-and sang “a very sweet _chanson_.” Twenty-eight musicians hidden in a
-mammoth pie performed on various instruments, and the fine viands and
-wines were circulated. After the exhibition of _entremets_, the pheasant
-was brought in, the Crusade proclaimed against the Sultan, and the vows
-registered.
-
-Another instance of the magnificent display of this Duke occurred when
-he accompanied Louis XI to Rheims for the ceremony of his coronation in
-1461. This is described as follows by the Duke of Burgundy’s chronicler,
-Georges Chastelain (1403–75):
-
-“Their journey resembled a triumphal procession, in which the Duke of
-Burgundy appeared as if he were the conqueror and Louis the illustrious
-captive. The trappings of the horses, that reached to the ground, were
-of velvet and silk, covered with precious stones and ornaments of gold,
-embroidered with the Burgundian arms and decorated with silver bells,
-the jingling of which was very agreeable and solacing. A great number of
-wagons draped with cloth of gold and hung with banners carried the
-Duke’s tapestries, furniture, silver and other table service and the
-utensils for the kitchen. These were followed by herds of fat oxen and
-flocks of sheep intended for food during the progress of the Duke and
-his suite. Philip and his son, with the principal nobles, appeared in
-their greatest magnificence, and were preceded and followed by pages,
-archers and men-at-arms, all in gorgeous costumes and blazing with
-jewels.”
-
-Their entrance into Rheims was regarded as the most superb spectacle
-France had ever witnessed. Louis was crowned by the Duke of Burgundy,
-“the dean of the peers of France”; and at the banquet that followed the
-coronation, the Duke of Burgundy was still the most conspicuous figure.
-The same chronicler continues:
-
-“Though the King sat at the head of the table, arrayed in regal attire,
-with the crown upon his head, he was still the guest of his fair uncle,
-whose cooks had provided the dinner, whose plate was displayed upon the
-sideboards and whose servants waited upon the company. In the midst of
-the repast, the doors were opened and porters entered bearing a costly
-present for the new sovereign. Such of the guests as were strangers,
-except from hearsay, to the splendours of the Burgundian Court, gazed in
-astonishment at the images, goblets, miniature ships, and other articles
-of the finest gold and rarest workmanship—amounting in value to more
-than two hundred thousand crowns—which Philip presented to the King as
-an emphatic token of his loyalty and good-will.”
-
-Chastelain’s note of the great number of wagons that were required to
-carry the Duke’s tapestries in his journeyings is of interest. The
-products of the Flemish looms were highly prized by the Burgundian
-dukes, and great encouragement was given by them to the best work of
-this nature.
-
-It was from Arras that they chiefly filled their superb store-chambers
-in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Arras looms had become
-famous, far and wide; for, when Philip the Bold’s son was taken prisoner
-at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Sultan Bajazet said to the Duke
-of Burgundy’s envoy that he “would be pleased to see some high-warp
-tapestries worked in Arras and Picardy,” and that “they should represent
-good old stories.” Philip thereupon sent two pack-horses laden with
-“high-warp cloths, collected and made at Arras, the finest that could be
-found on this side of the mountains.” The set he chose was _The History
-of Alexander_. In 1374, there is an entry in the accounts of the Duke of
-Burgundy “to Colin Bataille, _tapissier et bourgeois de Paris_,” for six
-pieces of tapestry “of Arras workmanship,” with the arms of M. the Duke
-of Burgundy “to cover the pack-horses of Monseigneur when he travelled.”
-The favourite subjects produced at Arras were romances of chivalry, such
-as _Charlemagne and his Peers_, _Doon de la Roche_, _Baudouin de
-Sebourg_, _Percival the Gaul_, _Renaud de Montauban_, _Aubri de
-Bourguignon_, etc.; stories from Greek mythology, such as _Theseus_,
-_Jason_, _Paris and Helen_, _The Destruction of Troy_, etc.; and
-contemporary events such as _The Battle of Rosbeck_, _The Battle of
-Liège_, _History of Bertrand Duguesclin_, _The Jousts of St. Denis_ and
-_The Battle of the Thirty_. Hunting scenes and pictures of cavaliers and
-ladies in everyday life were popular, and stories from the Old and New
-Testaments, Lives of the Saints and Acts of the Martyrs. Allegory also
-makes its appearance as a subject for cartoons, such as the _Virtues and
-Vices_, the _Seven Cardinal Sins_, the _Tree of Life_, _Fountain of
-Youth_, etc.
-
-When Philip the Good married Isabella of Portugal, Le Fèvre de Saint
-Rémy notes that on each side of the hall there was a _dressoir_ twenty
-feet long on a platform two feet high and well enclosed by barriers
-three feet high, on the side of which was a little gate for entrance and
-exit; and both _dressoirs_ had five stages, each two and a half feet
-high. The three upper tiers were covered and loaded with vessels of fine
-gold; and the two lower ones with many great vessels of silver gilt.
-
-Again, Chastelain, describing a banquet given by Philip the Good, says:
-“The Duke had made in the great hall a _dressoir_ constructed in the
-form of a round castle, ten steps (_degrés_) in height filled with gold
-plate in pots and flagons of various kinds, amounting to 6,000 marks
-(_argent doré_) not counting those on the top which were of fine gold
-set with rich gems of marvellous price.”
-
-The above gives some idea of the importance of the _dressoir_, which
-undoubtedly was the most showy piece of furniture in hall or chamber. It
-often assumed enormous proportions on great state occasions.
-
-A very ornate one of this period is reproduced in Plate III. It is
-beautifully carved with Gothic tracery, leaf-work, Biblical scenes and
-personages, and coats-of-arms. It is interesting to compare this with
-the simple form of Plate IV, which has no intermediate shelf for the
-display of plate; but is also interesting on account of its carving.
-This, with its drawers and cupboards, was a most serviceable piece of
-furniture and must have produced a fine effect in a room when the
-cupboard head was decked with plate.
-
-The great celebrations in honour of the Knights of the Golden Fleece
-also offered occasion for the display of the greatest splendour at the
-Burgundian Court. A veritable army of painters, sculptors, illuminators,
-carvers and machinists was employed to design and prepare the
-_entremets_ exhibited during the banquets. Among the _huchiers_ who
-worked for the banquet given to the Knights of the Golden Fleece in 1453
-were Guillaume Maussel and his son, Jacob Haquinet Penon, Jehan Daret
-and his two companions, and Jehan de Westerhem.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE IV.—_Credence (Fifteenth Century)._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-When Charles the Bold (1433–1477) succeeded his father, Philip the Good,
-in 1467, he maintained his Court with the same state, ceremony and
-luxury. His daily life was surrounded by pomp and punctilious etiquette.
-He dined in state every day and was always attended by a retinue of
-knights, equerries and pages. When he went to war, he always carried
-rich silver and tapestries, as well as costly viands and wines. The
-Swiss gained rich spoils after the Battle of Nancy and carried away
-among other articles of value tapestries which can be seen to-day in
-Nancy, Berne and other cities.
-
-The meeting of Charles the Bold with the Emperor at Trèves, in 1473,
-occasioned a great display of magnificence. The far-famed luxury of the
-Burgundian Court was well exhibited during the eight weeks that the two
-Courts spent in the Rhenish city. Charles gave the most superb
-entertainments. The Abbey of Saint Maximin, which the Duke chose for his
-temporary residence, was fitted up for the occasion with furniture,
-tapestries, richly embroidered stuffs, gold and silver from his palaces.
-The great hall was hung with tapestries, and the chair of state for the
-Emperor, the canopy and the seats for the other great personages on the
-daïs were covered with rich embroidered hangings. The arms of Burgundy,
-the insignia of the Golden Fleece and other heraldic decorations were
-conspicuously displayed. Many of the most valuable ecclesiastical
-treasures collected by Philip the Good, such as silver images,
-candlesticks, and crucifixes, and reliquaries of gold studded with gems
-were brought to adorn the altars and shrines of the church; and, in the
-refectory, an immense _dressoir_, twenty feet broad, reached from floor
-to ceiling, its ten receding shelves gleaming with gold and silver
-plate.
-
-Charles the Bold’s second marriage in 1468 to Margaret of York furnished
-another occasion for the display of his wealth and magnificence. John
-Paston, who went to Bruges to attend the wedding, was simply dazzled and
-overwhelmed by what he saw. Writing to his mother, he says: “As for the
-Dwkys coort, as of lords, ladys and gentylwomen, knyts, sqwyers and
-gentylmen, I herd never of non lyek it, save King Artourys cort. And by
-my trowthe, I have no wyt nor remembrans to wryte to you, half the
-worchep that is her.”
-
-Passing by the descriptions of jousts and other entertainments, we may
-note that workmen—painters, decorators and machinists—had been engaged
-for many months to adorn Bruges fittingly for the nuptial festivities.
-The streets were hung with tapestries and cloth of gold, triumphal
-arches were erected at intervals, and at different points along the road
-the bride was diverted with “Histories,” the joint productions of
-dramatist, decorator, painter and machinist. The front of the palace was
-covered with paintings of heraldic devices and magnificent decorations,
-and behind the palace, in the tennis court, a new banqueting hall was
-erected for the occasion. This building was a hundred and forty feet
-long, seventy feet wide and more than sixty feet high. The walls were
-hung with some of the Duke’s most famous tapestries, one set of which
-represented Jason’s quest of the Golden Fleece; the ceiling was painted,
-and at every possible place banners and heraldic devices were hung. An
-enormous _dressoir_ in the centre of the hall displayed on its tiers of
-shelves an overwhelming exhibition of gold and silver treasures
-glittering with gems. The tables were arranged lengthwise on either side
-of the hall, except one reserved for the Duke’s family and the guests of
-highest rank. This table was placed on a raised platform at the upper
-end of the hall, and over it was spread a canopy with curtains hanging
-to the floor, so as to present the appearance of an open pavilion. The
-chroniclers of the day note that “the hall was lighted by chandeliers in
-the form of castles surrounded by forests and mountains, with revolving
-paths on which serpents, dragons and other monstrous animals seemed to
-roam in search of prey, spouting forth jets of flame that were reflected
-in huge mirrors, so arranged as to catch and multiply the rays. The
-dishes containing the principal meats represented vessels, seven feet
-long, completely rigged, the masts and cordage gilt, the sails and
-streamers of silk, each floating in a silver lake between shores of
-verdure and enamelled rocks, and attended by a fleet of boats laden with
-lemons, olives and condiments. There were thirty of these vessels and as
-many huge pasties in a castellated shape with banners waving from their
-battlements and towers; besides tents and pavilions for the fruit, jelly
-dishes of crystal supported by figures of the same material dispensing
-streams of lavender and rosewater, and an immense profusion of gold and
-silver plate.”
-
-The festivities continued for more than a week. Every day a tournament,
-banquet and dance took place. At one of the banquets, the decorations
-were so wonderful that the guests marched around the tables to examine
-the artistic creations. These consisted of gardens made of a mosaic-work
-of rare and highly polished stones, inlaid with silver, and surrounded
-with hedges made of gold. In the centre of each enclosure was placed a
-tree of gold with branches, foliage and fruit exquisitely enamelled in
-imitation of orange, pear, apple and other trees. Fountains of variously
-perfumed waters rendered the air deliciously fragrant.
-
-Olivier de la Marche’s description of the banqueting hall is as follows:
-
-“In this hall were three tables, one of which was placed across the ends
-of the others. This table, higher than the others, stood upon a
-platform. The other two tables were placed on the two sides of the hall,
-occupying the whole length; they were very long and very handsome, and
-in the centre of the said hall a high and rich buffet in the form of a
-lozenge was placed. The top of the said buffet was enclosed with a
-balustrade, and the whole was covered with tapestries and hung with the
-arms of Monsieur le Duc; and above rose the steps and degrees on which
-were displayed many vessels, the largest on the lowest, and the richest
-and smallest on the top shelves; that is to say, on the lowest shelves
-stood the silver-gilt vessels, and above them the vessels of gold
-garnished with precious stones, of which he had a great number. On the
-top of the buffet stood a rich jewelled cup, and on each of the four
-corners large and entire unicorns’ horns, and these were very large and
-very handsome. These vessels of parade were not to be used, for there
-were other vessels, pots and cups of silver in the hall and chambers
-intended for service.”
-
-Turning now from the _buffet d’apparat_, he describes the “_buffet
-d’usage_.” Regarding the service, “The new Duchess was served by the
-cup-bearer, the carver and the pantler, all English, all knights and men
-of noble birth, and the usher of the hall cried: ‘Knights to the meat!’
-And then they all went to the buffet to fetch the meat, and all the
-relations of Monsieur and all the knights marched around the buffet in
-the order of the great house two by two after the trumpeters before the
-meat.”
-
-We sometimes get a glimpse of a luxurious chamber of the Burgundian
-Court from Aliénor of Poitiers, who wrote _Les Honneurs de la Court_.
-Her testimony is trustworthy, for her mother was maid of honour to the
-Duchess Isabella, third wife of Philip the Good; and, therefore, she
-undoubtedly witnessed what she describes. She tells us that the chamber
-of Isabella of Bourbon, wife of Charles the Bold, Count of Charolais,
-was very large and contained two beds, separated by a space four or five
-feet wide. A large _ciel_, or canopy, of green damask covered both beds;
-and from it hung curtains of satin which moved on rings, and could
-completely screen the beds when desired. The lambrequin of the canopy
-and the curtains were fringed with green silk. On each bed was an ermine
-counterpane, lined with very fine violet cloth. The chronicler expressly
-notes that the black tails were left on the fur. “_La grande chambre_”
-from which the “_Chambre de Madame_” was entered, called the “_chambre
-de parement_,” contained one large bed in crimson satin. The _ciel_ was
-very richly embroidered with a great gold sun, and “this tapestry was
-called _la chambre d’Utrecht_, for it is believed that Utrecht gave it
-to the Duke Philip,” writes Aliénor, who adds: “The curtains of crimson
-samite are looped up like those of a bed in which nobody sleeps.” The
-hangings of the wall were of red silk. At one end of the bolster was a
-great square cushion of gold and crimson, and by the side of the bed a
-“large shaggy carpet.”
-
-In each of these rooms there was a handsome _dressoir_; and our scribe
-continues: “In the chamber of the Countess de Charolais there was a
-large _dressoir_ of four beautiful shelves, the whole length of the
-_dressoir_, each covered with a cloth; the said _dressoir_ and the
-shelves filled with vessels of crystal garnished with gold and precious
-stones, and some of fine gold; for all the richest vessels of Duke
-Philip were there—pots, cups and beakers of fine gold, and other vessels
-that are never exhibited except on state occasions. Among other vessels
-there were on the said _dressoir_ three _drageoirs_ of gold and precious
-stones, one of which is estimated at 14,000 _écus_, and another at
-30,000 _écus_. On the back of the dressoir was hung a _dorset_
-(_dorsal_) of cloth of gold and crimson, bordered with black velvet, and
-on the black velvet was delicately embroidered the device of Duke
-Philip, which was a gun....
-
-“Item, on the _dressoir_ which was in the chamber of the said lady,
-there were always two silver candlesticks which they called at Court
-_mestiers_,[1] in which two lights were always burning, for it was
-fifteen days before the windows of her room were allowed to be opened.
-Near the _dressoir_ in a corner was a little low table containing the
-cups and saucers in which something to drink was served to those ladies
-who came to see Madame, after they had been offered a _dragée_[2]; but
-the _drageoir_ stood upon the _dressoir_.”
-
-Footnote 1:
-
-  Night candles.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
-  Bonbons.
-
-In the “_chambre de parade_” there stood a very large _dressoir_,
-ornamented with superb pieces of gold and silver.
-
-It was the custom for both lords and ladies to receive their
-acquaintances informally in the “_chambre de parade_,” while the inner
-room was reserved for their intimate friends. On the occasion of a
-birth, these two rooms were as superbly furnished as the house could
-afford. The richest cloths and tapestries were brought out, and the
-_dressoir_ was adorned with articles of gold and silver that were only
-placed on view on important occasions.
-
-When Mary of Burgundy was born, the same authority informs us that
-Isabella of Bourbon’s room was very richly furnished; and in honour of
-Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and heir of Charles the Bold, there were
-five shelves upon the _dressoir_, a privilege reserved for queens only.
-
-The _drageoir_ was a very important article. It contained the various
-“_épices de chambre_,” generally called _dragée_, and meaning all kinds
-of sugar plums and _confitures_, conserves, sugared rose leaves (_sucré
-rosat_), etc. A writer in the sixteenth century mentions “Curious
-_dragées_ of all colours, some in the shape of beasts, others fashioned
-like men, women and birds.” Sometimes the bonbons were taken with the
-fingers, as may be seen in one of the fine set of tapestries in the
-Cluny Museum, representing _The Lady and the Unicorn_. An attendant
-kneeling presents the _drageoir_ to the lady, who is standing with a pet
-bird on her left arm, and she is about to dip the fingers of her right
-hand into the _drageoir_ to get something to delight the bird.
-
-The _drageoir_ was generally handed to the guests after dinner, and made
-its appearance at all ceremonial feasts. Froissart, describing the
-reception to the English knights sent by the King of England in 1390 to
-negotiate peace in France, says they were entertained at the Louvre, and
-“when they had dined they retired to the King’s chamber, and there they
-were served with wine and sweetmeats in large _drageoirs_ of silver and
-gold.” It was always handed with solemnity, and subject to strict
-etiquette. The Constable of France had the honour of presenting the
-_drageoir_ to the King. At the Duke of Burgundy’s Court, according to
-Olivier de la Marche, the steward handed the _drageoir_ to the first
-chamberlain, who handed it to the most important personage present, who
-then presented it to the prince or duke. When the latter had helped
-himself, the honoured guest returned it to the chamberlain, who gave it
-to the steward.
-
-Aliénor also informs us: “When one of the princes had served Monsieur
-and Madame (the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy) with sweetmeats, one of
-the most important personages, for example, the first chamberlain, or
-Madame’s _chevalier d’honneur_, took the _drageoir_ and served the
-Duke’s nephews and nieces; and after they had been served it was handed
-to everybody.”
-
-The _drageoir_ was one of the most valued and popular presents during
-the Middle Ages. In the inventory of Margaret of Austria occurs a
-beautiful and large silver-gilt _drageoir_, fluted, presented to Madame
-by the gentlemen of the town of Brussels for her New Year, 1520.
-
-Aliénor de Poitiers also says there should always be in the lady’s room
-a chair with a back near the bolster of the bed; and that this chair
-should be covered with silk or velvet, for “velvet is the most
-honourable covering, no matter what colour”; and “near the chair should
-be placed a little bench, or stool, covered with a _banquier_ and some
-silk cushions for visitors to sit on when they call to see the invalid.”
-
-The little stool or bench, called _escarbeau_, was very low and without
-back or arms. Sometimes it was triangular in form. Sometimes it served
-for a low table. Rich people often threw over these _bancs_ a piece of
-tapestry or silk, known as _banquiers_.
-
-The memory of the vast majority of the artists of this period has
-perished, but a few names have survived.
-
-When Philip the Bold built a second St. Denis for his race at Dijon
-(1390), his art and craftsmen were all drawn from the Low Countries.
-Nicholas Sluter was in charge; and under his direction the Chartreuse
-became a veritable Flemish museum of carving. He sent for his nephew,
-Nicholas van de Werve, and paid him from six to seven shillings per
-week. Other Flemish workmen in his employ were: Jehan Malouel, Hennequin
-van Prindale, Roger Westerhen, Peter Linkerk, John Hulst, John de
-Marville, John de Beaumetz and Williken Smout. The coloured windows were
-made at Mechlin, by Henry Glusomack. The oak retables with their
-numerous figurines, were the work of a Flemish carver named Baerze of
-Termonde.
-
-In fact, the only Frenchman who had any part in the work was Berthelot
-Héliot, “_varlet de Monseigneur_,” an ivory-carver.
-
-The two _retables_ carved by Jacques de Baerze in 1391 for the
-Chartreuse are now in the Dijon Museum. One was made for the Duke’s
-chapel at Termonde (Dendermonde), and the other for the Abbey of
-Billoche, near Ghent. These were painted and gilded by Jehan Malouel and
-Melchior Broederlam, who had been engaged by the Counts of Flanders; and
-worked in Hesdin and Ypres before becoming court-painters to Philip the
-Bold.
-
-The same Museum contains three cylindrical boxes of beautiful
-workmanship of the same period. Two of these are ornamented with
-arabesques and birds painted and gilded; the third is decorated with
-polychromatic bas-reliefs, and a round boss representing scenes from the
-New Testament. These boxes are supposed to have belonged to the
-toilet-tables of the Duchesses of Burgundy. Two _retables_, ornamented
-with bas-reliefs in the Cluny Museum are called “_oratoires des
-Duchesses de Bourgogne_.” These were bought from Berthelot Héliot,
-“_valet de chambre_” of Philip the Bold; and it is thought that they
-came from Italy.
-
-Another fine piece of Flemish wood-carving is preserved in the old
-_Salles des Gardes_ of the Palace in Dijon, where it forms a decoration
-of the chimney-piece. This is a panel of carved wood, the last remnant
-of the choir-stalls in the ducal chapel. The centre of the panel was the
-back of John the Fearless’s seat. The upper part terminating in a
-pointed arch and bordered with festoons ornamented with foliage
-surrounds the Duke’s shield, which is supported by two angels. The arms
-of eight dependent provinces are carved in the lower part of the panel,
-enlaced in a trellis of mouldings decorated with chicory leaves, and
-further enriched by four angels playing various instruments.
-
-The Dijon Museum contains another splendid piece of wood-carving of the
-same date in the seat or _forme_ for the accommodation of the priest,
-deacon, and subdeacon of the Chartreuse. This was carved in 1395 by John
-of Liège, a carpenter, for the sum of two hundred and fifty francs, to
-which another hundred were afterwards added in recognition of the
-excellence of the work.
-
-The _forme_ is a species of _banc_ divided by arms into stalls like
-choir-stalls. The _forme_ always had a back which grew larger about the
-end of the twelfth century, and at a later date, it was surmounted by a
-daïs. The _forme_ was always considered to be a seat of honour.
-
-John de Marville set to work on the Duke’s tomb in 1383, and in 1388 was
-succeeded by Claus Sluter, who also executed much important work. In the
-chapel of the Chartreuse at Dijon, he represented Philip the Bold and
-the Duchess Margaret kneeling at the feet of St. Anthony and St. Anne.
-In 1404, he retired to the monastery of St. Etienne de Dijon, and was
-succeeded in his post of “_imagier_ and _valet de chambre_” to the Duke
-of Burgundy by his nephew Claes, or Nicholas, van de Werve.
-
-In 1393, Philip the Bold sent his painter, Jehan de Beaumetz, and his
-sculptor, Claus Sluter, to see the works that his brother, the Duke of
-Berry, had had André Beauneveu make at the Château Mehun-sur-Yèvre.
-
-Burgundy was especially famous among French provinces for its woodwork.
-Many masterpieces were created by the Dukes of Burgundy. There were,
-however, other patrons of this art, the great Abbeys of Clairvaux,
-Citeaux, Cluny and Vézélay. Numerous schools of workmen gathered around
-these monasteries, faithfully preserving the traditions of the
-master-sculptors of the past and bequeathing them to their successors of
-the Renaissance. A great deal of their most ornate and skilful work was
-naturally upon the choir-stalls. Those in the Abbey of Charlieu with
-figures of saints painted on wooden panels (later in the Church of
-Charolais), and the old Abbaye de Montréal (Yonne) are especially
-notable.
-
-The Brabant artists perhaps manifested their fertility most in
-wood-carving. Flanders, during the fifteenth century, produced an
-enormous number of _retables_, choir-stalls, pulpits, chairs, tables,
-communion benches, and similar work. The energies of the skilful
-wood-carvers found vent in civil as well as ecclesiastical work. The
-public buildings of the prosperous cities contained many beautiful
-products of the chisel.
-
-The ducal expense accounts that have come down to us contain many
-entries of payments made to various Flemish joiners and cabinet-makers
-(_huchiers-menuisiers_). When the great _Halles_ of Brussels had to be
-rebuilt in 1409, the following experts were employed to do the work:
-Louis Van den Broec, Pierre de Staete, Henry and Godefroy den
-Molensleyer, Adam Steenberch, Henry van Duysbourg, Pierre van
-Berenberge, Henry van Boegarden and John van den Gance. We find these
-names employed on other contemporary work. A few years later, Charles de
-Bruyn executed the wood-carving for the Louvain cathedral. In 1409, John
-Bulteel of Courtray was commissioned to carve the choir-stalls for the
-chapel of the oratory of Ghent. Peter van Oost received the order for
-the ceiling of the town hall of Bruges; and in 1449, W. Ards was carving
-that of the town hall of Mechlin. In 1470, the great altar-piece of
-Saint Waltrude in Herentals was executed by B. van Raephorst. In 1459,
-the beautiful stalls of the Abbey of Tournay, which were unfortunately
-destroyed by fire in the following century, were carved by Jan
-Vlaenders.
-
-A noted carver of this age was Jehan Malouel Hennequin van Prindale,
-who, as we have seen, was in the employ of the Duke of Burgundy. The
-hands only of a Magdalen that he made (1399–1400) are in the Dijon
-Museum. This statue was remarkable as having a copper nimbus, or diadem.
-
-The fame of the Flemish wood-carvers spread far beyond the confines of
-their own provinces, and their services were eagerly sought in England,
-France, Spain, Italy and even Germany.
-
-Although German wood-carvers were plentiful, John Floreins was employed
-on the choir-stalls of the Cologne Cathedral. In 1465, Flemish
-_huchiers_ were called upon to carve the stalls of Rouen. Italy
-attracted many artists whose work still attests their ability. Among the
-innumerable workers in intaglio and marquetry of that period, we find
-the names of almost as many Northerners as native Italians. The Church
-of St. Georgio Maggiore, Venice, contains forty-eight stalls, adorned by
-Van der Brulh of Antwerp with carved bas-reliefs illustrating the life
-of St. Benedict. The _armoires_ of the sacristy of Ferrara bear the
-signatures of Henry and William, two Flemish carvers; and many other
-examples might be cited.
-
-In Spain, the entire Spanish school, until Berruguete brought the New
-Art from Michelangelo’s studio in 1520, was led by Philippe Vigarny, a
-Burgundian, who was considered the best wood-carver in Spain. His style
-was frankly Gothic.
-
-The influence of the Flemish and French was so great in Spain at this
-time, that Juan de Arphe severely reprimands his fellow-workers, who
-never cease copying the “_papelas y estampas flamencas y francesas_.”
-
-There was not a prosperous city in the Netherlands whose public and
-private buildings were not embellished with the products of the great
-artists in wood-carving. The great masters of Bruges were Guyot de
-Beaugrant, L. Glosencamp, Roger de Smet and André Rasch, sculptors and
-carpenters who executed the chimneypiece in the _Palais du Franc_ in
-Bruges after the designs of Lancelot Blondeel.
-
-One of the most characteristic specimens of Flemish carpentry-work of
-the fifteenth century is the oak pew richly carved in the Gothic style
-(1474), belonging to the Van der Gruuthuuse family in Notre Dame of
-Bruges that is connected by a passage with the Gruuthuuse Mansion, built
-in (1465–70).
-
-It is important to keep constantly in mind the fact that at this period
-architects, sculptors, painters and goldsmiths did not confine
-themselves to one particular field of labour. Sculptors worked both in
-wood and stone in both civil and religious buildings, and the best
-talent was employed equally on _retables_, choir-stalls, pulpits,
-bishops’ thrones, _armoires_, _dressoirs_, chests and seats. The Duke’s
-accounts show many entries of payments for elaborate furniture. Two
-examples will suffice: “June 20, 1399: From the Duke of Burgundy to
-Sandom, _huchier_, living in Arras, for a _dressoir_, with lock and
-keys, which was placed in the chamber of our very dear and much-loved
-son Anthoyne, xxxii _sols pariis_”; and again, “To Pierre Turquet,
-_huchier_, living in the said town of Arras, for a bench, a table, a
-pair of trestles, and for a _dressoir_ with lock and key for our chamber
-in our abode in the said place, for goods supplied by him four _livres
-pariis_.”
-
-The fifteenth century has been called the “Golden Age of Tapestry.” Not
-only were the halls and chambers of rich lords hung with “noble auncyent
-stories,” woven in silk and wool of the most gorgeous hues and enlivened
-with shining threads of gold, but the store-rooms were filled with sets
-that were brought forth to decorate the outsides as well as the
-interiors of houses on the occasion of some great festival, marriage,
-tournament, or return of a conqueror from the wars. Wealthy princes
-often took valuable sets to war to decorate their tents. Charles the
-Bold, for example, had with him some of his richest treasures, which
-became the trophies of his Swiss conquerors and are now in Berne.
-
-Owing to her wars, the industries of France had declined, and among them
-her tapestry. Flanders now, particularly under the patronage of the rich
-and powerful Dukes of Burgundy, enjoyed the greatest prosperity.
-Flanders became the centre of the manufacture of tapestry; and Arras,
-Brussels and Bruges produced works that have never been surpassed.
-
-Every subject lent itself to reproduction. The inventory of a princely
-but small collector in 1406–7 mentions: _A Stag in a Wood_, _Story of
-Pyramus and Thisbe_, _History of the God of Love_, _History of King
-Pepin_, _Hawking_, _A Lord and Lady playing at Chess_, _A Trapped Hare_,
-_Monkeys_, _Castles_, _Parrots_, and _Verdures_. The latter shows how
-early the beautiful landscapes were valued. Throughout this century the
-tapestries show charming backgrounds of daisies, violets, strawberries,
-jessamine, primroses, bellflowers and lovely leaves often scattered in
-artistic disorder.
-
-The influence of Memling and the Van Eycks and their school was
-insistent, although comparatively few of their pictures were translated
-into tapestry. One of the pupils of the Van Eycks, Roger van der Weyden,
-designed many cartoons, among which were the _Legend of Trajan_ and
-_Story of Heckenbald_ for the Town Hall of Brussels.
-
-The great impetus to the Flemish looms was given by the Dukes of
-Burgundy. Philip the Bold (1384–1404) encouraged the weavers of Arras by
-giving orders and large payments in advance. Finally, he owned such a
-superb collection that he had a special officer, a _garde de la
-tapisserie_, to take charge of it.
-
-Philip the Good (1419–1467) inherited this taste for beautiful tapestry
-and gave numerous orders to the tapestry-makers of Flanders. The
-inventory of his treasury made in Dijon in 1420, shows that he possessed
-at the beginning of his reign five _chambres_ of tapestry, each
-comprising several pieces, and more than seventy high warp “storied”
-tapestries to ornament the halls and the chapel. Among them was a set of
-eleven pieces containing portraits of “the late Duke Jehan and Madame
-his wife on foot and on horseback,” hawking, with birds on their wrists
-and birds flying all around them. The same prince also had: “A red room
-of high-warp tapestry woven with gold, on which were represented ladies,
-pheasants, persons of distinction and rank, nobles, simple folk, and
-others, with a canopy ornamented with falcons.”
-
-Then there was a rich “chamber,” “with high-warp tapestry of Arras
-thread, called the _chambre_ of the little children, furnished with the
-canopy, head-board, and coverlet of a bed, worked with gold and silk,
-the head-board and coverlet being strewn with trees, grasses, and little
-children, and the canopy representing trails of flowering rose-trees on
-a red background.”
-
-Another set of “high-warp tapestry, worked in Arras thread and gold” was
-called “The Chamber of the Coronation of Our Lady.” It was furnished
-with “a canopy, a head-board, a bed coverlet, and six curtains two of
-which were worked with gold, and the remaining four without gold. On
-each of these were two figures, the late Duke Anthony of Brabant and his
-wife and their children, screened with a small _dosser_; the whole was
-of Brabant work.”
-
-In addition to these superb sets, there were sixty “saloon tapestries”
-in which the hangings woven with gold depicted scenes from famous
-romances, stories from Grecian mythology, pastoral scenes, and
-contemporary events.
-
-There were thirty-six _dossers, banquiers_ and thirty-six hassocks, and
-nineteen long-pile carpets. Then there were thirteen “chapel hangings,”
-with religious subjects, an altar-cloth “entirely of gold and silk,”
-besides high-warp tapestries “of gold and Arras thread.”
-
-Philip the Good was also a collector of embroidery. In his inventory
-(1420) are mentioned many “_chambres_” of velvet and silk, embroidered
-with gold and silks. More than thirty famous embroiderers were employed
-regularly at the Court of Burgundy.
-
-There was no more valuable possession in the Middle Ages than tapestry.
-When Mary of Burgundy was married to the Duke of Cleves in 1415, one
-prized item in her dowry was a “superb bed of tapestry representing a
-deer hunt.”
-
-Tapestry was considered one of the most complimentary gifts that could
-be offered to a royal personage, or diplomatist; and when it is
-remembered that every nobleman of wealth was a collector, a present of
-this nature had to be of rare quality and exceptional beauty. The Dukes
-of Burgundy were fond of making gifts from the looms they patronized.
-
-For example, Philip the Bold sent several pieces to Richard II in 1394
-and 1395, and superb sets to the Dukes of Lancaster and York. John the
-Fearless gave the Earl of Pembroke, ambassador of Henry IV, three
-handsome pieces, and to the Earl of Warwick, ambassador of Henry V, in
-1416, “a rich hanging covered with various figures and numerous birds.”
-In 1414, a “_chambre de tapisserie_” was sent as a present to Robert,
-Duke of Albany, who then governed Scotland.
-
-The weavers of Liège boasted as high an antiquity as those of Louvain.
-The _Chronicle of St. Trond_ says that the weavers in 1133 at St. Trond
-and Tongres, and they were more independent and high-spirited, or, to
-quote more exactly, “more forward and proud than other artisans.”
-
-Brussels, which in after years eclipsed both Paris and Arras in the
-manufacture of tapestries, possessed one corporation only of
-tapestry-workers (_tapitewevers_) in 1340. In 1448, these were
-reorganized under the name of _Legwerckers Ambacht_ (tapestry-weavers
-trade), but there was no great interest in the Brussels looms until
-1466, when Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, bought in that city _The
-History of Hannibal_ in six pieces and a set of eight landscapes.
-
-The looms of Ypres, Middelburg, Alost, Lille, Valenciennes, Douay and
-Oudenarde flourished during the fifteenth century. To this list we must
-add the fine looms of Bruges, established by Philip the Good, which for
-a time eclipsed all others in Flanders. After Bruges supplied this Duke
-of Burgundy with _The History of the Sacrament_ and “two chambers of
-tapestry” in 1440, many commissions were received from foreign
-countries. The Medicis and other Italian families ordered rich sets, but
-they supplied their own cartoons by Andrea Mantegna, Leonardo da Vinci
-and other great painters.
-
-Bruges, doubtless, owed no little of its fame as a centre for fine
-tapestry to the Flemish artists, Memling and the Van Eycks and their
-school who lived there. It is believed that the famous tapestry that
-found a home in the Château des Aygalades, representing the marriage of
-Charles VIII and Anne of Brittany, under the allegorical figures of
-Esther and Ahasuerus, was made in Bruges. The cartoons have been
-attributed to the school of Van Eyck.
-
-In 1449–53, Philip ordered from Tournay _The History of Gideon_ and _The
-Story of the Golden Fleece_ in eight pieces.
-
-In 1430, one Jean Hosemant, a tapestry-weaver of Tournay, was in Avignon
-and the Pope’s chamberlain, the Archbishop of Narbonne, ordered him to
-make “a tapestried chamber on the hangings of which were to be
-represented foliage, trees, meadows, rivers and clouds, as well as birds
-and quadrupeds.” Italy also attracted the French and Flemish weavers to
-learn their secrets, and they flocked in numbers to Rome and other
-cities. Their work was in such demand that the Flemish workers found
-encouragement everywhere; and in the fifteenth century they emigrated to
-England, Spain, Italy and even Hungary.
-
-Rinaldo Boteram of Brussels was in charge of the workshop in the court
-of the Gonzagas in Mantua, where Andrea Mantegna was employed to design
-the cartoons. Jehan de Bruges and Valentin d’Arras directed the
-workshops in Venice as early as 1421; Giacomo d’Angelo the Fleming had
-charge of the Marquis d’Este’s tapestries at Ferrara with a large number
-of Flemish weavers under him. Flemish workmen and master workmen were
-engaged in Siena, Florence, Correggio, Urbino and also by the Sforzas in
-Milan.
-
-A woman was also weaving Arras at Todi in 1468, one Giovanna Francesa,
-“_maestra di panni de arazzi_.”
-
-At home, the Flemings grew ever more and more realistic, weaving into
-their woollen pictures types of character, costumes and scenes with
-which they were familiar; and while their technical skill was
-appreciated in Italy, their pictures certainly were not liked. All the
-orders sent from princely patrons to the looms of the Low Countries were
-accompanied by cartoons, which became the property of the workshop, and
-were repeated again and again as their popularity asserted itself. The
-Italians introduced perspective, clearness of grouping and a dramatic
-feeling entirely opposed to the Flemish school. The Italian cartoons,
-particularly those of Raphael and Romano, had a great influence upon the
-Flemish tapestries.
-
-Like all the other industrial arts, that of the goldsmith flourished
-under the patronage of the Dukes of Burgundy. They spent an enormous
-amount of money in acquiring fine pieces of gold and silver and richly
-set jewels for their own treasury and use, and to give as presents. It
-was not long before the chief cities in Burgundy, Artois and Flanders
-saw the workshops of gold and silversmiths multiply greatly and gain a
-widespread reputation. These goldsmiths not only produced vases and
-chalices for the churches and chapels and beautiful articles for the
-Duke’s _dressoirs_, but they particularly excelled in the setting of
-jewels and in making beautiful pieces of delicately worked gold and
-silver, with which the costumes were laden to such an extent that
-Martial d’Auvergne, the author of _Arrets d’amour_, says “_on
-s’harnachoit d’orfévrerie_.”
-
-Some of the Duke’s silver is especially described in his inventory, and
-among his possessions at the end of the fourteenth century, we find two
-silver chandeliers for the chapel. The central bulbs were fluted and
-they were hung with crystal. On the foot, the arms of France were
-engraved. There were also three other chandeliers (these were evidently
-what we should now rather call candlesticks), and were carved profusely
-with big leaves; and also three candlesticks of silver for the
-“_fruiterie_,” bearing on the base the arms of the Duke of Burgundy. The
-foot of another silver-gilt candlestick was decorated with three
-dragons; another candlestick of white silver (_argent blanc_) was
-decorated with the arms of the Dowager Countess of Hainault. In all
-probability these were among the candlesticks that Charles the Bold took
-to the Abbey of St. Maximin.
-
-Among the artisans that were patronized by the Dukes of Burgundy, we
-find the names of Jehan Villain, a goldsmith of Dijon from 1411 to 1431,
-and _valet de chambre_ to John the Fearless and Philip the Bold; Jehan
-Pentin, goldsmith of Bruges under Philip the Good; Corneille de Bonte, a
-celebrated goldsmith of Ghent; and Henry le Backer of Brussels and
-Gérard Loyet, both goldsmiths of Charles the Bold. The former executed a
-famous altar group for the Count of Charolais (Charles the Bold) in
-1456, consisting of a great cross at the foot of which knelt the Count
-and Countess of Charolais with St. George and St. Elizabeth. Gérard
-Loyet, who was goldsmith and _valet de chambre_ to Charles the Bold,
-made in 1466 a statue of gold that the Duke presented to the Cathedral
-of St. Lambert of Liège. He also made in the year of Charles the Bold’s
-death two silver busts and two statues of that Duke. The busts, of
-natural size, were made for St. Adrien de Grammont and St. Sebastian of
-Brussels and the statues for Notre Dame d’Ardembourg and Notre Dame de
-Grâce of Brussels. The latter, although of silver, were coloured and
-were large in size. They represented Charles kneeling with folded hands
-dressed in armour with sword at his side and wearing the collar of the
-Golden Fleece.
-
-There is very little furniture of the fourteenth and fifteenth century
-in existence. One of the few good buildings dating from the fourteenth
-century is the Guildhouse of the Tanners (Toreken) on the Rue des
-Peignes, Ghent. The Rijks Museum in Amsterdam has a copy of the solid
-oak ceiling of the Senate House at Sluis, dating from 1396, an imitation
-of the ceiling and chimney of the Senate House at Zwolle, built by the
-architect Berent in 1447; and a cast of an ornamental fireplace of the
-fifteenth century from the Markiezenhof at Bergen-op-Zoom. The Rijks
-also owns several Gothic cabinets, and a large Gothic cupboard of the
-fourteenth century from a convent in Utrecht. The Museum in the Steen,
-Antwerp, contains some good fifteenth century furniture.
-
-A few names of wood-carvers of this period have survived. For example,
-the Town Hall of Louvain, the ancient capital of Brabant, is a very rich
-and lovely example of late Gothic work. It even surpasses the famous
-Town Halls of Brussels, Oudenarde, Ghent and Bruges. This was built by
-Matthew de Layens between 1447 and 1463. It is very rich in statues of
-local celebrities, and the supporting corbels are ornamented with almost
-detached reliefs representing biblical subjects.
-
-The models in wood for the stone-cutters were executed after the designs
-of De Layens, by John Vander Eycken, Goswin Van der Voeren, Mathew
-Keldermans and John Roelants in 1448.
-
-In decorative art, the Gothic style is feebly represented by great names
-that have survived. Most of the glorious work that was done by the
-Mediaeval carvers has perished, and the names of its producers have
-perished with it. Two names, of the period immediately before the
-Renaissance, of men who applied themselves to the composition and
-engraving of ornaments have survived. Le Maître à la Navette was born at
-Zwott; and was at work about 1475. Alart du Hameel was a native of
-Bois-le-Duc; and lived at the close of the fifteenth century.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-                        THE RENAISSANCE: PART I
-
-  Dawn of the Renaissance—The Transitional Period—Coffers and Bahuts—
-      Court of Margaret of Austria—Perréal’s Style—Margaret’s Tomb by
-      Perréal—Taste of the Regent—Margaret’s Tapestries, Carpets,
-      Table-covers and Cushions—Her Curios—Flemish Tapestries—Cartoons
-      by Bernard Van Orley—William de Pannemaker—English Tapestries—Last
-      Days of the Gothic Style—Guyot de Beaugrant, Lancelot Blondeel and
-      Peter Pourbus—Stalls in the Groote Kerk, Dordrecht—Carvings in
-      Haarlem—Invasion of the Renaissance—Walnut, the Favourite Wood for
-      Furniture and Carving—Versatility of the Artists—the Fleming as
-      Emigrant—the Renaissance in Burgundy—Hugues Sambin—Sebastian
-      Serlio—Peter Coeck of Alost—Pupils of Peter Coeck—Lambert Lombard—
-      Francis Floris, the “Flemish Raphael”—the Craze for Numismatics—
-      Hubert Goltzius—Cabinets of the Sixteenth Century—Italian
-      Furniture—Characteristic Features of Renaissance Furniture—
-      Ornaments: the Arabesque, Pilaster, Cartouche, _Cuirs_, Banderole
-      and Caryatid—Publications of Decorative Design—Alaert Claes, Lucas
-      van Leyden, Cornelis Bos and Martin van Heemskerck.
-
-
-As in all other departments of human taste, thought and activity, there
-is no sudden change in Decorative Art, no swift rupture with old
-traditions. There is a period of transition, during which one style
-supplants another almost imperceptibly. Even when one great genius
-arises, he meets with opposition from the members of the old school; and
-it takes years for his ideas finally to triumph. Moreover, periods
-overlap: in one district the old style will persist half a century after
-the new is firmly established in another. Again, even in the same town,
-we sometimes find the two streams flowing side by side for some time.
-This is true of the Renaissance, as of all other styles. We even find
-that a palace within a space of ten years’ time might be begun in the
-Gothic and completed in the Renaissance style.
-
-When Charles the Bold received his deathblow on the field of Nancy, a
-new era was dawning. The arts that had been fostered by the splendid
-Dukes of Burgundy already felt the impetus of a new movement. It was a
-period of momentous changes. Printing had already been invented, and
-designs for title-pages alone were to have a tremendous effect on
-Decorative Art. America was shortly to be discovered, and before long
-exotic woods were to end the exclusive sway of walnut and oak. Above
-all, Italy was to be practically rediscovered by Western Europe.
-Although many courts benefited by the fall of Constantinople, in 1453,
-the luxurious Italian states received by far the greater number of
-skilled artisans who brought with them the traditions of Classic Art.
-The maritime republics were, moreover, no strangers to the art products
-of the gorgeous East; and Venice especially then held almost a monopoly
-of the Levant trade, and distributed Oriental wares to France, Germany,
-England and the Netherlands.
-
-The days of Feudalism had come to an end: Mediaevalism was dead. Wars of
-petty piracy and private spite ended almost simultaneously in Western
-Europe; wars of national competition in trade and bitter wars of
-religion were to succeed. In England, the Wars of the Roses were
-extinguished in 1485: the last private battle between the retainers of
-feudal lords was fought in 1483. In France, Louis XI, after the death of
-Charles the Bold, had reduced his other great vassals to order. In
-Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella had expelled the Moors and married their
-mad daughter, Joanna, to the heir of the Burgundian dominions, the issue
-of this marriage being Charles V, who was born at Ghent in 1500. In
-1494, Charles VIII had crossed the Alps; and in Italy the French were as
-dazzled by the luxury and magnificence they saw as the Crusaders had
-been at Byzantium four centuries before. On their return, the
-Renaissance in France and the Netherlands may be said to have begun to
-bloom.
-
-Before the opening of the sixteenth century, however, there was a
-remarkable activity in all the arts; and a coming change can be felt.
-The spirit of the Gothic and of the Classic style—Christian and Pagan—
-were already at war. In the Low Countries, this transitional period is
-noticeable during the last days of the House of Burgundy.
-Simultaneously, architecture and ornament insensibly underwent
-modifications, in which we recognize the earliest Renaissance, as it
-appeared also in France under the reign of Louis XII. Building and
-furniture have already become Classic in form and general aspect: the
-antique column becomes a leading feature of decoration, although the
-pilaster, which offers a convenient flat surface for the carving of
-arabesques, is often preferred. These arabesques are particularly
-characteristic of this transitional period. They consist of rather
-slender and simple branches, allowing considerable spaces of the
-background to appear; and very frequently they are divided into two
-symmetrical parts about a strongly accented middle axis. There is little
-relief and little projection in the composition. The details of
-ornamentation are taken especially from the floral world; and, if human
-figures or animals are used, they are attenuated and expressionless, and
-play an unimportant rôle. Figures of this description appear in Plate V
-that represents a coffer in carved wood in the Flemish style, from the
-Cluny Museum, Paris. The panel in the centre represents the
-_Annunciation_, rudely carved. Pilasters decorated with leaves separate
-it from two niches that contain figures boldly but crudely carved. Above
-the _Annunciation_ is a lock of fine workmanship, the flap of which
-bears the figure of the crowned Virgin, in high relief.
-
-Another typical coffer, or _huche_, of Flemish workmanship of the
-sixteenth century appears on Plate VI. Here we have three panels
-separated by caryatides. The subjects of the panels are _Christ on the
-Cross_, the _Annunciation_, and the _Adoration of the Infant Jesus_. The
-panels are also decorated with the heads of cherubs.
-
-Another _huche_, or _bahut_, of the sixteenth century, of more delicate
-workmanship, is shown in Plate VII. The subject of the central panel is
-taken from the story of David. Allegorical figures decorate the
-pilasters, and Mercury and Cybele fill the niches. This is also from
-Cluny and is of French work of the sixteenth century.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE V.—_Coffer in Flemish Style._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-The Renaissance was too strong a movement not to carry everything before
-it; but it must not be imagined that it met with no opposition. There
-were people in high places who clung obstinately to the old order of
-things and resented innovations. Gothic art was still supreme under the
-short rule of Mary of Burgundy; but her daughter Margaret of Austria,
-Regent of the Netherlands, had to face the new ideas, and found it hard
-to reconcile herself with them, notwithstanding her encouragement of the
-arts as a whole. She kept a brilliant court, and she and her husband,
-Philibert of Savoy, warmly encouraged genius and talent. She gathered
-around her more than one hundred and fifty painters, sculptors,
-architects and decorators in all branches of art.
-
-On the death of her husband she was inconsolable; and planned a splendid
-church in which his and her remains should finally rest side by side. In
-1505, she intrusted the planning of the work to Jean Perréal. In an
-early letter, he writes to her that he is delighted to undertake the
-work, and will take advantage of all he has observed regarding convents
-in Italy, where the most beautiful in all the world are to be found. In
-another letter, in 1509, we read: “_Jy me suis mis après tant pour mon
-devoir envers nostre Majesté que pour l’amour que je vous doy, et ay
-revyré mes pour-traictures, au moins des choses antiques que j’ay eues
-ès parties d’Italie, pour faire de toutes belles fleurs ung trossé
-bouquet, dont j’ai monstré le jet au dict Le Maire_.”
-
-The Flemish character of Peréal’s early style had undoubtedly made him
-acceptable to the Regent. During her residence in France, from 1483 to
-1493, she had then been subjected to no other than Flemish influence in
-art. The Italian taste had not yet reached Paris. But Perréal crossed
-the Alps with Charles VIII in 1495; Louis XII went into Italy in 1502,
-and again in 1509. We are thus on the threshold of the Renaissance.
-Perréal, as the above quotation shows, instead of remaining true to the
-memories of his Flemish education, wanted to seek adventures in the
-domain of Italian art. He had the temerity to offer to Margaret for her
-tombs a bunch of his _troussés bouquets_. She was scandalized, and broke
-off all relations with the erring artist. She looked around her for an
-artist who conformed to the principles of Flemish art, one who would not
-be likely to betray national traditions for foreign modes. Her choice
-fell upon a master mason named Louis van Beughem to build the great
-church of Brou. A member of one of the corporations of St. Luke,
-faithful to Gothic art, van Beughem produced a work that shows that
-style in its latest development and decadence. He showed so much zeal
-and ability that Margaret forced him to take charge of not only the
-masonry, but of the woodwork and windows too. With him were associated
-John of Brussels for the decorative work, and Conrad Meyt for the
-carving. Conrad of Mechlin was Margaret’s favourite “image-maker.” She
-paid him the generous salary of five _sous_ a day. She paid her head
-cook twenty-six. Conrad carved the choir-stalls and other woodwork that
-demanded decorative treatment. He also executed all the great sculptural
-work on the tombs, including the life-size figures of Philibert of
-Savoy, Margaret’s dead spouse, and herself, represented both alive and
-dead, Margaret of Bourbon, ten children, a couching lion and many
-armorial devices.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE VI.—_Flemish Coffer or Huche._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-This instance is interesting as showing that the greatest abilities in
-that age were applied to the smallest matters of art as well as the
-greatest. Among the objects for which Conrad was paid in 1518–19, we
-find two Hercules in wood, and two portraits of the princess in wood
-(for these he received eight _Philippus_ in all), a wooden turret for
-the Regent’s cabinet and a carved stag’s head for her library
-chimney-piece.
-
-Margaret’s tastes are easily learned from the inventory she drew up with
-her own hand of her possessions in Mechlin shortly before her death. She
-seems to have cared almost exclusively for paintings, rich embroideries
-and curios. She made a complete list of her pictures, many of which were
-undoubtedly painted to please her by the artists of her Court. Among her
-embroideries were a great number of handsome ecclesiastical vestments
-and a few coifs, belts and gorgets for herself embroidered with gold
-thread “_à la mode d’Espagne_.” The greater number of her tapestries,
-bed-hangings, cases for cushions, table-covers and _serviettes_, etc.,
-to adorn the shelves of _dressoirs_ were from Spain. Her tapestries are
-worth noting. She had two pieces woven of gold, silver and silk,
-representing the history of Alexander the Great, which came from Spain;
-four pieces, representing the story of Esther, also of gold, silver and
-silk, also from Spain; three pieces of gold and silk depicting the life
-of the Cid; two of the Seven Sacraments, another of Alexander; and four
-of Saint Helena. In addition to these Spanish tapestries, she had six
-pieces called the “_Cité des Dames_,” presented to her by the city of
-Tournay when she went there to meet the King of England.
-
-The gift of the _Cité des Dames_ may perhaps have made some atonement
-for her vexation at having to attend that splendid meeting of the King
-and Emperor. She was very unwilling to go, and wrote to her father
-Maximilian, on September 22, 1513, as follows:
-
-“If you think it necessary for me to go and I can be of service to you,
-I am ready to do all that it pleases you to order, but otherwise, it is
-not the part of a widow woman to _trotter_ and visit armies for
-pleasure.”
-
-She also owned seventeen rich Spanish velvet carpets. Among her
-chamber-hangings, bed-hangings, and canopies were several articles made
-of rich cloth of gold, bordered with crimson and embroidered with the
-arms and device of the “late King of Aragon.”
-
-She had a camp (or folding) bed with hangings of cloth of gold richly
-embroidered with gold thread and silk, and a canopy for a camp bed
-covered with cloth of gold and trimmed with a fringe of black silk and
-gold threads; and she also owned four large pieces of cloth of gold,
-each differently bordered, to decorate her throne, and also one of green
-velvet. She had two curtains of green and grey tafetas, and four of
-crimson tafetas, a number of pieces of cloth of gold, four hangings for
-a chamber of green velvet and white damask, and two palls, one of white
-silk embroidered with gold, and the other gold, green, red and white;
-and the furnishing of a camp bed with canopy, counterpane and three
-curtains of green tafetas lined with black. Margaret did not despise
-leather hangings, for she had several pieces of “tapestry of red
-morocco” each 4½ ells long and just as wide, trimmed with bands of green
-brightened with gold, and three other pieces of “red morocco” with
-gilded bands. These probably came from Spain.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE VII.—_Huche, or Bahut (Sixteenth Century)._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-A “pavilion” of grey and yellow silk threads “as a protection against
-the flies,” shows how early the mosquito net was known.
-
-We should also note “packs for mules in the Spanish style,” covered with
-cloth of gold and silver.
-
-Among her table-covers was one of cloth of gold and white with trimmings
-of crimson velvet embroidered and fringed with gold, and one of cloth of
-gold with a crimson satin border.
-
-The collection of “_serviettes_” were exquisitely embroidered with gay
-coloured silks and gold threads. Some of them were trimmed with silk
-borders and some with narrow fringe. One, for instance, was embroidered
-with violet, and adorned with a violet fringe; another was embroidered
-in silver, blue, flesh-colour, crimson and green and had a little fringe
-of red, blue and gold. The two dozen beautiful cushions were of cloth of
-gold with gold tassels; of gold and blue lozenges; and embroidered in
-variously coloured silks.’
-
-The choice articles in her cabinet included three fine pieces of amber;
-a branch of coral in a wooden box; four other branches of coral; a piece
-of coral shaped like a horn; a little silver box with two coral images;
-a little _parfumador_ of silver for scent-balls; a little Spanish fan,
-beautifully made; a little gilded St. George in a black leather case; a
-little agate salt-cellar with a gilded foot; three spoons—one of
-mother-of-pearl with a silver handle, the others of cornelian with
-handles of chalcedony; a picture of St. Mark on canvas; two East India
-boxes; a pair of East Indian slippers; a piece of violet silk; a little
-_retable_, containing an image of Notre Dame and St. Joseph; another,
-with a hawthorn in blossom; a little paradise with all the apostles
-represented; a lacquer box garnished with silver; a little silver cage;
-two tablets of wood framing pictures; two clocks, the larger one
-striking the hours and half hours; a Saint Margaret made in the likeness
-of Mlle. de Mon-Lambert; a little crying child painted by a good artist;
-the Emperor’s face in black and white; the little Duke of Milan on
-canvas; an Annunciation on canvas; a Saint Anthony made by Master
-Jacques; a little ivory picture given to Madame by M. de Chièvres; the
-face of the Duke Philip; a silver gilt picture of the Annunciation with
-two leaves of porcelain, portraits of the late King Philip and Queen
-Joanna, his wife; a Notre Dame in amber; a beautiful steel mirror; a
-Notre Dame of alabaster; a round piece of alabaster in which a lion is
-cut; and several sets of chess, of silver, silver-gilt, ivory, carved
-wood, ivory and wood; a set in jasper wrapped in a flag; and a set of
-chalcedony and jasper in an old painted box. She also had two
-dice-boxes, one gilt and one ivory. She also owned a good deal of
-curious needlework; two steel mirrors, one framed in silver gilt; and a
-netted purse of green and silver, marked with a unicorn.
-
-Margaret was by no means peculiar in her liking for sumptuous
-tapestries. The walls of every palace, castle and mansion of the day
-were adorned with rich hangings, and these products of the Flemish looms
-were sought by prince and prelate throughout Europe.
-
-Although Flanders continued to produce the most important sets of
-tapestry during the sixteenth century, and cartoons were supplied by the
-Flemish artists, Bernard van Orley, Michel Coxie and Peter of Campana,
-and the French artists, Primaticcio, Matteo del Nassaro, Caron and
-Lerambert, by far the greater number of designs came from Italy. Paul
-Veronese, Titian, Pordenone, Salviati, A. del Sarto, Bronzino, Giovanni
-da Udine, Giulio Romano and Raphael are among the most prolific
-designers; and in the tapestries after their cartoons, the grouping and
-distribution of the figures as well as the colouring (that requires much
-more shading) differ greatly from the works of the past. The borders are
-also more varied; instead of being decorated only with fruits and
-flowers tied with ribbons, other motives are introduced—birds, nude
-children, fishes, crustaceans, vegetables, emblems, quivers, masks,
-grotesques, etc., etc.
-
-Most of these fine sets were made in Brussels to order; but many
-tapestries were made there and sold in Antwerp. If Brussels was the
-workshop of Europe, Antwerp was the mart. In this city, where all kinds
-of merchandise abounded, Guicciardini informs us that more than a
-thousand foreign merchants had established themselves and exhibited for
-sale to the eyes of purchasers the fine tapestries made in Brussels.
-There was a special place, “Le Pand, _halle aux tapisseries_, where many
-beautiful and marvellous inventions and works were exhibited and sold.”
-
-Regarding the Brussels tapestries, the same old traveller tells us:
-
-“Especially admirable and yielding great profit, is the trade of the
-tapestry-makers, who weave, design and warp pieces in high warp in silk,
-gold and silver, at great expense, and with an industry that wins
-everybody’s admiration and wonder.”
-
-During the sixteenth century, the looms of Flanders enjoyed great vogue
-and received orders from all the princes of Europe. When the merchants
-of Florence wished to enrich the Church of St. John with tapestry, they
-sent to Flanders; when Francis I, who possessed some magnificent pieces
-of Flemish tapestry, wanted to make a present to the Pope, he had twelve
-scenes from the _Life of Christ_ made at Arras, from cartoons by
-Raphael; and from 1518–39 there are many entries in the accounts of the
-Treasury of France for sums paid for Flemish tapestries for the King. As
-there was no manufactory for high-warp tapestry in France, Francis I
-decided to establish one in Fontainebleau in 1539, and gathered there
-fifteen skilled Flemish workmen whom he placed under the direction of
-Philibert Babou, Sieur de la Bourdaizière, and Sebastian Serlio, the
-Italian architect.
-
-Throughout the Renaissance, tapestry was regarded on a level with
-painting. The Pope, the Doges of Venice and the wealthy families—the
-D’Estes, the Medicis and Sforzas—made superb collections and decorated
-their halls with splendid hangings. The greater number of these were
-made in Flanders, although a few lords—the D’Estes and Sforzas, for
-example—had looms of their own, worked by Flemings.
-
-Subjects from mythology, the Scriptures and martyrology are still
-popular, but scenes from the old romances of chivalry are banished.
-Valiant princes and prosperous cities make use of the weaver’s art to
-commemorate their victories and triumphs, and many gorgeous sets
-depicting current events are hung in mansions, villas, and town halls.
-Antwerp, for example, orders _The Course of the Scheldt_ for her Town
-Hall. Flanders also makes such pieces as _The Hunts of Maximilian_,
-_Battle of Pavia_, _Victories of the Duke of Alva_, _Destruction of the
-Armada_, _The Deliverance of Leyden in 1574_, _The Defeat of the
-Spaniards by the Zealanders_, _Genealogy of the Princes of Nassau_, etc.
-
-Brussels produced the famous set of ten, _The Acts of the Apostles_,
-ordered by Leo X in 1515. The cartoons, for which Raphael received 100
-ducats each (£200), were sent to Peter van Aelst, the most noted
-tapestry-worker in Flanders. The Pope paid him 15,000 gold ducats
-(£30,000) for the set. Peter van Aelst was _varlet de chambre_ and
-weaver to Philippe le Beau, in 1504, and later to his son, Charles V.
-Bernard van Orley, a pupil of Raphael, was associated with him in the
-production of _The Acts of the Apostles_, which were hung in the Sistine
-Chapel, December 26, 1519. In 1549, Vasari wrote of them: “One is
-astonished at the sight of this series; its execution is marvellous. One
-can hardly imagine how it was possible, with simple threads, to produce
-such delicacy in the hair and beards, and to express the suppleness of
-flesh. It is a work more Godlike than human; the waters, the animals and
-the habitations are so perfectly represented that they appear painted
-with a brush and not woven.”
-
-Another beautiful set, _The Loves of Vertumnus and Pomona_, now in
-Madrid, was also made by Flemish weavers from Italian cartoons; and were
-bought by Charles V in Antwerp, before 1546.
-
-Bernard van Orley designed _The Grand Hunts of Guise, or of Maximilian_,
-formerly attributed to Dürer. In these realistic pictures of costume,
-landscape and national types, there is a return to the Flemish disregard
-for perspective and grouping.
-
-Mention should be made of the famous _Lucas Months_, long believed to be
-the work of Lucas van Leyden, but certainly by a Flemish artist. These
-were frequently copied at the Gobelins. In the month “January” a superb
-sideboard is represented.
-
-A very celebrated tapestry-worker, William de Pannemaker, was
-commissioned by Charles V to weave _The Conquest of Tunis_, the cartoons
-for which were made by Jan Vermay, or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near
-Haarlem. Although eighty-four workers were employed, it took five years
-to complete it.
-
-Pannemaker also made _The Victories of the Duke of Alva_.
-
-What the principal centres of tapestry were, we learn from an edict of
-Charles V, in 1544, that says: “It is forbidden to manufacture
-tapestries outside of Brussels, Louvain, Antwerp, Bruges, Oudenarde,
-Alost, Enghien, Binche, Ath, Lille, Tournay and other free towns, where
-the craft is organized and regulated by ordinances.”
-
-Holland also produced tapestry in this century. Looms were set up in
-Middelburg in 1562; and later in Delft, where Franz Spierinck worked.
-
-A little tapestry was produced in Italy, but even there the greater
-number of weavers were Flemings. Two Flemish tapestry-workers, Nicholas
-and John Karcher, were employed by the Duke d’Este, at his court in
-Ferrara; and Cosmo I employed Nicholas Karcher and John Rost of Brussels
-at his establishment, the “_Arazzeria Medicea_,” in Florence.
-
-The store-rooms of royalty and nobles in England were filled with superb
-sets that were brought out for decoration on occasions. Most of these
-were imported from the Continent; but towards the end of Henry VIII’s
-reign, William Sheldon orders one Robert Hicks to make maps of Oxford,
-Worcester, Gloucester and Warwick counties at his manor in Warwickshire,
-and calls Hicks “the only auteur and beginner of tapestry and arras
-within this realm.”
-
-Returning now to the consideration of furniture as an architectural
-accessory, we find that Margaret of Austria’s tastes were shared by many
-of her contemporaries. The Gothic style lingered here and there far into
-the sixteenth century, and even those whose sympathies were frankly in
-favour of the Renaissance did not entirely cast away Gothic traditions.
-(_See_ Plate X.)
-
-For example, let the student examine the beautiful choir of St. Gertrude
-in Louvain. The stalls are adorned with statuettes and twenty-eight
-reliefs of scenes from the lives of Our Lord, of St. Augustine, and of
-the patron saint, Gertrude. The ornamentation recalls the last days of
-the Gothic style. The work ranks among the finest examples of
-wood-carving in Belgium. It was executed by Mathias de Waydere, of
-Brussels in 1550.
-
-Mechlin was the capital of the Netherlands while Margaret was Regent.
-Her palace, now the _Palais de Justice_, shows both the old and new
-styles. The older parts date from 1507, and were built in the late
-Gothic style by Rombout Keldermans. Before the palace was finished, in
-1517, a French architect, Guyot de Beaugrant, was associated with
-Rombout in the work. This part of the palace is the oldest Renaissance
-building in Belgium.
-
-It is somewhat puzzling to reconcile Margaret’s preference for Gothic
-art with the fact that her own palace shows a halting between two
-opinions. It may be that she merely drew the line between civil and
-ecclesiastical edifices, and would welcome in a palace, or town hall,
-decorations that she would exclude from a church.
-
-Oudenarde, the birthplace of Margaret’s grandniece, who was also to be
-Regent of the Netherlands, contains work that marks this transitional
-period. The doorway of the Council Chamber in the Town Hall is a
-splendid piece of Renaissance wood-carving, executed by Paul van
-Schelden in 1531; and a fine chimney-piece carved in the Flamboyant
-style only two years earlier. Another late Gothic chimney-piece, by his
-brother Peter, is in the _Salle des Pas Perdus_.
-
-Guyot de Beaugrant was the architect who executed the most famous and
-important monument of this period. This is the chimney-piece of the
-_Palais de Justice_ at Bruges. Of all the productions of this kind that
-the sixteenth century has bequeathed to us, and they are numerous, none
-is more remarkable, either for its dimensions or the beauty of the work.
-Its general effect is imposing, and its masses are distributed with that
-feeling for effect that reveals the man of genius.
-
-The lower part is of black marble with four reliefs in white marble on
-the frieze, representing the story of Susanna and the Elders. The
-painter, Lancelot Blondeel of Bruges, supplied the designs for the upper
-part, which is of carved oak. The statues represent Charles V as Count
-of Flanders, Mary of Burgundy and her spouse, Maximilian, Ferdinand of
-Aragon and Isabella of Castile, all ancestors of Charles. Busts of his
-parents, Philip and Joanna, adorn the throne; and on two small
-medallions are Margaret herself and Launoy the commander at Pavia.
-
-As for the details, pilaster, figurines, bas-reliefs, shields,
-medallions, trophies of arms, etc., everything is of incomparable
-finish, and the art of wood-carving has never been so boldly pushed to
-its uttermost expression. This occupies nearly the entire side of the
-Court Room and was made in memory of the Battle of Pavia and the Peace
-of Cambrai, by which the independence of Flanders was recognized. This
-masterpiece was begun in 1529; it was completed in 1530, the year of
-Margaret’s death.
-
-Lancelot Blondeel, of Poperinghe, was essentially a painter of the
-transition period. He was a man of most extraordinary gifts, being at
-the same time a painter, sculptor, mason and engineer. Besides painting,
-he designed several masterpieces of sculpture in addition to this
-celebrated _Cheminée du Franc_. He was also a wood-engraver, and made
-drawings for the glass painters and tapestry-workers. In 1546, moreover,
-he submitted plans to the magistracy of Bruges for a canal to connect
-that city with the sea. He gave his daughter in marriage to Peter
-Pourbus, the last of the great painters of the school of Bruges. Pourbus
-was as versatile as his father-in-law, and was intrusted by the city
-with the organization of public festivals and rejoicings. He dabbled a
-little in architecture, engineering and cartography.
-
-Works of the early Renaissance are rarer in Holland than in Flanders;
-but Holland possesses one of the most remarkable carvings of the
-sixteenth century, the stalls of the Groote Kerk in Dordrecht done by
-Jan Terween Aertsz, of Antwerp, in 1538–42. Four years only were
-required to carve this great allegory. These stalls, of magnificent
-proportions, are divided into two sections: one, at the side of the
-altar, consists of thirty stalls in two tiers. This is the most richly
-treated, being intended for the clergy. The sides on the passageways are
-most elaborately carved. The second section is much simpler and has no
-separate seats. It is intended for the choristers. No work in the Low
-Countries surpasses this. The spectator is first attracted by the superb
-construction and handsome outlines, but it is only when the details are
-examined that the work is fully appreciated. The dazzled eye notes such
-a profusion of ornamental figures and motives that it would be hard to
-find their equal. The only carvings in the Netherlands that can be
-compared with them are the choir-stalls in the cathedral at Ypres, made
-in 1598, but these have not quite the same distinction in execution. The
-first carvings one notes are the friezes in relief above the seats and
-under the graceful little columns that adorn the back. The subjects of
-these bas-reliefs are the _Triumph of Christ_; the _Triumph of the
-Eucharist_; _Scenes from the Old and New Testament_; the _Triumphal
-Procession of Mutius Scaevola_; and the _Triumphal Entry of Charles V in
-Dordrecht_, on July 21, 1540. The cycle of the Triumph of Christ opens
-with two archangels with trumpets, announcing the King of Kings; then
-follow Adam and Eve, Noah with the Ark, Moses with the Tables of the
-Law, Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, David with his harp, Jonah,
-Samson with the lion, Elias and John the Baptist—all prototypes of
-Christ. Then come the twelve apostles with palm branches, and Christ in
-a triumphal car, decorated with dragons’ heads and richly ornamented
-with the symbols of the Cross and dove, and drawn by symbols
-personifying the four Evangelists. Chained to Christ’s car is Death,
-accompanied by the monster Sin, swallowed by the colossal open jaws of
-Hell, in which the Devil is seen riding. Lastly, come Mary and the four
-saints, Catherine, Barbara, Lawrence and Christopher.
-
-The _Triumph of the Eucharist_ opens with choristers and other children
-singing, followed by Franciscan monks, nuns, canons, deacons, deans, the
-Fathers of the Church—Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory, then the
-Church in a triumphal chariot with the Holy Sacrament, then the Pope,
-cardinals and bishops. The procession of Mutius Scaevola is, of course,
-Roman in character, and consists, likewise, of eight panels. The
-_Triumph of Charles V_ resembles in some respects the Triumph of
-Maximilian by Dürer (Dürer visited the Low Countries in 1520). Two
-cavaliers with trumpets open the march and are followed by three others;
-then comes a grandee of Spain with the orb of the Empire, his horse led
-by pages. Other grandees follow, then the imperial train, guided by
-allegorical virgins, and the Emperor, seated under a baldaquin in a
-richly-decorated chariot, with the palm of peace in his left, and the
-sceptre in his right hand. The sword and orb of state lie at his feet.
-
-Some of the terminal figures on the ends of the stalls are very fine,
-particularly Matthew, Luke, David, Solomon and Daniel in the lions’ den.
-The heads and busts that are developed out of the foliage are of
-exceptional interest. The _miséricordes_ (seats) are decorated with
-humorous and Biblical scenes. The luxuriant foliage that forms no little
-part of the ornamentation is in the style of the first Italian
-Renaissance and in many places is mingled with musical instruments,
-heads, fruits, figurines, children and coats-of-arms.
-
-Terween is supposed to have been born in Dordrecht, in 1511. He died in
-1598. For other Gothic carved work during the early Renaissance the
-student may go to the Groote Kerk of Haarlem. This is also especially
-interesting on account of its transitional features; for while the
-magnificent choir-stalls and rood-screen still retain the Gothic
-character (the screen was erected in 1540 by Diderik Sybrandszoon, of
-Mechlin, and bears several municipal coats-of-arms), the side railings
-of the inner choir are in the style of the early Renaissance. A
-remarkable example of Mediaeval carved oak, called the “_H. Geest
-Stoel_,” is also preserved in this church.
-
-The church of St. Nicolas, at Dixmuiden, also contains a splendid
-rood-loft carved in the richest Flamboyant style, dating from about
-1520.
-
-The Gothic period, therefore, practically ended at the close of the
-fifteenth century. The Renaissance restored Greek and Latin taste. In
-furniture, it followed the forms and ornaments of architecture, as the
-Gothic had done; so that now, instead of pointed arches with trefoils,
-quatrefoils, or flamboyant tracery, we have pediments and various Orders
-with their columns, capitals, arcades and superpositions of colonnades.
-
-After the transitional period, during which the Decorative Arts freed
-themselves from the domination of ecclesiastical influence and acquired
-individuality of form, we find a rapid development during the sixteenth
-century. The Renaissance quickly passed through its stages of growth in
-the styles of Louis XII and François I, and burst into full bloom in the
-Henri II style.
-
-Before the invasion of the new school, Gothic tracery quickly
-disappears; and with all the wealth of decoration, cartouches, mascarons
-of gods, heroes, nymphs, etc., in order to produce the proper effect and
-the correct massing of details, it becomes necessary to submit furniture
-to the rules of Classic architecture; and furniture, therefore, breaks
-with all traditions of the past and becomes a special art. New tools,
-new methods, and a new technique are invented. Walnut becomes the
-fashionable wood, and to follow the taste of the day the Flemings
-forsake their much-loved oak. Nearly all the great pieces of the
-Burgundian school of this period are carved in this wood.
-
-After slight hesitation, Flanders welcomed the Renaissance with open
-arms. Like the Venetian, the Fleming was artistic and commercial at the
-same time, and thoroughly understood how to turn his talents into
-profit. He scented a new fashion as soon as it made its appearance,
-assimilated it and added a touch or two of his own. The Renaissance
-found in Flanders, moreover, as we have seen, a ground already prepared
-by the princes of the House of Burgundy. Skilful engravers provided the
-studios with models and designs, wood-carvers multiplied to embellish
-the palace and church, town-halls and guild-houses, castle of the lord
-and home of the burgher and merchant.
-
-The great artists of the period were extraordinarily versatile: they
-were architects, sculptors, painters, glass-painters, goldsmiths,
-designers for furniture and triumphal arches, machinists, historians,
-engravers, numismatologists, and sometimes geographers and poets all at
-once; and a talent for art always seemed to run through all the members
-of one family through several generations, including both men and women.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE VIII.—_Cabinet (Sixteenth Century)._
-]
-
-They had great intellects that were equal to every conception, and their
-skilful hands were capable of the most minute as well as the most
-important work. If the Renaissance produced so many original works, the
-cause must be sought in the complete education of the masters of this
-remarkable period. The artists of the Low Countries knew how to
-assimilate in the most complete fashion the artistic principles of other
-schools; but although drawing inspiration from foreign sources they knew
-how to imprint on their creations a particular cachet, which
-distinguishes Flemish work. They used to great advantage the colour of
-the material, the exigences of the climate and produced picturesque
-combinations.
-
-The Fleming was the traveller _par excellence_ of the Renaissance—
-sculptor, cabinet-maker, painter, architect, potter, weaver, goldsmith—
-we find him everywhere. He even reaches Hungary, Russia and Turkey.
-Spain he finds a congenial soil, and also England.
-
-Although Burgundy resisted the Italian invasion for a time, the
-Renaissance was destined to reach, perhaps, its most brilliant
-development, after Italy, in this very province. It is generally
-conceded that the Burgundian style owes its character to Hughes Sambin,
-an architect and master carpenter, born about the beginning of the
-sixteenth century. In 1535, he finished the porch of St. Michel’s in
-Dijon, and in 1572, published in Lyons, after a period of study in
-Michael Angelo’s studio, a book filled with wood engravings, and
-entitled _Oeuvres de la diversité des termes dont on se sert en
-architecture, réduit en ordre par Maistre Hughes Sambin, architecteur en
-la ville de Dijon_.
-
-Sambin’s most important work is the _Palais de Justice_ in Dijon, where
-there is a very beautiful wooden door carved by him, or under his
-direction, and the _Salle des Procurateurs_, built under Henri II, the
-ceiling of which is carved wood. Sambin’s book shows that he was an
-adept in the Renaissance style, and devoted to the study of antique
-monuments. Regarding him, Champeaux says:
-
-“In truth, it is the taste for caryatides and grotesque figures
-surrounded by garlands, and supporting broken pediments that predominate
-in all his compositions. The result is a certain character of heaviness
-and _bizarrerie_ that is more conspicuous in the buildings contributed
-by him than in his furniture, for the material of the latter, less cold
-than stone, allows more scope to the original fantasy of the artist. The
-furniture inspired by Sambin’s designs does not exhibit the ponderous
-grace of the _armoires_ and _buffets_ made in Paris; the lines are not
-traced with the same tasteful harmony; but it must be recognized that no
-school equals the vigour and the dramatic expression of the Burgundian
-artists of this period. The figures of the caryatides and chimerical
-animals that support the various parts of their furniture and conceal
-the uprights, are animated with a brutal energy that only skilful
-chisels can create. Moreover, the walnut wood of which they are carved
-has been clothed with a warm tone that sometimes equals that of
-Florentine bronzes.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE IX.—_Armoire, Burgundian School._
-]
-
-A fine example of the Burgundian school appears on Plate IX. This is an
-_armoire_ showing fine and bold carving with Renaissance motives. The
-panels of the lower drawers are carved with grotesque figures, flanked
-by pilasters bearing caryatides. The drawers above them are furnished
-with keyholes. The upper section has a large central panel with a
-terminal figure in the centre, the head of which forms a fine ornament
-between the broken pediment. On either side are terminal figures. This
-beautiful _armoire_ resembles in form the “court cupboard” that was so
-extensively used in England at this period.
-
-Many of the great artists of the day went to Italy to study on the spot,
-but it would seem that the works of Sebastian Serlio were in high
-repute, and were closely studied in the Low Countries. Guicciardini, who
-wrote in 1588, tells us that “Peter Coucq of Alost was great in cartoons
-or designs for tapestry; and has the peculiar praise of first bringing
-from Italy the canon of architecture, and translated into Flemish the
-work of Sebastian Serlio of Bologna, to the great advantage of the
-Netherlands.”
-
-Peter Coeck was born in Alost in 1502, and died in Brussels in 1550. He
-was a devoted follower of Serlio. He translated his works into French
-and Flemish, and engraved all the plates for this publication himself.
-These were issued in Antwerp: parts I-III in 1516, part IV in 1539, and
-part V was published by his widow in 1553.
-
-Coeck was painter to Charles V, and to his sister, Mary of Austria,
-Queen of Hungary (born in Brussels in 1503), to whom Charles V gave the
-government of the Low Countries. In her the arts and sciences found as
-enthusiastic a patron as they had in her aunt Margaret of Austria. Just
-as the latter had had her favourite painters in van Orley and Jean
-Mostaert, so she chose Peter Coeck for hers.
-
-Coeck achieved great fame in the remarkable triumphal arches which he
-designed for the joyous entrance of Philip II into Antwerp. In 1527, he
-was made master of the Guild of St. Luke. Thierry de Moelenere intrusted
-him with the decoration of his rich house in Antwerp, in which he
-displayed his knowledge as architect, painter and sculptor. Some of the
-caryatides from this house are now preserved in the Steen Museum. A
-superb mantelpiece with three tiers of subjects carved by his hand is in
-the Town Hall of Antwerp.
-
-Coeck also executed a window for the Church of Notre Dame in Antwerp.
-
-Among his pupils were the painters, Pierre Clays, Gilles de la Hee,
-Nicholas van Nieucasteel, surnamed Nicholas Lucidel, and Pierre Breugel
-the Elder (who married his daughter).
-
-Lambert Lombard (1506–66), went to Italy in 1537. He returned to Liège
-in 1539. He was a painter, and more particularly an architect. He set up
-a school of painting and engraving, the first of its kind there. Three
-of his pupils brought great honour to his school: these were Francis
-Floris, called the “Flemish Raphael,” William Key and Hubert Goltzius.
-He worked very little himself beyond designs for engravers, and more
-often for paintings on glass. He was rich enough to indulge his taste
-for objects of antiquity. It was at this date that the study of
-numismatics came into existence in Belgium, and learned men took delight
-in setting up a cabinet of medals and coins: among the wealthy it became
-even a mania that was carried to extremes. Lombard’s collection, the
-beauty of which was praised by all his contemporaries, was composed of
-medals, coins, carvings, and other objects of high antiquity.
-
-Hubert (or Hugo) Goltius (or Goltz), was a painter, engraver,
-numismatologist and historian. He was born at Venlo in 1526 and died in
-1583. He studied under Lambert Lombard and was also influenced by
-Erasmus’ friend, van Watervliet, who guided him in his classic studies,
-Greek and Roman antiquities, etc.
-
-Goltius visited all the great towns in Belgium, Holland, Germany, France
-and Italy, in order to examine the cabinets of collectors for material
-for his book on coins. His itinerary reveals an astonishing number of
-collectors of coins and medals.
-
-Goltius made the decorations in Antwerp for the fêtes of the Golden
-Fleece. He was also appointed historian to Philip II.
-
-A marriage coffer of leather, designed by him, represented the King of
-Spain and Margaret of Austria standing beside the Fountain of Love.
-
-The craze for medals, coins and curios during the sixteenth century was
-widespread. We have seen that the Regent had a coffer full of corals and
-various trifles. To meet the demand for housing curios, the cabinet was
-developed. This was usually a double chest, the upper one smaller than
-the other. Both closed with doors and contained drawers and shelves.
-
-Like almost all the pieces of furniture called “cabinets” of the
-sixteenth and seventeenth century, the one reproduced on Plate VIII is
-in two parts, the upper being smaller than, and standing back on the top
-of, the lower. It is carved in walnut wood, enriched with sculptures,
-and here and there plaques of marble are set in order to relieve the
-monotony resulting from the sole use of wood. Stone of various colours
-was largely used at this period, as an inlay for furniture in the
-Netherlands and France, and more especially in Germany.
-
-The principal fault with which the Flemish artists of the period are
-reproached is that of “painting the lily.” They frequently are lacking
-in restraint, and overcharge their surfaces with riot of ill-combined
-mouldings and carvings; but in this specimen we have fine restraint. Its
-structure and general disposition are strong and well-contrived; the
-mouldings have a good profile; the sculpture is in the right place, and,
-at the same time, is subordinated to the lines whose mission is to
-contain and quiet it. This piece belongs to the best school of the
-Renaissance, and will hold its own in almost any surroundings.
-
-In the lower part of this cabinet, the two panels that form the doors
-are carved with the figures of Diana and Juno with their attributes. The
-drawers above are decorated also: the central one has a lion’s head, to
-which a ring is suspended, and the two others have a simple knob. In the
-panels of the upper doors, Paris is presenting the golden apple to
-Venus, whose beauty has outshone that of her rivals. A garland of fruits
-with a mascaron in the centre is above this, and the whole is topped by
-a broken pediment framing an armed Pallas.
-
-If we cast a glance at Italian furniture, we shall see that the French
-and Flemish artists at first frankly copied what they had seen when they
-accompanied the three expeditions to Naples.
-
-In the sixteenth, as in the preceding century, the Italians were
-particularly fond of the Roman triumphal arch and sarcophagus, as forms
-for furniture. The Classic Orders were in great vogue, and the arabesque
-and candelabra-shaped pilasters, introduced so long ago into decoration,
-were renewed and made popular by Raphael. To the ancient style of
-marquetry, composed of little geometrically-cut cubes of natural wood,
-there succeeded a marquetry of coloured woods arranged to form actual
-pictures with perspective. Some of the furniture was carved, and then
-painted, or gilded; but other furniture shows large surfaces that are
-decorated with beautiful oil paintings.
-
-The Italian furniture was particularly _da pompa_, made for the
-adornment of long galleries, enriched with paintings, gildings,
-tapestries, velvets, damasks, brocades, cushions, curtains, mirrors, and
-sumptuous _cassoni_. Beds, chairs, tables, cabinets, mirror and picture
-frames, standing candelabra, bellows, coffers, chests, seats and buffets
-(_credenza_), are of the most luxurious nature; and the latter display
-magnificent gold and silver work (Cellini is busy at this period), and
-marvellous examples of faïence; for, be it remembered, it is also the
-period of Luca della Robbia and his school.
-
-The Italians cared little or nothing for the large chimney-pieces, so
-dear to the northern races in their colder climate; and the great seats
-by the fireside have also no attractions. The Italian has no oak, nor
-half-timbered houses with pointed gables without and heavy beams within:
-his woods are walnut, pine and chestnut for ordinary furniture, and
-ebony, cedar and cypress for his luxurious articles. His materials, like
-his taste, are more decorative than practical.
-
-Such was the taste that invaded the Low Countries during the
-Renaissance; much of it brought home by the Flemish artists who visited
-Italy; and some of it coming into the country by way of France, where
-Serlio was the guiding spirit, Cellini had settled, and the school of
-Fontainebleau was in full blast.
-
-The characteristic feature of Renaissance furniture consists in the
-monumental façade that is like a Roman temple, and various orders of
-Classic architecture are superimposed: it is Doric at the base; Doric in
-the centre; and Corinthian at the top. The whole is surmounted by a
-pediment, the triangle of which is broken in the centre to receive a
-bust, vase or statuette. (_See_ Plate VIII.)
-
-The projections stand out boldly and form sharp cornices. In the panels,
-in the supports and between the columns, niches are cut out and framed
-in an architectural motive of some kind. In them are figures of heroes
-or classic deities. Sometimes also there are round medallions in the
-form of dormer windows from which curious heads with outstretched necks
-peer forth.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE X.—_Bedroom, by De Vries “Cubiculum.”_
-]
-
-Ornate pieces of furniture exhibit a whole world of real or imaginary
-beings, mingled with garlands of fruits, or flowers, and ribbons. Often
-the figures are fantastically developed out of the leaves and floral
-branches. The favourite decorative motives are antique columns,
-pediments, broken pediments, terms, garlands, pagan deities, classical
-heroes, caryatides, grotesque figures, initial letters smothered in
-branches of foliage, cartouches, pilasters and arabesques. Gothic
-perforations are also used, although they are more geometrical than
-during the preceding period. (_See_ Plate X.) The favourite linen-fold
-pattern dies very hard. Strips of leather called “_cuirs_,” variously
-folded and plaited, enjoy a great vogue. (_See_ panel on Plates XXI and
-XX). The _encoinçon_ (_see_ Figs. 17 and 18) is also popular; and the
-“_compartiment_” appears in hundreds of designs. The compartment ceiling
-is a favourite room decoration, and is often ornamented with roses,
-brackets, floral designs and monograms. A compartment ceiling of
-intricate design appears in Plate XXIV.
-
-The arabesque, which so often forms a central motive, is usually in the
-form of a flower stem, a knot of ribbon or a candelabra, symmetrically
-arranged with branches to right and left, and charged with trophies,
-vases, fantastic beings, animals, etc., at the caprice of the artist.
-These delicate ornaments flourish in the panels, mingling with the horn
-of plenty, bold sirens, and medallions of antique heroes in high relief.
-
-The arabesque was beautifully treated by many artists, but the most
-successful were Marc Gerard, a celebrated painter, sculptor and
-architect of Bruges, and Lucas van Leyden whose style of treating
-arabesques follows Albrecht Dürer. Examples of Lucas van Leyden appear
-in Figs. 10, 11 and 12.
-
-The pilaster is a decorative necessity of the upright, marking the
-division of the façades, or accenting the uprights of the chests,
-chairs, _dressoirs_, etc.
-
-The cartouche (Italian _cartoccio_) scrolled paper, is generally
-composed of a frame made of mouldings, or scrolls, enclosing a plain,
-convex, or concave space, of regular or irregular form intended for an
-inscription, coat of arms, cypher, etc. Vredemann de Vries and Theodore
-de Bry decorate their cartouches with swags of fruits, which were copied
-by Gerrit Hessels, a Dutch engraver whose compositions mark the
-transition between those artists and Crispin de Passe, Francouart and
-the school of Rubens. One of the peculiar features of the cartouche of
-the sixteenth century is the use of motives composed of strips of
-leather twisted, and variously decorated. Vredemann de Vries calls these
-“Compartments” in his well-known _Multarum variarumque protractionum
-(compartimenta vulgus pictorum vocat) libellus utilissimus, jam recens
-delineatus per Johannem Vreedemanum, Frisium Gerardus Judaeus
-exculpebat_ (Antwerp MDLV).
-
-This peculiar style of leather ornamentation known as _cuirs_, and
-consisting of strips interlaced in so many forms, is a much loved
-decoration of the Flemish school. A notable collection of _cuirs_ was
-published by Jerome Cock, the printer-engraver, in Antwerp, his native
-town.
-
-Among the favourite decorations is the banderole, the floating ribbon or
-streamer which had been much used during the Middle Ages. It was used in
-great variety by many artists during the Renaissance.
-
-The peculiar form of caryatid called _gaîne_ or _terme_, a species of
-support, is also extremely popular. It is used by Peter Coeck of Alost,
-in most of his compositions; and by his pupil Vredemann de Vries, who
-composed a special collection of _Caryatides ou termes_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XI.—_Flemish Bedstead_ (1580).
-
-  Figs. 10–12: Designs by LUCAS VAN LEYDEN; Figs. 13–16: Designs by A.
-    CLACES; Figs. 17–18: ÉCOINÇON, by DE VRIES.
-]
-
-In studying the furniture of the early Renaissance, the works of the
-masters of design are most important aids. Before 1500, as we have seen,
-publications of purely decorative design, and even of architecture as a
-whole, are exceedingly scarce. From the opening of the sixteenth
-century, however, such publications rapidly multiply. Interior
-decorators who used the chisel in panel and pillar, and the contemporary
-joiners and cabinet-makers decorated their surfaces with details and
-motives taken from the Italians, and from the designs of native
-goldsmiths, engravers, painters and architects. As we have seen, it was
-no uncommon thing for one individual to be an adept in all these
-branches.
-
-Therefore, the decorations of the designers of the early Renaissance
-have a special interest for us when we want to see what motives
-supplanted Gothic tracery, Biblical scenes and angels on carved chests,
-_credences_, _armoires_, beds and seats.
-
-The first decorative designers who adopted the style of the Renaissance
-were Alaert Claas, Lucas van Leyden and Cornelis Bos. Claas (painter and
-engraver) worked in Utrecht from 1520 to 1555. Lucas van Leyden (painter
-and engraver), whose family name was Damesz, was born in Leyden in 1494
-and died in 1533. Cornelis Bos (glass painter, architect and engraver),
-was born in Bois-le-Duc about 1510. He worked in Rome and was famous
-from 1530 to 1560. Another artist and engraver who belonged to the same
-school of decorative art was Martin van Heemskerck (1494–1574). He
-worked and died in Haarlem.
-
-A mascaron with typical floral scroll-work dated 1523, the work of Lucas
-van Leyden, appears in Fig. 10. Another decorative composition with
-grotesque sirens and floral scrolls in Fig. 11, also by the same master,
-is dated 1528. A third and very graceful design of the same date by
-Lucas van Leyden is shown in Fig. 12. Decorations for panels, or other
-flat surfaces in wood, stone or goldsmith’s work are represented in
-Figs. 13 and 14 and Figs. 15 and 16; these are by Alaert Claas (or
-Claasen).
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IV
-                        THE RENAISSANCE: PART II
-
-  Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—Charles V a
-      Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in Spain—Gilded Leather—
-      Wealth of the Nobles in the Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at
-      Namur—Antwerp in the Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin—
-      Cornelius and James Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries—
-      Jacques van Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second
-      Period of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs, Armoires,
-      Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass Cupboards—Windows
-      and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the Artists of the Low
-      Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—
-      Wood-carving—Music and Musical Instruments.
-
-
-The first half of the sixteenth century in western Europe was completely
-filled with the ambitions, intrigues and wars of three powerful
-sovereigns—Charles V, Francis I and Henry VIII. Each of these was a
-chivalrous and luxurious monarch, devoted to the arts, science and
-literature. At their courts, the Renaissance received every
-encouragement; and at their death, half-way through the century, the
-Renaissance is generally regarded as entering on its second period.
-Henry and Francis both died in 1547, and Charles in 1558.
-
-On the death of Margaret of Austria in 1530, Charles had intrusted the
-government of his Burgundian inheritance to his sister, Mary of Hungary.
-She was as liberal a patron of the arts as her aunt Margaret had been.
-She kept a splendid court, and was entirely in sympathy with the new
-school. The artists who were struggling against foreign influence could
-not look to Mary for support. The stream of Flemish pilgrims to Rome was
-constantly broadening; and the Romanists under her Regency gained
-disciples daily in Brussels, Mechlin, Liège and Antwerp.
-
-At this period, the Low Countries bowed to no foreign authority in the
-art domain except the Italian. It must be borne in mind that Charles was
-a prince of the House of Burgundy, who had been brought up by his aunt,
-the daughter of the heiress of Burgundy, and the Emperor of Austria. He
-was a Fleming by birth and training. He was born at Ghent in 1500, and
-spent the first sixteen years of his life in the Netherlands. His pride
-in his natal town is well known. It is recorded in his famous pun—that
-he could put the whole of Paris in his _Gant_ (glove). Spanish
-influence, therefore, did not affect the studios and workshops of the
-Flemish hives of industry till late in the century; for when Charles
-went to Spain, his train was full of Flemings, who influenced Spanish
-art; but we find no return influx of Spaniards to modify Flemish art.
-The splendid traditions of the Court of Burgundy still dominated in the
-Low Countries; and its unbending formality survives in Spain to-day.
-When Philip II joined his father Charles V in Brussels in 1548, his
-natural inclination led him readily to adopt the multitudinous equipage
-and minute and pompous etiquette of his Burgundian ancestors; all this
-he retained and transmitted to his descendants. Till the end of the
-century, the Flemish Renaissance was a domestic development of purely
-Italian inspiration. The principal things that the Netherlands obtained
-from the Iberian peninsula were ornamental leather and Oriental wares,
-through Lisbon.
-
-The Renaissance gave a great impetus to gilded leathers, the manufacture
-of which was still flourishing at Cordova and increasing in the
-Netherlands. It would seem that workmen emigrated from Spain to other
-countries. Tomaso Gazoni in his _Piazza universale_ (1560) writes
-regarding gilded leather: “Some people think that the origin of this
-noble work is due to Spain, because from that country come the best
-masters of modern times who have obtained the greatest renown in this
-kind of work.” A native of Cordova, Ambrosio Morales, writing in 1575,
-says: “This manufacture brings much wealth to the town, and also gives a
-fine appearance to its principal streets. In truth, when these stamped,
-painted and gilded leathers are spread out on large tables to dry in the
-sun they make a beautiful sight, for the streets are adorned with the
-greatest splendour and variety.”
-
-The inventories of the period show us how important was the use of
-leather. Margaret of Austria has at Mechlin in 1527 several pieces of
-“_tapisserie de marroquin_,” as we have noted.
-
-The gilded leather was often called _or bazané_ and regarded as a mark
-of opulence. For instance, Pierre Binard, a tapestry-worker and author
-of a collection of _Noëls_, dedicated to Marguerite, wife of Henri IV,
-says in one of his verses:
-
-                   Au moins est-elle bien coëffée
-                     De fins rézeaux?
-                   Et sa couche est-elle estoffée
-                     De beaux rideaux?
-                   Son ciel n’est-il pas de brodeure
-                     Tout campané?
-                   N’a-t-il pas aussi pour bordeure
-                     L’or bazané?
-
-The nobles vied with royalty in luxury, and the beautiful tapestries,
-furniture, gold and silver work, enamels, etc., found ready sale. Such
-magnificent homes as the Counts of Egmont excited the anger of the
-populace; and those of many successful artists and rich merchants were
-hardly inferior.
-
-The clergy did not suffer either. Granvelle, for example, made Bishop of
-Arras, and chief adviser to Philip II in all the affairs of the
-Netherlands, had a magnificent establishment. His furniture, tapestry
-and other personalty amounted to no less than £50,000.
-
-Contemporary travellers are constantly speaking of the startling
-splendours they encountered in the Low Countries. When Marguerite of
-Valois, Queen of Navarre, who was certainly used to splendour, went to
-Spa in 1577, with the excuse to drink the waters, but really to intrigue
-in Hainault so as to advance the interests of her brother, the Duke
-d’Alençon, in the Netherlands, she was received at Namur by Don Juan of
-Austria. When this gallant escort, who rode by her litter, escorted the
-Queen to her lodgings, she was “astonished at the magnificence of the
-apartments.”[3] A superb hall gorgeously furnished led into a series of
-chambers. The bedroom and bed prepared for the Queen were hung with
-superb tapestries, which, appropriately enough, represented the Battle
-of Lepanto.
-
-Footnote 3:
-
-  _Memoirs of Marguerite de Valois._
-
-Antwerp now becomes the centre of commerce, and the town expressed so
-much wealth and was so crowded with ships that when the Ambassador from
-Venice, Marino Cavalli, landed on the Scheldt, in 1551, he exclaimed in
-amazement: “Venice is surpassed!” In 1567, Guicciardini wrote: “One word
-alone can define the number of trades exercised in Antwerp; it is the
-word _all_!”
-
-In 1560, Antwerp numbered three hundred and sixty painters and
-sculptors: artists and decorators flocked thither, and many new
-industries were likewise attracted; for instance, Piccol Passo of Urbino
-established a factory for Italian majolica; Amould van Ort of Nimeguen,
-the celebrated stained-glass maker, transplanted his workshops; Jahn de
-Lame of Cremona, Murano glass; and Christopher Plantin of Tours
-(1514–89), his printing-presses, from which so many books of decorative
-design were issued. He settled in Antwerp in 1549; but from 1576 to the
-present day, the business has been conducted in the house known as the
-Musée Plantin-Moretus, in the Marché du Vendredi. Plantin’s son-in-law
-Moretus or Moerentorf, succeeded him. In 1876, this house, with its
-antique furniture, pictures, tapestries and other collections, was
-bought by the city of Antwerp for a Museum. The greater part of the
-furniture, staircases, mantelpieces, etc., date from the seventeenth
-century; but despite this fact and many restorations, this house affords
-an interesting picture of the dwelling and office of a rich Fleming of
-the sixteenth century. The printing offices are untouched, and two of
-the rooms are hung with gilt Spanish leather of the sixteenth century.
-
-In the last chapter we brought the masters of Decorative Art down to the
-middle of the sixteenth century. After these came Cornelius and James
-Floris, whose family name was de Vriendt. The head of the family,
-Cornelius de Vriendt, a stone-cutter, used the name of his grandfather,
-Floris de Vriendt, a member of the Guild _des Quatres-Couronnes_ in
-1476. Cornelius had four sons: John, a potter, who settled in Spain;
-Frans Floris (1518?-70), a painter; James (1524–81), a celebrated
-glass-painter; and Cornelius (1514–74), a sculptor and architect, who
-was responsible for the Antwerp Town Hall, the house of the Hanseatic
-League, the tabernacle of Léan and the rood-loft of the Cathedral of
-Tournay.
-
-James was also a skilful engraver, and was particularly noted for his
-panels, or compartments, which in his day were such favourite designs.
-His drawings were edited by Jerome Cock, and obtained a great success.
-
-Jerome Cock produced a great deal of decorative design in the second
-half of this century. His figures are graceful and well disposed, and
-his draperies and garlands of fruits and flowers are charmingly
-effective. Two of his designs for goldsmiths’ work are reproduced on
-Plate XIX and Plate XX.
-
-Cornelius and James Floris developed a new style, still known in
-Flanders as the Floris style. The school included many able designers
-whose names still survive, including that of Vredemann de Vries. The
-ornamentation is principally composed of “_cuirs_” cut into various
-shapes and rolled, accompanied by a mixture of figures, animals, birds,
-flowers and fruits, all tied together by ornamental motives, ribbons,
-draperies, etc., a form of decoration which the Flemish masters carried
-to its highest point of perfection.
-
-It was the custom of the day for these masters of ornament to supply
-designs for furniture when “the newest thing out” was required. Their
-designs that have survived consist chiefly of grotesques, cartouches,
-“_cuirs_,” panels, compartments, friezes, trophies, “_pendeloques_” and
-other goldsmiths’ motives. Contemporary with Floris were Hans Liefrinck
-(1510–80); Cornelis Matsys (1500–56); Jerome Cock (1510–70); John
-Landenspelder (_b._ 1511); Adrian Collaert (_b._ 1520); Hans Collaert
-(1540–1622). These all worked at Antwerp.
-
-The most famous designers of the Renaissance, however, were the De
-Vrieses, father and son, Hans and Paul. Hans Vredemann de Vries,
-painter, architect, sculptor, designer, and poet, was born at Leeuwarden
-in Friesland (whence his name) in 1527. For five years he studied in
-Amsterdam in the studio of Reijnier Gerritsz, the painter, and he
-studied architecture under Coeck of Alost. His pictures are valued
-highly and are crowded with architectural details. He also studied
-painting on glass. Owing to his special aptitudes and varied knowledge,
-as well as the skill with which he treated the different styles of
-architecture and ornamentation, he may be said to sum up in himself the
-great period of the Flemish Renaissance.
-
-Vredemann published a great many collections of designs that are highly
-valued for the interesting studies they present of the Flemish Art of
-the Renaissance. His sons, Paul and Solomon, followed his style.
-
-De Vries was famous for his leather ornamentation (_cuirs_) and his
-_encoinçons_, which apply to oval frames and ornament the corners of
-twelve of his twenty-one oval plates among the fifty composing the
-collection, _Variae Architecturae formae a Joanne Vredemanni Vriesio,
-magno artis hujus studiosorum commodo inventae_. (_See_ Figs. 17 and
-18.)
-
-In his own country, he was called the king of architects. He may be
-called the Dutch Du Cerceau. He was contemporary with Du Cerceau; and
-was apparently greatly influenced by the work of the latter, or it may
-be that they both got their inspiration from the same Italian source. A
-comparison of the work of the two masters will show individuality in De
-Vries. His designs are not so light and graceful as the Frenchman’s.
-Besides all kinds of architecture, gardens, wells, fountains, vases,
-armour and decorative work for goldsmiths, he designed _Differents
-Pourtraicts de Menuiserie à sçavoir_, _Portaux_, _Bancs_, _Tables_,
-_Escabelles_, _Buffets_, _Frises_, _Corniches_, _Licts de camp_,
-_Ornements à prendre à l’essuoir les mains_, _Fontaines à laver les
-mains_. This collection of designs appeared about 1580, and forms a most
-valuable record for those who desire to study the style of the early
-Renaissance in the Netherlands. It is noticeable that the change is not
-so much in the general form of the furniture as in the ornamentation. As
-an example, let us take the bedroom (Plate X). This was published in
-1580; but it evidently belongs to the transitional period, since the
-furniture reveals almost as many Gothic as Renaissance features.
-
-It will be noticed that De Vries expressly styles his design a _modern_
-bedroom; so that it deserves study as the latest novelty about the
-middle of the sixteenth century. The first thing that strikes one is
-that though the ornamental details of Gothic tracery have almost
-disappeared, yet the linen-fold in the panelling is everywhere. Even the
-_dressoir_ on the left with its Classic columns and spiralled caryatides
-has Gothic panels; and the presses between the fireplace and the window
-have Gothic panels with a Renaissance daïs. The long heavy chests that
-serve as benches also belong to Mediaeval days. The massive table looks
-transitional also. It is also to be noticed that the furniture cannot
-yet be designated as “moveables”; it is still an integral part of the
-carpentry work that lines the walls of the room. The chair beside the
-bed is the sole note that tones down its severity. At the time the plate
-was published (1580), the Renaissance was in full flower, and its
-interest for us lies chiefly in the disposition of the furniture and the
-evidence it supplies of Gothic tenacity. The floor is tessellated
-diagonally with squares of wood or stone. The chimney-piece with its
-funnel-shaped top is essentially the same as represented in miniatures
-of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The _credence_ or _dressoir_
-is opposite to the door, the bed, well protected by woodwork and
-curtains against draughts, is close to the fireplace, and the table in
-front of the window. A general effect of coldness is noticeable, due to
-the almost total lack of upholstery; but this is doubtless owing to the
-artist’s intent to emphasize the woodwork.
-
-Though De Vries was the most important designer of furniture in the
-Netherlands during the sixteenth century, he was by no means the only
-one to influence the taste of the day. There were many architects,
-goldsmiths and engravers whose designs contributed to the development of
-the Renaissance style. One of these was Jacques van Noye. He was
-employed by Cardinal Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, to embellish the palace
-in Besançon, built by his father, Sebastian van Noye, also a notable
-architect.
-
-In 1550, Van Noye became architect of Philip II; and called to Spain by
-the King, died in Madrid. One of his important works was the palace that
-the Cardinal erected at Brussels on the Coperbeke.
-
-Other designers in decorative art who lived during the second half of
-the sixteenth century were Mark Geraerts (1530–90); Hendrick van Schoel;
-Martin de Vos (1531–1603); G. Tielt (1580–1630); Cornelius Grapheus
-(1549-?); Baltazar Silvius (_circ._ 1554); Guilhelmus de la Queweelerie
-(_circ._ 1560); Peter Miricenis (1520–66); Hans Bol (1535–93); Abraham
-de Bruyn (1538-?); Crispin de Passe, the Elder (1536-?); Peter van der
-Borcht (1540–1608); Peter Baltens (1540–79); Paul van Wtanvael (_circ._
-1570); Nicholas de Bruyn (1560–1635); Clement Perrete (_circ._ 1569);
-Assuerus van Londerseel (_b._ 1548); Jerome Wierix (_b._ 1551); John
-Wierix (_b._ 1550); John Sadeler (1550–1610); Raphael Sadeler
-(1555–1628); Ægidius Sadeler (1570–1629); Dominic Custode (_b._ 1560);
-Ger. Groningus; Cornelis Galle (1570–1641); Philip Galle (1537–1612);
-Theodore Galle (_b._ 1560); Cornelis Dankherts (_b._ 1561); John Sambuci
-(_circ._ 1574); Francis Sweert (_circ._ 1690); Jodocus Hondius
-(1563–1611); James Hannervogt, and some anonymous engravers.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 19: BED, by J. STRADEN; Figs 20–22: TABLES, by DE VRIES; Fig. 23:
-    CHAIR AND FOOTSTOOL, by DE VRIES; Figs. 24–25: FLEMISH CHAIRS.
-]
-
-Of the above, the most prolific were the Galles. They were particularly
-rich in frames, but their ornamentation already shows signs of the
-Decadence; and the work of Philip alone shows traces of the pure
-Renaissance. Most of these masters of ornamental design were natives of,
-or were attracted to, Antwerp; though some of them travelled far afield.
-Custode worked at Augsburg; Ægidius Sadeler died at Prague; Geraerts
-died in England; Cornelius Bos worked in Rome; and Crispin de Passe, the
-Elder, worked in Utrecht, Amsterdam, Cologne, Paris and London.
-
-In the second period of the Renaissance, the general effect is more
-severe and geometrical; the projections are more restrained, and the
-general form of furniture more rectangular. The vertical lines are more
-conspicuous than the horizontal lines; and columns with elongated shafts
-and delicate flutings or grooves replace human figures that in the first
-period of the Renaissance act as uprights and supports. The bed on Plate
-XIV is a good example of the second period.
-
-There is also during the second period a great, and often elegant, use
-of ceramics. Some pieces of furniture, particularly cabinets, are
-decorated with incrustations of stones, amber, enamelled work and even
-Venetian glass.
-
-Gothic decoration still lingers for a time in the ordinary bedsteads
-(_see_ Plate X) but those of the new fashion show all the popular
-ornaments of the Renaissance. Caryatides sometimes appear as columns;
-and sometimes and ever more frequently as time wears on, slender pillars
-cut in the form of balusters, lances or distaffs, often grooved, and
-more or less decorated with carving. Later in the century, the columns
-are frequently enveloped in the same material as the hangings, which
-become so important that the sculptor and joiner give place to the
-upholsterer and embroiderer. The beds are so high, or built so high with
-mattresses, that it is impossible to get into them without the aid of
-bed-steps.
-
-A glance at Plate II will inform us that the bed of the fifteenth
-century depends more for its effect upon the curtains and other
-draperies than on the framework. In the time of the Renaissance, we find
-the bedstead of supreme importance. It is carved in the richest fashion,
-and is often enriched with gilding and painting; it is also adorned with
-marquetry. The mattresses, bolsters and pillows are of down or feathers,
-the sheets and blankets of finest linen and wool, for which Flanders is
-famous; and the hangings are of silk, velvet, tapestry, serge, or gilded
-leather. The Renaissance bed is never allowed to stand in an alcove: it
-is far too handsome a piece of furniture for that. Its canopy, often
-richly carved, is rectangular and exactly the size of the bed, which is
-large; and it is no longer suspended by cords from the ceiling, but
-rests on carved or grooved columns. It is usually finished with a
-projecting cornice, variously ornamented, and to this cornice the
-curtains are attached. In Fig. 19 and Plate XII, we see exactly how
-these curtains were hung. These beds, from engravings by J. Stradan
-(1578), also show us how the curtains were looped up in the daytime, how
-the square pillows were placed formally at the foot of the bed, and the
-shape of the round bolster. These beds could be completely enclosed by
-curtains.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XII.—_Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan._
-]
-
-The bed in Fig. 19 is interesting as an example of a Renaissance bed
-without supporting corner posts. The canopy and curtains are evidently
-suspended from the ceiling by cords in the old style, for there is no
-woodwork visible above the carved head-board. This is very unusual and
-is doubly interesting as the bed in Plate XII, by the same artist, is
-massive in form, and the dome is supported by strong Classic columns. In
-the latter design the curtains are looped around the columns and a
-pillow is placed on the bolster at the back. The canopy is dome-shaped
-and the top of each column is decorated with a “_pomme_,” destined to
-develop and survive as a decoration for the bedstead. The head-board is
-quite ornate, and the bedstead, like that in Fig. 19, stands upon a low
-platform.
-
-A similar dome-topped bed appears in the inner room in the background of
-Plate XXIV.
-
-One of De Vries’ designs for a bed is reproduced on Plate XIII. It has a
-heavy panelled head-board surmounted by a pediment with _pommes_; and
-the four supporting posts consist of turned caryatides. The bedstead
-proper that holds the mattress and other bedding is supported
-independently by vase-shaped legs. The frieze of the canopy is decorated
-with scroll-work. In this style of bed, the curtains did not hide the
-elaborately carved woodwork; they hung from the cornice and feet
-_inside_ the outer posts. The hangings could thus be very sumptuous
-without detracting from the effect of the carved woodwork. Plate XIV,
-which represents a beautiful bed of this period, massive and richly
-carved, shows the same arrangement of curtains. It should be borne in
-mind that wherever the framework is richly carved, curtains were never
-intended to hide it. This magnificent specimen, from the Rijks Museum,
-Amsterdam, is of beautiful proportions. The ornamentation is chaste and
-in perfect harmony, consisting of carved panels, cornice and Corinthian
-columns. The woodwork is walnut and the hangings are pale blue damask.
-
-The Plantin Museum in Antwerp contains an _armoire_ and a bed after the
-designs of De Vries.
-
-Another De Vries bed in the now dispersed Minard of Ghent collection had
-a canopy and balusters and the central part was arranged in the form of
-an _armoire_ with two shutters decorated with low reliefs of religious
-subjects. Upon the upper gallery was a cartouche held by two angels, and
-on this cartouche the inscription, “Vriese inv. 1565.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XIII.—_Bedstead, by De Vries._
-]
-
-An interesting example of Renaissance work is the bedstead on Plate XI.
-The distaff or lance-shaped columns shoot boldly upward from a floral
-calix that stands on the head of a mermaid at the foot, and the head of
-a merman at the head of the bed. A frame for a dome-shaped canopy is
-connected with the four posts by a tester. The bedstead is panelled and
-stands on four large square blocks. In the centre of the headboard is a
-cartouche for a coat-of-arms; in the centre of the footboard the head of
-a cherub is carved. The peculiar characteristic of the decoration of
-this piece of furniture is that the scrolls are all carved in the shape
-of the human ear. This is an early example of the _genre auriculaire_,
-which was destined to become popular in Flanders and Germany. On this
-piece of furniture the ear is omnipresent—on the head and foot board, on
-the sweeps of the canopy and on the square feet—wriggling, squirming and
-unrestful.
-
-Folding-beds are frequently mentioned in the inventories. Margaret of
-Austria (1523), had two wooden camp or folding-beds.
-
-The Flemings were particularly skilful in the production of tables and
-chairs. We have now come a long distance from the simple board and
-trestles of the past, for we find dining-tables, writing-tables,
-bureau-tables, card-tables, chair-tables, bench-tables (_tables à
-banc_), round tables, square tables, oval tables, tables that stand on
-one foot, tables that stand on three feet, and tables of walnut, oak,
-maple, cedar, cypress, marble and even silver. We also find tables of
-mosaic work and of marquetry and tables beautifully carved and
-embellished with gold.
-
-The drawing-table was much in vogue. It was composed of extra leaves
-superimposed on lower ones that could be drawn forward so that the top
-leaves could fall into the space they made and form with the lower
-leaves, thus lengthened, one continuous surface. The mechanism by which
-these leaves were lengthened and dropped was very intricate and
-ingenious. Jacques Wecker, a physician of Colmar, in his treatise _De
-Secretis_ (Bâle, 1582), says: “One must not despise the make of these
-tables that I have often seen in Ghent in Flanders.”
-
-The tables designed by De Vries and reproduced in Figs. 20, 21 and 22,
-are a great advance on the one that appears in his _Cubiculum_. (Plate
-X.) The form is much the same as those in Figs. 20 and 21, but the
-linenfold has given way to panels and pilasters of pure Renaissance
-character and the corner supports of sphinxes and animals and vases have
-no memory of the Gothic age. Fig. 22 shows us a table of an entirely
-different character. It is much lighter and has drawers. With its
-foot-rails it is well adapted for a dining-table.
-
-A much more ornate specimen of this period called a “fan-shaped table,”
-(“_table à l’éventail_”) is owned by the Dijon Museum. It is of
-Burgundian workmanship. The support, which still shows traces of
-gilding, is formed of an eagle with outspread wings standing between two
-winged chimaera with lions’ paws, these paws connected with a
-straining-rail, or stretcher. The open-work shelf is ornamented with
-leaves and a mascaron, and the two upper and lower straining rails are
-ornamented with a very clearly defined and handsome decoration. The top
-of the table is surrounded by a thread of marquetry.
-
-Folding-tables were also in use; in Margaret of Austria’s inventory,
-mention is made of “a little table in the Spanish fashion which opens
-and closes.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XIV.—_Bedstead._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-Chairs are still heavy and carved more or less richly. Two typical
-specimens appear in Plate XII. As shown in these examples, the seats and
-backs were often covered with stamped leather, velvet, silk, or some
-woollen material and ornamented with tassels. The covers are tacked to
-the frame by means of large-headed nails that also form part of the
-decoration. A chair and footstool by Vredemann de Vries, of very
-characteristic model, are shown in Fig. 23. The chair is three-cornered,
-with a triangular seat, and the legs are connected with straining-rails.
-It much resembles the _voyeuse_ of which Cardinal Mazarin had several;
-and which was again popular in the days of Louis XVI, in France and
-elsewhere. It was essentially a chair for a man, who faced the back and
-rested his arms on the top rail.
-
-A Flemish chair of the second half of the sixteenth century is
-reproduced in Figs. 24 and 25. This is pure Renaissance in its simplest
-and certainly its least elegant form. The legs consist of Doric columns
-connected by stretchers close to the ground. The back slants, and is of
-somewhat confused carved decoration consisting of a mascaron and Classic
-architectural and floral motives.
-
-When not built in the panels of the room, the _armoire_ bears a very
-close likeness to the large double cabinet with doors, which is, as we
-have seen, merely a chest-upon-chest, and which we shall find developing
-into the great Dutch _kas_ of the seventeenth century. Plate XV shows
-the great double cabinet, or _armoire_, of the Renaissance with carved
-panels, pillars and caryatides. This stands on ball feet. It is of the
-same period as the bed represented in Plate XIV.
-
-A magnificent specimen of the late sixteenth century, now in the _Musée
-des Arts Décoratifs_, Paris, is reproduced in Plate XVIII. This is in
-two stories and is frankly architectural. The doors of the _armoire_, or
-cabinet, are decorated to look like windows, and the niches and
-pilasters lend their aid in making the front of this piece of furniture
-look like the façade of a handsome Renaissance residence.
-
-Cabinets or _armoires_ designed by De Vries are reproduced in Plate XIX
-and Plate XX. As usual, we have a large choice in central and side
-supports, pediments and panels. There is a good variety of mascarons for
-the cabinet-maker to select from. It will be noticed that the “_cuirs_,”
-so popular with the designers of the period, enter largely into the
-decoration of the doors and drawers.
-
-Spanish influence was now making itself felt. Hispano-Flemish carving
-appears on many a panel and drawer front towards the end of this
-century. Characteristic carving of this style is shown in Fig. 26 and
-Fig. 27.
-
-Perhaps of all kinds of furniture, Flanders excelled in making cabinets.
-Antwerp was especially renowned for them. The cabinet is, of course, an
-object of special luxury, for the display of little articles of value
-possessed only by the rich. Whether carved or inlaid, its shelves were
-lined with crimson velvet, cloth of gold, green taffeta, or beautifully
-tooled leather; and very frequently silvered ribbon twined into a kind
-of geometrical lattice-work into the initials or monogram of the owner
-of the cabinet was hung behind the glass and supplied with hooks from
-which jewels, watches, pocket-mirrors and other pretty trinkets were
-suspended. A cabinet collection in the sixteenth century included
-watches, jewels, rings, bracelets, necklaces, pearls from the Orient,
-gold and silver work, buttons, perfumed gloves, costly musk and amber,
-scent-bottles, pomanders on handsome chains, small scissors, pocket
-knives, pocket mirrors, coral beads, rosaries of rock-crystal, little
-books, _eau de Damas_, _eau de rose_, _eau d’oeillet_, and other
-delicate essences, medals, little pictures, rare stones, fans, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XV.—_Armoire._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-French noblemen had such a fancy for collecting Flemish cabinets that
-Henri IV sent French workmen to the Netherlands to learn the art of
-making these choice pieces of furniture, and particularly the trick of
-carving in ebony. On their return, he established them in the Louvre.
-The first was Laurent Stabre; another was Pierre Boulle (uncle of the
-great André Charles Boulle), supposed to be of Flemish origin. Jean
-Macé, who called himself “_menuisier-ébéniste de Blois_,” was also given
-a studio in the Louvre, “on account of his long practice of this art in
-the Low Countries, and the skill he has shown in his cabinet-work in
-ebony and other woods of various colours that he has presented to the
-Regent Queen.”
-
-Another cabinet-maker who lived in the Louvre was Pierre Golle, a native
-of the Netherlands, whose name was originally Goler, and who left
-Holland at Mazarin’s request to settle in Paris. He made various
-artistic pieces for the Dauphin, the great Cardinal and other patrons of
-art.
-
-Burgundy was also remarkable for its cabinets, and made a specialty of
-wall-cabinets that hung at the sides of a room on invisible supports. A
-famous specimen of Burgundian work was bought several years ago at the
-Soltykoff sale by the Baron Sellières, for no less than 16,500 francs!
-It was a large double cabinet, the two parts of nearly equal dimensions,
-both ornately carved with satyrs, fruits, garlands, palms, Tritons and
-Nereids.
-
-The chest is as important as ever. It is found in every room in the
-house. In it are kept household linen, clothing and many treasures and
-gifts. When the top is flat, in which case the article is still called
-_huche_, it often serves as a seat. Although the chest is finely carved
-in the sixteenth century, it never attains the sumptuousness nor the
-delicacy of either _dressoir_ or cabinet; it always remains a robust
-piece of furniture. It is decorated with architectural motives,
-fantastic arabesques, panels ornamented with bas-reliefs representing
-Biblical or mythological scenes, allegorical subjects, pilasters in the
-form of terms, and not unfrequently mascarons. Sometimes chests are
-covered with stamped leather and sometimes decorated with marquetry.
-
-Flemish chests were in great demand in France. In an inventory, we learn
-that Marguerite des Bordes, Bordeaux, had, in 1589, a “_bahut de
-Flandres_,” barred with iron bands, two locks and keys; George Beaunon,
-a merchant of Bordeaux, had, in 1607, “more than one _coffre de
-Flandres_,” garnished with bands of white iron and three little
-“_cassettes de boys de Flandres_” were owned by Nicholas Lemerotel of
-St. Malo in 1638.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XVI.—_Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries._
-]
-
-Porcelain as yet was very rare, though kings and rich nobles had a few
-pieces of this ware on their shelves. Philip II had quite a respectable
-collection of ceramics, and wealthy Flemings were always fond of foreign
-and domestic wares of this nature. Palissy was at work and his
-productions were highly prized. The Netherlands had a brisk trade by sea
-with Portugal, and through Lisbon considerable quantities of porcelain
-were finding their way into the cupboards of the wealthy. Venetian glass
-also was highly prized, so that we are not astonished to find De Vries
-devoting a good deal of attention to designing _vitrines_, or small
-cupboards with glass fronts, for the preservation and safe display of
-glass, china and earthenware. In many instances, these were elaborately
-carved with all the Renaissance ornamentation. Four handsome glass
-cupboards or _vitrines_, designed by De Vries, are shown in Plate XVI
-and Plate XVII. In the centre of the broken pediments, we see Bacchus
-and Cupid. The supporting sides consist of Classic columns, pilasters or
-caryatides; and all the decoration is in harmony with the rest of the
-furniture of this period.
-
-On looking over the pictures by the great artists of the Netherlands, we
-cannot help noticing their delight in painting glass. The play of light
-and shade, and direct and reflected rays in flasks, bottles, vases,
-goblets and wine glasses of varied form strongly appealed to the great
-masters of _genre_ and still life.
-
-The Flemings of the sixteenth century undoubtedly manufactured much
-glass for home consumption and export. England took all they and Germany
-and France could supply. Queen Elizabeth tried to attract glass-blowers
-to settle in her realm. The first recorded name to accept the invitation
-is that of Cornelius de Launoy. In 1567, the Queen sent to the Low
-Countries for Jean Quarré, a native of Antwerp, and other workers in
-glass, to establish a factory for making the same kind of glass as
-existed in France.
-
-The windows not only of churches but of civic and palatial buildings
-were beautified with the work of great artists. Even in more modest
-dwellings, the windows of the hall, studio, or living-room were
-decorated with the coat-of-arms of the owner.
-
-Designs for painted windows formed by no means an unimportant part of
-the activities of a great artist; in fact, they held the same rank as
-cartoons for tapestry. In 1567, Guicciardini notes as follows:
-
-“But it is also proper to mention some eminent artists in encaustic or
-painting on glass, inasmuch as this department has also its pretensions
-to importance; and Vasari has observed that the Flemings have brought it
-to perfection. For, not to dwell on the beauty and vivacity of the
-colours, they invented the mode of burning them into the glass, so as to
-be safe from the corrosion of water, wind and even time; which was not
-the case when they were only tempered with gum and some other mixture.
-And the Flemings also invented the manner of making leaden casements.
-
-“The first eminent painters on glass were Arnold van Hordt of Nymwegen,
-and a citizen of Antwerp, a great imitator of the Italian school and the
-first inventor of the art of burning colours into crystalline glass.
-Theodore Jacobs Felaet, an artist of eminent invention; Theodore Stass
-of Campen; John Ack of Antwerp, who executed the windows in St. Gudule’s
-Church and the Chapel of the Sacrament at Brussels; Cornelis of
-Bois-le-Duc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XVII.—_Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries._
-]
-
-“There still flourish Cornelis Dale, who, with singular art, burns any
-colours, not only into glass, but into crystal, so that they appear like
-painting in oil; and his designs are elegant; Jodoc Vereg, a skilful
-artist, employed by the Emperor; James Florence, all of Antwerp. John
-Stass, son of the above Theodore and the heir of his father’s talents;
-John Zele of Utrecht. Nor in architecture and sculpture have excellent
-artists been wanting in the Netherlands. Such were Sebastian Oje of
-Utrecht, the celebrated architect to Charles V, and afterwards to Philip
-his son. He, to his great praise, planned the fortifications of Hesdin,
-Charlmont, and Philipville, strong towns on the frontiers. William Keur
-of Gouda, a good architect, a superior sculptor. Among others were John
-Dale, a sculptor and poet; Lucas van Leyden, a celebrated engraver
-(1495–1533); William of Antwerp, a famous architect. There still
-flourish James Bruck of St. Omers, a man of noble birth and an excellent
-sculptor and architect, who, while the Queen of Hungary governed the
-Netherlands, planned Bossu and Marimont and some grand buildings. John
-Bologne of Douay, his disciple, now employed by the Duke of Florence.
-John Minsheeren of Ghent, an excellent architect and sculptor, whose son
-Lucas, is an eminent painter, the inventor of many things and excels in
-poetry; Matthew Mandemaker of Antwerp, a famous sculptor, in the service
-of the King of the Romans; Cornelis Florence, brother of Francis, an
-excellent sculptor and architect, diligent and attentive, who has the
-praise of first bringing from Italy the art of accurately rendering the
-insides of caves called by the Italians _grotescas_. Henry Paschen of
-Antwerp, an excellent architect, who designed the Palace and office of
-the Hansa towns in Antwerp, and was afterwards called to London to plan
-the Exchange; Lambert Suaf of Liège, a good architect and engraver;
-James Iongeling of Antwerp, an excellent sculptor and statuary, who
-lately made those wonderful brass statues of the seven planets and
-Bacchus which the magistrates of Antwerp presented to the Prince of
-Parma; William Paludan, brother of the above Henry, a great and accurate
-sculptor, whose son Raphael is also of high repute; John Sart of
-Nymegen, an excellent sculptor, as are Simon of Delft and Jodoc Janson
-of Amsterdam; George Robins of Yperen, Theodore Volcart Cornhert and
-Philip Galle, both of Haarlem, exquisite engravers.”
-
-Guicciardini continues: “The others it would be prolix to enumerate,”
-and informs us that most of these artists visit Italy. “Some return
-loaded with wealth and honour to their native country,” while “others go
-to Great Britain and Germany, but chiefly to Denmark, Sweden, Norway,
-Poland and even Muscovy, not to mention those who, allured by honours
-and rewards, visit France, Spain and Portugal.”
-
-The younger De Vries (Paul), was born at Antwerp in 1554. He designed
-_Plusieurs menuiseries comme Portaulx, Garderobes, Buffets, Chalicts,
-Tables, Arches, Selles, Bancs, Escabelles, Rouleaux à pendre, touailles,
-Casses à vertes et beaucoup d’autres ouvrages_. The style of furniture
-shown in the works of the De Vrieses lasted till Rubens arose.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XVIII.—_Flemish Armoire._
-
-  Figs. 26–27: HISPANO-FLEMISH DRAWERS.
-]
-
-Crispin de Passe, or Van der Passe the elder, was born in Arnemuiden
-about 1560, and was a pupil of Dirk Coornhert (born in Amsterdam in
-1522, died in Gouda in 1590). He left a great number of compositions and
-many remarkable portraits painted in Germany, France, and England, as
-well as in Holland. A writer, too, of considerable merit, he published
-many works which he illustrated with his own engravings. In 1585, he
-became a member of the Guild of St. Luke of Antwerp. Being such a fine
-engraver, it is not astonishing to find that he excelled in
-_niello_-work. His composition in this medium, representing “The Five
-Senses,” resembles in its delicacy the lace, embroidery and
-incrustations of ivory of the same period. His patterns, sometimes in
-relief and sometimes in depression, sometimes in white and sometimes in
-black, are very beautiful. Crispin de Passe had three sons: Crispin
-(born in Utrecht in 1585); William (1590); and Simon (1591), all of whom
-were excellent engravers. His daughter, Madeleine (born 1583), was also
-a good engraver.
-
-Among the famous engravers also were the Collaerts. Adrian Collaert,
-born in Antwerp in 1560, was admitted to the Guild of St. Luke in 1580,
-and died in 1618. He studied in Italy and on his return composed and
-engraved many designs of great merit. His son, Hans, born in Antwerp,
-was also a designer and engraver of note. He worked until 1622. His son,
-William, was a famous engraver.
-
-Adrian Collaert’s designs for goldsmith’s work, silver plate and all
-artistic products of that nature had a great vogue, and worthily
-represent the decorations of the Flemish Renaissance. Two of his
-characteristic designs are reproduced in Plate XXI and Plate XXII.
-
-Wood-carving continued to be one of the glories of Flemish Art.
-Sixteenth century pulpits, bishops’ thrones and choir-stalls still exist
-in many of the old churches. The names of some of the masters of the
-chisel who executed these beautiful works have been preserved, and may
-properly be recalled here.
-
-St. Martin’s Church at Ypres contains beautiful stalls carved by Victor
-Taillebert. He received four thousand florins in payment for his work.
-
-Colyn van Cameryck made a magnificent marble mantelpiece for the Kampen
-Town Hall. The work was done between 1543 and 1545.
-
-Jean van der Scheldein, carpenter and sculptor, made a monumental door
-in the Hôtel de Ville, Oudenarde, in the Renaissance style in 1531. This
-is ornamented with columns, a pediment, figures and rectangular panels
-adorned with arabesques in the best taste and with masterly execution.
-
-Peter van Dulcken carved the beautiful stalls for the _échevins_, and
-the balustraded screen of the Nimeguen Town Hall, in the second half of
-the sixteenth century. These are the finest that have escaped
-destruction except those of the Kampen Town Hall, which are even more
-elaborate.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XIX.—_Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s
-    Work, by Jerome Cock._
-]
-
-The Netherlands early enjoyed a reputation for music, and from about
-1450 to 1550 the most celebrated “_maîtres de chapelle_” came from the
-Low Countries. They were engaged in the churches and in the courts of
-kings and establishments of the nobility in France, Germany, Italy,
-Hungary, Denmark and Spain. Guicciardini says they had brought music “to
-a state of perfection,” and praises the melodious songs of the men and
-the skill of the women who played all kinds of instruments. He also pays
-tribute to their knowledge of harmony and proficiency in composition and
-says that Flemish musicians are at the “Court of every Christian
-prince,” and he then gives a list of famous musicians of the Low
-Countries. These are “Giovanni del Tintore di Nivelli, Iusquino di Pres,
-Obrecht Ockegem, Ricciafort, Adriano Willaert, Giovanni Monton,
-Verdelot, Gomberto Lupus Lupi, Cortois Crequillon, Clementi non Papa and
-Cornelio Canis.” To these, “who are now dead,” he adds the following
-list of living celebrities: Cipriano de Rove, Gian le Coick, Filippo de
-Monti, Orlando di Lassus, Mancicourt, Iusquino Baston, Christiano
-Hollando, Giaches di Waet, Bonmarche, Severino Cornetto, Piero du Hot,
-Gherardo di Tornout, Huberto Waelrant, Giachetto di Berckem vicino
-d’Anversa, Andrea Peuermage and Cornelio Verdonk and “many other masters
-of music who are celebrated throughout the world.”
-
-This universal love of music is attested by the Dutch and Flemish
-masters. In tavern scenes, as well as scenes of domestic and social
-life, musical instruments are frequently introduced. To catalogue the
-works of Jan Steen, Terborch, Teniers, Metsu, Van Mieris and other
-painters of the seventeenth century directly inspired by music, such as
-musical parties, harpsichord lessons, duets, lute-players, ladies at the
-spinet, etc., would be quite a task.
-
-No home of wealth was complete without musical instruments, and owing to
-the exquisite paintings with which the case and top, both inside and
-out, were ornamented, the clavecin, harpsichord, or spinet was
-frequently the handsomest and costliest piece of furniture in the house.
-The case and legs were subject to changes in fashion. Sometimes the
-stand is simple with heavy ball feet connected by stretchers, as shown
-in Plate XXIII, a _Lady Playing the Spinet_, by J. M. Molenaer, in the
-Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. Sometimes the instrument stands on baluster
-legs and arches; and sometimes case and stand are of lacquer in the
-prevailing taste for the Chinese style. The top was always delicately
-painted, as shown in the picture just referred to; and it is interesting
-to note that in nearly every case where a lady is playing an instrument,
-she rests her foot upon a foot-warmer.
-
-Without being able to see the internal mechanism, it is difficult to
-define the precursors of the pianoforte from their outward appearance in
-the pictures.
-
-These instruments were so beautifully decorated that the clavecin-makers
-of Antwerp ranked as artists and became members of the St. Luke’s Guild
-of that city. They were first enrolled as “painters and sculptors,” and
-not as clavecin-makers.
-
-According to a pamphlet entitled _Recherches sur les Facteurs de
-Clavecins et les Luthiers d’Anvers_, by the Chevalier Léon de Burbure
-(Brussels, 1863), at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the
-sixteenth centuries, the clavichord was in greater vogue than the
-clavecin, and about 1500 the clavecin had been made into the clavichord
-shape in Venice and called the spinet. The new form soon travelled to
-the Netherlands and superseded the clavichord.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XX.—_Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s
-    Work, by Jerome Cock._
-]
-
-A clavecin-maker named Josse Carest or Joos Kerrest was admitted to the
-St. Luke’s Guild as “a sculptor and painter of clavichords” as noted in
-_De Liggeren en andere Historische Archieven der Antwerpsche Sint
-Lucasgilde_, by Rombouts en van Lerius (Antwerp and The Hague, 1872),
-and another Carest had been admitted in 1519 as an apprentice painter of
-clavecins. In 1557, Josse Carest headed a petition of clavecin-makers to
-be admitted to the St. Luke’s Guild as clavecin-makers and not as
-painters and sculptors. They were accepted. Their pupils and all who
-were subsequently admitted had to exhibit “master-works,” namely:
-“clavecins” that were oblong or with bent sides (square or grand, we
-should call them now) or to quote directly “_viercante oft gehoecte
-clavisimbale_.” These had to be five feet long at least and made in the
-workshops of master-experts (two of whom were yearly elected) and to
-have the trade mark or device of the maker “_syn eygen marck teecken,
-oft wapene_.” This mark, known as rose, rosetta or rosace, usually made
-of gilded lead, was placed in the sound-holes.
-
-The most famous clavecin-makers of Antwerp, and, indeed, of The
-Netherlands, were the Ruckers, who worked between 1579 and 1667, or
-later. The name is variously written. The most celebrated was Hans
-Ruckers, who was admitted a member of the St. Luke’s Guild in 1579 as
-“Hans Ruyckers, clavisinbal makerre.” His beautiful instruments were
-bought in France and England, as well as in the Low Countries; and it is
-thought that Queen Elizabeth owned one. In England they were called
-virginals. Many of the Ruckers’ instruments are still in existence,
-owned by collectors and museums. The Museum of the Brussels Conservatory
-owns an oblong one, dated 1610. This has two keyboards, one above the
-other, and consists of 4½ octaves, and white naturals. The Museum of the
-Paris Conservatory has one of 5 octaves, black naturals, and bent side,
-dated 1590; The Musée du Steen, Antwerp, owns an oblong one dated 1611;
-and Messrs. Chappell and Co., of London, have an undated oblong of 4
-octaves. This stands on an arcade with six balusters and is decorated
-with fine paintings. A similar instrument on Plate XXIII_a_, by this
-maker, is in the Steinert collection at Yale University, U.S.A. It is a
-double spinet of four octaves. The painting on the lid represents the
-favourite Apollo and Marsyas contest. Above, and below the movable
-spinet are painted landscapes with children dancing. The little spinet
-on the left, which sets into the spinet proper, is tuned one octave
-higher than the one on the right. In performing upon both instruments at
-once, the smaller instrument is removed and set upon a table. On the
-jack rails of both spinets may be read: “_Johannes Ruqvers me fecit_.”
-
-Martinus Vander Biest entered the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp in 1558 as
-one of the ten clavecin-makers. An oblong clavecin, made by him in
-Antwerp is in the Museum at Nuremberg, and is signed and dated Martinus
-Vander Biest, 1580.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXI.—_Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert._
-]
-
-Hans Ruckers the younger, known as Jean, because he used the initials J.
-R. in his rose, was also a master in the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp. He
-made beautiful instruments from 1617 to 1642. These were of both shapes,
-bent side and oblong, were furnished with one or two keyboards and were
-sometimes decorated with paintings in Vernis Martin. A beautiful example
-with two keyboards, 4¾ octaves, black naturals, owned by the Baroness
-James de Rothschild. The case and top are black and gold lacquer in the
-Chinese style, and the painting inside the top is said to be by Lancret.
-It is dated 1630 and inscribed “Joannes Ruckers me fecit, Antverpiae.”
-Another by the same maker, also in a black and gold case, is owned by
-the South Kensington Museum. This is bent side, has one keyboard and is
-dated 1639. The Museum of the Paris Conservatory also owns a bent side
-clavecin, made by Jean Ruckers, of two keyboards and 5 octaves. This is
-painted outside by Teniers and Brouwer and inside by Breughel and Paul
-Bril. To him has also been attributed a spinet in the Cluny Museum with
-bent side, one keyboard, 4½ octaves and blackwood case incrusted with
-ivory.
-
-In 1638, the private secretary of Charles I, Sir F. Windebank, had a
-long correspondence with a painter named Balthazar Gerbier, then in
-Brussels, regarding the purchase of a virginal in Antwerp for the King
-of England. Gerbier described one made by Hans Ruckers for the Infanta.
-It had a double keyboard and four stops and was beautifully painted. The
-picture inside the cover was Cupid and Psyche by Rubens. This instrument
-was bought for £30, but was unsatisfactory on account of insufficient
-compass. Gerbier was asked to exchange it, but he wrote back that the
-maker had not another on sale.
-
-Andries Ruckers, another son of the elder Hans, was born in 1579. In
-1619, the Guild of St. Luke ordered a clavecin from him. The Museum of
-the Brussels Conservatory owns one dated 1613, with one keyboard and
-four octaves. The Musée Archéologique of Bruges owns a bent side one,
-dated 1624, of 5 octaves and 3 stops, and the Musée du Steen, Antwerp
-has a bent side one, undated, with 3 stops and two keyboards, the lower
-one 4 octaves and the upper 3¾ octaves. In the South Kensington Museum
-there is another by Andries Ruckers, said to have been Handel’s. This is
-dated 1651, and inscribed _Sic transit Gloria Mundi_ and _Acta Virum
-Probant_. On the belly of the instrument, of the bent side shape, a
-concert of monkeys is represented. One monkey is conducting.
-
-Andries Ruckers the younger, born in 1617, married a daughter of Dirck
-de Vries, also a clavecin-maker. The Château de Perceau, near Cosné,
-owned a bent side clavecin by Andries the younger, dated 1655. Its case
-was painted in blue camaïeu in the rococo style. This passed to a
-private collector.
-
-Christofel Ruckers was the last important member of this family of
-clavecin-makers.
-
-A beautifully decorated clavecin occurs in the picture of _The Young
-Scholar and His Sister_, by Cocx (Coques) in the Cassel Gallery. The
-room is decorated with hangings of blue leather, ornamented with gold,
-above which hang pictures in ebony frames. The young man is seated at a
-table beneath the window and his sister is at the clavecin opposite. The
-latter is exquisitely painted, the top showing the story of Apollo and
-Marsyas.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXII.—_Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert._
-]
-
-In the latter part of the sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth
-centuries, the bass viol was much played in England, France and the Low
-Countries and was called the _viol da gamba_. This instrument frequently
-appears in the works of the Dutch masters, in which not unfrequently
-ladies are represented playing it, as, for example, in Jan Verkolje’s
-(1650–93) _Musical Party_ in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, where the lady
-is seated upon a low-backed leather chair with her foot upon a
-foot-warmer. The instrument is turned from the spectator.
-
-The lute, which so frequently appears in early pictures, was superseded
-about 1600 by the theorbo, or double-necked lute with two sets of
-strings and two sets of tuning pegs. The theorbo is represented in
-Terborch’s _Lute-Player_ in The Cassel Gallery; a lute also appears in
-Van Mieris’s _The Painter and his Wife_ in the Hague Gallery, a charming
-domestic picture, in which the painter is teasing a puppy and its
-mother. The lute lies carelessly on the table.
-
-Brassware contributed very greatly to the brightness and cheerfulness of
-an apartment during the Renaissance period as well as during the
-centuries before and after. The chandelier with its graceful curves
-appears in many a picture; and the best art of the day was devoted to
-the hearth-furnishings. Dogs and andirons assumed large proportions and
-considerable decorative importance. An interesting Flemish dog of the
-sixteenth century is represented in Fig. 28. It is similar to those
-metal andirons on the hearth in Plate XXIV. Besides human and animal
-figures, this kind of _dinanderie_ assumed many other forms. Other kinds
-of _dinanderie_, consisting of candlesticks of human figures in
-contemporary costumes are shown in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V
-                     SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (FLEMISH)
-
-  Renewed Italian Influence—Rubens: his Studio, his House, his Pupils,
-      his Influence, his Successors—Seventeenth Century Woodcarvers—
-      Developments and Tendencies of Furniture—Crispin Van Den Passe—
-      Rembrandt’s Goods and Chattels—Old Belgian Houses—The Pitsembourg—
-      Kitchens—Leather-hangings—Tapestry—Marquetry—Chairs—Masters of
-      Ornamental Design—The “Auricular Style.”
-
-
-Just as the seventeenth century was about to dawn, the Decadence that
-had affected Italy for nearly half a century began to make itself felt
-in the Low Countries. Those responsible for it were, Michael Angelo and
-Borromeo, who abandoned the graceful forms of the Renaissance for
-disproportionate and exuberant decoration. The Flemish architects,
-artists, and decorative designers willingly subjected themselves to the
-Italian influence again as they had done a century before.
-
-Rubens undoubtedly had the greatest influence on the art taste of Europe
-during the first three-quarters of the seventeenth century. Going to
-Italy in 1600, he spent, with short breaks, seven years there. He found
-that the Italians had already broken away from the sober lines of the
-antique, and with an unrestrained curve were already giving promise of
-the exaggerations indulged in later by Borromini, who, in line and form,
-broke with all the old traditions. Rubens was affected by the new vogue;
-and, on his return, the great Fleming introduced into his own country
-the style of architecture and ornamentation still known as the _style
-Rubens_. Rubens was too well inspired with the genius of the sublime
-Michael Angelo not to know where to use restraint, but in the hands of
-his followers and imitators this style soon degenerated. From breadth
-and amplitude, it fell into weakness of form and contour, and great
-heaviness in the ornamentation.
-
-Albert and Isabella kept a splendid Archducal court at Brussels, and
-there every form of art was sure of encouragement and support. The
-palace was an imposing mass, picturesquely situated in the highest part
-of the city. A French visitor in 1612 dwells on the magnificence of the
-various apartments filled with splendid works of art, and thronged with
-courtiers and attendants, the richness of the equipages and stables, and
-the beauty of the park and gardens. When Rubens visited Brussels at the
-Imperial request, he immediately found favour.
-
-When Rubens took up his abode in Antwerp, he bought a house, and altered
-and enlarged it from time to time to suit his tastes or needs. He
-embellished it in every possible way with his collections of pictures,
-busts and archaeological objects. In 1617, he had the banisters of the
-chief staircase carved by Jan van Mildert. He had very decided ideas on
-architecture, and supplied the workmen with his own plans. He was
-originally attracted to the house because it was built somewhat on the
-model of the Italian houses he had so greatly admired. In 1622, he
-published a book on the Palaces of Genoa, and from the preface we learn
-that he was greatly delighted to see the old style known as “barbarous”
-or “Gothic” go out of style and disappear from Flanders, “giving place,
-to the great honour of the country, to symmetrical buildings designed by
-men of better taste, and conforming to the rules of the Greek or Roman
-antique.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXIII.—_Lady at Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-Between the courtyard and his beautiful Italian garden, he built a small
-imitation Pantheon, lighted, like its model, by a window in the centre
-of the dome. This he filled with busts, antique studies, valuable
-pictures brought from Italy, and other rare and curious objects. These
-he arranged to his own taste; and the arrangement of his cabinets, etc.,
-served as a model for rich and noble collectors.
-
-A picture representing Rubens’s Drawing-room is in the National Gallery,
-Stockholm. It has been attributed to Van Dyck, but it is now supposed to
-have been painted by Cornelis de Vos about 1622, for the elder of the
-two women in the foreground seems to be a portrait of De Vos’s wife,
-while the other is Isabella Brandt, Rubens’s first wife.
-
-The room is simple but quite elegant in style, with windows looking out
-upon a garden. The walls are entirely hung with greenish leather on
-which the designs—chimaeras and children grouped around vases and
-pillars—are in gold. The chimney-piece is of black marble supported by
-red marble pillars, and the firedogs are brass. On the right is a
-sideboard of light polished oak, and opposite a table with a rich
-Oriental carpet for a cover. Upon the leather chairs are cushions
-embroidered with flowers. Two pictures hang on the walls, and a third is
-above the chimney-piece. In the foreground, there are two ladies engaged
-in friendly conversation, while three children are playing with a puppy.
-The mother of the latter, a white spaniel marked with red, anxiously
-watches this second group.
-
-In the sale inventory of Rubens’s house in 1707 there is mention of the
-gilded leather that decorated one of the sitting-rooms.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXIIIA.—_Spinet, by Ruckers._
-
-  STEINERT COLLECTION, YALE UNIVERSITY, U.S.A.
-]
-
-This interior in general style and arrangement resembles a painting by
-Barthol. van Bassen, in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, reproduced on Plate
-XXIV. This represents a large hall or dining-room of the beginning of
-the seventeenth century. The floor is tessellated or tiled; and facing
-the spectator is a monumental chimney-piece supported by columns. Two
-superb andirons are placed in the fireplace, but the absence of logs and
-the fireback show that the time is spring or summer. The mantelpiece is
-surmounted by a niche containing a figure, and above the broken pediment
-is a cartouche flanked by reclining figures in the Renaissance style. On
-either side of the chimney-piece stands a chair of the new style with
-square back and square seat. The square seat and back of velvet or
-stamped leather—it is not clear what the covering is—is put on by means
-of large brass-headed nails. The heavy legs are connected by stretchers.
-These chairs are similar to the one on Plate XXVIII; but in the latter
-the stretchers are double. On either side of the chimney-piece is a
-door. One of these is open and shows an inner room containing an
-upholstered bed. The doors are very decorative with heavy entablatures
-supported on columns and decorated with swags of drapery on the panels.
-On the right is a colossal buffet or sideboard, the pillars being
-caryatides, and behind these is a half-hexagon cupboard. Busts and vases
-adorn the top. Below is a fine salver, evidently in the style of
-Collaert (see Plates XXI and XXII). A very ornate doorway leads into an
-adjoining apartment; it is ornamented with caryatides and decorated with
-elaborate carving. Opposite to this is an open portal that seems to be
-the entrance from the garden, or courtyard. This door is supported by
-Corinthian columns. Three large and narrow windows give abundant light.
-Their panes are small. The room is hung with gilt leather and above the
-moulding are three landscapes in simple frames. A picture—_The Sacrifice
-of Abraham_—stands over the sideboard and a landscape over the door on
-the right. A long, low bench is placed under the window, on which a
-gallant is lounging. The chair occupied by the lady with her back to us
-is a survival of the one shown in Fig. 9, and also generally resembles
-those in Plates XXVI and XLII and XLVI; a favourite type of chair with
-the artists of the seventeenth century. The group in the foreground are
-sitting on stools. The wine-cooler is also worth noting. There are a
-number of pets in the room—dogs, cats, a monkey and a long-tailed parrot
-over the door. The compartment ceiling—an extraordinary combination of
-octagons, hexagons and crosses—should be noticed.
-
-Although Rubens did not know it, Antwerp received a fatal blow to her
-prosperity at the very moment he settled there. In the truce with
-Holland concluded in 1609, the Archduke Albert neglected to stipulate
-for the free navigation of the Scheldt; this enabled Amsterdam to
-develop her own commerce at the expense of her rival. The effects soon
-appeared. Seven years later, the English ambassador, Rubens’s friend,
-describes Antwerp as “_magna civitas, magna solitudo_, for in the whole
-time we spent there I could never set my eyes on the whole length of a
-street upon forty persons at once: I never saw coach nor saw man on
-horseback. In many places, grass grows in the streets, yet the buildings
-are all kept in reparation ... _splendida paupertas_, fair and
-miserable.”
-
-As if in compensation for the loss of her commercial supremacy, Antwerp
-saw the dawn of an art of which Rubens was the originator and most
-brilliant representative.
-
-The pupils of Rubens did not confine themselves to painting and
-ornamental design. They were often practical carvers also. Only a month
-before his death, Rubens wrote a testimonial for Louis Faydherbe,
-stating that this pupil had lived with him for three years and had made
-great progress in painting and carving, excelling especially in ivory
-carving. He therefore exhorts nobles and magistracies to encourage him
-to settle among them and embellish their dwellings with his works. Thus
-we see how the _style Rubens_ extended.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXIV.—_Interior, by Barthol van Bassen (Seventeenth Century)._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-
-  Fig. 28: FLEMISH ANDIRON (Sixteenth Century); Fig. 29: DINANDERIE,
-    double Candlestick; Fig. 30: DINANDERIE, single Candlestick.
-]
-
-The universality of the _style Rubens_ in Western Europe for half a
-century is undeniable. This great genius was known and honoured in
-Italy: he was a favourite of the King of Spain and his brother, the
-Viceroy of the Netherlands; when he was not painting nor designing
-something, he took a rest by going to some foreign court on an embassy.
-On one of these, Charles I of England knighted him; Philip IV made him
-Secretary of the Privy Council. Pupils flocked to him as if his studio
-in Antwerp was the Mecca of art. He had scarcely established himself
-there when he wrote (1611): “On every side I am overwhelmed with
-solicitations: without the least exaggeration I may assure you that I
-have already had to refuse more than a hundred pupils.”
-
-Every kind of decoration and design was subject to his brush. The
-Flemish tapestry weavers pestered him for cartoons: the famous printer,
-Moretus, must have him design title-pages, borders and vignettes for the
-“_Imprimerie Plantin_”: chapel ceilings, cars for cavalcades and
-triumphal arches all came alike to him; Marie de’ Medici was not
-satisfied until he had immortalized her in grandiose canvases on the
-walls of her new palace.
-
-One of the Flemish artists who played a particularly important part in
-the introduction of the new Italian style into the Low Countries was
-Jacques Franquart (born in Brussels in 1577 and died there in 1651), an
-architect, who studied in Italy. He became the chief architect of the
-Archduke Albert, and engineer of the King of Spain in the Netherlands.
-Philip III made him a knight. Among his important works were the Church
-of the Jesuits in Brussels (the cornerstone of which was laid by Albert
-and Isabella in 1606) and the Church of the Grand Béguinage in Mechlin
-(1629–47).
-
-The next name of importance is that of Artus Quillyn, or Quellin, born
-at St. Trond in 1625. He studied sculpture with Artus Quillyn the elder
-in Antwerp, studied in Rome and returned to Antwerp, where he died in
-1700. The churches of Antwerp are full of his bold and masterly works.
-His masterpiece, the statue of God the Father, was executed in 1680 for
-the Cathedral of St. Sauveur in Bruges, where it still stands.
-
-With Quillyn ranks Peter Verbrugghen of Antwerp. It is generally
-believed that he carved the fine pulpit at St. Walburge in Bruges, a
-work unexcelled among the sculpture of the seventeenth century. A
-kneeling figure representing Religion supports the pulpit with one hand
-and holds a cross in the other. Her attitude is noble, gracious and
-animated, and her expression admirable and exalted. Each corner of the
-base is ornamented with the figure of an angel in a niche and decorated
-with four medallions representing the four evangelists whose features
-are of imposing majesty. The sounding board in the form of a light and
-graceful shell, although supported by two cherubim with outstretched
-wings, seems suspended in the air. The stairway is flanked by four
-figures representing Adoration, Eloquence, Meditation and Study; and the
-balustrade, which is beautifully pierced in designs of branches and
-figures, is ornamented with figures representing the four elements:
-Earth, a rabbit chase; Air, hunting the falcon; Water, fishing with a
-line; and Fire, sacrifice of a material love. It would be impossible to
-carve oak more elaborately and boldly. This work was restored in 1845 by
-two Bruges artists, Van Wedeveldt and P. Buyck.
-
-The Flemish wood-carver had still plenty of work to do in the churches;
-but in domestic furniture the lathe was making his services more and
-more unnecessary on bars and uprights; and the increasing craze for
-marquetry and the invasion of lacquer and japanned wares left him
-comparatively little to do.
-
-Much beautiful carved work of the seventeenth century survives. Vilvorde
-Church has thirty-six upper and thirty-two lower oak stalls carved
-originally in 1663 for the priory of Groenendael; this is a magnificent
-specimen of the carver’s art. There is also lovely woodcarving of the
-middle of the century in St. Michael’s, Louvain. The Church of St.
-Walburge, Furnes, is also rich in carved oak. On the pulpit is a figure
-of St. John writing the Apocalypse; the upper part is supported by two
-palms, and a rock with an eagle. The choir stalls are particularly fine.
-The Ostend parish church has a fine pulpit carved in 1674.
-
-The Church of St. Anne in Bruges is rich in carved work of this period.
-The choir stalls of oak were splendidly carved in the Renaissance style
-by Jean Schockaert and Fr. Schaepelinck in 1664. The oak organ case was
-carved in 1685 by Jacques Vanden Eynde, who was also the organist at
-Ypres. Fine bas-reliefs in the nave were executed by Martin Moenaert in
-1673 and the ornate confessionals by Jan de Sangher in 1699. There is
-also a handsome communion bench made by an unknown carver in 1670, which
-is decorated with the busts of the four Evangelists and four Doctors of
-the Church with bas-relief panels of the Virgin, Joseph, St. Anne, St.
-Joachim, the Pascal Lamb and the Eucharist ornamented with bunches of
-grapes and garlands of wheat.
-
-Carving was by no means confined to the churches: those who could afford
-it still beautified the furniture of castle and hall with the work of
-the chisel. Chests or _bahuts_, cabinets, _armoires_, tables, chairs and
-the old “sideboards,” known in England in Jacobean days as “court
-cupboards,” and in Flanders as _credences_ or “_buffet à deux corps_,”
-were as highly ornamented with carving in the late Renaissance style as
-they were with Gothic ornament during the fifteenth century. During the
-Louis XIII period, the more important pieces of furniture usually
-assumed the forms and lines of Classic architecture. A typical _bahut_
-of this period (_see_ Plate LVII), owes its interest chiefly to its
-architectural decorations. The fluted columns, though somewhat squat,
-which adorn the divisions of the front, produce a pleasing effect; the
-mouldings are strongly accented and their ornamentations are bold and in
-fine style. One can easily understand that this chest would not be out
-of place in any late Renaissance apartment, but would contribute to the
-decorative effect of the whole. The two side niches representing the two
-virtues contain statuettes—Prudence and Strength. The central panel
-tells the story of Judith and Holofernes with a directness and
-simplicity worthy of a Botticelli.
-
-The two-storied buffet (_buffet à deux corps_) frequently received
-similar treatment, totally at variance with the handsome one reproduced
-in Plate XLIII. A splendid example decorated with the arms of Ypres,
-Ghent, Bruges and Franc, is preserved in the Ypres Museum. This was the
-work of Jan van de Velde, who carved it in 1644, and received 162
-florins for his trouble.
-
-The bench (_banc_), often forms part of the woodwork of the wall of a
-hall in Flanders in the seventeenth century. It was frequently placed
-between the windows and made luxurious with cushions. Movable benches
-were often used. In these the backs turned on an axis and were most
-convenient, as the occupant could arrange the seat in any position he
-pleased. The benches in De Vries’s “_Cubiculum_” (Plate X), should be
-compared with the bench against the wall in Plate XXXVIII in studying
-the development of the _banc_. The high _banc_, or settle, in this
-picture is interesting on account of its simplicity.
-
-The general tendency of furniture was a gradual breaking away from
-immovables, a development from monumental solidity into grace and
-lightness. The heavy tables of De Vries are cut away, and return in
-general form to the original board and trestles. A glance at Fig. 8 will
-show that the workman had only to connect the struts of the trestles in
-the centre of the table in order to produce a rough model of the richly
-carved tables in vogue from the period of Henri II to that of Louis XIV.
-The box form of support, therefore, in this style of table gives way to
-what we may regard as two trestles connected in the middle by an upright
-board. These, as well as the edge of the table top, are embellished by
-beautiful carving. The trestles now consist of eagles, lions, chimaeras,
-mermaids, satyrs and other human and animal figures; and the central
-connexion is pierced, balustraded, columned and treated in a thousand
-different ways. In the seventeenth century, lightness was carried a step
-further, and the favourite table is simply supported by four turned legs
-with heavy bulb feet, the legs have connecting rails close to the floor
-and usually have one or more heavy globular swellings. In England during
-the Tudor and Jacobean periods, this heavy form was known as the
-drawing-table. It occurs in numberless interiors by Dutch and Flemish
-masters. The desire for greater lightness, however, made itself
-increasingly felt; and early in the seventeenth century we find legs
-turned in plain spirals, or with beading. Chair frames naturally
-corresponded with table legs.
-
-Though the masters of Decorative Art were constantly increasing in
-numbers, it was three-quarters of a century after the appearance of the
-furniture designs by De Vries before another important work of the same
-nature was published. This was by another Dutchman. In 1642, Crispin van
-den Passe published at Amsterdam his “_Boutique Menuiserie dans laquelle
-sont comprins les plus notables fondaments non moins arichesse avecq des
-nouvelles inventions_.”
-
-Of his life little is known, except that he was the son of the great
-engraver of the same name and was born in Utrecht in 1585. His _Boutique
-Menuiserie_ contains a series of plates of furniture. It is extremely
-rare today, but was doubtless in every cabinet-maker’s shop of the
-period.
-
-The furniture, it will be noticed, is “new.” The book was published two
-years after the death of Rubens, while the _style Rubens_ was still in
-its glory. From a study of these plates, together with the engravings of
-Abraham Bosse, we can obtain a clear vision of an interior, either
-Flemish or French, during the reign of Louis XIII, for Crispin’s
-furniture designs were as well known to French as to Flemish workmen.
-Three of his chairs, two of them folding, are reproduced in Figs. 31,
-32, and 33; Fig. 34 also shows a small table by him.
-
-We have already caught a glimpse of Rubens’s home in Antwerp; and now we
-cannot do better than look at the interior of the other great master in
-Amsterdam. When that city passed through a great financial crisis in
-1653, Rembrandt suffered in company with his fellow-citizens. He had
-been living like a lord in a splendid dwelling sumptuously furnished and
-decorated, and surrounded by a multitude of objects of art which he
-loved to collect—armour, robes, busts, ceramics, engravings, and famous
-pictures by Italian and native artists, as well as his own productions.
-To satisfy his creditors, these all came to the hammer in 1656. The
-inventory gives us a good idea of his home. In the vestibule, there were
-four Spanish chairs covered with Russia leather, four Spanish chairs
-with black seats, and one low form of pinewood.
-
-The Antechamber contained an ebony-framed mirror and an ebony stand, a
-marble basin, a walnut table with a Tournay cover, and seven Spanish
-chairs covered with green velvet. The “Room behind the Antechamber” was
-furnished with a gilded frame, a small oak table, four common chairs, a
-copper cauldron, and a portmanteau. In the “Hall,” there were six chairs
-with blue seats, a large mirror, an oak table, with an embroidered
-tablecloth, a bed with blue hangings, two pillows and two covers, a
-matted chair, a set of fire-irons, and a “sacerdan” wood press, and a
-“sacerdan” small _kas_ with doors. The “Art Cabinet” contained three
-East India cups, one East India powder box, one East India “jatte” with
-a little Chinaman, one East India workbox, two porcelain “casoars,” two
-porcelain figurines, one Japanese casque, plaster casts, copper and
-pewter, globes, and seventy natural history specimens. On the floor at
-the back were a great quantity of shells, marine plants and other
-curiosities, statues, arms, armour, etc. Here also were many portfolios
-filled with choice engravings, etchings and drawings, besides one old
-chest, four chairs with black leather seats, and one pine table. In the
-“Small Studio,” there are musical instruments and armour (119 pieces),
-and a great number of casts of hands, arms and heads from nature, and
-many various kinds of woven materials. The “Large Studio” has in it
-twenty pieces—halberds, swords, and Indian fans, costumes of an Indian
-man and woman, cuirasses and trumpets. The “Studio Entry” is decorated
-with the skins of a lion and lioness, and other furs.
-
-A bedstead stands in the “Little Room.”
-
-The “Small Kitchen” is furnished with a little table, a larder, some old
-chairs, two cushioned chairs, some pots and pans, and a tin waterpot.
-Nine white plates and two earthen plates decorate the “Corridor.”
-Rembrandt owned a good deal of linen; and most of the rooms contained
-pictures.
-
-No one looking at Rembrandt’s own pictures can fail to appreciate his
-fondness for dressing himself and his models in feathers, armour and
-fantastic costumes, which, as we have seen, he kept as properties in his
-Studio.
-
-Rembrandt resided in the Jewish quarter in Amsterdam from 1640 to 1656.
-His house, Jodenbrêe Straat, No. 4, next door but one to the bridge, is
-marked by a simple memorial tablet.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXV.—_Panelled Bedstead._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-We can form a very clear idea of the general appearance of a street of
-the Renaissance period from many old houses that still stand in Belgium
-and Holland. The interiors in some cases we can also reconstruct by the
-aid of inventories. Mechlin is particularly rich in buildings of the
-sixteenth century. The _Mont de Piété_, once the home of Canon
-Busleyden, is a Gothic building of 1507, restored in 1864; on the Quay
-au Sel, there are several old timber-houses, the _Salm Inn_, with a
-Renaissance façade of 1530–34, and a house in the Franco-Flemish style,
-very rich in detail. There is also an interesting timber-house in the
-Quay aux Avoines.
-
-Bruges and Ypres contain several houses of the seventeenth century;
-Ghent has two private houses on the Quai de la Grue (one of which is
-named the _Vliegenden Hert_); and Antwerp, several Guildhouses. Holland
-is richer in houses and buildings of this century. In Amsterdam, the
-royal palace—the Dam—was built in 1648 as a Town Hall by Jacob van
-Kampen; the house of Admiral de Ruyter may be seen on the
-Prins-Hendrik-Kade, and the house of Baron Six in the Heerengracht, and
-on the Heerengracht and Keizersgracht are many houses of the seventeenth
-century.
-
-There are also a number of seventeenth century houses of great interest
-to the student of architecture in Alkmaar. The Stadhuis, in Enkhuisen,
-dates from 1688; Sneek has a water-tower of 1615, which was restored in
-1878; Zwolle has a guard-house of 1614; and the police-office of
-Deventer is a Renaissance structure of 1632. Several brick buildings of
-the seventeenth century still stand in the Zaadmarkt and Groenmarkt of
-Zutphen; there are several houses in Bommel of this period, including
-the famous house of Maarten van Rossum, now a district court; and the
-weigh-house and meat market of Gouda date from 1668 and 1691.
-
-The doors and interior woodwork of these houses in many cases are
-precious records of the skill of the Dutch and Flemish wood-carvers of
-the period.
-
-One of the most famous houses in Mechlin in the second half of the
-seventeenth century was a commandery called the Pitsembourg; and it was
-selected in 1668 as the most suitable residence for the High Constable
-of Castile and Leon.
-
-An inventory of the furnishings of this establishment was taken in 1656,
-which enables us to go through the house.
-
-The first room that we enter is called _de Trappenye_, and was used as
-an office. Here we find a picture representing the _Birth of Christ_ and
-two pieces of sculpture—_The Offering_ and _The Three Kings_, standing
-on two pedestals that bear the arms of Cratz (Cratz was commander of the
-House of Mechlin from 1564 to 1604). In this room are two large cases—
-one with twenty and the other with ten drawers, one lettered, and the
-other numbered—to preserve papers, documents and charts. It is warmed by
-a half-stove, _halve stove_, according to the inventory. For diversion,
-there is a backgammon board with white pieces of boxwood, and black of
-lignum-vitæ.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXVI.—_The Sick Woman, by Jan Steen._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-
-  Figs. 31 and 33: FOLDING CHAIRS, by CRISPIN VAN DE PASSE; Fig. 32:
-    CHAIR, by CRISPIN VAN DE PASSE; Fig. 34; TABLE, by CRISPIN VAN DE
-    PASSE.
-]
-
-Passing from this into the _camer beneffens de trappenye_, we find a
-bedroom, _de camer boven de trappenye_, the most conspicuous object of
-which is a bed. So sumptuous is this, in fact, that no other furniture
-is needed to give this room distinction. To begin with, the framework is
-ornately carved, and it is hung with rich silken curtains and
-sumptuously upholstered. Undoubtedly this bed was of the same type as
-the beautiful Renaissance specimen reproduced in Plate XXV, from the
-Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. A reference to Plate X will show this is later
-in style than the “new” one designed by De Vries. The “linen-fold” panel
-has entirely disappeared, and the carved accessories are all pure late
-Renaissance. At the time this inventory was taken, however, these
-magnificent wardrobe-shaped beds with elaborate carving were already out
-of date and supplanted in favour by the lighter form with simple posts
-at the corners, the whole being entirely closed with curtains. This bed
-appears in Plate XXVI and Plate XXVII with both square and dome-shaped
-tops, and in many other pictures by the Dutch masters of the seventeenth
-century.
-
-The bed in which upholstery had superseded carving had been growing in
-favour, not only in the homes of the middle classes, but also in those
-of the rich. It even occurs in the inner room of the wealthy house
-represented in Plate XXIV.
-
-This bed, known as the _lit en housse_, is the typical bed of the
-seventeenth century, and is the one that appears in Abraham Bosse’s
-engravings, whenever a bed is introduced—in the homes of the rich, in
-hospitals, and in the rooms of tradesmen and school teachers. In this
-style of bed, the framework is of comparatively little importance. The
-_ciel_, or canopy, is supported on four posts which are carved or
-painted in harmony with the curtains, or covered with the same
-materials. Beneath the valance, a rod runs under the canopy for the
-support of the curtains, which are drawn up or down by means of cords
-and pulleys. When closed, the _lit en housse_ looks like a square box.
-The elegance of the bed depended upon its upholstery. The richest beds
-were draped with tapestry, silk, damask brocade and velvet, beautifully
-trimmed with gold and silver braid or lace, narrow silk fringe, or
-fringe of gold or silver threads, or decorative cords and tassels.
-Serge, cloth, East Indian goods, linen and cotton materials were also
-employed. The curtains were more or less richly lined and the four
-corners of the canopy above the posts were decorated with a carved or
-turned wooden knob called a _pomme_ (which was sometimes gilded or
-painted), a bunch of feathers, or a “bouquet” made of ravelled silk
-ornaments or inverted tassels.
-
-Returning now to our examination of the Pitsembourg, we note that the
-next room is that of the master brewer, in which there is a very shabby
-bed, an old picture representing the _Elevation during Holy Mass_, a
-wall map of Germany and a standard with the arms of Lant-Commander,
-Werner Spies von Bullesheim, who was at the head of the house of Mechlin
-from 1639 to 1641.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXVII.—_Woman, with a Parrot, by Jan Steen._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-Passing by the unimportant rooms of the servants, we enter the old room
-of the commander, where we note an alcove hung with two little green
-curtains with an embroidered border, and in the alcove a bed with
-bolster, pillow and two counterpanes, one white, and the other green, a
-table covered with a cloth, some little stools (_escarbeaux_), two
-chairs covered with green cloth, andirons, shovel and tongs of copper,
-and a number of pictures, among which are two little representations of
-castles, the Battle of Calloo, a portrait of Lant-Commander Bongaert in
-full-dress uniform, one of Lant-Commander van Ruyssenbergh, one of
-Commander Cratz, and one of Commander Werner Spies von Bullesheim
-kneeling with a chaplain at the feet of the Virgin. Two little rooms and
-a bathroom belonging to the chaplain follow, and then we enter a room
-called _In den inganck van’t voorhuys_. In the centre stands an old
-table covered with a “carpet of gilt leather.” There are some
-water-colours on the wall, including two vases filled with flowers, and
-two of decorative motives with the inscriptions “_Virtus parit honorem_”
-and “_Qui confidit in divitiis corruet_.” There is also a large painting
-of the arms of the Archduke Maximilian, Grand Master of the Order (son
-of the Emperor Maximilian II).
-
-From the _Inganck van’t voorhuys_, we step into a more luxurious hall
-called _het cleyn salet naast het voorhuys_, hung with ten large pieces
-of leather with gold patterns on a silver background. The furniture
-consists of a table with oak leaves, covered with a Turkish carpet,
-chairs with stuffed backs of red ribbed silk, a screen made of four
-painted canvases, and eleven pictures, one the _Battle of Prague_ and
-the others landscapes, ornamental copper andirons, and a hearth-box.
-
-The next salon, _de sale naar de Trappenye_, is hung with portraits, and
-some large pictures, one of which represents Samson proving his
-strength.
-
-In the dining-room, _in de nieuwe gemaeckte stove_, there are also many
-pictures, including portraits, a “winter scene” and a “Flemish
-_Kermesse_.” The principal piece of furniture is a superb sideboard of
-carved oak, on which the following pieces of silver are displayed: one
-_aiguière_ and basin with the arms of Spies; four candelabra with
-chiselled sconces, an extinguisher with tray, and an amphora, all with
-the arms of Lutzenrode; two large jugs, a deep dish, a mustard-pot and
-six salt-cellars, also with the arms of Lutzenrode; a chafing-dish with
-the Ruyssenbergh arms, twenty-two spoons, twenty-six forks, twenty-two
-knives, and ten porcelain wine-jugs with silver tops.
-
-Next to this hall is the bishop’s room, which is luxuriously furnished.
-The walls are hung with eight large “tapestries of leather” with gold
-patterns on a silver background. The bed is upholstered with curtains of
-mauve silk trimmed with a silk braid of yellow and violet. It is
-furnished with two mattresses, a bolster, two pillows, and two
-counterpanes—one white, the other green—and over the whole is thrown a
-large counterpane of embroidered silk trimmed with a fringe of silk and
-gold thread. The window-curtains, the six chairs, and armchair, are
-covered with the same silk as the counterpane. There is a large mirror
-in an ebony frame and portraits of Maximilian, Syberg, and Bongaert.
-
-The bishop’s room is next to the salon, _groot salet beneden d’aarde_,
-which is hung with thirteen pieces of “leather tapestry,” showing gold
-patterns on a red background. On the mantelpiece there is a crucifix
-carved of boxwood, the foot of which is incrusted with mother-of-pearl,
-and there is a magnificent mirror of gold and black wood, the fronton of
-which is ornamented with a silk cord with large tassels, the whole
-supported by three gilded griffins. This room also contains sixteen
-pictures, nine of which are still-life, and are signed Jacques van Esch
-of Antwerp (1606–1666).
-
-The commander’s bedroom is very modest, as becomes one who has assumed
-the vows of poverty: a little walnut bed with very ordinary curtains,
-with a mattress, two bolsters, three pillows (one covered with white
-leather, which he takes on his travels), and a counterpane of quilted
-silk. He allowed himself the luxury of a fire, because there are
-andirons and a hearth-box. A portrait of the _Virgin_ and _The
-Temptation of St. Anthony_ are his only pictures, and the one ornament
-is a sculptured _Descent from the Cross_. A little desk and a close
-chair covered in black leather and inlaid with copper, complete the
-furniture of this room, which makes an interesting contrast with the
-bishop’s.
-
-The enormous number of cooking utensils in the kitchen show that the
-most lavish hospitality was offered in this house. Every kind of copper
-pot and pan, from the largest saucepan and boiler (_de schonck of
-hespenketel_) to the tiniest pans for cakes and pastry (_een clein coper
-panneke waarin men dry eieren kan doppen_, and _koek_ and _taart
-pannen_), are present in great numbers; and, moreover, there are
-portable ovens to bake tarts, ladles, skimmers, sieves, spice-boxes,
-spits, skewers, ten grills, large and small, some of them for roasting
-oysters—in short every article that a cook would need to prepare a feast
-for a _gourmet_.
-
-The _buffets_, _armoires_ and shelves of the kitchen are filled with
-valuable metal ware, including eight _aiguières_ and eight dishes,
-weighing sixty-five pounds. These are marked with the arms of Spies and
-Syberg. Then there are seventeen candlesticks, some of which have round
-and others square bases; there are ninety-three large and small dishes
-with the arms of Lutzenrode, Spies and Syberg, and a hundred and
-twenty-eight plates with the arms of the various commanders. The shelves
-also contain a great number of wine jars and measures and pots for
-holding grape-juice and a great number of earthenware dishes, crocks,
-etc.
-
-There is a special pantry, and near this a pastry-room; and a brewery, a
-harness-room, tool houses, a house for the gardener, and in the park,
-which is a kind of botanical garden, there is a pavilion on a knoll,
-where any one desiring to fish could find rods and lines.
-
-The kitchen is the most important room in the majority of the
-middle-class houses; in fact, in many a Flemish and Dutch interior it
-appears as the general living-room. Plate XXVII and Plate XXXVI afford
-Dutch examples.
-
-A fine example of a Flemish kitchen of the seventeenth century is by
-Teniers the younger, called _The Good Kitchen_ in the Hague Gallery.
-This was painted in 1644.
-
-Another fine kitchen of the period occurs in a Family Group by Cocx
-(Coques), in the Cassel Gallery. In the foreground a man is seated at a
-table looking at his son’s drawings. Not far away his wife is teaching
-her daughter to make lace, and through a large door the kitchen is
-visible, where fish, oysters, pastries and birds show preparations for a
-feast.
-
-The Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam has a series of rooms fitted up in the
-old style with original furniture. The kitchen represented in Plate
-XXXII is equipped with all the pots and pans dear to the heart of the
-Dutch housewife. The hearth, ovens and shelves are furnished with all
-the implements and utensils necessary for good housekeeping: cauldrons,
-spits, churns, plate-warmers, kettles, bellows, waffle-irons, etc., are
-all there. A Frisian clock hangs on the tiled wall, and the cupboards
-contain everything necessary for cooking and cleaning.
-
-The library of the Pitsembourg was well stored with religious works. The
-chapel, a beautiful edifice built in 1228 and dedicated to St. Elizabeth
-of Hungary, contained some fine carvings, two crucifixes, one of silver
-and one of copper, organs, carved statues, silver chandeliers;’and
-exceptionally rich vestments, altar-cloths and Flemish lace.
-
-It will be noticed that all the principal rooms in this establishment
-were hung with leather, or “leather tapestry” in accordance with the
-taste of the age.
-
-The leather hangings of the seventeenth century are even more brilliant
-than those of the past; and on the bright background of scarlet, blue,
-sea-green, gold or silver, a wealth of ornamentation appears—animals,
-birds, flowers, fruits, mascarons and other favourite devices of the
-time. Leather hangings are always present in wealthy homes of Holland.
-An excellent example is shown in the picture of _The Young Scholar and
-his Sister_ by Coques (Cocx), now in the Cassel Gallery. The room, which
-is richly furnished, is hung with blue and gold leather. This picture
-was painted in the seventeenth century.
-
-The Low Countries by this time had become renowned for their fine
-leather and exported a vast amount of it. Notwithstanding the rivalry of
-the French and Italian workshops, there was a special shop in the Rue
-St. Denis in Paris where Flemish and Dutch leathers could be obtained.
-Some of the French inventories of this century mention especially
-“tapestries of leather” from the Netherlands; for example, Fouquet has
-at his Château of Vaux, in 1661, “a rich hanging of tapestry of _cuir
-doré_ from Flanders, consisting of eight pieces”; and in 1698, a rich
-Parisian owns “a hanging of tapestry of _cuir doré de Hollande_,” with a
-red background.
-
-The Rijks Museum in Amsterdam contains a great number of gilt leather
-hangings of the seventeenth century; at the Hôtel de Ville of Furnes,
-there are some hangings of Spanish leather and the Antiquarian Museum of
-Utrecht also contains some embossed gilt leather hangings.
-
-In the seventeenth century, the great centres for the production of
-tapestry shifted to Paris and London. This is the period when the famous
-looms of the Gobelins and Mortlake were established. The directors and
-workers in these famous establishments were Flemings. It was largely
-owing to the influence of Le Brun that Paris triumphed over Brussels
-with her Gobelins manufactory established in 1662. This was really the
-outgrowth of the high-warp looms established by Henry IV in 1597, under
-an excellent tapestry-worker named Laurent. These workshops were first
-situated in the house of the Jesuits in the Faubourg St. Antoine, and
-were transferred to the Louvre in 1603. The King sent to Flanders for
-tapestry-workers over whom he placed the Sieur de Fourcy. In 1607 he
-sent for more workers, among whom were Marc Comans (or Coomans) and
-François de la Planche, who were given charge of the workshops at
-Tournelles. These were removed to the Faubourg St. Marceau. The
-tapestries had to be made _façon de Flandres_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXVIII.—_Flemish Chair._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-The King’s enterprises were not universally approved. “They cost large
-sums to his Majesty,” says a contemporary, and loss and ruin to his
-subjects. Witness the Brussels tapestries at St. Marcel, the Flemish
-linens at Mantes and the cloths of silk and gold of Milan.
-
-After the King’s death, Comans and De la Planche continued to work in
-Paris, and in 1630 were engaged at the manufactory that afterwards
-became the Gobelins.
-
-Flemish workmen were also employed at Maincy near Vaux in 1658. When,
-owing to the wars, the Gobelins was closed in 1694, some of the workmen
-entered the army, twenty-three returned to Flanders and others went to
-Beauvais. This great factory was no less indebted than was the Gobelins
-to the Flemings. It was established in 1664 by a “_marchand tapissier_,”
-named Louis Hynart, a native of Beauvais, who owned a large number of
-workshops in Flanders as well as in Paris. As Beauvais was at that time
-an important centre for woollen stuffs, Hynart proposed to the
-municipality that he should establish workshops of high-warp tapestry
-“in the manner of those of Flanders.” Hynart obtained a subsidy and
-brought a number of Flemish workmen to Beauvais. He was negligent,
-however, and in 1684 the directorship of the Beauvais manufactory was
-given to Philippe Béhagle (originally Behagel) of a famed family of
-tapestry-weavers of Oudenarde. Under Béhagle the “Royal Manufactory of
-Tapestry,” flourished until his death in 1704. Another workman who
-contributed greatly to the success of Beauvais was Georges Blommaert,
-who was also called to Beauvais in 1684 from Lille, where he had
-established a workshop in 1677.
-
-When Georges Blommaert left Lille to go to Beauvais, he was succeeded by
-François and André Pannemaker, descendants of the famous Pannemaker
-family of tapestry-makers. In 1688, they had a rival in Jean de Melter,
-of Brussels, who was particularly fond of reproducing compositions after
-Rubens. The Pannemakers devoted their skill chiefly to “_Verdures_.”
-
-The looms at Nancy, established in the seventeenth century, and closed
-in 1625, were also worked by men from the Low Countries, among them one
-Melchior van der Hameidan. The Brussels looms were still busy in this
-century, but the corporation of tapestry-workers was recruited from a
-few families, such as the De Vos, De Castros, Raës, Van der Borchts, Van
-der Heckes, and Leyniers. They repeated the cartoons of the last
-century; but in the middle of the seventeenth Teniers produced many
-rustic scenes that, known as _Tenières_, became very popular. Flemish
-tapestry-weavers are found in Rome; in Denmark (twenty-six were there
-about 1604); in Russia (Martin Steuerbout of Antwerp had a manufactory
-in Moscow in 1607); and in England.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXIX.—_Flemish Chair._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-The Mortlake manufactory, established by James I near London in 1619,
-was practically a Flemish manufactory. In a short while its only rival
-was the Gobelins. The King sent specially to Flanders for skilled
-workmen and no less than fifty arrived in one month, among whom were
-Josse Ampe of Bruges, Simon Heyns, Jacques Hendricx, Josse Inghels, and
-Pierre Foquentin of Oudenarde. Rubens and Van Dyck were commissioned to
-supply cartoons; but many of the old favourite historical and religious
-sets of the past century were reproduced. Paris and Hampton Court Palace
-contain a number of these.
-
-Mortlake had closed when William III ordered his victories to be
-commemorated in woven pictures. The cartoons for _The Battle of
-Bresgate_, _The Descent on Tor bay_ and _The Battle of the Boyne_, were
-drawn by Jean Lottin, the painter, and made by Clerck, Vander Borcht,
-Cobus and De Vos of Brussels.
-
-Flemish tapestry-weavers settled in Sandwich, Canterbury, Maidstone,
-Norwich and Colchester in 1567–8, after the persecutions of the Duke of
-Alva; but notwithstanding the good work produced in England, Admiral
-Howard ordered the famous set of six pieces to commemorate the
-destruction of the Spanish Armada from the painter H. Cornelis de Vroom
-of Haarlem and Franz Spierinx of Delft. These fine pieces hung in the
-House of Lords, London, until destroyed by the fire of 1824.
-
-Religious, mythological and allegorical subjects continue in favour
-during the seventeenth century; and subjects inspired by contemporary
-history are also popular. The cartoons by Rubens, however, take
-precedence of everything; and his _History of Achilles_, _History of
-Constantine_, _Scenes from the Old Testament_, _Triumph of the Church_,
-etc., are reproduced in every workshop in Europe. His most famous work,
-_The History of Marie de’ Medici_, was finally completed at the Gobelins
-manufactory during the reign of Louis Philippe.
-
-In furniture, during the seventeenth century, it may be said that carved
-figures gradually gave way to turned supports, and uprights; and the
-surfaces depended for decoration on panelling of geometrical designs and
-applied ornaments of real or imitation ebony. Another favourite way of
-decorating the broad surfaces was to inlay them in various designs with
-wood of different colours. The latter taste rapidly advanced during this
-century with the constantly increasing importation of the beautifully
-coloured woods of the East and West Indies. As the Flemish artists,
-moreover, went so often to Italy for inspiration, Flemish marquetry,
-doubtless, took its first stimulus from Italian taste. To quote a
-learned critic[4]: “The Italians of the Decadence had a passion for
-ebony and coloured woods, and theatrical and complicated decorations.
-Furniture completely changed its physiognomy; the decorative panels with
-all their ornaments, are renounced for plain surfaces on which marquetry
-can be displayed to advantage. Forsaken by fashion, walnut drops out of
-use; profiles are multiplied; the fine _cuirs_ that were cut in solid
-bosses sprawl about in an enervated, weakened fashion; the straight,
-firm and springing Classic column now becomes twisted and distorted; and
-the stale and banal decoration has neither sinews nor youth. The
-sculptor yields his place to the marquetry-worker and the carpenter
-(_menuisier_) becomes a cabinet-maker (_ébéniste_).”[5]
-
-Footnote 4:
-
-  Bonaffé.
-
-Footnote 5:
-
-  A literal translation is more to the point: the carpenter becomes a
-  worker in exotic woods, ebony, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXX.—_Chairs._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-Until the sixteenth century, marquetry seems to have chiefly consisted
-of ivory and ebony; but at this period exotic woods began to be
-employed. Beautiful marquetry was a mark of luxury; for example, in the
-famous pamphlet _L’Isle des Hermaphrodites_, directed against Henri III
-and his Court, the author says: “As for the furniture of wood, we should
-like to have it all of gold, silver, and marquetry, and the pieces,
-especially the canopies of the beds, if possible, of cedar, rose, and
-other odoriferous woods unless you would rather have them of ebony and
-ivory.”
-
-In this century Italy carried to perfection, the inlay of rare and
-polished marbles, lapis-lazuli, agates, pebbles, etc., called
-_pietra-dura_, and this style was imitated in other countries.
-
-During the Decadence, the old marquetry of wood gave place to
-incrustations of mother-of-pearl, shell, precious stones and coloured
-marbles, and the furniture was made even more sumptuous by the additions
-of chiselled mounts, key-plates, handles, feet, etc., of silver or gilt
-bronze. Painted glass was also a popular kind of inlay. A good example
-of this work is in the hospice of Liège—a walnut cabinet with plaques of
-painted glass in many colours in imitation of what the Italians call
-_mille fiori_.
-
-A new kind of marquetry, however, made its appearance in the seventeenth
-century and gained in popularity. This consisted of large designs of
-flowers—particularly the tulip—birds and foliage represented in very
-gaily-coloured woods of many varieties and dyes, and bits of ivory or
-mother-of-pearl are added to the eyes of birds, or petals of flowers, to
-give a touch of brilliancy. Cabinets, bedsteads, writing-desks,
-china-cupboards, tall clocks, the frames of chairs—in short every piece
-of furniture was subject to this style of decoration. This kind of
-marquetry was popular in England during the reign of William and Mary,
-when everything Dutch was the rage. It is well known that the Dutch were
-even fonder of marquetry than the Flemings. A Dutch cabinet, which
-depends for its decoration entirely on the contrasted colours and shapes
-of its inlaid woods, standing on a low frame with spiral legs and knob
-feet connected by a plain stretcher (_see_ Plate XXXI), is in the Rijks
-Museum, Amsterdam. This is a good specimen of geometrical inlay.
-
-Motives of marquetry of a formal floral nature are reproduced in Fig.
-37.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXI.—_Marquetry Cabinet._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-During the Spanish dominion in the sixteenth century, the chair in which
-great personages sit for their portraits has a high straight back with
-the side posts usually ending in carved lions’ heads, straight or
-scrolled arms and carved or plain straight legs connected by stretchers.
-The feet are sometimes carved with the heads or feet of animals. The
-back and seat are upholstered with velvet or stamped leather fixed to
-the frame with large brass-headed nails. This “Spanish chair” was common
-in Spain, Italy, France and England, as well as in the Netherlands. We
-find it in the pictures of the great portrait painters of the
-Renaissance—Raphael, Titian and Velasquez—as well as the great Dutch and
-Flemish masters. Fig. 36 shows a fine solid and simple example of this
-style of chair of Flemish workmanship. It is well-proportioned; both
-front and back legs and the arms are turned, and the stretchers are
-grooved and shaped. When in use, of course, the seat would be
-comfortably cushioned. The back, seat and arms are covered with leather.
-
-The most common chair of the seventeenth century, however, is one
-without arms. It is rather low and is a simplified form of the above
-“Spanish chair.” A fine early example of this model is represented in
-Plate XXVIII, now in the Cluny Museum, Paris. It will be noticed that
-the heads on the back posts are still carved, and that the legs are
-shaped and turned, while the rails are grooved. The Cluny Museum has a
-considerable number of Flemish chairs of this style and period. One of
-them, stamped with the monogram of Christ and the date 1672, probably
-belonged to an ecclesiastic. The ordinary form of this chair appears on
-either side of the chimney-piece in Plate XXIV.
-
-The low-backed chair without arms is very common in interior scenes by
-Dutch and Flemish masters. Sometimes we see guests seated on them at the
-table; and sometimes it will serve as a seat for a lady as she takes a
-music-lesson. (_See_ Plate XXXIX.) It is found in various dimensions and
-proportions. Sometimes it has one set of rungs and sometimes two;
-sometimes the legs are plain, and sometimes elegantly turned. Sometimes
-the back posts have lions’ heads and frequently not. (_See_ Plates XXXV
-and XXXIX, and Fig 35.)
-
-The design by Crispin de Passe, Fig. 32, shows the style for an armchair
-of the middle of the century. Here the centre of the top back bar is
-raised with ornamental carving and the lions’ heads are suppressed. A
-variety of the same style of chair fashionable during the period of
-Louis XIII is represented by the handsome piece of Flemish workmanship
-in Plate XXIX, also in the Cluny Museum. The arms and bars and front
-legs are turned in elegant spirals effectively relieved. The back posts
-do not rise above the top rail, and have no lions’ heads, but finely
-carved heads terminate the arms. The back and seat are covered with gilt
-leather stamped with a beautiful floral design and fastened to the frame
-with the usual large-headed nails. Sometimes instead of lions’ heads, we
-find carved heads of other animals and of women. Besides leather and
-velvet, this style of chair was frequently covered with embroidered
-material and tapestry.
-
-A Dutch chair of this general form, though with sloping and scrolled
-arms, is in the Rijks Museum. (_See_ Plate XXXIII.) The legs are turned
-in spirals; and the back and seat are upholstered with a rich material
-figured with large flower forms—tulips, roses, irises, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXII.—_Kitchen._
-
-  STEDELIJK MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-Still another model of this style of armchair with spiral rungs and
-supports, scrolled arms, carved top and leather back and seat, appears
-on Plate XXXIV. This is also a Dutch chair in the Rijks Museum. It is
-interesting to compare it with another armchair on the same plate. This,
-of carved oak, turned back posts, front legs of carved heavy scrolls,
-diagonal connecting rails also formed of heavy scrolls, and scrolled
-front bar, is an interesting example of an armchair of the Dutch work of
-the Louis XIV period. The back has a central panel with a scrolled
-frame, elegantly carved. It is filled with woven cane instead of
-leather, or other upholstery. The seat is cane also. A chair without
-arms, which looks as if it might have belonged to the same set, though
-it is now preserved in the Cluny Museum, Paris, is shown in Plate XLV.
-Another armchair of the same period and general style (_see_ Plate
-XXXIII) has a carved panel filled with cane, cane seat, scrolled arms,
-turned rails and legs, and carved front bar. Chairs of this fashion were
-extremely popular in the Low Countries and in England during the second
-half of the seventeenth century. In all probability, they originated in
-the Netherlands, and became familiar and favourites with the exiled
-Cavaliers between 1640 and 1660; and at the Restoration the style was
-imported into England. However this may be, this well-known carved oak
-chair, with cane back and seat, is still popularly known as the “Charles
-II Chair.” A light Dutch model of this type, with elegantly carved front
-bar, turned rails and posts and scrolled front legs, is shown in Plate
-XXXIV. It has no arms and the back panel is divided into two narrow
-panels of cane, producing a very light and elegant effect. The scrolls
-of the feet are much lighter and more graceful than those of the
-armchair at its side.
-
-An armchair of the same style and period, also from the Rijks Museum, is
-in the centre on Plate XXXV.
-
-The central panel of the back is gracefully treated with open carved and
-turned work. The panel proper is framed with heavy scrolls, and the
-central bar is pierced and carved with graceful bellflowers running
-downwards and upwards. This _chute_ of the bell-flower now becomes a
-very favourite ornamentation in decorative art, and Bérain, Marot and
-other artists of the period make free use of it. The curved stretchers
-with the vase ornament in the centre is very characteristic of Dutch,
-English, and French furniture of the second half of the seventeenth
-century. It occurs in ordinary tables, dressing-tables, stands for
-cabinets, and, in fact, every piece of furniture that stands on four
-legs. The arms and legs consist of the usual scroll, and the feet of
-carved bulbs.
-
-A chair with the characteristic scrolled stretcher just alluded to
-occurs on Plate XXXIII. It is richly carved, and has turned and carved
-straight legs, with bulbed feet. The back is a richly carved frame,
-filled with cane. The top is crowned with delicate ribbon and foliage
-carving, and the shape of the back is a favourite one for the mirrors of
-the period. The proportions of the seat, which is stuffed and covered
-with velvet fastened with small brass nails is quite modern. This chair,
-however, belongs to the end of the seventeenth century. The affinities
-between the chairs we have been describing and the designs by Marot,
-which were so popular in Holland, may be studied in the next chapter.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXIII.—_Chairs._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-The masters of this school of ornamentation were numerous. Hitherto
-Flanders has overshadowed the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands in
-art products; but beginning with De Vries, Holland assumes equal
-importance. Peter Soutman (Haarlem 1580–1650), was a pupil of Rubens;
-William Buytenweg worked at Rotterdam; Adrian Muntink was famous in
-Groningen (_circ._ 1610); other goldsmiths and engravers, named Laurens,
-Janss Micker, Geraert van Ryssen, Meinert Gelis, Jacobus van der Tverff,
-Gerritz Hessel (Amsterdam), Abraham Hecker (Amsterdam), Hendrik de
-Keyser (Amsterdam), Jacobus Collan (Rotterdam), and Arnold Houbraken
-(Dordrecht), all flourished during the first half of the seventeenth
-century. Their motives of garlands, fruits, flowers, human and animal
-figures, birds, insects, etc., were used in the decoration of sumptuous,
-carved furniture, and for marquetry and mosaics, as well as for the gold
-and silver ware of which the nobles and rich merchants were so fond.
-
-Other masters of ornament of the Netherlands of this period, whose works
-have survived, are Martin van Buten (_circ._ 1607), Franz Aspruck
-(_circ._ 1601), Jacques de Gheyn (_circ._ 1610), J. B. Barbé (_b._
-1585), Blondus (1590–1656), Raphael Custode, Michel van Lochon,
-Henderick Lodeweycke (_circ._ 1626), André Pauli (_circ._ 1628).
-
-Following the above, when the _style Rubens_ was giving way to the
-Decadence, we find Michel Natalis (1609–80), Arthus Quellin (_b._ 1609),
-Jacob van Campen (_circ._ 1660), Peter van den Avont (_b._ 1619), James
-Collan (_circ._ 1650), Arnold Houbraken (_d._ 1660), L. Hendericks
-(_circ._ 1660), Romanus de Hooghe (1638–1718), Gaspard Bouttats,
-(1640–1703), J. J. Falkema (_circ._ 1680), Isaac Moucheron (1660–1744),
-Antony de Winter (_circ._ 1690), Peter Paul Bouche (_circ._ 1693), J.
-Thuys (_circ._ 1690), J. and F. Harrewyn (_circ._ 1694), Heinrich van
-Bein (1689–98), and G. Vischer, Erasmus Kamyn, P. Schentz and M.
-Heylbrouck, who all worked at the close of the century.
-
-The most extraordinary style of ornamentation employed by the masters of
-Decorative Art during the seventeenth century is that known as the
-_genre auriculaire_. In this, every part of the human ear is used as a
-decorative motive. The outer rim and lobe had been used long before it
-was carried to excess. A very early example is shown in the bed dated
-1580 on Plate XI where auricular curves are plainly recognizable in the
-carving.
-
-In the “_Buire_” (Plate XLVI) by Mosyn, however, this style is seen in
-its most exaggerated form. This design is by M. Mosyn, an engraver, born
-at Amsterdam about 1630. His chandeliers are equally extravagant. Peter
-Nolpe, born at the Hague (1601–70), was another designer of this school,
-as was also John Lutma of Amsterdam (1609–89). The latter represents the
-very decadence of art, with his hideous cartouches, compartments, frames
-and _aiguières_, composed of distorted and tortured ears. Another master
-of Amsterdam who published many plates in the same extraordinary taste
-was Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout. He also worked in the middle of this
-century. This style attained its greatest vogue in Germany. There
-Friederich Unteutsch, a master carpenter of Frankfort, published (1650)
-110 plates of all kinds of furniture, on which the ear is prominent as
-an ornament. Daniel Rabel (_d._ 1637), also used the _genre auriculaire_
-in France, but there its life was short and feeble.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER VI
-                      SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (DUTCH)
-
-  Famous Dutch Architects—The Royal Palace on the Dam, Het Loo, the
-      Mauritshuis and Huis ten Bosch—Interior Carvings—Specimens of
-      Rooms and Ceilings in the Rijks Museum—Love of the Dutch for their
-      Houses—Miniature Dutch Houses and Models of Old Amsterdam Houses
-      in the Rijks Museum—Architecture of the Seventeenth Century—A
-      Typical Dutch Home—The _Luifel_, _Voorhuis_ and _Comptoir_—
-      Interior Decorations and Furniture—Dutch Mania for Cleaning—
-      Descriptions by Travellers of Dutch Houses and Cleaning—Cleaning
-      Utensils—House and Furniture of Andreas Hulstman Janz, in
-      Dordrecht—Inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt, wife of the
-      painter, in Delft—“Show-rooms” and their Furnishings—Cooking
-      Utensils—Bedroom in the House of Mrs. Lidia van der Dussen in
-      Dordrecht—The Cradle and “Fire-Basket”—The Baby’s Silver—The
-      “Bride’s Basket”—The “Bride’s Crown” and “Throne”—Decorations for
-      a Wedding—Description by Sir John Lower of the Farewell
-      Entertainment to Charles II at The Hague.
-
-
-The most important architects of this period were Hendrik de Keyser
-(1565–1621), Jacob van Kampen (1598–1657), and Philip Vinckboons
-(1608–75).
-
-The Royal Palace on the Dam, Amsterdam, was built by Jacob van Kampen
-for a Town Hall; it was begun in 1648 and finished in 1655. It is
-interesting to note that the structure rests on a foundation of 13,659
-piles. The gables are ornamented with allegorical reliefs by Artus
-Quellin the Elder (see page 137), representing the glories of Amsterdam.
-Artus Quellin and his assistants also adorned the interior with carvings
-and sculptures in marble. There are also in the various rooms
-elaborately carved chimney-pieces, some of them with painted overmantels
-by Jan Lievens, Ferd. Bol, and N. de Helt-Stocade (1656). The ceilings
-were painted by J. G. Bronchorst, Cornelis Holsteyn and others. This was
-not used as a palace until the time of Louis Napoleon in 1808.
-
-Het Loo, near Apeldoorn, the favourite residence of William I, William
-III and the reigning Queen Wilhelmina, received additions during this
-period; and the Royal Palace at The Hague was also built in the time of
-William III.
-
-The Mauritshuis, on the Vyver (now the home of the famous Hague picture
-gallery), was erected in 1633–44, for Count John Maurice of Nassau, the
-Dutch West India Company’s Governor of Brazil, who died in 1679. The
-architects were Jacob van Kampen and Pieter Post. This house was rebuilt
-in 1704–18, after a fire.
-
-These two architects were also responsible for the Huis ten Bosch (House
-in the Wood), the royal villa near The Hague, built about 1645 for the
-Princess Amalia of Solms, widow of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange
-(1625–47). The wings were added by William IV in 1748, and many of the
-decorations are of the eighteenth century. The famous apartments are:
-the Chinese Room, the Japanese Room, and the Orange Saloon, in which the
-Peace Conference met in 1899.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXIV.—_Chairs._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-The Trêves Saloon in the Binnenhof in The Hague was built by William III
-in 1697 as a reception-room. It is embellished with a handsome ceiling
-and portraits of seven stadtholders. The two chimney-pieces in the hall
-of the first chamber represent War by Jan Lievens and Peace by Adr.
-Hanneman.
-
-An example of Philip Vinckboons’s work is the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam,
-built in 1662 in the classic style. This is now occupied by the Royal
-Academy of Science.
-
-Exceptionally noteworthy specimens of interior carving of this period
-are: Renaissance chimney-piece and a Gothic chimney-piece in the Louis
-XIV style in the Antiquarian Museum, Utrecht; a chimney-piece dating
-from the end of the seventeenth century, with a group of the
-stamp-masters of the cloth-hall, by Karel de Moor, in the Municipal
-Museum, Leyden; carved panelling in the council chamber, Woerden (1610);
-carvings in the church at Venlo; panelling in the palace of the Princess
-Marie on the Korte Voorhout, The Hague; a pulpit of 1685 in Broek in the
-Waterland; and a monument in the church of St. Ursula, Delft, to William
-of Orange, begun in 1616 by Hendrik de Keyser, and finished by his son
-Peter.
-
-The Rijks Museum possesses many examples of panelling, chimney-pieces,
-and separate pieces of furniture; and several entire rooms have been
-correctly arranged. Among these is a room with wall-panellings and
-chimney-piece from Dordrecht (1626). The ceiling, supposed to be by Th.
-van der Schuer (about 1678), represents Morning and Evening, and is from
-the bedroom of Queen Mary of England, wife of William III, in the
-Binnenhof, The Hague. The gilt leather hangings and other furniture in
-this room are of the same date.
-
-Another room contains a beautifully painted cylindrical ceiling of wood
-from the apartment of Mary Stuart, wife of William II, Prince of Orange,
-also in the Binnenhof. The panelling, chimney-piece, gilt leather
-hangings and furniture are also of the seventeenth century.
-
-A notable room is that taken from the house of Constantia Huygens in The
-Hague, built by Jacob van Kampen. Blue silk is curiously used to
-embellish the panelling. The ceiling, painted by Gérard de Lairesse
-(1640–1711) represents Apollo and Aurora. This room is in the Louis XIV
-style. A later fashion is, however, shown in the splendid “Chinese
-Boudoir” of the latter part of the seventeenth century from the
-Stadtholder’s palace at Leeuwarden.
-
-Another room deserving attention is from a small hunting-lodge called
-the Hoogerhuis, near Amersfoort, built about 1630 by Jacob van Kampen
-and inhabited by him. The room is lighted by eight small windows, over
-which paintings were hung. There is an interesting bedstead here,
-ornamented with painted garlands, and with three compartments, beneath
-the centred one of which is the Spanish motto, “_’El todo es nada_”
-(Everything is nought).
-
-The Dutch of the seventeenth century passed practically all their lives
-at home. With the exception of merchants, students and men of affairs,
-people rarely visited their friends and relatives in neighbouring towns.
-As Pieter van Godewijck wrote:—
-
-        _Het reysen is een taeck nyet yder opgelegt,
-        En ’t is nyet al te veel en sonder blaêm gezegt,
-        Het huys is als een graf, waerin wy altyt wonen,
-                  In ’t aerdsche tranendal._
-
-        (Travelling is a task not given to everybody,
-        And it’s not said so much and without blame
-        That the home is like a grave, wherein we always dwell,
-                In the earthly vale of tears.)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXV.—_Chairs._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-The house was therefore “their world, their toy, their god”; they loved
-to embellish and decorate it, they loved to take care of it and keep it
-clean, they loved to see it painted on panel and canvas; and some of
-them even went so far as to have their house reproduced in miniature,
-with all its furniture and belongings copied in wood and metal.
-
-It would be a mistake to suppose that the so-called dolls’ houses, which
-may be studied in the museums of Amsterdam, Utrecht, and other towns,
-were merely the somewhat elaborate toys with which the English-speaking
-juvenile race sometimes amuse themselves. As the old inventories show,
-dolls’ houses and all their appurtenances were very vivid mirrors of
-contemporary life, including furniture and costume. This is particularly
-true of Holland, although other countries of Western Europe preserved
-evidences of the taste for similar “toys” of earlier date. Henry IV of
-France, for instance, when a child, played with toys, among which are
-noticeable a suit of clothes in wrought silver.
-
-These dolls’ houses were elaborate and costly; for every detail of the
-real model was represented, including the small articles of porcelain,
-Delft, earthenware, pewter, brass and silver. Dolls’ _salons_, too, were
-often painted by noted masters, and cost thousands of florins. For
-example, a beautiful doll’s house of the date 1680, in the Antiquarian
-Museum of Utrecht, has its walls covered with paintings by Moucheron.
-The houses consisted of from four to eight rooms with furniture of wood,
-silver, gold, or filigree silver or gold. Such rooms as the kitchen,
-lying-in room and death chamber were often included. The latter was
-draped in black with a canvas or silver coffin containing a tiny wax
-corpse. Often, too, the house was completed with a pretty miniature
-garden embellished with a quantity of coral-work, trees, hedges, seats,
-paths and statuettes. We may note that Margaretha Godewijck had a doll’s
-house with a garden and arbour, upon which she wrote the following
-poem:—
-
-                           OP MYN CORAAL WERK
-
-      _Hier siet ghy van coraal in ’t cabinet besloten,
-      Een baeckermat, een wiegh, een korf, een stoof, een mandt,
-      Een kleerben opgepronckt, een bedsté, ledikant
-      Gevloghten van coraal en na de kunst gegoten,
-      Gemaeckt van suyver glas, en van verscheyden kleuren,
-      Aen d’ Aemstelstroom gevormt van blaeuw, van groen en peers,
-      Want sulck corale werck verdient oock wel een vers,
-      En Pallas sou het self voor wat bysonder keuren._
-
-                           (ON MY CORAL WORK.
-
- Placed in my cabinet here, you see made of coral
- A baby’s basket, a cradle, a child’s foot-warmer and a warming-basket,
- An ornamental clothes cupboard, a bed and bedstead of twisted and cast
-    coral
- And of pure glass, of different colours,
- Shaped at Amstel’s stream of blue and green and purple.
- For such coral-work deserves indeed a verse,
- And even Pallas would judge it more than ordinary.)
-
-                         OP MYNE THUYN VAN SYDE
-
-       _Hoe seer dat Crassus pronckt en stoft op al sijn fruyten,
-       Gewassen buyten Roôm en aen het Tybers stof,
-       Hoe seer Lucullus pryst sijn bloemen, planten, spruyten,
-       Sijn ooft, sijn boom-gewas, sijn za’en, sijn braven hof,
-       Dit alles kan een wint, een buy en vlaegh verdrijven,
-       Soodat de bloem verdort en ’t rijpe fruyt verstickt.
-       Maer mynen hof van syd die sal gedurigh blyven.
-       Mijn fruyt het greetigh oogh, maer niet de mond verquict.
-       Geen spin, geen worm, geen rups en kan mijn boomen deeren,
-       Mijn bloemtjes somers sijn en ’s winters even groen,
-       Mijn kerssen altyd root, mijn appelen, mijn peeren
-       Sijn altyt even gaef, sy konnen ’t ooghe voên._
-
-                         (ON MY GARDEN OF SILK
-
-     How much Cassius may pride himself and boast of all his fruit
-     Grown outside Rome and on the Tiber’s border;
-     How much Lucullus may praise his flowers, plants and twigs,
-     His lawns, his tree-garden, his seeds and a fine orchard—
-     All these can be scattered by the wind, a shower, or a gust;
-     So that the flower fades and the ripe fruit perishes,
-     But my silken garden will remain for ever.
-     My fruit satisfies the greedy eye, but not the mouth;
-     No spider, worm, nor caterpillar can hurt my trees;
-     My flowers are as green in winter as in summer,
-     My cherries always red, my apples and my pears
-     Always ripe and sound; they feed the eyes for ever.)
-
-The dolls’ houses of the rich were always made of costly woods, and were
-frequently inlaid with ivory and tortoiseshell. At the exhibition of
-Amsterdam in 1858, among a number of these curiosities, was a notable
-one veneered with tortoiseshell and with painted glass doors—a present
-from the King of Denmark to Maarten Harpertz Tromp. Another was a
-typical Dutch house of walnut-root wood, furnished with silver furniture
-and wax dolls; there were also two of Italian make with tortoiseshell,
-ebony and brass ornaments, the doors of which were painted with Italian
-sea-towns; and one of ebony, the door-panels of which were painted by
-Peter Breughel.
-
-In the Rijks Museum are several models in miniature of old Amsterdam
-houses. The finest one is of tortoiseshell ornamented with white metal
-inlay. According to tradition, Christoffel Brandt, Peter the Great’s
-agent in Amsterdam, had this house made by order of the Czar, and it is
-said to have cost 20,000 guilders (£2,500), and to have required five
-years to produce. Dating from the latter part of the seventeenth or
-first part of the eighteenth century, it contains all the furniture that
-was to be found at that date in an aristocratic dwelling on the
-_Heerengracht_ or _Keizersgracht_. Every object in it was made by the
-proper artisan, so that it is correct in every detail.
-
-Another dates from the first half of the eighteenth century.
-Architecturally it is very interesting; but the interior furnishings are
-much simpler than the above.
-
-A third house, belonging to the family Ploos van Amstel, dates from the
-first half of the eighteenth century, and is supposed to be inhabited by
-a doctor. It is three storeys high, and has a wide door on the façade
-with the initials P.V.A. (Ploos Van Amstel) artistically interlaced. Of
-its twelve rooms, the most remarkable are the parlour and the
-physician’s study, containing a library, a collection of preparations
-and a collection of shells and artistic objects in ivory, every item of
-which is reproduced in miniature.
-
-According to Mr. E. W. Berg, who gives a minute description of this
-house in _De Oude Tyd_ (1872), it is said that by this doctor is meant
-Christoffel Ludeman, the well-known “wonder-doctor.”
-
-It was a fad with the wealthy to possess these curious silver toys,
-which passed from generation to generation. Sometimes the collection
-consisted of hundreds of pieces. Mrs. van Varick, of New Amsterdam
-(1696), had no less than eighty-three silver toys to divide among her
-children.
-
-These silver and gold toys were so artistically made that they attracted
-the attention of many travellers, who paid large sums for them. Many
-beautiful and quaint specimens are therefore to be seen in the European
-Museums and private collections on both sides of the Atlantic.
-
-Sets of dolls’ porcelain were also collected in this century and
-preserved in show-cases or china-cabinets, with a collection of dolls’
-clothes. These cabinets of dolls’ articles were even found in
-farmhouses, and sometimes jewellery and small articles of value were
-kept in them.
-
-Many of the poorer houses in the seventeenth century were built of wood
-or stone, with wooden gables that projected far over the narrow street,
-so far indeed that the occupants of the one could shake hands across the
-street with those in the opposite house. Many of these houses were
-gradually replaced by newer houses of a more regular aspect. As the
-century wears on they increase in height and solidity. As a rule, the
-house is of three storeys, with a tiled roof. In the lower floor there
-is a row of small windows with small panes set in lead and protected by
-ornamental iron-work. These windows admit light into the small office
-and entrance-hall, and run along the whole width of the house above the
-“_luifel_” (verandah), under which in the daytime wares are offered for
-sale, and where on fine evenings the burgher sits with his wife and
-family. Sometimes the thrifty housewife may be seen sitting under the
-verandah knitting, spinning, sewing, or darning, with her feet on a
-foot-rest, and the children playing around her. The baby’s cradle is
-sometimes brought out as well. On Saturdays the children are bathed and
-washed under the “_luifel_,” without the public taking the least notice.
-Gentlemen’s houses, however, have no verandahs, but both sides of the
-door or gate are flanked by windows with shutters, and this door is on a
-level with the entrance. The arrangement of the windows on the second
-floor is like that of the first. Chrysostomus Napolitanus says in 1516,
-“The dwelling-houses have nearly all the same shape and architecture.
-The back walls do not rise very high, but end in a point and step-like.”
-These gable steps were sometimes ornamented with stone vases or images,
-and the coping was also decorated. In the seventeenth century the houses
-were built narrower but higher, as also the windows, while the wire
-screens and the verandahs gradually disappeared. The copings and
-ornamentations of the cornice were, however, not less richly sculptured;
-and, under the top windows, stone figures, Caryatides, lions and
-coats-of-arms were often introduced. In the third storey there were one
-or two windows, above which the arms of the proprietor were carved.
-Instead of the armorial device, sometimes a figure, a pair of compasses,
-or a bell was introduced, from which the house took its name; or again
-the family name would be carved in gigantic letters. In the course of
-time the name of the occupant was used less than the name of the house
-in which he lived. We find mention of the house Blijenburgh,
-Moesienbroeck, Cruysenborch, Nuysenborch, Blijensteyn, Kleyn Jerusalem,
-’t Huys Beaumont, Groot en Kleyn Rosendaeal, etc. Behind the houses were
-gardens with summer-houses, surrounded with fences of trellis-work. In
-the common houses a stone-paved hallway leads through the house to an
-open back yard, where there is a grass plot to bleach the clothes on,
-and where a room is built with a fireplace and kitchen. From the
-vestibule a stairway leads to the second floor, which communicates with
-a smaller stairway and often with a ladder to the floor above.
-
-Let us enter a rich home and see how the rooms are arranged. We pass
-through a great oaken door painted green and furnished with a heavy iron
-knocker, to enter a high and commodious vestibule, the walls of which
-are hung with pictures, deers’ heads or other hunting trophies. On one
-side is a broad oak staircase with a lion, griffin, or dragon
-beautifully carved at the base, and holding in his paws the same
-coat-of-arms that is carved in front of the gable. Facing the entrance
-hangs a magnificent oil painting. In less wealthy homes the vestibule is
-encased with blue and white tiles, and the floor is also laid in the
-same, and a carved oak or stone bench faces the door. As this
-“_voorhuis_,” or vestibule, is used by the less fashionable as a living
-apartment, there also stands here a table, and on the wall a mirror in
-an ebony frame, and many polished brass vessels and Delft dishes and
-plates give a homelike character to the spot. A house of this type has a
-verandah outside, on and under which the small merchant conducts his
-business, although his office or “_comptoir_” is at the back. If this
-happens to be a school, the master or mistress teaches his or her class
-under the “_luifel_”; or, if an inn, this is the meeting or
-smoking-room.
-
-The “_comptoir_” is also found in the homes of the rich, and the lady of
-the house often sits there with her children, not because it is the most
-attractive place, but in order to keep the better rooms neat and clean.
-In rich houses many of the rooms are known by individual names,—some
-according to the use to which they were put, others on account of the
-hangings, the name of the occupant, or an important piece of furniture.
-Hence we have the salon, dining-room, show-room, the sleeping-room, the
-little cabinet (office), the gold leather room, the damask room, the
-matted room, the room of Adam and Eve, Mr. Arends’s room, Miss
-Emerentia’s room, Mr. Cornelius van Beveren’s sleeping-room, etc., etc.
-
-In wealthy homes the walls of some rooms were encased in tiles,
-decorated with painted figures, flowers, arms, or pictorial scenes or
-mottoes; and upon these hung many fine paintings in richly carved ebony
-frames. In some houses every available space on the wall in every room
-was occupied by a picture; so that from top to bottom the rooms were
-filled with masterpieces of art. Some rooms on the ground floor were
-hung with splendid tapestries, representing hunting-scenes, Biblical
-stories, coats-of-arms, mythological and historical legends and stories,
-etc., etc. Other rooms were hung with embroidered materials, with red
-velvet, with gold or silver flowered borders, or with gold or stamped
-leather of various colours and patterns. Sometimes, also, the walls were
-panelled and wainscotted, particularly where beds or cupboards stood. In
-poor houses the walls were simply whitewashed or covered with square
-tiles of gay colours. The ordinary burghers strewed their floors with
-fine sand, and often arranged it so deftly by means of the broom in a
-design of flowers or geometrical figures that one would think a figured
-carpet was laid upon the floor. In rich homes the floor, as a rule, was
-covered with fine Spanish matting; and when guests came, a rug or carpet
-was spread over this, but on their departure it was carefully rolled up
-and put away. Some of the floors—often those of the garret—were laid in
-coloured tiles.
-
-One of the principal ornaments in rich houses was the painted glass. In
-some rooms every window was adorned with painted glass, but in less
-wealthy homes one window had to suffice. This was generally a round one
-painted in gaudy hues and neatly framed. Such glass was a favourite
-present. Sometimes the engraver had inscribed upon it Dutch or Latin
-proverbs; but more frequently it was embellished with the coat-of-arms
-of the master of the house, portraits, landscapes, Biblical and popular
-stories, such as Reynard the Fox, The Adventures of the four Heems
-Children, or The Drolleries of Tyll Eulenspiegel. The ceilings rested on
-heavy oak beams with many cross beams; and even in rich houses ceilings
-and beams were artistically painted. In the centre of the ceiling was
-hung a brass, or gilded wooden chandelier for wax or tallow candles; and
-additional light was derived from sconces fastened to the walls and on
-either side of the chimney-piece. Occasionally the candelabra were of
-crystal. In some rooms models of ships correctly rigged hung from the
-beams; and sometimes stuffed animals, heads, fish, weapons, and wedding
-ornaments and favours kept them company.
-
-The chimney-piece always received a good deal of attention. It was very
-wide and high. Wood and peat were both burned on the large silver,
-brass, iron or steel andirons. The space in the overmantel was often
-painted by the best master available, or was occupied by a painting in a
-carved frame. On either side of the picture were sconces containing wax
-candles that illuminated the painting at night. The broad chimney shelf
-was occupied with Japanese and Chinese porcelains and lacquers; and in
-the summer time the pot that was suspended from a crane in the chimney
-was taken away and replaced by large porcelain vases and beakers. A
-handsome chimney cloth was usually hung just below the shelf.
-
-Being exceedingly economical, the Dutch could not easily squander money
-for pleasures or recreations, but for the “home” they would spend
-lavishly. A handsome piece of furniture or silver, beautiful porcelain,
-rare tulips, rich curtains and rugs, valuable paintings, fine glass, and
-curios from the Far East would induce the opulent Dutchman to part with
-large sums; and his wife spent the greater part of her life in
-ornamenting and beautifying the home, taking care of the treasures it
-contained, and, above all, in keeping the house and its contents clean
-and in order. A rich merchant, Asselijn, said:—
-
-         _Ziet wat een fraei kasteel! wat heit het me gecost!
-         Myn gelt is nyet verbrast aan keur van vremde cost.
-         Voor paerden en gery en zeldzaeme sieraeden
-         En gaf ik nyet een myt; geen bloem-fluweelgewaden
-         Versieren ’t stinckend lyf, de logge madenzak.
-         Myn huys is myn sieraet, myn huys myn beste pack.
-         Daer voor is myn tresoor, daer voor myn koffer open,
-         En wat myn huys behoeft, dat haest ick my te koopen._
-
-         (See what a beautiful castle! What a sum it costs!
-         My money is not spent in choice of foreign viands.
-         For horses and equipages and rare ornaments
-         I did not spend a mite; no flowery velvet dresses
-         Adorn the wasting body, the clumsy stomach:
-         My home is my ornament, my house my best costume,
-         Therefore my treasury and my coffer are open,
-         And what my house needs I hasten to buy.)
-
-And Godewijck puts these words into the mouth of a daughter of an
-alderman:—
-
-        _Myn stoffer is myn swaerd, myn bussem is myn wapen.
-        Ick kenne geene rust, ick weete van geen slaepen.
-        Ick denck aen geen salet, ick denck niet aen myn keel.
-        Geen arbeyt my te swaer, geen zorge my te veel
-        Om alles gladdekens en sonder smet te maken.
-        Ik wil niet dat de maegd myn pronkstuck aan zal raken;
-        Ick selve wrijf en boen, ick flodder en ick schrob,
-        Ick aes op ’t kleinste stof, ik beef niet voor den tob
-        Gelyck de pronckmadam._
-
-        (My brush is my sword, my besom is my weapon.
-        I know no rest, I know no sleep.
-        I don’t think of my room, I don’t think of my throat.
-        No labour is too heavy, no care I think too much
-        To make everything smooth and without blemish.
-        I will not let the maid touch my pretty things;
-        I, myself, will rub and polish, I will splash and scrub;
-        I hunt the speck of dust, I do not fear the tub
-        Like a fine lady.)
-
-These are samples of many speeches in the old comedies, where the women
-constantly talk about housecleaning and scrubbing.
-
-English travellers of this period unanimously praised the way the Dutch
-houses were kept. One wrote: “They are not large, but neat, beautiful
-outside and well furnished inside; and the furniture is so clean and in
-good order that it appears to be more an exhibition than for daily use.”
-The farms also attracted the attention of the stranger. Another
-traveller said: “The Dutch farmer keeps his land as neatly as a courtier
-trims his beard; and his house is as choice as a lady who comes out of
-her dressing-room. A well-dressed lady cannot look neater than the fine
-gable and the thatched roof of a Dutch farmhouse.”
-
-In his _Brief Character of the Low Countries_, Owen Feltham describes an
-Amsterdam house of the middle of the seventeenth century. “When you are
-entered the house,” he writes, “the first thing you encounter is a
-Looking-Glasse. No question but a true Embleme of politick hospitality;
-for though to reflect yourself in your own figure, ‘tis yet no longer
-than while you are there before it. When you are gone once, it flatters
-the next commer, without the least remembrance that you were ere there.
-
-“The next are the vessels of the house marshalled about the room like
-watchmen. All is neat as you were in a Citizen’s Wife’s Cabinet; for
-unless it be themselves, they let none of God’s creatures lose anything
-of their native beauty.
-
-“Their houses, especially in their Cities, are the best eye-beauties of
-their Country. For cost and sight, they far exceed our English, but they
-want their magnificence. Their lining is yet more rich than their
-outside; not in hangings, but pictures, which even the poorest are there
-furnisht with. Not a cobler but has his toyes for ornament. Were the
-knacks of all their homes set together, there would not be such another
-Bartholomew-Faire in Europe....
-
-“Their beds are no other than land-cabines, high enough to need a ladder
-or stairs. Up once, you are walled in with Wainscot, and that is a good
-discretion to avoid the trouble of making your will every night; for
-once falling out else would break your neck promptly. But if you die in
-it this comfort you shall leave your friends, that you dy’d in clean
-linen.
-
-“Whatsoever their estates be, their houses must be fair. Therefore from
-Amsterdam they have banisht seacoale, lest it soyl their buildings, of
-which the statlier sort are sometimes sententious, and in the front
-carry some conceit of the Owner. As to give you a taste in these:—
-
-                        ‘_Christus Adjutor Meus;
-                      Hoc abdicato Perenne Quero;
-                        Hic Medio tuitus Itur._’
-
-“Every door seems studded with Diamonds. The nails and hinges hold a
-constant brightnesse, as if rust there was not a quality incident to
-Iron. Their houses they keep cleaner than their bodies; their bodies
-than their souls. Goe to one, you shall find the Andirons shut up in
-network. At a second, the Warming-pan muffled in Italian Cutworke. At a
-third the Sconce clad in Cambrick.”
-
-English travellers are not the only ones to bear witness to the extremes
-to which cleanliness was carried by the housewives of the Low Countries.
-A French writer, De Parival, says:—
-
-“The wives and daughters scour and rub benches, chests, cupboards,
-dressers, tables, plate racks, even the stairs until they shine like
-mirrors. Some are so clean that they would not enter any of the rooms
-without taking off their shoes and putting on their slippers. The women
-put all their energy and pleasure in keeping the house and the furniture
-clean. The floors are washed nearly every day and scoured with sand, and
-are so neat that a stranger is afraid to expectorate on them. If the
-city women keep their houses clean, the farmers’ wives are not less
-particular. They carry this cleanliness even into the stables. They
-scour everything, even the iron chains and mounts until they shine like
-silver.”
-
-The same traveller also says: “The furniture of the principal burghers,
-besides gold and silver ware, consists of tapestries, costly paintings
-(for which no money is saved, but rather eked out in economical living),
-beautifully carved woodwork, such as tables, treasure-chests, etc., and
-pewter, brass, earthenware, porcelains, etc.”
-
-Another foreigner says: “Their interior decorations are far more costly
-than our own [English], not only in hangings and ornaments, but in
-pictures, which are found even in the poorer houses. No farmer or even
-common labourer is found who has not some kind of interior ornaments and
-so varied that if all were put together it would often fill a booth at
-the fair.”
-
-Chrysostomus Napolitanus, who visited Holland in 1516, says: “_Goede
-Hemel! welk eene netheid van het gereedschap! welk eene kostelijkheid
-van bedden en welk eene blankheid van servetten, tafels en tafellakens!
-welk een sieraad aan de stoelen! welke zindelijkheid eindelijk aan
-muren, vloer en al het overige! Den bodem der spijs-, noen- en
-slaapvertrekken bestrooien zij met een weinig zand, opdat, zoo er bij
-geval iets morsigs op mocht vallen, zoo iemand somwijlen er vuile voeten
-op mocht zetten, de vloer zelve er niet door besmet zou worden, maar men
-het terstond, eer het er zich aan vasthecht, met bezems uit zou kunnen
-keeren._”
-
-(“Good Heavens! What a neatness of the utensils! how costly the beds and
-bedding, and how white the sheets, serviettes and tablecloths! What an
-ornamentation on the chairs, and, lastly, what cleanliness of the
-floors, walls and everything! The floors of the eating, sleeping and
-sitting rooms are strewn with a little sand, so that if anything should
-drop and one should accidentally step upon it, the floor would not be
-soiled, and before the matter could stick to it, the dirt might be
-removed with a broom.”)
-
-Fifty years later, Guicciardini, after praising the general state of the
-civilization and courtesy of the people, and remarking on the beauty of
-the public and private buildings, says: “But after all this if one
-enters their homes and notices the abundance of all kinds of furniture,
-and the order and neatness of everything, it gives one great pleasure,
-and one looks upon it as a wonder. And indeed it is, for there is
-nothing like it anywhere else in the world.”
-
-The inventories of the day give evidence of a great variety and number
-of cleaning utensils. Brooms and brushes of all kinds, tubs, pails,
-buckets, scrubbers tied with red leather, dust brushes called hogs,
-floor brushes, hearth hair brushes with brass and wooden handles occur
-in every house. One inventory of 1685 shows how well supplied a rich
-home was with articles for cleaning and scrubbing. These are as follows:
-five whiting brushes, one brush to clean the floors, five rubbers, three
-small painting brushes, four dust brushes, two floor brushes, two hair
-brushes, two hearth brooms, one chamber broom, one rake brush, one
-brush, one hay broom without a stick, and two Bermudian brooms with
-sticks. Cooking and cleaning implements and utensils were kept in the
-kitchen and in the cellar underneath. Pictures by Dutch masters show
-that in clement weather a good deal of housework was done in the tiled
-court or yard adjoining the kitchen.
-
-As an example of the ordinary burgher’s home, let us take the house on
-one of the corners of the Mat Wharf on the Voorstraat in Dordrecht,
-dating from the beginning of the seventeenth century, and dwelt in by
-Andreas Hulstman Janz, merchant in wood, his wife Elizabeth Balen
-Matthews, and his children Jan, Christine and Alette.
-
-The house has a sharp pointed gable and is three storeys high. The
-windows are provided with balconies, and a larger verandah runs along
-above the blue stone stoop. On each side of the rounded door embellished
-with iron-work are small windows supplied with trellises, as are
-likewise the four windows above the verandah that light the little
-office or “_comptoir_.” As we tap the iron knocker, a man or maid
-servant opens the door, and we notice that the little windows dimly
-divined through the creeper-shaded trellis are set in lead and supply
-but little light. The front hall runs on the left-hand side directly
-through the house, opening into a little yard that communicates with
-some smaller apartments and the kitchen.
-
-On the right hand side is a small apartment, called the “little
-_comptoir_,” the favourite room of the mother and her daughters when the
-housework is done, for they can see through the trellis and “watch the
-street.”
-
-In the hallway, a narrow staircase leads to the second floor, “the best
-part,” where the “show” and “guestrooms” are situated, while on the
-third floor are the bedrooms, and in the garret, the drying-room,
-mangle-room, brass and tin rooms. Here also the peat and firewood are
-kept. Passing up the stairway, we enter the living-room, which looks
-upon the front hall, and from which, when the door is open, a view of
-the street is obtained. This arrangement is familiar in many Dutch
-pictures, notably in that of _The Sick Lady_ (Plate XXXVII).
-
-The living-room is rather sombre. The white walls are partly covered
-with pictures, and the floor is strewn with fine sand in a pattern
-resembling a carpet. Three large pieces of furniture are conspicuous,
-two oak cupboards standing on heavy ball feet, their broad flat tops
-ornamented with handsome beakers and vases of porcelain; the third piece
-is a large _sacredaan kas_ hung with green curtains. In this the library
-is contained, consisting of a few books of travel, atlases, poetry by
-Cats, Vondel, Godewijck, Antonides, a number of religious works,
-commentaries on the catechism, hymn-books, the medical works of Battus
-and Beverwijck, and a few translated novels (for in this day there was
-but little Dutch fiction). In the centre of the room there stands a
-large and heavy oak table, with low chairs of the same, and covered with
-leather seats arranged symmetrically around it. In one corner of the
-room we note a reading-desk on which rests an enormous Bible bound in
-leather, with great brass mounts. The chimneypiece is enormous; if it is
-winter, a tremendous peat and wood fire is perpetually burning; if
-summer, the fireplace is ornamented with large, handsome faïence, or
-porcelain vases. This is the room in which the family gathers for
-breakfast, dinner and supper, and passes the winter evenings pleasantly
-enough.
-
-From this room we enter the kitchen. We hardly know what to notice
-first—the marble tiles shining like glass, the brass and pewter gleaming
-like gold and silver from the racks and dressers, the well-filled china
-closet, the rose-red painted table, with the yellow painted
-rush-bottomed chairs, or the general effect of charm, cheerfulness,
-colour and neatness. We are told that the lady of the house calls this
-her “holy” (as she calls the show-room the “tabernacle”), and allows no
-cooking to be done here. There is a small back kitchen built for this
-purpose called “_snuiver_” (cooking shed), where all the food is
-prepared.
-
-Before leaving this room we must describe the dresser, in which all the
-articles for breakfast service are kept and, in poor houses, left-over
-food. The used napkins are folded and placed here, and there are drawers
-for table linen and other small utensils. It contains a candle-drawer,
-and upon one of its shelves stands the heavy brass candlestick. The
-peculiar extinguisher is called familiarly “the cat’s head,” on account
-of its resemblance to the head of a cat. This is narrower at the bottom
-than the top, and has a handle on each side. This stands next to the
-peat-box, often the lower part of a pot cupboard opened and shut with a
-slide Underneath the chimney is placed the fire-pot, for stoves are not
-known. These innovations, imported from Germany, were heartily despised
-and called contemptuously “stink-pots” and “muff-boxes.”
-
-Omitting the cellar and store-rooms, we pass upstairs to the bedroom of
-the master and mistress on the second floor. Pictures, chiefly family
-portraits, adorn the walls. The floor is of wood, highly polished, and
-so slippery that great care is required in walking across it.
-
-The furniture consists of chairs with tall backs and low seats, a carved
-table with a tapestry or rug cover, a large oak cabinet and a cupboard
-on four legs, the treasure-chest and the wash-buffet, with wash-mops and
-toilet appliances. A heavy green damask curtain hangs before the bed,
-which is so high above the floor that it must be entered with the aid of
-a small stepladder that stands in one corner of the room next to the
-brass warming-pan. Sometimes a cradle, called “coach,” for the baby
-stands at the foot and sometimes under the bed.
-
-These beds have often been ridiculed. The bedstead, however, soon
-supplanted the panelled bed, although it has never banished it
-altogether.
-
-The inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt (1639), wife of the painter Van
-Mierevelt of Delft who died in 1638, gives an excellent idea of a
-comfortable Dutch home of the early seventeenth century. First should be
-mentioned six beds with handsome draperies, tapestries, rich furniture
-covers, and other woollen articles (_wollegoet_), that prove how much
-the artist and his wife liked rich textiles. The _tinnewerk_, consisting
-of plates, dishes, salt-cellars, etc., shows that the table-service was
-of pewter, although twenty-eight articles in porcelain and faïence,
-consisting of plates, bowls and dishes, valued at about twenty-six
-florins, are also enumerated. The house also contained a great many
-copper articles and utensils, from tongs and shovels to those fine
-_repoussée_ dishes so highly prized to-day by collectors; and there was
-a considerable amount of ironware, including two lanterns. There were
-some statues in plaster, including a “Suzanne,” ninety-four paintings,
-chiefly religious, and family portraits, although one representing
-“Pomona and Flora” is mentioned. The artist also had some violins, a
-little book of engravings, some wooden panels, and a library of
-thirty-seven volumes. Many of these were illustrated, and dealt with
-religious and historical subjects; and as they were all in Dutch it
-would seem that the artist could read no other language. Especially
-noticeable is the fine collection of linen, the pride of the mistress.
-She had no less than twenty-five pairs of sheets, a hundred and eighteen
-serviettes and fifteen tablecloths, one of which fetched as much as
-fifteen florins at the sale in 1639, and another of damask (_damast
-taefellaecken_), twenty florins.
-
-The most important room of the home of a burgher of moderate means was
-the hall, or general living-room. This, as so many pictures show, had a
-great fireplace, at which meals were often cooked. The furniture
-consisted of tables, chairs, cabinets, and, very frequently, a bed. The
-chimney-piece is massive, high and often elaborately carved, and above
-it a landscape, fruit piece, Kermesse, flower-piece or battle-scene by a
-favourite painter, is hung to form part of the decoration. This
-chimney-piece is, moreover, filled with porcelain dishes, cups, plates,
-teapots and curios. Below it hangs an ornamental chimney cloth
-embroidered with gaily-coloured flowers, red or green silk, white
-muslin, or figured calico. The hearth is framed in blue and white tiles,
-furnished with an iron fireback and supplied with brass and irons, racks
-for the fire-irons, pot-hooks, spits, a crane on which a large brass
-kettle hangs, and small hooks from which the bellows, hearth brooms,
-shovel, tongs, etc., hang conveniently for use. A brass or copper
-warming-pan is not far away. The walls are adorned with pictures, a
-large looking-glass in an ebony frame, a wall-board with hooks for small
-cans and jugs and a plate rack or two in which some handsome plates and
-dishes are formally arranged. A great linen press, or _kas_, filled with
-tablecloths and napkins, the head of which is decorated with large
-Japanese beakers and smaller cups and vases, stands on one side of the
-room, and a glass case filled with teapots, cups and saucers, dishes,
-etc., and an East India cabinet on the other. A gaudily-painted
-Hindeloopen clock ticks on the wall. A large table stands in the centre
-of the room, covered with a heavy Turkish rug or “carpet,” and several
-little tables are conveniently disposed. The Russia leather, Turkey work
-and matted chairs are symmetrically arranged around the walls beneath
-the many pictures of landscape, interiors or still-life. The windows are
-curtained, the hangings of red or green striped silk or flowered calico
-matching those of the bedstead, which can be completely closed like a
-large box. On the four corners of the cornice of this bed are bunches of
-feathers or a painted wooden ornament. The casement windows have tiny
-diamond-shaped or round panes set in lead, and on the outside creepers
-and roses are carefully trained, forming a beautiful framework. Upon the
-sills stand flower-pots in which a bright tulip or other favourite
-flower is blooming.
-
-The first apartment entered from the front door of a merchant’s house
-was the “_voorhuis_,” or front room, where visitors were formally
-received. This was more or less handsomely furnished in accordance with
-the means of the owner. It was usually a sort of hall, sometimes of
-considerable dimensions.
-
-A “_voorhuis_,” as it appears in an inventory of 1686, contains a very
-handsome marble table with a carved wooden frame, a table covered with a
-handsome cloth, and a very fine tall clock. The seats consisted of seven
-Russia leather chairs and one matted chair furnished with a cushion. The
-room was lighted with three glass windows with leaden frames, handsomely
-curtained, and eleven pictures decorated the walls. The value of this
-furniture was £125 in present money.
-
-In many houses the second floor was only used for “show rooms,” and the
-family slept in either the lower or the top floor. Bernagie writes: “If
-you go through the town, you will find many houses where the husband is
-afraid so much as even to smell at his second floor rooms. They always
-remain downstairs. Have they ever so many courtly rooms, they will eat,
-for their wives’ sake, in the small back kitchen.”
-
-This was the case in most of the burghers’ houses. These show-rooms were
-used only on some special occasion; otherwise they were never entered
-except for cleaning. This took place weekly and oftener, with special
-cleaning in the spring and autumn. Rooms in constant use were daily
-stripped and cleaned, and the housewife barely allowed herself time to
-eat. Some enthusiastic housekeepers—although wealthy—would not allow the
-servants to clean their best rooms, but wielded “the scrubbing-brush,
-rubbing-towel and floor-cloth.” There are examples of houses where from
-thirty to forty pails of water were used every day, and where the
-servants did nothing but rub and scrub and scour from morning till
-night. Many of the houses were exceedingly damp in consequence, and the
-inmates constantly ill. Notwithstanding the ridicule the Dutch housewife
-suffered in books and on the stage, her mania for cleaning was so great
-that she cared not at all if the house was termed “hell” and the
-cleaners “she-devils.”
-
-In some families home was made still more uncomfortable on account of
-the little amount of cooking done. Certain dishes were prepared once a
-week and then “warmed up,” so that the stove would not be soiled. In
-North Holland a month would sometimes elapse between the making of fires
-for cooking in the fireplace. All the cooking was done by means of a
-little boiling water in the fire-pot.
-
-The show-room, or “holy of holies,” as the Dutch woman was pleased to
-call it, was furnished according to the means or class of the owner.
-Among the higher classes a party was often given in it. In such homes
-the floor was covered with expensive Turkish rugs, and the walls hung
-with tapestries, silk damask or gold leather. These were further adorned
-with Venetian mirrors and paintings worth their weight in gold. The
-chairs were of rare exotic or foreign woods supplied with embroidered
-cushions, or seats of Utrecht velvet, and the other furniture consisted
-of beautifully painted or inlaid or mosaic tables, beautifully carved
-cupboards, and rare cabinets inlaid with silver, ivory or tortoiseshell,
-and filled with the finest egg-shell porcelain. Porcelains and curios
-adorned the high carved chimney.
-
-In older aristocratic homes the “show-room” was less lavishly furnished,
-but none the less the pride of the mistress. The floor was covered with
-mats, the walls with painted linen, or handsome paintings; but in rare
-porcelain it was the equal of any alderman’s or mayor’s wife.
-
-As time wore on, the walnut cabinet supplanted the carved or oak
-cupboard, the _vitrine_ took the place of the china-cabinet and the
-console and glass appeared between the windows, and finally we arrive at
-the period when the small bookcase with glass or mirror doors appears
-and chairs covered with figured rep.
-
-The kitchen usually contained a bedstead with feather bed, pillows and
-curtains, a looking-glass in a black frame, a cupboard, chairs, a table,
-andirons, innumerable brooms and brushes, flint and steel for striking a
-light, shovels, tongs, gridirons, dripping-pans, whetting-boards for
-knives, tubs, butter firkins (earthenware, pewter, brass and tin),
-knives, forks, spoons, stills, churns, hanging boards, can-boards, pots,
-pails, skimmers, funnels, salt-boxes, candle-boxes, frying-pans,
-beakers, candlesticks, dripping-pans, skewers, stewing-pans with covers,
-copper kettles, chafing-dishes, hour-glasses, lamps, hammers, tankards,
-tin pans to roast apples, pot-hangers, dishes to boil fish on, mortars
-and pestles, waffle-irons, bellows, kettles, a birdcage, saucepans,
-platters, cans, pepper mills, tin ware to bake sugar cakes, marzipan
-pans, racks to hang clothes on, wicker baskets, hampers, tubs, glass
-knockers to beat clothes, smoothing irons, tin watering pots to wet
-clothes, rainwater casks, etc., etc.
-
-In order to gain an idea of a lady’s bedroom of the period, let us visit
-that of the wealthy Mrs. Lidia van der Dussen, the daughter of Jacob van
-Beveren, alderman of Dordrecht and bailiff and dike-count of the Country
-of Strijen. The house is one of those with a high peaked gable; it has
-oblong round-headed windows with small panes set in lead, and a façade
-decorated with carvings and arms, while the name of the house is
-inscribed in marble at the top. Green and red damask curtains at the
-windows give the exterior an air of cheerfulness and comfort. We enter.
-To the right of the large vestibule, the floor of which is laid in
-marble tiles of blue and white, a wide marble staircase leads to a wide
-marble hallway. The floor of this is covered with the finest Spanish
-matting, and on each side of the hall are doors opening into various
-rooms. These heavy doors are of oak, and are elaborately carved or
-painted with cherubs, shepherds and shepherdesses, etc. Opening one of
-these doors at the rear—the quietest part of the house—we find ourselves
-in a large room, the stone floor of which is covered with rich rugs,
-while tiles ornamented with bright pictorial designs, or mottoes, cover
-the walls. The dark and heavy serge curtains that hang at the windows
-prevent us from distinguishing the furniture of the room very clearly;
-but we gradually make out the articles one by one. We note the splendid
-array of vases and beakers that adorn the wide mantelpiece, and also the
-top of the china cabinet of _sacredaan_ wood, and the massive and richly
-carved, or deeply panelled, linen wardrobe, or _kas_. A handsome walnut
-bedstead stands in one corner of the room. The four twisted pillars
-support a canopy, from which fall heavy serge curtains, that conceal a
-wealth of fine linen and Flemish lace. The four corners of the canopy
-are surmounted by the favourite ornament of the period, the “_pomme_”
-consisting of a bunch of plumes,—in this instance of green, red and
-black. The walls, although encased in tiles, are hung with pictures in
-ebony frames, in addition to which there is a large Venetian mirror set
-in a rich crystal frame. A drop-leaf table stands in the centre of the
-room, surrounded by several chairs with high backs and low seats. The
-woodwork of these chairs, shining like glass from the devoted polishing
-it receives, is, like the china-cabinet already mentioned, of
-_sacredaan_. We also note in this room a beautifully made wicker cot, or
-basket, for the baby.
-
-In early days this article of furniture was of large dimensions, and the
-nurse sat beside it with a large screen at the side to keep away
-draughts. Some of these cots were shaped like cradles without the
-rockers, and were supplied with a shelf or wing on the side as a
-protection from the heat of the peat fire. At a later period of this
-century, the cradle rested on two rounded rockers, and had a rounded
-hood or canopy. It was made of plum-tree wood, or of wicker lined with
-yellow satin and trimmed with costly lace. Royalty was rocked in cradles
-of gold or silver; that of Charles V, however, shown in the Brussels
-Museum, is of wood, carved in the Gothic style and painted. A primitive
-form of Dutch cradle was suspended from iron rings on two posts of wood,
-and a later kind, recommended by ‘s Gravesande, had a spring on one side
-and a weight on the other, so that when once put in motion it would
-continue rocking for a long time.
-
-Near the cradle stood the “fire” or “napkin basket,” also made of wicker
-and covered with serge, or with richer material if the home was one of
-wealth. In the inventory of Vrouwe Reepmaker (1670), for example, “white
-and satin basket covers” occur. The “fire” or “napkin basket” contained
-everything pertaining to the baby’s outfit; and mention is made in the
-inventories of “a neat,” “a simple,” or “a costly fire basket,”
-according to the circumstances of the owner. The “fire basket” with its
-outfit was given as a present to the young mother by the husband’s
-mother or one of the aunts. In a celebrated farce of the period, Old
-Brechtje says: “_Van mijn peetje een wonderlicke schoone corf ecregen,
-die voor al myn kyeren eef edient. Ze eef hem van lapwerck en fraeykens
-van croonsaey en passementen emaeckt._” (“I got from my aunt a
-wonderfully beautiful basket, which has served for all my children. She
-made it of patchwork, and covered it nicely with serge and embroidery.”)
-
-On a table, an open buffet, or _dressoir_, or a glass cabinet, all the
-baby’s silver was arrayed, such as the herb-box, the pap-pot, the
-cinnamon bowl with cover and spoon, and the large clothes tray—all
-inherited gifts from godfathers and godmothers of many generations. Each
-piece is variously inscribed, sometimes dating as far back as the
-sixteenth century, or earlier. This large silver tray holds the costly
-clothing that will be used at the christening, such as the cambric and
-lace robes and the red velvet robe lined with red silk, the satin tufted
-blanket and other articles of baby dress. Nor must the large pincushion
-be forgotten, on which the baby’s name will be printed with pins.
-
-The bride’s basket was just as important as the baby’s basket. This was
-also made of wicker, and, according to the means of the parents, lined
-with rich or simple material. It was adorned with flowers, and
-contained, not the bride’s dresses, but the wedding-shawl and ornaments
-belonging to it, the jewels and gloves that the bride was to wear at the
-wedding, and also the gifts of the bridegroom.
-
-The “bride’s crown” and “bride’s throne” received a great deal of
-attention from the loving hands that were busy with the preparations for
-the festivities. The house was turned into a perfect bower on the
-occasion of a wedding. Garlands of palms, flowers and evergreens were
-interwoven, and hung upon the walls with the green boughs that were
-variously twined and twisted. Gold and silver favours, love-knots,
-marriage-bells and other devices and letters forming mottoes and
-riddles, were displayed among the greenery and flowers, and the name or
-initials of the bride and groom were to be seen on every side.
-Magnificent Japanese vases filled with flowers, particularly the
-brilliant tulip, were placed in every available space. Handsome mirrors
-were removed from other rooms and hung among the garlands and flowers to
-add more light and beauty to the rooms. Not unfrequently the outside of
-the house received its share of decoration, when the street doors were
-covered with greenery and garlands were hung from all the windows.
-
-The Dutch made lavish use of flowers and greenery on festive occasions.
-
-When Charles II was called home from Holland in 1660 to ascend the empty
-throne, he received a magnificent farewell entertainment by the
-States-General. The festivities lasted over several days, and are
-described in considerable detail by Sir John Lower, who was present. In
-his book we get an occasional glimpse of the furniture of the day,
-particularly its disposition on gala occasions. The great sideboards, or
-cupboards, are mentioned with admiration. The great feasts were given in
-the Mauritshuis, The Hague, which was the scene of lavish hospitality.
-Describing one of these entertainments, Lower tells us: “From the centre
-of the lover or open roof descended a Royal Crown, very gallantly made,
-in the midst of four lusters or crystal candlesticks, which with many
-other candlesticks, arms of silver and a great number of torches,
-enlightened all corners much better than the Sun could have done at
-midday. They gave particularly a marvellous lustre to the two bottoms of
-the chimney which is on the left side, where two partitions of painted
-wood shut up as many cupboards of crystal glasses, and a great store of
-vessels and of silver plate and vermillion gilt. The Hall was furnished
-with ordinary Tapestry, which is of crimson damask, and had no other
-adornments but that here and there there were some fair pictures, and
-that the ends of the chimnies and the void places above the cross-bar
-windows were adorned with garlands, leaves and figures of trees loaden
-with oranges and mingled with all sorts of flowers, which formed not
-only a very regular compartment, but wonderfully refreshed also the
-chamber and charmed no less the smell by their perfume than they pleased
-the sight through the diversity of their rich enamel.”
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VII
-                      THE IMPORTANCE OF PORCELAIN
-
-  Rise of Dutch Taste in Decorative Art—Influence of Foreign Trade in
-      the Dutch Home—Accounts of Porcelain by Mediaeval Travellers:
-      Edrisi, Ibn Batuta and Shah Rukh; Quotation from Pigapheta—A great
-      European Collection—Monopoly of Trade by the Portuguese—Quotation
-      from Pyrard de Laval—Portuguese Carracks—Voyages to Goa and Japan—
-      Porcelain and Cabinets—Mendoza’s Description of Earthenware—Dutch
-      and English Merchants—Presents to Queen Elizabeth—Dutch
-      Expeditions and Establishment of the Dutch East India Company—
-      Embassy to the Emperor of China in 1655—Descriptions of the
-      Manufacture of Porcelain—Manufacture and Potters of Delft—
-      Quotation from d’Entrecolles on Porcelain and Oriental Trade—
-      Prices—Tea; Tea-drinking—A Dutch Poet on the Tea-table—Chrestina
-      de Ridder’s Porcelain—Prices of Porcelain in 1653.
-
-
-Until the middle of the seventeenth century, Flanders may be said to
-have overshadowed Holland in the field of Decorative Art, although, as
-we have seen, the two most important designers of domestic furniture—De
-Vries and Crispin van de Passe—were Dutch. The reason of Flemish
-preponderance was that the sovereigns and regents resided at Mechlin,
-Ghent, Brussels and Antwerp, and to those courts the ablest men in the
-arts and crafts naturally flocked. With the decay of Antwerp, we enter
-the period of the Flemish Decadence, and Amsterdam rises to wealth and
-power at her rival’s expense. After the death of Rubens, Dutch art is
-supreme in the Low Countries; and Dutch taste undoubtedly influenced
-France and England.
-
-The Dutch home of the seventeenth century was profoundly affected by
-foreign trade. The day of heavy carved furniture was over lightness and
-brightness are now the prevailing notes. Broad surfaces are veneered and
-inlaid with exotic woods; and the lathe is freely used in the
-ornamentation of the supports of seats, cupboards, cabinets, etc. Above
-all, we notice a predominance of native and Oriental ceramic ware.
-
-The Dutch were as fond of earthenware as of tulips; and no study of a
-Dutch interior could be adequate if it neglected to take into account
-the part played by Delft and porcelain.
-
-The three novelties that impressed the Dutch home of the seventeenth
-century were tea, porcelain and lacquer. The importance of tea, with its
-table and equipage as a domestic altar, can hardly be overestimated; but
-its consideration may be deferred for the moment. Porcelain affected the
-arrangement of furniture and the decoration of rooms. The cabinet
-assumed new forms and proportions, as porcelain decorated its exterior.
-
-Although Chinese porcelains had appeared in the cabinets of amateurs of
-the sixteenth century, the comparative rarity of this ware confined its
-enjoyment to the very wealthy. The magnificent ebony cabinets,
-_armoires_, or _kasten_, with drawers and interior shelves in which
-women delighted to set in beautiful order miniatures and jewels, enamels
-and ivories, shells and rock-crystals, medals and coral, now had also to
-find room for carved ivory and ebony, gods and monsters, jade,
-porcelain, sandal-wood and lacquer boxes, and all the rarities that were
-to be found in the stores of the Eastern traders.
-
-Porcelain was early held in high esteem, and a vase was regarded as a
-fit present from one potentate to another. It was very rare in Western
-Europe until the Portuguese opened the Eastern gates. Mediaeval
-travellers had frequently referred to its preciousness. Edrisi (1154)
-says of Susah: “Here are made an unequalled kind of porcelain, the
-Ghazar of China.” There was always a certain mystery attached to its
-composition and qualities till the beginning of the eighteenth century.
-Ibn Batuta, who travelled in Bengal and China about 1350, gives a more
-or less fabulous account of its manufacture. He says: “Porcelain in
-China is of about the same value as earthenware with us, or even less.
-It is exported to India and elsewhere, passing from country to country
-till it reaches us in Morocco. It is certainly the finest of all pottery
-ware.” In 1420 the Embassy sent by Shah Rukh to the Chinese Court
-mentions a buffet on which were arranged flagons, cups and goblets of
-silver and porcelain. The scribe also bears witness to the fact that “in
-the arts of stone-polishing, cabinet-making, pottery and brick-making,
-there is nobody with us who can compare with the Chinese.”
-
-Early in the sixteenth century, before 1520, A. Pigapheta made a voyage
-to the East. He describes a visit to the house of the Queen of Mindanao:
-“I sat down by the side of her; she was weaving a palm mat to sleep
-upon. Throughout her house was seen porcelain vases suspended to the
-walls and four metal timbals.” He tells us that in Borneo, at Bruni:
-“For one cathil (a weight equal to two of our pounds) of quicksilver
-they gave us six porcelain dishes; for a cathil of metal they gave one
-small porcelain vase, and a large vase for three knives.... The
-merchandise which is most esteemed here is bronze, quicksilver,
-cinnabar, glass, woollen stuffs, linens; but above all they esteem iron
-and spectacles.
-
-“Since I saw such use made of porcelain I got some information
-respecting it, and I learned that it is made with a kind of very white
-earth, which is left underground for fully fifty years to refine it, so
-that they are in the habit of saying that a father buries it for his
-son. It is said that if poison is put into a vessel of fine porcelain it
-breaks immediately.”
-
-It is generally supposed that the table service, even among the rich,
-was very limited during the sixteenth century. A careful search of the
-inventories, however, shows that a complete service of faïence was to be
-found on the tables of the opulent in the first half of the sixteenth
-century. In 1532, we find that the widow of a minister of Francis I had
-two complete services of beautiful faïence: one entirely white, and the
-other “historied” with all kinds of coloured portraits. These two
-services were composed each of four dozen large and three dozen small
-plates, four _aiguières_, three round and one oval basin, three salts
-(_sallières_), eight pots, twelve _tazzi_, and three dozen spoons, some
-of ivory and some of wood and mother-of-pearl, “which we used in summer
-and autumn in serving collations of confitures, junkets, custards,
-syllabubs, fruits and cider to the great ladies who came to visit my
-daughters and myself; and in addition I have also many other vessels of
-the best pottery of Italy, Germany, Flanders, England and Spain.”
-
-Besides the above, this lady possessed forty-two vases, pots, _tazzi_
-and plaques of porcelain “of the earliest days when Europeans went to
-China, which are of a beautiful white, and decorated with all kinds of
-little paintings.” The owner, who had evidently read Pigapheta, adds
-that the makers did not profit in their own lifetime by the manufacture
-of this “_ravissante_” porcelain, because it had to be buried in the
-earth for a century in order to come to perfection. Another reason why
-it should be prized is that it is “so healthy that if it is soiled with
-poison by evil doers who want to injure anybody, it will immediately
-fall to pieces rather than suffer the vile draughts with which people
-would ravage our entrails.”
-
-At this date, the Oriental wares had not yet supplanted those that came
-through Turkey, Asia Minor and Egypt by way of Venice and other Italian
-ports. Among the lady’s possessions we find twenty-eight vases, pots,
-cups and little earthenware bowls of Turkish work, decorated on the
-necks and handles with little tufts resembling horses’ tails.
-
-She also had four hundred beautiful glasses of all colours, and other
-Venetian crystal vessels, “adorned with the gayest fancies that the
-glass-blowers were capable of inventing, with which we delighted the
-eyes of royalty and the great ministers of state at the great
-entertainments we gave.”
-
-After Portuguese navigators had found the route to the East around the
-Cape of Good Hope, they were able to outstrip Venice as a sea-carrier
-for Eastern merchandise. The Levant trade, with its costly loading and
-unloading from caravan to ship, could not hope to compete with an
-all-sea route, and therefore the Portuguese soon acquired a practical
-monopoly of the traffic between Western Europe and Eastern Asia.[6]
-Lisbon became the great mart whence lacquer, porcelain and other wares
-were distributed throughout Europe. Dutch ships swarmed in the Tagus,
-and transferred Oriental merchandise to Amsterdam and other European
-ports.
-
-Footnote 6:
-
-  We know that much porcelain was brought into Europe through Venice
-  from the Levant long after the Portuguese were dominant in the Eastern
-  seas. As late as 1623, in Minshen’s Spanish dialogues, _China metiall_
-  is defined as “the fine dishes of earth painted, such as are brought
-  from Venice.”
-
-The Vicomte de Santarem assures us that from 1497 to 1521 from Lisbon
-alone the Portuguese despatched thirty-three fleets, composed of 220
-ships; and a fleet was despatched every year till the next century. The
-fleet of 1604 even consisted of five ships. Two carvels also sailed the
-same year.
-
-We learn what these great ships were like from Pyrard de Laval (1601),
-who wrote:
-
-“Three or four Portuguese ships at most go out every year; these are the
-carracks, called by them _naos de voyage_, which are sent out with the
-intention that they shall return if they can....
-
-“The carracks are all built at Lisbon ... they are ordinarily of 1,500
-to 2,000 tons burden. Sometimes more, so that they are the largest
-vessels in the world so far as I have been able to learn; they cannot
-float in less than ten fathoms of water.
-
-“These great carracks have four decks, on each of which a man, however
-tall, can walk without touching his head against the deck above: indeed,
-he comes not within two feet of it.
-
-“The ships leaving Goa are laden not only with silver, but with divers
-goods of Europe, such as wines, woollen fabrics, and among others red
-scarlet; all sorts of glass and crystal wares, clocks which are highly
-prized by the Chinese, much cotton cloth, precious stones cut and set in
-rings, chains, carkanets, tokens, ear-pendants and bracelets; for the
-Chinese like vastly to get gems and jewels of all sorts for their wives.
-The ships leave Goa towards October, and touch at Cochin for precious
-stones and spices, such as pepper and cinnamon, leaving there the
-merchandise of Europe or of the northern parts of India. Thence they
-sail for Malaca; for they cannot make this voyage without touching at
-Malaca in order to get the Governor’s passport, and also to purchase the
-merchandise of the islands of Sunda in exchange for cotton cloths and
-other goods of India and Europe.
-
-“Vessels making the voyage from Goa to Japan and back may reckon on
-taking three whole years; nor can they reckon on less by reason of the
-winds called by them _Monssons_ and by us _Muesons_, which prevail for
-six months and more. From Malaca they go to Macao, and thence to Japan.
-At all these places they must await the _Muesons_; in the meantime while
-waiting they carry on their trade. At Macao they leave the greater part
-of their goods, and all their silver, relading with other goods of
-China, such as silks and Spanish white ... it is dear, and much in
-request in Japan, where all the women whiten the whole body with it,
-even down to the legs. This white comes from the island of Borneo,
-whence it is carried to China. Then they carry to Japan all those China
-goods and some others from Europe and India, which they sell exceeding
-well; they bring back only silver, which they get cheap, and return to
-Macao to resell all their silver, exchanging it for other merchandise.
-They make a long sojourn in all those places, and then return to Malaca,
-where they must call; there they make another exchange of goods for
-those of Malaca and the islands of Sunda. Thence they return to Goa, or
-whatever other place the master of the ship belongs to.”
-
-In Goa, “They have no glasses, except what are brought from these parts
-or from Persia, and that is but little, and, moreover, not much
-esteemed, as they get the porcelaines of China at small cost.
-
-“The Maldives take their food so nicely that they spill nothing, not
-even a drop of water, though they wash the mouth before and after dinner
-in basins served on purpose. The vessel used is of earthenware, like
-that of Fayance, fashioned in the native style, and imported from
-Cambaye; or else it is of China porcelain, which is very common and used
-by almost all. But they use not any plate of earthenware, or of
-porcelain, saving one kind of round box, polished and lacquered, with a
-cover of the same; it is manufactured in the island....
-
-“His (the King’s) plate is neither gold nor silver, for that is
-forbidden by their law, but of porcelain or of other China fabric.
-
-“It is impossible to tell all the great riches and all the rare and
-beautiful things which the ships bring back; among others they bring
-much gold in ingots. Some gold also they have in leaf and some in dust;
-also great store of gilded woodwork, such as all sorts of vessels and
-furniture lacquered, varnished and gilded with a thousand pretty
-designs; then all kinds of silk stuffs, good store of unwrought silk,
-great quantities of musk and civet, plenty of the metal called
-_calin_,[7] which is much esteemed over all the Indies, and even in
-Persia and elsewhere.... Of this metal they make all their utensils and
-ornaments as we do have of silver and tin; they even use it for rings
-and bracelets for girls and children. They import also from thence much
-porcelain ware, which is used throughout India as well by the Portuguese
-as by the Indians. Besides all this, many boxes, plates and baskets made
-of little reeds covered with lacquer and varnished in all colours,
-gilded and patterned. Among other things I should mention a great number
-of cabinets of all patterns in the fashion of those of Germany. This is
-an article the most perfect and of the finest workmanship to be seen
-anywhere; for they are all of choice woods and inlaid with ivory,
-mother-of-pearl and precious stones; in place of iron they are mounted
-with gold. The Portuguese call them _Escritorios de la Chine_.”
-
-Footnote 7:
-
-  Malayan tin.
-
-J. G. Mendoza was another traveller who gave Europe the results of his
-observations of Portuguese activities in the Far East, and helped to
-stimulate a popular taste for porcelain. His book was translated into
-English in 1588, by R. Parke. Among other interesting information he
-tells us:
-
-“There be also shops full of earthen vessels of divers making, redde,
-greene, yellow, and gilt; it is so good cheepe that for foure rials of
-plate they give fiftie pieces: very strong earth, the which they doo
-breake all to pieces and grinde it and put it into sesternes with water,
-made of lime and stone; and after that they have well tumbled and tossed
-it in the water, of the creame that is upon it they make the finest sort
-of them, and the lower they go, spending that substance that is the
-courser: they make them of what colour they please, the which will never
-be lost: then they put them into their killes and burne them. This has
-beene seene and is of a truth, as appeareth in a booke set forth in the
-Italian tongue by Duardo Banbosa,[8] that they do make them of
-periwinkle shelles of the sea: the which they do grinde and put them
-under the ground to refine them, whereas they lie 100 years. But if that
-were true, they should not make so great a number of them as is made in
-that kingdome, and is brought into Portugall, and carried into the Peru,
-and Nova Espania, and into other parts of the world.... And the Chinos
-do agree for this to be true. The finest sort of this is never carried
-out of the countrie, for that it is spent in the service of the king,
-and his governours, and is so fine and deere, that it seemeth to be of
-fine and perfite cristal: that which is made in the province of Saxie is
-the best and finest....
-
-Footnote 8:
-
-  1520.
-
-“The fine earthen dishes that are in this countrie cannot be declared
-without many wordes. But that which is brought from thence into Spaine
-is verie course; although, unto them that hath not seene the finer sort,
-it seemeth excellent good; but they have such with them, that a cubbard
-thereof amongest us would be esteemed as though it were of golde. The
-finest cannot be brought forth of the kingdome upon paine of death;
-neyther can any have the use thereof, but onely the _loytias_, which be
-there gentlemen.”
-
-The glowing accounts of the riches of Ind and Far Cathay brought home by
-the early voyagers naturally fired the imagination and cupidity of
-Dutch, English and French merchants and adventurers, who said to one
-another: “We too will go to the hills of the Chankley Bore”; and every
-potentate in Europe connived at their subjects’ efforts to trespass on
-the King of Portugal’s Tom Tiddler’s Ground.
-
-Independent efforts had been made by the English to get a share of the
-riches of the East long before the Dutch and English East India
-companies were formed. In 1560, the Portuguese ambassador exhibited
-articles for restraining the traffic of English merchants in the Indies.
-In 1566, “Dr. Lewes takes bonds of George Fenner not to spoil any of the
-Queen’s subjects, nor to traffic into India, or any other places
-privileged by the King of Spain.” About the same date, the merchants
-petitioned “for reopening the trade with Portugal suspended in
-consequence of the irregular trade of some Englishmen to the Indies.”
-
-Instances of poaching and piracy in Portuguese preserves might be
-multiplied, but three will suffice. In 1598, Cecil receives a report
-from a Lisbon agent that, “On August 1st, three carracks arrived from
-India and one was burnt there full laden. They bring news that two
-English ships in India have taken two Portugal ships, rich with
-treasure, that were on their voyage from Goa to Chine.” And again, on
-October 16, 1601, Sir John Gilbert writes to Cecil: “My ship ... has
-brought home silks, having taken a Brazil vessel with porcelain and
-other wares.”
-
-Elizabeth’s luxurious ministers had choice collections of porcelain
-richly mounted in precious metal, from which they sometimes offered her
-presents. For instance, among her New Year’s gifts in 1588, we find:
-“One porrynger of white porselyn, garnished with golde, the cover of
-golde, with a lyon on the toppe thereof; all given by the Lord
-Threasorour, 38 oz. Item, one cup of green pursselyne, the foot, shanke
-and cover silver guilte chased like droppes. Given by Mr. Robert Cecill,
-15 oz. Item, one cup of pursseline, th’ one side paynted red, the foote
-and cover sylver guilte. Given by Mr. Lychfelde, 14 oz.”
-
-It is natural that from the fact that the Portuguese had the monopoly of
-the East Indian trade, the finest examples of Oriental workmanship
-should be found in Portugal and Spain, Lisbon being the _entrepôt_ of
-European distribution. The Spanish dominions in the Low Countries were
-well supplied with these wares by the Dutch mariners.
-
-During the sixteenth century, the Dutch were already famed as
-sea-carriers (_rouliers des mers_). With Lisbon as a base of supplies,
-they soon destroyed the monopoly of the trade in Oriental wares which
-Venice had so long enjoyed. When Philip II annexed Portugal in 1580,
-however, he naturally sought to take revenge on his rebellious subjects
-of the Low Countries by closing against them the ports of the Iberian
-peninsula.
-
-Finding that their profits from the trade with the East Indies were thus
-practically extinguished, their only course was to go to those distant
-lands themselves. How to get there was the question; and this was a
-secret which the Portuguese navigators had carefully guarded. The Dutch
-knew that they were reached by some southern route which could only be
-traversed by force of arms, but thought that the lands where one might
-“swim in golden lard” might be reached by a north-east passage. Dutch
-ships vainly attempted this in 1594 and 1596, being barred by the ice.
-In the meantime, Corneliz Houtman had managed to buy some Portuguese
-charts, and thus to learn the real route around the Cape. He induced ten
-merchants of Amsterdam to form a “Foreign Company” (_van verre_) and
-send out a sort of exploring expedition. This first attempt was made on
-no lavish scale. The ships could not hope to fight the mighty Portuguese
-armed carracks. The four ships of this first voyage were the _Maurice_,
-400 tons; the _Amsterdam_, 200 tons; the _Dove_, 30 tons; and the
-_Holland_, 400 tons.
-
-They left Texel early in April, 1595, and arrived home in August, 1597.
-Their glowing reports encouraged the despatch of a second flotilla of
-eight ships in 1598, four of which went to the Moluccas and the rest no
-farther than Bantam, returning with rich cargoes of spices and other
-merchandise. Several other companies were started in consequence, but in
-1602 they were all consolidated with a capital of 6,440,000 florins, and
-the Dutch East India Company was established.
-
-The Dutch navigators and travellers who sailed the Vanderdecken course
-to the Spice Islands, naturally, on their return, gave their
-fellow-countrymen a full account of the wealth and curiosities of art
-they had witnessed in India, Polynesia, China and Japan. Two or three of
-these, not being foreign to our subject, may be quoted here. The
-Netherland East India Company sent an embassy to the Emperor of China in
-1655, and the reporter was evidently most interested in supplying his
-fellow-countrymen with the secrets of the manufacture of porcelain,
-which the Dutch were trying to imitate with their delft ware. He says:
-
-“Upon the 25th of April we came to a village famous for shipping called
-Ucienjen, where lay great store of vessels of several sorts and sizes,
-which were come thither from all parts of China, to lade with China
-earthenware, whereof great store is sold in this village.... Quite
-through the middle of this rich village rims a broad street, full of
-shops on both sides, where all manner of commodities are sold; but the
-chiefest trade is in Purceline, or China dishes, which is to be had
-there in great abundance....
-
-“The earth whereof this porcelain is made, is digged in great quantity
-out of the mountains situated near the chief city Hoei-cheu, in the
-province of Nanking, from whence it is brought in four-square clods to
-the above-mentioned village, which have the Emperor’s arms stamped upon
-them to prevent all manner of deceit. The earth is not fat, like clay,
-or chalk, but like to our fine sand, which they mingle with water, and
-so make it into four-square clods. They likewise beat and powder the
-broken China dishes, and make new ones of them; (but such as are made of
-broken ware never take so fine colour and gloss as those which are made
-of fresh mould.) The earthen clods which are thus brought from the
-mountains are afterwards framed into what fashions they please, after
-the same manner as our potters in Europe form their earthenware. Upon
-the great pots which are made of this earth, they have an art to
-themselves to paint all manner of creatures, flowers and trees, which
-they do very curiously only with _Indico_. This art of painting upon the
-pots is kept so private and secret that they will not teach it to any
-but to their children and near relations, wherein the Chineses are so
-dexterous that you cannot show them anything, but they will imitate it
-upon their pots and dishes, which being framed and made of this earth,
-are first dryed in the Sun before they are baked in the oven; and when
-they are thoroughly dryed, they are put into an oven and stopt very
-close, where they bake for fifteen days together with a good fire under:
-the time being out, they are continued in the oven fifteen days more
-without any fire; however the oven all that while is kept close stopt,
-and not opened till it be quite cold; for if they should take their
-earthenware red-hot out of the oven, it would endanger the breaking and
-losing their gloss. After the expiration of thirty days, the furnace is
-opened in the presence of an officer appointed by the Emperor to take an
-account of this earthenware, and to receive the Emperor’s duty which is
-of such sort the fifth piece, according to the laws of the kingdom; the
-rest they afterwards sell to the inhabitants of this village, Ucienjen,
-where (as they say) is the staple of this _Purceline_ trade, which is
-sent from this village, not only through all China, but also through the
-whole world.”
-
-From Samedo’s _History of China_, we learn:
-
-“They have altogether relinquished to Europe to be served in plate,
-there being scarce found among them a vessel of silver of a considerable
-bigness, no not in the Emperor’s palace, being content to eat in
-porcelain, which is the only vessel in the world for neat and delightful
-cleanliness.... Kiamsi is famous for the Porcellane dishes (indeed the
-only work in the world of this kind) which are made only in one of its
-towns: so that all that is used in the kingdom, and dispersed through
-the whole world, are brought from this place: although the earth whereof
-they are made cometh from another place: but there only is the water,
-wherewith precisely they are to be wrought to come to their perfection,
-for if they be wrought with other water the work will not have so much
-glosse and lustre. In this worke there are not those mysteries that are
-reported of it here, neither in the matter, the form nor the manner of
-working; they are made absolutely of earth, but of a neat and excellent
-quality. They are made in the same time, and the same manner, as our
-earthen vessels; only they make them with more diligence and
-accuratenesse. The blew, wherewith they paint the porcellane, is anill,
-whereof they have abundance, some do paint them with vermilion, and (for
-the king) with yellow.”
-
-The same traveller also notes: “The workmanship of Europe which they
-most admired were our clocks, but now they make of them such as are set
-upon tables, very good ones.”
-
-A Jesuit father, writing from China in 1688, sheds further light on the
-wares that were made there and prized in Europe. He says in part:
-
-“As for porcelain, it is such an ordinary moveable, that it is the
-ornament of every house; the tables, the sideboards, nay, the kitchen is
-cumber’d with it, for they eat and drink out of it, it is their ordinary
-vessel. There is likewise made huge flower-pots of it. The very
-architects cover roofs and make use of it sometimes to incrustate marble
-buildings.
-
-“Amongst those that are most in request, there are of three different
-colours; some are yellow, yet though the earth be very fine, they appear
-more coarse than the others; and the reason is, because that colour does
-not admit of so fine polishing; it is used in the Emperor’s palace.
-Yellow is his own proper colour, which is not allowed to any person to
-bear; so that one may safely say, that as for the business of porcelain,
-the Emperor is the worst served.
-
-“The second sort is of a grey colour, with abundance of small irregular
-lines in it, that cross one another, as if the vessel was all over
-striped, or wrought with inlaid or mosaic work. I cannot imagine how
-they form these figures, for I have much ado to believe that they are
-able to draw them with a pencil. However it is, these sort of vases
-partake of a particular beauty; and sure I am, the curious amongst us
-would much value them.
-
-“Last of all, the third sort of porcelain is white, with divers figures
-of flowers, trees and birds, which they paint in blue, such as come
-hither into Europe. This is the commonest of all, and everybody uses
-it.”
-
-The minute descriptions of the manufacture and varieties of porcelain
-furnished by Dutch and other travellers must not be charged up to an
-artistic appreciation exclusively. The Dutch were very much in earnest
-in their efforts to manufacture a home product which might compete with
-the foreign. As we have seen, Dutch pottery had already attained a high
-reputation, and was much sought after in foreign markets; and now, with
-the influx of porcelain, the Guilds strained every nerve to meet the
-demand.
-
-The manufacture of delft began at the end of the sixteenth century with
-Hermann Pietersz, a native of Haarlem. In the first days of its
-existence, the style of decoration was rather complicated, for the
-subjects representing _kermesses_, combats, etc., were designed _en
-camaïeu_. In order to sell a piece of pottery, the potter had to belong
-to the Guild of St. Luke. The Delft Guild of St. Luke was established in
-1611 and included all the skilled workmen in the arts and crafts: (1)
-painters; (2) stainers of glass, engravers and glass-makers; (3)
-potters; (4) embroiderers and weavers of tapestry; (5) sculptors and
-carvers; (6) sheath or scabbard-makers; (7) art-printers and
-booksellers; and (8) engravers and dealers in paintings.
-
-In the second half of the seventeenth century, particularly under the
-influence of Abraham de Kooge (1632) and Albrecht de Keizer (1642), the
-Delft potters began to imitate the Oriental products in both modelling
-and decoration. De Kooge was famous for his landscapes and portraits
-with names and dates—all in blue; but de Keizer, who was the precursor
-of the celebrated Cornelis de Keizer and the two Pynackers, also
-produced coloured ware in imitation of the Chinese and Japanese. Other
-followers were: Pieter Oesterham, who devoted himself chiefly to
-landscapes and national portraits; Frederick van Frytom, who was
-particularly fond of blue _camaïeu_: Gerrit Pietersz, who delighted in
-elephants and Chinese subjects; and Augustijn Reygensbergh, who made
-fine imitations of Chinese and Japanese ware in red, blue and gold.
-Lowys Fictoor (1689) and Lambertus Eenhoorn (1691) were famous for their
-black delft, with wonderful glaze and ornamented in the Chinese style
-with pagodas and trees in yellow and green; Lucas van Dale, for his
-olive-brown decorated with yellow; Leonard van Amsterdam, for figures,
-small landscapes and shipping scenes painted in colours on the backs of
-brushes as well as small dishes; and Verhagen sought the prints of
-Goltzius. Among other celebrated potters of this period are the names of
-two other Eenhoorns, five Kams, four Van der Hoevens, and two Dextras.
-The many factories of Delft were known under fanciful names, such as The
-Rose, The Star, The Peacock, The Claw, The Three Bells, etc., etc. Delft
-ware declined about the end of the seventeenth century.
-
-The European potters did not gain a clear and sane understanding of the
-composition and manufacture of porcelain till the last years of the
-reign of Louis XIV, when d’Entrecolles, a Jesuit father, sent home a
-full report of the mystery. A few extracts from his letter will be
-extremely illuminating on certain points relating to European trade and
-Chinese guile:
-
-“As for the colours of the porcelain, they are of all kinds. In Europe,
-scarcely any are to be seen but those that have a strong blue on a white
-ground. I believe, however, that our merchants have brought others in.
-There are some with grounds like our _miroirs ardents_; some again are
-entirely red, and amongst these some are dotted with little points like
-our _mignatures_. When these are perfect, which is very hard to attain,
-they are infinitely esteemed and extremely dear.
-
-“Finally there are porcelains in which the landscapes painted on them
-are made up of almost every colour and relieved by gold. They are very
-beautiful, if we judge by their cost: otherwise the ordinary porcelain
-of this kind is not comparable to that painted with azure alone....
-Black porcelain has also its own price and beauty.... The gold that is
-applied to it, gives it a novel charm....
-
-“Here also is made another species that I had never yet seen: it is all
-pierced and cut-work: in the centre is a cup to contain liquor. The cup
-is in the same piece and forms a part of the cut-work. I have seen other
-porcelains in which Chinese and Tartar ladies were painted to the life.
-The draperies, the complexion and features of the faces were all well
-rendered. From a distance you would take this work for enamel.
-
-“The Chinese complain of a lost secret: they once had the art of
-painting on the insides of porcelains fishes and animals that only
-became visible when the vessels were filled with some liquid. They try
-from time to time to recover the art of this magic painting, but in
-vain.... However that may be, we may say that at the present day the
-beautiful blue has been revived on porcelain after having disappeared
-from it....
-
-“The Chinese chiefly succeed in grotesques and the representations of
-animals. They make ducks and turtles that float upon the water. I have
-seen a cat painted to the life. In its head had been put a little lamp
-the flame of which shone through the eyes, and I was assured that rats
-were terrified at it. They also make here many statues of _Kouan in_, a
-Chinese goddess, with an infant in her arms.
-
-“European merchants often order from the Chinese workers porcelain
-plaques to form the top of a table, or back of a chair, or frame of a
-picture. These works are impossible: the greatest length and width of a
-plate is about one foot. If they are made larger than that, no matter
-how thick, they bend.... The history of _King te ching_ speaks of divers
-works ordered by Emperors that workmen tried vainly to execute.... The
-Mandarins of this province presented a petition to the Emperor begging
-him to have the attempts cease.... However, the Mandarins who know how
-ingenious Europeans are in invention, have sometimes asked me to have
-new and curious designs sent from Europe in order to have something
-singular made for presentation to the Emperor. On the other hand, the
-Christians strongly urged me not to procure such models, for the
-Mandarins are not so readily satisfied as our merchants are when the
-workmen tell them that a work is impracticable; and frequently the
-bastinado is liberally bestowed before the Mandarin abandons a design
-from which he has promised himself great advantages.
-
-“We should not be astonished that porcelain is so dear in Europe: we
-shall be still less so when we learn that besides the great profits
-taken by the European merchants and by their Chinese agents, it is
-rarely that a baking is entirely successful; sometimes indeed it is a
-total failure. Thus for one workman who grows rich, there are a hundred
-ruined; but this does not deter them from tempting Fortune.... Moreover,
-the porcelain that is sent to Europe is almost always made on new and
-often strange models in which success is difficult. However slight the
-blemishes may be it is rejected by the Europeans, who will not take any
-but perfect pieces; so that it remains in the hands of the workmen, who
-are not able to sell it to the Chinese because it is not to their taste.
-The consequence is that the pieces that are taken bear the additional
-charge of those that are rejected.
-
-“According to the history of _King te ching_, the profits were formerly
-much greater than they are now. It is hard to believe this, for there
-must then have been a great sale of porcelain in Europe. I have said
-that the difficulty in executing certain models sent from Europe is one
-of the causes of the excessive price of porcelain, for it must not be
-imagined that the workmen can work on all the models that reach them
-from foreign countries. There are some impracticable ones in China, just
-as there are some made that astonish foreigners who would not think them
-possible.”
-
-The price of china-ware fluctuated considerably during the seventeenth
-century. Sometimes a critic complained, as above, that values had
-greatly appreciated because of the demand, and then again others wailed
-that the enormous importations had driven prices down till the game was
-not worth the candle. In Mendelslo’s _Voyages_ (1639), we read:
-
-“The Chinese bring to the island of Java porcelain which they sell there
-very cheaply: for when boats arrive from China they buy six porcelain
-dishes for a thousand _caxas_ (a string of two hundred _caxas_ are
-called _sata_ and are worth about nine _deniers_ of French money, and
-five _satas_ tied together make a _sapocon_).”
-
-Again, from _Recueil des Voyages_ (Constant) we learn:
-
-“The (Chinese) ships also bring (to Java) fine and coarse porcelain.
-When the Dutch first arrived, they bought five or six dishes of both
-kinds for 1,000 _caxas_, but afterwards they got no more than two or
-three, rarely more.
-
-“For return freight, they take, besides pepper, all the lacca brought
-from the city of Tolonbaon, where there is great abundance. They also
-load with the anil[9] that comes from Anier in pots; sandal wood, musk
-and tortoiseshell, with which in China they make beautifully wrought
-_coffres_; elephant tusks, with which they make beautiful seats that are
-esteemed as much as if they were of silver, and that are used by
-Mandarins and Viceroys.”
-
-Footnote 9:
-
-  A species of indigo.
-
-The importations were indeed enormous, as the bills of lading of the
-Dutch vessels prove. For example, among the cargoes of eleven Dutch
-ships that arrived in Holland from the East Indies in July, 1664, were
-44,943 pieces of very rare Japanese porcelain and 101 Japan cabinets.
-The eleven ships that left Batavia on December 24 of the same year,
-brought home 16,580 pieces of porcelain of divers kinds.
-
-The Dutch brought to Europe such vast quantities of porcelain in the
-first quarter of the seventeenth century as practically to monopolize
-the trade and undersell the English. Thus, Methwold, writing from
-Masulipatam to the East India Company in 1619, says: “The great profit
-first obtained on porcelain has filled all men’s hands with plenty (by
-the Dutch), which makes theirs (the East India Company’s) not sought
-after.”
-
-Turning now, for a moment, to tea, we find that it made its way into
-public favour somewhat slowly—far more so than porcelain. It was known
-to the Dutch before 1600, but was not in general use till half a century
-later.
-
-J. H. van Linschoten, describing the manners and customs of the Island
-Japan (1598), says:
-
-“After their meat, they use a certain drinke, which is a pot with hote
-water, which they drinke as hote as ever they may indure, whether it be
-Winter or Summer ... and the gentlemen make it themselves; and when they
-will entertaine any of their friends, they give him some of that warme
-water to drinke: for the pots wherein they seeth it, and wherein the
-herb is kept, with the earthen cups which they drinke it in, they
-esteeme as much of them as we doe of diamonds, rubies, and other
-precious stones, and they are not esteemed for their newnes, but for
-their oldnes, and for that they were made by a good workman: and to know
-and keepe such by themselves, they take great and special care, as also
-of such as are the valuers of them, and are skilful in them.... So if
-their pots and cups be of an old and excellent workman’s making, they
-are worth four or five thousand ducats or more the peece. The King of
-Bungo did give for such a pot, having three feet, fourteen thousand
-ducats, and a Japan, being a Christian in the town of Sacay, gave for
-such a pot fourteen hundred ducats, and yet it had three pieces upon
-it.”
-
-As late as 1639, Mendelslo thought it worth while describing again. He
-says in his _Voyages_:
-
-“The Japanese bray the tea as fine as powder, and taking a little on the
-point of a knife put it in a porcelain or earthenware cup filled with
-boiling water.... They have no more luxurious articles of furniture than
-belong to this service: teapots have been seen that cost twenty-eight
-thousand crowns.”
-
-The use of tea became common among the well-to-do and fashionable
-classes from 1660 to 1680. Every house had a special tea-room fitted up,
-and even the burghers had their tea-offices, or drank tea in the front
-room or _voorhuis_; for the social tea always took place in the front
-part of the house. The tea-room was furnished like a reception-room, the
-important pieces of furniture being the tea-buffet and the tea-table. “A
-corner tea-buffet of costly wood” is mentioned in the inventory of
-Develstein, while other inventories mention “properly inlaid Chinese
-lacquered tea-tables mounted with silver and mother-of-pearl,” also
-fir-wood and oak tables and tables with drop leaves. On the tea-table
-the porcelain was displayed. This was bordered with gold or silver, or
-was a blue Chinese or a coloured Japanese set with the “waffle-mark,” or
-the six marks of the “Long Eliza,” “the cuckoo out of the house” and
-“the cuckoo into the house,” and all kinds of red and gold, ribbed or
-plain porcelain. A complete tea-set included large and small teapots,
-large and small cups with and without covers, sugar basins, pastry
-dishes with a small golden fork, and saffron pots. These little pots and
-dishes were of different shapes; and we should note that there were a
-double set of teapots—one in which the tea was drawn and the other into
-which it was poured, to be poured out into the cups in turn. Sometimes
-these pots were curiously shaped with open or basket sides, the spout
-formed like the head of a bird or animal, while others carried
-inscriptions or coats-of-arms, and the top of the lid bore some
-grotesque fowl, bird or ornament. Square teapots profusely decorated
-with gold paint were very costly. The teacups were also gaily decorated.
-An exhibition in Delft in 1863 showed thirty famous designs of cups and
-saucers.
-
-If we were to enter a fashionable tea-room of the seventeenth century,
-we should find ourselves in the front of the house in a room furnished
-according to the rank and means of the proprietor. Rich or poor, it is
-always exquisitely clean. As carpets and rugs are not common, the floor
-is covered with bright mats, and the walls are either whitewashed, or
-encased in blue and white tiles. Upon them hang pictures, more or less
-valuable. The round table and the chairs are of _sacredaan_ wood, and
-the latter are furnished with cushions of Utrecht velvet. The
-chimney-piece is ornamented with Chinese knickknacks that will interest
-the visitor for several hours, and on either side of it are two oak
-cupboards inlaid with ebony. Facing the chimney stands the china-cabinet
-with its fragile treasures, the _vrouw’s_ idol, the object of her
-tenderest care.
-
-The guests usually arrived between two and three in the afternoon, and
-were received and extended many formalities peculiar to the occasion.
-Unless it rained, no cloak or wrap was worn, so the guests were received
-in the tea-room at once and immediately seated themselves, resting their
-feet—winter or summer—on a foot-warmer. The hostess takes a sample of
-tea from her many tea-caddies, each filled with a different kind of tea,
-and puts them into a different pot, each pot having a little silver
-strainer in the spout. When the tea is drawn, she fills the smallest cup
-with a sample from each pot and hands these tiny cups to her friends, so
-that they may discover what kind they prefer. One prefers this, and one
-prefers another; but, as a rule, the choice is left to the hostess. Now
-the tea-making begins in earnest. According to the number of guests, the
-hostess takes a single or double teapot, and from a larger caddy the tea
-that has been chosen. While this is being drawn, she takes some saffron,
-and infuses this in a small _red_ pot, and serves the tea and saffron in
-a covered cup, so that none of the sweetness nor aroma shall be wasted.
-In spring the saffron is discarded in favour of young peach leaves. The
-tea is sweetened to taste, but milk is never served until 1680, when it
-is used in imitation of the French; for the idea of milk in tea
-originated with the Marchioness de la Sablière. The conversation at
-these gatherings turned on tea and general gossip.
-
-The tea-table was of great importance in social life. Even poets sang
-its praises in Holland, as they did in England. A picturesque stanza
-from a Dutch poet is worth quoting:
-
-     “_In ’t midden van de zaal daar stond een gueridon,
-     Op ’t zelve een keteltje, zo blank gelijk een zon.
-     ’t Trekpotje was bekleed met zuiver zilverlaken,
-     Opdat geen vogt het goud van ’t lofwerk zou mismaaken
-     Waar meed het was beleid; de schoteltjes in ’t rond
-     Van onder net beplakt met zagte stukjes bont,
-     Uit vrees dat ’t porcelein het lakwerk mogte schaaren,
-     Van ’t lief japansche-blad, ’t geen ruste op drie pylaaren
-     Van sakredaan, kaneel en pik-zwart ebbenhout.
-     Het schenken van de thee werd juffrouw Rois vertrouwt,
-     Die evenwigtig thee met water wist te mengen._”
-
-     (In the middle of the hall there stood a table
-     Upon which was a small kettle, bright as the sun.
-     The teapot was covered with pure silver cloth
-     So that no liquid would deface the gold from the ornamentation
-     With which it was covered; the small saucers around it
-     Pasted underneath with soft furry cloth, so that
-     The porcelains might not scratch the lacquer
-     From the pretty Japanese tray, which rested on a tripod
-     Of sacredaan, cinnamon and jet-black ebony.
-     The pouring of the tea was trusted to Miss Rois,
-     Who knew how to mix tea and water properly.)
-
-Thus we see that the tea-table was firmly established as a social
-institution in Holland by the middle of the seventeenth century, and
-porcelain was an important factor in interior decoration long before
-Dutch William drove the Stuarts out of England. A Dutch inventory of the
-time of the Glorious Revolution (1689) is worth citation for the sake of
-illustrating the prevailing taste and the price of porcelain of the day:
-
-  STATEMENT AND INVENTORY OF THE CONTENTS AND THE GOODS OF DIRCK VAN
-      KESSEL AND CHRESTINA DE RIDDER, LEFT WITHOUT OWNER BY THE
-      AFORESAID CHRESTINA DE RIDDER BY HER DEATH ON THE 15TH OF JANUARY
-      OF THIS YEAR 1689
-
-                        _In the Porcelain Room._
-
-                                                                FLORINS.
-
- Two porcelain “beguine” pots                                        150
-
- One porcelain chamber-pot with cover                                  6
-
- One porcelain box, without cover                                      6
-
- Three porcelain preserve pots                                       120
-
- Four large porcelain bowls                                           30
-
- One high pyramidal shaped water jug                                  12
-
- Two porcelain fruit dishes                                           15
-
- A jug with a silver lid                                              10
-
- A porcelain box with lid                                             12
-
- One porcelain cover                                                  10
-
- One porcelain pot with handles                                        4
-
- Two porcelain crackle bowls                                          10
-
- Four porcelain boxes                                                 10
-
- A little stewing pot                                                 10
-
- Two porcelain teapots                                                 6
-
- One porcelain sexagonal pot                                          20
-
- Two porcelain printed oil pots                                       10
-
- One porcelain stewing pan coloured, without cover                    18
-
- One porcelain apple pot                                              30
-
- Two porcelain crackle jars (one broken)                              15
-
- Two long porcelain boxes                                              5
-
- Two porcelain “beguine” pots                                         30
-
- Four porcelain boxes with covers                                     15
-
- Four butter dishes                                                    6
-
- Twenty-four porcelain teacups with covers                            48
-
- An East India box with a bamboo                                      10
-
- Thirteen (with inside decoration)                                    13
-
- Two porcelain bottles with French flowers                            60
-
- Five porcelain butter dishes on the back yellow and green            10
-
- Thirteen coloured tea-saucers (one broken)                            8
-
- Two porcelain cups with knobs on the covers                           6
-
- Three large East India teapots                                       24
-
- Four little East India teapots                                        6
-
- Four old porcelain stewing pots                                      40
-
- Five old long shaped bottles, one of which is in pieces              30
-
- Four porcelain boxes that can be shut (with covers)                  20
-
- Eleven little porcelain pieces                                        5
-
- Two little candlesticks with extinguishers                           16
-
- Two round shaped oblong bottles, one of which is in pieces           15
-
- Three porcelain small plaques                                         8
-
- Six porcelain dinner plates                                          12
-
- Eight porcelain printed red dishes                                   12
-
- Two pots with Chinese acrobats                                       18
-
- Two pots with French scrolls                                         24
-
- Two old porcelain bottles with a cover                               15
-
- Four porcelain pots with overlapping covers                          48
-
- Five porcelain swans                                                  5
-
- Eighteen porcelain cups, red, with one blue                          12
-
- Forty porcelain yellow cups                                          12
-
- Four porcelain slop basins                                           12
-
- Fifty porcelain coffee saucers                                       30
-
- Three porcelain sexagonal pin-trays                                   8
-
- Five porcelain pieces, red and blue                                   3
-
- Two old inscription bowls                                            16
-
- Two porcelain bowls with birds on branches                           20
-
- One porcelain rosemary bowl                                           8
-
- Three porcelain coloured starch basins                                6
-
- One porcelain “beguine” pot with a delft cover                       16
-
- One porcelain sexagonal pot                                          10
-
- One porcelain chain pot                                              10
-
- One porcelain pot with a bottle                                       8
-
- One porcelain bottle with Chinese                                    30
-
- One porcelain “beguine” pot, with handles                            30
-
- One porcelain four-square “beguine” pot                               6
-
- Three Persian basins                                                  8
-
- Seven porcelain butter dishes                                        21
-
- One porcelain, broken, open-work tray                                 2
-
- Three porcelain mustard pots, with a perforated cover                 8
-
- Eight candlesticks
-
- Two porcelain butter dishes                                          21
-
- One porcelain slop basin, one starch basin, and one crackle           5
-   jar
-
- Six porcelain printed cups                                            8
-
- Three porcelain printed saucers                                       4
-
- Twenty-one porcelain printed coffee cups                             10
-
- Ten coloured East India tea-saucers, cups with ducks painted         20
-   on them
-
- Two Japanese beakers                                                 50
-
- One East India beaker with Chinese letters                           30
-
- One East India beaker with pieces                                    12
-
- One pot with a _jardinière_                                          20
-
- One Chinese pot                                                      30
-
-                    _China Closet near the Windows._
-
- Five East India half-size wash basins                                70
-
- Five East India basins                                               40
-
- Five East India basins                                               50
-
- Five East India basins                                               46
-
- Three old porcelain dishes                                           30
-
- Three double butter dishes                                           20
-
- Three East India round dishes, in three parts, with flower           30
-   pots
-
- One East India round dish, in three parts, with flower pot and       12
-   stork
-
- One engraved tumbler                                                 20
-
- Seven porcelain crackle bowls                                        24
-
- Two old porcelain pots                                               15
-
- One porcelain beaker with a crack.                                   10
-
- Twenty-four brown bottles                                            15
-
- Four porcelain boxes with covers                                     12
-
- One porcelain basin and mustard pot without cover                     3
-
- Two porcelain salt cellars, with two mustard pots                    12
-
- Twelve teacups and saucers                                           48
-
- Four porcelain perforated cups                                       15
-
- Six porcelain perforated cups                                        18
-
- Six porcelain perforated cups
-
- Two East India slop basins with storks                               10
-
- Eight little old porcelain saucers                                   16
-
- Six porcelain saucers with dragons                                   12
-
- Six old porcelain saucers with frogs                                 18
-
- Nine old porcelain saucers with handles                              36
-
- Two slop bowls                                                        6
-
- Six old porcelain cups                                                6
-
- Two porcelain crackle bottles                                        30
-
- Three porcelain breakers                                             30
-
- Three old porcelain dishes in three parts                            10
-
- Five old porcelain mustard holders                                   18
-
- Seven old porcelain mustard holders                                  10
-
- Five great deep saucers                                              20
-
- Two porcelain blue bowls                                             12
-
- Two porcelain blue small bottles                                      3
-
- One porcelain new dish                                                4
-
- Two porcelain butter dishes                                           8
-
- Six porcelain butter dishes                                          15
-
- Three porcelain butter dishes                                         6
-
- Six porcelain deep saucers                                           12
-
- One hundred teacups and saucers.                                    200
-
- One East India mat with three Chinese figures                         4
-
-                      _Upstairs in the Front Room._
- Three pestles with flowers                                           40
-
- Two printed cups                                                      2
-
-                      _Upstairs in the Rear Room._
- Two “beguine” pots with landscapes                                   70
-
- One East India “beguine” pot with Chinese                            16
-
- Two printed small bottes                                             40
-
- Two small bottles with Chinese                                       25
-
- Six teacups and saucers                                              15
-
- One bottle with a small bird on a tree                               10
-
- Three butter dishes                                                  20
-
- Six little old small bottles                                          8
-
- Six little old boxes with covers                                      8
-
- Two teacups                                                           6
-
- Six dragon cups                                                       6
-
- Three flat saucers                                                    4
-
- Four coloured ribbed dishes or saucers                                6
-
- Six teacups and tea-saucers                                          15
-
- Six dishes with a box cover                                           8
-
- Two small baskets and two shelves                                     6
-
- The porcelain on the shelves                                         12
-
-                           _In the Vestibule._
- The porcelain in the shop, comprising thirteen pieces                24
-
-                        _In the Porcelain Room._
- Firstly, an olive wood carved cabinet                               250
-
- One gilt and engraved jewel casket                                   50
-
- One olive wood table with stands                                     25
-
-“Now follows a collection of large mirrors, which we consider of less
-importance. Of more interest is the following:
-
-                                                                FLORINS.
-
- 148 sheets and one half of gold leather, being white and gold,   170·15
-       valued at 23 stuivers the sheet
-
- The pine-apple with colours (decoration), 44 sheets, valued at    52·16
-
-  61 sheets, the unicorn green and gold                               70
-
-  80 sheets of gold leather                                           40
-
-  42 ditto                                                            42
-
-   1 lot of remnants, leather                                         30
-
-   1 lot of patterns and friezes                                     100
-
-   8 screens                                                         130
-
-   2 curtains and balance and the gold leather that hangs in           9
-       the kitchen in the rear
-
-“Hereafter follows again some porcelain and other articles, as—
-
-                                                                FLORINS.
-
- 8 painted figures                                                    40
-
- 2 broken roll wagons (round shaped bottles)                          24
-
- 1 porcelain stewing pan                                              12
-
- 2 half-size wash basins                                              24
-
- 2 ditto                                                              16
-
- 2 porcelain bowls                                                     4
-
- 6 porcelain cups with a broken wash jug and a broken roll             4
-     wagon
-
- 1 delft stewing pot                                                   4
-
- 6 gold leather chairs                                                20
-
- 1 clavecin                                                            4
-
- 1 bundle of old gold leather                                         20
-
- 1 large cup engraved with a battle scene and a large cup with       30”
-     a vine
-
-The value of porcelain may be gathered from the pieces mentioned in the
-inventory of Joh. Gemeelenbrouck, “meester silversmith,” in 1653:
-
-                                                       GUILDER. STUIVER.
- In the shop                                                 48
- Four whole lamps
- Sixteen half lamps                                          56
- Sixteen round dishes in three parts                         40
- Four double butter dishes                                    6
- Forty-five cornered butter dishes                           33       15
- One round shaped oblong bottle                               6
- Five “beguine” pots                                         30
- Nine “beguine” pots (small)                                 22       10
- Three drinking cups                                          4       10
- Four drinking cups (small)                                   2        8
- Three beakers                                                3       15
- Three bottles                                                4
- Three large bottles                                         18
- Five mustard pots                                            3       15
- Four wine cans                                              16
- Four chamber-pots                                           10
- Twenty-four parrot basins                                   24
- Forty-four cups and saucers                                 15        4
- Two cups and saucers                                         2
- Four oil pots                                                2        8
- Ten snuff boxes                                             10       10
- Seventy-five mustard pots                                   29
- Twenty-five deep saucers                                    16
- Three boxes with lids                                        3
- Four deep saucers                                            2        8
- Five red pots                                                0       15
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER VIII
-                             THE DUTCH HOME
-
-  Love of Porcelain—The Amsterdam Mart—Prices of China in 1615—Oriental
-      Wares before 1520—Luxury of the Dutch Colonists—Rich Burghers in
-      New Amsterdam—Inventories of Margarita van Varick and Jacob de
-      Lange—Dutch Merchants in the East—Foreign Views of Dutch Luxury—
-      Dutch Interiors after the Great and Little Masters—
-      House-furnishing by a young married couple—The Linen Chest—Clothes
-      Chests and Cupboards—The Great _Kas_—The Cabinet—The Toilet—
-      Table-Covers—Foot-warmers—Looking-glasses—Bedsteads—Tables and
-      Chairs—Woods—Kitchen Utensils—Silverware—Household Pets.
-
-
-In the preceding chapter, we have seen the constantly increasing
-importance of porcelain in the Dutch home. In England there was quite as
-great a demand for this ware among the wealthy classes; but the London
-East India Company could not supply the demand, and the reason is not
-far to seek. The Dutch were more energetic, or, at least, more
-successful in ousting and supplanting the Portuguese, and the Stores of
-the Indies in Amsterdam became recognized as the headquarters of
-distribution of Oriental ceramics. In all probability, the English
-company was not able to import wares of such superior quality as were
-the Dutch. The Dutch made themselves masters in the Eastern Seas, and
-British trade had a hard uphill fight there for a century and a half.
-The Dutch carried things with a very high hand, and the laws of neither
-God nor man were respected on the course of Vanderdecken from Cape Verde
-to Japan. The massacre of a few inoffensive English traders at Amboyna
-aroused quite a coolness in England towards Holland, and caused a good
-deal of embarrassment to the Government early in the reign of Charles I,
-which was too busy with home affairs to insist on reparation. However,
-the Dutch were only carrying on the traditions of “the spacious times of
-great Elizabeth,” when the methods of the great navigators were frankly
-piratical. England became well acquainted with Eastern wares when
-Hawkins, Drake, or Cumberland sailed into Plymouth with the rich freight
-of Portuguese carracks which they had waylaid around the Azores.
-
-The Dutch love of porcelain was very real: it appears in many a diary,
-letter and anecdote. In every home, the humble rectory and the house of
-the rich burgher-master alike, the same desire to own porcelain is
-found. When one Pastor Arnold Moonen was asked how much he would charge
-for his translation of Cicero’s _Epistolæ ad familiares_, he answered:
-“_Mijnheer! Ik mij in geenen staet bevindende om iet voor mijnen arbeit
-te kunnen eischen, als diergelijken handel ongewoon, zal enelijk van
-UEd. verzoeke te voldoen, de raet van die vrouwe volgen, die de Heer mij
-tot een hulpe gegeven heeft. Deze eischt van mij een nooteboomen kabinet
-met een stelsel in porselein, als zijn toebehooren, om daarop te setten,
-zoo als de vrinden kunnen goetvinden._” (“Sir! not being in a position
-to charge anything for my labour, as this is not an habitual thing, I
-should take heed of my wife, whom the Lord hath given me for a helpmate.
-She wishes to possess a nutwood cabinet with a set of porcelain to go
-with it, and to place ornaments on the top, if the consistory will grant
-this!”) Such a set of porcelain as the good lady required to decorate
-the top and fill the shelves within, cost at that time as much as 300
-double ducats (equal to about £136); but the ladies of that period had
-desires for fine furniture, dress and fashion that their husbands were
-often unable to gratify.
-
-The best china-ware was obtainable in Amsterdam only, and English
-travellers used to buy porcelain there, as they now go to Brussels or
-Mechlin for lace or Cashmere for shawls. As late as the reign of Charles
-II, Holland maintained her pre-eminence in this trade. In Henry Sidney’s
-_Diary_, November 18, 1679 (on the eve of his departure for Holland) we
-read: “My sister Sunderland spoke to me for a China cup.” Later he
-notes: “I went to see the magazine, the East India Stores.”
-
-We have already seen the prices of various kinds of porcelain in Holland
-in 1653 and 1689. It may be interesting to compare these with English
-prices earlier in the century. From the bill of lading of the _Java_
-(1615) we gather that the prime cost of porcelain was: “Saucer dishes,
-nearly 2_d._ a piece; flat sallet dishes, about 3½_d._; sallet cups,
-3½_d._; posset dishes, 4_d._; small (quarter) basins, 1_s._ 9_d._;
-larger (half) basins, 2_s._ 6_d._; largest (whole) basins, 5_s._”
-
-This was evidently china-ware of the cheapest kind, and the prices show
-that porcelain was now on the market in such quantities as to drive out
-the old pewter plates and dishes from the homes of the middle classes as
-well as the aristocracy. During the first quarter of the seventeenth
-century, however, the Oriental wares to be found in opulent houses were
-by no means confined to china-ware. The art furniture brought from the
-East was varied and choice.
-
-The inventory of a Dutch or English noble of wealth of that period shows
-the same taste for Eastern fabrics, lacquer and porcelain, and evidences
-the elegance that made Madame de Rambouillet famous in France. As an
-example, let us take the Earl of Northampton, who was famous and
-infamous in late Elizabethan and early Jacobean days. He died in 1619.
-Among his possessions we find the following goods of Oriental
-manufacture:
-
-“A cupbord containynge seven parcels of purslane cups trimmed with
-silver and guilte valued at £12; a field bedstead of China worke, black
-and silver, branched with silver, with the Arms of the Earle of
-Northampton upon the headpiece, the toppe and valance of purple velvett
-striped downe with silver laces and knots of silver, the frindge blewe
-silk and silver with 8 cuppes and plumes spangled suteable, the five
-curtains of purple taffata with buttons and lace of silver, the
-counterpoint of purple damaske suteable laced; one China cushen
-imbrodred with birdes, beastes and flowers, the ground of white Grogeron
-lined with yellow taffeta, 10_s._; thirteen yeardes and a quarter of
-purple gold velvett, China with flower-de-luces and diamond work, £8
-13_s._ 4_d._; a China striped quilt of beastes and antiques, the ground
-whice calico frindged about with a straw coloured frindge, £5; another
-China quilte stayned and spotted in colours £4; another China quilt
-stitched in checquer work with yellow silke, the ground white, £4; and a
-China carpett of several colours, the ground white and weaved in with
-antiques of several colours lined with watchett taffata, £4.
-
-“A China guilte cabonett upon a frame, £1 10_s._; a large square China
-worke table and frame of black vernishe and gold, £6; one faire crimson
-velvet chaire richlie imbosted with copper and spread eagles and blewe
-and white flowers China worke, the frame painted with gold and my Lord’s
-crest upon the same; one small table of China worke in golde and colours
-with flies and wormes upon a pillar suitable, £1; a little gilded couch
-carved and cutt, 15_s._; an ebony cabinett inlaid with mother-of-pearle,
-13_s._; a very large bedstead with wreathed pillars ballastars for head,
-side and feete, all coloured blacke and gold, £7; a foldinge Indian
-screne, £3 4_s._”
-
-The bonds between England and Holland were very close in Puritan days,
-and the household belongings of the two countries, both in hall and
-cottage, were practically identical. In Holland, the Puritans found a
-refuge and congenial surroundings before sailing for the New World. The
-homes of the prosperous burghers of New Amsterdam, now New York,
-faithfully mirrored the comfort and taste of those of Amsterdam and The
-Hague; and here we may pause a moment to examine a couple of inventories
-of early dwellers in what is still the most important city in the
-Western Hemisphere.
-
-Mrs. Margarita van Varick died in 1696, and her bequests to her children
-are eloquent testimony of the estimation in which she held her various
-household goods. In her will she leaves: “In a great chest bound up in a
-napkin for Johanna van Varick, a silver spice-box, a silver egg-dish, a
-silver thimble, a silver wrought East India box, 18 pieces of silver
-children’s toys, 11 pieces Arabian and Christian silver money, one gold
-ring with seven diamonds, two gold drops for the ear, one gold Arabian
-ducat, one Dutch Testament with gold clasps, one gold chain with a
-locket with seven diamonds, one pearl necklace, one small silver knife
-and fork, one small bundle beaten leaf gold, two gold pins headed with
-pearls, one gold bodkin, and one looking-glass with gilt frame.
-
-“In another napkin for Marinus van Varick, three silver wrought East
-India cups, one ditto dish, three pieces of silver money, one medal, 20
-pieces of silver children’s toys, one silver knife, one gold ring with a
-table diamond, two gold rings, one gold ducat, one gold medal, and one
-small gold box as big as a pea.
-
-“In another napkin for Rudolphus van Varick, three silver wrought East
-India boxes, one small ditto dish, one silver tumbler marked R. V., 17
-pieces silver playthings or toys, 8 pieces of silver money, one silver
-knife, one fork silver studded handle, one gold ring with three small
-diamonds, one gold ring, one ducat, two gold buttons, one gilded medal,
-and a gold piece the shape of a diamond.
-
-“In another napkin for Cornelia van Varick, a silver wrought East India
-trunk, a ditto box, a saltcellar, 28 silver playthings or toys, 20
-silver pieces of money, a small mother-of-pearl box, a gold comb, a
-Bible with gold clasps, a small bundle of leaf gold, a pair of diamond
-pendants, two gold chains, two gold rings with a diamond in each, two
-small gold rings, one pair crystal pendants edged with gold, one Arabian
-ducat, and two gold pins.
-
-“Also for Johanna, the biggest and finest Turkey-work carpet, a set of
-white flowered muslin curtains, a chintz flowered carpet, an East India
-cabinet with ebony foot wrought, the picture of Mrs. van Varick, the
-picture of Johanna, three china pots, one feather bed, one bolster, two
-cushions, one quilt, one white calico blanket.
-
-“Also for Marinus, a Turkey-work carpet, a gold bell and chain, a blue
-satin flowered carpet, a calico ditto, a silver-headed cane, a Moorish
-tobacco-pipe, a calico nightgown, a hair brush, a red box, two East
-India cabinets with brass handles, a feather bed, bolster, quilt, two
-cushions and green blanket, a picture of J. Abramson, and a ‘large
-picture of images, sheep and ships that hung above the chimney.’
-
-“Also for Rudolphus, a small ebony trunk with silver handles, a picture
-with a gilt frame, a cane with a silver head, a flowered carpet stitched
-with gold, a calico carpet, and a large picture of himself.
-
-“Also for Cornelia, the second finest Turkey-work carpet, two pictures
-with glasses before them, a calico nightgown, a hair brush, a chintz
-flowered carpet, a small black cabinet with silver hinges, the picture
-of Cornelia Hester deceased, the picture of a flower pot, a china cup
-bound with silver, a large looking-glass with ebony frame, two white
-china cups with covers, a feather bed covered with checkered linen, a
-bolster, three wadding cushions, two feather ditto, one quilt and a
-homespun blanket.
-
-“Also for Johanna and Cornelia, two glaasen cases with 39 pieces of
-small china-ware, 11 Indian babyes, and 6 small and 6 larger china
-dishes.
-
-“Also for Marinus and Rudolphus, 23 pieces of china-ware.
-
-“Also to be divided equally among them, 37 Dutch books 4º; and 46 ditto
-8^{vo}; and 4 ditto folio; a chest with children’s babyes playthings and
-toys; and 13 ebony chairs.”
-
-Mrs. van Varick’s home in New Amsterdam did not suffer in comparison
-with the rich Dutch houses in Holland. Her clothes, jewels and bequests
-to her children prove that her life was one of ease, luxury and fashion.
-Her house was not only furnished with every comfort known to the period,
-but was filled with curios, treasures from the Far East, rich furniture,
-and a fine collection of china and paintings. Her furniture included
-fine and richly upholstered bedsteads, tables, chairs, cabinets, glass
-cupboards for china, great _Kasten_, a handsome “painted wooden rack to
-set china-ware in,” six looking-glasses, and ten Indian looking-glasses,
-“two East India cane baskets with covers, one fine East India
-dressing-basket, one round ditto, two wooden gilt East India trays,
-lackered, and one round thing ditto.” Five brass hanging candlesticks
-and handle candlesticks, a double brass ditto, snuffers and
-extinguisher, a pair of brass standing candlesticks, and a standing
-candlestick with two brass candlesticks to it, prove that the house did
-not suffer for want of illumination. It was also bright with rich
-curtains and cushions. Among these were six satin cushions with gold
-flowers, a suit of serge bed-curtains and valance with silk fringe, six
-scarlet serge bed-curtains with valance and silk fringe, a green serge
-chimney cloth with fringe, two chimney cloths of flowered crimson gauge
-and six window curtains of the same, a painted chimney cloth, a calico
-curtain, a fine chintz carpet, many handsome Turkey-work carpets and
-white flowered muslin curtains. She had fourteen East India pictures,
-some with gilt and some with black frames, and twelve prints also in
-black and gilt frames, two maps with black frames, and about twenty well
-chosen paintings. Some of the subjects of these clearly show that they
-were in the style of Jan Steen, Dou, etc. In addition to landscapes,
-battles and fruit-pieces, the inventory notes “two pictures of ships
-with black ebony frames,” “one picture of the Apostle,” “one large
-flower pot,” “one with a rummer,” “one birdcage and purse, etc.,” “a
-large horse battle,” and “a large picture of roots.”
-
-The china exhibited in the cabinets and on the mantelpieces and
-cupboards made a fine display; for in addition to the Oriental curios
-and other pieces willed to her daughters the house contained: three
-large china dishes, ten china dishes, four ditto (cracked), three
-teapots, two china basins, one ditto (cracked), one smaller ditto, two
-ditto (cracked), three fine china cups, one china jug, four china
-saucers, six ditto smaller tea dishes, one ditto (cracked), six painted
-tea ditto, four tea ditto, eight teacups, four ditto painted brown, six
-smaller ditto, three ditto painted red and blue, two white East India
-flower pots, one ditto (cracked), three ditto smaller, two ditto
-(round), one lion, one china image, and a china ink-box and two
-sand-boxes. Among her articles for the table she also owned three wooden
-painted dishes and a wooden tray with feet; also “a thing to put spoons
-in.” A parcel of toys and a collar for a dog are among the miscellaneous
-articles.
-
-Turning now to another Dutch house in New Amsterdam—that of the
-barber-surgeon, Mr. Jacob de Lange, whose inventory was taken in 1685—we
-find the rooms consisting of a foreroom, side chamber, chamber, kitchen,
-shop and cellar. Mr. de Lange has a remarkable collection of porcelain
-and pictures, a great deal of fine furniture, rich clothing, jewels and
-East India cabinets, beautiful hangings, etc., etc.
-
-Mr. de Lange’s furniture consists of twelve chairs upholstered with red
-plush, six with green plush, eleven matted chairs, seven chairs with
-wooden backs and a church chair. He has two “cann boards,” two small
-“cloak boards,” a hat press, a clothes press, a square table, a round
-table, a small round table, and an oak drawing-table, a small square
-cabinet with brass hoops, one waxed East India small trunk, one square
-black small sealing waxed trunk, one silver thread wrought small trunk,
-and an ivory small trunk tipped with silver. He also owned an East India
-rush case containing nineteen wine and beer glasses, and an East India
-waxed cabinet with brass bands and hinges, containing gloves, ribbons,
-laces, fourteen fans and seven purses in the first partition; laces,
-buckles and ribbons in the second; cloth in the third; caps in the
-fourth; fans, bands, scarfs, garters and girdles in the fifth; silk,
-fringe and calico in the sixth; silk and materials for purses in the
-seventh, and spectacles in the eighth.
-
-The side chamber was furnished with eleven pictures, consisting of five
-East India pictures with red frames, four landscapes, one evening and a
-“small zea.” A looking-glass with a gilt frame also hung upon the wall.
-There was an enormous amount of porcelain here. The chimney was adorned
-with seven half-basins, two belly flagons, three white men, one sugar
-pot, two small pots, six small porringers and a small goblet. On and in
-the _kas_ were two great basins, one goblet, two pots, two flasks, four
-drinking glasses, five _drillings_, six double butter dishes,
-thirty-three butter dishes, two white teapots, seven small red teapots,
-a hundred and twenty-seven teapots, one can with a silver joint, one
-ditto with a joint, two flaskets, one barber’s basin, five small basins,
-sixty-seven saucers, four salt-cellars, three small mustard pots, five
-oil pots, one small pot, three small men, two small men, one basin, two
-small cups, one small oil can, one ditto spice pot, five saucers, four
-small men, one small dog, two small swans, one small duck, two tobacco
-boxes, one sand-box, four small cans, one small spoon, six small flasks,
-two small oil cans, one small chalice, and two fruit dishes. This room
-contained an East India cupboard, ninety books, and a pair of blue
-curtains and valance.
-
-The “foreroom” contained a black nutwood chest with two black feet under
-it, worth £2 10_s._, and some pieces of linen, £24 12_s._; a
-looking-glass with a black frame, £1 5_s._; two curtains before the
-glass windows; the family coat of arms in a black frame, £5 4_s._; and
-the following paintings: “A great picture being a banquet with a black
-list,” “one ditto something smaller,” “one ditto a bunch of grapes with
-a pomegranate,” “one with apricocks,” “a small countrey,” “a Break of
-Day,” “a small Winter,” “a Cobler” and “a portrait of my lord Speelman.”
-
-The pictures in the chamber include “a great picture banquet, worth £3
-5_s._; one ditto, £2 10_s._; one small ditto, £1 15_s._; one Abraham and
-Hagar, £1 5_s._; four small countreys, £4; two small ditto, £1 12_s._;
-one flower pot, one small ditto, one country people frolick, one
-sea-strand, one portraiture, and a plucked cock torn, two small
-countreys, one flower pot small, without a list, one small print broken,
-and thirteen East India prints pasted upon paper.”
-
-This room was well furnished. There were sixteen linen curtains before
-the glass windows, a large and valuable _kas_ covered or veneered with
-French nutwood, standing on two ball feet, worth £13; a great
-looking-glass with a black frame, a white valance before the chimney,
-“six cloths which they put on the shelves of the _kas_, one ditto with
-lace, two small calico valances before the glass windows, one red
-chimney cloth (probably placed over the white valance), two red striped
-silk curtains and two valances of the same, two green silk curtains and
-two embroidered valances, three grey striped silk chair cushions, four
-pieces of tapestry to be thrown over chests, one bedstead with white
-calico hangings and luxuriously supplied with cushions, and eight East
-India spreads, besides other spreads of flowered calico, red calico, and
-white calico in squares. There were five small East India boxes and a
-great deal of linen, also one white box marked E. W.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXVI.—_The Oyster Feast, by Jan Steen. The Hague._
-
-  Figs. 35–36: CHAIRS (Seventeenth Century); Fig. 37: MARQUETRY DESIGNS
-    (Seventeenth Century).
-]
-
-Wherever the Dutch went, they lived not only in comfort, but in all the
-elegance and even splendour that their means would allow. In the New or
-the Old World, the merchant princes surrounded themselves with sumptuous
-furniture of mahogany, ebony, marquetry, ivory, lacquer, teak and
-sandal-wood, as well as porcelain, embroideries, rugs, screens and all
-kinds of stamped metal and _bric-à-brac_.
-
-In 1685, the Count de Forbin says that the General of the East India
-Company at Batavia has a court quite royal in numbers and brilliance.
-“On my arrival (at the palace), the usual guard,” he writes, “which is
-very numerous, stood at arms, and, between two ranks of men, I was
-introduced into a gallery adorned with the most beautiful Japanese
-porcelains.”
-
-Evelyn and other travellers are enthusiastic in their admiration of the
-riches and luxury they witnessed in Holland, although, as we have seen,
-England was not unfamiliar with Oriental art products. The Stuarts were
-art connoisseurs of the first rank, and James II, to whom Macaulay
-denies mental and aesthetic appreciation, was an intelligent collector.
-The most brilliant figure in the Court of Louis XIV, the Marquis de
-Dangeau, notes in his _Diary_ (January 8, 1689), on the arrival of the
-fugitive Stuart: “The King of England found the apartments (of the
-Dauphin) admirable, and talked like a connoisseur of all the pictures,
-porcelains, crystals and other things that he saw there.”
-
-One of the travellers who describes the Eastern goods seen in the shops
-and houses of Amsterdam and other Dutch cities, Charles Patin, writes in
-1690:
-
-“I had a sight of all their curiosities and those of all sorts, and
-among other divers paintings that we know, and others which are unknown
-to us; as also Indian and Chinese pieces of an inestimable value. In
-these last a curious eye may discover all the secret particulars of the
-history, the manner of living, customs and religion of those countries,
-and there are represented certain martyrs, who sacrifice their blood to
-the transport of their zeal, if it may be allowed to make so bad an
-application of that sacred name, which belongs only to the heroes of the
-true religion.”
-
-Wills and inventories are invaluable aids to the student of Dutch
-furniture; but even more illuminating are the interiors painted by the
-Great and Little Masters—Jan Steen, Metsu, Cocques, Teniers, Rembrandt,
-Terburg, Don Weenix, Hoogstraten, Koedyck and a host of others. These
-are valuable as showing not only individual pieces of furniture, but
-also the general arrangement of rooms.
-
-Plate XXVI, representing _The Sick Woman_, by Jan Steen, in the Rijks
-Museum, shows a very simple room with bare floor and bare walls. At the
-back of the room is an upholstered bed with long straight curtains, and
-tester ornamented with fringe and surmounted with “_pommes_.” On the
-wall hang a lute and a Frisian clock. The back of the chair is carved
-with lions’ heads above the arms. The table is covered with a handsome
-“carpet.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXVII.—_The Sick Lady, by Hoogstraten._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-A similar bed stands in the right hand corner of the room, represented
-in Plate XXXVII, also the picture of a _Sick Lady_, by S. van
-Hoogstraten. The arrangement of this room is extremely interesting, as a
-short flight of seven steps leads into a narrow passage and room above.
-A round window hung with a curtain lights the passage-way above, which
-contains a number of fine paintings and a low-backed chair with spirally
-turned legs, the back and seat covered with velvet put on with
-large-headed nails. A door leads into the room beyond, but all that we
-can see of this is a marble mantelpiece with a handsome painting above
-it, and heavy andirons. A large square armchair with spirally turned
-legs stands on the left of the bed. The invalid is seated on a common
-stiff chair of no decorative interest.
-
-The obvious upper room was always a favourite feature of the houses in
-the Low Countries. An interior balcony is shown in Plate XXXVIII. This
-interior, painted by J. Koedyck about 1650, now in Brussels, is very
-interesting. The ceiling is unusually high, and consists of heavy beams;
-the windows are flush with the outside wall with deep interior recesses,
-and beneath them is a long wooden bench rudely carved. The old woman
-seated in a plain, two-backed, rush-bottomed chair seems to be dusting
-the legs of a spinet. Another two-backed chair stands in front of the
-bed, which from the positions of its pillows looks as if it might
-consist of an upper and lower berth, as was and still is often the case
-in the simpler homes in the Netherlands. Straight curtains hang from the
-cornice, a warming-pan is seen on the right, while above the cornice of
-the bed a child looks out of the shutters in the upper gallery. The
-chimney-piece is without the usual funnel-shaped top, and is also
-lacking in flat architectural ornamentation or a large painting. A
-candlestick and a few plates are the sole ornaments. It is carved with
-caryatids, however, and furnished with a chimney-cloth. Near the only
-caryatid visible stands what seems to be a metal “blower”; but there is
-probably no fire in the hearth, for the cat has found what she considers
-the most comfortable spot in the room on the foot-warmer. The most
-interesting piece of furniture in the room is the high-backed settle in
-the space between the fireplace and the window. This is panelled, and a
-little decoration occurs below the arms. Of course, the seat lifts up,
-and the box is used as a receptacle for articles.
-
-Plate XXVII, one of Jan Steen’s famous interiors, from the Rijks Museum,
-has several interesting features: the architectural door and the high
-chimney-piece with stove being the most curious. The bed is dome-shaped
-and upholstered. A good type of chair stands in the foreground, and a
-table, on which is a cloth with deep fringe. A beautifully painted
-birdcage hangs from the ceiling.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXVIII.—_Interior, by J. Koedyck, Brussels._
-]
-
-Plate XXXVI, known as the _Oyster Feast_, by Jan Steen, in The Hague,
-shows an interesting room, which serves as hall, dining-room and
-kitchen. A large curtain is looped over the balustrade, which runs
-midway across the hall. This gallery leads from one of the upper
-sleeping apartments to another. One large window, with four panes,
-supplies the light. To the left of it is a bed, and next to it a
-mantelpiece with marble columns. Near this a parrot is sitting in a
-ring. Next comes the fireplace, where the oysters are being cooked.
-Waffle-irons lean up against the handsome chair in the foreground.
-Beneath the window a jovial man sits in a low-backed chair, near the
-group playing tric-trac on the long table, over which hangs a landscape
-in a handsome frame. Another table with a rich carpet is placed on the
-extreme right, at which two persons are enjoying their oysters. A clock
-hangs on the wall, and also a lute and birdcages. A large birdcage,
-similar to the one in Plate XXVII, hangs before the window. A dog, a
-kitten and playful children add a merry touch to the scene.
-
-Plate XXXIX represents _The Music Lesson_, by Terburg, in the National
-Gallery, London. Here we have an ordinary sitting or living-room of a
-well-to-do household. The bed in the background resembles those in Plate
-XXVI and Plate XXXVII. On the wall hangs a picture in a rich frame. The
-fair musician sits on a low-backed chair with her foot on a foot-warmer.
-The table is covered with a very handsome carpet. Upon it stands a
-handsome candlestick.
-
-Plate XLI, _The Breakfast_, by G. Metsu (1630–67) (Dresden Gallery),
-shows us the interior of an inn, with comparatively little furniture.
-The chair on which the woman is sitting is a good example of the period.
-The table, on which a “_buire_” stands, is of the most primitive kind.
-The birdcage hanging from the ceiling is similar to the one represented
-in Plate XXVII.
-
-Plate XLII, by Jan Steen, representing a jovial company, is chiefly
-interesting for our purpose on account of the chair in which the host
-sits, the tablecloth and the larder at the back of the room, on which
-stand a mortar and pestle, a vase with flowers, a pot and two plates. In
-the right-hand corner stands a bed, and from this hangs the legend on a
-piece of paper: “As the old ones sing, so will the young ones pipe.”
-
-Plate XL, by J. B. Weenix (1621–60), shows a simple interior from the
-Brussels Museum—a lady at her toilet. The chair on which she sits is
-very interesting, with its low back, carved top rail and spirally turned
-stretchers. The “table carpet” is a superb Oriental rug, and the mirror
-with its massive frame is a magnificent example of carving and gilding.
-The candlestick is also massive. The windows, flush with the walls, are
-set with small panes, and are furnished with a curtain.
-
-A very interesting interior of the seventeenth century occurs in a
-picture by G. Metsu in The Hague Gallery. In a room with a very fine
-chimney-piece supported by marble pillars, and above which is a fine
-picture and a beautiful chandelier, a lady is standing improvising upon
-a lute. Another lady seated at a table is taking down the music, while a
-man looks over her shoulder. The lady is seated upon a low-back leather
-chair studded with heavy nails. Her foot rests upon a foot-warmer. The
-table has heavy ball-feet connected with stretchers, and the heavy cloth
-or carpet is pushed back carelessly. A tray or “standish,” holding the
-ink bottles, etc., is carelessly placed upon the folds of the cover. The
-lady holds a quill pen in her hand.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XXXIX.—_The Music Lesson, by Terborch._
-
-  NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON.
-]
-
-No subject was more congenial to the Dutch painters than scenes of home
-life and familiar interiors. Not only were Jan Steen, Teniers, Dou,
-Metsu and others of like rank attracted to the home, but an army of
-mediocre masters devoted their talents to this subject. If the works of
-the “Little Masters” found their way into royal and princely
-collections, the works of more obscure painters decorated the homes of
-the citizens, country people and colonists. The stranger who visited the
-Dutch cities was amazed at the many interiors and landscapes that were
-exhibited in the booths, at the fairs, and under the verandahs in front
-of the houses of the masters. These were often bought for a small sum by
-travellers, who sold them in their own country at considerable profit.
-
-When a bride went to her new home, she often found that it had been
-furnished from top to bottom; but this was not always the case. As a
-rule, wealthy burghers did not do this. The young wife, accompanied by
-one or two of her near relatives and followed by a couple of servants
-and a truckman, went about from shop to shop to select what she needed.
-This was called “_ten huisraet vaeren_” (going furnishing), and De Vrij
-devotes a chapter to this pleasant occupation under the title of “_De
-vrou vaert ten huysraet_” (the wife goes out to furnish). In his time
-the old simplicity had vanished in favour of a general luxury hardly
-equalled to-day. De Vrij, therefore, allows his wealthy lady to purchase
-“down beds, fine plush and wadded coverlids, costly hangings, large
-Venetian mirrors, Indian crackle porcelain, lounging chairs, Turkish
-carpets, Amsterdam gold leather, costly paintings, a silver service, a
-_sacredaan_ cupboard, an ebony table, a curio cabinet, a napkin _kas_, a
-large quantity of napkins, tablecloths and other fine household linen,
-and a thousand other articles.”
-
-One has only to glance at the contemporary inventories to realize the
-wealth and luxury of the period. It is only in a few instances, such as
-the old Castle of Develstein, when occupied by Cornelius van Beveren,
-that the old simplicity rules; for the old grey town on the Merwede
-(Dordrecht), although the richest and oldest, was not the most luxurious
-in Holland. It conserved its own customs, while Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
-Delft and other cities vied with The Hague.
-
-One or two large chests always stood in the bedroom. In these linen and
-clothing were kept. As a rule, the chest was of _sacredaan_, with brass
-or silver mounts, and neatly lined inside with cloth.
-
-Linen was also kept in the great _kasten_. These were ornately carved or
-panelled, made of different woods, and often inlaid with
-mother-of-pearl. Some of them cost as much as 1,000 fl. Rare porcelain
-was always placed on the top of the _kas_.
-
-The great linen chest or coffer, and the great cupboard in which
-household linen and articles of clothing were kept, were among the most
-important articles of furniture in a Dutch household. The chest was tall
-and wide, and made, as a rule, of _lignum vitæ_, or _sacredaan_, or
-other East India wood, frequently covered outside with leather and lined
-inside with linen or some other textile. It was often mounted with brass
-or silver, sometimes richly wrought.
-
-The cupboard, or _kas_, was very broad and very tall, and was made of
-oak, ebony, or walnut, and stood on four heavy balls, which were often
-repeated on the four corners of the top, and are described by Van Nispen
-as “guardians of the porcelain ornaments,” which adorned the top.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XL.—_Interior, by J. B. Weenix, Brussels._
-]
-
-As many as ten or twelve each of chests and _kasten_ have been noticed
-in old inventories in one dwelling, and they are described according to
-the wood of which they are made, or the name of the room in which they
-stood. Accordingly, we read of coffers and cupboards of oak,
-_sacredaan_, cherry, and plum-tree wood, blue and red grained East India
-wood, iron coffers, Prussia leather and lacquered coffers, the office
-coffer, the office cupboard, the kitchen cupboard, the cupboard of the
-green painted room, of the gold leather room, of the tapestry room,
-etc., etc. Let us examine some of the cupboards in the home of Sara de
-Roovere, second wife of Adriaan van Blyenborgh, Keeper of the Count’s
-Mint, and known as a Latin poet. This home is in Dordrecht.
-
-In the “gold leather room” stand several cupboards, some of which are of
-rare wood and richly carved. These cupboards contain a rich store of
-snow-white linen, damask tablecloths, napkins, bed-clothing, towels,
-shirts, bibs, neckerchiefs, frills, handkerchiefs, etc., “saved from
-grandmother’s time with economy, or inherited from great-aunt and kept
-as precious treasures,” all for her own use, or as wedding gifts to her
-children, Jacob, Adriaan, Charlotte, or Adriana. Like many another Dutch
-lady, every penny won at play, every present, and everything that could
-be saved from the household money, this thrifty housewife devoted to
-increase the treasure. A great part of the day she spent with her
-daughters in the front room (_voorhuis_), or with the maids in the
-kitchen, at the spinning-wheel, the sewing-cushions, the work-table, or
-the ironing-board. She considered it an honour to have a rich
-_Linnenkast_, and she was proud of being called a “house jewel careful
-of the third part” and deserving of the name, as she possessed
-“mountains of her own make and foreign produced stuff.” Her inventory
-shows that she possessed no less than twenty-four dozen chemises, forty
-dozen tablecloths and napkins, and coffers full of uncut linen.
-
-Some burghers’ wives had their linen made up by the seamstress.
-
-In another cupboard, called the “scalloped,” owing to the many St.
-James’ shells carved upon it, Joffer van Blyenborgh kept one of the most
-costly articles of her attire—the breast or forepiece. These
-breast-pieces, or stomachers, were worn on the corsage, to which they
-were fastened by means of pretty silk cords. They were made of silk,
-satin, or velvet, and often profusely decorated with pearls or jewels,
-and sometimes cost as much as £10,000.
-
-Vrouwe van Blyenborgh had coffers filled with petticoats of scarlet
-cloth and also of wool cloth, coarse grey, black and white linen under
-petticoats, jackets, hoop skirts, mantles and rain cloaks. Her cupboards
-and coffers also included: rich robes of sarcenet and serge of fire
-colour, rose colour and ground colour, covered with ribbons, bows,
-galloons; bodices embroidered and trimmed with lace and fringe;
-petticoats garnished with fringe of fire colour; grey cloth dresses
-lined with blue serge; and Japanese night robes of dead leaf colour,
-embellished with aurora hued flowers and lined with wadding. Neatly
-folded among these rich articles were white satin robes lined with
-amaranth taffeta, black velvet robes with cloth of silver, and
-petticoats embroidered with golden flowers and lined with _taffeta
-d’Avignon_. She also had some cloth of gold valued at £16 a yard.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLI.—_Breakfast, by G. Metsu, Dresden._
-]
-
-Dress and furniture became so extravagant during this period that the
-stage ridiculed the lavish expenditure, and the other censor of public
-morals—the pulpit—denounced the needless splendour as degrading before
-God and men. The Dordrecht preacher, Joh. Becius, exclaimed: “Are the
-pride and splendour of to-day more extreme than with the people of
-Israel? Certainly not; but rather worse; for women go about, not only
-with bare necks, but half-bared bosoms partly covered with a thin net or
-cambric cloth—and in the robes and dresses they are more splendid than
-the proud peacock, more changeable than the chameleon or the
-weather-cock on the church steeple. They almost dance along the streets
-dressed up as dolls for a _kermesse_; and these creatures, so gaily
-attired, vie with each other to enter the Lord’s House where is preached
-Christ born in a manger and wrapped in swaddling clothes.”
-
-Among the other vanities carefully preserved in the drawers and on the
-shelves were the fans, masks, lace and jewels; _châtelaines_, ribbons,
-hats, bonnets and caps; silk, cloth and serge stockings richly
-embroidered; fancy shoes and slippers with high heels, and leather and
-silk gloves sweetly perfumed. Vrouwe van Blyenborgh had a number of
-thin, beautiful, scented, leather gloves; a large stock of “shoework” of
-silk, satin, gold and silver leather, and yellow, green and scarlet
-stockings. We must not forget to mention the round silver mirrors
-suspended from gold hooks at the belt, and the delicately painted
-miniatures worn as lockets or breast-pins.
-
-The great _kas_ was as conspicuous in the houses of the Dutch colonists
-as it was at home. Every inventory of the prosperous burgher of New
-Amsterdam mentions it, and it is highly appraised. To take a few
-instances: “One great case covered with French nutwood and two black
-knots (balls) under it, £13” (1685); “a cupboard or case of French
-nutwood, £20” (1686); a white oak cupboard, £2 5_s._ (1688); a large
-cupboard, £6 (1690); cupboard for clothes, a press and porcelain, £5;
-and a “Holland cubbart furnished with earthenware and porcelain,” £15
-(1692); a great black walnut cupboard, £10 (1702); a Dutch painted
-cupboard, £1 (1702); a black walnut cupboard, £9 (1703); and a case of
-nutwood, £10 (1712). The _kas_ was often a valued bequest: Mrs. van
-Varick had one “great Dutch _kas_ that could not be removed from
-Flatbush”; and, therefore, was sold for £25.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLII.—_Interior, by Jan Steen. The Hague._
-]
-
-In the rooms of the Castle of Develstein were standing mirrors and
-mirrors in ebony, metal and crystal frames, on the walls; and in the
-“_salon_” was a mirror of Venetian glass. In this room was seen the
-“kingwood hall buffet,” where, on festive or ceremonial occasions, the
-family silver and crystal were exhibited, such as silver plates, dishes,
-spoons, knives, beakers, decanters and mugs, silver-mounted horns and
-night cups—all engraved with the family arms, or with conventional
-rhymes or mottoes. In the “salon” or “show salon” was placed the
-“root-wood (root of the walnut tree) table,” formed like steps (a
-survival of the _dressoir_), on which the rarest and finest porcelains
-were shown. Here also was the richly carved walnut _kas_ containing a
-rare display of fine china, while on the wall walnut racks, beautifully
-carved and ornamented with gold, the handsomest plaques were arranged.
-There was also a pewter table in this room, on which stood many pewter
-dishes, cups, tankards, etc., engraved with the family arms; but most of
-the pewter was kept in the pewter cupboards (_tinkasten_), in the pewter
-room, or in rows upon the dresser in the kitchen, ready for immediate
-use. Silver table-ware was not in general use, for pewter took its place
-as an everyday article. Among the glassware shown in this room were
-cordial, wine and beer glasses, chalices and loving-cups of white and
-green glass, engraved with arms, ornaments, proverbs, and shell-like
-Venetian glasses, supposed to be proof against poison.
-
-Two interesting examples of _kasten_ are given on Plates XLIII and XLIV.
-
-Plate XLIII represents a large Dutch _kas_, or _buffet à deux corps_,
-from the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. This magnificent specimen is of solid
-ebony inlaid with ivory. Its grooved columns, panels and niches break up
-the plain surface with much variety. It stands on eight bulb feet. It is
-similar in shape to the English “court cupboard” of the same century.
-
-Plate XLIV represents a large _armoire_, or kas, from the Cluny Museum,
-Paris. This was made in Holland. The front is ornamented with three
-pilasters with carved capitals, between which are the two doors or wings
-decorated with carved panels. The cornice is ornamented with three
-lions’ heads. Beneath the columns are drawers with simple knobs. This
-piece of furniture stands on flattened bulb feet.
-
-In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the cabinet was found in
-every home of moderate wealth. In an inventory of 1679, “a root-wood
-cabinet, with Japanese small dishes and ‘colossol’ (very large) pots
-under its high feet” is mentioned. These cabinets stood on high legs,
-sometimes with only one drawer underneath. They were frequently made of
-rough pinewood painted red; but often they were very handsome (_see_
-Plate XXXI). In the bedroom of Lady Reepmaker in the Castle of
-Develstein there was a “cabinet-maker’s small cupboard to put dresses
-in, one one-drawer cabinet on a high base, one hair-dressing table, one
-ditto chair, one ditto mirror with ebony frame, one gold leather
-comb-holder, and the ‘_nachtbouquet_’” (night bouquet), a piece of
-furniture used by the upper classes after 1672, in which everything
-relating to the toilet of the period was found, such as: a silver framed
-mirror, powder boxes, silver trays, pin-books, patch-boxes, hair and
-clothes brushes, and other small toilet articles, as well as silver
-candlesticks, snuffers and snuffer-trays.
-
-When a wealthy lady sat in front of her “dressing-cloth,” as her
-dressing-table was familiarly called, she had before her an array of
-bottles and boxes containing perfumes, powders, paints and beauty
-patches, as well as a treasure-house of pearls, diamonds, rings and
-bracelets set with glittering stones, ear-rings, necklaces, chains of
-pearls, gold and silver pins, spangles, half-moons, so that she looked
-like “a sun surrounded by suns,” or a “diamond surrounded by rubies.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLIII.—_Kas of Ebony and Ivory._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-Her innumerable toilet-boxes of tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl, her
-silver and gold scent-boxes, her boxes of filigree, her ivory, ebony and
-porcelain boxes and trays for her patches and cosmetics, her rich jewel
-cases of gold, silver, tortoiseshell or ivory, lined with velvet, her
-brushes and her shoe-horns, and her beautiful work-boxes supplied with
-thimbles, bodkins, knitting-needles, hooks, scissors, and everything
-that could be used for sewing and fancy needlework are displayed on her
-toilet-table and in her cabinets.
-
-The table-cover or “carpet” was a most important decorative feature of
-the Dutch room. It was generally a handsome Oriental rug. This was
-thrown over the dining-table, the ordinary table in the hall or kitchen
-(_see_ Plate XXVII and Plate XXXVI), in the bedroom (_see_ Plate XXVI
-and Plate XXXVII), and used also for the toilet-table (_see_ Plate XL).
-Often it was ornamented with handsome fringe (_see_ Plate XXVI and Plate
-XXVII). When an impromptu meal was served, it was the custom to cover
-the handsome cloth with a white cloth, of which the Dutch housewife
-always had a large supply (_see_ Plate XXXVI and Plate XLII). Four
-exceptionally handsome table “carpets” appear in Plate XL, Plate XXXIX,
-Plate XXVI and Plate XXXVII.
-
-In nearly every Dutch interior one notes the presence of the foot-warmer
-or foot-stove—a little wooden box with a perforated top and sometimes
-perforated sides of wood or brass. In this, glowing embers were placed.
-One of these is seen in Plate XXVI and another in Plate XXXVII, while in
-Plate XXXVIII a cat is seen comfortably keeping itself warm. On Plate
-XXXIX the lady playing the double-necked lute has her foot on one of
-these universally used articles.
-
-These foot-warmers that served as footstools, and were carried to
-church, are described in Roemer Visscher’s _Sinnenpoppen_ (Animated
-Dolls). He calls them “_mignon des dames_,” and says: “_Een stoef met
-vier daer in, is een bemint juweel by onse Hollandsche vrouwen, bysonder
-als de sneeuwvlocken vlieghen ende hagel ende rijp het lof van de boomen
-jaeght._”
-
-(“A stove with fire in it is a beloved jewel of our Dutch wives,
-especially when the snowflakes are flying and the hail rattles.”)
-
-The author of the Dutch _Mercurius_ calls it “a small wooden piece of
-carpentry with four holes in the top.”
-
-The “Looking-Glasse” that attracted Owen Feltham’s attention was a
-luxury. The _spiegel-maker_ (mirror-maker) was only to be found in the
-large cities. He was not allowed to make the frames, nor to gild them;
-for this was the work of the Carpenters’ and Gilders’ Guild. The signs,
-however, read—“_spyeghelwinckel_,” “_de nyeuwe spyeghelwinckel_,”
-“_spyeghel-magazijn_,” “_allerley spyeghels groot en clijn_,” and “_de
-Venetiaense spyeghelwinckel_.” (The “mirror shop,” “the new mirror
-shop,” “mirror magazine,” “all kinds of mirrors, large and small,” and
-“Venetian mirrors.”)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLIV.—_Dutch Kas._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-The glass mirror was a novelty, for, until the seventeenth century,
-polished metal was used; but at this period a method of silvering glass
-with a mixture of quicksilver and pewter was invented in the celebrated
-factory of Murano. The Venetians monopolized the trade until the end of
-the century, when Abraham Thevart made mirrors (84 × 50 inches) in
-Paris. Both Venetian and French mirrors adorned the reception rooms of
-the rich _stadhouders_ and mayors of Holland, and hung above the
-toilet-tables of ladies (_see_ Plate XL). The archives of the Castle of
-Develstein mention: a “very large mirror from France,” “Venetian
-mirrors,” “a small coarse mirror in a black frame,” “a fine Venetian
-mirror in the Salon, with flowered crystal border”; “an Amsterdam mirror
-of medium size,” and “one French mirror, large and beautiful.”
-
-Mirrors were not only valued for their thick glass and fine silvering,
-but on account of their choice frames. Inventories speak of scroll
-frames, open-work frames, frames with lions or griffins supporting a
-coat-of-arms, etc. Ladies also carried German and English mirrors
-suspended from their waists, for the purpose of arranging their
-coiffure, ruff, or patches.
-
-The mirror, like other expensive luxuries, was often prohibited by the
-clergy of the Protestant Church; and many a rich burgher was reprimanded
-for spending so much money on mirrors, porcelain and furniture, and
-giving so little to the Church.
-
-The most beautiful mirrors were probably found in The Hague, where the
-reception rooms and bedrooms were usually decorated in the “style Louis
-XIV.” Some of these were of Venetian glass with beautiful crystal
-borders and crystal lustres at the side. Frequently these were placed
-above the richly carved mantelpiece.
-
-The bedsteads, often richly carved, were of oak, walnut or _sacredaan_,
-and were always hung with curtains. A deep valance often decorated the
-base. The centre of the canopy was ornamented with the family
-coat-of-arms, and each corner with a bouquet of many coloured plumes.
-Sometimes the bedstead was on a platform, and the rich hangings were
-supported by caryatides and the festoons of the canopy by carved cupids.
-The bedsteads were high, and a ladder or steps was required to climb
-into them. Little steps or foot benches stood in front of the bedstead
-and were sometimes used for seats or tables, somewhat like the old
-_escarbeau_ of Mediaeval days.
-
-One species of bedstead was known as the “coach,” or “rolling coach.”
-This was intended for children, and the name “coach” was extended to
-include the children’s sleeping-place. Mention is made in a treasurer’s
-account of Dordrecht (1586) of “three bedsteads with a coach
-underneath,” which shows that the coach is the trundle or truckle bed.
-
-Tables and chairs were found in every room. About 1640, the “drop-leaf”
-or “hang-ear” tables came into use. They were usually made of solid
-walnut- or _sacredaan_ wood.
-
-The chairs had high curved, or leather, backs and low seats of leather,
-on top of which were placed loose cushions or pillows, which were often
-piled up so high on the seat that a child standing on tiptoe could not
-see over the pillow on the seat of the chair. Chairs were also covered
-with rich damask, serge and other woollen goods. In the old inventories
-mention is made of “Prussia leather table chairs,” ebony carved chairs,
-red cloth covered _sacredaan_ wood chairs with pillows of different
-shapes, and of high-backed carved walnut table chairs.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLV.—_Flemish Chair._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-]
-
-Typical chairs are shown in Plates XXXIII and XXXIV from the Rijks
-Museum. In the first there is a caned armchair on the left, an
-upholstered armchair on the right, with turned legs and rails; and in
-the middle a chair in the Marot style, with a mirror-shaped back, cane
-panel, straight legs and crossed straining-rails. The example on the
-extreme left of Plate XXXIV is an armchair of carved oak, with scrolled
-arms and cane seat and back. It is similar to the one without arms from
-Cluny in Plate XLV. A cane chair without arms appears in the centre, and
-on the right an armchair with turned legs, carved top rail, and leather
-back and seat. The Flemish chair on Plate XLV is constantly seen in the
-rooms of the seventeenth century.
-
-The chair on the left of Plate XXX in the Cluny Museum, called “Spanish
-of the Seventeenth Century,” is a curious transitional piece. The high
-back and seat are covered with Spanish leather put on with large-headed
-nails. The pattern of the leather represents peacocks, flowers and human
-figures. The ornamentation of the top rail consists of a leaf and
-scrolls ending in sharp spikes at the corners, very much in the early
-Regency style. On the rail below the seat is carved a heart-shaped
-ornament. The front legs are cabriole, connected with stretchers and
-ending in hoof feet. The back legs, also connected by stretchers, are
-straight.
-
-Other furniture included spinets and harpsichords, Friesland clocks,
-table watches and pocket watches, which, when not in use, were placed in
-little cases, as were the mirrors the ladies wore at their waists. Sand-
-or hour-glasses were to be found especially in the kitchens, and the
-table-bell, which had now supplanted the whistle as a call for the
-servants.
-
-The woods used for furniture were oak, walnut, cedar, olive, nutwood,
-ebony (black, green and yellow); kingwood, from Brazil, a hard wood with
-black veins on a chocolate ground; beef-wood, from New Holland, of a
-pale red used for borders; _palissandre_, or violet wood, from Guiana,
-for inlays on fine furniture; and, above all, _sacredaan_, or Java
-mahogany, a very hard wood, sweet smelling and of a bright yellow or
-pale orange colour. This was a favourite wood for chests, as the odour
-served to protect furs and woollen stuffs from the attacks of moths,
-etc.
-
-The Dutch kitchen towards the end of the century was fully equipped with
-all kinds of brushes, brooms, pots, pans and every utensil that was
-necessary to effect the cleanliness and produce the good cheer so
-necessary to every prosperous burgher. In 1680, a kitchen of a man of
-moderate means in New Amsterdam contained the following:
-
-                                                             £ _s._ _d._
-
- Fourteen pewter dishes, little and great                    3    5    0
-
- Three ditto basons, one salt seller, one pye plate          0    9    0
-
- Four chamber potts, one warming pan of brasse               0   15    0
-
- Two pewter flagons, a little one and a greate one           0    5   7½
-
- Two smoothing-irons, three pewter quart potts               0    7    6
-
- Three pewter pint potts, 1½ pint pot and two muck potts     0    6    9
-
- Four old pewter saucers and ½ doz. plates                   0    6    0
-
- Six dozen wooden trenchers, three tin cover lids            0    8    0
-
- Two frying pans, five spitts, two dripin pans, iron and tin 1    2    6
-
- One puding pan of tin, one greate brasse kettle, three iron 1   16    0
-   potts, one brasse skillett
-
- Two copper saucepans, one little iron kettle                0    6    0
-
- Two pair iron pott hookes, a jack with a w^t of 56 lbs.     1   14    0
-
- Two pair andirons, one brasse ladle, one iron beefe forke   1    0    6
-
- Two pair of tongs, one fire shovell, a long bar of iron     0    4    6
-
- One iron chaine in the chimney and three pot hangers        0   15    6
-
- One bellows, a board to whet knives upon                    0    1    0
-
- Two copper pots, two brass candlesticks, six tin            0   10    0
-   candlesticks
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLVI.—_“Buire,” by Mosyn, Auricular Style._
-]
-
-Silverware was an important item in the possessions of the merchant
-class as well as the nobility. In 1682, we find the following items in
-the inventory of a prosperous butcher:
-
-                                                             £ _s._ _d._
-
- Twenty-two silver spoons, one silver forke, three silver   48    0    0
-   gobletts, one ditto tankard, one ditto mustard pot,
-   one ditto cup with two eares, five silver small
-   cuppes, one ditto, one goblet, two ditto salt sellars,
-   one ditto cup, two ditto saucers, one ditto cup, one
-   ditto spice box, a Cornelia tree cup with silver, two
-   ditto dishes, weight in all ten pounds
-
- A silver girdle with hanging keys, one ditto with three     1    4    0
-   chaines with hookes, one gold bodkin, two silver
-   bodkins, “silver for my booke with a chaine,” silver
-   to a belt for a sworde
-
- One silver hat band                                         0   13    6
-
- One silver tumbler                                          1    0    0
-
- One silver bell                                             0   18    0
-
- One silver watch                                            1    0    0
-
- Two pair silver buckles                                     0    8    0
-
- Fourteen gold rings                                        10    7    6
-
- One pair silver buttons, and one silver knife               0   12    0
-
-No view of a Dutch interior of the seventeenth century would be complete
-if it neglected to take into consideration the family pets. These are
-very much in evidence in the pictures, by Dutch masters. These consist
-of monkeys, parrots, peacocks, pheasants, cats and dogs.
-
-The monkey is quite a privileged character. Sometimes he is perched on
-the top of a spinet and sometimes on a _kas_ or a chimney-piece.
-
-The masters of vessels that sailed the Eastern Seas, both English and
-Dutch, were commissioned by nobles and potentates to bring home rare
-animals. In 1609, for instance, the East India Company issued letters
-for reserving “all strange fowls and beasts to be found there,” for the
-Council. In 1623, we find a note that to the governor of the Company a
-“Caccatoa” was sent from Batavia. The cockatoo is a familiar resident in
-Dutch homes. He and other kinds of parrots, domiciled in wicker and wire
-cages, are very much in evidence in the _genre_ pictures of the age. The
-golden and silver pheasants were also privileged members of the
-household, and were allowed the freedom of the hall. Sometimes we see
-them perched on cornices, and sometimes strutting on the tiled floor.
-The monkey, which played so important a part in the “_singerie_”
-decoration of the late _Louis Quatorze_, _Régence_ and _Louis Quinze_
-periods, was imported in considerable numbers. A gossipy journal—_Le
-Courrier du temps_, conducted by Fouquet de Croissy who undertook to
-tell the secret happenings in the court of every prince in Europe—
-records the following item of news from Amsterdam, under date of
-September 1, 1649:
-
-“This week several ships have arrived here from the Indies. Among the
-other riches with which the good agent was charged, he has brought a
-dozen of the rarest and most beautiful monkeys that have ever been seen
-in these parts. Cardinal Mazarin has sent for them to put them in his
-wardrobe and anti-chambers to divert those who pay court to him and to
-judge the affection they have for his service by the civility and good
-treatment of the animals, the favourites of his Eminence, receive from
-them.”
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IX
-          DUTCH FURNITURE UNDER FRENCH AND ORIENTAL INFLUENCE.
-
-  The Dutch Craftsmen in the Employ of Louis XIV—Huguenot Emigration—
-      Marot—The Sopha—Upholstery—The Bed—Chairs—Sconces—Tables—Rooms—
-      English and Dutch Alliances—Hampton Court—Queen Mary—
-      Looking-glasses—Chandeliers—Chimney-pieces—The _style refugié_—
-      John Hervey’s Purchases—Oriental Furniture manufactured after
-      European Patterns—Complaints of Home Manufacturers—Trade with the
-      Indies—“Prince Butler’s Tale”—Enormous Importations—Imported
-      Textiles—Foreign Textiles for Upholstery.
-
-
-The last designer of furniture of any importance that has hitherto
-demanded attention is Crispin van de Passe. The next one is also a
-Dutchman. It is noticeable that the arts and crafts of France and
-England were always deeply affected by the activities of the Low
-Countries. France, even during the reign of Louis XIV, owed much to
-Dutch culture and energy. Boulle, who was of Dutch extraction (_see_
-page 115), gave his name to a special kind of furniture which he
-developed and elaborated.
-
-Another name famous in Decorative Art was that of Cander Jean Oppenordt,
-born in Guelderland in 1639. He emigrated to Paris to seek his fortune,
-and became “_ébéniste du Roi_,” was naturalized in 1679, and allowed a
-lodging in the Louvre in 1684. To him was given the charge of furnishing
-the Palace of Versailles, and in 1688 he made some beautiful marquetry
-furniture for the Duke of Burgundy. His son, Gilles Marie Oppenord
-(1672–1742), was architect to the Duke of Orleans.
-
-France owed much to Italy, Belgium and Holland during the first half of
-the seventeenth century, but what she borrowed she repaid with interest.
-In 1685, the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes induced fifty thousand
-families of the best French blood, intellect, art, culture and
-craftsmanship to seek voluntary exile. The Huguenots took refuge from
-the _Dragonnades_ in England, Holland and Germany; and those countries
-benefited by the short-sighted policy of a bigoted king. So many
-goldsmiths, carvers, architects, designers and artists were among the
-emigrants that their subsequent work in the art world came to be known
-as the _style refugié_.
-
-Undoubtedly the most commanding figure in this band was Daniel Marot. He
-was a member of a family of eminent French artists. He was a pupil of
-Lepautre, who for many years worked at the Gobelins manufactory and
-dominated the first period of the Louis XIV style. This style was
-particularly majestic, pompous and heavy, the general forms consisting
-of a mixture of the straight line and curve, and broad surfaces adapted
-for decoration. The heavy straining-rail and pilaster as a support are
-also characteristic. The ornaments consist of Roman and heroic trophies
-of antiquity, helmets, cuirasses, casques, plumes, swords, shields,
-laurel-wreaths and clubs, winged Victories, the elliptical cartouche,
-river gods leaning on urns, large cornucopias, heavy garlands, or swags,
-of fruit and leaves, the broad acanthus leaf, the mascaron, the swelling
-scroll, and the combination of scroll and shell. Lepautre was also fond
-of introducing the alcove into a room.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  FIG. 39.—_Screen in the style refugié._
-]
-
-A typical screen of this period is shown in Fig. 39. The massiveness and
-boldness of curve of the lines of the frame are characteristic of the
-artists of the Louis XIV period who formed the _style refugié_; and the
-grace and fancy of the design in the tapestry filling are worthy of more
-than passing consideration. The _Chinoiserie_ influence is already
-apparent in the small hanging canopy.
-
-At this date the _sopha_ was greatly in vogue. This was really nothing
-more than the old settle with carved framework, and richly upholstered.
-It rarely accommodated more than two persons, and, as a rule, only one
-is shown sitting upon it. The legs and straining-rail followed the
-general lines and decoration of those of the stands for cabinets,
-toilet-tables, etc. The arms were sometimes solid or stuffed, and
-sometimes open-work covered with velvet or other textiles. Sometimes the
-_sopha_ is furnished with a bolster at both ends. Typical forms are
-shown in Figs. 40, 41 and 42.
-
-Although Marot was well acquainted with porcelain and Eastern wares in
-France, he found the prevailing taste much more extravagant when he took
-refuge in Holland. There he became the supreme exponent of the _style
-refugié_. William of Orange appointed him his chief architect and
-minister of works, and Marot accompanied him to England at the Glorious
-Revolution a couple of years later. In Holland, he designed much
-interior work for palaces and noblemen’s seats, including staircases,
-panelling, chimney-pieces, cornices, china-shelves and brackets, and all
-kinds of domestic furniture. He was also extremely prolific in designs
-for sumptuous upholstery in velvet, worsted and other textiles for
-chairs, screens, hangings, curtains, bed-heads, etc. Marot died in 1718;
-and his published works of Decorative Art include many hundred designs
-representative of that period immediately preceding the Regency, known
-in England as “William and Mary” and “Queen Anne.”
-
-Upholstery was an exceedingly important part of interior decoration at
-that period, and there were right and wrong ways to hang curtains and
-decorate the framework of beds with valances, fringes, lambrequins, etc.
-Figs. 44 and 45 show two of Marot’s arrangements of lambrequins.
-
-The massive bed with its four posts of carved oak, which had so long
-been in fashion, had now been supplanted by one in which upholstery was
-the chief decorative feature. This bed consisted of a light frame
-supporting a canopy, the four corners of which were surmounted by a
-bunch of plumes, or ornaments, or knobs, in imitation of ostrich
-feathers, called “_pommes_.” The furnishings of the bed, including
-head-board, canopy, counterpane, curtains and valances, were of the same
-material—velvet, brocade, silk, satin, chintz, or white dimity worked in
-coloured crewels or worsted. Three beds of this period are to be seen at
-Hampton Court Palace—William’s, Mary’s and Queen Anne’s. Both William’s
-and Mary’s are now in the Private Diningroom. The former, which is about
-fifteen feet high, is covered entirely with crimson damask, and Mary’s,
-which is much smaller, with crimson velvet. The small bed used by George
-II when he lived in this Palace, and which stands between William’s and
-Mary’s, may also belong to this period. Queen Anne’s bed is more
-elaborate. This stands in her State Bed-chamber; and it is not unlikely
-that Queen Anne’s bed originally belonged to Mary; for she owned a
-number of very handsome beds draped with materials of the latest
-fashion. The elaborate designs upon the rich Genoa velvet that adorns
-this piece of furniture are quite in the Marot style.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLVII.—_Carved Oak Bahut._
-
-  CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.
-
-  Fig. 38: Ornament in the Auricular Style.
-]
-
-The bed of this period was particularly suited to Marot’s taste, and he
-made many designs, in which the festoon is conspicuous.
-
-The bed shown in the frontispiece of this book is a typical example of
-Marot. The heavy cornice is adorned with a cartouche in the centre and
-four “_pommes_” of ostrich feathers in vases at the corners. The
-headboard is also characteristic of Marot, and consists of an urn with
-swags of leaves and husks, with mermaids as caryatides or supporters at
-the sides. At the base of the bed is a mascaron. The silk draperies are
-arranged in formal swags tied with bows of silk and cords and tassels,
-and the valance around the bottom of the bed is similar to the cornice
-decoration. Running around the cornice is a brass rail for the outside
-curtains, which can be drawn around the bed enclosing it entirely, with
-the exception of the “_pommes_.” The counterpane, bolster and pillow are
-covered with material that carries Marot designs. The pillow is adorned
-with tassels.
-
-Another of Marot’s designs for a bed is reproduced in Plate XLVIII. This
-is interesting on more than one account. The carving of the canopy shows
-the advent of the _rocaille_ work that ran mad during the periods of the
-Regency and Louis XV. The scrolls in the woodwork at the foot of the bed
-are of the same form as the stretchers in tables, chairs, stands and
-stools of the period. The decoration of the room is worth notice also.
-The walls are covered with tapestry, and the same lambrequin that adorns
-the bed is repeated all along the walls under the cornice. The same
-decoration is repeated around the seat of the armchair on either side of
-the bed. The low foot-posts of the bed are surmounted by “_pommes_,”
-which usually hold the positions above, here occupied by carved shells.
-Finally, the sconce mirror over the chair is graceful in form.
-
-Queen Anne’s bed at Hampton Court Palace gives one a good idea of the
-Marot decoration. It has a square canopy and tester, below which hang
-curtains that when drawn enclose the entire bed. The head-board is
-upholstered. The furnishings of this bed are entirely of stamped or cut
-velvet, a white ground with formal patterns of crimson and orange. The
-chairs, tabourets and long forms are also covered with this material.
-
-A beautiful chandelier of silver decorated with glass balls hangs from
-the ceiling, which was painted by Sir James Thornhill. The design
-depicts Aurora rising from the ocean in her chariot, drawn by four white
-horses and attended by cupids, while Night and Sleep sink away.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Figs. 40, 41 and 42.—“_Sophas._” Fig. 43.—_Lower part of Chair, by
-    Marot._ Figs. 44 and 45.—_Lambrequins, by Marot._
-]
-
-Marot’s armchairs owe their effect almost entirely to upholstery: the
-framework is certainly solid, heavy and ungainly. He prefers carved feet
-of animals’ claws to the popular Dutch bulb. A typical form of the seat
-and legs appears in Fig. 43. The top of the back is usually a straight
-line, though, if the chair is designed for a prince or noble, the centre
-sometimes rises in a carved crown or coronet. The woodwork is generally
-gilded.
-
-Marot’s sconces usually had only one candle socket (_see_ Plate XLIX).
-When the mirror was of silver, or any burnished metal, its surface was
-generally convex. When it was of glass it was flat, but very often the
-edges were bevelled. The three examples on Plate XLIX show the
-characteristic ornamental details of mascarons, floral scrolls, and
-heavy _chutes_ of the bell-flower or wheat-ear. The same ornamentation,
-intermingled with “_pommes_,” geometrical lines and broken scrolls,
-distinguishes the two large mirrors above. Other handsome oval and
-rectangular mirrors appear on Plate L. The lower one on the right, with
-cornucopias disgorging _chutes_ of fruit, bears the crossed double L of
-Louis XIV, with a royal crown, and therefore must belong to Marot’s
-early period before he went to Holland. The mascarons and human figures
-on the other mirrors on this plate also belong to the early Louis
-Quatorze period.
-
-On Plate LI are two more mirrors, large and small, one above an inlaid
-console table and three candle or candelabra stands. These are
-interesting as showing the extent to which Marot made use of caryatides
-and swags in decorative work. It will be noticed that his Junos, Floras
-and Venuses are functional as well as graceful and decorative. With
-their heads and arms they have real work to do and weights to support.
-
-Tables of Marot’s design are represented on Plate LII, which also gives
-a series of eight mascarons. Plate LIII shows three of Marot’s tall
-clocks, with details of decoration and designs for key handles. The
-little frieze of designs for keyholes at the top of the Plate show that
-the forms of china-ware were even invading goldsmiths’ work.
-
-It will be noticed that the grandfather’s clock in Marot’s mind was
-somewhat more ornate than the modern idea of that timepiece. Chippendale
-owed a heavy debt to Marot’s forms of clocks and candlestands.
-
-Marot’s designs for rooms show the limit to which porcelain could be
-used as a decorative feature. There are brackets, brackets everywhere.
-Vases of different shapes and sizes stand on the ledges, oval, circular
-or straight, above the doors and stud the cornices; but it is the
-chimney-pieces that serve, as the tiered _dressoir_ did in Mediaeval
-days for plate, in the display of porcelain. The corner chimney-pieces
-of Hampton Court with their diminishing shelves give some faint idea of
-the many plates of Marot’s designs. Some of these show brackets and
-shelves that support hundreds of cups, saucers, pots, bowls, bottles and
-vases. In one extreme case more than three hundred pieces may be counted
-on the chimneypiece and hearth alone. These are not merely suggestions,
-for we have evidence that, in Holland, rooms decorated in this style
-really existed. Thus one poet sings:
-
-                         OF THE PORCELAIN ROOM
-
-       _.... Geheel zijn huis, ja zelfs het klein gemak,
-       Blonk als een diamant—duizend fijne kopjes
-       Vercierden ’t kabinet, hoe veel japanse popjes,
-       Uit amber, zeekoraal en roosverw paerlemoer,
-       Vervulden ’t groot salet._
-
-           (His whole house, even his small parlour,
-       Shone like a diamond—a thousand small cups
-       Decorated this parlour; how many Japanese figures (dolls)
-       Of amber, sea-coral and pink mother-of-pearl
-       Filled the big room!)
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLVIII.—_Bed and Bedroom, by Marot._
-]
-
-On Plate L two brackets will be noticed, for the support respectively of
-one and three China jars.
-
-A typical English mansion of this period is Holme Lacy in Herefordshire.
-Though dating from Tudor days, it was partly rebuilt and decorated in
-the reign of William III. The principal apartments are well
-proportioned, and are embellished with richly stuccoed ceilings, with
-compartments of flowers and other designs. The “saloon” is particularly
-remarkable for its ceiling of pendent flowers and fruits, and carvings
-by Grinling Gibbons over the chimney-piece. Superb carvings by this
-great master, representing birds, shell-fish, fruit and flowers, are to
-be seen in all of the rooms on the ground floor, which communicate with
-one another by folding doors. The gardens, too, are noticeable, for they
-were also laid out in the style of King William’s day, and contain yew
-hedges of extraordinary height and thickness.
-
-At this period English and Dutch taste were identical. This is only what
-we might expect when we consider the bonds that united the reigning
-houses and nobility of the two countries. Mary, the eldest daughter of
-Charles I, married the Prince of Orange; and their son, William, married
-Mary, the daughter of James II. During this period, also, some of the
-English nobility went to the Low Countries for wives. In 1650, the Earl
-of Derby married Dorothea Helena, a daughter of John Baron de Rupa, in
-Holland. She was a Maid of Honour of another ill-fated Stuart,
-Elizabeth, the beautiful Queen of Bohemia. Baron Colepepper married
-Margaret van Hesse, and the Earl of Arlington married another Dutch
-woman, Isabella, daughter of Henry of Nassau, Lord of Auverquerque, in
-the early days of the Restoration. The Earl of Bellomont married
-Isabella’s sister. The Earl of Ailesbury, in 1700, married Charlotte
-d’Argenteau, Countess d’Esseneux and Baroness de Melobroeck in Flanders:
-and the list might be extended. Incidentally we may note that, in 1646,
-the Earl of Berkeley married Elizabeth Massingberd, the daughter of the
-treasurer of the East India Company.
-
-It has already been noted that Charles II was hospitably entertained in
-Holland at his sister’s court during part of his exile. We have also
-seen that James II was a connoisseur in Oriental art products. When the
-daughter of the latter, Mary, married her cousin William and settled
-down in Holland, her mind was fully receptive to Dutch tastes and ways
-of living. When she became Queen of England, on the exile of her father,
-it was a Dutch palace into which she transformed Hampton Court, that
-splendid enforced gift of Wolsey’s to Henry VIII. The English student,
-therefore, need not cross the Channel to study Dutch interior decoration
-and furniture of the close of the seventeenth century. The majority of
-the rooms and grounds are still practically in the same condition as
-they were when inhabited by William and Mary, under whose direct orders
-the work was designed and supervised by Marot and Sir Christopher Wren.
-A considerable amount of the Marot furniture still survives there. Defoe
-tells us in his _Tour_ (1724):
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE XLIX.—_Mirrors and Sconces, by Marot._
-]
-
-“Her Majesty (Mary) had here a fine apartment (Hampton Court), with a
-set of lodgings for her private retreat only, but most exquisitely
-furnished, particularly a fine chintz bed, then a great curiosity;
-another of her own work while in Holland, very magnificent, and several
-others; and here also was Her Majesty’s fine collection of delft ware,
-which indeed was very large and fine; and here was also a vast stock of
-fine china-ware, the like whereof was not then to be seen in England;
-the long gallery, as above, was filled with this china, and every other
-place where it could be placed with advantage.”
-
-Although an Englishwoman, Mary had all the virtues and tastes of a Dutch
-_vrouw_. She kept her husband informed of all that happened from day to
-day, bewailed his absence and neglect, and busied herself and her Maids
-of Honour with needlework, and, perhaps, with tenderly dusting her
-cherished porcelain. When in London, she used to spend many an hour and
-all her pocket money shopping at the India houses and in the New
-Exchange. She set the fashion for china-mania, and may well have
-inspired Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s lines:
-
-            “What shall I do to spend the hateful day ...
-            Strait then I’ll dress and take my wonted range
-            Thro’ India shops, to Motteux’s, or the Change,
-            Where the tall jar erects its stately pride,
-            With antique shapes in China’s azure dyed;
-            There careless lies a rich brocade unrolled,
-            Here shines a cabinet with burnished gold.
-            But then, alas! I must be forced to pay,
-            And bring no penn’orths, not a fan away!”
-
-Hampton Court was remodelled under Mary’s direction. It almost entirely
-lost its Tudor character, and became characteristically Dutch in
-appearance. Sir Christopher Wren’s talents were called into requisition
-to design the shelves, cornices and tiered corner chimney-pieces that
-are still to be seen there. Verrio was employed to adorn the staircases
-and ceilings with his gaudy frescoes. Grinling Gibbons, a Dutchman, whom
-Evelyn had discovered, was responsible for the carvings that even to-day
-are the admiration and despair of the woodworker. The fish-ponds and
-gardens were laid out in the formal Dutch taste, with fountains, clipped
-trees, hedges, avenues, geometrical beds, an orangery and an aviary of
-tropical birds. The furniture was due to Marot and Wren.
-
-The comparatively small amount of furniture now to be seen in the
-show-rooms of Hampton Court belongs mainly to this period. It consists
-principally of chairs, stools (_tabourets_), beds, card-tables, mirrors
-and chandeliers.
-
-Many of these specimens are extremely interesting, showing the Marot
-taste. Of the latter, there are stools, chairs and tables with the heavy
-scroll foot and stretchers, the latter joining in the centre and
-supporting there a carved ornament; other tables have four scroll
-supports and stand on bulb feet. Some of the stools and tabourets have
-gilded woodwork. Among the later style we may note a chair in William
-III’s Presence Chamber, with tall back, jar-shaped splat, cabriole leg,
-hoof feet and straining-rails, the front one higher than the other; and
-also two card-tables in the King’s Drawing-room, with slender legs
-ending in the hoof foot, and the tops supplied with wells for the
-counters and slight depressions for the candles.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE L.—_Mirrors, by Marot._
-]
-
-About thirty handsome looking-glasses of the period are there. Many of
-them are pier-glasses hung, of course, between the windows. One of the
-most noticeable of these is a fine pier-glass in William III’s State
-Bedroom, dating from his time. This has a border of cut blue glass, the
-edges are bevelled, and the centre contains the monogram W. R.,
-surmounted by the crown in blue and white glass. A similar mirror hangs
-over the fireplace.
-
-Another looking-glass with a blue glass frame hangs between the windows
-in Queen Mary’s Closet.
-
-Another beautiful chandelier hangs in William III’s Presence Chamber:
-this is of silver, with eight lower and four upper arms. It is decorated
-with the harp, thistle, etc. A still more ornate one hangs in the
-Queen’s Audience Chamber. This is a magnificent combination of silver
-and crystal, with silver sea-horses and lions supporting the silver
-branches, crystal balls and drops, and a crystal crown on top.
-
-The mantelpieces are extremely interesting, as many of them are of the
-old inverted funnel shape, and are supplied with tiers of shelves—
-sometimes as many as six—for the reception of ornaments. Upon these now
-stands a good deal of blue and white china, many pieces of which
-belonged to Queen Mary. Pieces that are known to have belonged to her
-are two blue and white jars and two goddesses in Queen Mary’s Closet,
-and two goddesses and two vases, about eighteen inches high, on the
-mantelpiece of William III’s Presence Chamber.
-
-Charles II, who, while a royal refugee, spent much time in Holland, had
-acquired the new taste. It was there, doubtless, that he saw visions of
-wealth in the Indies that later led him to grant the English East India
-Company a charter, and to embark on a disastrous and inglorious war,
-which resulted in London hearing foreign guns for the first time since
-England was a nation. His keen appreciation of Oriental works of art,
-however, was somewhat dulled when his bride, Catherine of Braganza,
-brought him a shipload of cabinets and ceramics in lieu of the dowry her
-mother had promised, although Evelyn, in his description of Hampton
-Court (1662), says: “The Queen brought over with her from Portugal such
-Indian cabinets as had never before been seen here.”
-
-It is frequently asserted with apparent authority that Mary carried the
-Dutch taste for porcelain and the manufactures of the Far East into
-England; but, as we have seen, this idea is not well founded. Herself a
-china-maniac, she merely set the royal stamp of approval on contemporary
-taste, and made Hampton Court a model of the _style refugié_. That style
-dominated English and Dutch homes before she heartlessly danced in the
-Palace of Whitehall from which her father had fled.
-
-Hampton Court, remodelled under her directions, was not completed till
-1693. Many documents show that the _style refugié_ was popular in
-English aristocratic homes before that date.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LI.—_Mirrors, Console Table and Candlesticks, by Marot._
-]
-
-Under William and Mary, London swarmed with Dutch merchants and refugee
-Huguenot arts and craftsmen, and was almost as much of an Eastern bazaar
-as Amsterdam was. Mary set the pace, and wealth and aristocracy gladly
-followed. As an example of the vogue, we cannot do better than take the
-diary of the wealthy John Hervey, afterwards Earl of Bristol, and quote
-a few entries of expenditure.
-
-He was always buying porcelain and other Oriental wares “for dear wife.”
-On July 6, 1689, he notes: “Paid to Katherine Scott for 12 leaves of cut
-Japan skreens, 2 pieces of India damask and 6 Dutch chairs, £65.” In the
-following July, he also bought from John van Colima, a Dutchman, who had
-probably followed William III to London, “a parcel of old China for £3
-2_s._ 6_d._” Though the Earl dealt more extensively with “Medina ye
-Jew,” “Leeds ye mercer,” “Seamer ye goldsmith” and many “India houses”
-in the New Exchange, we find him still patronizing the Dutchman after
-the death of his first wife, as is shown by the following entries:
-“1696, Jan. 11: Paid Calama, ye Dutchman in Green Street, for a parcell
-of china for my dear wife, £31 8_s._ 4_d._ May 4: Calamar, ye Dutchman,
-for another parcel of China, £10 4_s._” Two years later he also pays
-“John Van Collema, for an Indian trunk, £35.” Another Dutchman who
-enjoyed this nobleman’s patronage was “Mr. Gerreit Johnson, ye
-Cabinett-maker,” who, on May 25, 1696, was paid £70 “for ye black sett
-of glass, table and stands, and for ye glasses, etc., over ye chimneys
-and elsewhere in my dear wife’s apartment.”
-
-Gerreit Johnson, whom the Earl patronized, was a fashionable
-cabinet-maker who made the china-cabinets for Queen Mary that were
-placed in a room at Hampton Court called “the Delft Ware Closett.” It is
-interesting to note that the mirrors and cabinets in the Countess of
-Bristol’s boudoir had black japanned framework.
-
-His diary and expense account shows that his purchases of furniture and
-_bric-à-brac_ faithfully reflected the prevailing taste for Oriental
-wares and the _style refugié_. He did not exclusively patronize
-Dutchmen.
-
-In 1688, he paid “to Frenoye, the silkman, for the fringe of the bed,
-edgings for the window curtains, etc., £155”; “to the joyner who made
-the chairs, stools and squabs for my wife, £19”; and “for gold and
-crimson fringe for the India bed quilt, £17.”
-
-In 1689, he bought “for dear wife” a white teapot and basin, £4 16_s._
-9_d._; two china basins, £1 1_s._ 6_d._; an India trunk, £7; India quilt
-for a bed, £38; a “brockadal hanging in my wife’s anti-chamber, £11
-10_s._”; and “to a French varnisher for ten chairs, a couch and two
-tabourettes, £12.”
-
-In 1690, his purchases included “silver andirons, for my dear wife her
-closett chimney, £13 5_s._“; “a glass screen, £1 1_s._ 6_d._”; “two pair
-of basins for dear wife, £1 12_s._“; “a large China punch-bowl, with a
-large jarr and two white cupps, £3 5_s._“; “sett of cupps and saucers,
-£2”; six other saucers, 10_s._; “two china beakers, £2 11_s._“; two
-great jarrs of china and two smaller ones, “with one very little one,”
-£7 3_s._; a parcel of old china, £21; another parcel of old china, £6
-10_s._; “another sett of old china for dear wife, £22”; “a pair of old
-china roul wagons” (large blue and white vases), £7 10_s._ 6_d._; a pair
-of china cupps and a little jarr, £1 6_s._; for a china teapot basin, £1
-1_s._ 6_d._; an old china bottle and two china dishes, £1 15_s._; “at a
-curiosity shop, 10_s._“; “a rich piece of India atlas, £13 10_s._”; “a
-parcel of Indian things, £5 7_s._ 6_d._”; and “a pair of china jarrs, £1
-4_s._”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LII.—_Tables and Mascarons, by Maret._
-]
-
-In 1691, he bought a “Jappan travelling strong water cellar, £5 7_s._
-6_d._”; a “Persian carpet (all of silk) to lay under a bed, and an old
-china roulwaggon, 22 guineys”; “a piece of blue Indian stuff, £2
-15_s._”; and “a candle-skreen, £1 6_s._” (The “roulwaggon” is a kind of
-vase.)
-
-In 1692, he enters “two china rice potts for dear wife, £5”; “a china
-jarr, £2 10_s._”; and “a parcel of china, £2 14_s._”
-
-It is evident from the above that at the close of the seventeenth
-century, Huguenot, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, English and Dutch artists
-and artisans had combined to produce a style, the leading spirit of
-which in England and Holland was Marot.
-
-A noticeable fact in connexion with the European craze for Asiatic art
-products is that, though the English and Dutch highly admired the native
-wares, the European merchants sent out their own patterns and designs
-for furniture and ceramics. It is even maintained that the famous
-“Willow Plate” was the design of a Dutchman. The evidence of the
-practice of exploiting foreign labour in the field of home taste is
-overwhelming; and, as the century advanced, the guilds, city companies
-and other trades unions in England, France and Holland grew more and
-more restive under the burden of “Chinese cheap labour.” Mazarin was one
-of the early enthusiasts in France to encourage Eastern importations.
-
-In the _Mémoirs_ of La Grande Mademoiselle (1658), we read: “The
-Cardinal (Mazarin) behaved in a very delightful and galant manner. He
-took the two Queens (Anne of Austria and Henrietta Maria) and the
-Princess of England and myself into a gallery that was filled with all
-that could be imagined in the way of precious stones, jewels, furniture,
-stuffs and everything beautiful from China; crystal chandeliers,
-mirrors, tables and cabinets of all kinds, silver vessels, perfumes,
-gloves, ribbons and fans.”
-
-Towards the close of the century the craze for Oriental wares had
-assumed such proportions that in France Louis XIV enacted sumptuary laws
-to protect native industries; and in Holland and England the artisans
-grumbled bitterly over the hard times occasioned by the vogue. The
-Eastern workmen accepted patterns and supplied orders that natives of
-Western Europe could not venture to undertake. The guilds and city
-companies admitted the superiority of Oriental work, and cried aloud for
-protection. Thus, in 1700, the Joiners’ Company addressed a petition
-against the importation of manufactured cabinet work from the East
-Indies. In this they state that they have “of late years arrived at so
-great a perfection as exceeds all Europe.”
-
-“But several merchants and others,” they continue, “have procured to be
-made in London of late years and sent over to the East Indies patterns
-and models of all forms of cabinet goods, and have yearly returned from
-thence such quantities of cabinet wares, manufactured there after the
-English fashion, that the said trade in England is in great danger of
-being utterly ruined, etc., etc.”
-
-The following goods, manufactured in India, have been imported within
-these four years, viz.:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LIII.—_Clocks and Details, by Marot._
-]
-
-                   244 cabinets.
-                   655 tops for stands.
-                 6,580 tea-tables.
-                   818 lacquered boards.
-                   428 chests.
-                   597 sconces.
-                    70 trunks.
-                   589 looking-glasses.
-                    52 screens.
-                 4,120 dressing, comb and powder-boxes.
-
-The Japanners also brought their grievances before the authorities in
-1710. The taste for japanned goods had forced them to endeavour to make
-worthy imitations for home consumption, and they thought they were
-entitled to patronage and tariff protection. The evils are fully
-indicated in the preamble to their petition:
-
-“Many of the artificers (cabinet-makers, turners, goldbeaters and
-coppersmiths) have brought (the curious and ingenious art and mystery of
-japanning, so much improved in England of late years) to so great
-perfection as to exceed all manner of Indian lacquer, and to equal the
-right japan itself, by enduring the fire in the boiling of liquors.
-
-“Also it will, if encouraged, vastly improve both the wood and iron
-trades for cisterns, monteiths, punch-bowls, tea-tables and several
-sorts of ironware, which would be useless if not improved by our English
-lacquer.
-
-“But the merchants, sending over English patterns and models to India,
-and bringing such quantities of Indian lacquered wares (especially
-within the last two years), great numbers of families are by that means
-reduced to miserable poverty.”
-
-The trade with the Indies thus encountered bitter opposition, and many
-tracts were published calling attention to the alleged grievances of
-native workmen from its prosecution. In 1700, _Reasons_, a tract, tells
-us: “The charter of the East India Company was confirmed by King Charles
-II in the thirteenth year of his reign, and the law for permitting
-bullion to be exported was made soon after. In 1672 or 1673, several
-artificers were sent over by the Company with great quantity of English
-patterns to teach the Indians how to manufacture goods to make them
-vendible in England and the rest of the European markets. After which
-began the trade in manufactured goods from the Indies.”
-
-In 1699, also, a bitter wail went up in a broadside entitled _Prince
-Butler’s Tale_:
-
-            When first the India trade began,
-            And ships beyond the tropics ran
-            In quest of various drugs and spices,
-            And sundry other strange devices.
-            Saltpetre, drugs, spice and such trading
-            Composed the bulk of all their lading:
-            Bengals and silks of India’s making
-            Our merchants then refused to take in,
-            Knowing it would their country ruin
-            And might prove to their own undoing.
-            Nor did they carry gold or bullion
-            To fetch home what supplants our woollen;
-            Nor were this nation fond to wear
-            Such Indian toys which cost so dear.
-            Then were we clad in woollen stuffs,
-            With cambric bands and lawn ruffs,
-            Or else in silk which was imported
-            For woollen goods which we exported;
-            Which silk our English weavers bought
-            And into various figures wrought.
-            That scarce a child was to be seen
-            Without Say frock, that was of green.
-            Our hangings, beds, our coats and gowns
-            Made of our wool in clothing towns,
-            This nation then was rich and wealthy
-            And in a state which we call’d healthy.
-            But since the men of Gath arose,
-            And for their chief Goliath chose,
-            And since that mighty giant’s reign
-            Whose chiefest aim was private gain,
-            This trade was drove on by such measures
-            As soon exhausted much our treasures;
-            For then our chiefest artists went
-            With patterns, and with money sent,
-            To make and purchase Indian ware,
-            For which this nation pays full dear.
-            Then by great gifts of _finest_ touches
-            To lords and ladies, dukes and duchess,
-            So far prevailed as set the fashion
-            Which, plague-like, soon spread o’er the nation.
-            Our ladies all were set a gadding,
-            After these toys they ran a madding;
-            And nothing then would please their fancies,
-            Nor Dolls, nor Joans, nor wanton Nancies
-            Unless it was of Indians’ making;
-            And if ‘twas so, ‘twas wondrous taking.
-            This antick humour so prevailed,
-            Tho’ many ‘gainst it _greatly_ railed,
-            ‘Mongst all degrees of female kind
-            That nothing else could please their mind.
-            Tell ‘em the following of such fashion
-            Wou’d beggar and undo the nation
-            And ruin all our labouring poor
-            That must or starve, or beg at door,
-            They’d not at all regard your story,
-            But in their painted garments glory;
-            And such as were not Indian proof
-            They scorn’d, despised, as paltry stuff;
-            And like gay peacocks proudly strut it,
-            When in our streets along they foot it.
-
-                   *       *       *       *       *
-
-            And happy thrice would England be,
-            If, while they’re living, we could see
-            Our noble ladies but beginning
-            To wear our wool of finest spinning,
-            Or in such silks our workmen make,
-            For which our merchants cloth to take;
-            Which soon would bring them in such fashion
-            As they’d be worn throughout this nation,
-            By all degrees, and sex, and ages,
-            From highest peers to lowest pages;
-            Nor would the meanest trull, or besses,
-            Delight to wear these Indian dresses,
-            Which certainly would profit bring
-            To them, their tenants, and their king.
-
-To show how enormous was the trade with the East Indies at the end of
-the century, we need only examine the records of sales of the cargoes of
-three ships at the East India House in 1700. In this we omit all mention
-of sugar, tea, coffee, bezoar stones, ambergris, drugs of all sorts,
-sweetmeats, gems, musk, aloes, carpets, rugs, and all kinds of woven
-silk and cotton goods. The other goods, “besides great quantities unsold
-of toyes and small goods,” fetched over £200,000, which at the present
-day might represent three-quarters of a million sterling:
-
-                                                                   £
-    China-ware pieces                                        150,000
-    Fans                                                      38,557
-    Lacquer’d sticks for fans                                 13,470
-    Lacquer’d trunks, escretors, bowls, cups, dishes, etc.    10,500
-    Lacquer’d tables inlaid                                      189
-    Lacquer’d panels in frames, painted and carved for rooms      47
-    Lacquer’d boards                                             178
-    Lacquer’d brushes                                          3,099
-    Lacquer’d tables not inlaid                                  277
-    Lacquer’d fans for fire                                      174
-    Lacquer’d boards for screens                                  54
-    Screens set in frames                                         71
-    Paper josses                                               1,799
-    Shells painted double gilt                                   281
-    Paper painted for fans                                       377
-    Images of copper, stone, wood and earth                      600
-    Pictures                                                     669
-    Brass and iron leaves for lanthorns
-    Brass hinges in chests
-    Embroideries for curtains, valloons and counterpanes
-
-Among the textiles that were imported from the East Indies, Persia and
-China at the end of the seventeenth century, and used for curtains,
-upholstery, cushions, etc., were many varieties of wrought silks, “dyed
-Bengals,” and printed or stained “callicoes,” known under the following
-names:
-
-                     Allibanies.
-                     Allejaes.
-                     Ammores.
-                     Addecannees.
-                     Agentbannies.
-                     Atlasses.
-                     Addaties.
-                     Brawles.
-                     Bengalis or Nilas.
-                     China silks.
-                     Chawters.
-                     Cherconnees.
-                     Chucklaes.
-                     Checquered silks.
-                     Carpetts.
-                     Callawaypoose.
-                     Canvas bolts.
-                     Cuttannees.
-                     Cuttannees, Striped.
-                     Cuttannees, Flowered.
-                     Cuttannees, Wrought.
-                     Culgees.
-                     Chints, Serunge.
-                     Chints, Caddy.
-                     Chints, Surrat.
-                     Chints, Brampore.
-                     Chints, Culme.
-                     Chints, Pattanna,
-                     Chints, Gulconda.
-                     Chints, Wrought.
-                     Damasks.
-                     Derribasts.
-                     Damask nankeens.
-                     Elatches.
-                     Elatches, Lingua.
-                     Ginghams coloured.
-                     Gelongs.
-                     Gelongs, printed and painted.
-                     Gelongs, striped.
-                     Gorgoreas.
-                     Gauzes.
-                     Goachon Cherulas.
-                     Guiney stripes.
-                     Girdles.
-                     Herba Taffeties.
-                     Herba Lungees.
-                     Hockings.
-                     Jammawars.
-                     Longes Flowered.
-                     Mahobutt Bannes.
-                     Mocha silks.
-                     Muttrasses.
-                     Nankeen Taffeties.
-                     Nillaes.
-                     Niccannees.
-                     Paunches.
-                     Pelongs.
-                     Putkaes.
-                     Peniascoes.
-                     Phota Lungees.
-                     Pallungpores.
-                     Peniascoes or Penasses.
-                     Pholcarees.
-                     Quilts.
-                     Romalls silk.
-                     Romalls cotton.
-                     Romalls serunge.
-                     Rastaes.
-                     Shalbasts.
-                     Soofeys.
-                     Sattins plain.
-                     Satin nankeens.
-                     Soops.
-                     Seersuckers.
-                     Sacerguntees.
-                     Sooseys.
-                     Shaulbasts.
-                     Silk Lungees.
-                     Taffeties.
-                     Taffety nankeens.
-                     Velvets.
-
-The above list is copied from a tract protesting against foreign
-importations that was printed about 1700.
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER X
-          FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES
-
-  Lacquer—Oriental Methods—European Importations and Limitations—Prices—
-      An Ambassador’s Report—_Singerie_, _Chinoiserie_ and _Rocaille_—
-      The Dutch Decadence—Interiors of Cornelis Troost—Mirrors—Wealth
-      and Luxury of Dutch Merchants—Court Contrast—Tapestry—Brussels as
-      a Centre of Art and Luxury—Eighteenth Century Furniture—The Empire
-      Style in the Low Countries—Dutch Homes of the Nineteenth Century—
-      The Maarken House and Furniture—Typical Farmhouse and Furniture—
-      Country Seats and Town Houses—Hindeloopen Houses and Furniture—A
-      Friesland House—Canal Boat Furniture—Dutch Love of Symmetry—
-      Collectors and Collections.
-
-
-So far little attention has been paid in these pages to lacquer, though
-important articles of household furniture that owed their beauty and
-value to this species of ornamentation have appeared in inventories and
-diaries under the designation of “vernish,” “japan” or “japanned.”
-Sometimes this work was referred to as “black” merely, as in the case of
-John Hervey’s “dear wife’s” boudoir.
-
-The Oriental method of lacquering requires a vast amount of patience and
-skill. After the wood has been smoothly planed, it is covered with a
-thin sheet of paper or silk gauze. Over this is spread a thick coating
-of buffalo’s gall and powdered red sandstone. When dry, this is rubbed
-with wax and polished, or washed over with gum and chalk. The varnish is
-laid on with a flat brush. The article is now thoroughly dried, and
-again moistened and polished with a piece of soft slate, or the stalks
-of a special grass. The workman then repeats the process, giving it a
-second coating of lacquer, and again dries and polishes it. Sometimes as
-many as eighteen or twenty coatings are applied, but never less than
-three.
-
-The lacquer used by the Chinese and Japanese is derived from the juice
-of the “varnish tree.” This juice, a natural secretion, is acrid, and
-soon hardens into a black resin. To obtain it, pieces of bamboo are
-inserted into the bark and allowed to remain all night, for the juice
-flows more freely at night than during the day. This is boiled with
-equal parts of oil obtained from the fruit of the _mimusops elengi_. The
-chief trees that yield this gum are the black varnish tree
-(_melanorrhoea usitata_) and the Japan varnish tree (_rhus
-vernicifera_).
-
-There are grades in lacquer. Lacquer on a gold ground is the most highly
-prized; and the first examples of this kind that reached Europe were
-gifts to Dutch officials from Japanese princes. This sort of lacquer is
-seldom found on furniture, with the exception of delicate little boxes
-and occasionally plaques that were inserted into furniture.
-
-Lacquered wares were brought into Holland, England and France in large
-quantities all through the seventeenth century, as the bills of lading
-(see page 292) show. We have seen that the European merchants sent out
-designs for forms and decorations of Oriental porcelain; and they did
-the same for carved ebony, teak and ivory, and especially lacquer. Many
-of the screens, clocks, bedsteads, cabinets, panels, tables, etc., of
-the period show unmistakable signs of Oriental attempts to supply
-European demands. In textiles also, especially in screen-fillings, and
-other textiles used in upholstery for couches, chairs and hangings, we
-frequently find views of Dutch towns and social life, indoors and
-outdoors.
-
-The framework of large pieces of furniture was sometimes both carved on
-the edges, and the flat surfaces were lacquered. Sometimes the frames of
-screens were of carved rosewood (home-made), and the apertures were
-filled with genuine Eastern textiles. Tables of inlaid ivory and
-mother-of-pearl were also in general vogue.
-
-Lacquered furniture was highly prized and very costly during the days of
-William of Orange, our “Dutch William.” “A grand Japan cabinet”
-(probably a wardrobe) in the bedroom of a Countess in 1675 was valued at
-£200 in present money. In 1698 an “Indian trunk” is listed at £35 in
-money of that date. In valuations that might be perhaps multiplied
-fivefold to-day in actual cash, apart from appreciation in art or
-sentimental value, we find also: a pair of India cut Japan screens, £60;
-a black bureau, £6; a Japan scrutoire, £60; a Japan cabinet, £35; and
-India-cut Japan frame and glasses, £10 10_s._
-
-We have seen from the complaint of the japanners in England that strong
-attempts had been made to imitate the home demands; and considerable
-success had rewarded the efforts of the artists and cabinetmakers. The
-trouble was that they could not obtain the proper lacquer or “vernish”
-in England, France or Holland for many years. The Dutch, holding such a
-dominant position in the East Indies, practically throughout the
-seventeenth century, naturally had the best chance to discover the
-secret of the constitution and manufacture of the far-famed varnish.
-They tried to reproduce the Oriental product of lacquer just as
-persistently as they did the porcelain with delft. Good as their
-imitations were, however, they could not produce a lacquer that could
-compete with the Japanese any more than the English could. They used
-native varnishes, therefore, and produced beautiful work which, alas!
-was not destined to last. The surface soon cracked, scaled off and left
-the framework decrepit and friendless,—relegated to the attic, kitchen
-or wood pile.
-
-As Dutch enterprise led the way in imitations of Oriental wares, of
-porcelain in delft, so also imitations of lacquer first found fame in
-the Netherlands. A Dutchman named Huygens was famous for his japanned
-work early in the eighteenth century. He was called to France, and was
-probably largely instrumental in the invention or perfection of the
-celebrated _Vernis Martin_. This was a species of lacquer that
-beautifies many sumptuous examples of Louis Quinze furniture, and is
-highly prized by collectors.
-
-The character of lacquered and other Oriental wares obtainable early in
-the eighteenth century may be gathered from the report of an ambassador
-to Pekin in 1721. Among other things he says:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LIV.—_Interior, by Cornelis Troost._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-“The most valuable furniture of lackered ware, viz., cabinets, chairs,
-tables, baskets, and other things of that sort, as also the richest
-porcelain ware, come from Japan. For when the Emperor sends any person
-to Japan in a public character, most of the princes and great men of the
-court seldom fail to engage him to bring them some of those things at
-his return....
-
-“After the lackered ware of Japan, that of the province of Fokien, is
-looked upon as the best; but none of it comes to Pekin because the great
-lords of China oppress the merchants to a great degree and take their
-goods from them upon many frivolous pretences, without leaving them the
-least hopes of ever obtaining any payment.
-
-“They have at Pekin a people dexterous enough at lackering, but their
-works fall short of those of Japan and Fokien, which may be attributed
-to the difference of climate; and it is for this reason that the
-lackered work made at Pekin is always much cheaper than the other.
-Nevertheless, the lackered work made at Pekin infinitely exceeds any
-work of that kind made in Europe.... The European merchants carry away
-from Canton raw silk; damasks wrought according to draughts furnished to
-them; wrought silks; lackered ware; tea, green and bohea; badians, a
-seed having a taste like aniseed; canes and china-ware, made according
-to models given them.
-
-“For the rest they carry to China from Europe, and bring back from
-China, a very great variety of toys and different sorts of curiosities,
-upon which they make a very considerable profit; but these are so
-numerous that it is not possible to furnish a complete specification of
-them.”
-
-During the eighteenth century Dutch and Belgian furniture, in common
-with English and German, humbly submitted to the dictates of the great
-French designers. The _Singerie_, _Chinoiserie_ and _Rocaille_ work of
-Watteau, Boucher, Meissonnier, Oppenord, Cressent, Huet, Gillot and
-others were welcomed and adapted to local tastes in the Low Countries.
-Many of the most beautiful cabinets and china-closets of the _Régence_
-and _Louis Quinze_ period that are preserved in Continental museums owe
-their origin to the skilled workmen of Belgium, especially of the School
-of Lille. Many fine specimens of the decorative work of this period may
-be seen in the Lille Museum. A typical example from Liège appears in
-Fig. 46. This shows the use as an ornamental feature of the broken
-curve, the auricle, a more sober descendant of the _style auriculaire_.
-The use of this ornament encountered rabid opposition in Regency days in
-France, England and the Low Countries, but it forced its way into favour
-shoulder to shoulder with the _Chinoiserie_, _Singerie_ and _Rocaille_
-ornamentation. This double-bodied cabinet is made for the preservation
-and display of delft and porcelain. Ledges at the top are also provided
-for urns and jars as decorative accessories.
-
-It may be interesting to see what a typical china-cabinet contained at
-the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1700, we note one of carved
-walnut with four doors. In the lower compartment there were twenty vases
-of red India ware, a porcelain vinaigrette, a cup of enamelled glass, a
-little horn cup and a multitude of miscellaneous curios. Another cabinet
-having two lower doors, a middle drawer and one glass door above,
-contained fine delft vases, two cups and saucers, a big faïence jug and
-two little ones, six big rare sea-shells and other Oriental curios.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 46.—_Cabinet from Liège._ Fig. 47.—_Dutch Mirror Frame._
-]
-
-Dutch art was now in its decadence; it had lost its pre-eminence. The
-French artists set the fashion. The painter who is commonly held
-responsible for the decadence is Gérard de Lairesse (Liège, 1641–1711).
-He shows all the technique of the old school, and arranges his
-compositions in accordance with the laws of Italian taste, but he is
-decidedly artificial. His contemporaries and successors are feeble
-imitators of the Great and Little masters, and those who have the
-greatest reputations are miniaturists and still-life painters.
-
-For Dutch interiors we now have to go to the pastels of Cornelis Troost
-(Amsterdam, 1697–1750), whose compositions gained for him the name of
-the “Dutch Hogarth.” Two reproductions of interiors by this artist are
-shown in Plates LIV and LV. The chairs, tables, sideboards,
-candlestands, chandeliers, buffets and chimney-pieces in these pictures
-in nowise differ from those used in England during the early Georgian
-era.
-
-Dutch taste ran to heaviness and over-loading in ornamentation. During
-the _Louis Quinze_ period, Schubler was more in favour in wealthy Dutch
-houses, as he was in Germany, than were the French designers of a
-lighter touch.
-
-A handsome example of Dutch carving of the early eighteenth century is
-shown in the mirror frame in Fig. 47. This is of carved and gilded wood,
-representing scrolls, leaves, flowers, a mascaron and a female figure
-issuing from one of the scrolls. “This kind of mirror, made to be hung
-upon the woodwork or tapestries of the rooms, is often of a rather heavy
-and inelegant execution,” writes a critic, who referring to this special
-example continues, “but in this specimen where the outlines are so
-accentuated the effect is quite happy. The hooks intended for the metal
-sconces in the lower part of the frame should be noticed.”
-
-Holland was profiting so much by her mercantile ventures and, perhaps,
-unscrupulous trade dealings as to arouse bitter envy, jealousy and
-animosity. The famous despatch of Canning:
-
-            “In matters of business the fault of the Dutch
-            Lies in giving too little and asking too much,”
-
-would have been investigated a century earlier by both English and
-French merchants if they could have forced their Governments’ hands.
-Thus in _The Trade and Navigation of Great Britain Considered_ the
-following occurs:
-
-“Trade with Holland: the balance paid us is thrice as much as we receive
-from either Portugal or Spain. But when we consider the great number of
-smuggling ships that are employed between this country and Holland, and
-the supply we have from them of pepper and all other sorts of India
-spice, with callicoes, muslins, India silks and romals, and other
-manufactures of India, coffee, tea, China-ware, and very great
-quantities of Hollands and fine lace, etc., it is apt to furnish the
-thinking part of mankind with other notions.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LV.—_Interior, by Cornelis Troost._
-
-  RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.
-]
-
-The Dutch merchants were able to indulge all their artistic and
-luxurious tastes in furnishing their houses. Some of them were wildly
-lavish and ostentatious in interior decoration and furniture years
-before the frenzied finance of the Mississippi Scheme and South Sea
-Bubble, when valets became millionaires while they slept and senselessly
-squandered their gains in a month. As early as 1709, in Shaw’s _Travels
-Through Holland_, we read: “Glorious monuments of the excessive wealth
-acquired in trade are to be seen at Mr. Tripp’s and Pinto, the rich
-Jew’s houses; in this last is a room pav’d with ducatoons, or
-crown-pieces, and these laid edgewise. But, indeed, the whole new Heer
-Graff is fronted with houses like the palaces of princes, where
-glittering guildings, exquisite paintings, rich china, screens, gold,
-pearls, diamonds enchant you, and rival the apartments of monarchs in
-haughty magnificence.”
-
-It is no exaggeration to say that the establishments of opulent
-merchants of the Low Countries at this period could match and sometimes
-even outshine those of princely courts. Life was very dull in Belgium at
-the court of the Austrian princess who ruled the Netherlands when George
-II came to the throne. Marie Elizabeth was forty-five when her brother
-gave her the rule of the Low Countries in 1725. She was very pious, and
-eschewed all gaiety. The only description of a festival given during her
-reign is that of the _Fête de l’oiseau_ given in Brussels, October 10,
-1729, on the occasion of the birth of Monseigneur le Dauphin (born
-September 4, 1729), and was written by the minister from France,
-Chaillon de Joinville, who arranged it, to the Marquis de Chauvelin.
-After the ball they went to supper at half-past ten, and we learn that
-“In the ‘_grande gallerie_’ there was a long table of ninety covers with
-two large buffets at the two ends, and in the balcony of the
-‘_gallerie_’ there were four trumpeters and a drummer, who played all
-through supper; and there were eighteen instrumental players for the
-ball.”
-
-The Flemish tapestries of the eighteenth century are of slight
-importance, for the great workshops of the Low Countries have now fallen
-into evil days. At the beginning of this century, Brussels has only
-eight manufacturers, fifty-three looms and about a hundred and fifty
-workmen, and by 1768 only one manufacturer is left—Jacques van der
-Borcht. The last loom perishes at his death in 1794. The Oudenarde looms
-are stilled for ever in 1772, and those of Ghent about the same time.
-
-Flemish workmen are, however, still employed at Beauvais, of which Oudry
-becomes director in 1726; and their services are valued throughout
-Europe. Adrian Neusse of Oudenarde, a former workman at Beauvais,
-establishes a workshop at Gisors in 1703, and Jean Baert and his son one
-at Cambrai in 1724. Until 1738, when Boucher takes charge of them,
-Lille’s workshops are directed by Wernier of Brussels. When the first
-high-warp loom was established at Madrid in 1720, the first director was
-Jacques van der Goten, a tapestry-weaver of Antwerp, who aided in
-founding that of Seville in the same year; and the tapestry manufactory,
-founded by Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, employed workmen from
-Brussels in 1777–8.
-
-During the eighteenth century, tapestry is put to a new use, which makes
-it especially important in connexion with the study of furniture. In the
-Middle Ages, we found it was a custom for the rich to throw over their
-carved chairs and benches, sumptuous pieces of tapestry and other
-handsome textiles; in this age we now find the weavers making covers for
-the backs and seats of chairs, sofas and screens, the patterns or
-pictures for which are specially designed. Throughout Europe, the
-drawing-rooms are furnished with these beautiful sets of tapestry
-furniture, always consisting of two sofas, armchairs and chairs. This
-new fashion practically made the fortune of the Beauvais manufactory.
-The most delicate pictures, artistically framed, were woven: landscapes,
-scenes from _Æsop’s Fables_, pastorals, emblems, mythological stories,
-baskets of fruit, baskets of flowers, garlands of flowers, bird cages,
-shepherds and shepherdesses, monkeys, swings, children playing, animals,
-birds, etc., etc.
-
-The majestic style of Le Brun gives place to the airy charm of Watteau,
-Boucher and Van Loo. _The Hunts of Louis XV_, _The Adventures of Don
-Quixote_, _The Gardens of Armida_, _Aurora and Cephalus_, _Venus on the
-Waters_, _Venus at the Forge of Vulcan_, _Cupid and Psyche_, _Children
-Playing_, _The Swing_, _Genii of the Arts_, _Endymion_, _Rustic
-Festivals_, _Fortune Tellers_, _Fishing_, _Rural Amusements_, scenes
-from Molière’s comedies, Indian hangings, Chinese hangings and scenes in
-which monkeys appear in grotesque attitudes and costumes, supplant
-heroic triumphs and religious pictures as subjects for wall decorations.
-
-Some of the last historical pieces that were made in Brussels were _The
-Campaigns of the Duke of Marlborough_, _The History of the Duchy of
-Brabant_ and _Victories of Prince Eugene_.
-
-The Flemings of the early eighteenth century still maintained their
-ancient eminence in Decorative Art. Their weavers were still sought
-after, and their craftsmen produced many pieces of carved furniture of
-the _Régence_ and _Louis Quinze_ periods that are still preserved and
-admired. The schools of Liège, Brussels and Lille (the latter just
-across the border in France, being practically still in Belgium, as
-originally it was) were famous for the high excellence of workmanship
-produced. Jacques Verberckt, who was born in Antwerp and died in Paris
-in 1771, was accepted at the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and
-executed or planned the greatest number of decorative sculpture made
-during the reign of Louis XV at Versailles. He was also employed by the
-Marquise de Pompadour to decorate her _château_ of Bellevue. Verberckt
-worked with a delicate touch in marble, wood, or metal.
-
-Brussels was an important centre of industry and art throughout the
-century. Its citizens included many men of wealth who took interest in
-art, science and literature.
-
-In his _Journey in the Year 1793 through Flanders, Brabant and Germany_,
-the Rev. C. Este says: “The town is tolerably well built as to the walls
-of the houses; but their windows and doors are after the manner of the
-French. The lower windows are also deformed with iron bars, offensive
-even beyond the eye, as implying something wrong in the place, either
-from real danger, or from false fear.
-
-“The buildings at Bruxelles compare in one point advantageously with
-Paris. For the houses having fewer floors, but three or four, generally
-have but one family under one roof.... The places for a traveller to
-see, if he has time, are the Archduke’s Château de Schoemburg (in the
-village of Lack), and the villa of M. Walkiers the banker. They are not
-half an hour’s drive from Bruxelles and close to one another; besides
-the way is through the _Allée Verte_, those beautiful vistas of elms and
-limes, where the canal goes to join the Scheldt....
-
-“The Archduke’s _château_ is a modern building, Ionic without,
-Corinthian within, with two fronts of 260 feet, the depth 150, with a
-central portico at the entrance and a bow in the centre behind. The
-effect of the building at a distance is gay and imposing enough; when
-close to it the effect is maimed by bad figures at the top of the
-building, and the pediment of the portico being filled by a clock, which
-seems fit only where the character of the building is appropriate, as at
-Inigo’s church at Covent Garden, to simplicity and use. The gate of
-approach, loaded with bad ornaments, cupids and what not, is at once
-lofty and trifling, elaborate and dull.
-
-“In the internal distribution the best rooms are forty feet square—a
-dining-room 52 by 40—a chapel 27 by 22—and the state room a circle 54
-feet in diameter; the dome is the ceiling of the room, and midway
-between the bottom and the top there is a small gallery on twelve
-Corinthian pillars. The floors in the other rooms are inlaid mixture,
-angular shapes of oak, mahogany and petrified cedar. In the circular
-room the floor is shewy, formed of various marbles. There are five
-windows, which should have five looking-glasses opposite—there are but
-two, with three glass doors, but not looking-glass. The looking-glasses
-are the manufacture of Venice. And these, eight feet by six, are among
-the largest ever blown there. For that is the Venetian process; not by
-the mould as in France and England.
-
-“There are few objects of art. The only pictures are four large ones by
-De Lance of Antwerp. They are mythological subjects; of course, the
-worst in the world. Le Roi of Namur supplied the five feet full length
-of the Virgin in the chapel. It is not bad statuary, for it has, which
-is very rare, thought and emotion.
-
-“The architect was Montoyer. He built also the Vauxhall in the park at
-Bruxelles. The house was begun in 1782—it was finished in 1788. A small
-temple and the pagoda, the only buildings in the garden, are also by
-him.’ The pagoda has eleven floors. And there, as in Kew, it may be
-considered as a well-placed trifle....
-
-“The grounds the Archbishop keeps in his hands are between two and three
-hundred acres. There is an artificial water, fifty _toises_ across and a
-quarter of a league long—the lawn sloping down to it from the house,
-with the uplands on the other side, and the fine woody hill form the
-prettiest scene.
-
-“The adjoining villa of M. Walkiers, the banker, is another more pretty
-building by Montoyer, amidst the same little fertile scenery. The
-architecture is Ionic. With a _loggio_ throughout the middle floor of
-one front, like an Italian villa, the ground plan of the house is about
-150 feet by 50. There is a small grass plot before and behind with side
-walks, through very small trees, in half a dozen strait alleys: not one
-of the trees are worth five shillings. There is no gravel for the feet,
-no water for the eye, and the inclosure is a flimsy two-feet hedge which
-a child may either pass through or step over.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LVI.—_Room in the Stedelijk Museum._
-]
-
-The new style of ornamentation of the _Régence_ and _Louis Quinze_
-periods, with its broken curves, auricles, rococo and _rocaille_ work,
-was carried to greater extremes in Germany and Holland than in France.
-The school of Borromini, Oppenord and Meissonier carried everything
-before it, in spite of great opposition on the part of those who clung
-stubbornly to the traditions of Renaissance art. Carved panelling
-adorned the walls of rooms, and ceilings, picture and mirror frames,
-chairs, beds, tables, etc., all submitted to the new designs for
-chisel-work. A room with furniture of the early eighteenth century is
-illustrated in Plate LVI. This is in the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam,
-and the woodwork and painted ceiling come from an old Dutch _château_.
-The chairs, with their carved frames and stretchers, were in vogue in
-the last years of Louis XIV and under the Regency. The cabinet with its
-graded top for the accommodation of porcelain vases is characteristic of
-the period. The frames of the mirror and picture and the mantelpiece are
-also fine examples of Decorative Art of the days immediately after
-British soldiers used such bad language in the Low Countries. In passing
-it may be noticed that Marlborough’s campaigns in the Netherlands had
-considerable influence on English taste of the day and forming the
-“Queen Anne” style, by familiarizing British officers with the
-Decorative Arts of the United Provinces. The Peace of Utrecht (1713)
-left the Netherlands free to pursue the arts of peace, which they did,
-so far as internal decoration is concerned, in the wake of the foe they
-had so bitterly combated. We may note here that the richly carved table
-on which the Peace of Utrecht is said to have been signed is preserved
-in the Antiquarian Museum of Utrecht.
-
-The course of Dutch and Flemish furniture during the rest of the
-eighteenth century tamely follows the channels of French design.
-
-At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Empire style was in
-vogue in Holland, as it was throughout Europe. When the Town Hall on the
-Dam in Amsterdam was presented by the city to the King of Holland, Louis
-Napoleon, in 1808, the Royal apartments were fitted up in the Empire
-style, and these hangings and furniture may be seen to-day. A great deal
-of Empire furniture is scattered through the museums of Belgium and
-Holland, as well as in the castles and mansions of the nobles and
-merchants who followed the fashions. A trace of the Empire style is
-found in the following description of the palace of Laeken, the
-residence of the royal family, near Brussels, by Robert Hill (_Sketches
-in Flanders and Holland_, 1816):
-
-“The apartments had very little of royal magnificence about them: there
-were no pictures. A few pieces of indifferent tapestry, pier glasses
-economically put up in three pieces each, and tables, chairs, etc.,
-which might only be called handsome, made up all that I recollect of
-their furniture. This palace has undergone strange vicissitudes. It was
-built for an Austrian archduchess; in one of the rooms a sky blue
-canopied bed was shown, which had belonged to the late Empress
-Josephine, had next been occupied by Maria Louisa, and, shortly before
-my visit, had been slept in by the Queen of the Netherlands.”
-
-Mr. Hill was not greatly impressed with the Dutch house of the middle
-class. He says:
-
-“I saw few things about their furniture and household arrangements worth
-noticing. The lower parts of their houses were commonly lined with
-glazed Dutch tiles, and stoves made of the same kind of clay were as
-commonly used to warm their apartments....
-
-“There are two singularities about the houses of the Dutch which must
-not be forgotten. The first is that every country seat from the
-merchant’s domain to the little peddling tradesman’s smoking-box, though
-surrounded perhaps by nothing but marshes, damps and duckweed, is almost
-sure to bear on its front or over its entrance the words _Land Lust_
-(Country Delight), or _Land Zight_ (Country Prospect), _Belle Vue_, or
-some other title expressive of the beauties of the situation, or the
-comforts and ornaments which are to be found within. The other is that
-the windows of these _Land Lusts_ and _Zights_, as well as those of
-houses in the midst of towns, are generally furnished with little
-looking-glasses, which, projecting from their sides, command every
-passing object. These are by no means to be considered as ornamental,
-but they are so placed (sometimes two or three on each side) that they
-indulge the curiosity of their owners without putting them to the
-expense of showing themselves in return.”
-
-He also notes the peculiar custom of breakfasting and dining in
-bedrooms. “At the country box of one of the most respectable tradesmen
-in Holland,” he writes, “I dined with his family in the principal room,
-which had beds concealed behind parts of its wainscoting.” This was in
-Rotterdam. He says: “At the end of this garden stood a pretty little
-summer residence, among whose lower apartments was a kitchen with
-furniture that displayed all the brightness and neatness for which the
-culinary arrangements of the Dutch have been celebrated, and above which
-was a large bay windowed room in which we dined. A natural inquiry
-respecting bed-chambers was here answered by opening parts of the
-wainscot, behind which were concealed canopies of the master, mistress
-and their children.”
-
-The homes of Holland changed little during the century, and the
-cottages, farmhouses and homes of the peasants may be said to have
-changed not at all. Take, for instance, the fishing village of Maarken,
-in the Zuyder Zee, of which Esquiros writes:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  PLATE LVII.—_In Bruitlaen, by Artz._
-]
-
-“Most frequently the same room serves at once as bedroom, kitchen and
-storehouse for the fishing utensils. Some houses, however, have a second
-and separate room, called here the saloon, in which furniture and
-clothes are kept, but that is almost aristocratic luxury. The rooms
-which are flush with the ground have no ceiling, and communicate with
-the garret, over which the tile or thatch roof rises at right angles.
-The houses are equally deficient in chimneys as a rule, but before the
-principal window there is a large flat stone surrounded by a row of
-bricks. A piece of iron is fastened at the back of this stone, against
-which the fire is kindled. An opening in the roof allows exit to the
-smoke, which, before emerging, spreads through the loft, where the nets
-are dried. Only thirty houses are remarkable for possessing chimneys.
-Several times a year the interior is cleaned and whitewashed. A table
-surrounded by very low chairs, an old _escritoire_ loaded with pretty
-china, an eight-day clock, milk tubs whose copper rings shine like gold,
-produce in the houses of the island an alliance of facts rarely found
-among other races, namely, of cleanliness with poverty. This taste for
-china, old glass, curtains and flowered counterpanes is a delicate
-feature in the Batavian character. Art sits down by the side of Misery
-at the fireside, which it enlivens with a consolatory beam.”
-
-Plate LVII, entitled _In Bruitlaen_, by Artz, in the Rijks Museum, shows
-the modern artist’s conception of a peasant room and furniture. First we
-notice a large _kas_ or _armoire_, with heavy ball feet and pieces of
-china arranged on the top. More china adorns the chimney-shelf, and the
-chimney-piece with its valance is characteristic. The heavy carved
-beams, the windows with small leaded panes decorated with coats-of-arms,
-the tiled floor spread with a carpet, give an air of comfort to the
-room. The chairs are of the four-backed variety, the table is square,
-the stool has turned legs and stretchers, and there is a Bible on a
-stand and a Friesland clock on the wall.
-
-The old farmhouse of which the modern traveller sees so many examples,
-with its red-tiled or thatched roof visible beneath its sentinel
-poplars, usually consists of a large living-room, a kitchen, a
-cheese-room, a dairy, two small bedrooms in the garret, a big cow-stable
-at the back, and an outside kitchen called the “baking-house.”
-
-A native writer says:
-
-“The ‘baking-house’ is often used as a living-room in summer, which is
-more cheerful than the solemn apartment into which the visitor is
-invariably ushered. A wide chimney lined with tiles stretches nearly
-across one side of this room; but the open fire on the hearth has long
-ago disappeared and given place to an ugly stove. Quaint brass
-fire-irons hang behind it, and on either side is an armchair, differing
-from its humbler brethren only in the possession of wooden arms. If
-there is a baby in the family, it is likely to be reposing in a cradle
-with green baize curtains as near as possible to the fireplace, in
-defiance of all laws of health. Two or three large cupboards, sometimes
-handsomely carved, always kept well polished, stand against the
-whitewashed walls. One of them generally has glass doors in the upper
-part; and on its shelves the family china—often of great value—is
-exposed to view. Unfortunately, these heirlooms in old families have
-been largely bought up by enterprising Jews. Sometimes, however,
-sentiment has proved stronger than the love of money, and the farmer has
-not parted with his family possessions. In a corner of the room a chintz
-curtain, or sometimes a double door, shows where the big press-bed is—an
-institution of pre-hygienic times which, to the peasant mind, has no
-inconveniences whatever. In the middle of the room a table stands on a
-carpet; and, as people take off their shoes at the door and go about in
-their thick woollen stockings, neither it nor the painted floor ever
-shows signs of mud. Another table stands near one of the windows, of
-which there are two or three. The linen blinds so closely meet the
-spotless muslin curtains, which are drawn stiffly across the lower panes
-on two horizontal sticks, that a stray sunbeam can hardly make its way
-into the room, even if it has been able to struggle through the thick
-branches of the clipt lime-trees that adorn the front of the house. On
-one of the tables a tray stands, with a hospitable array of cups and
-saucers, teapot, etc., and is protected from the dust by a crochet or
-muslin cover. The huge family Bible, with its huge brass clasps, has an
-honourable place, often on a stand by itself. Rough woodcuts or cheap
-prints, and a group of family photographs, which do not flatter the
-originals, are hung on the walls. The framed and glazed sampler, worked
-in wools by the farmer’s wife in her young days, usually makes a _dessus
-de porte_. The alphabet is the principal part of this extraordinary work
-of art; but it bears various other figures, which, on patient
-investigation, appears to have some resemblance to certain birds and
-flowers.”
-
-The country home of wealth is usually built of small, hard,
-reddish-brown bricks resembling those used in the Elizabethan houses in
-England. The front entrance is often embellished with a handsome
-pediment and a stone _loggia_ and steps. Flower beds, canals and woods
-surround the house, which has a dignified and attractive air. It is no
-less so within, for many Dutch houses, both in the country and city, are
-beautifully finished. The woodwork, whether of oak or mahogany, is often
-exquisitely carved and highly polished, and consists of broad staircases
-with ornate banisters, doors, panelled walls, mantelpieces and mirror
-frames. Many of the doors and windows are decorated with carvings of
-garlands of fruits, flowers and other devices, according to the period
-in which the house was built. In some of the old houses the walls are
-still hung with the old gilt leather of the sixteenth and seventeenth
-centuries.
-
-Suburban houses as well as country seats bear fanciful names; and on the
-outskirts of The Hague, Rotterdam, Amsterdam and other large cities you
-may read _Lust en Rust_ (Pleasure and Repose), _Buiten Zorg_ (Without
-Care), _Myn Rust_ (My Repose), _Mon Bijou_ (My Jewel), _Rosen Lust_
-(Rose Pleasure), _Honigbij_ (Honey Bee), _Mijn Lust en Leven_ (My
-Pleasure and Life), _Vriendschap en Gezelschap_ (Friendship and
-Sociability), and other such names. These retreats are often covered
-with creepers, and are situated in the centre of a lawn made gay with
-flower beds, arbours and sometimes strange ornaments of painted clay—
-gnomes trundling wheelbarrows, curious vases, windmills, etc., etc.
-
-The town houses and such country houses as are built on reclaimed land
-are constructed on piles. They begin to build in Holland by digging to
-the depth of two or three feet. This excavation soon fills with water.
-Piles are then driven into the ground, and the ends are cut off evenly;
-and on this level surface beams of oak are laid. The back and front of
-the house are not added until long after the roof is laid on, so that
-the air may pass through and dry the walls thoroughly. The houses are
-lightly constructed of brick, iron or wood, with outer casings of stone
-or marble, intended for show and not for solidity. At the back of the
-house there is usually a little garden, to which it is necessary to
-bring every year earth and gravel to replace the soil that the water has
-carried away.
-
-Frequently the Dutch town house consists of two apartments; for land is
-dear, and so are house rents in the cities. The lower apartment is
-called _benedenhuis_, which comprises a cellar and the ground floor;
-while the second apartment, called _bovenwoning_, is composed of the
-first and second floors and a garret. Each apartment has its separate
-entrance.
-
-The houses are deeper than they are wide, and the ordinary arrangement
-consists of a drawing-room in the front, a dining-room in the back, and
-a dark room in the middle. The latter is the family sitting-room,
-particularly in winter evenings, for its complete isolation from the
-outside protects the inhabitants from the cold air. Of late years this
-middle room has become less popular, and every room in recently built
-dwellings contains one or two windows. The houses are comfortable, and
-are heated throughout.
-
-The outsides of the houses, with their cheerful white cornices on
-windows and doors, ornamental roofs and large windows with Flemish
-shades and adorned with blooming plants and boxes of flowers, give an
-impression of comfort and prosperity.
-
-These homes are comfortably or luxuriously furnished, according to the
-purses and tastes of the dwellers, with the ordinary modern furniture;
-but every prosperous family possesses a few inherited pieces of
-furniture. Nearly every home contains one _kas_, if not more, and a
-small collection of porcelain, earthenware and silver. Oriental goods
-from the Dutch colonies are not rare.
-
-One peculiarity of the Dutch home is the arrangement for storing and
-washing household linen. From the moment of a little girl’s birth her
-female relatives begin to collect the household linen she will have as a
-portion of her dowry; and the large cupboards and presses of every
-well-to-do home are stored with linen and damask. As the family washing
-is done but four times a year, great hampers are used as receptacles for
-the soiled linen. These are lowered by ropes from the cranes at the top
-of the house, placed in the canal boats, and carried to the meadows,
-where they are washed in the canals and laid on the grass. There they
-are sprinkled by means of curiously shaped wooden spoons with long
-handles that are dipped in the canal. The clothes, again packed in the
-hampers, are carried to the house, where they are mangled. The mangle
-and the napkin-press are found in every house, and the press is not
-unfrequently a decorative piece of furniture.
-
-One of the most interesting provinces in Holland is Friesland—as yet
-unspoiled by tourists and rich in old buildings, quaint villas and
-picturesquely costumed inhabitants. Workum and Hindeloopen (celebrated
-for its gaily-painted houses) both contain some good buildings of the
-seventeenth century; while at Leeuwarden, the residence of the governors
-of Friesland (of the Nassau-Dietz family, and ancestors of the reigning
-house of Holland), the Frisian Museum, with its fine collection of
-antiquities and porcelain, repays more than a brief visit. Here are two
-rooms from Hindeloopen, correctly furnished; and many houses with
-similar rooms still exist in that town. The walls of the smaller room
-are encased with blue and white Dutch tiles, ornamented with Scriptural
-or other subjects. The floor is laid with red and brown tiles. A cabinet
-containing articles of porcelain and curious little silver ornaments
-hangs upon the wall; and, hidden behind the painted woodwork, is a bed,
-like a bunk in a steamer, to which access is gained by means of a small
-and gaily painted ladder. The tables, chairs and other furniture are of
-simple form, and are painted with bright flowers on a cream or white
-background. The other room is similarly furnished, and has a number of
-wax figures of men, women and children dressed in the Hindeloopen
-costume.
-
-The Rijks Museum also contains a Hindeloopen room with characteristic
-furniture.
-
-We may, perhaps, be permitted to quote an extract from _On Dutch
-Waterways_, by G. Christopher Davies, as a vivid picture of the modern
-Frisian home.
-
-“We crossed a tiny little bridge, over a tiny moat, passed through a
-tiny and spotlessly clean yard to the back door. The front door of a
-Dutch house in the country is for ornament only, and not for use, and is
-rarely opened save to be cleaned and painted afresh. This house was the
-most minutely clean and unique any of us had ever seen, and was a
-perfect and rich museum of the wealthier side of Frisian life. In the
-passage by the house door was a well, and the polish on its mahogany
-cover was only exceeded by the glisten on the copper bucket, with brass
-bands, and the shining brass chain which took the place of the ordinary
-rope. The floor of the hall as well as the doors leading from it looked
-as if they had only been painted yesterday.
-
-“The kitchen, the living-room on the ground floor, the hall, a passage
-and a staircase were lined with Dutch tiles, those in the passage and
-dark staircase and corridors being white, or with a pattern or figure of
-an animal painted on them. At the foot of the stairs were hung several
-wooden bowls, painted with cupids and flowers in many colours. Climbing
-up the narrow staircase, we were ushered into the sacred front room,
-which would rarely be used for any purpose but show. It was the museum
-of the house, where a collection of antique treasures were preserved in
-a place which was worthy of them.
-
-“The room was so jealously guarded from daylight by drawn inner and
-outer blinds that we could see nothing distinctly until one shutter was
-opened, and as we crept about cautiously over the highly polished oaken
-floor we had an uneasy feeling that we ought to have taken our shoes
-off, and, in fact, did debate in whispers whether we should do so or
-not.
-
-“Three sides of the room were completely lined with tiles. Up to the
-height of six feet or so the tiles were adorned with various Biblical
-subjects, the Dutch conception of which was, in many instances,
-extremely comical. Above this dado the tiles were plain white, except
-that a blue bordering went round the oaken beams which supported the
-roof. On the fourth side was a range of magnificent oak cabinets, with
-lattice or fretwork doors, through the interstices of which the contents
-were visible. These consisted of rare old china and antique silver
-articles of every kind, spoons, teapots, pins, brooches, and even a
-silver birdcage.
-
-“Many of the things were so curious that we could assign neither use nor
-ornament to them, and much of the interest of the collection was lost to
-us for want of some one to explain the uses of what we saw. Probably the
-following paragraph, which I have just seen in a weekly newspaper, may
-give the true explanation of the small size of some of the objects: The
-rich Dutch burghers of old believed very much in teaching children by
-means of their playthings, and used to give them elaborate dolls’ houses
-furnished with utensils in solid silver that worked perfectly, and were
-exact models of those in daily use in the family. There were silver
-lamps and coffee pots, dishes, spice boxes and everything in miniature.
-Thus the little Dutch girls were housewives from their babyhood.
-
-“Along the top of this rare old piece of furniture was suspended a row
-of porcelain plates. About the room were curiously carved and designed
-chairs and tables, some of the latter finely inlaid; and on the wall I
-particularly noticed mirrors with tortoiseshell frames. The waning light
-left us too little time to examine the contents of the room in detail,
-but we all thought it the choicest thing of the kind we had ever seen in
-public or private.”
-
-In a study of Dutch furniture the canal boat should not be overlooked.
-More than two centuries ago an English traveller asked if there were not
-more people living on the water in Holland than on the land. In that
-country canals lead from town to town and village to village, and boats
-perform transport service. Vegetables, fruits, flowers and dairy
-produce, flour and all kinds of merchandise are transported in boats;
-furniture is moved from house to house by means of the canal boats, and
-passengers are also carried.
-
-Many families know no other home than the _trekschuyt_: cradled on the
-drowsy waters the inmates grow to manhood and womanhood, and die in
-these floating homes.
-
-The traveller in Holland never fails to be interested in the canal boats
-that are constantly arriving and departing in the _grachten_ of the
-large cities; but he rarely sees their interiors. The following
-description by Alphonse Esquiros shows how these canal homes are
-furnished, and gives us an idea of the life spent there:
-
-“Along nearly the whole length, which is about thirty feet, runs a box
-or wooden house, frequently painted green; the roof, on which the
-sailors walk to perform sundry operations, being covered with a layer of
-pounded cockle shells. This house is divided into two compartments or
-cabins; the larger one, situated near the prow, is common to passengers
-and luggage. Here, during the winter, the worthy people, shut up as in a
-box, swim along in a cloak of tobacco smoke, which relieves the tedium
-of the voyage. In summer the wooden shutters are removed, and the hatch
-is raised from the orifice by which the travellers descend. The second
-compartment is the cabinet, called in Dutch the _roef_, which is entered
-through folding doors. The second cabin is small, but fitted up with
-some degree of taste. The windows, four or six in number, are glazed and
-have red or white curtains, according to the season. In the centre is a
-table with a copper vessel containing fire, and another smaller one to
-receive cigar ash, both cleaned and polished in a manner only found in
-Holland. Add to this, to complete the furniture, a mat, a looking-glass,
-and, in winter for the ladies, a foot-warmer, called the _stoef_,
-containing a small earthenware vessel with two or three lumps of lighted
-peat in it. Along two sides of this cabin run cushioned benches, on
-which the travellers sit down opposite to each other. Sometimes there
-are on a shelf a few volumes belonging to the boat and forming a
-floating library at the service of the studious passengers. The whole
-national character is revealed in this simple and minute attention to
-comfort. At the bows, the space not occupied by the cabinet is filled
-with merchandise, bales, and barrels; while the poop is left to
-travellers who wish to take the fresh air, and the helmsman, who steers
-and smokes the while with the regularity of a steamer....
-
-“On the _trekschuyten_ floats old Holland, with its language, manners
-and conscientious and powerful originality. There are some
-_trekschuyten_ in which you pass the night; at about six in the evening,
-in the event of the master being polite (and we never met any who were
-not so), he invites you to take tea. You then see a little cabinet
-produced, containing cups, sugar-basin, and teapot of black earthenware,
-which is not inelegant. The kettle is placed on a species of stove
-covered with Chinese designs, and containing a vessel filled with
-burning peat. At night the _roef_ is divided into two parts—a saloon and
-a small sleeping-room, of which the curtains are raised. A common bed,
-occupying the entire width of the cabin, and on which men and women
-sleep honestly side by side, invites you to take your share of the
-universal calm and rest of nature. This bed is composed of a mattress
-and counterpane, and you lie down on it full dressed. During this period
-the boat continues its noiseless voyage through the waters, which divide
-in a silver furrow on either side the prow.”
-
-The Dutchman has always been famous for his clinging to cleanliness,
-order and symmetry. Cleanliness in the house and order in the garden,
-with its clipped trees and hedges of formal designs and stiff flower
-beds, still persist. The Dutch house of the present day is described by
-the Rev. J. Ballingal _In the North Holland Polders_ as follows: “Their
-houses are as often furnished in very modern style, though the furniture
-is sure to be solid and good. They have the utmost contempt for anything
-sham and flimsy. In their jewellery, of which a great deal is worn, they
-would never think of buying false diamonds or imitation coral. Their
-houses are models of neatness and cleanliness, but there is no trace of
-aesthetic feeling. Symmetry is admired above everything. Trees planted
-round the house at equal distances, trimmed to an exact height, and
-whitewashed to a certain height of the trunk, windows and doors to
-correspond, gates freshly painted, and gravel walks without a
-foot-print—that is the country ideal. There is a story of a Boer who
-fancied a piano would be a handsome addition to his best room, and
-having bought one and got it placed, he returned a few weeks after to
-the piano warehouse. ‘Did the instrument give satisfaction?’ the dealer
-anxiously inquired. Oh, yes! yes! I’ve no complaint to make, for nobody
-has even touched it. What annoys us is we don’t like the look of it in
-the room. It is not _symmetrisch_, so I’ve come to buy another, exactly
-the same, to stand in the opposite corner.’ Such a story is credible
-enough when one sees the exactly similar way in which, through a large
-district, houses are built, and trees planted round them, as if every
-detail were compulsory. The love of cleanliness, too, has its
-extravagances, as, for instance, in the neighbourhood we speak of we
-once enjoyed the comic spectacle of a man sitting astride on the ridge
-of his house, with a pail slung round his neck, scrubbing away at the
-tiles.”
-
-Holland has not escaped the present taste for the collection of
-antiquities; but in that country where there is so deep a love of home,
-and where the peasants guard their possessions with the same tenacity
-and affection as the rich do their heirlooms, the collector is only
-rewarded after long years of patient search. However, many of the
-wealthy merchants and travellers, who are spending the well-earned
-afternoon and evening of their lives in their country seats near Arnhem,
-Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leyden, Dordrecht, Middelburg, Maestricht
-and other large cities and small towns, are able to show rare and
-interesting relics of the past. A house of a rich traveller will reflect
-naturally enough the wanderings as well as the taste of its owner. The
-spoils of Java, Dutch Guiana, the West Indies and other colonies, not to
-mention those of Egypt, Spain and Italy, adorn his rooms and render his
-cabinets highly interesting.
-
-As a rule his study and the boudoirs of his wife and daughters, his
-drawing-room with its adjoining conservatory, his library and his
-bedrooms are furnished in the latest French taste. The dining-room is
-frequently painted in pale green, and here are displayed in the
-cupboards _vitrines_, cabinets, and on the hanging shelves his family
-treasures, consisting of curious and beautifully engraved glass, silver,
-and choice sets and individual pieces of porcelain. If, however, as is
-often the case, the owner is the collector, then he takes especial
-delight in the “antique-room,” which he has fitted up in the style of a
-cabinet of the seventeenth century. The general impression of this
-apartment is brown, derived not only from the panelled ceiling, high
-wainscot and carved chimney-piece, but from the wall hangings of leather
-with its raised patterns of faded gold and the high-backed carved
-furniture.
-
-Brightness is contributed by the array of brass, porcelain, delft, rugs,
-cushions and tiled fireplace, with its fine brass andirons, bellows and
-other equipments. On the ledge of the wainscot handsome jars and vases
-and other specimens of porcelain and delft are symmetrically arranged,
-and on the wall hang plaques and brass sconces. The room receives
-additional light from old brass chandeliers. A cabinet full of curios, a
-large _kas_, a Bible on a stand, a spinning-wheel, foot-warmers, pipes
-and old kitchen utensils are sure to be found here; and to these
-articles we may add a carved napkin-press, a mangle, an old carved board
-and rolling-pin for doing up fine linen, and an ancient carved, gilded
-and painted sled.
-
-Collecting is not confined to the individual; for the study of old
-furniture and other antiquities that contribute so great an aid to the
-historian in constructing the social life of the past and so great an
-aid to the artist, architect and decorator, is widespread in Holland.
-The great museums of the large cities contain many superb and valuable
-specimens, and display them with great taste. In some cases whole rooms
-have been removed from some old palace or _stadhouder’s_ house with
-their original ceilings, chimney-pieces, hangings and furniture; and,
-again, entire rooms have been fitted up in the characteristic style of
-some province whose individual manners and customs are fast
-disappearing. Many of the small towns have a collection of local
-antiquities, which are, as a rule, attractively displayed; for the
-members of the numerous Dutch antiquarian societies take great pride in
-the history of their country. Sometimes, as in the case of the “Museum
-van Kunstnyverheid” in Haarlem, the collection embraces the artistic
-industries of ancient and modern times. This museum contains a
-particularly fine collection of kitchen utensils and other articles and
-furniture familiar to us in the pictures of Jan Steen, Maes and other
-Dutch masters.
-
-The museums of Belgium are equally rich in old furniture, tapestries and
-other treasures.
-
-
-                                THE END
-
-
-
-
-                                 INDEX
-
-
- Abbaye de Montréal, 50;
-   —— d’ Oignies, 25
-
- Abbey of Charlieu, 50;
-   —— of Citeaux, 50;
-   —— of Clairvaux, 50;
-   —— of Cluny, 50;
-   —— of Saint Maximin, 39;
-   —— of Vézélay, 50
-
- Abbeys of Burgundy, 50
-
- Aelst, Peter van, 75
-
- _Æsop’s Fables_, 305
-
- Agnes Sorel, 22
-
- _Aiguière_, _Aiguières_, 10, 150, 151, 166
-
- Alart du Hameel, 62
-
- Albert, Archduke, 135, 137;
-   —— and Isabella, Court of, 132
-
- Aliénor of Poitiers, quoted, 43–5, 46–7
-
- Alost, looms, 58
-
- Amsterdam, 136, 203, 208, 215, 239, 249, 270;
-   ——, stores in, 237;
-   ——, Leonard van, 221
-
- Amber, 72
-
- Andirons, 129
-
- Anil, 225
-
- Antwerp, 23, 73, 203, 135–6;
-   ——, artists of, 101–3;
-   ——, cabinets of, 114;
-   ——, clavecin-makers of, 124–8;
-   ——, wealth of, 101
- Arabesques, 65–6, 93
-
- _Arche_, 13
-
- Architecture, Early Renaissance, 177–8
-
- Ards, W., 51
-
- Armchairs, 7
-
- _Armoire_, _Armoires_, 11, 12, 13, 113–4, 204, 261
-
- Arphe, Juan de, 52
-
- Arras, 20, 21, 53;
-   —— looms, 35–6
-
- Artisans, 1–3, 28, 47–8, 52, 53, 101–3
-
- Artists, 28, 67–8, 95–6, 103, 106–7, 118–20
-
- Artz, picture by, 313
-
- Aspruck, Franz, 165
-
- Asselijn, quoted, 182
-
- Auricular style, 111, 166–7, 300.
-   _See_ _Genre auriculaire_
-
- Avignon, 58
-
- Avont, Peter van den, 165
-
-
- Babou, Philibert, 74
-
- Baby’s outfit, 199–200
-
- Baert, Jean, 304
-
- Baerze, Jacques de, 48
-
- _Bahut_, _Bahuts_, 12, 13, 66, 116, 140
-
- Baldwin, Count of Flanders, 19
-
- Ballingal, J., quoted, 324–5
-
- Banbosa, D. 212
-
- _Banc_, _Bancs_, 13–14, 140–1
-
- Banderole, 94
-
- _Banquiers_, 47
-
- Barbé, J. B., 165
-
- Bass viol, 129
-
- Bataille, Colin. _See_ Bataille, Nicholas;
-   ——, Nicholas, 20, 37
-
- Battle of Nancy, 39;
-   —— of Nicopolis, 36;
-   —— of Pavia, 79
-
- Beaugrant, Guyot de, 52, 78
-
- Beaumetz, John de, 48, 50
-
- Beauneveu, André, 50
-
- Beauvais, tapestry of, 155–6, 304–5
-
- Becius, Joh., quoted, 259
-
- Bed, Beds, 43, 44, 70, 108–11, 147, 150, 151, 198, 266, 312;
-   —— chest, 12;
-   ——, folding, 70;
-   ——, Josephine’s, 311;
-   ——, Mary of Burgundy’s, 56;
-   ——, Queen Anne’s, 274, 275, 276;
-   ——, panelled, 191
-   ——, from Rijks Museum, 110;
-   —— tapestry, 56;
-   ——, William’s, 274
-
- Bedroom, 9, 43–4,104–5. 190–1, 197–8;
-   ——, Marot’s, 275–6;
-   ——, Mary’s, 274, 275, 276
-
- Bedsteads, 266
-
- Beef-wood, 268
-
- Béhagle, Philippe, 156
-
- Bein, Heinrich van, 166
-
- Belgium, buildings in, 145–6;
-   ——, museums of, 327
-
- Benches, 7
-
- Bérain, 164
-
- Berent, 62
-
- Berenberge, Pierre van, 51
-
- Bernagie, quoted, 194
-
- Bernard, Michel, 21
-
- Bernard, Pierre, quoted, 99–100
-
- Berruguete, 52
-
- Beughem, Louis van, 68
-
- Beveren, Cornelius van, 256
-
- Blommaert, Georges, 156
-
- Blondeel, Lancelot, 53, 79–80
-
- Blyenborgh, Adrian, 257;
-   ——, Vrouwe van, 257–9, 259–60
-
- Board and trestles, 6, 15, 141
-
- Boegarden, Henry van, 51
-
- Bol, F., 170
-
- Bolsward, Church of, 5
-
- Bonaffé, quoted, 158–9
-
- Bonte, C. de, 61
-
- Borromini, 131, 309
-
- Borcht, Jacques van der, 304
-
- Bos, Cornelius, 95, 107
-
- Bosse, Abraham, 142, 147
-
- Boteram, Rinaldo, 59
-
- Bouche, P. P., 166
-
- Boucher, 300, 304, 305
-
- Boulle, A. C., 115, 271;
-   ——, Pierre, 115
-
- Bouts, Derick, 15
-
- Bouttats, Gaspard, 166
-
- Brackets, 278, 279
-
- Brassware, 129
-
- Breda, Church of, 5
-
- Breughel, Pierre, the Elder, 88;
-   ——, Peter, 175
-
- Bride’s basket, 200;
-   —— crown, 200;
-   —— house-furnishing, 255;
-   —— throne, 200
-
- Broederlam, M., 48
-
- Broederkerk. _See_ Bolsward
-
- Broec, L. van den, 51
-
- Bronchorst, J. G., 170
-
- Bronzino, 73
-
- Bruges, 25, 32, 40;
-   ——, looms of, 58;
-   ——, Palais de Justice, 79;
-   ——, St. Anne, 139;
-   ——, St. Walburge (pulpit), 138
-
- Brulh, Van der, 52
-
- Brussels, 20, 21, 23, 25, 32, 306;
-   —— looms, 57, 304;
-   —— museum, 198, 254;
-   —— school of, 306;
-   —— tapestries, 73, 304
-
- Bruyn, Charles de, 51
-
- Bry, Theodore de, 94
-
- Buffet, 14–5,43;
-   à deux corps, 140
-
- Bulteel, John, 51
-
- Burgundian etiquette, 98;
-   —— style, the, 85–7
-
- Burgundy, Dukes of, 16, 31–2, 272;
-   ——, House of, 31–2
-
- Buten, Martin van, 165
-
- Buytenweg, William, 165
-
-
- Cabinet, Cabinets, 11, 62, 89–90, 107, 114–5, 116, 204, 211, 226,
-    238–9, 244, 245, 246, 262, 284, 300
-
- Cabinet-makers, 7, 8, 13, 159, 297
-
- Calin, 211
-
- Cambrai, Peace of, 79
-
- Cameryck, C. van, 122
-
- Campen, J. van. _See_ Kampen
-
- Canal-boats, furniture of, 321–4
-
- Candlesticks, 44–5, 60, 129
-
- Canning, quoted, 302
-
- Cape of Good Hope, 208
-
- Carest, Josse, 125
-
- Caron, 73
-
- Carpenter, 8
-
- Carpets, 19, 70, 243;
-   ——, table, 263
-
- Carracks, 208–9
-
- Cartoons, tapestry, 58, 59, 73, 137, 156, 157
-
- Cartouche, 94
-
- Carvers, 2, 5, 50–3, 122
-
- Carving, Carvings, 2–6, 7, 80–3, 115, 171, 138–40, 279, 282, 301–2
-
- Caryatid, 94
-
- Cathedral of Antwerp, 27;
-   —— of Dietz, 27;
-   —— of Tournay, 27
-
- Catherine of Braganza, 284
-
- Cats, 269;
-   —— head, 190
-
- Cavalli, M., 101
-
- Cecil, 214
-
- Cedar, 268
-
- Ceilings from the Binnenhof, 171, 172
-
- Cellini, 91, 92
-
- Ceramics, 107, 116–7, 284
-
- Chair, Chairs, 15, 16, 112–3, 142, 160–4, 266–7, 276–7
-
- Chambre, 17;
-   —— de parade, 45
-
- Champeaux, 86
-
- Chandelier, Chandeliers, 10, 60, 129, 166, 283
-
- Charles I. (England), 136;
-   —— II.(England), 201, 280, 284;
-   —— —— chair, 163;
-   —— V. (France), 20, 22, 26–7;
-   —— V. (Emperor of Germany), 65, 75, 76, 79, 87, 97, 98, 198;
-   —— VI. (France), 20, 22;
-   —— VIII.(France), 65, 68;
-   —— the Bold, 27, 40, 39–43, 54, 60, 61
-
- Chastelain, Georges, quoted, 35–6, 38
-
- Château de Schoemburg, 307
-
- Chest, chests, 6, 12–13, 15, 116, 139, 256, 257;
-   —— bed, 12;
-   —— -upon-chest, 12
-
- Chimney-pieces, 49, 53, 78–9, 88, 122, 170, 171, 181, 278
-
- China, 216, 299;
-   —— mania, 281;
-   —— -cabinets, 285, 300;
-   —— -ware, 225, 239, 240, 245, 246, 247, 261, 281, 283. _See_
-      Porcelain
-
- Chinese boudoir, 172;
-   —— style, 127, 305. _See_ _Chinoiserie_
-
- _Chinoiserie_, 273, 300
-
- Chippendale, 278
-
- Choir-stalls, 3–6, 77–8, 80–3, 122, 139
-
- Chronicle of St. Trond, 57
-
- Claas, Alaert, 95, 96
-
- Claire, Godefroid de, 6
-
- Classic architecture in furniture, 140;
-   —— orders, 91;
-   —— style, 65
-
- Clavecin, 124;
-   —— makers, 124–8
-
- Clavichord, 124
-
- Clays, Pierre, 88
-
- Cleaning-utensils, 187
-
- Clerc, G. de, 24
-
- Clocks, 267, 278
-
- Cluny Museum, 13, 15, 48, 66, 160, 162, 163, 261, 267
-
- Coach-bed, 266
-
- Cock, Jerome, 94, 102, 103
-
- Cockatoo, 270
-
- Cocques, 153, 250
-
- Coeck of Alost, Peter, 87–8, 94, 103
-
- Coffers, 66, 257
-
- Colars, N., 5
-
- Colima, John van, 285
-
- Collaert, Adrian, 103, 121;
-   —— Hans, 103
-
- Collan, J., 165
-
- Collection of porcelain, 206–7
-
- Collectors of tapestry, 20–2
-
- Cologne, 28
-
- Comans, Marc, 155
-
- Communes, The, 1, 2
-
- _Compartiment_, 93, 94
-
- Comptoir, 179, 188
-
- Constant, quoted, 225–6
-
- Constantinople, fall of, 64
-
- Cooking-utensils, 11, 151, 196, 268–9
-
- Coral, 72, 174
-
- Cordova, 23, 99
-
- Cosmo I., 77
-
- Cotgrave, 12
-
- Court-cupboard, 140
-
- _Court pointerie_, 17
-
- Coxie, Michel, 73
-
- Cradles, 198
-
- Credence, 12, 14–15, 140
-
- Cressent, 300
-
- Crispin de Passe, the Elder. _See_ Passe, Crispin van de
-
- Croissy, Fouquet de, 270
-
- Crusade, the First, 18
-
- Crusades, 1, 7
-
- Crusaders, 23
-
- _Cubiculum_, 141
-
- _Cuirs_, 93, 94, 103, 104, 114
-
- Cupboards, 62, 256, 257–8, 260
-
- Curios, 69, 71–2, 89, 114–5, 143, 204–5, 300–1
-
- Curtains, 17–8
-
- Cushions, 6, 13, 16, 69, 70, 71, 141
-
- Custode, Dominic, 107;
-   ——, Raphael, 165
-
-
- _Daïs_, 4
-
- Dale, Lucas van, 221
-
- Dam, The, 145, 169
-
- Damme, 19
-
- Dangeau, quoted, 249
-
- Daret, Jehan, 39
-
- Davies, G. C., quoted, 319–21
-
- Decadence, The, 107, 131, 158–9, 165;
-   —— of Dutch Art, 301;
-   ——, Flemish, 203
-
- Decorations, 29, 200
-
- Decorative designers, 103, 106–7, 165–6
-
- D’Erembert, 25
-
- Defoe, quoted, 281
-
- Delft, looms, 77;
-   —— ware, 204, 216, 220–2, 300;
-   —— ware, Closett, 285;
-   —— ware, Mary’s, 281
-
- De Parival, quoted, 185
-
- Develstein, Castle of, 228, 256, 260–1, 262
-
- De Vries. _See_ Vries, Hans V. de
-
- Dextras, The, 221
-
- Dijon, 32, 47;
-   —— Museum, 48, 49, 51, 112;
-   —— Palais de Justice, 85–6;
-   —— St. Michel’s, 85
-
- Dinant, 10, 16, 32
-
- _Dinanderie_, 10–1, 129
-
- _Dinantairs_, 11
-
- Dixmuiden, St. Nicholas, 83
-
- Dogs, 269
-
- Dolls, 173, 176–7;
-   —— houses, 172–6
-
- Don Juan of Austria, 100
-
- Dordin, Jacques. _See_ Dourdain
-
- Dordrecht, 256;
-   ——, Groote Kerk, 80
-
- Dou, 250, 254
-
- Douay, looms, 58
-
- Dourdain, Jacques, 20
-
- _Dragée_, 45–6
-
- _Drageoir_, 45, 46–7
-
- _Dragonnades_, The, 272
-
- Drawing-table, The, 111–2, 141–2
-
- Dressing-cloth, 262;
-   —— table, 262–3
-
- _Dressoir_, 9, 12, 14–5, 34, 37, 38, 40, 44, 45, 53, 105, 261, 278
-
- Du Cerceau, 104;
-   ——, “the Dutch,” _See_ Vries, H. V. de
-
- Duke of Alva, 157;
-   —— of Anjou, 20;
-   —— of Berry, 20, 22, 50;
-   —— of Orleans, 20, 22
-
- Dukes of Burgundy. _See_ Burgundy
-
- Dulcken, Peter van, 122
-
- Dürer, Albrecht, 76, 82, 93
-
- Dussen, Mrs. Lidia van der, 197–8
-
- Dutch, The, 203–4;
-   —— Art, Decadence of, 301;
-   —— artisans in London, 284;
-   —— artists, 165, 166;
-   —— beds, 312;
-   —— carving, 301–2;
-   —— collectors, 325–7;
-   —— country houses, 315–6;
-   —— in the East, 215–6, 237–8;
-   —— farmhouses,313–5;
-   —— furniture, 255, 317–8;
-   —— homes and houses, 177–98, 188–91, 197–8, 311–2, 316–7;
-   —— love of home, 172–3, 182–3;
-   —— love of marquetry, 160;
-   —— love of porcelain, 238–9;
-   —— love of symmetry, 324–5;
-   —— luxury, 249, 255–6, 302–3;
-   —— mania for cleaning, 183–7, 194–5, 324;
-   —— and English marriages, 279–80;
-   —— navigators, 214–6;
-   —— ships, 215, 226;
-   —— taste, 204, 279, 280, 282, 284–5, 287
-
- Duysbourg, H. van, 51
-
-
- Ear, as decorative motive, 166. _See_ Auricular style
-
- Earl of Pembroke, 57;
-   —— of Warwick, 57
-
- East India Company, 270;
-   —— of England, 237, 284, 290
-
- East, trade with the, 64
-
- _Ébéniste_, 159
-
- Ebn’ Abd el Noûr el Hamîri et Toûnsi, 23
-
- Ebony, 7, 115, 268
-
- Ecclesiastical Art, 1–6, 7;
-   —— hangings, 18–9
-
- Edrisi, 205
-
- Eeckhout, G. van der, 166
-
- Eenhoorn, L., 221
-
- Egmont, Counts of, 100
-
- Elizabeth, Queen, 117, 125, 214;
-   —— Queen of Bohemia, 279
-
- Embroiderers, 56
-
- Embroideries, 17, 56, 69, 70, 71
-
- Empire Style, The, 310
-
- _Encoinçons_, 93, 104
-
- Engravers, 165
-
- England and Holland, relations of, 241
-
- English workmen, complaints of, 288;
-   —— and Dutch pirates, 238
-
- Entrecolles, Father d’, quoted, 223–5
-
- _Escarbeau_, 16, 47, 266
-
- _Escritorios de la Chine_, 211
-
- Esquiros, Alphonse, quoted, 312–3, 322–4
-
- Este, C., quoted, 306–9
-
- Etiquette, 14, 33, 46–7, 98
-
- European patterns sent to the East, 223–5, 287, 288, 290, 296–7
-
- Evelyn, 249, 282, 284
-
- Eycken, John van der, 62
-
-
- _Faerie Queen, The_, quoted, 21
-
- Faïence, 91, 206, 301
-
- Faldstools, 7, 16
-
- Falkema, J. S., 166
-
- Faydherbe, L., 136
-
- Feast of the Pheasant, 33–4
-
- Feltham, Owen, 183, 185, 264
-
- Ferdinand of Aragon, 79
-
- Ferrara, 59
-
- _Fête de l’oiseau_, 303–4
-
- Fictoor, Lowys, 221
-
- Fire-basket, 199
-
- Fireplace, 62
-
- Flanders, 79, 203
-
- Flemings, artistic character of the, 84–5
-
- Flemish artisans, 306;
-   —— artisans abroad, 52, 58–9, 74–5, 85, 117–8, 155, 156, 304;
-   —— carvers, 50–3;
-   —— glass-workers, 26–7;
-   —— teachers, 24;
-   —— looms, 58, 71, 74, 76–7, 304–5
-
- “Flemish Raphael,” The, 88
-
- Floreins, John, 52
-
- Florence, 28
-
- Floris, Cornelius, 102;
-   ——, Francis, 88;
-   ——, James, 102;
-   —— Style, the, 102–3
-
- Flowers, 200, 201
-
- Folding-beds, 111;
-   —— tables, 112
-
- Fontainebleau, 74;
-   —— School of, 92
-
- Foot-stove, 263–4
-
- Forbin, Count de, quoted, 249
-
- Forms, 7
-
- Fouquet, 154
-
- Francis I., 74, 97
-
- François de la Planche, 155
-
- Francouart, 94
-
- Franquart, Jacques, 137
-
- French influence in Low Countries, 299–300
-
- Friar Hugo, 25
-
- Friesland, 318
-
- Frytom, F. van, 221
-
- Furnes, St. Walburge, 139
-
- Furnishing, house, 255
-
- Furnishings of Banquet Hall, 40–3
-
- Furniture, 141–2, 244–5;
-   ——, canal boat, 322–4;
-   ——, Duchess of Burgundy’s, 43–5;
-   ——, Dutch painted, 319;
-   ——, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Century, 61–2;
-   —— at Hampton Court, 282–4;
-   ——, inlaid, 90, 107, 158–60;
-   ——, Italian, 90–92;
-   ——, Japanned, 297;
-   ——, lacquered, 297, 298–9;
-   ——, Margaret of Austria’s, 69–72;
-   ——, mediaeval, 2, 6–7, 7–8, 11;
-   —— mounts, 159;
-   ——, Renaissance, 83–4, 92–5, 105, 107, 108–17, 139–42;
-   ——, Seventeenth century, 146–52, 158–64;
-   —— tapestry, 304–5. _See_ Cluny, Marquetry, Rijks
-
-
- Gaîne, 94
-
- Galle, Theodore, 107
-
- Galles, Phillip, 107
-
- Gance, J. van den, 51
-
- Gardens, Dutch, 279, 282
-
- Gazoni, quoted, 99
-
- _Genre auriculaire_, 111, 166–7, 300
-
- Geraerts, M., 106, 107
-
- Gerard, Marc, 93
-
- Gerbier, B., 127
-
- Ghent, 25, 32, 98;
-   —— tapestry, 304
-
- Gheyn, Jacques de, 165
-
- Giacomo d’Angelo, 59
-
- Gibbons, Grinling, 279, 282
-
- Gilbert, Sir John, 214
-
- Gillot, 300
-
- Giovanna, Francesca, 59
-
- Giovanni da Udine, 73
-
- Glass, 26, 117–8, 207, 246;
-   —— blowers, 117–8;
-   —— makers, 101;
-   ——, painted, 159;
-   ——, painting on, 118;
-   —— windows, 27
-
- Glosencamp, L., 53
-
- Glusomack, Henry, 48
-
- Goa, 209, 210, 214, 216
-
- Gobelins, 76, 154, 155, 157, 158, 272
-
- Godewijck, Margaretha, quoted, 174–5;
-   ——, P. van, quoted, 172–3, 182–3
-
- Golden Age of Tapestry, 53
-
- Golden Fleece, Knights of the, 38;
-   ——, Order of the, 16, 39, 41, 61, 89
-
- Goldsmiths, 5, 6, 61, 65;
-   ——, Corporation of, 25
-
- Goldsmiths’ work, 24–6, 35, 37, 39, 44, 60
-
- Goler, Pierre, 115
-
- Goltius, Hubert, 88, 89
-
- Goten, Jacques van der, 304
-
- Gothic Art, 7, 67, 77–8;
-   —— ornamentation, 3–5, 12;
-   —— style, the, 62, 65, 77–8, 82–3, 105, 108, 133
-
- Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, 100, 106
-
- Gruuthuuse, pew, 53
-
- Guadameciles, 23
-
- Guicciardini, quoted, 73, 87, 101, 118–20, 123, 187
-
- Guilds of St. Luke, 28, 88, 120, 124, 125, 126, 128, 220–1
-
- Guionet, 26
-
-
- Haarlem, Groote Kerk, 82
-
- Hague, The, 170, 201, 265
-
- Hall, 192–3;
-   ——, furniture of, 15–6
-
- Halles (Brussels), 51
-
- Hameidan, M. van der, 156
-
- Hampton Court Palace, 157, 274, 278, 280, 282–4
-
- Handel, clavecin of, 128
-
- Hangings, 7
-
- Harpsichords, 124, 267
-
- Harrewyn, J. J., 166
-
- Hee, Gilles de la, 88
-
- Hecker, A., 165
-
- Heemskerck, M. van, 96
-
- Héliot, B., 48
-
- Helt-Stocade, N. de, 170
-
- Hendricks, L., 165
-
- Henri II., style, 83;
-   —— IV., 115, 154
-
- Henry le Backer, 61;
-   —— VIII., 97
-
- Hervey, John, 285–7, 295
-
- Hervormde Kerk. _See_ Breda
-
- Heylbrouck, M., 166
-
- Hessels, Gerrit (Gerritz), 94, 165
-
- _Het Loo_, 170
-
- Hicks, Robert, 77
-
- Hill, Robert, quoted, 310–2
-
- Hindeloopen, 318, 319
-
- Hoevens, The van der, 221
-
- “Hogarth, The Dutch,” 301
-
- Holland, buildings, 145–6;
-   ——, jealousy of, 302. _See_ Dutch Holme, Lacy, 279
-
- Holsteyn, C., 170
-
- _Hoogerhuis_, room from the, 172
-
- Hooghe, R. de, 165
-
- Hoogstraten, S. van, 250
-
- Hosemant, J., 58
-
- Houbraken, A., 165
-
- Hour-glasses, 268
-
- House-in-the-Wood, 170
-
- Houses, miniature, 173–6;
-   Seventeenth century, 145–6
-
- Houtman, C., 215
-
- Howard, Admiral, 157
-
- _Huche_, _Huches_, 13, 66, 166
-
- _Huchiers_, 8, 13, 38–9, 53;
-   —— _menuisiers_, 17
-
- Huet, 300
-
- Huguenot emigrants, 272, 284
-
- _Huis ten Bosch_, 170
-
- Hulst, John, 48
-
- Huygens, 298
-
- Hynart, Louis, 155
-
-
- Ibn Batuta, 205
-
- Importations, 226, 289, 292
-
- India, 205, 209, 216;
-   —— -houses, 281, 285
-
- Inlaid furniture, 7, 90, 107, 158–160
-
- Interiors of the Great and Little Masters, 250–5
-
- Inventories, Dutch, 146–52, 191–2, 231–5, 241–6, 246–8, 257–61, 269
-
- Isabella of Bourbon, 43;
-   —— of Castile, 79;
-   —— of Portugal, 37
-
- _Isle des hermaphrodites, L’_, quoted, 159
-
- Italian furniture, 90–2
-
- Ivory, 7
-
-
- Jackenon of Nivelles, 5
-
- Jane of Burgundy, 17
-
- Janz, House of A. H., 188–91
-
- James II., 249, 280
-
- Japan, 209, 210, 226
-
- Japanned furniture, 297;
-   —— goods, 289, 295
-
- Japanners, complaint of, 289, 297
-
- Jaspar, 6
-
- Java mahogany, 268
-
- Jehan de Bruges, 16, 59;
-   —— de Dinant, 11
-
- Jewel-boxes, 263
-
- Jewelry, 242, 243, 262
-
- John of Brussels, 68
-
- John III., Count of Hainault, 25
-
- Johnson, Gerreit, 285
-
- Joiners, 8;
-   —— Company, petition of, 288–9
-
- Joinville, C. de, quoted, 303–4
-
- Joanna the Mad, 65, 78
-
- _Jouées_, 3, 4
-
-
- Kampen, Jacob van, 145, 165, 169, 170, 172
-
- Kampen, Town-hall, 122
-
- Kams, The, 221
-
- Kamyn, Erasmus, 166
-
- Karcher, John, 77;
-   ——, Nicholas, 77
-
- Karel de Moor, 171
-
- _Kas_, _Kasten_, 204, 244, 247, 256, 257, 260, 261
-
- Keizer, Albrecht de, 221;
-   ——, Cornelis de, 221
-
- Keldermans, M., 62;
-   ——, R., 78
-
- Key, William, 88
-
- Keyser, Hendrik de, 165, 169, 171
-
- King-wood, 260, 268
-
- Kitchen, 151, 189–90, 196, 268–9;
-   ——, Rembrandt’s, 144;
-   —— utensils, 11, 96, 151, 268–9
-
- Koedyck, 250, 251
-
- Kooge, Abraham de, 221
-
-
- Lacquer, 127, 211, 295–9;
-   —— imitation of, 298
-
- Lacquered furniture, 297, 298–9
-
- Laeken, Palace of, 310–1
-
- Lairesse, G. de, 172, 301
-
- Lame, Jahn de, 101
-
- Landenspelder, John, 103
-
- Lange, Jacob de, home of, 246–8
-
- Launoy, 79
-
- Laval, P. de, quoted, 208–11
-
- Layens, M. de, 62
-
- Leather hangings, 71, 153–4, 171, 172;
-   ——, paintings on, 3;
-   ——, Spanish, 267
-
- Leathers, gilded. 99, 102, 133, 134, 135, 149, 150
-
- Le Brun, 154, 305
-
- Leeuwarden, 318
-
- Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, 37
-
- Le Maître à la Navette, 62
-
- Leo X., 75
-
- Leonardo da Vinci, 58
-
- Lepautre, 272–3
-
- Lerambert, 73
-
- Leyden, Lucas van, 9, 93, 95, 96
-
- Liefrinck, Hans, 103
-
- Liège, 23, 24, 25;
-   ——, School of, 306;
-   ——, tapestry-weavers of, 57
-
- Lievens, Jan, 170, 171
-
- Lignum vitæ, 256
-
- Lille, 23, 33, 156, 304;
-   —— looms, 58;
-   —— Museum, 300;
-   ——, School of, 300, 306
-
- Linen, 192, 256, 257, 258, 318;
-   ——, paintings on, 13;
-   ——, printed, 6
-
- Linen-fold pattern, 12, 93, 105
-
- Linkerk, Peter, 48
-
- Linschoten, J. H. van, quoted, 226
-
- Lisbon, 99, 117, 208, 214, 215
-
- _Lit en housse_, 147
-
- Living-room, 189
-
- Lochon, M. van, 165
-
- Lodeweycke, H. 165
-
- Lombard, Lambert, 88–9
-
- Looms, Flemish, 16, 19
-
- Louis XII., 65, 68;
-   —— XIII., 142;
-   —— Napoleon, 170, 310;
-   —— Quatorze Period, 270–3;
-   —— Quinze Period, 270, 300, 301, 306, 309
-
- Louvain, St. Michael’s, 139;
-   ——, Town-hall, 62
-
- Louvre, 115, 154, 271
-
- Lower, Sir John, quoted, 201–2
-
- Loyet, Gérard, 61
-
- Lucidel, Nicholas, 88
-
- _Luifel_, 177, 179
-
- Lute, 129
-
- Lutma, John, 166
-
- Luxury, 32–43, 100–1, 259, 302–3
-
-
- Maarken, 312
-
- Macé, Jean, 115
-
- _Mademoiselle, La Grande_, quoted, 287–8
-
- Madrid, looms, 304
-
- Maes, 327
-
- Maestricht, 25
-
- Majolica factory, 101
-
- Malaca, 209
-
- Maldives, 210
-
- Mantua, 59
-
- Mantegna, Andrea, 58, 59
-
- Mantel-piece, 283
-
- Maps, Tapestry, 77
-
- Marchaut, Countess of Artois, 21
-
- Margaret of Austria, 47, 67–72, 78, 79, 87, 89, 97, 99;
-   —— of York, 40
-
- Marguerite of Valois, 99–101
-
- Marie Elizabeth, 303–4;
-   —— de Medici, 137
-
- Marot, Daniel, 164, 272, 273–8, 280, 282, 287;
-   —— style, 267
-
- Marquetry, 91, 108, 111, 112, 158–60
-
- Marville, John de, 48, 49
-
- Mary of Burgundy, 45, 56, 67, 79;
-   —— of Hungary, 97–8;
-   —— of Orange, 279;
-   ——, Queen of England, 171, 280–2, 283, 284, 285
-
- Mascarons, 277, 278
-
- Masters, The Great, 301;
-   ——, the Little, 250, 255, 301
-
- Matsys, C., 103
-
- Matteo del Nassaro, 73
-
- Mauritshuis, The, 170, 201
-
- Maurice of Nassau, Count John, 170
-
- Maussel, Guillaume, 38
-
- Maximilian, 79
-
- Mazarin, Cardinal, 113, 115, 270, 287
-
- Mechlin, 23, 78;
-   ——, house in, 146–52
-
- Mediaeval room, 9
-
- Meissonnier, 300, 309
-
- Melter, J. de, 156
-
- Memling, 9, 54, 58
-
- Mendelslo, quoted, 225, 227
-
- Mendoza, 211–2
-
- Mercurius, 264
-
- Metal chairs, 16;
-   ——, wrought, 13
-
- Methwold, quoted, 226
-
- Metsu, 250, 253, 254
-
- Meyt, Conrad, 68–9
-
- Michael Angelo, 85, 131, 132
-
- Micker, James, 165
-
- Middelburg, looms, 58, 77
-
- Mierevelt, Gertrude van, 191–2
-
- Milan, 59
-
- Mindanao, Queen of, 205–6
-
- Miniatures of MSS., importance of, 8
-
- Mirrors, 260, 264–5, 268, 277, 283
-
- _Miséricorde_, The, 3
-
- Moelenere, Thierry de, House of, 88
-
- Molensleyer, Godefroy den, 51;
-   ——, Henry den, 51
-
- Monet, 11–2
-
- Monkeys, 128, 135, 269–70;
-   —— in decoration, 128, 305. _See_ _Singerie_
-
- Montagu, Lady Mary, quoted, 281
-
- Montoyer, 308
-
- Moonen, quoted, 238
-
- Morales, A., quoted, 99
-
- Moretus, 101, 137
-
- Mortlake tapestry, 154, 156–7
-
- Mosquito net, 71
-
- Mostaert, Jean, 87
-
- Mosyn, M., 166
-
- Moucheron, 166, 173
-
- Mounts, Furniture, 159
-
- Muntink, A., 165
-
- _Museaux_, 3
-
- Museum van Kunstnyverheid, 327
-
- Music, love of, 122–3
-
- Musical instruments, 123–9
-
- Musicians, list of, 123
-
-
- _Nachtbouquet_, 262
-
- Nancy, looms, 156
-
- Napkin basket, 199
-
- Napolitanus, C., quoted, 178, 186–7
-
- Natalis, M., 165
-
- Needlework, 281. _See_ Embroiderers
-
- Netherland East India Company, 216
-
- Netherlands, Luxury in the, 100–1
-
- Neusse, A., 304
-
- New Amsterdam, 241
-
- New Year’s Gifts to Queen Elizabeth, 214
-
- _Niello_, 25–6
-
- Nieucasteel, Nicholas de, 88
-
- Nispen, Van, 256–7
-
- Nivelles, Church of, 5
-
- Nolpe, Peter, 166
-
- Northampton, Earl of, 240–1
-
- Noye, Jacques van, 106;
-   —— Sebastian van, 106
-
- Numismatics, 88, 89
-
- Nutwood, 238, 247, 248, 260, 268
-
-
- Oak, 7, 268
-
- Oesterham, Pieter, 221
-
- _Old Brechtje_, quoted, 199
-
- Olive-wood, 268
-
- Olivier de la Marche, quoted, 32, 42–3
-
- Oost, Peter van, 51
-
- Oppenord, G. M., 272, 300, 309
-
- Oppenordt, C. J., 271
-
- _Or bazané_, 99
-
- _Orfèvres._ _See_ Goldsmiths
-
- _Orfèvrerie_, 24–6
-
- Oriental goods, 7, 209, 240, 242, 243, 244, 246, 285, 286–7
-
- Orley, Bernard van, 73, 75, 76, 87
-
- Ornamentation, Renaissance, 92–6
-
- Ornaments, decorative, 165–6
-
- Ort, A. van, 101
-
- Oudenarde, 78;
-   ——, Hôtel de Ville, 122;
-   ——, looms, 58, 304
-
-
- Paintings, 69
-
- _Palissandre_, 268
-
- Palissy, 117
-
- Panellings, 11, 12, 93, 105, 171, 172
-
- Panelled-bed, 191
-
- Pand, Le, 73
-
- Pannemaker, André, 156;
-   ——, François, 156;
-   ——, William de, 76
-
- _Paraclose_, The, 3, 4
-
- Paris, 20, 21
-
- Parrots, 269, 270
-
- Passe, Crispin de, or van de, 94, 106, 107, 120–1, 142, 162, 171, 203
-
- Passo, P., 101
-
- Paston, John, quoted, 40
-
- Pauli, André, 165
-
- Patin, Charles, quoted, 249–50
-
- Peacocks, 269
-
- Pekin, 299
-
- Penon, J. H., 38
-
- Pentin, J., 61
-
- Peter the Great, 304;
-   —— of Campana, 73
-
- Pets, 134, 135, 269–70
-
- Perréal, John, 67–8
-
- Pewter, 191, 261
-
- Pheasants, 269
-
- Philibert of Savoy, 67, 68
-
- Philip de Comines, 32;
-   —— the Bold, 20, 31, 47, 49–50, 55;
-   —— the Good, 33–8, 55–6;
-   —— (of Spain), 79;
-   —— II., 88, 89, 98, 100, 116, 215;
-   —— III., 137;
-   —— IV., 137
-
- Pictures, 245, 247–8
-
- Pietersz, Gerrit, 221;
-   —— Hermann, 220
-
- Pietra-dura, 159
-
- Pigapheta, A., 205–6, 207
-
- Pilaster, 93
-
- Pillow, 12
-
- Pirates, 238
-
- Pitsembourg, The, 146–52
-
- Plantin, Christopher, 101
-
- Plantin-Moretus house, 101–2
-
- Pointed Style, The, 3
-
- _Pommes_, 275, 276, 277
-
- Porcelain, 116, 117, 177, 181–90, 191,196, 204, 205–8, 210–4, 216–20,
-    222–8, 231–5, 237, 238–9, 260, 261, 285, 286–7;
-   ——, marks on, 228;
-   ——, Marot’s use of, 278;
-   ——, prices of, 239;
-   —— room, verse on, 278–9
-
- Pordenone, 73
-
- Portugal, trade with, 208–13
-
- Portuguese navigators, 205, 208
-
- Post, Pieter, 170
-
- Pourbus, Peter, 80
-
- Primaticcio, 73
-
- _Prince Butler’s Tale_, 290–2
-
- Princess Amalia of Solms, 170
-
- Prindale, J. M. H. van, 48, 51
-
- Printing, 64;
-   —— presses, 101–2
-
- Pynackers, The, 221
-
-
- Quarré, Jean, 117
-
- Queen Anne’s bed, 274, 275, 276
-
- Queen Anne Style, 274, 276, 309
-
- Quellin, Artus, 137–8, 165, 169, 170
-
- Quillyn, Artus. _See_ Quellin
-
-
- Rabel, Daniel, 167
-
- Raephorst, B. van, 51
-
- Rambouillet, Mme. de, 240
-
- Raphael, 59, 91, 73, 74, 75, 91, 161
-
- Rasch, A., 53
-
- _Reasons, The_, quoted, 290
-
- _Régence_ period, 270, 300, 306, 309
-
- Regency style, 267
-
- _Relai_, 11–2
-
- Rembrandt, 143–4, 250;
-   ——, house, furniture and porcelain, 143–4
-
- Renaissance, Dawn of the, 63–7;
-   —— in Flanders, 84;
-   —— furniture, 92–5, 101, 108–17, 139–42;
-   —— ornaments, 92–96
-
- _Retables_, 48
-
- Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 272
-
- Reygensbergh, A., 221
-
- Rheims, 17, 35
-
- Rijks Museum, 61, 62, 110, 124, 129, 147, 154, 160, 162, 164, 171, 172,
-    175, 250, 252, 261, 267, 313, 319
-
- Richard II., 57
-
- Robbia, Luca della, 91
-
- Robert, Duke of Albany, 57;
-   —— of Sicily, 18
-
- _Rocaille_, 276, 300, 309
-
- Roelants, John, 62
-
- _Roman_, The, 19
-
- Romano, Giulio, 59, 73
-
- Rooms, 134–5, 171, 172
-
- Root-wood, 261, 262
-
- Roovere, Sara de, 257
-
- Rost, John, 77
-
- Rozmital, Leo van, 33
-
- Rubens, 131, 132–3, 135–7, 157–8, 203;
-   ——, house of, 132–4;
-   —— pupils of, 136, 137;
-   —— School of, 94
-
- Ruckers, Andreas, 127–8;
-   ——, Andreas the Younger, 128;
-   ——, Christofel, 128;
-   ——, Hans, 125–6;
-   ——, Jean, 126–7
-
- Rugs, 7
-
-
- Sablière, Marchioness de, 230
-
- Sacerdan. _See_ Sacredaan
-
- Sacredaan-wood, 143, 189, 197, 198, 229, 255, 256, 257, 266, 268
-
- Sadeler, Ægidius, 106, 107
-
- Saffron-pots, 228
-
- Saint-Florent of Saumur, Monastery of, 19;
-   —— Gertrude, Louvain, 77–8;
-   —— Waltrude in Herentals, altar-piece, 5
-
- _Salutation angélique_, The, 9–10
-
- Salviati, 73
-
- Sambin, Hughes, 85–6
-
- Samedo, quoted, 218–9
-
- Sandom, 53
-
- Sarto, A. del, 73
-
- Schelden, Paul van, 78;
-   ——, Peter van, 78
-
- Scheldein, Jean van der, 122
-
- Schentz, P., 166
-
- School of Fontainebleau, 92;
-   —— of Liège, 306;
-   —— of Lille, 300, 306;
-   —— of Rhine, 25;
-   —— of Rubens, 94
-
- Scent-boxes, 263
-
- Schubler, 301
-
- Serlio, Sebastian, 74, 87, 92
-
- _Serviettes_, 72
-
- Settle. _See_ _Banc_
-
- Shah Rukh, 205
-
- Sheldon, William, 77
-
- Ships, Portuguese, 208–9
-
- Show-rooms, 194, 195–6
-
- Sideboards, 12, 14–5, 201
-
- Sidney, Henry, 239
-
- Silk manufactory, Palermo, 18
-
- Silver, 35, 39–40, 41, 45, 60, 150, 199, 201, 242, 243, 260–1, 269
-
- _Singerie_, 270, 300. _See_ Monkeys
-
- Shaw’s _Travels Through Holland_, quoted, 303
-
- Sluter, Nicholas, 47, 49, 50
-
- Smet, Roger de, 53
-
- Smout, Williken, 48
-
- Smuggling, 302
-
- Sopha, The, 273
-
- South Kensington Museum, 24
-
- Soutman, Peter, 165
-
- Spanish Armada tapestry, 157;
-   —— chair, 160–1;
-   —— influence in the Netherlands, 98–9
-
- Spenser, 21
-
- Spierinck, Franz, 77, 157
-
- Spinets, 124, 267
-
- Staete, P. de, 51
-
- Stavelot, 25
-
- Steen, Jon, 250, 252, 253, 254, 327
-
- Steen Museum, The, 88
-
- Steenberch, Adam, 51
-
- Stedelijk Museum, 309
-
- _Stoef._ _See_ Foot-stove
-
- Stool, 16, 47
-
- Stradan, J., beds by, 109
-
- Stuarts as art connoisseurs, 249, 280
-
- Style, Auricular, 111, 166–7, 300;
-   ——, Chinese, 127, 305 (_see_ _Chinoiserie_);
-   ——, Classic, 65;
-   ——, Empire, 310;
-   ——, Floris, 102–3;
-   ——, Gothic, 62, 65, 77–8, 82–3, 105, 108, 133;
-   ——, Henri II., 83;
-   ——, —— Louis Quatorze, 270 272;
-   —— Louis Quinze, 270, 300, 301, 306, 309;
-   ——, Marot, 267;
-   ——, Pointed, 3;
-   ——, Queen Anne, 224, 276, 309;
-   —— Refugié, 272–3, 284;
-   ——, Regency or Régence, 267;
-   —— Rubens, 132, 136, 142, 165;
-   ——, William and Mary, 274
-
- Sultan Bajazet, 36–7
-
- Sumptuary Laws, 288
-
- Sybrandszoon, Diderik, 83
-
-
- Table in Utrecht Museum, 310
-
- Tables, 7, 15, 111–2, 141–2, 266, 277–8;
-   Table-bell, 268;
-   —— -carpet, 263;
-   —— -cover, 263;
-   —— and trestles, 53
-
- Taillebert, V., 122
-
- Tapestry, Tapestries, 6, 17–8. 19–22, 36–7, 39, 44, 53–9, 69–70, 72–7,
-    100–1, 154–8, 304–5. _See_ Leather.
-   —— weavers, 19–21, 57–9, 156–7, 304
-
- _Tapisserie._ _See_ Tapestry
-
- Tea, 204, 226, 230;
-   ——, afternoon, 229–30;
-   —— buffet, 228;
-   ——, Dutch poet on, 230;
-   —— pots, 228;
-   —— room, 227–9;
-   —— sets, 228;
-   —— table, 228
-
- _Tenières_, 156
-
- Teniers, 156, 250, 254
-
- Terburg, 250, 253
-
- Terme, 94
-
- Tetzel, quoted, 33
-
- Textiles, 18, 292–3
-
- Theophilus, 23
-
- Theorbo, 129
-
- Thornhill, Sir James, 276
-
- Thuys, J., 166
-
- Tiles, 179, 180
-
- Titian, 73, 161
-
- Toilet-table, 262–3
-
- Tournay, 20, 21, 25, 32
-
- Toys, 173–4, 176, 242, 244, 321
-
- Trade with the East, 64, 207, 208, 213, 214–20, 226, 237–8, 287,
-    288–92, 299;
-   —— _and Navigation of Great Britain Considered_, 302, 303
-
- Travellers, 205;
-   —— in Holland, quoted, 183–7
-
- _Trekschuyt_, The, 322
-
- Trestles, 7, 53
-
- Trèves, 39
-
- Troost, Cornelis, 301
-
- Trundle-bed, 266
-
- Trunk, 12
-
- Tulips, 204
-
- Turquet, Pierre, 53
-
- Turkey-work, 243
-
- Tverff, J. van der, 165
-
-
- Unteutsch, F. 166
-
- Upholstery, 234, 274
-
- Utrecht Museum, 173, 310;
-   ——, Peace of, 310
-
-
- Valance, 245
-
- Valenciennes, looms, 58
-
- Valentin d’Arras, 59
-
- Van Dyck, 157
-
- Van Eycks, The, 54, 55, 58
-
- Van Varick, Mrs., possessions, 241–6, 260;
-   ——, toys of, 176
-
- Van Loo, 305
-
- Varnish-tree, 296
-
- Vasari, quoted, 75–6
-
- Vases, 278
-
- Velasquez, 161
-
- Venice, 23, 27, 64, 208
-
- Venetian glass, 117, 264, 265
-
- Verberckt, Jacques, 306
-
- Verbrugghen, Peter, 138
-
- _Verdures_, 156
-
- Verhagen, 221
-
- Vermay, Jan, 76
-
- _Vernis Martin_, 298
-
- Veronese, Paul, 73
-
- Verrio, 282
-
- Versailles, 272, 306
-
- Vestibule, 179
-
- Vigarny, P., 52
-
- Villain, Jehan, 61
-
- Vilvorde Church, 139
-
- Vinckboons, Philip, 169, 171
-
- _Viol da gamba_, 129
-
- Violet-wood, 268
-
- Virginals, 126, 127
-
- Vischer, G., 166;
-
- Visscher, Roemer, quoted, 264
-
- Vlaenders, Jan, 51
-
- Voeren, G. van der, 62
-
- _Voorhuis_, The, 179, 194, 227, 257
-
- _Voyeuse_, 113
-
- Vriendt, Cornelius de, 102;
-   ——, Floris de, 102
-
- Vries, Hans Vredemann de, 94, 95, 103–6, 109, 141, 142, 165, 203;
-   ——, Paul de, 104, 120
-
- Vrij, De, 255
-
- Vroom, H. C. de, 157
-
-
- Waydere, M. de, 78
-
- Wall-cabinets, 115
-
- Walnut, 84, 158, 268
-
- Wars of the Roses, 64
-
- Washing of linen, 318
-
- Watches, 267
-
- Watervliet, Van, 89
-
- Watteau, 300, 305
-
- Waulsort, 25
-
- Waydere, M. de, 78
-
- Weenix, 250, 254
-
- Wernier, 304
-
- Werve, Nicholas van de, 47, 50
-
- Westerhem, J. de, 39
-
- Westerhen, Roger, 48
-
- Weyden Roger, van der, 55
-
- Wilhelmina, 170
-
- William III. of England, 231, 273, 279, 297;
-   —— and Mary Style, 274
-
- Willow Plate, 287
-
- Windebank, Sir F., 127
-
- Window-seats, 11
-
- Windows, glass, 118;
-   ——, painted, 181
-
- Winter, Antony, 166
-
- Wood-carvers, 50–3, 62;
-   —— -carving, 2, 6, 7, 49, 78, 122, 138, 146;
-   —— -work, 8, 11–2.
-   _See_ Panelling
-
- Woods, 257, 268;
-   ——, exotic, 158
-
- Work-boxes, 263
-
- Workmen, 8, 28
-
- Workum, 318
-
- Wren, Sir Christopher, 280, 282
-
-
- Ypres, 32;
-   ——, looms, 58;
-   ——, St. Martin’s, 122
-
-
-   _Butler and Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London_
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
-
-
- 1. Did not change the word ‘jouées’ as it was used consistently. The
-      word ‘joues’ might be more appropriate.
- 2. "In Bruitlaen" might be an English-pseudo-phonetic transcription of
-      "In Bruikleen" (On Loan). Did not change.
- 3. Jehan/Jan/Jean Maluel/Malouel and Hennequin/Hannequin van/of/de
-      Prindale/Prindael are likely two separate individuals. They are
-      considered sometimes as the same person and sometimes as different
-      persons. Did not change.
- 4. Did not attempt to correct any English translation errors from the
-      Dutch.
- 5. Did not change ‘daïs’ as it is an old spelling of ‘dais’.
- 6. Changed ‘Itedelijk’ to ‘Stedelijk’ on p. vii.
- 7. Changed ‘Aubri de Bourguinon’ to ‘Aubri de Bourguignon’ on p. 37.
- 8. Changed ‘maestra di panni de razza’ to ‘maestra di panni de arazzi’
-      on p. 59.
- 9. Changed ‘Turween’ to ‘Terween’ on p. 82.
-10. Changed ‘Judocus Hondius’ to ‘Jodocus Hondius’ on p. 107.
-11. Added ‘in’ before ‘1589’ on p. 116.
-12. Changed ‘tart pannen’ to ‘taart pannen’ on p. 151.
-13. Did not change the dates (1689–98) provided for Heinrich van Bein on
-      p. 166. Could not determine the actual lifespan.
-14. Changed ‘studied with Diamonds’ to ‘studded with Diamonds’ on p.
-      185.
-15. Changed ‘They left the Texel’ to ‘They left Texel’ on p. 215.
-16. Changed ‘household gods’ to ‘household goods’ on p. 242.
-17. Silently corrected typographical errors.
-18. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
-19. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
-20. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript
-      character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in
-      curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}.
-
-
-
-
-
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-Project Gutenberg's Dutch and Flemish Furniture, by Esther Singleton
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-Title: Dutch and Flemish Furniture
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-Author: Esther Singleton
-
-Release Date: April 15, 2017 [EBook #54552]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class='tnotes covernote'>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='ph1'>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c001'>
-    <div>DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div id='Frontispiece'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_004.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Frontispiece.</span> <em>Bed by Daniel Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div>
-  <h1 class='c002'>DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE</h1>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><span class='large'>By</span></div>
-    <div><span class='xlarge'>ESTHER SINGLETON</span></div>
-    <div>Author of “French and English Furniture,” etc</div>
-    <div class='c003'><em>With numerous illustrations</em></div>
-    <div class='c003'><span class='large'>NEW YORK:</span></div>
-    <div><span class='xlarge'>THE McCLURE COMPANY</span></div>
-    <div><span class='large'>44–60 EAST TWENTY-THIRD STREET</span></div>
-    <div><span class='large'>1907</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c001'>
-    <div><em>Butler and Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, France, and London</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c004' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>No special inducement need be held out to an educated
-Englishman at the present day to take an interest
-in a particular field of the arts and crafts of the Low
-Countries. Long before the nobles of Flanders, France
-and England were associated in attempts to free the
-holy places from the pollution of infidel possession, the
-dwellers on the opposite coasts of England, Normandy
-and the Netherlands had been bound together by many
-dynastic and trade bonds. As we follow the course
-of history, we find that the interests of the English
-and the Flemings were inextricably connected; and
-there was a constant stream of the manufactures of the
-Low Countries pouring into English ports. The English
-supplied much of the raw material upon which the
-Flemings depended for subsistence. In mediaeval days
-the inhabitants of the Low Countries could always be
-forced by English statecraft to help the Plantagenet
-kings in their continental intrigues by the mere cutting
-off of the supply of wool. Later, the community of tastes
-and interests in Reformation days drew the races closer
-together; and all through Elizabethan days, and then
-onwards till the close of the Marlborough campaigns,
-the inhabitants of England and the Netherlands were
-on terms of intimate acquaintance, socially and industrially.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>In the following pages, therefore, constant evidence
-will appear of the influence of the arts and crafts of the
-Low Countries on English manufactures and importations.
-Trade rivalry frequently gave rise to coolness
-between England and Holland, and to an inglorious
-war in the days of the Merry Monarch. The latter period
-I have treated at considerable length on account of the
-importance of the Oriental trade on the interior decorations
-of Dutch homes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On taking a general survey of the Decorative Arts
-of the Low Countries, we notice several well-defined
-periods and influences.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Materials are too meagre for us to learn much about
-domestic interiors during the Dark Ages, but we know
-that, in common with England and Northern France,
-Scandinavian Art largely prevailed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The feudal lords of the territories that now formed
-the Netherlands were enthusiastic in assuming the cross;
-and for two centuries the arts and crafts of Byzantium
-and the luxury of the East dominated Western Europe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>About 1300 the influence of Byzantium had waned,
-and the Gothic style was bursting into full bloom. For
-the next two centuries it held full sway, and was then
-pushed aside by the Renaissance, which made itself felt
-at the end of the fifteenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the end of the sixteenth century we find the
-Renaissance fully developed; and for the next fifty
-years Flanders is the willing slave of Rubens and his
-school. The Decadence quickly follows.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The provinces that now constitute Holland and Belgium
-went hand in hand in the Decorative Arts until
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>about 1600. If there was any difference, Holland was
-more influenced by German and Flanders by French
-Art. After the establishment of the Dutch trade with
-the Far East at the beginning of the seventeenth century,
-Dutch and Flemish Art diverge.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the following chapters I have tried to trace these
-influences and developments.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In illustrating the book I have gone to the original
-works of the great masters of design—De Vries, Van de
-Passe, Marot and others. As for Dutch interiors, nothing
-can convey a clearer idea of the home than the famous
-pictures by the Great and Little Masters—Jan Steen,
-Teniers, Rembrandt, Cocques, Metsu, Maes, Terburg,
-Dou, Weenix, Van Hoogstraten, Troost, etc., etc., many
-of whose famous canvases are reproduced here.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>I also include photographic reproductions of authentic
-examples of Dutch and Flemish furniture preserved
-in the Cluny, Rijks, Stedelijk<a id='vii'></a> and other museums.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In my attempt to reconstruct Dutch and Flemish
-interiors of past days, I have consulted not only histories,
-memoirs and books of travel, but wills and inventories
-as well.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>I wish to thank Mr. Arthur Shadwell Martin for
-valuable research and aid for both text and illustrations.</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-r'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>E. S.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER I</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c008'></th>
-    <th class='c009'>&nbsp;</th>
-    <th class='c010'>PAGES</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>The Middle Ages</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a>–29</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Ecclesiastical Art—Wood-carving and Carvers—Primitive Character of the Furniture of Castles and Mansions—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Huchiers</span></i>—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Menuisiers</span></i>—A Typical Bedroom—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i>—Wood-work and panelling—Chest, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i>, sideboard, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, credence, table and chair—Embroideries—Definition of <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">Chambre</span></i>—Textiles and Tapestries—Ecclesiastical Hangings—Tapestry-weavers—Tapestry of Philip the Bold—Flemish Looms—Cordovan and Flemish Leathers—Goldsmith’s Work—Glass and Glass-workers—Guilds of St. Luke.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER II</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>The Burgundian Period</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a>–62</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>The luxurious Dukes of Burgundy—Possessions of the House of Burgundy—The Burgundian Court—Household of Philip the Good—the Feast of the Pheasant—the Duke of Burgundy at the Coronation of Louis XI—Arras Tapestries—Sumptuous <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dressoirs</span></i> and their Adornments—Celebrations in honour of the Knights of the Golden Fleece—Luxury of Charles the Bold—Charles the Bold at Trèves—Furnishings of the Abbey of Saint-Maximin—Charles the Bold’s Second Marriage—Furnishings of the Banqueting Hall at Bruges—Descriptions by Olivier de la Marche—Aliénor of Poitiers’ Descriptions of the Furniture of the Duchess of Burgundy’s Apartments—Rich <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dressoirs</span></i>—the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Drageoir</span></i> and its Etiquette—the Etiquette of the <em>Escarbeau</em>—Philip the Bold’s Artisans—Flemish Carving—the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Forme</span></i> or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Banc</span></i>—Burgundian Workmanship—Ecclesiastical Work—Noted Carvers—Furniture of the Period—the “Golden Age of Tapestry”—Embroideries—Tapestry-weavers of the Low Countries—Introduction of Italian Cartoons—Goldsmiths’ Work—Furniture of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER III</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>The Renaissance: Part I</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a>–96</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Dawn of the Renaissance—The Transitional Period—Coffers and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bahuts</span></i>—Court of Margaret of Austria—Perrèal’s Style—Margaret’s Tomb by Perrèal—Taste of the Regent—Margaret’s Tapestries, Carpets, Table-covers and Cushions—Her Curios—Flemish Tapestries—Cartoons by Bernard van Orley—William de Pannemaker—English Tapestries—Last Days of the Gothic Style—Guyot de Beaugrant, Lancelot Blondeel and Peter Pourbus—Stalls in the Groote Kerk, Dordrecht—Carvings in Haarlem—Invasion of the Renaissance—Walnut, the Favourite Wood for Furniture and Carving—Versatility of the Artists—the Fleming as Emigrant—the Renaissance in Burgundy—Hugues Sambin—Sebastian Serlio—Peter Coeck of Alost—Pupils of Peter Coeck—Lambert Lombard—Francis Floris, the “Flemish Raphael”—the Craze for Numismatics—Hubert Goltzius—Cabinets of the Sixteenth Century—Italian Furniture—Characteristic Features of Renaissance Furniture—Ornaments, the Arabesque, Pilaster, Cartouche, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cuirs</span></i>, Banderole and Caryatid—Publications of Decorative Design—Alaert Claes, Lucas van Leyden, Cornelis Bos and Martin van Heemskerck.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER IV</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>The Renaissance: Part II</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a>–129</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—Charles V a Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in Spain—Gilded Leather—Wealth of the Nobles in the Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at Namur—Antwerp in the Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin—Cornelis and James Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries—Jacques van Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second Period of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Armoires</span></i>, Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass Cupboards—Windows and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the Artists of the Low Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—Wood-carving—Music and Musical Instruments.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER V</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Seventeenth Century (Flemish)</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a>–167</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Renewed Italian Influence—Rubens: his Studio, his House, his Pupils, his Influence, his Successors—Seventeenth Century Wood-carvers—Development and Tendencies of Furniture—Crispin van den Passe—Rembrandt’s Goods and Chattels—Old Belgian Houses—The Pitsembourg—Kitchens—Leather-hangings—Tapestry—Marquetry—Chairs—Masters of Ornamental Design—The “Auricular Style.”</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER VI</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Seventeenth Century (Dutch)</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>–202</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Famous Dutch Architects—The Royal Palace on the Dam, Het Loo, The Mauritshuis and Huis Ten Bosch—Interior Carvings—Specimens of Rooms and Ceilings in the Rijks Museum—Love of the Dutch for their Houses—Miniature Dutch Houses and Models of Old Amsterdam Houses in the Rijks Museum—Architecture of the Seventeenth Century—A Typical Dutch Home—The <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Luifel</span></i>, <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Voorhuis</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptoir</span></i>—Interior Decorations and Furniture—Dutch Mania for Cleaning—Descriptions by Travellers of Dutch Houses and Cleaning—Cleaning Utensils—House and Furniture of Andreas Hulstman Janz, in Dordrecht—Inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt, wife of the painter, in Delft—“Show-Rooms” and their Furnishings—Cooking Utensils—Bedroom in the House of Mrs. Lidia van der Dussen in Dordrecht—The Cradle and “Fire-Basket”—The Baby’s Silver—The “Bride’s Basket”—The “Bride’s Crown” and “Throne”—Decorations for a Wedding—Description by Sir John Lower of the Farewell Entertainment to Charles II at the Hague.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER VII</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>The Importance of Porcelain</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a>–235</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Rise of Dutch Taste in Decorative Art—Influence of Foreign Trade in the Dutch Home—Accounts of Porcelain by Mediaeval Travellers: Edrisi, Ibn Batuta and Shah Rukh—Quotation from Pigapheta—A Great European Collection—Monopoly of Trade by the Portuguese—Quotation from Pyrard de Laval—Portuguese Carracks—Voyages to Goa and Japan—Porcelain and Cabinets—Mendoza’s Description of Earthenware—Dutch and English Merchants—Presents to Queen Elizabeth—Dutch Expeditions and Establishment of the Dutch East India Company—Embassy to the Emperor of China in 1655—Descriptions of the Manufacture of Porcelain—Manufacture and Potters of Delft—Quotation from d’Entrecolles on Porcelain and Oriental Trade—Prices—Tea—Tea-drinking—A Dutch Poet on the Tea-table—Chrestina de Ridder’s Porcelain—Prices of Porcelain in 1653.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER VIII</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>The Dutch Home</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a>–270</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Love of porcelain—The Amsterdam Mart—Prices of China in 1615—Oriental wares before 1520—Luxury of the Dutch Colonists—Rich Burghers in New Amsterdam—Inventories of Margarita van Varick and Jacob de Lange—Dutch Merchants in the East—Foreign Views of Dutch Luxury—Dutch Interiors after the Great and Little Masters—House-furnishing by a young married couple—The Linen Chest—Clothes Chests and Cupboards—The Great <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Kas</span></i>—The Cabinet—The Toilet—Table-covers—Foot-warmers—Looking-glasses—Bedsteads—Tables and Chairs—Woods—Kitchen Utensils—Silverware—Household Pets.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xii'>xii</span>CHAPTER IX</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Dutch Furniture under French and Oriental Influence</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_271'>271</a>–293</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>The Dutch Craftsmen in the Employ of Louis XIV—Huguenot Emigration—Marot—The Sopha—Upholstery—The Bed—Chairs—Sconces—Tables—Rooms—English and Dutch Alliances—Hampton Court—Queen Mary—Looking-glasses—Chandeliers—Chimney-pieces—The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i>—John Hervey’s Purchases—Oriental Furniture manufactured after European Patterns—Complaints of Home Manufacturers—Trade with the Indies—“Prince Butler’s Tale”—Enormous Importations—Imported Textiles—Foreign Textiles for Upholstery.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='3'>CHAPTER X</td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Furniture of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries</span></td>
-    <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_295'>295</a>–327</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer—Oriental Methods—European Importations and Limitations—Prices—An Ambassador’s Report—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Singerie</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rocaille</span></i>—The Dutch Decadence—Interiors of Cornelis Troost—Mirrors—Wealth and Luxury of Dutch Merchants—Court Contrasts—Tapestry—Brussels as a Centre of Art and Luxury—Eighteenth Century Furniture—The Empire Style in the Low Countries—Dutch Homes of the Nineteenth Century—The Maarken House and Furniture—Typical Farmhouse and Furniture—Country Seats and Town Houses—Hindeloopen Houses and Furniture—A Friesland House—Canal Boat Furniture—Dutch Love of Symmetry—Collectors and Collections.</td>
-    <td class='c010'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_xiii'>xiii</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary='ILLUSTRATIONS'>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c011'>PLATE</th>
-    <th class='c008'>&nbsp;</th>
-    <th class='c012'>FACING PAGE</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bed by Daniel Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><em><a href='#Frontispiece'>Frontispiece</a></em></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>I.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Choir-Stall</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#I'>4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>II.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bedroom (Fifteenth Century) and Figs. 1–5</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#II'>8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>III.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Dressoir (Fifteenth Century), and Figs. 6–9</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#III'>14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>IV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Credence (Fifteenth Century)</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#IV'>38</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>V.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Coffer in Flemish Style</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#V'>66</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>VI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Coffer or Huche</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#VI'>68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>VII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Huche, or Bahut (Sixteenth Century)</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#VII'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>VIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Cabinet (Sixteenth Century)</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#VIII'>84</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>IX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Armoire (Burgundian School)</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#IX'>86</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>X.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bedroom, by De Vries</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#X'>92</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Bedstead (1580) and Figs. 10–18</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XI'>94</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bed, Tables, Chair and Footstool, Flemish Chairs. Figs. 19–25</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#f19'>106</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XII'>108</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xiv'>xiv</span>XIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bedstead, by De Vries</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XIII'>110</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XIV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bedstead, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XIV'>112</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Armoire, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XV'>114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XVI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XVI'>116</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XVII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XVII'>118</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XVIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Armoire and Figs. 26–27</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XVIII'>120</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XIX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries. Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XIX'>122</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries. Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XX'>124</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXI'>126</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXII'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Lady at Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXIII'>132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXIII<span class='fss'>A</span>.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Spinet, by Ruckers</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXIIIa'>134</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXIV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Interior, by Barthol van Bassen (Seventeenth Century) and Figs. 28–30</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXIV'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Panelled Bedstead, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXV'>144</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXVI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>The Sick Woman, by Jan Steen, and Figs. 31–34</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXVI'>146</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXVII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Woman with a Parrot, by Jan Steen</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXVII'>148</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span>XXVIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Chair, Cluny Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXVIII'>154</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXIX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Chair Cluny Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXIX'>156</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Chairs, Cluny Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXX'>158</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Marquetry Cabinet, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXI'>160</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Kitchen, Stedelijk Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXII'>162</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Chairs, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXIII'>164</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXIV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Chairs, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXIV'>170</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Chairs, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXV'>172</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXVI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>The Oyster Feast, by Jan Steen, and Figs. 35–37</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXVI'>248</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXVII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>The Sick Lady, by Hoogstraten</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXVII'>250</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXVIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Interior, by J. Koedyck</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXVIII'>252</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XXXIX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>The Music Lesson, by Terborch</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XXXIX'>254</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XL.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Interior, by J. B. Weenix</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XL'>256</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Breakfast, by G. Metsu</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLI'>258</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Interior, by Jan Steen</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLII'>260</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Kas of Ebony and Ivory, Rijks Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLIII'>262</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLIV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Dutch Kas, Cluny Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLIV'>264</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Flemish Chair, Cluny Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLV'>266</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span>XLVI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>“Buire,” by Mosyn, Auricular Style</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLVI'>268</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Screen in the Style Refugié. Fig. 39</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#f39'>272</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLVII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Carved Oak Bahut, Cluny Museum, and Fig. 38</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLVII'>274</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Sophas, Lower part of Chair, Lambrequins. Figs. 40–45</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#f40'>276</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLVIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Bed and Bedroom, by Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLVIII'>278</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>XLIX.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Mirrors and Sconces, by Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#XLIX'>280</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>L.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Mirrors, by Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#L'>282</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Mirrors, Console Table and Candlestands, by Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LI'>284</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Tables and Mascarons, by Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LII'>286</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LIII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Clocks and Details, by Marot</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LIII'>288</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LIV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Interior, by Cornelis Troost</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LIV'>298</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Cabinet from Liège, Dutch Mirror Frame. Figs. 46–47</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#f46'>300</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LV.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Interior, by Cornelis Troost</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LV'>302</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LVI.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>Room in the Stedelijk Museum</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LVI'>308</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>LVII.</td>
-    <td class='c008'>In Bruitlaen, by Artz</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#LVII'>312</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE MIDDLE AGES</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Ecclesiastical Art—Wood-carving and Carvers—Primitive character
-of the Furniture of Castles and Mansions—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Huchiers</span></i>—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Menuisiers</span></i>—A
-Typical Bedroom—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i>—Wood-work and panelling—Chest,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i>, sideboard, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i>, table and chair—Embroideries—Definition
-of <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">Chambre</span></i>—Textiles and Tapestries—Ecclesiastical
-hangings—Tapestry-weavers—Tapestry of Philip
-the Bold—Flemish Looms—Cordovan and Flemish Leathers—Goldsmith’s
-Work—Glass and Glass-workers—Guilds of St. Luke.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>In the turbulent days of the Middle Ages, the goods
-of the Church were the only ones respected, and,
-sometimes, not even those. The castles afforded protection
-to those in their immediate vicinity, but rival
-feudal ambitions rendered the calling of a luxurious
-craftsman more or less precarious. The abbey walls
-always sheltered a community of carpenters, joiners,
-leather-dressers, iron-workers, goldsmiths, sculptors,
-painters and calligraphists.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Towards the end of the Crusades, the new organization
-of the Communes, after the period of anarchy,
-becomes firmly established. Industry, commerce and
-art begin to make rapid strides in the towns, and craftsmen
-form themselves into corporations that receive
-special privileges from their titular overlords. So long
-as the artists of the ecclesiastical school remained under
-the protection of the monastic houses, they naturally
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>followed a hieratic road. The ornamentation they were
-called upon to produce for the Church, they reproduced
-when luxurious furniture was required in domestic life.
-The great Corporations, however, as they grew in wealth
-and power, demanded something superior to, or at least,
-different from, the work of their forerunners. In the
-monastic houses, it was long before this influence made
-itself felt; but among the secular clergy it received a
-hearty welcome.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The distinguishing character of Mediaeval work is
-the freedom of execution allowed to the workman. The
-architect decided on heights, dimensions, dispositions
-of parts and profiles of stalls, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i>; but the
-details were left to be worked out by the artistic ability
-of the skilled workman. Individual expression was
-allowed full play, while the original conception of the
-designer was respected.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Gradually, as the Communes became more powerful
-and were able to afford stable protection to their members,
-the spirit of association and solidarity tended to break
-away from exclusively ecclesiastical art.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The art of wood-carving was developed principally
-in the production of choir-stalls and altar-pieces. The
-building of a beautiful temple to the glory of God was
-usually begun by some pious founder from motives of
-gratitude or repentance. It was dedicated to some
-patron saint, and the work was carried out under the
-supervision of some abbey or other religious house.
-Often the church or cathedral was originally the abbey
-church itself. In early Mediaeval days, the arts and
-sciences were confined to the cloister, and the embellishment
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>of the Holy House was a labour of love. Many
-an obscure monk put all that was beautiful and fanciful in
-his nature into the production of carvings in stone and
-wood that have never been surpassed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The precise date at which choir-stalls were introduced
-into churches is not known; but it is certain that
-they were in general use as soon as the Pointed Style
-was finally established, that is to say, not later than the
-thirteenth century. When the sanctuary was railed
-off from the rest of the church, the priests, in their light
-garb, naturally wanted to be protected from cold, damp
-and draught by woodwork, which, like the high back of
-a settle, enclosed the choir.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The stall is composed of several parts: the socle,
-the tablet, or seat, half of which can be raised, as
-it turns on hinges, the half thus raised, called the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">miséricorde</span></i>,
-serves as a support for a person resting, half
-standing, half sitting; the <em>paraclose</em>, or sides that separate
-it from the adjoining stalls [the forward extremities
-of these are called <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">museaux</span></i> (snouts)]; the arm rest;
-the high back; the daïs, or baldaquin; and, lastly, the
-woodwork at each end of a set of stalls, called <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">jouées</span></i>
-(cheeks).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>With the exceptions of the socle and seat, every part
-of the stall in all the great Gothic churches has received
-very richly carved ornamentation, which is often remarkable
-for its profusion of detail.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">miséricorde</span></i> is ordinarily decorated with foliage
-and fruits; but it often presents fantastic objects, such
-as dragons, sirens, dogs, bears, and hybrid monsters of
-every kind. Frequently also we find personages in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>ridiculous and gross attitudes, and all sorts of human
-and animal caricatures. The <em>paraclose</em> is decorated
-with Gothic tracery in the earliest examples; and later
-with foliage, tendrils and branches of elegant curve.
-These are usually open-work, the pierced oak producing
-a charmingly light and graceful effect. Sometimes
-here also we find human and animal forms. The high
-backs are enriched with bas-reliefs, the subjects of which
-are by no means taken exclusively from the Old or New
-Testament. On the contrary, here the carvers have
-given free rein to their fancy by reproducing scenes of
-private life, and graceful compositions of flowers and
-fruits with little animals intermingled. Sometimes the
-subjects are framed in clusters of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">colonnettes</span></i>, or in pilasters
-decorated with niches containing statues. Sometimes
-also statues of considerable size adorn this woodwork.
-The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">jouées</span></i> receive the most beautiful decorations, and
-frequently these side entrances to the stalls are ornamented
-by statues. The daïs, which at first was merely
-a shelter of boards on an inclined plane over the whole
-range of stalls, began to assume great importance in the
-fifteenth century. It curved into vaultings; and very
-soon each seat received a separate daïs decorated with
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ogives</span></i>, pinnacles, little steeples, pendentives, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">culs-de-lampe</span></i>
-and crockets; and the skilful carver did not
-hesitate to introduce delightful statuettes into the company
-of all these decorations.</p>
-
-<div id='I'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_023.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate I.</span>—<em>Choir-Stall.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fine example of a Mediaeval carved oak stall is
-shown in Plate <a href='#I'>I</a>. By the richness of the carving it
-must originally have held an important position in some
-choir. Richly ornamented with Gothic shafting and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>tracery, it is a splendid example of architectural furniture.
-The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">miséricorde</span></i> represents a knight fighting with
-a dragon. The scene depicted with the chisel on the
-back is the favourite <cite>Judgment of Solomon</cite>. Around
-the elbows are various animals and men on all fours.
-The side scrolls under the daïs are decorated with angels
-playing trumpets.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The names of the carvers who embellished the Mediaeval
-choirs have, as a rule, been lost; and fire and iconoclasm
-have destroyed most of their work. Some few
-relics, however, of the splendour of wood-carving as it
-existed before the Renaissance are still to be found.
-For elaborate oak carving of the fifteenth century, it
-would be hard to find a more interesting example than the
-carved oak stalls in the great church of Bolsward (Broederkerk)
-in Holland. This was built in 1280 <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span>; but
-the richly carved late Gothic choir stalls date from about
-1450.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the earliest churches of the Low Countries
-is that of Nivelles. The convent was founded about
-650 <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span> by Ita, wife of Pepin of Landen. The Romanesque
-church, built in the eleventh century, somewhat
-spoilt by bad restoration, still stands. On the
-high altar is the shrine of St. Gertrude, which was carved
-in 1272 by the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">orfèvres</span></i> Nicolas Colars, of Douai and
-Jackenon of Nivelles. This work of art is famous for
-the delicacy and beauty of its details.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Protestant Church of Breda (Hervormde Kerk),
-built in 1290, also contains notable carving, especially
-on the side entrances of the stalls (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">jouées</span></i>). The choir
-was consecrated in 1410, and here the carvers gave free
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>rein to satire on the clergy, representing the monks in
-various comical attitudes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Examples of ecclesiastical furniture of Mediaeval
-days are naturally scarce, as might be expected on the
-“Battlefield of Europe.” It is indeed astonishing that
-so much has survived after the ordeal by fire and sword
-to which the Netherlands have been so often subjected.
-Occasionally we come across a muniment chest. An
-interesting one, the front of which is perforated with
-quatrefoils, is to be seen in Notre Dame, Huy. This
-dates from 1225. Two others in the same treasury are
-by the hand of Godefroid de Claire, called “the noble
-high goldsmith”; these, however, have lost their
-original character, having been restored in 1560 by Jaspar,
-a Namur goldsmith.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The ordinary movable furniture of a castle or Mediaeval
-mansion was of a very primitive character. It must
-be remembered that in those days merchants travelled
-from town to town in veritable caravans. Nobles whose
-business or pleasure induced them constantly to be
-changing their residence, also travelled with an escort
-and baggage-train that resembled a small army. The
-necessary furniture and goods for the comfort of the
-household were carried in carts and on the backs of
-mules. The wooden furniture was, therefore, primitive.
-The tables consisted of boards and trestles; the beds
-were of similarly elemental construction; and what
-seats were taken along were also of the folding variety.
-The beds and benches were supplied with cushions
-carried in chests, and the walls were hung with printed
-linen or tapestry, while the floors were covered with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>rugs, or, in the majority of cases, with odoriferous plants,
-rushes, or straw. Luxury chiefly declared itself in rich
-products of the goldsmith’s art, which were displayed
-on buffets of shelves rising like steps. These customs
-prevailed for several centuries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Pieces of furniture of earlier date than 1400 are
-exceedingly rare; and those existing had a religious
-destination, and are preserved in, or taken from, churches
-and convents.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the fourteenth century, as Gothic Art blossomed
-after the disturbing influence of the Crusades, carving
-entered more extensively into the decoration of furniture,
-as it was more highly developed in ecclesiastical art.
-The cabinet-makers of the period were skilful carvers:
-in France and Flanders these <em>huchiers-menuisiers</em> were
-called upon to supply royal and princely castles with
-artistic furniture, the accounts of which have come
-down to us. We find not only carved oak, but also
-tables inlaid with ebony and ivory. The chief feature,
-however, of interior decoration during the fourteenth
-century was the hangings. The Genoese and Venetians
-still had a monopoly of the trade with the Levant; and
-Europe was supplied by the Italians with Oriental rugs,
-tablecloths and hangings. The Flemish looms also produced
-rich stuffs for upholstery and chamber hangings,
-which were often sumptuously embroidered.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Through the fourteenth century, wood-carving kept
-pace with the lovely stone sculpture of the cathedrals.
-We learn there was no light furniture in palace or castle,
-but that even in the lady’s chamber there were only
-benches, trestles, forms, faldstools and armchairs. The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>wood-carver carved these with a mass of bas-reliefs and
-bosses; the carpenters surrounded them with panelling;
-and the artists painted them red and decorated them
-with white rosettes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In studying the arts and crafts of the Middle Ages,
-we must always bear in mind the fact that art was not
-specialized. The workmen were thoroughly trained,
-and their artistic talents had free play. We find many
-men who were at once architects, sculptors, painters,
-goldsmiths and image-makers. This condition existed
-till the middle of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Middle Ages, the carpenter made the household
-furniture which formed an integral part of the
-dwelling; and he was quite capable of giving to it the
-Gothic ornamentation in vogue.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was not till the fourteenth century that the increase
-of luxury and the progress of the arts demanded a division
-of labour; and that the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i> and joiners formed
-separate bodies from the carpenters. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i>,
-who then became exclusively what we should now call
-joiners and cabinet-makers, devoted their attention
-especially to all that required ornate treatment in carving,
-such as doors, windows, shutters and panelling, as well
-as chests, benches, bedsteads, chairs, dressers and wardrobes.
-These were largely fixtures and formed part
-of the permanent woodwork of a hall, or bedroom. The
-mouldings and other ornaments were carved directly
-out of the oak, and not applied.</p>
-
-<div id='II'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_029.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate II.</span>—<em>Bedroom (Fifteenth Century).</em><br /><br />Fig. 1: <span class='sc'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Aiguière</span></span> (Fifteenth Century); Fig. 2: <span class='sc'>Aiguière</span> (Fourteenth Century); Fig. 3: <span class='sc'>Bracket Candlestick</span>; Fig. 4: <span class='sc'>Bed, Chair, and Stool</span> (Fourteenth Century); Fig. 5: <span class='sc'>Bahut and Chair</span> (Fifteenth Century).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Before the great artists of the Netherlands arise,
-we must go to the miniatures of early manuscripts in
-order to form a correct idea of a Mediaeval interior. We
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>usually find a very simple arrangement of furniture,
-which consists of a bed, a bench, an armchair and some
-kind of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, or sideboard. The floor is tiled, or
-tessellated; and sometimes the bed stands on a rug or
-carpet, which also covers part of the adjoining floor space.
-The windows with small leaded panes are supplied with
-shutters of two or three wings: these are sometimes
-covered with leather fastened with large brass-headed
-nails. The chimney-piece is always wide and high;
-the funnel shape of this occurs in the earliest examples.
-The shelf above the opening is usually adorned with
-glass, plate or earthenware. The armchair stands
-beside, or near, the bed; the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> is close by; and
-the settle is beside, or sometimes in front of, the fire.
-The bed is often nothing but a long chest on short legs
-with a mattress and pillows on top; and this is moved out
-in front of the fire in case of need. The curtains and
-canopy are suspended by cords from the rafters, as is
-also the chandelier.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This same arrangement of furniture occurs in a
-picture of the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Salutation angélique</span></cite> in the Louvre, by an
-unknown Flemish painter: it has been attributed both
-to Lucas van Leyden and Memling. This room, reproduced
-in Plate <a href='#II'>II</a>, is one of the middle class at the end
-of the fifteenth century. The walls are bare, the ceiling
-shows open rafters of natural wood, and the floor is tiled.
-The panes of the windows are leaded, and the inner
-shutters, which are trebly hinged so as at need to fold
-into the thickness of the wall, are, moreover, divided
-in two parts, so that only the top may be opened if needed.
-The other window has a window seat. The high chimneypiece
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>is furnished with the lateral shelves in use throughout
-Mediaeval times from the twelfth century onward.
-The chimney diminishes in size as it rises, like an inverted
-funnel. In summer time, when the fire was not needed,
-the fireplace was masked by a wooden screen to prevent
-draughts. In front of this, with its back to the screen,
-was placed the high-backed settle, which in winter
-faced, or was placed laterally to the cheerful blaze of the
-hearth. The bench shown in this picture is made of
-plain boards, with a little plain Gothic carving below
-the seat. For comfort, it is supplied with three red
-cushions. The bed, which is raised on a low platform,
-is also furnished with red curtains, bolster and counterpane.
-The tester is suspended by cords from the ceiling.
-Beside the head of the bed is a chair, and next to that
-a credence, which is used as a wash-hand stand. On it
-are placed a ewer and shallow basin. These, and the
-brass chandelier hanging above, are of the manufacture of
-Dinant, a metal ware known all over Europe under the
-name of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i>. The chandelier has six branches,
-each a grotesque form of some animal, and the top of
-it is surmounted by the figure of a seated quadruped.
-It is raised and lowered by a pulley and chain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The ewer, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguière</span></i>, standing on the credence, is
-an excellent specimen of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i> of the fifteenth
-century; it has a double spout, as shown in Fig. 1.
-Other examples of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i> of this period are represented
-in Fig. 2, a grotesque <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguière</span></i>; and Fig. 3, a
-bracket candlestick of very graceful form.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i> became celebrated as early as the thirteenth
-century. Although made at first in Dinant, its manufacture
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>spread throughout the valley of the Meuse, and
-<em>Dinantairs</em> were established in various cities and towns
-in the Netherlands, Germany, England and France.
-In 1380, one Jehan de Dinant, living at Rheims, furnished
-some articles to the King. Among the copper and brass
-ware delivered at this period to the royal household
-and to the establishments of other great personages by
-this workman, we find all kinds of kitchen articles,
-cooking utensils, stoves of all sizes, wash-basins, kettles
-for heating water for the bath, barbers’ basins, large
-boilers of all kinds, warming-pans for the beds, candlesticks,
-chandeliers, and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguières</span></i> (ewers).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The permanent woodwork of the apartments in Mediaeval
-days was furniture, without being “movables,”
-just like the carved oak in the choir of a cathedral.
-The panelling contained cupboards and wardrobes;
-bedsteads were contrived in the timbered lining of the
-walls; and the woodwork readily lent itself to the
-adaptation of window seats, settles and benches. It
-may easily be understood how the woodwork of a room
-might conceal a whole series of shelves to which sliding
-panels, or panels opening outwards as doors, gave access.
-These various compartments served as cabinets for curios,
-bookcases, glass and plate cupboards, wardrobes and
-larders. When one of these compartments was made
-as a separate piece of furniture to stand by itself out
-against the flat wall of a room, it was called a cabinet,
-or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>. As late as the middle of the seventeenth
-century, however, the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i> was generally part of the
-fixed woodwork. <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Relai</span></i> was another name for it. Thus
-in 1635, Monet defines <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armaire</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aumoire</span></i> as a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">reservoir pratique en la muraille à servir et garder tout
-chose</span></i>”; and Cotgrave (1673) has: “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Relai</span></i>” as “<em>armaire</em>,
-a hole or box contrived in or against a wall.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The plain box, or chest, was the origin of all the
-developments of Mediaeval furniture. It had many
-uses: it contained the treasures and valuables of the
-lord; it was used as a packing-case or trunk for travelling;
-with supports at the four corners and back, and
-arms added above, it served as a chair or settle, with a
-seat that could be lifted on hinges; raised also on legs
-and supplied with a daïs, it became a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, credence,
-or sideboard; chest-upon-chest superimposed, developed
-into the elaborate <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>; and, finally, supplied with
-a head and foot rail and made comfortable with mattress
-or pillows, it served as a bed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the old manuscripts of the Middle Ages, we find
-many illustrations of the developments of the chest
-and its various uses. Fig. 4 shows a long chest with
-short solid legs on which bedding is laid, and over which
-a canopy with curtains has been raised. By its side
-is a chair, the seat of which is manifestly the lid of a
-small chest. The chest-bed and chair stand on a carpet:
-the floor is tiled. The shape of the pillow is characteristic
-of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The
-carving of the panels in bed and chair show the “linen
-fold,” which was so popular in the Netherlands and
-which was laid in even more intricate folds by the English
-carvers. Gothic tracery in furniture, in combination
-with the “linen-fold” is shown in the chair of Fig. 5,
-which exhibits also another chest, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i>. The original
-illustration shows flames leaping up the chimney, against
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>which the bed is closely placed. The cushions, with
-heavy tassels at each corner, are similar in shape to those
-in Fig. 4.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There were several varieties of the chest, known
-by various names, such as <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">arche</span></i>. The
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i> usually had a flat top: it was the oldest and
-simplest form—a plain oblong box. As time wore
-on the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i> gave its name to the cabinet-makers (the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i>) of the Middle Ages. They made windows,
-doors, panels, shutters, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bancs</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahuts</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i>, credences,
-and whatever else was required; and the guild of
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i> was one of the largest corporations of the
-period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i> were particularly distinguished for
-their execution of choir-stalls and splendid carving.
-The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i>, at first a very simple piece of furniture, was
-later decorated with beautiful paintings and rich carvings;
-moreover, it was enriched and strengthened with
-chiselled and pierced iron hinges and locks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chests until the thirteenth century were works
-of simple carpentry. The faces consist of plain surfaces
-which are ornamented with paintings on linen
-or leather; and further adorned with hinges and clamps
-of pierced and wrought metal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bancs</span></i>, benches or settles, were made in the
-Middle Ages by the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i>. They were made of
-planks and often had backs and arms. In the fifteenth
-century, they were enriched with sculpture and surmounted
-by a canopy or daïs. They were also called
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">formes</span></i> or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bancs d’œuvre</span></i>. The Cluny Museum possesses
-many fine examples of this period, both civil and religious.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>In the halls and bedrooms of the Mediaeval <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">châteaux</span></i>
-the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i> is often seen placed laterally before the wide
-chimney-piece, and its high back was very useful in
-keeping off the draughts. It may be thought that
-their rigid form and absence of upholstery rendered
-them uncomfortable, but the numerous soft cushions
-with which they were supplied quite atoned for the
-absence of upholstery. (<em>See</em> Plate <a href='#II'>II</a>.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chief use of the Mediaeval sideboard was the
-display of ornate plate, crystal and similar articles.
-The kitchen dresser with its shelves holding plates and
-dishes set upright against the wall is a lineal descendant
-of the old <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>. The shelves of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> were
-regulated by etiquette: every noble person could have
-a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> with three shelves; others, only two; royalty
-had four and five.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to some authorities, the difference between
-the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> and the buffet is simply this: the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> was intended to display the articles taken from
-the buffet, and had no drawers and no cupboard; the
-buffet, on the other hand, contained both drawers
-and cupboards. The buffet of our dining-rooms and
-our cellarets that close with lock and key, are therefore
-survivals of the <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i> of the Middle Ages.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Sometimes the <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> were combined
-in one piece, or rather the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> served as a <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i>.
-A small one shown in the illuminated MS. of the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire
-de Gérard, Comte de Nevers</span></cite>, has but one shelf, upon
-which the silver platters are arranged, leaning against
-the back, which is covered with some kind of fabric.
-The cupboard serving as a <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i> is covered with a
-cloth on which are placed three silver ewers—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguières</span></i>.
-This was, therefore, more of a buffet than a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>,
-for the real <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, as we have seen, was composed of
-shelves (<em>gradins</em>) and had a back (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dorsal</span></i>), or sometimes
-a daïs of stuff or sculptured wood.</p>
-
-<div id='III'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_037.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate III.</span>—<em>Flemish Dressoir (Fifteenth Century).</em><br /><br />Figs. 6–7: <span class='sc'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dressoirs</span></span> (Fifteenth Century); Fig. 8: <span class='sc'>Table on Trestles</span>; Fig. 9: <span class='sc'>Metal Chair</span>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>Varieties of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> of the fourteenth and fifteenth
-centuries appear in Plate <a href='#III'>III</a>, and Figs. 6 and 7; and
-a <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i> of the fifteenth century of Gothic decoration
-from the Cluny Museum, Paris, on Plate <a href='#IV'>IV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Mediaeval table was a simple affair, with either
-fixed or movable supports. In nine cases out of ten,
-either in hall or cottage, it consisted simply of a board
-and trestles. In court and castle, kings and nobles
-sat only on one side, the other being left free for service,
-and for a clear view of the mummers, jongleurs and
-minstrels who entertained the company during the
-feast. These boards and trestles could be readily folded
-up and packed away in carts for travelling. A good
-example of the fifteenth century table of this construction
-occurs in a picture of Mary Magdalen at the feet of
-Jesus, by Derick Bouts (1410–1475). This is represented
-in Fig. 8.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We have seen that the chest with its various developments—chair,
-bench, bed and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>—furnished the
-Mediaeval chamber. The ordinary hall contained merely
-a plain buffet and a table, consisting of boards and
-trestles, with simple forms for seats. Chairs there
-were none, except for the lord and honoured guests at
-the head of the board. It must not be supposed, however,
-that there was no attempt at comfort or decoration
-in the homes of the Middle Ages. It would be difficult
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>to attach too much importance to the use of cushions
-and hangings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We have already seen one form of chair in Figs.
-4 and 5, which show a box with a lid for the seat, on
-which is a cushion. This chair has arms and a high
-panelled back. The common stool, faldstool, or <em>escarbeau</em>
-also appears in Fig. 4. The rigid square high-backed
-chair, however, was not the only form known in the
-Middle Ages. The type represented in Fig. 9 was in
-great favour. This chair is reproduced from a miniature
-by Jehan de Bruges (fl. 1370). This form of chair,
-with curved lines in the back, arms and supports, was a
-great favourite, not only in the Netherlands, but throughout
-Europe for several centuries. Sometimes it was
-made of wood, and carved on the extremities of the back,
-arms and legs; and sometimes it was made of wrought
-metal, brass, silver and even gold. In the latter case
-it was probably plated. Sometimes the inventories
-mention chairs of great value and very precious workmanship.
-Some of them were even ornamented with
-enamel. These were the work of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">orfèvre</span></i>. Brass
-and copper chairs of this type were made in large numbers
-by the skilful smiths of Dinant. Naturally they were
-comfortably and sumptuously upholstered. An inventory
-of 1328 contains an item of a chair of copper garnished
-with velvet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Flanders was always famous for its woven stuffs:
-wool was the staple on which its prosperity depended.
-The Duke of Burgundy recognized this when he chose
-the Golden Fleece as the emblem of his great Order of
-Knighthood. Apart from the looms, the art of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>needle was also held in high esteem; and ladies of
-high and low estate devoted much of their time to
-embroidery.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Everything was embroidered: vestments and cloths
-for the church; shoes, gloves, hats and clothes of men
-and women; and cushions and draperies for the house.
-Notwithstanding the lavish use of tapestry, the taste
-for embroidered materials was ever on the increase.
-The entire furnishings for a bedroom were often the
-product of the needle; for instance, the “embroidered
-chamber” of Jane of Burgundy, Queen of Philip V,
-at her coronation at Rheims in 1330, was ornamented
-with 1321 parrots, with the arms of the King, and 1321
-butterflies, with the arms of Burgundy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Mediaeval days, the word “<i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">chambre</span></i>” had a
-broader signification than it has to-day. By <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">chambre</span></i>
-was meant the whole of the rugs, curtains, hangings
-and upholstery that adorned a bedroom. There was a
-distinction drawn between “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">court pointerie</span></i>” and “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapisserie</span></i>.”
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Court pointerie</span></i>” included everything pertaining
-to the bed, such as the daïs, mattress, head-board,
-etc. The “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapisserie</span></i>” was changed every season like
-the altar cloths and vestments of church and clergy.
-Cords were run across the rafters, and the curtains and
-canopies were hung on these with hooks. Thus the
-rooms at the various seasons received such names as
-the “Easter,” “Christmas,” or “All Saints’ Chamber.”
-Then again the rooms were named after the subjects
-(mythological, historical, romantic or religious), of the
-tapestry that adorned them, such as the Chamber of the
-Cross, of the Lions, of the Conquest of England, of Queen
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>Penthesile, of the Nine Paladins, of the Unicorn and
-Maiden, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#II'>II</a> shows how the canopy and curtains of the
-bed were usually supported. Sometimes, however, the
-hangings were attached to the rods by means of tenterhooks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The inventories and chronicles of the Middle Ages
-frequently mention textiles; but it is difficult to know
-from the numerous terms the old scribes employ whether
-they are describing woollen and silk tapestry, brocades,
-damasks, velvets, or embroidered material. The fabrics
-are of many varieties, and their names vary with the
-details of production and places of manufacture, as well
-as the material of which they are composed, and the
-subjects they depict.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A great deal of Byzantine tapestry, with other
-hangings and carpets, was brought into Western Europe,
-by those returning from the First Crusade (1096–1099);
-and after 1146, when Count Robert of Sicily brought
-home from his expedition into Greece some captive
-silk-workers, and established a manufactory for brocades
-and damasks at Palermo, beautiful materials
-were carried northward from Italy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the early centuries the use of tapestry was
-very extensively devoted to the decoration of churches,
-and therefore represented scenes from the Scriptures,
-and lives of the Saints and the Virgin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Cathedrals and monasteries were very rich in hangings
-of tapestry, brocades, and embroideries of various kinds,
-as well as stuffs on which ornaments were laid and
-sewn. About 985, the Abbot Robert of the monastery
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>of Saint Florent of Saumur, ordered a number of curtains,
-carpets, cushions, <em>dossers</em> and wall-hangings, all of wool;
-and, moreover, had two large pieces of tapestry made
-in which silk was introduced, and on which lions and
-elephants were represented upon a red background.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1133, another Abbot of the same monastery had
-two <em>dossers</em> made to hang in the choir during festivals.
-On one of these the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse
-with citharas and viols were depicted. The hangings
-he got for the nave, represented centaurs, lions and
-other animals.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On all festal occasions, the cathedrals were beautifully
-decorated with superb tapestries. Some of them served
-as hangings and door-curtains, others draped the altars,
-while the seats and backs of the benches were covered
-with pieces called <i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">bancalia</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">spaleriae</span></i>, and <i><span lang="ca" xml:lang="ca">dossalia</span></i>.
-Tapestries also covered the baldachins, or canopies;
-and foot-carpets, called <em>substratoria</em>, <i><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">tapetes</span></i>, <i><span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl">tapeta</span></i>, or
-<i><span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl">tapecii</span></i> were lavishly spread upon the ground.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the thirteenth century tapestries came into
-general use for hangings in private mansions. It is not
-unlikely that Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who came
-into power in 1204, stimulated the work of the Netherland
-looms; for, from the very opening years of the
-thirteenth century, the Flemish weavers adopted brighter
-colours in their tapestries; and Damme, the poet of
-Bruges, received all kinds of goods from the East, including
-“seeds for producing the scarlet dye.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This was the period when the <em>Roman</em> was in full
-flower, and the tapestries naturally turned from Biblical
-to heroic stories. The artists and weavers now
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>begin to devote their energies to the production of secular
-subjects. The stories of <cite>Paris and Helen</cite>, <cite>Æneas</cite>, and
-others from Grecian mythology, become as popular as
-those inspired by the Bible.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>High-warp workers were established in Paris, Arras,
-Brussels and Tournay in the first half of the fourteenth
-century; but it is not until the reign of Charles V (1364–1380)
-that they are explicitly described in the inventories.
-The King was a collector of French and Flemish
-tapestries: he had more than 130 armorial tapestries and
-33 “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapis à images</span></i>” that decorated the walls.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dukes of Anjou, Orleans, Berry and Burgundy,
-had very valuable sets. Charles VI also had fine pieces.
-He bought from Nicholas Bataille, a Flemish worker,
-who calls himself a citizen of Paris in 1363, about 250
-hangings. Bataille produced many superb pieces for
-the wealthy houses of the day, and many sets for Philip
-the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. A fellow-worker, Jacques
-Dourdain, who died in 1407, made tapestries for the
-Duke of Burgundy, to whom he sent in 1389 <cite>The Conquest
-of the King of Friesland by Aubri the Burgundian</cite>, <cite>The
-Story of Marionet</cite>, <cite>Ladies setting out for the Chase</cite>, <cite>The
-Wishes of Love</cite>, <cite>The Nine Amazons</cite>, <cite>The History of
-Bertrand Duguesclin</cite>, and <cite>A History of the Romance
-of the Rose</cite>. The latter must have been very choice,
-as it was woven “in gold of Cyprus and Arras thread.”
-He also furnished this rich patron with other hangings,
-the greater number of which were cloth of gold.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The marriage of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,
-to the daughter and heir of the Count of Flanders, in
-1369, greatly helped the Flemish tapestry-workers,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>who soon equalled those of Paris. For instance, the
-Duke gave an order to Michel Bernard of Arras for a fine
-piece, called <cite>The Battle of Rosbeck</cite>, of colossal dimensions.
-It measured 285 square yards, and cost 2,600 <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">francs
-d’or</span></i>. Other sets purchased from the Arras looms were:
-<cite>The Coronation of Our Lady</cite>, <cite>The Seven Ages</cite>, <cite>Story of
-Doon de la Roche</cite>, <cite>History of King Pharaoh and the People
-of Moses</cite>, <cite>Life of St. Margaret</cite>, <cite>The Virtues and Vices</cite>,
-<cite>History of Froimont de Bordeaux</cite>, <cite>Story of St. George</cite>,
-<cite>Story of Shepherds and Shepherdesses</cite>, <cite>Life of St. Anne</cite>,
-<cite>Story of Percival the Gaul</cite>, <cite>Hunt of Guy of Romany</cite>,
-<cite>History of Amis and Amile</cite>, <cite>History of Octavius of Rome</cite>,
-<cite>History of King Clovis</cite>, <cite>History of King Alexander, and
-of Robert the Fusileer</cite>, <cite>History of William of Orange</cite>,
-and a <cite>Pastoral</cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemish looms thus early acquired a great reputation,
-rivalling those of the midland and northern
-provinces of France. Paris, Arras, Brussels and Tournay
-were the chief centres for the most beautiful high-warp
-tapestry. Arras was celebrated as early as 1311, when
-Marchaut, Countess of Artois, paid a large sum for “a
-woollen cloth worked with various figures bought at
-Arras”; and in 1313 she ordered from the same town
-“five cloths worked in high warp.” The name became
-generic: the Italians called all woven tapestries <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Arazzi</span></i>;
-the Spaniards, <i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Panos de raz</span></i>; and the English, “Arras,”
-a name that was used for many centuries. Polonius
-hides “behind the arras,” in <cite>Hamlet</cite>, and Spenser, in
-<cite>The Faerie Queen</cite>, says:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Thence to the hall, which was on every side</div>
-      <div class='line'>With rich array and costly arras dight.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line in40'>Book I., Canto iv.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Agnes Sorel owned a superb specimen at her <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Château
-de Beauté</span></i> in 1350. It is described as “a large piece of
-Arras, on which are pictured the deeds and battles of
-Judas Maccabaeus and Antiochus, and stretches from
-one of the gables of the gallery of Beauté to the other,
-and is the same height as the said gallery.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the troublous times in France under Charles
-VI, the Paris looms ceased to work, and Flanders supplied
-all the tapestry that came to France. In 1395,
-the Duke of Orleans orders his treasurer to deliver to
-Jaquet Dordin, “merchant and bourgeois of Paris,”
-1,800 francs for “three pieces of high-warp tapestry
-of fine Arras thread.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Leather was also extensively used during the Middle
-Ages for interior decoration: it was hung upon the
-walls and beds; it was spread upon the floors; and it
-covered the seats and backs of chairs, coffers, cabinets,
-shelves, folding stools, frames, frames for mirrors, and
-all kinds of boxes both large and small. In 1420, we
-hear of a piece of Cordovan called <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">cuirace vermeil</span></i> “to
-put on the floor around a bed,” and also a “chamber
-hanging” of “silvered <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuir de mouton</span></i>, ornamented with
-red figures.” Charles V of France had “fifteen <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs
-d’Arragon</span></i> to put on the floor in summer,” and the Duke
-of Burgundy’s inventory of 1427 mentions “leathers to
-spread in the chamber in summer time.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Duke of Berry had twenty-nine great <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>
-among his possessions, which were used to cover the
-walls, beds and chairs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Leather made a very sumptuous, durable and decorative
-wall-hanging. The patterns of flowers, foliage,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>arms, devices and other figures were richly gilded, and
-stood out in high relief from the brilliant backgrounds
-of red, blue, green, orange, violet, brown or silver. Although
-the use of gilded leather (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs dorés</span></i>) did not
-become general until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
-the art of gilding, silvering, painting and goffering
-leather had long been known. It is more than probable
-that the First Crusaders brought home specimens; but
-it is certain that Cordova was making beautiful gilded
-leathers in the eleventh century. The most beautiful,
-as well as the most beautifully worked, leathers came
-from Spain, where they were often called <i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">Guadameciles</span></i>,
-from Ghadames in Africa where they were prepared for
-many years, and from which town the Moors carried
-the art into Cordova. Ebn’ Abd el Noûr el Hamîri el
-Toûnsi (of Tunis), in his geographical work written in
-the twelfth century, thinks it worth while to mention
-that the <i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">djild el Ghadâmosi</span></i> comes from Ghadames. The
-monk, Theophilus, in his <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diversarum artium Schedula</span></cite>
-shows how well Arabian leather was known, and describes
-the methods of preparing it for decoration; but from
-what he says it appears that leather was used at that
-period only for the coverings of chairs, stalls, benches,
-stools, etc., and not for wall-hangings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From Cordova the manufacture spread into Portugal,
-Italy, France and Brabant. The great centres for gilded
-leathers in the Middle Ages were Cordova, Lille, Brussels,
-Liège, Antwerp, Mechlin and Venice; and each town
-impressed a special style upon its productions, which
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">connoisseurs</span></i> are able to recognize.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Cordovan leathers are stamped with patterns
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>of very high relief, gilded and painted, the designs consisting
-of branches or large flowers in the style of the
-textiles of Damascus and India. The South Kensington
-Museum has a very fine collection of Spanish leathers
-ornamented with foliage, flowers, vases, birds and pomegranates.
-The colours of the background are green,
-blue, white, gold, red, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemish leathers are very similar to those of
-Cordova, but the relief is less pronounced and the designs
-are more delicate. The hangings of Flanders are almost
-exclusively made of calfskin, and they were highly
-prized throughout Europe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Generally speaking, the earliest specimens of gilded
-leathers resemble on a large scale the miniatures in the
-manuscripts: there is little or no perspective, and the
-subjects are like those of the contemporary tapestry
-drawn from sacred or mythological stories. The details
-of the faces, ornaments, costumes, arms, etc., are stamped
-by hand-work and finished with a brush; and the
-background, instead of representing sky, is ornamented
-by guilloches (twisted bands) in gold and colour, applied
-by means of a goffering iron.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Low Countries were almost as celebrated for
-their <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">orfèvrerie</span></i> as for their tapestries. Celebrated schools
-of goldsmith’s work existed in the Netherlands during
-the tenth and eleventh centuries in Waulsort under the
-direction of d’Erembert, in Stavelot and in Maestricht;
-and the diocese of Liège had an important <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">atelier</span></i> for
-enamel-work in the twelfth century. A very skilful
-goldsmith named Godefroid de Clerc worked in the
-town of Huy in the first half of the thirteenth century,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>and another was Friar Hugo, who made in the Abbaye
-d’Oignies the famous pieces now in the treasury of the
-Sisters of Notre Dame in Namur.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The principal towns of Flanders, Ghent, Bruges,
-Tournay, Liège and Brussels, possessed in the thirteenth
-century skilful goldsmiths who followed the principles
-of the School of the Rhine. In 1266, the Brussels goldsmiths
-formed an important Corporation to which John
-III, Count of Hainault, granted privileges. It was in
-the fourteenth century particularly that the Flemish
-goldsmiths acquired a great reputation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A great deal of the goldsmith’s work during these
-centuries was ornamented with <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">niello</span></i>, the style of
-decoration following the Rhenish School.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The goldsmiths were sculptors, chisellers and engravers,
-as well as designers; and, moreover, modelled
-beautifully in wax. When their works were cast in
-silver, they ornamented these themselves with beaten
-bas-reliefs, or traced delicate patterns upon the surface
-of the metal with the burin. Wishing to make the
-figures stand out more prominently, they used cross-hatchings
-on the background and cut out the shadowy
-parts, which they then filled with black enamel. This
-made the uncovered portions of the silver shine with
-more brilliancy. To this effective work was given
-the name <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">niello</span></i> (<em>nigellum</em>), on account of its colour.
-This black enamel was used to ornament the chalices
-and other church vessels, the hilts of swords, handles
-of knives, and particularly the handsome little coffers,
-or cabinets, which, with the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i>, comprised the
-furniture that the bride always carried to her new
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>home. These little boxes were usually of ebony, ornamented
-more or less with incrustations of ivory, shell,
-mother-of-pearl, <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">pietra-dura</span></i>, or <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">niello</span></i>, according to the
-wealth of the respective families. When decorated with
-<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">niello</span></i>, the designs consisted of simple ornaments or
-arabesques, single figures or groups.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Western Europe made no glass in Mediaeval days:
-what was used in church and castle all came from the
-East. In the early inventories, whenever an object of
-coloured glass is found, it is always accompanied by a
-mention of its Oriental origin. It is doubtful whether
-even plain glass was manufactured in England, France,
-Germany or the Netherlands before the close of the
-Crusades. The efforts made as late as the fourteenth
-century by several French and German princes to attract
-glass-blowers to their dominions shows how scarce they
-were.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1338, we find a feudal noble giving a portion of
-his forest to a certain Guionet, who was acquainted
-with the methods of glass-making, to set up a glass factory,
-on condition of supplying his house every year
-with one hundred dozen bell glasses, twelve dozen little
-vase-shaped glasses, twenty dozen hanaps, or cups with
-feet, twelve amphorae, and other objects. As in all the
-other industrial arts, Flanders was well to the fore in
-the manufacture of plain glass. Before 1400, glass
-factories existed there; but the products were only
-white glass, not gilded nor enamelled. The Flemish
-wares, however, were highly prized, and were freely
-exported to other countries. In 1379, we find in the
-inventory of Charles V of France: “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ung gobelet
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>et une aiguière de voirre blant de Flandres garni
-d’argent</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To have glass mounted in silver shows how precious
-it was considered in those days. Moreover, the royal
-accounts of the end of the fourteenth century prove
-that Charles VI accorded high protection and recompense
-to the Flemish glass-blowers who established their
-industry in France. Before the end of the fifteenth
-century, we find entries that would seem to show that
-the Low Countries were no longer exclusively dependent
-on the Orient for coloured and enamelled glass. In
-the inventory of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy
-(1477), we read: “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Une coupe de voirre jaune garny
-d’or; ... une couppe de voirre vert garny d’or; ...
-un pot de voirre de couleur vert, garny d’or; ... un
-aiguière de voirre vert torssé garny d’or; ... deux petis
-pots de voirre bleu espez, garnis d’argent doré; ... ung
-voirre taillé d’un esgle, d’un griffon et d’une double couronne
-garny d’argent</span></i>.” These, however, may have come from
-Venice, which city had in the latter half of the fifteenth
-century learned from the Greeks the secret of making
-coloured, gilded and enamelled glass.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Painting on glass was never held in higher honour
-than during the fifteenth century: castles and mansions
-were adorned with coloured windows like the churches;
-and, therefore, a considerable number of windows of
-this period have survived. The Cathedrals of Tournay,
-Dietz and Antwerp offer splendid examples. In M.
-Levy’s <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de la peinture sur verre</span></cite>, are the names of
-several Flemish glass-painters that have escaped oblivion.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The principal schools that fostered all forms of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>Decorative Art were the Guilds of St. Luke. They
-sprang up in every prosperous city, and were very close
-corporations of trades unionism. The idea probably
-originated in Italy. A Society of St. Luke was established
-in Venice before 1290, and another in Florence
-in 1349. One Gerard de Groote organized a brotherhood
-of this kind in Cologne in the fourteenth century;
-and Societies of St. Luke were founded in Flanders in
-the fifteenth century. These Guilds exerted the greatest
-influence upon taste and skill, for in these Societies
-of Guilds of St. Luke, side by side with the Masters of
-Painting and Sculpture, were placed what we may call
-the Masters of the Decorative Arts. There were workers
-in stone and marble including mosaics in colour for the
-decoration of churches and chapels; workers in enamel
-and ceramics for vases, panelling and pavements;
-workers in wood, sculptors and carvers for the altar
-fronts, canopies, choir stalls, etc. (these <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">menuisiers</span></i> also
-worked in marquetry and <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">intarsie</span></i>, and produced furniture
-for the sacristy, coffers, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahuts</span></i>, etc., and pontifical
-seats); glass-workers who produced windows, panels
-and embroideries with glass beads for decoration; metalworkers,
-including goldsmiths, bronze-workers, who made
-sacred vessels, luminaries, fonts ornamented with <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">repoussé</span></i>-work,
-chiselling, engraving, incrustation with
-precious stones and <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">niello-niellure</span></i>; leather-workers (including
-makers of harness for wars and tourneys); gilders,
-setters of jewels; bookbinders; illuminators and
-painters of manuscripts; weavers and embroiderers
-of tapestries, silken stuffs, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Society benefited by development of these arts very
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>greatly, and the sumptuous adornment of the churches
-soon extended to private dwellings. Carved panels, or
-panels inlaid with precious woods, soon decorated the
-walls of wealthy houses that were further enriched by
-magnificent tissues of silk and gold, tapestries or panels
-of stamped leather as a background for pictures beautifully
-framed in carved and gilt wood. In marquetry
-furniture, the most remarkable objects were the coffers
-for jewels, and the cabinets (<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">stipi</span></i>), in ebony, shell and
-ivory, embellished with gilt, bronze, and the dower
-chests, “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">arches de mariage</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>THE BURGUNDIAN PERIOD</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>The luxurious Dukes of Burgundy—Possessions of the House of Burgundy—The
-Burgundian Court—Household of Philip the Good—the
-Feast of the Pheasant—the Duke of Burgundy at the Coronation
-of Louis XI—Arras Tapestries—Sumptuous <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dressoirs</span></i> and
-their Adornments—Celebrations in honour of the Knights of the
-Golden Fleece—Luxury of Charles the Bold—Charles the Bold
-at Trèves—Furnishings of the Abbey of Saint-Maximin—Charles
-the Bold’s Second Marriage—Furnishings of the Banqueting Hall
-at Bruges—Descriptions by Olivier de la Marche—Aliénor of
-Poitier’s Descriptions of the Furniture of the Duchess of Burgundy’s
-Apartments—Rich <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dressoirs</span></i>—the Drageoir and its
-Etiquette—the Etiquette of the <em>Escarbeau</em>—Philip the Bold’s
-Artisans—Flemish Carving—the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Forme</span></i> or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Banc</span></i>—Burgundian
-Workmanship—Ecclesiastical Work—Noted Carvers—Furniture
-of the Period—the “Golden Age of Tapestry”-Embroideries—Tapestry-weavers
-of the Low Countries—Introduction of Italian
-Cartoons—Goldsmiths’ Work—Furniture of the Fourteenth and
-Fifteenth Centuries.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The most luxurious prince of his age was Philip
-the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1342–1404), son
-of John the Good, King of France. By its alliances,
-conquests and inheritances, the House of Burgundy
-attained such wealth and power as to overshadow the
-French throne itself. Under his grandson, Philip the
-Good, the Burgundian Court displayed greater splendour
-than any other in Europe. The reigning dukes were
-powerful protectors of the arts. Their immense resources,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>drawn from the Flemish hives of industry,
-enabled them to indulge their taste for architecture,
-painting, sculpture, illuminated books, tapestry, goldsmiths’
-work and sumptuous furniture. They were
-also insatiable collectors of everything that was curious
-and rare. Any able artist, sculptor, architect, goldsmith,
-or image-maker, driven from home by the perpetual
-civil wars in England, France and Italy, was
-sure of refuge and employment at the Court of Burgundy.
-Thus, for a century and a half, the Low Countries were
-the most important art centre of Europe. Dijon and
-Brussels, the capitals of the Burgundian dominions,
-were Meccas of Mediaeval Art; and Tournay, Bruges,
-Ypres, Ghent, Dinant, and many other industrial centres
-swarmed with craftsmen who produced all that was
-luxurious and beautiful for domestic comfort and decoration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The house of Burgundy constantly increased its
-possessions. Some idea of its power is gained by a list
-of Philip the Good’s titles. He was Duke of Burgundy,
-of Brabant, of Lothier, of Luxembourg; Count of
-Flanders, of Artois and of Burgundy; Palatine of Hainault,
-of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur and of Charolais;
-Marquis of the Holy Empire; and Lord of Friesland, of
-Salins and of Mechlin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The brilliance and luxury of the Burgundian Court
-are attested by many chroniclers. The pages of Philip
-de Comines, Olivier de la Marche, and others are full
-of descriptions of feasts and pageantry from which we
-can form an idea of the luxurious appointments of the
-palatial dwellings of the day. Foreigners also, who
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>were well acquainted with other European courts, bore
-witness to Burgundian splendour. One of these, Leo
-von Rozmital, who visited the courts of Europe in
-1465–7, saw the Duke of Burgundy’s treasures. His
-suite was overpowered by the magnificence. The scribe,
-Tetzel, tried to enumerate and describe these marvels,
-but gave up the task in despair, noting “there was
-nothing like it in the whole world and that it far
-exceeded the Venetian collection.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The son and successor of John the Fearless, Philip
-the Good (1396–1467), was even more luxurious than
-his grandfather, Philip the Bold. His Court was unequalled
-in Europe, and when in attendance upon the
-King of France, his retinue completely eclipsed royalty.
-His palaces in Brussels, Dijon and Paris were sumptuously
-furnished; and his collections of tapestries, silver,
-gold, jewels, embroideries, illuminated manuscripts and
-printed books excited the admiration of the travellers
-and chroniclers of the age. His household, composed
-of four great divisions—the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Panetrie</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Échansonnerie</span></i>,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cuisine</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Écurie</span></i>, with subordinate departments, was
-subject to the strictest rules of etiquette and was adopted
-as a model by the Spanish sovereigns of the sixteenth
-century. The ceremonies of the levee, procession, council,
-audience, service of spices, banquet, etc., were selected
-as precedents for Vienna and Paris, as well as Madrid.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of Philip’s most celebrated banquets—the Feast
-of the Pheasant, which took place at Lille in 1454—will
-serve to give a glimpse of the Court entertainments in
-his day. The large hall was hung with tapestry representing
-the labours of Hercules, and was encircled by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>five tiers of galleries for the spectators. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>
-of enormous size was adorned with gold and silver
-vessels, and on either side of it stood a column. One
-of these had attached to it a carved female figure from
-whose breast flowed a fountain of hippocras; and to
-the other was fastened by an iron chain a live lion from
-Africa, a great curiosity in those days. The three great
-tables were covered with the most ingenious productions
-of the cooks, confectioners and machinists. “On a
-raised platform at the head of the first table sat the Duke.
-He was arrayed with his accustomed splendour—his
-dress of black velvet serving as a dark ground that
-heightened the brilliancy of the precious stones, valued
-at a million of gold crowns, with which it was profusely
-decked. Among the guests were a numerous body of
-knights who had passed the morning in the tilting-field,
-and fair Flemish dames whose flaunting beauty
-had inspired these martial sports. Each course was
-composed of forty-four dishes, which were placed on
-chariots painted in gold and azure, and were moved
-along the tables by concealed machinery.” As soon as
-the company was seated, the bells began to peal from
-the steeple of a huge pastry church with stained windows
-that concealed an organ and choir of singers, and three
-little choristers issued from the edifice and sang “a very
-sweet <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chanson</span></i>.” Twenty-eight musicians hidden in
-a mammoth pie performed on various instruments, and
-the fine viands and wines were circulated. After the
-exhibition of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">entremets</span></i>, the pheasant was brought in,
-the Crusade proclaimed against the Sultan, and the
-vows registered.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>Another instance of the magnificent display of this
-Duke occurred when he accompanied Louis XI to Rheims
-for the ceremony of his coronation in 1461. This is
-described as follows by the Duke of Burgundy’s chronicler,
-Georges Chastelain (1403–75):</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Their journey resembled a triumphal procession,
-in which the Duke of Burgundy appeared as if he were
-the conqueror and Louis the illustrious captive. The
-trappings of the horses, that reached to the ground, were
-of velvet and silk, covered with precious stones and
-ornaments of gold, embroidered with the Burgundian
-arms and decorated with silver bells, the jingling of
-which was very agreeable and solacing. A great number
-of wagons draped with cloth of gold and hung with
-banners carried the Duke’s tapestries, furniture, silver
-and other table service and the utensils for the kitchen.
-These were followed by herds of fat oxen and flocks of
-sheep intended for food during the progress of the Duke
-and his suite. Philip and his son, with the principal
-nobles, appeared in their greatest magnificence, and
-were preceded and followed by pages, archers and men-at-arms,
-all in gorgeous costumes and blazing with
-jewels.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Their entrance into Rheims was regarded as the
-most superb spectacle France had ever witnessed. Louis
-was crowned by the Duke of Burgundy, “the dean of
-the peers of France”; and at the banquet that followed
-the coronation, the Duke of Burgundy was still the
-most conspicuous figure. The same chronicler continues:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Though the King sat at the head of the table,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>arrayed in regal attire, with the crown upon his head,
-he was still the guest of his fair uncle, whose cooks had
-provided the dinner, whose plate was displayed upon
-the sideboards and whose servants waited upon the
-company. In the midst of the repast, the doors were
-opened and porters entered bearing a costly present for
-the new sovereign. Such of the guests as were strangers,
-except from hearsay, to the splendours of the Burgundian
-Court, gazed in astonishment at the images, goblets,
-miniature ships, and other articles of the finest gold
-and rarest workmanship—amounting in value to more
-than two hundred thousand crowns—which Philip presented
-to the King as an emphatic token of his loyalty
-and good-will.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Chastelain’s note of the great number of wagons
-that were required to carry the Duke’s tapestries in his
-journeyings is of interest. The products of the Flemish
-looms were highly prized by the Burgundian dukes,
-and great encouragement was given by them to the
-best work of this nature.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was from Arras that they chiefly filled their superb
-store-chambers in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
-The Arras looms had become famous, far and wide;
-for, when Philip the Bold’s son was taken prisoner at
-the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Sultan Bajazet said
-to the Duke of Burgundy’s envoy that he “would be
-pleased to see some high-warp tapestries worked in
-Arras and Picardy,” and that “they should represent
-good old stories.” Philip thereupon sent two pack-horses
-laden with “high-warp cloths, collected and
-made at Arras, the finest that could be found on this
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>side of the mountains.” The set he chose was <cite>The
-History of Alexander</cite>. In 1374, there is an entry in the
-accounts of the Duke of Burgundy “to Colin Bataille,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapissier et bourgeois de Paris</span></i>,” for six pieces of tapestry
-“of Arras workmanship,” with the arms of M. the
-Duke of Burgundy “to cover the pack-horses of Monseigneur
-when he travelled.” The favourite subjects
-produced at Arras were romances of chivalry, such as
-<cite>Charlemagne and his Peers</cite>, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Doon de la Roche</span></cite>, <cite>Baudouin
-de Sebourg</cite>, <cite>Percival the Gaul</cite>, <cite>Renaud de Montauban</cite>,
-<cite>Aubri de Bourguignon<a id='t37'></a></cite>, etc.; stories from Greek mythology,
-such as <cite>Theseus</cite>, <cite>Jason</cite>, <cite>Paris and Helen</cite>, <cite>The
-Destruction of Troy</cite>, etc.; and contemporary events
-such as <cite>The Battle of Rosbeck</cite>, <cite>The Battle of Liège</cite>, <cite>History
-of Bertrand Duguesclin</cite>, <cite>The Jousts of St. Denis</cite> and <cite>The
-Battle of the Thirty</cite>. Hunting scenes and pictures of
-cavaliers and ladies in everyday life were popular, and
-stories from the Old and New Testaments, Lives of the
-Saints and Acts of the Martyrs. Allegory also makes
-its appearance as a subject for cartoons, such as the
-<cite>Virtues and Vices</cite>, the <cite>Seven Cardinal Sins</cite>, the <cite>Tree of
-Life</cite>, <cite>Fountain of Youth</cite>, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Philip the Good married Isabella of Portugal,
-Le Fèvre de Saint Rémy notes that on each side of the
-hall there was a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> twenty feet long on a platform
-two feet high and well enclosed by barriers three feet high,
-on the side of which was a little gate for entrance and
-exit; and both <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoirs</span></i> had five stages, each two and
-a half feet high. The three upper tiers were covered
-and loaded with vessels of fine gold; and the two lower
-ones with many great vessels of silver gilt.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Again, Chastelain, describing a banquet given by
-Philip the Good, says: “The Duke had made in the
-great hall a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> constructed in the form of a round
-castle, ten steps (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">degrés</span></i>) in height filled with gold plate
-in pots and flagons of various kinds, amounting to 6,000
-marks (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">argent doré</span></i>) not counting those on the top which
-were of fine gold set with rich gems of marvellous
-price.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The above gives some idea of the importance of the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, which undoubtedly was the most showy piece
-of furniture in hall or chamber. It often assumed
-enormous proportions on great state occasions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A very ornate one of this period is reproduced in
-Plate <a href='#III'>III</a>. It is beautifully carved with Gothic tracery,
-leaf-work, Biblical scenes and personages, and coats-of-arms.
-It is interesting to compare this with the
-simple form of Plate <a href='#IV'>IV</a>, which has no intermediate
-shelf for the display of plate; but is also interesting on
-account of its carving. This, with its drawers and
-cupboards, was a most serviceable piece of furniture
-and must have produced a fine effect in a room when
-the cupboard head was decked with plate.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great celebrations in honour of the Knights of
-the Golden Fleece also offered occasion for the display
-of the greatest splendour at the Burgundian Court.
-A veritable army of painters, sculptors, illuminators,
-carvers and machinists was employed to design and
-prepare the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">entremets</span></i> exhibited during the banquets.
-Among the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i> who worked for the banquet given
-to the Knights of the Golden Fleece in 1453 were Guillaume
-Maussel and his son, Jacob Haquinet Penon,
-Jehan Daret and his two companions, and Jehan de
-Westerhem.</p>
-
-<div id='IV'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_063.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate IV.</span>—<em>Credence (Fifteenth Century).</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>When Charles the Bold (1433–1477) succeeded his
-father, Philip the Good, in 1467, he maintained his
-Court with the same state, ceremony and luxury. His
-daily life was surrounded by pomp and punctilious
-etiquette. He dined in state every day and was always
-attended by a retinue of knights, equerries and pages.
-When he went to war, he always carried rich silver and
-tapestries, as well as costly viands and wines. The Swiss
-gained rich spoils after the Battle of Nancy and carried
-away among other articles of value tapestries which
-can be seen to-day in Nancy, Berne and other cities.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The meeting of Charles the Bold with the Emperor
-at Trèves, in 1473, occasioned a great display of magnificence.
-The far-famed luxury of the Burgundian Court
-was well exhibited during the eight weeks that the two
-Courts spent in the Rhenish city. Charles gave the
-most superb entertainments. The Abbey of Saint
-Maximin, which the Duke chose for his temporary residence,
-was fitted up for the occasion with furniture,
-tapestries, richly embroidered stuffs, gold and silver
-from his palaces. The great hall was hung with tapestries,
-and the chair of state for the Emperor, the canopy
-and the seats for the other great personages on the daïs
-were covered with rich embroidered hangings. The
-arms of Burgundy, the insignia of the Golden Fleece and
-other heraldic decorations were conspicuously displayed.
-Many of the most valuable ecclesiastical treasures
-collected by Philip the Good, such as silver images,
-candlesticks, and crucifixes, and reliquaries of gold
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>studded with gems were brought to adorn the altars and
-shrines of the church; and, in the refectory, an immense
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, twenty feet broad, reached from floor to ceiling,
-its ten receding shelves gleaming with gold and silver
-plate.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Charles the Bold’s second marriage in 1468 to Margaret
-of York furnished another occasion for the display of
-his wealth and magnificence. John Paston, who went
-to Bruges to attend the wedding, was simply dazzled
-and overwhelmed by what he saw. Writing to his
-mother, he says: “As for the Dwkys coort, as of lords,
-ladys and gentylwomen, knyts, sqwyers and gentylmen,
-I herd never of non lyek it, save King Artourys cort.
-And by my trowthe, I have no wyt nor remembrans
-to wryte to you, half the worchep that is her.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Passing by the descriptions of jousts and other
-entertainments, we may note that workmen—painters,
-decorators and machinists—had been engaged for many
-months to adorn Bruges fittingly for the nuptial festivities.
-The streets were hung with tapestries and
-cloth of gold, triumphal arches were erected at intervals,
-and at different points along the road the bride was
-diverted with “Histories,” the joint productions of
-dramatist, decorator, painter and machinist. The front
-of the palace was covered with paintings of heraldic
-devices and magnificent decorations, and behind the
-palace, in the tennis court, a new banqueting hall was
-erected for the occasion. This building was a hundred
-and forty feet long, seventy feet wide and more than
-sixty feet high. The walls were hung with some of the
-Duke’s most famous tapestries, one set of which represented
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>Jason’s quest of the Golden Fleece; the ceiling
-was painted, and at every possible place banners and
-heraldic devices were hung. An enormous <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> in
-the centre of the hall displayed on its tiers of shelves
-an overwhelming exhibition of gold and silver treasures
-glittering with gems. The tables were arranged lengthwise
-on either side of the hall, except one reserved for
-the Duke’s family and the guests of highest rank. This
-table was placed on a raised platform at the upper end
-of the hall, and over it was spread a canopy with curtains
-hanging to the floor, so as to present the appearance
-of an open pavilion. The chroniclers of the day
-note that “the hall was lighted by chandeliers in the
-form of castles surrounded by forests and mountains,
-with revolving paths on which serpents, dragons and
-other monstrous animals seemed to roam in search of
-prey, spouting forth jets of flame that were reflected
-in huge mirrors, so arranged as to catch and multiply
-the rays. The dishes containing the principal meats
-represented vessels, seven feet long, completely rigged,
-the masts and cordage gilt, the sails and streamers of
-silk, each floating in a silver lake between shores of
-verdure and enamelled rocks, and attended by a fleet
-of boats laden with lemons, olives and condiments.
-There were thirty of these vessels and as many huge
-pasties in a castellated shape with banners waving from
-their battlements and towers; besides tents and pavilions
-for the fruit, jelly dishes of crystal supported by figures
-of the same material dispensing streams of lavender
-and rosewater, and an immense profusion of gold and
-silver plate.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>The festivities continued for more than a week.
-Every day a tournament, banquet and dance took place.
-At one of the banquets, the decorations were so wonderful
-that the guests marched around the tables to examine
-the artistic creations. These consisted of gardens made
-of a mosaic-work of rare and highly polished stones,
-inlaid with silver, and surrounded with hedges made of
-gold. In the centre of each enclosure was placed a tree
-of gold with branches, foliage and fruit exquisitely
-enamelled in imitation of orange, pear, apple and other
-trees. Fountains of variously perfumed waters rendered
-the air deliciously fragrant.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Olivier de la Marche’s description of the banqueting
-hall is as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“In this hall were three tables, one of which was
-placed across the ends of the others. This table, higher
-than the others, stood upon a platform. The other
-two tables were placed on the two sides of the hall,
-occupying the whole length; they were very long and
-very handsome, and in the centre of the said hall a high
-and rich buffet in the form of a lozenge was placed.
-The top of the said buffet was enclosed with a balustrade,
-and the whole was covered with tapestries and hung
-with the arms of Monsieur le Duc; and above rose the
-steps and degrees on which were displayed many vessels,
-the largest on the lowest, and the richest and smallest
-on the top shelves; that is to say, on the lowest shelves
-stood the silver-gilt vessels, and above them the vessels
-of gold garnished with precious stones, of which he had
-a great number. On the top of the buffet stood a rich
-jewelled cup, and on each of the four corners large
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>and entire unicorns’ horns, and these were very large
-and very handsome. These vessels of parade were not
-to be used, for there were other vessels, pots and cups
-of silver in the hall and chambers intended for service.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Turning now from the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffet d’apparat</span></i>, he describes
-the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffet d’usage</span></i>.” Regarding the service, “The
-new Duchess was served by the cup-bearer, the carver
-and the pantler, all English, all knights and men of
-noble birth, and the usher of the hall cried: ‘Knights
-to the meat!’ And then they all went to the buffet
-to fetch the meat, and all the relations of Monsieur and
-all the knights marched around the buffet in the order
-of the great house two by two after the trumpeters
-before the meat.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We sometimes get a glimpse of a luxurious chamber
-of the Burgundian Court from Aliénor of Poitiers, who
-wrote <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Honneurs de la Court</span></i>. Her testimony is
-trustworthy, for her mother was maid of honour to the
-Duchess Isabella, third wife of Philip the Good; and,
-therefore, she undoubtedly witnessed what she describes.
-She tells us that the chamber of Isabella of Bourbon,
-wife of Charles the Bold, Count of Charolais, was very
-large and contained two beds, separated by a space
-four or five feet wide. A large <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ciel</span></i>, or canopy, of green
-damask covered both beds; and from it hung curtains
-of satin which moved on rings, and could completely
-screen the beds when desired. The lambrequin of the
-canopy and the curtains were fringed with green silk.
-On each bed was an ermine counterpane, lined with
-very fine violet cloth. The chronicler expressly notes
-that the black tails were left on the fur. “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La grande
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>chambre</span></i>” from which the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chambre de Madame</span></i>” was
-entered, called the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chambre de parement</span></i>,” contained
-one large bed in crimson satin. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ciel</span></i> was very richly
-embroidered with a great gold sun, and “this tapestry
-was called <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la chambre d’Utrecht</span></cite>, for it is believed that
-Utrecht gave it to the Duke Philip,” writes Aliénor,
-who adds: “The curtains of crimson samite are looped
-up like those of a bed in which nobody sleeps.” The
-hangings of the wall were of red silk. At one end of
-the bolster was a great square cushion of gold and
-crimson, and by the side of the bed a “large shaggy
-carpet.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In each of these rooms there was a handsome <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>;
-and our scribe continues: “In the chamber of
-the Countess de Charolais there was a large <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> of
-four beautiful shelves, the whole length of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>,
-each covered with a cloth; the said <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> and the
-shelves filled with vessels of crystal garnished with gold
-and precious stones, and some of fine gold; for all the
-richest vessels of Duke Philip were there—pots, cups
-and beakers of fine gold, and other vessels that are never
-exhibited except on state occasions. Among other
-vessels there were on the said <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> three <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoirs</span></i>
-of gold and precious stones, one of which is estimated
-at 14,000 <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">écus</span></i>, and another at 30,000 <em>écus</em>. On the
-back of the dressoir was hung a <em>dorset</em> (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dorsal</span></i>) of cloth
-of gold and crimson, bordered with black velvet, and
-on the black velvet was delicately embroidered the
-device of Duke Philip, which was a gun....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Item, on the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> which was in the chamber
-of the said lady, there were always two silver candlesticks
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>which they called at Court <i><span lang="frm" xml:lang="frm">mestiers</span></i>,<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> in which two
-lights were always burning, for it was fifteen days before
-the windows of her room were allowed to be opened.
-Near the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> in a corner was a little low table containing
-the cups and saucers in which something to drink
-was served to those ladies who came to see Madame,
-after they had been offered a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dragée</span></i><a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a>; but the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i>
-stood upon the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Night candles.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Bonbons.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chambre de parade</span></i>” there stood a very
-large <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, ornamented with superb pieces of gold
-and silver.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was the custom for both lords and ladies to receive
-their acquaintances informally in the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chambre de
-parade</span></i>,” while the inner room was reserved for their
-intimate friends. On the occasion of a birth, these two
-rooms were as superbly furnished as the house could
-afford. The richest cloths and tapestries were brought
-out, and the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> was adorned with articles of gold
-and silver that were only placed on view on important
-occasions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Mary of Burgundy was born, the same authority
-informs us that Isabella of Bourbon’s room was
-very richly furnished; and in honour of Mary of Burgundy,
-the daughter and heir of Charles the Bold, there
-were five shelves upon the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, a privilege reserved
-for queens only.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> was a very important article. It contained
-the various “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">épices de chambre</span></i>,” generally called
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dragée</span></i>, and meaning all kinds of sugar plums and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">confitures</span></i>,
-conserves, sugared rose leaves (<i><span lang="ca" xml:lang="ca">sucré rosat</span></i>), etc.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>A writer in the sixteenth century mentions “Curious
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dragées</span></i> of all colours, some in the shape of beasts,
-others fashioned like men, women and birds.” Sometimes
-the bonbons were taken with the fingers, as may
-be seen in one of the fine set of tapestries in the Cluny
-Museum, representing <cite>The Lady and the Unicorn</cite>. An
-attendant kneeling presents the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> to the lady,
-who is standing with a pet bird on her left arm, and she
-is about to dip the fingers of her right hand into the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> to get something to delight the bird.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> was generally handed to the guests after
-dinner, and made its appearance at all ceremonial feasts.
-Froissart, describing the reception to the English knights
-sent by the King of England in 1390 to negotiate peace
-in France, says they were entertained at the Louvre,
-and “when they had dined they retired to the King’s
-chamber, and there they were served with wine and
-sweetmeats in large <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoirs</span></i> of silver and gold.” It was
-always handed with solemnity, and subject to strict
-etiquette. The Constable of France had the honour of
-presenting the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> to the King. At the Duke of
-Burgundy’s Court, according to Olivier de la Marche,
-the steward handed the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> to the first chamberlain,
-who handed it to the most important personage present,
-who then presented it to the prince or duke. When the
-latter had helped himself, the honoured guest returned
-it to the chamberlain, who gave it to the steward.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Aliénor also informs us: “When one of the princes
-had served Monsieur and Madame (the Duke and Duchess
-of Burgundy) with sweetmeats, one of the most important
-personages, for example, the first chamberlain, or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>Madame’s <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chevalier d’honneur</span></i>, took the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> and
-served the Duke’s nephews and nieces; and after they
-had been served it was handed to everybody.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i> was one of the most valued and popular
-presents during the Middle Ages. In the inventory of
-Margaret of Austria occurs a beautiful and large silver-gilt
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">drageoir</span></i>, fluted, presented to Madame by the gentlemen
-of the town of Brussels for her New Year, 1520.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Aliénor de Poitiers also says there should always be
-in the lady’s room a chair with a back near the bolster
-of the bed; and that this chair should be covered with
-silk or velvet, for “velvet is the most honourable covering,
-no matter what colour”; and “near the chair
-should be placed a little bench, or stool, covered with
-a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banquier</span></i> and some silk cushions for visitors to sit
-on when they call to see the invalid.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The little stool or bench, called <em>escarbeau</em>, was very
-low and without back or arms. Sometimes it was
-triangular in form. Sometimes it served for a low
-table. Rich people often threw over these <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bancs</span></i> a
-piece of tapestry or silk, known as <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banquiers</span></i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The memory of the vast majority of the artists
-of this period has perished, but a few names have survived.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Philip the Bold built a second St. Denis for
-his race at Dijon (1390), his art and craftsmen were
-all drawn from the Low Countries. Nicholas Sluter
-was in charge; and under his direction the Chartreuse
-became a veritable Flemish museum of carving. He
-sent for his nephew, Nicholas van de Werve, and paid
-him from six to seven shillings per week. Other Flemish
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>workmen in his employ were: Jehan Malouel, Hennequin
-van Prindale, Roger Westerhen, Peter Linkerk,
-John Hulst, John de Marville, John de Beaumetz and
-Williken Smout. The coloured windows were made
-at Mechlin, by Henry Glusomack. The oak retables
-with their numerous figurines, were the work of a Flemish
-carver named Baerze of Termonde.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In fact, the only Frenchman who had any part in
-the work was Berthelot Héliot, “<em>varlet de Monseigneur</em>,”
-an ivory-carver.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The two <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">retables</span></i> carved by Jacques de Baerze in
-1391 for the Chartreuse are now in the Dijon Museum.
-One was made for the Duke’s chapel at Termonde
-(Dendermonde), and the other for the Abbey of Billoche,
-near Ghent. These were painted and gilded
-by Jehan Malouel and Melchior Broederlam, who had
-been engaged by the Counts of Flanders; and worked
-in Hesdin and Ypres before becoming court-painters
-to Philip the Bold.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The same Museum contains three cylindrical boxes
-of beautiful workmanship of the same period. Two
-of these are ornamented with arabesques and birds
-painted and gilded; the third is decorated with polychromatic
-bas-reliefs, and a round boss representing
-scenes from the New Testament. These boxes are
-supposed to have belonged to the toilet-tables of the
-Duchesses of Burgundy. Two <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">retables</span></i>, ornamented
-with bas-reliefs in the Cluny Museum are called “<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">oratoires
-des Duchesses de Bourgogne</span></cite>.” These were bought
-from Berthelot Héliot, “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">valet de chambre</span></i>” of Philip the
-Bold; and it is thought that they came from Italy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>Another fine piece of Flemish wood-carving is preserved
-in the old <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Salles des Gardes</span></i> of the Palace in Dijon,
-where it forms a decoration of the chimney-piece. This
-is a panel of carved wood, the last remnant of the choir-stalls
-in the ducal chapel. The centre of the panel was
-the back of John the Fearless’s seat. The upper part
-terminating in a pointed arch and bordered with festoons
-ornamented with foliage surrounds the Duke’s
-shield, which is supported by two angels. The arms of
-eight dependent provinces are carved in the lower
-part of the panel, enlaced in a trellis of mouldings decorated
-with chicory leaves, and further enriched by four
-angels playing various instruments.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dijon Museum contains another splendid piece
-of wood-carving of the same date in the seat or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">forme</span></i>
-for the accommodation of the priest, deacon, and subdeacon
-of the Chartreuse. This was carved in 1395
-by John of Liège, a carpenter, for the sum of two hundred
-and fifty francs, to which another hundred were
-afterwards added in recognition of the excellence of
-the work.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">forme</span></i> is a species of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i> divided by arms into
-stalls like choir-stalls. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">forme</span></i> always had a back
-which grew larger about the end of the twelfth century,
-and at a later date, it was surmounted by a daïs. The
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">forme</span></i> was always considered to be a seat of honour.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>John de Marville set to work on the Duke’s tomb
-in 1383, and in 1388 was succeeded by Claus Sluter,
-who also executed much important work. In the chapel
-of the Chartreuse at Dijon, he represented Philip the
-Bold and the Duchess Margaret kneeling at the feet
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>of St. Anthony and St. Anne. In 1404, he retired to
-the monastery of St. Etienne de Dijon, and was succeeded
-in his post of “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">imagier</span></i> and <em>valet de chambre</em>”
-to the Duke of Burgundy by his nephew Claes, or
-Nicholas, van de Werve.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1393, Philip the Bold sent his painter, Jehan
-de Beaumetz, and his sculptor, Claus Sluter, to see the
-works that his brother, the Duke of Berry, had had
-André Beauneveu make at the Château Mehun-sur-Yèvre.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Burgundy was especially famous among French
-provinces for its woodwork. Many masterpieces were
-created by the Dukes of Burgundy. There were, however,
-other patrons of this art, the great Abbeys of
-Clairvaux, Citeaux, Cluny and Vézélay. Numerous
-schools of workmen gathered around these monasteries,
-faithfully preserving the traditions of the master-sculptors
-of the past and bequeathing them to their
-successors of the Renaissance. A great deal of their
-most ornate and skilful work was naturally upon the
-choir-stalls. Those in the Abbey of Charlieu with
-figures of saints painted on wooden panels (later in the
-Church of Charolais), and the old Abbaye de Montréal
-(Yonne) are especially notable.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Brabant artists perhaps manifested their fertility
-most in wood-carving. Flanders, during the
-fifteenth century, produced an enormous number of
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">retables</span></i>, choir-stalls, pulpits, chairs, tables, communion
-benches, and similar work. The energies of the skilful
-wood-carvers found vent in civil as well as ecclesiastical
-work. The public buildings of the prosperous
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>cities contained many beautiful products of the
-chisel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The ducal expense accounts that have come down
-to us contain many entries of payments made to various
-Flemish joiners and cabinet-makers (<em>huchiers-menuisiers</em>).
-When the great <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Halles</span></i> of Brussels had to be rebuilt in
-1409, the following experts were employed to do the
-work: Louis Van den Broec, Pierre de Staete, Henry
-and Godefroy den Molensleyer, Adam Steenberch,
-Henry van Duysbourg, Pierre van Berenberge, Henry
-van Boegarden and John van den Gance. We find
-these names employed on other contemporary work.
-A few years later, Charles de Bruyn executed the wood-carving
-for the Louvain cathedral. In 1409, John
-Bulteel of Courtray was commissioned to carve the
-choir-stalls for the chapel of the oratory of Ghent. Peter
-van Oost received the order for the ceiling of the town
-hall of Bruges; and in 1449, W. Ards was carving
-that of the town hall of Mechlin. In 1470, the great
-altar-piece of Saint Waltrude in Herentals was executed
-by B. van Raephorst. In 1459, the beautiful
-stalls of the Abbey of Tournay, which were unfortunately
-destroyed by fire in the following century, were carved
-by Jan Vlaenders.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A noted carver of this age was Jehan Malouel Hennequin
-van Prindale, who, as we have seen, was in the
-employ of the Duke of Burgundy. The hands only of
-a Magdalen that he made (1399–1400) are in the Dijon
-Museum. This statue was remarkable as having a
-copper nimbus, or diadem.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The fame of the Flemish wood-carvers spread far
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>beyond the confines of their own provinces, and their
-services were eagerly sought in England, France, Spain,
-Italy and even Germany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although German wood-carvers were plentiful, John
-Floreins was employed on the choir-stalls of the Cologne
-Cathedral. In 1465, Flemish <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchiers</span></i> were called upon
-to carve the stalls of Rouen. Italy attracted many
-artists whose work still attests their ability. Among the
-innumerable workers in intaglio and marquetry of that
-period, we find the names of almost as many Northerners
-as native Italians. The Church of St. Georgio
-Maggiore, Venice, contains forty-eight stalls, adorned
-by Van der Brulh of Antwerp with carved bas-reliefs
-illustrating the life of St. Benedict. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i> of
-the sacristy of Ferrara bear the signatures of Henry
-and William, two Flemish carvers; and many other
-examples might be cited.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Spain, the entire Spanish school, until Berruguete
-brought the New Art from Michelangelo’s studio in 1520,
-was led by Philippe Vigarny, a Burgundian, who was
-considered the best wood-carver in Spain. His style
-was frankly Gothic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The influence of the Flemish and French was
-so great in Spain at this time, that Juan de Arphe
-severely reprimands his fellow-workers, who never
-cease copying the “<i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">papelas y estampas flamencas y
-francesas</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There was not a prosperous city in the Netherlands
-whose public and private buildings were not embellished
-with the products of the great artists in wood-carving.
-The great masters of Bruges were Guyot de Beaugrant,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>L. Glosencamp, Roger de Smet and André Rasch,
-sculptors and carpenters who executed the chimneypiece
-in the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Palais du Franc</span></i> in Bruges after the designs
-of Lancelot Blondeel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the most characteristic specimens of Flemish
-carpentry-work of the fifteenth century is the oak pew
-richly carved in the Gothic style (1474), belonging to
-the Van der Gruuthuuse family in Notre Dame of
-Bruges that is connected by a passage with the Gruuthuuse
-Mansion, built in (1465–70).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is important to keep constantly in mind the fact
-that at this period architects, sculptors, painters and
-goldsmiths did not confine themselves to one particular
-field of labour. Sculptors worked both in wood and
-stone in both civil and religious buildings, and the best
-talent was employed equally on <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">retables</span></i>, choir-stalls,
-pulpits, bishops’ thrones, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoirs</span></i>, chests and
-seats. The Duke’s accounts show many entries of payments
-for elaborate furniture. Two examples will
-suffice: “June 20, 1399: From the Duke of Burgundy
-to Sandom, <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">huchier</span></i>, living in Arras, for a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, with
-lock and keys, which was placed in the chamber of our
-very dear and much-loved son Anthoyne, xxxii <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sols
-pariis</span></i>”; and again, “To Pierre Turquet, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huchier</span></i>, living
-in the said town of Arras, for a bench, a table, a pair of
-trestles, and for a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> with lock and key for our
-chamber in our abode in the said place, for goods supplied
-by him four <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">livres pariis</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The fifteenth century has been called the “Golden
-Age of Tapestry.” Not only were the halls and chambers
-of rich lords hung with “noble auncyent stories,” woven
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>in silk and wool of the most gorgeous hues and enlivened
-with shining threads of gold, but the store-rooms were
-filled with sets that were brought forth to decorate the
-outsides as well as the interiors of houses on the occasion
-of some great festival, marriage, tournament, or return
-of a conqueror from the wars. Wealthy princes often
-took valuable sets to war to decorate their tents. Charles
-the Bold, for example, had with him some of his richest
-treasures, which became the trophies of his Swiss conquerors
-and are now in Berne.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Owing to her wars, the industries of France had
-declined, and among them her tapestry. Flanders now,
-particularly under the patronage of the rich and powerful
-Dukes of Burgundy, enjoyed the greatest prosperity.
-Flanders became the centre of the manufacture of tapestry;
-and Arras, Brussels and Bruges produced works
-that have never been surpassed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Every subject lent itself to reproduction. The inventory
-of a princely but small collector in 1406–7
-mentions: <cite>A Stag in a Wood</cite>, <cite>Story of Pyramus and
-Thisbe</cite>, <cite>History of the God of Love</cite>, <cite>History of King Pepin</cite>,
-<cite>Hawking</cite>, <cite>A Lord and Lady playing at Chess</cite>, <cite>A Trapped
-Hare</cite>, <cite>Monkeys</cite>, <cite>Castles</cite>, <cite>Parrots</cite>, and <cite>Verdures</cite>. The
-latter shows how early the beautiful landscapes were
-valued. Throughout this century the tapestries show
-charming backgrounds of daisies, violets, strawberries,
-jessamine, primroses, bellflowers and lovely leaves often
-scattered in artistic disorder.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The influence of Memling and the Van Eycks and
-their school was insistent, although comparatively few
-of their pictures were translated into tapestry. One
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>of the pupils of the Van Eycks, Roger van der Weyden,
-designed many cartoons, among which were the <cite>Legend
-of Trajan</cite> and <cite>Story of Heckenbald</cite> for the Town Hall of
-Brussels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great impetus to the Flemish looms was given
-by the Dukes of Burgundy. Philip the Bold (1384–1404)
-encouraged the weavers of Arras by giving orders
-and large payments in advance. Finally, he owned
-such a superb collection that he had a special officer,
-a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">garde de la tapisserie</span></i>, to take charge of it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Philip the Good (1419–1467) inherited this taste
-for beautiful tapestry and gave numerous orders to the
-tapestry-makers of Flanders. The inventory of his
-treasury made in Dijon in 1420, shows that he possessed
-at the beginning of his reign five <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">chambres</span></i> of tapestry,
-each comprising several pieces, and more than seventy
-high warp “storied” tapestries to ornament the halls
-and the chapel. Among them was a set of eleven
-pieces containing portraits of “the late Duke Jehan
-and Madame his wife on foot and on horseback,” hawking,
-with birds on their wrists and birds flying all around
-them. The same prince also had: “A red room of
-high-warp tapestry woven with gold, on which were
-represented ladies, pheasants, persons of distinction
-and rank, nobles, simple folk, and others, with a canopy
-ornamented with falcons.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Then there was a rich “chamber,” “with high-warp
-tapestry of Arras thread, called the <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">chambre</span></i> of the little
-children, furnished with the canopy, head-board, and
-coverlet of a bed, worked with gold and silk, the head-board
-and coverlet being strewn with trees, grasses,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>and little children, and the canopy representing trails
-of flowering rose-trees on a red background.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another set of “high-warp tapestry, worked in
-Arras thread and gold” was called “The Chamber of the
-Coronation of Our Lady.” It was furnished with “a
-canopy, a head-board, a bed coverlet, and six curtains
-two of which were worked with gold, and the remaining
-four without gold. On each of these were two figures,
-the late Duke Anthony of Brabant and his wife and
-their children, screened with a small <i><span lang="ca" xml:lang="ca">dosser</span></i>; the whole
-was of Brabant work.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In addition to these superb sets, there were sixty
-“saloon tapestries” in which the hangings woven
-with gold depicted scenes from famous romances, stories
-from Grecian mythology, pastoral scenes, and contemporary
-events.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There were thirty-six <em>dossers, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banquiers</span></em> and thirty-six
-hassocks, and nineteen long-pile carpets. Then there
-were thirteen “chapel hangings,” with religious subjects,
-an altar-cloth “entirely of gold and silk,” besides
-high-warp tapestries “of gold and Arras thread.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Philip the Good was also a collector of embroidery.
-In his inventory (1420) are mentioned many “<i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">chambres</span></i>”
-of velvet and silk, embroidered with gold and silks.
-More than thirty famous embroiderers were employed
-regularly at the Court of Burgundy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There was no more valuable possession in the Middle
-Ages than tapestry. When Mary of Burgundy was
-married to the Duke of Cleves in 1415, one prized item
-in her dowry was a “superb bed of tapestry representing
-a deer hunt.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>Tapestry was considered one of the most complimentary
-gifts that could be offered to a royal personage,
-or diplomatist; and when it is remembered that every
-nobleman of wealth was a collector, a present of this
-nature had to be of rare quality and exceptional beauty.
-The Dukes of Burgundy were fond of making gifts
-from the looms they patronized.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>For example, Philip the Bold sent several pieces
-to Richard II in 1394 and 1395, and superb sets to
-the Dukes of Lancaster and York. John the Fearless
-gave the Earl of Pembroke, ambassador of Henry IV,
-three handsome pieces, and to the Earl of Warwick,
-ambassador of Henry V, in 1416, “a rich hanging covered
-with various figures and numerous birds.” In 1414, a
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chambre de tapisserie</span></i>” was sent as a present to Robert,
-Duke of Albany, who then governed Scotland.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The weavers of Liège boasted as high an antiquity
-as those of Louvain. The <cite>Chronicle of St. Trond</cite> says
-that the weavers in 1133 at St. Trond and Tongres,
-and they were more independent and high-spirited, or,
-to quote more exactly, “more forward and proud than
-other artisans.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Brussels, which in after years eclipsed both Paris
-and Arras in the manufacture of tapestries, possessed
-one corporation only of tapestry-workers (<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">tapitewevers</span></i>)
-in 1340. In 1448, these were reorganized under the
-name of <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Legwerckers Ambacht</span></i> (tapestry-weavers trade),
-but there was no great interest in the Brussels looms
-until 1466, when Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy,
-bought in that city <cite>The History of Hannibal</cite> in six pieces
-and a set of eight landscapes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>The looms of Ypres, Middelburg, Alost, Lille, Valenciennes,
-Douay and Oudenarde flourished during the
-fifteenth century. To this list we must add the fine
-looms of Bruges, established by Philip the Good, which
-for a time eclipsed all others in Flanders. After Bruges
-supplied this Duke of Burgundy with <cite>The History of
-the Sacrament</cite> and “two chambers of tapestry” in
-1440, many commissions were received from foreign
-countries. The Medicis and other Italian families ordered
-rich sets, but they supplied their own cartoons by Andrea
-Mantegna, Leonardo da Vinci and other great painters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Bruges, doubtless, owed no little of its fame as a
-centre for fine tapestry to the Flemish artists, Memling
-and the Van Eycks and their school who lived there.
-It is believed that the famous tapestry that found a
-home in the Château des Aygalades, representing the
-marriage of Charles VIII and Anne of Brittany, under
-the allegorical figures of Esther and Ahasuerus, was
-made in Bruges. The cartoons have been attributed
-to the school of Van Eyck.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1449–53, Philip ordered from Tournay <cite>The
-History of Gideon</cite> and <cite>The Story of the Golden Fleece</cite> in
-eight pieces.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1430, one Jean Hosemant, a tapestry-weaver of
-Tournay, was in Avignon and the Pope’s chamberlain,
-the Archbishop of Narbonne, ordered him to make “a
-tapestried chamber on the hangings of which were to be
-represented foliage, trees, meadows, rivers and clouds,
-as well as birds and quadrupeds.” Italy also attracted
-the French and Flemish weavers to learn their secrets,
-and they flocked in numbers to Rome and other cities.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>Their work was in such demand that the Flemish workers
-found encouragement everywhere; and in the fifteenth
-century they emigrated to England, Spain, Italy and
-even Hungary.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rinaldo Boteram of Brussels was in charge of the
-workshop in the court of the Gonzagas in Mantua,
-where Andrea Mantegna was employed to design the
-cartoons. Jehan de Bruges and Valentin d’Arras directed
-the workshops in Venice as early as 1421; Giacomo
-d’Angelo the Fleming had charge of the Marquis d’Este’s
-tapestries at Ferrara with a large number of Flemish
-weavers under him. Flemish workmen and master
-workmen were engaged in Siena, Florence, Correggio,
-Urbino and also by the Sforzas in Milan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A woman was also weaving Arras at Todi in 1468,
-one Giovanna Francesa, “<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">maestra di panni de arazzi<a id='t59'></a></span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At home, the Flemings grew ever more and more
-realistic, weaving into their woollen pictures types of
-character, costumes and scenes with which they were
-familiar; and while their technical skill was appreciated
-in Italy, their pictures certainly were not liked. All
-the orders sent from princely patrons to the looms of
-the Low Countries were accompanied by cartoons, which
-became the property of the workshop, and were repeated
-again and again as their popularity asserted itself. The
-Italians introduced perspective, clearness of grouping
-and a dramatic feeling entirely opposed to the Flemish
-school. The Italian cartoons, particularly those of
-Raphael and Romano, had a great influence upon the
-Flemish tapestries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Like all the other industrial arts, that of the goldsmith
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>flourished under the patronage of the Dukes of
-Burgundy. They spent an enormous amount of money
-in acquiring fine pieces of gold and silver and richly set
-jewels for their own treasury and use, and to give as
-presents. It was not long before the chief cities in
-Burgundy, Artois and Flanders saw the workshops
-of gold and silversmiths multiply greatly and gain a
-widespread reputation. These goldsmiths not only produced
-vases and chalices for the churches and chapels
-and beautiful articles for the Duke’s <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoirs</span></i>, but they
-particularly excelled in the setting of jewels and in
-making beautiful pieces of delicately worked gold
-and silver, with which the costumes were laden to such
-an extent that Martial d’Auvergne, the author of <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Arrets
-d’amour</span></cite>, says “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">on s’harnachoit d’orfévrerie</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some of the Duke’s silver is especially described
-in his inventory, and among his possessions at the end
-of the fourteenth century, we find two silver chandeliers
-for the chapel. The central bulbs were fluted
-and they were hung with crystal. On the foot, the
-arms of France were engraved. There were also three
-other chandeliers (these were evidently what we should
-now rather call candlesticks), and were carved profusely
-with big leaves; and also three candlesticks of silver for
-the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fruiterie</span></i>,” bearing on the base the arms of the
-Duke of Burgundy. The foot of another silver-gilt
-candlestick was decorated with three dragons; another
-candlestick of white silver (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">argent blanc</span></i>) was decorated
-with the arms of the Dowager Countess of Hainault.
-In all probability these were among the candlesticks
-that Charles the Bold took to the Abbey of St. Maximin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>Among the artisans that were patronized by the
-Dukes of Burgundy, we find the names of Jehan Villain,
-a goldsmith of Dijon from 1411 to 1431, and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">valet de
-chambre</span></i> to John the Fearless and Philip the Bold; Jehan
-Pentin, goldsmith of Bruges under Philip the Good;
-Corneille de Bonte, a celebrated goldsmith of Ghent;
-and Henry le Backer of Brussels and Gérard Loyet, both
-goldsmiths of Charles the Bold. The former executed
-a famous altar group for the Count of Charolais (Charles
-the Bold) in 1456, consisting of a great cross at the foot
-of which knelt the Count and Countess of Charolais with
-St. George and St. Elizabeth. Gérard Loyet, who was
-goldsmith and <em>valet de chambre</em> to Charles the Bold, made
-in 1466 a statue of gold that the Duke presented to the
-Cathedral of St. Lambert of Liège. He also made in
-the year of Charles the Bold’s death two silver busts
-and two statues of that Duke. The busts, of natural size,
-were made for St. Adrien de Grammont and St. Sebastian
-of Brussels and the statues for Notre Dame d’Ardembourg
-and Notre Dame de Grâce of Brussels. The latter,
-although of silver, were coloured and were large in size.
-They represented Charles kneeling with folded hands
-dressed in armour with sword at his side and wearing the
-collar of the Golden Fleece.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is very little furniture of the fourteenth and
-fifteenth century in existence. One of the few good
-buildings dating from the fourteenth century is the
-Guildhouse of the Tanners (Toreken) on the Rue des
-Peignes, Ghent. The Rijks Museum in Amsterdam has
-a copy of the solid oak ceiling of the Senate House at
-Sluis, dating from 1396, an imitation of the ceiling and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>chimney of the Senate House at Zwolle, built by the
-architect Berent in 1447; and a cast of an ornamental
-fireplace of the fifteenth century from the Markiezenhof
-at Bergen-op-Zoom. The Rijks also owns several
-Gothic cabinets, and a large Gothic cupboard of the fourteenth
-century from a convent in Utrecht. The Museum
-in the Steen, Antwerp, contains some good fifteenth
-century furniture.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A few names of wood-carvers of this period have
-survived. For example, the Town Hall of Louvain,
-the ancient capital of Brabant, is a very rich and lovely
-example of late Gothic work. It even surpasses the
-famous Town Halls of Brussels, Oudenarde, Ghent and
-Bruges. This was built by Matthew de Layens between
-1447 and 1463. It is very rich in statues of local celebrities,
-and the supporting corbels are ornamented with
-almost detached reliefs representing biblical subjects.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The models in wood for the stone-cutters were executed
-after the designs of De Layens, by John Vander
-Eycken, Goswin Van der Voeren, Mathew Keldermans
-and John Roelants in 1448.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In decorative art, the Gothic style is feebly represented
-by great names that have survived. Most of the
-glorious work that was done by the Mediaeval carvers has
-perished, and the names of its producers have perished
-with it. Two names, of the period immediately before
-the Renaissance, of men who applied themselves to the
-composition and engraving of ornaments have survived.
-Le Maître à la Navette was born at Zwott; and was at
-work about 1475. Alart du Hameel was a native of Bois-le-Duc;
-and lived at the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>THE RENAISSANCE: PART I</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Dawn of the Renaissance—The Transitional Period—Coffers and
-Bahuts—Court of Margaret of Austria—Perréal’s Style—Margaret’s
-Tomb by Perréal—Taste of the Regent—Margaret’s
-Tapestries, Carpets, Table-covers and Cushions—Her Curios—Flemish
-Tapestries—Cartoons by Bernard Van Orley—William
-de Pannemaker—English Tapestries—Last Days of the Gothic
-Style—Guyot de Beaugrant, Lancelot Blondeel and Peter Pourbus—Stalls
-in the Groote Kerk, Dordrecht—Carvings in Haarlem—Invasion
-of the Renaissance—Walnut, the Favourite Wood for
-Furniture and Carving—Versatility of the Artists—the Fleming
-as Emigrant—the Renaissance in Burgundy—Hugues Sambin—Sebastian
-Serlio—Peter Coeck of Alost—Pupils of Peter Coeck—Lambert
-Lombard—Francis Floris, the “Flemish Raphael”—the
-Craze for Numismatics—Hubert Goltzius—Cabinets of the
-Sixteenth Century—Italian Furniture—Characteristic Features of
-Renaissance Furniture—Ornaments: the Arabesque, Pilaster, Cartouche,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cuirs</span></i>, Banderole and Caryatid—Publications of Decorative
-Design—Alaert Claes, Lucas van Leyden, Cornelis Bos and Martin
-van Heemskerck.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>As in all other departments of human taste, thought
-and activity, there is no sudden change in Decorative
-Art, no swift rupture with old traditions. There is
-a period of transition, during which one style supplants
-another almost imperceptibly. Even when one great
-genius arises, he meets with opposition from the members
-of the old school; and it takes years for his ideas finally
-to triumph. Moreover, periods overlap: in one district
-the old style will persist half a century after the new is
-firmly established in another. Again, even in the same
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>town, we sometimes find the two streams flowing side
-by side for some time. This is true of the Renaissance,
-as of all other styles. We even find that a palace within
-a space of ten years’ time might be begun in the Gothic
-and completed in the Renaissance style.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Charles the Bold received his deathblow on
-the field of Nancy, a new era was dawning. The arts
-that had been fostered by the splendid Dukes of Burgundy
-already felt the impetus of a new movement.
-It was a period of momentous changes. Printing had
-already been invented, and designs for title-pages alone
-were to have a tremendous effect on Decorative Art.
-America was shortly to be discovered, and before long
-exotic woods were to end the exclusive sway of walnut
-and oak. Above all, Italy was to be practically rediscovered
-by Western Europe. Although many courts
-benefited by the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, the
-luxurious Italian states received by far the greater
-number of skilled artisans who brought with them
-the traditions of Classic Art. The maritime republics
-were, moreover, no strangers to the art products of the
-gorgeous East; and Venice especially then held almost
-a monopoly of the Levant trade, and distributed Oriental
-wares to France, Germany, England and the Netherlands.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The days of Feudalism had come to an end: Mediaevalism
-was dead. Wars of petty piracy and private
-spite ended almost simultaneously in Western Europe;
-wars of national competition in trade and bitter wars
-of religion were to succeed. In England, the Wars of
-the Roses were extinguished in 1485: the last private
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>battle between the retainers of feudal lords was fought
-in 1483. In France, Louis XI, after the death of Charles
-the Bold, had reduced his other great vassals to order.
-In Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella had expelled the
-Moors and married their mad daughter, Joanna, to the
-heir of the Burgundian dominions, the issue of this
-marriage being Charles V, who was born at Ghent in
-1500. In 1494, Charles VIII had crossed the Alps;
-and in Italy the French were as dazzled by the luxury
-and magnificence they saw as the Crusaders had been
-at Byzantium four centuries before. On their return,
-the Renaissance in France and the Netherlands may
-be said to have begun to bloom.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Before the opening of the sixteenth century, however,
-there was a remarkable activity in all the arts;
-and a coming change can be felt. The spirit of the
-Gothic and of the Classic style—Christian and Pagan—were
-already at war. In the Low Countries, this transitional
-period is noticeable during the last days of the
-House of Burgundy. Simultaneously, architecture and
-ornament insensibly underwent modifications, in which
-we recognize the earliest Renaissance, as it appeared
-also in France under the reign of Louis XII. Building
-and furniture have already become Classic in form
-and general aspect: the antique column becomes a
-leading feature of decoration, although the pilaster,
-which offers a convenient flat surface for the carving of
-arabesques, is often preferred. These arabesques are
-particularly characteristic of this transitional period.
-They consist of rather slender and simple branches,
-allowing considerable spaces of the background to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>appear; and very frequently they are divided into two
-symmetrical parts about a strongly accented middle
-axis. There is little relief and little projection in the
-composition. The details of ornamentation are taken
-especially from the floral world; and, if human figures
-or animals are used, they are attenuated and expressionless,
-and play an unimportant rôle. Figures of this
-description appear in Plate <a href='#V'>V</a> that represents a coffer
-in carved wood in the Flemish style, from the Cluny
-Museum, Paris. The panel in the centre represents
-the <cite>Annunciation</cite>, rudely carved. Pilasters decorated
-with leaves separate it from two niches that contain
-figures boldly but crudely carved. Above the <cite>Annunciation</cite>
-is a lock of fine workmanship, the flap of which
-bears the figure of the crowned Virgin, in high relief.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another typical coffer, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i>, of Flemish workmanship
-of the sixteenth century appears on Plate <a href='#VI'>VI</a>.
-Here we have three panels separated by caryatides.
-The subjects of the panels are <cite>Christ on the Cross</cite>, the
-<cite>Annunciation</cite>, and the <cite>Adoration of the Infant Jesus</cite>.
-The panels are also decorated with the heads of cherubs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i>, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i>, of the sixteenth century,
-of more delicate workmanship, is shown in Plate <a href='#VII'>VII</a>.
-The subject of the central panel is taken from the story
-of David. Allegorical figures decorate the pilasters,
-and Mercury and Cybele fill the niches. This is also
-from Cluny and is of French work of the sixteenth
-century.</p>
-
-<div id='V'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_093.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate V.</span>—<em>Coffer in Flemish Style.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Renaissance was too strong a movement not to
-carry everything before it; but it must not be imagined
-that it met with no opposition. There were people in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>high places who clung obstinately to the old order of
-things and resented innovations. Gothic art was still
-supreme under the short rule of Mary of Burgundy;
-but her daughter Margaret of Austria, Regent of the
-Netherlands, had to face the new ideas, and found it
-hard to reconcile herself with them, notwithstanding
-her encouragement of the arts as a whole. She kept
-a brilliant court, and she and her husband, Philibert
-of Savoy, warmly encouraged genius and talent. She
-gathered around her more than one hundred and fifty
-painters, sculptors, architects and decorators in all
-branches of art.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the death of her husband she was inconsolable;
-and planned a splendid church in which his and her
-remains should finally rest side by side. In 1505, she
-intrusted the planning of the work to Jean Perréal.
-In an early letter, he writes to her that he is delighted
-to undertake the work, and will take advantage of all
-he has observed regarding convents in Italy, where the
-most beautiful in all the world are to be found. In
-another letter, in 1509, we read: “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jy me suis mis
-après tant pour mon devoir envers nostre Majesté que
-pour l’amour que je vous doy, et ay revyré mes pour-traictures,
-au moins des choses antiques que j’ay eues ès
-parties d’Italie, pour faire de toutes belles fleurs ung
-trossé bouquet, dont j’ai monstré le jet au dict Le
-Maire</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemish character of Peréal’s early style had
-undoubtedly made him acceptable to the Regent. During
-her residence in France, from 1483 to 1493, she had
-then been subjected to no other than Flemish influence
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>in art. The Italian taste had not yet reached Paris.
-But Perréal crossed the Alps with Charles VIII in 1495;
-Louis XII went into Italy in 1502, and again in 1509.
-We are thus on the threshold of the Renaissance. Perréal,
-as the above quotation shows, instead of remaining
-true to the memories of his Flemish education, wanted
-to seek adventures in the domain of Italian art. He
-had the temerity to offer to Margaret for her tombs a
-bunch of his <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">troussés bouquets</span></i>. She was scandalized,
-and broke off all relations with the erring artist. She
-looked around her for an artist who conformed to the
-principles of Flemish art, one who would not be likely
-to betray national traditions for foreign modes. Her
-choice fell upon a master mason named Louis van Beughem
-to build the great church of Brou. A member
-of one of the corporations of St. Luke, faithful to Gothic
-art, van Beughem produced a work that shows that
-style in its latest development and decadence. He
-showed so much zeal and ability that Margaret forced
-him to take charge of not only the masonry, but of
-the woodwork and windows too. With him were
-associated John of Brussels for the decorative work,
-and Conrad Meyt for the carving. Conrad of Mechlin
-was Margaret’s favourite “image-maker.” She paid
-him the generous salary of five <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sous</span></i> a day. She paid
-her head cook twenty-six. Conrad carved the choir-stalls
-and other woodwork that demanded decorative
-treatment. He also executed all the great sculptural
-work on the tombs, including the life-size figures of
-Philibert of Savoy, Margaret’s dead spouse, and herself,
-represented both alive and dead, Margaret of
-Bourbon, ten children, a couching lion and many armorial
-devices.</p>
-
-<div id='VI'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_097.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate VI.</span>—<em>Flemish Coffer or Huche.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>This instance is interesting as showing that the
-greatest abilities in that age were applied to the smallest
-matters of art as well as the greatest. Among the
-objects for which Conrad was paid in 1518–19, we find
-two Hercules in wood, and two portraits of the princess
-in wood (for these he received eight <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Philippus</span></i> in all),
-a wooden turret for the Regent’s cabinet and a carved
-stag’s head for her library chimney-piece.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Margaret’s tastes are easily learned from the inventory
-she drew up with her own hand of her possessions
-in Mechlin shortly before her death. She seems to
-have cared almost exclusively for paintings, rich embroideries
-and curios. She made a complete list of
-her pictures, many of which were undoubtedly painted
-to please her by the artists of her Court. Among her
-embroideries were a great number of handsome ecclesiastical
-vestments and a few coifs, belts and gorgets
-for herself embroidered with gold thread “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à la mode
-d’Espagne</span></i>.” The greater number of her tapestries, bed-hangings,
-cases for cushions, table-covers and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">serviettes</span></i>,
-etc., to adorn the shelves of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoirs</span></i> were from Spain.
-Her tapestries are worth noting. She had two pieces
-woven of gold, silver and silk, representing the history
-of Alexander the Great, which came from Spain; four
-pieces, representing the story of Esther, also of gold,
-silver and silk, also from Spain; three pieces of gold
-and silk depicting the life of the Cid; two of the Seven
-Sacraments, another of Alexander; and four of Saint
-Helena. In addition to these Spanish tapestries, she
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>had six pieces called the “<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cité des Dames</span></cite>,” presented
-to her by the city of Tournay when she went there to
-meet the King of England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The gift of the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cité des Dames</span></cite> may perhaps have
-made some atonement for her vexation at having to
-attend that splendid meeting of the King and Emperor.
-She was very unwilling to go, and wrote to her father
-Maximilian, on September 22, 1513, as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“If you think it necessary for me to go and I can
-be of service to you, I am ready to do all that it pleases
-you to order, but otherwise, it is not the part of a widow
-woman to <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">trotter</span></i> and visit armies for pleasure.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>She also owned seventeen rich Spanish velvet carpets.
-Among her chamber-hangings, bed-hangings, and canopies
-were several articles made of rich cloth of gold,
-bordered with crimson and embroidered with the arms
-and device of the “late King of Aragon.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>She had a camp (or folding) bed with hangings of
-cloth of gold richly embroidered with gold thread and
-silk, and a canopy for a camp bed covered with cloth
-of gold and trimmed with a fringe of black silk and gold
-threads; and she also owned four large pieces of cloth
-of gold, each differently bordered, to decorate her throne,
-and also one of green velvet. She had two curtains
-of green and grey tafetas, and four of crimson tafetas,
-a number of pieces of cloth of gold, four hangings for a
-chamber of green velvet and white damask, and two
-palls, one of white silk embroidered with gold, and the
-other gold, green, red and white; and the furnishing
-of a camp bed with canopy, counterpane and three
-curtains of green tafetas lined with black. Margaret
-did not despise leather hangings, for she had several
-pieces of “tapestry of red morocco” each 4½ ells long
-and just as wide, trimmed with bands of green brightened
-with gold, and three other pieces of “red morocco”
-with gilded bands. These probably came from
-Spain.</p>
-
-<div id='VII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_101.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate VII.</span>—<em>Huche, or Bahut (Sixteenth Century).</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>A “pavilion” of grey and yellow silk threads “as
-a protection against the flies,” shows how early the
-mosquito net was known.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We should also note “packs for mules in the Spanish
-style,” covered with cloth of gold and silver.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among her table-covers was one of cloth of gold
-and white with trimmings of crimson velvet embroidered
-and fringed with gold, and one of cloth of gold with
-a crimson satin border.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The collection of “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">serviettes</span></i>” were exquisitely embroidered
-with gay coloured silks and gold threads.
-Some of them were trimmed with silk borders and
-some with narrow fringe. One, for instance, was embroidered
-with violet, and adorned with a violet fringe;
-another was embroidered in silver, blue, flesh-colour,
-crimson and green and had a little fringe of red, blue
-and gold. The two dozen beautiful cushions were of
-cloth of gold with gold tassels; of gold and blue lozenges;
-and embroidered in variously coloured silks.’</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The choice articles in her cabinet included three fine
-pieces of amber; a branch of coral in a wooden box;
-four other branches of coral; a piece of coral shaped like
-a horn; a little silver box with two coral images; a
-little <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">parfumador</span></i> of silver for scent-balls; a little Spanish
-fan, beautifully made; a little gilded St. George in a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>black leather case; a little agate salt-cellar with a gilded
-foot; three spoons—one of mother-of-pearl with a
-silver handle, the others of cornelian with handles of
-chalcedony; a picture of St. Mark on canvas; two
-East India boxes; a pair of East Indian slippers; a
-piece of violet silk; a little <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">retable</span></i>, containing an image
-of Notre Dame and St. Joseph; another, with a hawthorn
-in blossom; a little paradise with all the apostles
-represented; a lacquer box garnished with silver; a
-little silver cage; two tablets of wood framing pictures;
-two clocks, the larger one striking the hours and half
-hours; a Saint Margaret made in the likeness of Mlle.
-de Mon-Lambert; a little crying child painted by a
-good artist; the Emperor’s face in black and white;
-the little Duke of Milan on canvas; an Annunciation
-on canvas; a Saint Anthony made by Master Jacques;
-a little ivory picture given to Madame by M. de Chièvres;
-the face of the Duke Philip; a silver gilt picture of the
-Annunciation with two leaves of porcelain, portraits
-of the late King Philip and Queen Joanna, his wife; a
-Notre Dame in amber; a beautiful steel mirror; a
-Notre Dame of alabaster; a round piece of alabaster
-in which a lion is cut; and several sets of chess, of
-silver, silver-gilt, ivory, carved wood, ivory and wood;
-a set in jasper wrapped in a flag; and a set of chalcedony
-and jasper in an old painted box. She also had two
-dice-boxes, one gilt and one ivory. She also owned a
-good deal of curious needlework; two steel mirrors,
-one framed in silver gilt; and a netted purse of green
-and silver, marked with a unicorn.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Margaret was by no means peculiar in her liking for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>sumptuous tapestries. The walls of every palace, castle
-and mansion of the day were adorned with rich hangings,
-and these products of the Flemish looms were sought
-by prince and prelate throughout Europe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although Flanders continued to produce the most
-important sets of tapestry during the sixteenth century,
-and cartoons were supplied by the Flemish artists,
-Bernard van Orley, Michel Coxie and Peter of Campana,
-and the French artists, Primaticcio, Matteo del Nassaro,
-Caron and Lerambert, by far the greater number of
-designs came from Italy. Paul Veronese, Titian,
-Pordenone, Salviati, A. del Sarto, Bronzino, Giovanni
-da Udine, Giulio Romano and Raphael are among
-the most prolific designers; and in the tapestries after
-their cartoons, the grouping and distribution of the
-figures as well as the colouring (that requires much more
-shading) differ greatly from the works of the past. The
-borders are also more varied; instead of being decorated
-only with fruits and flowers tied with ribbons, other
-motives are introduced—birds, nude children, fishes,
-crustaceans, vegetables, emblems, quivers, masks, grotesques,
-etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Most of these fine sets were made in Brussels to order;
-but many tapestries were made there and sold in Antwerp.
-If Brussels was the workshop of Europe, Antwerp
-was the mart. In this city, where all kinds of merchandise
-abounded, Guicciardini informs us that more
-than a thousand foreign merchants had established
-themselves and exhibited for sale to the eyes of purchasers
-the fine tapestries made in Brussels. There
-was a special place, “Le Pand, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">halle aux tapisseries</span></i>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>where many beautiful and marvellous inventions and
-works were exhibited and sold.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Regarding the Brussels tapestries, the same old
-traveller tells us:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Especially admirable and yielding great profit, is
-the trade of the tapestry-makers, who weave, design and
-warp pieces in high warp in silk, gold and silver, at great
-expense, and with an industry that wins everybody’s
-admiration and wonder.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the sixteenth century, the looms of Flanders
-enjoyed great vogue and received orders from all the
-princes of Europe. When the merchants of Florence
-wished to enrich the Church of St. John with tapestry,
-they sent to Flanders; when Francis I, who possessed
-some magnificent pieces of Flemish tapestry, wanted to
-make a present to the Pope, he had twelve scenes from
-the <cite>Life of Christ</cite> made at Arras, from cartoons by
-Raphael; and from 1518–39 there are many entries
-in the accounts of the Treasury of France for sums paid
-for Flemish tapestries for the King. As there was no
-manufactory for high-warp tapestry in France, Francis
-I decided to establish one in Fontainebleau in 1539, and
-gathered there fifteen skilled Flemish workmen whom he
-placed under the direction of Philibert Babou, Sieur de
-la Bourdaizière, and Sebastian Serlio, the Italian architect.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Throughout the Renaissance, tapestry was regarded
-on a level with painting. The Pope, the Doges of Venice
-and the wealthy families—the D’Estes, the Medicis
-and Sforzas—made superb collections and decorated
-their halls with splendid hangings. The greater number
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>of these were made in Flanders, although a few lords—the
-D’Estes and Sforzas, for example—had looms of
-their own, worked by Flemings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Subjects from mythology, the Scriptures and martyrology
-are still popular, but scenes from the old romances
-of chivalry are banished. Valiant princes and prosperous
-cities make use of the weaver’s art to commemorate
-their victories and triumphs, and many gorgeous sets
-depicting current events are hung in mansions, villas, and
-town halls. Antwerp, for example, orders <cite>The Course
-of the Scheldt</cite> for her Town Hall. Flanders also makes
-such pieces as <cite>The Hunts of Maximilian</cite>, <cite>Battle of
-Pavia</cite>, <cite>Victories of the Duke of Alva</cite>, <cite>Destruction of the
-Armada</cite>, <cite>The Deliverance of Leyden in 1574</cite>, <cite>The Defeat
-of the Spaniards by the Zealanders</cite>, <cite>Genealogy of the
-Princes of Nassau</cite>, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Brussels produced the famous set of ten, <cite>The Acts of
-the Apostles</cite>, ordered by Leo X in 1515. The cartoons,
-for which Raphael received 100 ducats each (£200),
-were sent to Peter van Aelst, the most noted tapestry-worker
-in Flanders. The Pope paid him 15,000 gold
-ducats (£30,000) for the set. Peter van Aelst was <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">varlet
-de chambre</span></i> and weaver to Philippe le Beau, in 1504,
-and later to his son, Charles V. Bernard van Orley,
-a pupil of Raphael, was associated with him in the
-production of <cite>The Acts of the Apostles</cite>, which were hung
-in the Sistine Chapel, December 26, 1519. In 1549,
-Vasari wrote of them: “One is astonished at the sight
-of this series; its execution is marvellous. One can
-hardly imagine how it was possible, with simple threads,
-to produce such delicacy in the hair and beards, and to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>express the suppleness of flesh. It is a work more Godlike
-than human; the waters, the animals and the
-habitations are so perfectly represented that they appear
-painted with a brush and not woven.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another beautiful set, <cite>The Loves of Vertumnus and
-Pomona</cite>, now in Madrid, was also made by Flemish
-weavers from Italian cartoons; and were bought by
-Charles V in Antwerp, before 1546.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Bernard van Orley designed <cite>The Grand Hunts of
-Guise, or of Maximilian</cite>, formerly attributed to Dürer.
-In these realistic pictures of costume, landscape and
-national types, there is a return to the Flemish disregard
-for perspective and grouping.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mention should be made of the famous <cite>Lucas Months</cite>,
-long believed to be the work of Lucas van Leyden, but
-certainly by a Flemish artist. These were frequently
-copied at the Gobelins. In the month “January” a
-superb sideboard is represented.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A very celebrated tapestry-worker, William de Pannemaker,
-was commissioned by Charles V to weave <cite>The
-Conquest of Tunis</cite>, the cartoons for which were made by
-Jan Vermay, or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near Haarlem.
-Although eighty-four workers were employed, it took
-five years to complete it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Pannemaker also made <cite>The Victories of the Duke
-of Alva</cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>What the principal centres of tapestry were, we learn
-from an edict of Charles V, in 1544, that says: “It is
-forbidden to manufacture tapestries outside of Brussels,
-Louvain, Antwerp, Bruges, Oudenarde, Alost, Enghien,
-Binche, Ath, Lille, Tournay and other free towns,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>where the craft is organized and regulated by ordinances.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Holland also produced tapestry in this century.
-Looms were set up in Middelburg in 1562; and later in
-Delft, where Franz Spierinck worked.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A little tapestry was produced in Italy, but even
-there the greater number of weavers were Flemings.
-Two Flemish tapestry-workers, Nicholas and John
-Karcher, were employed by the Duke d’Este, at his
-court in Ferrara; and Cosmo I employed Nicholas
-Karcher and John Rost of Brussels at his establishment,
-the “<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Arazzeria Medicea</span></i>,” in Florence.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The store-rooms of royalty and nobles in England
-were filled with superb sets that were brought out for
-decoration on occasions. Most of these were imported
-from the Continent; but towards the end of Henry
-VIII’s reign, William Sheldon orders one Robert Hicks
-to make maps of Oxford, Worcester, Gloucester and
-Warwick counties at his manor in Warwickshire, and
-calls Hicks “the only auteur and beginner of tapestry
-and arras within this realm.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Returning now to the consideration of furniture as
-an architectural accessory, we find that Margaret of
-Austria’s tastes were shared by many of her contemporaries.
-The Gothic style lingered here and there far
-into the sixteenth century, and even those whose sympathies
-were frankly in favour of the Renaissance did
-not entirely cast away Gothic traditions. (<em>See</em> Plate <a href='#X'>X</a>.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>For example, let the student examine the beautiful
-choir of St. Gertrude in Louvain. The stalls are adorned
-with statuettes and twenty-eight reliefs of scenes from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>the lives of Our Lord, of St. Augustine, and of the
-patron saint, Gertrude. The ornamentation recalls the
-last days of the Gothic style. The work ranks among
-the finest examples of wood-carving in Belgium. It was
-executed by Mathias de Waydere, of Brussels in 1550.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mechlin was the capital of the Netherlands while
-Margaret was Regent. Her palace, now the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Palais de
-Justice</span></i>, shows both the old and new styles. The older
-parts date from 1507, and were built in the late Gothic
-style by Rombout Keldermans. Before the palace was
-finished, in 1517, a French architect, Guyot de Beaugrant,
-was associated with Rombout in the work. This
-part of the palace is the oldest Renaissance building in
-Belgium.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is somewhat puzzling to reconcile Margaret’s preference
-for Gothic art with the fact that her own palace
-shows a halting between two opinions. It may be that
-she merely drew the line between civil and ecclesiastical
-edifices, and would welcome in a palace, or town hall,
-decorations that she would exclude from a church.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Oudenarde, the birthplace of Margaret’s grandniece,
-who was also to be Regent of the Netherlands, contains
-work that marks this transitional period. The
-doorway of the Council Chamber in the Town Hall is
-a splendid piece of Renaissance wood-carving, executed
-by Paul van Schelden in 1531; and a fine chimney-piece
-carved in the Flamboyant style only two years earlier.
-Another late Gothic chimney-piece, by his brother Peter,
-is in the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Salle des Pas Perdus</span></i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Guyot de Beaugrant was the architect who executed
-the most famous and important monument of this period.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>This is the chimney-piece of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Palais de Justice</span></i> at
-Bruges. Of all the productions of this kind that the
-sixteenth century has bequeathed to us, and they are
-numerous, none is more remarkable, either for its dimensions
-or the beauty of the work. Its general effect is
-imposing, and its masses are distributed with that
-feeling for effect that reveals the man of genius.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lower part is of black marble with four reliefs
-in white marble on the frieze, representing the story of
-Susanna and the Elders. The painter, Lancelot Blondeel
-of Bruges, supplied the designs for the upper part,
-which is of carved oak. The statues represent Charles
-V as Count of Flanders, Mary of Burgundy and her spouse,
-Maximilian, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile,
-all ancestors of Charles. Busts of his parents,
-Philip and Joanna, adorn the throne; and on two
-small medallions are Margaret herself and Launoy the
-commander at Pavia.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As for the details, pilaster, figurines, bas-reliefs,
-shields, medallions, trophies of arms, etc., everything is
-of incomparable finish, and the art of wood-carving has
-never been so boldly pushed to its uttermost expression.
-This occupies nearly the entire side of the Court Room
-and was made in memory of the Battle of Pavia and
-the Peace of Cambrai, by which the independence of
-Flanders was recognized. This masterpiece was begun
-in 1529; it was completed in 1530, the year of Margaret’s
-death.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Lancelot Blondeel, of Poperinghe, was essentially a
-painter of the transition period. He was a man of most
-extraordinary gifts, being at the same time a painter,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>sculptor, mason and engineer. Besides painting, he
-designed several masterpieces of sculpture in addition
-to this celebrated <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cheminée du Franc</span></cite>. He was also a
-wood-engraver, and made drawings for the glass painters
-and tapestry-workers. In 1546, moreover, he submitted
-plans to the magistracy of Bruges for a canal to
-connect that city with the sea. He gave his daughter
-in marriage to Peter Pourbus, the last of the great painters
-of the school of Bruges. Pourbus was as versatile as
-his father-in-law, and was intrusted by the city with
-the organization of public festivals and rejoicings. He
-dabbled a little in architecture, engineering and cartography.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Works of the early Renaissance are rarer in Holland
-than in Flanders; but Holland possesses one of the
-most remarkable carvings of the sixteenth century,
-the stalls of the Groote Kerk in Dordrecht done by Jan
-Terween Aertsz, of Antwerp, in 1538–42. Four years
-only were required to carve this great allegory. These
-stalls, of magnificent proportions, are divided into two
-sections: one, at the side of the altar, consists of thirty
-stalls in two tiers. This is the most richly treated,
-being intended for the clergy. The sides on the passageways
-are most elaborately carved. The second section is
-much simpler and has no separate seats. It is intended
-for the choristers. No work in the Low Countries
-surpasses this. The spectator is first attracted by the
-superb construction and handsome outlines, but it is
-only when the details are examined that the work is
-fully appreciated. The dazzled eye notes such a profusion
-of ornamental figures and motives that it would
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>be hard to find their equal. The only carvings in the
-Netherlands that can be compared with them are the
-choir-stalls in the cathedral at Ypres, made in 1598,
-but these have not quite the same distinction in execution.
-The first carvings one notes are the friezes in
-relief above the seats and under the graceful little columns
-that adorn the back. The subjects of these bas-reliefs
-are the <cite>Triumph of Christ</cite>; the <cite>Triumph of the Eucharist</cite>;
-<cite>Scenes from the Old and New Testament</cite>; the <cite>Triumphal
-Procession of Mutius Scaevola</cite>; and the <cite>Triumphal
-Entry of Charles V in Dordrecht</cite>, on July 21, 1540. The
-cycle of the Triumph of Christ opens with two archangels
-with trumpets, announcing the King of Kings;
-then follow Adam and Eve, Noah with the Ark, Moses
-with the Tables of the Law, Abraham about to sacrifice
-Isaac, David with his harp, Jonah, Samson with the
-lion, Elias and John the Baptist—all prototypes of
-Christ. Then come the twelve apostles with palm
-branches, and Christ in a triumphal car, decorated
-with dragons’ heads and richly ornamented with the
-symbols of the Cross and dove, and drawn by symbols
-personifying the four Evangelists. Chained to Christ’s
-car is Death, accompanied by the monster Sin,
-swallowed by the colossal open jaws of Hell, in
-which the Devil is seen riding. Lastly, come Mary
-and the four saints, Catherine, Barbara, Lawrence and
-Christopher.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <cite>Triumph of the Eucharist</cite> opens with choristers
-and other children singing, followed by Franciscan
-monks, nuns, canons, deacons, deans, the Fathers of
-the Church—Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>then the Church in a triumphal chariot with the Holy
-Sacrament, then the Pope, cardinals and bishops. The
-procession of Mutius Scaevola is, of course, Roman in
-character, and consists, likewise, of eight panels. The
-<cite>Triumph of Charles V</cite> resembles in some respects the
-Triumph of Maximilian by Dürer (Dürer visited the
-Low Countries in 1520). Two cavaliers with trumpets
-open the march and are followed by three others; then
-comes a grandee of Spain with the orb of the Empire,
-his horse led by pages. Other grandees follow, then
-the imperial train, guided by allegorical virgins, and
-the Emperor, seated under a baldaquin in a richly-decorated
-chariot, with the palm of peace in his left,
-and the sceptre in his right hand. The sword and orb
-of state lie at his feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some of the terminal figures on the ends of the
-stalls are very fine, particularly Matthew, Luke, David,
-Solomon and Daniel in the lions’ den. The heads and
-busts that are developed out of the foliage are of exceptional
-interest. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">miséricordes</span></i> (seats) are decorated
-with humorous and Biblical scenes. The luxuriant
-foliage that forms no little part of the ornamentation
-is in the style of the first Italian Renaissance and in
-many places is mingled with musical instruments, heads,
-fruits, figurines, children and coats-of-arms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Terween<a id='t82'></a> is supposed to have been born in Dordrecht,
-in 1511. He died in 1598. For other Gothic
-carved work during the early Renaissance the student
-may go to the Groote Kerk of Haarlem. This is also
-especially interesting on account of its transitional
-features; for while the magnificent choir-stalls and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>rood-screen still retain the Gothic character (the screen
-was erected in 1540 by Diderik Sybrandszoon, of Mechlin,
-and bears several municipal coats-of-arms), the side
-railings of the inner choir are in the style of the early
-Renaissance. A remarkable example of Mediaeval
-carved oak, called the “<cite><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">H. Geest Stoel</span></cite>,” is also preserved
-in this church.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The church of St. Nicolas, at Dixmuiden, also contains
-a splendid rood-loft carved in the richest Flamboyant
-style, dating from about 1520.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Gothic period, therefore, practically ended at the
-close of the fifteenth century. The Renaissance restored
-Greek and Latin taste. In furniture, it followed the
-forms and ornaments of architecture, as the Gothic
-had done; so that now, instead of pointed arches with
-trefoils, quatrefoils, or flamboyant tracery, we have
-pediments and various Orders with their columns, capitals,
-arcades and superpositions of colonnades.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>After the transitional period, during which the
-Decorative Arts freed themselves from the domination
-of ecclesiastical influence and acquired individuality of
-form, we find a rapid development during the sixteenth
-century. The Renaissance quickly passed through its
-stages of growth in the styles of Louis XII and François
-I, and burst into full bloom in the Henri II style.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Before the invasion of the new school, Gothic tracery
-quickly disappears; and with all the wealth of decoration,
-cartouches, mascarons of gods, heroes, nymphs, etc.,
-in order to produce the proper effect and the correct
-massing of details, it becomes necessary to submit furniture
-to the rules of Classic architecture; and furniture,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>therefore, breaks with all traditions of the past and
-becomes a special art. New tools, new methods, and
-a new technique are invented. Walnut becomes the
-fashionable wood, and to follow the taste of the day
-the Flemings forsake their much-loved oak. Nearly
-all the great pieces of the Burgundian school of this
-period are carved in this wood.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>After slight hesitation, Flanders welcomed the Renaissance
-with open arms. Like the Venetian, the Fleming
-was artistic and commercial at the same time, and
-thoroughly understood how to turn his talents into profit.
-He scented a new fashion as soon as it made its appearance,
-assimilated it and added a touch or two of his
-own. The Renaissance found in Flanders, moreover,
-as we have seen, a ground already prepared by the
-princes of the House of Burgundy. Skilful engravers
-provided the studios with models and designs, wood-carvers
-multiplied to embellish the palace and church,
-town-halls and guild-houses, castle of the lord and home
-of the burgher and merchant.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great artists of the period were extraordinarily
-versatile: they were architects, sculptors, painters,
-glass-painters, goldsmiths, designers for furniture and
-triumphal arches, machinists, historians, engravers,
-numismatologists, and sometimes geographers and poets
-all at once; and a talent for art always seemed to run
-through all the members of one family through several
-generations, including both men and women.</p>
-
-<div id='VIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_117.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate VIII.</span>—<em>Cabinet (Sixteenth Century).</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>They had great intellects that were equal to every
-conception, and their skilful hands were capable of the
-most minute as well as the most important work. If
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>the Renaissance produced so many original works, the
-cause must be sought in the complete education of the
-masters of this remarkable period. The artists of the
-Low Countries knew how to assimilate in the most
-complete fashion the artistic principles of other schools;
-but although drawing inspiration from foreign sources
-they knew how to imprint on their creations a particular
-cachet, which distinguishes Flemish work. They used
-to great advantage the colour of the material, the exigences
-of the climate and produced picturesque combinations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Fleming was the traveller <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par excellence</span></i> of the
-Renaissance—sculptor, cabinet-maker, painter, architect,
-potter, weaver, goldsmith—we find him everywhere.
-He even reaches Hungary, Russia and Turkey. Spain
-he finds a congenial soil, and also England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although Burgundy resisted the Italian invasion for
-a time, the Renaissance was destined to reach, perhaps,
-its most brilliant development, after Italy, in this very
-province. It is generally conceded that the Burgundian
-style owes its character to Hughes Sambin, an architect
-and master carpenter, born about the beginning of the
-sixteenth century. In 1535, he finished the porch of
-St. Michel’s in Dijon, and in 1572, published in Lyons,
-after a period of study in Michael Angelo’s studio, a
-book filled with wood engravings, and entitled <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Oeuvres
-de la diversité des termes dont on se sert en architecture,
-réduit en ordre par Maistre Hughes Sambin, architecteur
-en la ville de Dijon</span></cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Sambin’s most important work is the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Palais de
-Justice</span></i> in Dijon, where there is a very beautiful wooden
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>door carved by him, or under his direction, and the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Salle des Procurateurs</span></i>, built under Henri II, the ceiling
-of which is carved wood. Sambin’s book shows that he
-was an adept in the Renaissance style, and devoted
-to the study of antique monuments. Regarding him,
-Champeaux says:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“In truth, it is the taste for caryatides and grotesque
-figures surrounded by garlands, and supporting broken
-pediments that predominate in all his compositions.
-The result is a certain character of heaviness and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bizarrerie</span></i>
-that is more conspicuous in the buildings contributed
-by him than in his furniture, for the material of the
-latter, less cold than stone, allows more scope to the
-original fantasy of the artist. The furniture inspired by
-Sambin’s designs does not exhibit the ponderous grace
-of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffets</span></i> made in Paris; the lines are
-not traced with the same tasteful harmony; but it must
-be recognized that no school equals the vigour and the
-dramatic expression of the Burgundian artists of this
-period. The figures of the caryatides and chimerical
-animals that support the various parts of their furniture
-and conceal the uprights, are animated with a brutal
-energy that only skilful chisels can create. Moreover, the
-walnut wood of which they are carved has been clothed
-with a warm tone that sometimes equals that of Florentine
-bronzes.”</p>
-
-<div id='IX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_121.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate IX.</span>—<em>Armoire, Burgundian School.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fine example of the Burgundian school appears on
-Plate <a href='#IX'>IX</a>. This is an <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i> showing fine and bold
-carving with Renaissance motives. The panels of the
-lower drawers are carved with grotesque figures, flanked
-by pilasters bearing caryatides. The drawers above
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>them are furnished with keyholes. The upper section
-has a large central panel with a terminal figure in the
-centre, the head of which forms a fine ornament between
-the broken pediment. On either side are terminal
-figures. This beautiful <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i> resembles in form the
-“court cupboard” that was so extensively used in
-England at this period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Many of the great artists of the day went to Italy
-to study on the spot, but it would seem that the works
-of Sebastian Serlio were in high repute, and were closely
-studied in the Low Countries. Guicciardini, who wrote
-in 1588, tells us that “Peter Coucq of Alost was great
-in cartoons or designs for tapestry; and has the peculiar
-praise of first bringing from Italy the canon of architecture,
-and translated into Flemish the work of Sebastian
-Serlio of Bologna, to the great advantage of the
-Netherlands.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Peter Coeck was born in Alost in 1502, and died in
-Brussels in 1550. He was a devoted follower of Serlio.
-He translated his works into French and Flemish, and
-engraved all the plates for this publication himself. These
-were issued in Antwerp: parts I-III in 1516, part IV
-in 1539, and part V was published by his widow in 1553.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Coeck was painter to Charles V, and to his sister,
-Mary of Austria, Queen of Hungary (born in Brussels
-in 1503), to whom Charles V gave the government of the
-Low Countries. In her the arts and sciences found as
-enthusiastic a patron as they had in her aunt Margaret
-of Austria. Just as the latter had had her favourite
-painters in van Orley and Jean Mostaert, so she chose
-Peter Coeck for hers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>Coeck achieved great fame in the remarkable triumphal
-arches which he designed for the joyous entrance
-of Philip II into Antwerp. In 1527, he was made master
-of the Guild of St. Luke. Thierry de Moelenere intrusted
-him with the decoration of his rich house in
-Antwerp, in which he displayed his knowledge as architect,
-painter and sculptor. Some of the caryatides
-from this house are now preserved in the Steen Museum.
-A superb mantelpiece with three tiers of subjects carved
-by his hand is in the Town Hall of Antwerp.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Coeck also executed a window for the Church of
-Notre Dame in Antwerp.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among his pupils were the painters, Pierre Clays,
-Gilles de la Hee, Nicholas van Nieucasteel, surnamed
-Nicholas Lucidel, and Pierre Breugel the Elder (who
-married his daughter).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Lambert Lombard (1506–66), went to Italy in 1537.
-He returned to Liège in 1539. He was a painter, and
-more particularly an architect. He set up a school of
-painting and engraving, the first of its kind there. Three
-of his pupils brought great honour to his school: these
-were Francis Floris, called the “Flemish Raphael,”
-William Key and Hubert Goltzius. He worked very
-little himself beyond designs for engravers, and more
-often for paintings on glass. He was rich enough to
-indulge his taste for objects of antiquity. It was at
-this date that the study of numismatics came into existence
-in Belgium, and learned men took delight in setting
-up a cabinet of medals and coins: among the wealthy
-it became even a mania that was carried to extremes.
-Lombard’s collection, the beauty of which was praised
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>by all his contemporaries, was composed of medals,
-coins, carvings, and other objects of high antiquity.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Hubert (or Hugo) Goltius (or Goltz), was a painter,
-engraver, numismatologist and historian. He was born
-at Venlo in 1526 and died in 1583. He studied under
-Lambert Lombard and was also influenced by Erasmus’
-friend, van Watervliet, who guided him in his
-classic studies, Greek and Roman antiquities, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Goltius visited all the great towns in Belgium, Holland,
-Germany, France and Italy, in order to examine
-the cabinets of collectors for material for his book on
-coins. His itinerary reveals an astonishing number of
-collectors of coins and medals.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Goltius made the decorations in Antwerp for the
-fêtes of the Golden Fleece. He was also appointed
-historian to Philip II.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A marriage coffer of leather, designed by him, represented
-the King of Spain and Margaret of Austria standing
-beside the Fountain of Love.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The craze for medals, coins and curios during the
-sixteenth century was widespread. We have seen that
-the Regent had a coffer full of corals and various trifles.
-To meet the demand for housing curios, the cabinet
-was developed. This was usually a double chest, the
-upper one smaller than the other. Both closed with
-doors and contained drawers and shelves.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Like almost all the pieces of furniture called “cabinets”
-of the sixteenth and seventeenth century, the
-one reproduced on Plate <a href='#VIII'>VIII</a> is in two parts, the upper
-being smaller than, and standing back on the top of,
-the lower. It is carved in walnut wood, enriched with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>sculptures, and here and there plaques of marble are
-set in order to relieve the monotony resulting from the
-sole use of wood. Stone of various colours was largely
-used at this period, as an inlay for furniture in the
-Netherlands and France, and more especially in Germany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The principal fault with which the Flemish artists
-of the period are reproached is that of “painting the
-lily.” They frequently are lacking in restraint, and
-overcharge their surfaces with riot of ill-combined
-mouldings and carvings; but in this specimen we
-have fine restraint. Its structure and general disposition
-are strong and well-contrived; the mouldings have
-a good profile; the sculpture is in the right place, and,
-at the same time, is subordinated to the lines whose
-mission is to contain and quiet it. This piece belongs
-to the best school of the Renaissance, and will hold its
-own in almost any surroundings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the lower part of this cabinet, the two panels that
-form the doors are carved with the figures of Diana
-and Juno with their attributes. The drawers above are
-decorated also: the central one has a lion’s head, to
-which a ring is suspended, and the two others have a
-simple knob. In the panels of the upper doors, Paris
-is presenting the golden apple to Venus, whose beauty
-has outshone that of her rivals. A garland of fruits
-with a mascaron in the centre is above this, and the
-whole is topped by a broken pediment framing an armed
-Pallas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>If we cast a glance at Italian furniture, we shall see
-that the French and Flemish artists at first frankly copied
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>what they had seen when they accompanied the three
-expeditions to Naples.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the sixteenth, as in the preceding century, the
-Italians were particularly fond of the Roman triumphal
-arch and sarcophagus, as forms for furniture. The
-Classic Orders were in great vogue, and the arabesque
-and candelabra-shaped pilasters, introduced so long ago
-into decoration, were renewed and made popular by
-Raphael. To the ancient style of marquetry, composed
-of little geometrically-cut cubes of natural wood, there
-succeeded a marquetry of coloured woods arranged to
-form actual pictures with perspective. Some of the
-furniture was carved, and then painted, or gilded; but
-other furniture shows large surfaces that are decorated
-with beautiful oil paintings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Italian furniture was particularly <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">da pompa</span></i>,
-made for the adornment of long galleries, enriched with
-paintings, gildings, tapestries, velvets, damasks, brocades,
-cushions, curtains, mirrors, and sumptuous <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">cassoni</span></i>.
-Beds, chairs, tables, cabinets, mirror and picture frames,
-standing candelabra, bellows, coffers, chests, seats and
-buffets (<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">credenza</span></i>), are of the most luxurious nature;
-and the latter display magnificent gold and silver work
-(Cellini is busy at this period), and marvellous examples
-of faïence; for, be it remembered, it is also the period
-of Luca della Robbia and his school.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Italians cared little or nothing for the large
-chimney-pieces, so dear to the northern races in their
-colder climate; and the great seats by the fireside have
-also no attractions. The Italian has no oak, nor half-timbered
-houses with pointed gables without and heavy
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>beams within: his woods are walnut, pine and chestnut
-for ordinary furniture, and ebony, cedar and cypress for
-his luxurious articles. His materials, like his taste, are
-more decorative than practical.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Such was the taste that invaded the Low Countries
-during the Renaissance; much of it brought home by
-the Flemish artists who visited Italy; and some of it
-coming into the country by way of France, where Serlio
-was the guiding spirit, Cellini had settled, and the school
-of Fontainebleau was in full blast.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The characteristic feature of Renaissance furniture
-consists in the monumental façade that is like a Roman
-temple, and various orders of Classic architecture are
-superimposed: it is Doric at the base; Doric in the
-centre; and Corinthian at the top. The whole is surmounted
-by a pediment, the triangle of which is broken
-in the centre to receive a bust, vase or statuette. (<em>See</em>
-Plate <a href='#VIII'>VIII</a>.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The projections stand out boldly and form sharp
-cornices. In the panels, in the supports and between the
-columns, niches are cut out and framed in an architectural
-motive of some kind. In them are figures of heroes
-or classic deities. Sometimes also there are round
-medallions in the form of dormer windows from which
-curious heads with outstretched necks peer forth.</p>
-
-<div id='X'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_129.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate X.</span>—<em>Bedroom, by De Vries “Cubiculum.”</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Ornate pieces of furniture exhibit a whole world
-of real or imaginary beings, mingled with garlands of
-fruits, or flowers, and ribbons. Often the figures are
-fantastically developed out of the leaves and floral
-branches. The favourite decorative motives are antique
-columns, pediments, broken pediments, terms, garlands,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>pagan deities, classical heroes, caryatides, grotesque
-figures, initial letters smothered in branches of foliage,
-cartouches, pilasters and arabesques. Gothic perforations
-are also used, although they are more geometrical
-than during the preceding period. (<em>See</em> Plate <a href='#X'>X</a>.) The
-favourite linen-fold pattern dies very hard. Strips of
-leather called “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>,” variously folded and plaited, enjoy
-a great vogue. (<em>See</em> panel on Plates <a href='#XXI'>XXI</a> and <a href='#XX'>XX</a>). The
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">encoinçon</span></i> (<em>see</em> Figs. 17 and 18) is also popular; and
-the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">compartiment</span></i>” appears in hundreds of designs.
-The compartment ceiling is a favourite room decoration,
-and is often ornamented with roses, brackets, floral
-designs and monograms. A compartment ceiling of
-intricate design appears in Plate <a href='#XXIV'>XXIV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The arabesque, which so often forms a central motive,
-is usually in the form of a flower stem, a knot of ribbon
-or a candelabra, symmetrically arranged with branches
-to right and left, and charged with trophies, vases,
-fantastic beings, animals, etc., at the caprice of the artist.
-These delicate ornaments flourish in the panels, mingling
-with the horn of plenty, bold sirens, and medallions of
-antique heroes in high relief.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The arabesque was beautifully treated by many
-artists, but the most successful were Marc Gerard, a
-celebrated painter, sculptor and architect of Bruges, and
-Lucas van Leyden whose style of treating arabesques
-follows Albrecht Dürer. Examples of Lucas van Leyden
-appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pilaster is a decorative necessity of the upright,
-marking the division of the façades, or accenting the
-uprights of the chests, chairs, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoirs</span></i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>The cartouche (Italian <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">cartoccio</span></i>) scrolled paper, is
-generally composed of a frame made of mouldings, or
-scrolls, enclosing a plain, convex, or concave space, of
-regular or irregular form intended for an inscription,
-coat of arms, cypher, etc. Vredemann de Vries and
-Theodore de Bry decorate their cartouches with swags
-of fruits, which were copied by Gerrit Hessels, a Dutch
-engraver whose compositions mark the transition between
-those artists and Crispin de Passe, Francouart
-and the school of Rubens. One of the peculiar features
-of the cartouche of the sixteenth century is the use
-of motives composed of strips of leather twisted, and
-variously decorated. Vredemann de Vries calls these
-“Compartments” in his well-known <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Multarum variarumque
-protractionum (compartimenta vulgus pictorum
-vocat) libellus utilissimus, jam recens delineatus per
-Johannem Vreedemanum, Frisium Gerardus Judaeus
-exculpebat</span></cite> (Antwerp MDLV).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This peculiar style of leather ornamentation known
-as <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>, and consisting of strips interlaced in so many
-forms, is a much loved decoration of the Flemish school.
-A notable collection of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i> was published by Jerome
-Cock, the printer-engraver, in Antwerp, his native
-town.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the favourite decorations is the banderole,
-the floating ribbon or streamer which had been much
-used during the Middle Ages. It was used in great variety
-by many artists during the Renaissance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The peculiar form of caryatid called <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gaîne</span></i> or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">terme</span></i>,
-a species of support, is also extremely popular. It is
-used by Peter Coeck of Alost, in most of his compositions;
-and by his pupil Vredemann de Vries, who composed a
-special collection of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Caryatides ou termes</span></i>.</p>
-
-<div id='XI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_133.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XI.</span>—<em>Flemish Bedstead</em> (1580).<br /><br />Figs. 10–12: Designs by <span class='sc'>Lucas van Leyden</span>; Figs. 13–16: Designs by <span class='sc'>A. Claces</span>; Figs. 17–18: <span class='sc'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Écoinçon</span></span>, by <span class='sc'>De Vries</span>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>In studying the furniture of the early Renaissance, the
-works of the masters of design are most important aids.
-Before 1500, as we have seen, publications of purely
-decorative design, and even of architecture as a whole,
-are exceedingly scarce. From the opening of the
-sixteenth century, however, such publications rapidly
-multiply. Interior decorators who used the chisel in
-panel and pillar, and the contemporary joiners and
-cabinet-makers decorated their surfaces with details
-and motives taken from the Italians, and from the
-designs of native goldsmiths, engravers, painters and
-architects. As we have seen, it was no uncommon
-thing for one individual to be an adept in all these
-branches.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Therefore, the decorations of the designers of the early
-Renaissance have a special interest for us when we want
-to see what motives supplanted Gothic tracery, Biblical
-scenes and angels on carved chests, <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credences</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i>,
-beds and seats.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The first decorative designers who adopted the style
-of the Renaissance were Alaert Claas, Lucas van Leyden
-and Cornelis Bos. Claas (painter and engraver) worked
-in Utrecht from 1520 to 1555. Lucas van Leyden
-(painter and engraver), whose family name was Damesz,
-was born in Leyden in 1494 and died in 1533. Cornelis
-Bos (glass painter, architect and engraver), was born in
-Bois-le-Duc about 1510. He worked in Rome and was
-famous from 1530 to 1560. Another artist and engraver
-who belonged to the same school of decorative art was
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Martin van Heemskerck (1494–1574). He worked and
-died in Haarlem.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A mascaron with typical floral scroll-work dated
-1523, the work of Lucas van Leyden, appears in Fig.
-10. Another decorative composition with grotesque sirens
-and floral scrolls in Fig. 11, also by the same master, is
-dated 1528. A third and very graceful design of the same
-date by Lucas van Leyden is shown in Fig. 12. Decorations
-for panels, or other flat surfaces in wood, stone or
-goldsmith’s work are represented in Figs. 13 and 14 and
-Figs. 15 and 16; these are by Alaert Claas (or Claasen).</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>THE RENAISSANCE: PART II</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—Charles
-V a Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in Spain—Gilded
-Leather—Wealth of the Nobles in the Netherlands—Margaret
-of Valois at Namur—Antwerp in the Sixteenth Century—Christopher
-Plantin—Cornelius and James Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans
-and Paul de Vries—Jacques van Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics
-of the Second Period of the Renaissance—Bedsteads,
-Tables and Chairs, Armoires, Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain,
-Glass and Glass Cupboards—Windows and Glass-painters—Guicciardini
-on the Artists of the Low Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin
-de Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—Wood-carving—Music
-and Musical Instruments.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The first half of the sixteenth century in western
-Europe was completely filled with the ambitions,
-intrigues and wars of three powerful sovereigns—Charles
-V, Francis I and Henry VIII. Each of these was a
-chivalrous and luxurious monarch, devoted to the arts,
-science and literature. At their courts, the Renaissance
-received every encouragement; and at their death,
-half-way through the century, the Renaissance is generally
-regarded as entering on its second period. Henry
-and Francis both died in 1547, and Charles in 1558.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the death of Margaret of Austria in 1530, Charles
-had intrusted the government of his Burgundian inheritance
-to his sister, Mary of Hungary. She was as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>liberal a patron of the arts as her aunt Margaret had
-been. She kept a splendid court, and was entirely in
-sympathy with the new school. The artists who were
-struggling against foreign influence could not look to
-Mary for support. The stream of Flemish pilgrims to
-Rome was constantly broadening; and the Romanists
-under her Regency gained disciples daily in Brussels,
-Mechlin, Liège and Antwerp.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this period, the Low Countries bowed to no
-foreign authority in the art domain except the Italian.
-It must be borne in mind that Charles was a prince of
-the House of Burgundy, who had been brought up by
-his aunt, the daughter of the heiress of Burgundy, and
-the Emperor of Austria. He was a Fleming by birth and
-training. He was born at Ghent in 1500, and spent the
-first sixteen years of his life in the Netherlands. His
-pride in his natal town is well known. It is recorded
-in his famous pun—that he could put the whole of
-Paris in his <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Gant</span></i> (glove). Spanish influence, therefore,
-did not affect the studios and workshops of the Flemish
-hives of industry till late in the century; for when
-Charles went to Spain, his train was full of Flemings,
-who influenced Spanish art; but we find no return
-influx of Spaniards to modify Flemish art. The splendid
-traditions of the Court of Burgundy still dominated in
-the Low Countries; and its unbending formality survives
-in Spain to-day. When Philip II joined his father
-Charles V in Brussels in 1548, his natural inclination
-led him readily to adopt the multitudinous equipage and
-minute and pompous etiquette of his Burgundian ancestors;
-all this he retained and transmitted to his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>descendants. Till the end of the century, the Flemish
-Renaissance was a domestic development of purely
-Italian inspiration. The principal things that the
-Netherlands obtained from the Iberian peninsula were
-ornamental leather and Oriental wares, through Lisbon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Renaissance gave a great impetus to gilded
-leathers, the manufacture of which was still flourishing
-at Cordova and increasing in the Netherlands. It
-would seem that workmen emigrated from Spain to
-other countries. Tomaso Gazoni in his <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Piazza universale</span></cite>
-(1560) writes regarding gilded leather: “Some people
-think that the origin of this noble work is due to Spain,
-because from that country come the best masters of
-modern times who have obtained the greatest renown
-in this kind of work.” A native of Cordova, Ambrosio
-Morales, writing in 1575, says: “This manufacture brings
-much wealth to the town, and also gives a fine appearance
-to its principal streets. In truth, when these
-stamped, painted and gilded leathers are spread out on
-large tables to dry in the sun they make a beautiful
-sight, for the streets are adorned with the greatest splendour
-and variety.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The inventories of the period show us how important
-was the use of leather. Margaret of Austria has at
-Mechlin in 1527 several pieces of “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapisserie de marroquin</span></i>,”
-as we have noted.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The gilded leather was often called <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">or bazané</span></i> and
-regarded as a mark of opulence. For instance, Pierre
-Binard, a tapestry-worker and author of a collection of
-<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Noëls</span></cite>, dedicated to Marguerite, wife of Henri IV, says
-in one of his verses:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Au moins est-elle bien coëffée</span></div>
-      <div class='line in2'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De fins rézeaux?</span></div>
-      <div class='line'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Et sa couche est-elle estoffée</span></div>
-      <div class='line in2'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De beaux rideaux?</span></div>
-      <div class='line'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Son ciel n’est-il pas de brodeure</span></div>
-      <div class='line in2'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tout campané?</span></div>
-      <div class='line'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">N’a-t-il pas aussi pour bordeure</span></div>
-      <div class='line in2'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’or bazané?</span></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The nobles vied with royalty in luxury, and the
-beautiful tapestries, furniture, gold and silver work,
-enamels, etc., found ready sale. Such magnificent
-homes as the Counts of Egmont excited the anger of
-the populace; and those of many successful artists
-and rich merchants were hardly inferior.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The clergy did not suffer either. Granvelle, for
-example, made Bishop of Arras, and chief adviser to
-Philip II in all the affairs of the Netherlands, had a
-magnificent establishment. His furniture, tapestry and
-other personalty amounted to no less than £50,000.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Contemporary travellers are constantly speaking
-of the startling splendours they encountered in the
-Low Countries. When Marguerite of Valois, Queen of
-Navarre, who was certainly used to splendour, went to
-Spa in 1577, with the excuse to drink the waters, but
-really to intrigue in Hainault so as to advance the
-interests of her brother, the Duke d’Alençon, in the
-Netherlands, she was received at Namur by Don Juan
-of Austria. When this gallant escort, who rode by her
-litter, escorted the Queen to her lodgings, she was
-“astonished at the magnificence of the apartments.”<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a>
-A superb hall gorgeously furnished led into a series of
-chambers. The bedroom and bed prepared for the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>Queen were hung with superb tapestries, which, appropriately
-enough, represented the Battle of Lepanto.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Memoirs of Marguerite de Valois.</span></cite></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Antwerp now becomes the centre of commerce, and
-the town expressed so much wealth and was so crowded
-with ships that when the Ambassador from Venice,
-Marino Cavalli, landed on the Scheldt, in 1551, he exclaimed
-in amazement: “Venice is surpassed!” In
-1567, Guicciardini wrote: “One word alone can define
-the number of trades exercised in Antwerp; it is the
-word <em>all</em>!”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1560, Antwerp numbered three hundred and
-sixty painters and sculptors: artists and decorators
-flocked thither, and many new industries were likewise
-attracted; for instance, Piccol Passo of Urbino established
-a factory for Italian majolica; Amould van Ort
-of Nimeguen, the celebrated stained-glass maker, transplanted
-his workshops; Jahn de Lame of Cremona,
-Murano glass; and Christopher Plantin of Tours (1514–89),
-his printing-presses, from which so many books of
-decorative design were issued. He settled in Antwerp
-in 1549; but from 1576 to the present day, the business
-has been conducted in the house known as the Musée
-Plantin-Moretus, in the Marché du Vendredi. Plantin’s
-son-in-law Moretus or Moerentorf, succeeded him. In
-1876, this house, with its antique furniture, pictures,
-tapestries and other collections, was bought by the
-city of Antwerp for a Museum. The greater part of the
-furniture, staircases, mantelpieces, etc., date from the
-seventeenth century; but despite this fact and many
-restorations, this house affords an interesting picture
-of the dwelling and office of a rich Fleming of the sixteenth
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>century. The printing offices are untouched,
-and two of the rooms are hung with gilt Spanish leather
-of the sixteenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the last chapter we brought the masters of
-Decorative Art down to the middle of the sixteenth
-century. After these came Cornelius and James Floris,
-whose family name was de Vriendt. The head of the
-family, Cornelius de Vriendt, a stone-cutter, used the
-name of his grandfather, Floris de Vriendt, a member
-of the Guild <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">des Quatres-Couronnes</span></i> in 1476. Cornelius
-had four sons: John, a potter, who settled in Spain;
-Frans Floris (1518?-70), a painter; James (1524–81),
-a celebrated glass-painter; and Cornelius (1514–74), a
-sculptor and architect, who was responsible for the
-Antwerp Town Hall, the house of the Hanseatic League,
-the tabernacle of Léan and the rood-loft of the Cathedral
-of Tournay.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>James was also a skilful engraver, and was particularly
-noted for his panels, or compartments, which
-in his day were such favourite designs. His drawings
-were edited by Jerome Cock, and obtained a great
-success.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Jerome Cock produced a great deal of decorative
-design in the second half of this century. His figures are
-graceful and well disposed, and his draperies and garlands
-of fruits and flowers are charmingly effective.
-Two of his designs for goldsmiths’ work are reproduced
-on Plate <a href='#XIX'>XIX</a> and Plate <a href='#XX'>XX</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Cornelius and James Floris developed a new style,
-still known in Flanders as the Floris style. The school
-included many able designers whose names still survive,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>including that of Vredemann de Vries. The ornamentation
-is principally composed of “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>” cut into various
-shapes and rolled, accompanied by a mixture of figures,
-animals, birds, flowers and fruits, all tied together by
-ornamental motives, ribbons, draperies, etc., a form of
-decoration which the Flemish masters carried to its
-highest point of perfection.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was the custom of the day for these masters of
-ornament to supply designs for furniture when “the
-newest thing out” was required. Their designs that
-have survived consist chiefly of grotesques, cartouches,
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>,” panels, compartments, friezes, trophies, “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pendeloques</span></i>”
-and other goldsmiths’ motives. Contemporary
-with Floris were Hans Liefrinck (1510–80); Cornelis
-Matsys (1500–56); Jerome Cock (1510–70); John
-Landenspelder (<em>b.</em> 1511); Adrian Collaert (<em>b.</em> 1520); Hans
-Collaert (1540–1622). These all worked at Antwerp.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most famous designers of the Renaissance, however,
-were the De Vrieses, father and son, Hans and
-Paul. Hans Vredemann de Vries, painter, architect,
-sculptor, designer, and poet, was born at Leeuwarden
-in Friesland (whence his name) in 1527. For five years
-he studied in Amsterdam in the studio of Reijnier
-Gerritsz, the painter, and he studied architecture under
-Coeck of Alost. His pictures are valued highly and
-are crowded with architectural details. He also studied
-painting on glass. Owing to his special aptitudes and
-varied knowledge, as well as the skill with which he
-treated the different styles of architecture and ornamentation,
-he may be said to sum up in himself the great
-period of the Flemish Renaissance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>Vredemann published a great many collections of
-designs that are highly valued for the interesting studies
-they present of the Flemish Art of the Renaissance.
-His sons, Paul and Solomon, followed his style.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>De Vries was famous for his leather ornamentation
-(<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>) and his <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">encoinçons</span></i>, which apply to oval frames
-and ornament the corners of twelve of his twenty-one
-oval plates among the fifty composing the collection,
-<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Variae Architecturae formae a Joanne Vredemanni Vriesio,
-magno artis hujus studiosorum commodo inventae</span></i>. (<em>See</em>
-Figs. 17 and 18.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In his own country, he was called the king of architects.
-He may be called the Dutch Du Cerceau. He
-was contemporary with Du Cerceau; and was apparently
-greatly influenced by the work of the latter,
-or it may be that they both got their inspiration
-from the same Italian source. A comparison of the
-work of the two masters will show individuality in De
-Vries. His designs are not so light and graceful as the
-Frenchman’s. Besides all kinds of architecture, gardens,
-wells, fountains, vases, armour and decorative work
-for goldsmiths, he designed <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Differents Pourtraicts de
-Menuiserie à sçavoir</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Portaux</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bancs</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tables</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Escabelles</span></i>,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Buffets</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Frises</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Corniches</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Licts de camp</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ornements à
-prendre à l’essuoir les mains</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Fontaines à laver les mains</span></i>.
-This collection of designs appeared about 1580, and
-forms a most valuable record for those who desire to
-study the style of the early Renaissance in the Netherlands.
-It is noticeable that the change is not so much
-in the general form of the furniture as in the ornamentation.
-As an example, let us take the bedroom (Plate <a href='#X'>X</a>).
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>This was published in 1580; but it evidently belongs to
-the transitional period, since the furniture reveals almost
-as many Gothic as Renaissance features.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It will be noticed that De Vries expressly styles his
-design a <em>modern</em> bedroom; so that it deserves study as
-the latest novelty about the middle of the sixteenth
-century. The first thing that strikes one is that though
-the ornamental details of Gothic tracery have almost
-disappeared, yet the linen-fold in the panelling is everywhere.
-Even the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> on the left with its Classic
-columns and spiralled caryatides has Gothic panels;
-and the presses between the fireplace and the window
-have Gothic panels with a Renaissance daïs. The long
-heavy chests that serve as benches also belong to
-Mediaeval days. The massive table looks transitional
-also. It is also to be noticed that the furniture cannot
-yet be designated as “moveables”; it is still an integral
-part of the carpentry work that lines the walls of the
-room. The chair beside the bed is the sole note that
-tones down its severity. At the time the plate was
-published (1580), the Renaissance was in full flower,
-and its interest for us lies chiefly in the disposition of
-the furniture and the evidence it supplies of Gothic
-tenacity. The floor is tessellated diagonally with squares
-of wood or stone. The chimney-piece with its funnel-shaped
-top is essentially the same as represented in
-miniatures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
-The <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credence</span></i> or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> is opposite to the door, the bed,
-well protected by woodwork and curtains against
-draughts, is close to the fireplace, and the table in front
-of the window. A general effect of coldness is noticeable,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>due to the almost total lack of upholstery; but
-this is doubtless owing to the artist’s intent to emphasize
-the woodwork.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Though De Vries was the most important designer
-of furniture in the Netherlands during the sixteenth
-century, he was by no means the only one to influence
-the taste of the day. There were many architects,
-goldsmiths and engravers whose designs contributed
-to the development of the Renaissance style. One of
-these was Jacques van Noye. He was employed by
-Cardinal Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, to embellish the
-palace in Besançon, built by his father, Sebastian van
-Noye, also a notable architect.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1550, Van Noye became architect of Philip II;
-and called to Spain by the King, died in Madrid. One
-of his important works was the palace that the Cardinal
-erected at Brussels on the Coperbeke.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other designers in decorative art who lived during
-the second half of the sixteenth century were Mark
-Geraerts (1530–90); Hendrick van Schoel; Martin de
-Vos (1531–1603); G. Tielt (1580–1630); Cornelius
-Grapheus (1549-?); Baltazar Silvius (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1554);
-Guilhelmus de la Queweelerie (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1560); Peter Miricenis
-(1520–66); Hans Bol (1535–93); Abraham de
-Bruyn (1538-?); Crispin de Passe, the Elder (1536-?);
-Peter van der Borcht (1540–1608); Peter Baltens (1540–79);
-Paul van Wtanvael (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1570); Nicholas de
-Bruyn (1560–1635); Clement Perrete (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1569);
-Assuerus van Londerseel (<em>b.</em> 1548); Jerome Wierix
-(<em>b.</em> 1551); John Wierix (<em>b.</em> 1550); John Sadeler (1550–1610);
-Raphael Sadeler (1555–1628); Ægidius Sadeler
-(1570–1629); Dominic Custode (<em>b.</em> 1560); Ger. Groningus;
-Cornelis Galle (1570–1641); Philip Galle
-(1537–1612); Theodore Galle (<em>b.</em> 1560); Cornelis
-Dankherts (<em>b.</em> 1561); John Sambuci (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1574);
-Francis Sweert (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1690); Jodocus<a id='t107'></a> Hondius (1563–1611);
-James Hannervogt, and some anonymous engravers.</p>
-
-<div id='f19'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_147.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Fig. 19: <span class='sc'>Bed</span>, by <span class='sc'>J. Straden</span>; Figs 20–22: <span class='sc'>Tables</span>, by <span class='sc'>De Vries</span>; Fig. 23: <span class='sc'>Chair and Footstool</span>, by <span class='sc'>De Vries</span>; Figs. 24–25: <span class='sc'>Flemish Chairs</span>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>Of the above, the most prolific were the Galles. They
-were particularly rich in frames, but their ornamentation
-already shows signs of the Decadence; and the
-work of Philip alone shows traces of the pure Renaissance.
-Most of these masters of ornamental design were natives
-of, or were attracted to, Antwerp; though some of them
-travelled far afield. Custode worked at Augsburg;
-Ægidius Sadeler died at Prague; Geraerts died in
-England; Cornelius Bos worked in Rome; and Crispin
-de Passe, the Elder, worked in Utrecht, Amsterdam,
-Cologne, Paris and London.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the second period of the Renaissance, the general
-effect is more severe and geometrical; the projections are
-more restrained, and the general form of furniture more
-rectangular. The vertical lines are more conspicuous
-than the horizontal lines; and columns with elongated
-shafts and delicate flutings or grooves replace human
-figures that in the first period of the Renaissance act
-as uprights and supports. The bed on Plate <a href='#XIV'>XIV</a> is a
-good example of the second period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is also during the second period a great, and
-often elegant, use of ceramics. Some pieces of furniture,
-particularly cabinets, are decorated with incrustations of
-stones, amber, enamelled work and even Venetian glass.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>Gothic decoration still lingers for a time in the ordinary
-bedsteads (<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#X'>X</a>) but those of the new fashion
-show all the popular ornaments of the Renaissance.
-Caryatides sometimes appear as columns; and sometimes
-and ever more frequently as time wears on, slender
-pillars cut in the form of balusters, lances or distaffs,
-often grooved, and more or less decorated with carving.
-Later in the century, the columns are frequently enveloped
-in the same material as the hangings, which
-become so important that the sculptor and joiner give
-place to the upholsterer and embroiderer. The beds are
-so high, or built so high with mattresses, that it is impossible
-to get into them without the aid of bed-steps.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A glance at Plate <a href='#II'>II</a> will inform us that the bed of
-the fifteenth century depends more for its effect upon
-the curtains and other draperies than on the framework.
-In the time of the Renaissance, we find the bedstead of
-supreme importance. It is carved in the richest fashion,
-and is often enriched with gilding and painting; it is
-also adorned with marquetry. The mattresses, bolsters
-and pillows are of down or feathers, the sheets and
-blankets of finest linen and wool, for which Flanders is
-famous; and the hangings are of silk, velvet, tapestry,
-serge, or gilded leather. The Renaissance bed is never
-allowed to stand in an alcove: it is far too handsome
-a piece of furniture for that. Its canopy, often richly
-carved, is rectangular and exactly the size of the bed,
-which is large; and it is no longer suspended by cords
-from the ceiling, but rests on carved or grooved columns.
-It is usually finished with a projecting cornice, variously
-ornamented, and to this cornice the curtains are attached.
-In Fig. 19 and Plate <a href='#XII'>XII</a>, we see exactly how these curtains
-were hung. These beds, from engravings by
-J. Stradan (1578), also show us how the curtains were
-looped up in the daytime, how the square pillows were
-placed formally at the foot of the bed, and the shape of
-the round bolster. These beds could be completely
-enclosed by curtains.</p>
-
-<div id='XII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_151.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XII.</span>—<em>Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>The bed in Fig. 19 is interesting as an example of a
-Renaissance bed without supporting corner posts. The
-canopy and curtains are evidently suspended from the
-ceiling by cords in the old style, for there is no woodwork
-visible above the carved head-board. This is very
-unusual and is doubly interesting as the bed in Plate
-<a href='#XII'>XII</a>, by the same artist, is massive in form, and the dome
-is supported by strong Classic columns. In the latter
-design the curtains are looped around the columns and a
-pillow is placed on the bolster at the back. The canopy
-is dome-shaped and the top of each column is decorated
-with a “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pomme</span></i>,” destined to develop and survive as a
-decoration for the bedstead. The head-board is quite
-ornate, and the bedstead, like that in Fig. 19, stands upon
-a low platform.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A similar dome-topped bed appears in the inner room
-in the background of Plate <a href='#XXIV'>XXIV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of De Vries’ designs for a bed is reproduced on
-Plate <a href='#XIII'>XIII</a>. It has a heavy panelled head-board surmounted
-by a pediment with <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>; and the four
-supporting posts consist of turned caryatides. The
-bedstead proper that holds the mattress and other
-bedding is supported independently by vase-shaped
-legs. The frieze of the canopy is decorated with scroll-work.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>In this style of bed, the curtains did not hide
-the elaborately carved woodwork; they hung from the
-cornice and feet <em>inside</em> the outer posts. The hangings
-could thus be very sumptuous without detracting from
-the effect of the carved woodwork. Plate <a href='#XIV'>XIV</a>, which
-represents a beautiful bed of this period, massive and
-richly carved, shows the same arrangement of curtains.
-It should be borne in mind that wherever the framework
-is richly carved, curtains were never intended to
-hide it. This magnificent specimen, from the Rijks
-Museum, Amsterdam, is of beautiful proportions. The
-ornamentation is chaste and in perfect harmony, consisting
-of carved panels, cornice and Corinthian columns.
-The woodwork is walnut and the hangings are pale blue
-damask.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Plantin Museum in Antwerp contains an <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>
-and a bed after the designs of De Vries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another De Vries bed in the now dispersed Minard
-of Ghent collection had a canopy and balusters and the
-central part was arranged in the form of an <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>
-with two shutters decorated with low reliefs of religious
-subjects. Upon the upper gallery was a cartouche held
-by two angels, and on this cartouche the inscription,
-“Vriese inv. 1565.”</p>
-
-<div id='XIII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_155.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XIII.</span>—<em>Bedstead, by De Vries.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>An interesting example of Renaissance work is the
-bedstead on Plate <a href='#XI'>XI</a>. The distaff or lance-shaped
-columns shoot boldly upward from a floral calix that
-stands on the head of a mermaid at the foot, and the
-head of a merman at the head of the bed. A frame
-for a dome-shaped canopy is connected with the four
-posts by a tester. The bedstead is panelled and stands
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>on four large square blocks. In the centre of the headboard
-is a cartouche for a coat-of-arms; in the centre of
-the footboard the head of a cherub is carved. The
-peculiar characteristic of the decoration of this piece
-of furniture is that the scrolls are all carved in the shape
-of the human ear. This is an early example of the
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">genre auriculaire</span></i>, which was destined to become popular
-in Flanders and Germany. On this piece of furniture
-the ear is omnipresent—on the head and foot board, on
-the sweeps of the canopy and on the square feet—wriggling,
-squirming and unrestful.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Folding-beds are frequently mentioned in the inventories.
-Margaret of Austria (1523), had two wooden
-camp or folding-beds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemings were particularly skilful in the production
-of tables and chairs. We have now come a long
-distance from the simple board and trestles of the past,
-for we find dining-tables, writing-tables, bureau-tables,
-card-tables, chair-tables, bench-tables (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tables à banc</span></i>),
-round tables, square tables, oval tables, tables that stand
-on one foot, tables that stand on three feet, and tables of
-walnut, oak, maple, cedar, cypress, marble and even silver.
-We also find tables of mosaic work and of marquetry and
-tables beautifully carved and embellished with gold.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The drawing-table was much in vogue. It was composed
-of extra leaves superimposed on lower ones that
-could be drawn forward so that the top leaves could fall
-into the space they made and form with the lower
-leaves, thus lengthened, one continuous surface. The
-mechanism by which these leaves were lengthened
-and dropped was very intricate and ingenious. Jacques
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>Wecker, a physician of Colmar, in his treatise <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De
-Secretis</span></i> (Bâle, 1582), says: “One must not despise
-the make of these tables that I have often seen in
-Ghent in Flanders.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The tables designed by De Vries and reproduced in
-Figs. 20, 21 and 22, are a great advance on the one that
-appears in his <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubiculum</span></cite>. (Plate <a href='#X'>X</a>.) The form is
-much the same as those in Figs. 20 and 21, but the linenfold
-has given way to panels and pilasters of pure Renaissance
-character and the corner supports of sphinxes
-and animals and vases have no memory of the Gothic
-age. Fig. 22 shows us a table of an entirely different
-character. It is much lighter and has drawers. With
-its foot-rails it is well adapted for a dining-table.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A much more ornate specimen of this period called
-a “fan-shaped table,” (“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">table à l’éventail</span></i>”) is owned
-by the Dijon Museum. It is of Burgundian workmanship.
-The support, which still shows traces of gilding,
-is formed of an eagle with outspread wings standing
-between two winged chimaera with lions’ paws, these
-paws connected with a straining-rail, or stretcher. The
-open-work shelf is ornamented with leaves and a mascaron,
-and the two upper and lower straining rails are
-ornamented with a very clearly defined and handsome
-decoration. The top of the table is surrounded by a
-thread of marquetry.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Folding-tables were also in use; in Margaret of
-Austria’s inventory, mention is made of “a little table
-in the Spanish fashion which opens and closes.”</p>
-
-<div id='XIV'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_159.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XIV.</span>—<em>Bedstead.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Chairs are still heavy and carved more or less richly.
-Two typical specimens appear in Plate <a href='#XII'>XII</a>. As shown
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>in these examples, the seats and backs were often covered
-with stamped leather, velvet, silk, or some woollen
-material and ornamented with tassels. The covers are
-tacked to the frame by means of large-headed nails that
-also form part of the decoration. A chair and footstool
-by Vredemann de Vries, of very characteristic model,
-are shown in Fig. 23. The chair is three-cornered,
-with a triangular seat, and the legs are connected with
-straining-rails. It much resembles the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">voyeuse</span></i> of which
-Cardinal Mazarin had several; and which was again
-popular in the days of Louis XVI, in France and elsewhere.
-It was essentially a chair for a man, who faced
-the back and rested his arms on the top rail.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A Flemish chair of the second half of the sixteenth
-century is reproduced in Figs. 24 and 25. This is pure
-Renaissance in its simplest and certainly its least elegant
-form. The legs consist of Doric columns connected by
-stretchers close to the ground. The back slants, and
-is of somewhat confused carved decoration consisting of
-a mascaron and Classic architectural and floral motives.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When not built in the panels of the room, the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>
-bears a very close likeness to the large double cabinet
-with doors, which is, as we have seen, merely a chest-upon-chest,
-and which we shall find developing into the
-great Dutch <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> of the seventeenth century. Plate <a href='#XV'>XV</a>
-shows the great double cabinet, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>, of the Renaissance
-with carved panels, pillars and caryatides. This
-stands on ball feet. It is of the same period as the bed
-represented in Plate <a href='#XIV'>XIV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A magnificent specimen of the late sixteenth century,
-now in the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Musée des Arts Décoratifs</span></i>, Paris, is reproduced
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>in Plate <a href='#XVIII'>XVIII</a>. This is in two stories and is
-frankly architectural. The doors of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>, or
-cabinet, are decorated to look like windows, and the
-niches and pilasters lend their aid in making the front of
-this piece of furniture look like the façade of a handsome
-Renaissance residence.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Cabinets or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i> designed by De Vries are reproduced
-in Plate <a href='#XIX'>XIX</a> and Plate <a href='#XX'>XX</a>. As usual, we have
-a large choice in central and side supports, pediments
-and panels. There is a good variety of mascarons for
-the cabinet-maker to select from. It will be noticed
-that the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i>,” so popular with the designers of the
-period, enter largely into the decoration of the doors and
-drawers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Spanish influence was now making itself felt. Hispano-Flemish
-carving appears on many a panel and
-drawer front towards the end of this century. Characteristic
-carving of this style is shown in Fig. 26 and
-Fig. 27.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Perhaps of all kinds of furniture, Flanders excelled
-in making cabinets. Antwerp was especially renowned
-for them. The cabinet is, of course, an object of special
-luxury, for the display of little articles of value possessed
-only by the rich. Whether carved or inlaid, its shelves
-were lined with crimson velvet, cloth of gold, green taffeta,
-or beautifully tooled leather; and very frequently silvered
-ribbon twined into a kind of geometrical lattice-work
-into the initials or monogram of the owner of the cabinet
-was hung behind the glass and supplied with hooks from
-which jewels, watches, pocket-mirrors and other pretty
-trinkets were suspended. A cabinet collection in the
-sixteenth century included watches, jewels, rings, bracelets,
-necklaces, pearls from the Orient, gold and silver
-work, buttons, perfumed gloves, costly musk and amber,
-scent-bottles, pomanders on handsome chains, small
-scissors, pocket knives, pocket mirrors, coral beads,
-rosaries of rock-crystal, little books, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">eau de Damas</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">eau
-de rose</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">eau d’oeillet</span></i>, and other delicate essences, medals,
-little pictures, rare stones, fans, etc.</p>
-
-<div id='XV'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_163.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XV.</span>—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Armoire.</span></i><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>French noblemen had such a fancy for collecting
-Flemish cabinets that Henri IV sent French workmen
-to the Netherlands to learn the art of making these
-choice pieces of furniture, and particularly the trick of
-carving in ebony. On their return, he established them
-in the Louvre. The first was Laurent Stabre; another
-was Pierre Boulle (uncle of the great André Charles
-Boulle), supposed to be of Flemish origin. Jean Macé,
-who called himself “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">menuisier-ébéniste de Blois</span></i>,” was
-also given a studio in the Louvre, “on account of his
-long practice of this art in the Low Countries, and the
-skill he has shown in his cabinet-work in ebony and other
-woods of various colours that he has presented to the
-Regent Queen.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another cabinet-maker who lived in the Louvre
-was Pierre Golle, a native of the Netherlands, whose name
-was originally Goler, and who left Holland at Mazarin’s
-request to settle in Paris. He made various artistic
-pieces for the Dauphin, the great Cardinal and other
-patrons of art.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Burgundy was also remarkable for its cabinets, and
-made a specialty of wall-cabinets that hung at the sides
-of a room on invisible supports. A famous specimen
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>of Burgundian work was bought several years ago at
-the Soltykoff sale by the Baron Sellières, for no less than
-16,500 francs! It was a large double cabinet, the two
-parts of nearly equal dimensions, both ornately carved
-with satyrs, fruits, garlands, palms, Tritons and Nereids.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chest is as important as ever. It is found in
-every room in the house. In it are kept household linen,
-clothing and many treasures and gifts. When the top
-is flat, in which case the article is still called <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">huche</span></i>, it
-often serves as a seat. Although the chest is finely
-carved in the sixteenth century, it never attains the
-sumptuousness nor the delicacy of either <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i> or
-cabinet; it always remains a robust piece of furniture.
-It is decorated with architectural motives, fantastic
-arabesques, panels ornamented with bas-reliefs representing
-Biblical or mythological scenes, allegorical subjects,
-pilasters in the form of terms, and not unfrequently
-mascarons. Sometimes chests are covered with stamped
-leather and sometimes decorated with marquetry.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Flemish chests were in great demand in France. In
-an inventory, we learn that Marguerite des Bordes,
-Bordeaux, had, in<a id='t116'></a> 1589, a “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut de Flandres</span></i>,” barred
-with iron bands, two locks and keys; George Beaunon,
-a merchant of Bordeaux, had, in 1607, “more than one
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coffre de Flandres</span></i>,” garnished with bands of white iron
-and three little “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cassettes de boys de Flandres</span></i>” were
-owned by Nicholas Lemerotel of St. Malo in 1638.</p>
-
-<div id='XVI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_167.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XVI.</span>—<em>Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Porcelain as yet was very rare, though kings and
-rich nobles had a few pieces of this ware on their shelves.
-Philip II had quite a respectable collection of ceramics,
-and wealthy Flemings were always fond of foreign and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>domestic wares of this nature. Palissy was at work and
-his productions were highly prized. The Netherlands
-had a brisk trade by sea with Portugal, and through
-Lisbon considerable quantities of porcelain were finding
-their way into the cupboards of the wealthy. Venetian
-glass also was highly prized, so that we are not astonished
-to find De Vries devoting a good deal of attention
-to designing <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vitrines</span></i>, or small cupboards with glass fronts,
-for the preservation and safe display of glass, china and
-earthenware. In many instances, these were elaborately
-carved with all the Renaissance ornamentation.
-Four handsome glass cupboards or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vitrines</span></i>, designed by
-De Vries, are shown in Plate <a href='#XVI'>XVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XVII'>XVII</a>. In
-the centre of the broken pediments, we see Bacchus and
-Cupid. The supporting sides consist of Classic columns,
-pilasters or caryatides; and all the decoration is in
-harmony with the rest of the furniture of this period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On looking over the pictures by the great artists of
-the Netherlands, we cannot help noticing their delight
-in painting glass. The play of light and shade, and
-direct and reflected rays in flasks, bottles, vases, goblets
-and wine glasses of varied form strongly appealed to
-the great masters of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">genre</span></i> and still life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemings of the sixteenth century undoubtedly
-manufactured much glass for home consumption and
-export. England took all they and Germany and France
-could supply. Queen Elizabeth tried to attract glass-blowers
-to settle in her realm. The first recorded name
-to accept the invitation is that of Cornelius de Launoy.
-In 1567, the Queen sent to the Low Countries for Jean
-Quarré, a native of Antwerp, and other workers in glass,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>to establish a factory for making the same kind of glass
-as existed in France.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The windows not only of churches but of civic and
-palatial buildings were beautified with the work of great
-artists. Even in more modest dwellings, the windows
-of the hall, studio, or living-room were decorated with
-the coat-of-arms of the owner.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Designs for painted windows formed by no means an
-unimportant part of the activities of a great artist; in
-fact, they held the same rank as cartoons for tapestry.
-In 1567, Guicciardini notes as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“But it is also proper to mention some eminent
-artists in encaustic or painting on glass, inasmuch as
-this department has also its pretensions to importance;
-and Vasari has observed that the Flemings have brought
-it to perfection. For, not to dwell on the beauty and
-vivacity of the colours, they invented the mode of burning
-them into the glass, so as to be safe from the corrosion
-of water, wind and even time; which was not the case
-when they were only tempered with gum and some
-other mixture. And the Flemings also invented the
-manner of making leaden casements.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The first eminent painters on glass were Arnold van
-Hordt of Nymwegen, and a citizen of Antwerp, a great
-imitator of the Italian school and the first inventor of
-the art of burning colours into crystalline glass. Theodore
-Jacobs Felaet, an artist of eminent invention;
-Theodore Stass of Campen; John Ack of Antwerp, who
-executed the windows in St. Gudule’s Church and the
-Chapel of the Sacrament at Brussels; Cornelis of Bois-le-Duc.</p>
-
-<div id='XVII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_171.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XVII.</span>—<em>Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>“There still flourish Cornelis Dale, who, with singular
-art, burns any colours, not only into glass, but into
-crystal, so that they appear like painting in oil; and his
-designs are elegant; Jodoc Vereg, a skilful artist, employed
-by the Emperor; James Florence, all of Antwerp.
-John Stass, son of the above Theodore and the heir
-of his father’s talents; John Zele of Utrecht. Nor in
-architecture and sculpture have excellent artists been
-wanting in the Netherlands. Such were Sebastian Oje
-of Utrecht, the celebrated architect to Charles V, and
-afterwards to Philip his son. He, to his great praise,
-planned the fortifications of Hesdin, Charlmont, and
-Philipville, strong towns on the frontiers. William
-Keur of Gouda, a good architect, a superior sculptor.
-Among others were John Dale, a sculptor and poet;
-Lucas van Leyden, a celebrated engraver (1495–1533);
-William of Antwerp, a famous architect. There still
-flourish James Bruck of St. Omers, a man of noble birth
-and an excellent sculptor and architect, who, while the
-Queen of Hungary governed the Netherlands, planned
-Bossu and Marimont and some grand buildings. John
-Bologne of Douay, his disciple, now employed by the
-Duke of Florence. John Minsheeren of Ghent, an excellent
-architect and sculptor, whose son Lucas, is an
-eminent painter, the inventor of many things and excels
-in poetry; Matthew Mandemaker of Antwerp, a famous
-sculptor, in the service of the King of the Romans;
-Cornelis Florence, brother of Francis, an excellent sculptor
-and architect, diligent and attentive, who has the
-praise of first bringing from Italy the art of accurately rendering
-the insides of caves called by the Italians <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">grotescas</span></i>.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>Henry Paschen of Antwerp, an excellent architect, who
-designed the Palace and office of the Hansa towns in
-Antwerp, and was afterwards called to London to plan
-the Exchange; Lambert Suaf of Liège, a good architect
-and engraver; James Iongeling of Antwerp, an excellent
-sculptor and statuary, who lately made those wonderful
-brass statues of the seven planets and Bacchus which
-the magistrates of Antwerp presented to the Prince of
-Parma; William Paludan, brother of the above Henry,
-a great and accurate sculptor, whose son Raphael is also
-of high repute; John Sart of Nymegen, an excellent
-sculptor, as are Simon of Delft and Jodoc Janson of
-Amsterdam; George Robins of Yperen, Theodore Volcart
-Cornhert and Philip Galle, both of Haarlem, exquisite
-engravers.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Guicciardini continues: “The others it would be
-prolix to enumerate,” and informs us that most of these
-artists visit Italy. “Some return loaded with wealth
-and honour to their native country,” while “others go
-to Great Britain and Germany, but chiefly to Denmark,
-Sweden, Norway, Poland and even Muscovy, not to
-mention those who, allured by honours and rewards,
-visit France, Spain and Portugal.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The younger De Vries (Paul), was born at Antwerp
-in 1554. He designed <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Plusieurs menuiseries comme
-Portaulx, Garderobes, Buffets, Chalicts, Tables, Arches,
-Selles, Bancs, Escabelles, Rouleaux à pendre, touailles,
-Casses à vertes et beaucoup d’autres ouvrages</span></i>. The style
-of furniture shown in the works of the De Vrieses lasted
-till Rubens arose.</p>
-
-<div id='XVIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_175.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XVIII.</span>—<em>Flemish Armoire.</em><br /><br />Figs. 26–27: <span class='sc'>Hispano-Flemish Drawers</span>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Crispin de Passe, or Van der Passe the elder, was
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>born in Arnemuiden about 1560, and was a pupil of Dirk
-Coornhert (born in Amsterdam in 1522, died in Gouda
-in 1590). He left a great number of compositions and
-many remarkable portraits painted in Germany, France,
-and England, as well as in Holland. A writer, too, of
-considerable merit, he published many works which he
-illustrated with his own engravings. In 1585, he became
-a member of the Guild of St. Luke of Antwerp. Being
-such a fine engraver, it is not astonishing to find that he
-excelled in <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">niello</span></i>-work. His composition in this medium,
-representing “The Five Senses,” resembles in its delicacy
-the lace, embroidery and incrustations of ivory of the
-same period. His patterns, sometimes in relief and
-sometimes in depression, sometimes in white and sometimes
-in black, are very beautiful. Crispin de Passe had
-three sons: Crispin (born in Utrecht in 1585); William
-(1590); and Simon (1591), all of whom were excellent
-engravers. His daughter, Madeleine (born 1583), was
-also a good engraver.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the famous engravers also were the Collaerts.
-Adrian Collaert, born in Antwerp in 1560, was admitted
-to the Guild of St. Luke in 1580, and died in 1618. He
-studied in Italy and on his return composed and engraved
-many designs of great merit. His son, Hans, born in
-Antwerp, was also a designer and engraver of note. He
-worked until 1622. His son, William, was a famous
-engraver.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Adrian Collaert’s designs for goldsmith’s work, silver
-plate and all artistic products of that nature had a
-great vogue, and worthily represent the decorations
-of the Flemish Renaissance. Two of his characteristic
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>designs are reproduced in Plate <a href='#XXI'>XXI</a> and Plate
-<a href='#XXII'>XXII</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Wood-carving continued to be one of the glories of
-Flemish Art. Sixteenth century pulpits, bishops’ thrones
-and choir-stalls still exist in many of the old churches.
-The names of some of the masters of the chisel who
-executed these beautiful works have been preserved, and
-may properly be recalled here.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>St. Martin’s Church at Ypres contains beautiful stalls
-carved by Victor Taillebert. He received four thousand
-florins in payment for his work.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Colyn van Cameryck made a magnificent marble
-mantelpiece for the Kampen Town Hall. The work
-was done between 1543 and 1545.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Jean van der Scheldein, carpenter and sculptor, made
-a monumental door in the Hôtel de Ville, Oudenarde, in
-the Renaissance style in 1531. This is ornamented with
-columns, a pediment, figures and rectangular panels
-adorned with arabesques in the best taste and with
-masterly execution.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Peter van Dulcken carved the beautiful stalls for the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">échevins</span></i>, and the balustraded screen of the Nimeguen Town
-Hall, in the second half of the sixteenth century. These
-are the finest that have escaped destruction except
-those of the Kampen Town Hall, which are even more
-elaborate.</p>
-
-<div id='XIX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_179.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XIX.</span>—<em>Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Netherlands early enjoyed a reputation for music,
-and from about 1450 to 1550 the most celebrated “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">maîtres
-de chapelle</span></i>” came from the Low Countries. They were
-engaged in the churches and in the courts of kings and
-establishments of the nobility in France, Germany, Italy,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>Hungary, Denmark and Spain. Guicciardini says they
-had brought music “to a state of perfection,” and praises
-the melodious songs of the men and the skill of the women
-who played all kinds of instruments. He also pays
-tribute to their knowledge of harmony and proficiency
-in composition and says that Flemish musicians are at
-the “Court of every Christian prince,” and he then gives
-a list of famous musicians of the Low Countries. These
-are “Giovanni del Tintore di Nivelli, Iusquino di Pres,
-Obrecht Ockegem, Ricciafort, Adriano Willaert, Giovanni
-Monton, Verdelot, Gomberto Lupus Lupi, Cortois
-Crequillon, Clementi non Papa and Cornelio Canis.”
-To these, “who are now dead,” he adds the following
-list of living celebrities: Cipriano de Rove, Gian le Coick,
-Filippo de Monti, Orlando di Lassus, Mancicourt, Iusquino
-Baston, Christiano Hollando, Giaches di Waet, Bonmarche,
-Severino Cornetto, Piero du Hot, Gherardo di
-Tornout, Huberto Waelrant, Giachetto di Berckem vicino
-d’Anversa, Andrea Peuermage and Cornelio
-Verdonk and “many other masters of music who are
-celebrated throughout the world.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This universal love of music is attested by the Dutch
-and Flemish masters. In tavern scenes, as well as scenes
-of domestic and social life, musical instruments are
-frequently introduced. To catalogue the works of Jan
-Steen, Terborch, Teniers, Metsu, Van Mieris and other
-painters of the seventeenth century directly inspired by
-music, such as musical parties, harpsichord lessons, duets,
-lute-players, ladies at the spinet, etc., would be quite
-a task.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No home of wealth was complete without musical
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>instruments, and owing to the exquisite paintings with
-which the case and top, both inside and out, were ornamented,
-the clavecin, harpsichord, or spinet was frequently
-the handsomest and costliest piece of furniture
-in the house. The case and legs were subject to changes
-in fashion. Sometimes the stand is simple with heavy
-ball feet connected by stretchers, as shown in Plate
-<a href='#XXIII'>XXIII</a>, a <cite>Lady Playing the Spinet</cite>, by J. M. Molenaer,
-in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. Sometimes the
-instrument stands on baluster legs and arches; and
-sometimes case and stand are of lacquer in the prevailing
-taste for the Chinese style. The top was always delicately
-painted, as shown in the picture just referred to;
-and it is interesting to note that in nearly every case
-where a lady is playing an instrument, she rests her foot
-upon a foot-warmer.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Without being able to see the internal mechanism, it
-is difficult to define the precursors of the pianoforte from
-their outward appearance in the pictures.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These instruments were so beautifully decorated
-that the clavecin-makers of Antwerp ranked as artists
-and became members of the St. Luke’s Guild of that
-city. They were first enrolled as “painters and sculptors,”
-and not as clavecin-makers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to a pamphlet entitled <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recherches sur les
-Facteurs de Clavecins et les Luthiers d’Anvers</span></cite>, by the
-Chevalier Léon de Burbure (Brussels, 1863), at the end
-of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries,
-the clavichord was in greater vogue than the clavecin,
-and about 1500 the clavecin had been made into the
-clavichord shape in Venice and called the spinet. The
-new form soon travelled to the Netherlands and superseded
-the clavichord.</p>
-
-<div id='XX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_183.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XX.</span>—<em>Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>A clavecin-maker named Josse Carest or Joos Kerrest
-was admitted to the St. Luke’s Guild as “a sculptor and
-painter of clavichords” as noted in <cite><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">De Liggeren en andere
-Historische Archieven der Antwerpsche Sint Lucasgilde</span></cite>,
-by Rombouts en van Lerius (Antwerp and The Hague,
-1872), and another Carest had been admitted in 1519
-as an apprentice painter of clavecins. In 1557, Josse
-Carest headed a petition of clavecin-makers to be admitted
-to the St. Luke’s Guild as clavecin-makers and
-not as painters and sculptors. They were accepted.
-Their pupils and all who were subsequently admitted had
-to exhibit “master-works,” namely: “clavecins” that
-were oblong or with bent sides (square or grand, we should
-call them now) or to quote directly “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">viercante oft gehoecte
-clavisimbale</span></i>.” These had to be five feet long at least
-and made in the workshops of master-experts (two of
-whom were yearly elected) and to have the trade mark or
-device of the maker “<i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">syn eygen marck teecken, oft wapene</span></i>.”
-This mark, known as rose, rosetta or rosace, usually made
-of gilded lead, was placed in the sound-holes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most famous clavecin-makers of Antwerp, and,
-indeed, of The Netherlands, were the Ruckers, who
-worked between 1579 and 1667, or later. The name
-is variously written. The most celebrated was Hans
-Ruckers, who was admitted a member of the St. Luke’s
-Guild in 1579 as “Hans Ruyckers, clavisinbal makerre.”
-His beautiful instruments were bought in France and
-England, as well as in the Low Countries; and it is
-thought that Queen Elizabeth owned one. In England
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>they were called virginals. Many of the Ruckers’ instruments
-are still in existence, owned by collectors and
-museums. The Museum of the Brussels Conservatory
-owns an oblong one, dated 1610. This has two keyboards,
-one above the other, and consists of 4½ octaves,
-and white naturals. The Museum of the Paris Conservatory
-has one of 5 octaves, black naturals, and bent
-side, dated 1590; The Musée du Steen, Antwerp, owns
-an oblong one dated 1611; and Messrs. Chappell and Co.,
-of London, have an undated oblong of 4 octaves. This
-stands on an arcade with six balusters and is decorated
-with fine paintings. A similar instrument on Plate
-<a href='#XXIIIa'>XXIII<i>a</i></a>, by this maker, is in the Steinert collection at
-Yale University, U.S.A. It is a double spinet of four
-octaves. The painting on the lid represents the favourite
-Apollo and Marsyas contest. Above, and below the
-movable spinet are painted landscapes with children
-dancing. The little spinet on the left, which sets into
-the spinet proper, is tuned one octave higher than the
-one on the right. In performing upon both instruments
-at once, the smaller instrument is removed and set upon
-a table. On the jack rails of both spinets may be read:
-“<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Johannes Ruqvers me fecit</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Martinus Vander Biest entered the St. Luke’s Guild
-of Antwerp in 1558 as one of the ten clavecin-makers.
-An oblong clavecin, made by him in Antwerp is in the
-Museum at Nuremberg, and is signed and dated Martinus
-Vander Biest, 1580.</p>
-
-<div id='XXI'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_187.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXI.</span>—<em>Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Hans Ruckers the younger, known as Jean, because
-he used the initials J. R. in his rose, was also a master
-in the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp. He made beautiful
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>instruments from 1617 to 1642. These were of both
-shapes, bent side and oblong, were furnished with one
-or two keyboards and were sometimes decorated with
-paintings in Vernis Martin. A beautiful example with
-two keyboards, 4¾ octaves, black naturals, owned by
-the Baroness James de Rothschild. The case and
-top are black and gold lacquer in the Chinese style,
-and the painting inside the top is said to be by
-Lancret. It is dated 1630 and inscribed “Joannes
-Ruckers me fecit, Antverpiae.” Another by the same
-maker, also in a black and gold case, is owned by the
-South Kensington Museum. This is bent side, has one
-keyboard and is dated 1639. The Museum of the Paris
-Conservatory also owns a bent side clavecin, made by
-Jean Ruckers, of two keyboards and 5 octaves. This is
-painted outside by Teniers and Brouwer and inside by
-Breughel and Paul Bril. To him has also been attributed
-a spinet in the Cluny Museum with bent side, one keyboard,
-4½ octaves and blackwood case incrusted with ivory.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1638, the private secretary of Charles I, Sir F.
-Windebank, had a long correspondence with a painter
-named Balthazar Gerbier, then in Brussels, regarding
-the purchase of a virginal in Antwerp for the King of
-England. Gerbier described one made by Hans Ruckers
-for the Infanta. It had a double keyboard and four stops
-and was beautifully painted. The picture inside the cover
-was Cupid and Psyche by Rubens. This instrument was
-bought for £30, but was unsatisfactory on account of
-insufficient compass. Gerbier was asked to exchange it,
-but he wrote back that the maker had not another on sale.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Andries Ruckers, another son of the elder Hans, was
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>born in 1579. In 1619, the Guild of St. Luke ordered
-a clavecin from him. The Museum of the Brussels
-Conservatory owns one dated 1613, with one keyboard
-and four octaves. The Musée Archéologique of Bruges
-owns a bent side one, dated 1624, of 5 octaves and 3
-stops, and the Musée du Steen, Antwerp has a bent side
-one, undated, with 3 stops and two keyboards, the lower
-one 4 octaves and the upper 3¾ octaves. In the South
-Kensington Museum there is another by Andries Ruckers,
-said to have been Handel’s. This is dated 1651, and
-inscribed <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sic transit Gloria Mundi</span></i> and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Virum
-Probant</span></i>. On the belly of the instrument, of the bent
-side shape, a concert of monkeys is represented.
-One monkey is conducting.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Andries Ruckers the younger, born in 1617, married
-a daughter of Dirck de Vries, also a clavecin-maker. The
-Château de Perceau, near Cosné, owned a bent side clavecin
-by Andries the younger, dated 1655. Its case was
-painted in blue camaïeu in the rococo style. This passed
-to a private collector.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Christofel Ruckers was the last important member of
-this family of clavecin-makers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A beautifully decorated clavecin occurs in the picture
-of <cite>The Young Scholar and His Sister</cite>, by Cocx (Coques) in
-the Cassel Gallery. The room is decorated with hangings
-of blue leather, ornamented with gold, above which hang
-pictures in ebony frames. The young man is seated at
-a table beneath the window and his sister is at the clavecin
-opposite. The latter is exquisitely painted, the top
-showing the story of Apollo and Marsyas.</p>
-
-<div id='XXII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_191.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXII.</span>—<em>Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the latter part of the sixteenth and throughout the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>seventeenth centuries, the bass viol was much played in
-England, France and the Low Countries and was called the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">viol da gamba</span></i>. This instrument frequently appears in
-the works of the Dutch masters, in which not unfrequently
-ladies are represented playing it, as, for example, in
-Jan Verkolje’s (1650–93) <cite>Musical Party</cite> in the Rijks
-Museum, Amsterdam, where the lady is seated upon
-a low-backed leather chair with her foot upon a foot-warmer.
-The instrument is turned from the spectator.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lute, which so frequently appears in early pictures,
-was superseded about 1600 by the theorbo, or
-double-necked lute with two sets of strings and two sets
-of tuning pegs. The theorbo is represented in Terborch’s
-<cite>Lute-Player</cite> in The Cassel Gallery; a lute also appears in
-Van Mieris’s <cite>The Painter and his Wife</cite> in the Hague
-Gallery, a charming domestic picture, in which the
-painter is teasing a puppy and its mother. The lute
-lies carelessly on the table.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Brassware contributed very greatly to the brightness
-and cheerfulness of an apartment during the Renaissance
-period as well as during the centuries before and after.
-The chandelier with its graceful curves appears in many a
-picture; and the best art of the day was devoted to the
-hearth-furnishings. Dogs and andirons assumed large
-proportions and considerable decorative importance.
-An interesting Flemish dog of the sixteenth century is
-represented in Fig. 28. It is similar to those metal
-andirons on the hearth in Plate <a href='#XXIV'>XXIV</a>. Besides human
-and animal figures, this kind of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dinanderie</span></i> assumed many
-other forms. Other kinds of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dinanderie</span></i>, consisting of
-candlesticks of human figures in contemporary costumes
-are shown in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (FLEMISH)</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Renewed Italian Influence—Rubens: his Studio, his House, his
-Pupils, his Influence, his Successors—Seventeenth Century Woodcarvers—Developments
-and Tendencies of Furniture—Crispin
-Van Den Passe—Rembrandt’s Goods and Chattels—Old Belgian
-Houses—The Pitsembourg—Kitchens—Leather-hangings—Tapestry—Marquetry—Chairs—Masters
-of Ornamental Design—The
-“Auricular Style.”</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>Just as the seventeenth century was about to dawn,
-the Decadence that had affected Italy for nearly
-half a century began to make itself felt in the Low
-Countries. Those responsible for it were, Michael Angelo
-and Borromeo, who abandoned the graceful forms
-of the Renaissance for disproportionate and exuberant
-decoration. The Flemish architects, artists, and decorative
-designers willingly subjected themselves to the
-Italian influence again as they had done a century before.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rubens undoubtedly had the greatest influence on
-the art taste of Europe during the first three-quarters
-of the seventeenth century. Going to Italy in 1600, he
-spent, with short breaks, seven years there. He found
-that the Italians had already broken away from the sober
-lines of the antique, and with an unrestrained curve were
-already giving promise of the exaggerations indulged in
-later by Borromini, who, in line and form, broke with all
-the old traditions. Rubens was affected by the new
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>vogue; and, on his return, the great Fleming introduced
-into his own country the style of architecture and ornamentation
-still known as the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style Rubens</span></i>. Rubens was
-too well inspired with the genius of the sublime Michael
-Angelo not to know where to use restraint, but in the
-hands of his followers and imitators this style soon degenerated.
-From breadth and amplitude, it fell into weakness
-of form and contour, and great heaviness in the
-ornamentation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Albert and Isabella kept a splendid Archducal court
-at Brussels, and there every form of art was sure of
-encouragement and support. The palace was an imposing
-mass, picturesquely situated in the highest part of
-the city. A French visitor in 1612 dwells on the magnificence
-of the various apartments filled with splendid
-works of art, and thronged with courtiers and attendants,
-the richness of the equipages and stables, and the beauty
-of the park and gardens. When Rubens visited Brussels
-at the Imperial request, he immediately found favour.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Rubens took up his abode in Antwerp, he
-bought a house, and altered and enlarged it from time
-to time to suit his tastes or needs. He embellished it
-in every possible way with his collections of pictures,
-busts and archaeological objects. In 1617, he had the
-banisters of the chief staircase carved by Jan van Mildert.
-He had very decided ideas on architecture, and supplied
-the workmen with his own plans. He was originally
-attracted to the house because it was built somewhat on
-the model of the Italian houses he had so greatly admired.
-In 1622, he published a book on the Palaces of Genoa,
-and from the preface we learn that he was greatly delighted
-to see the old style known as “barbarous” or
-“Gothic” go out of style and disappear from Flanders,
-“giving place, to the great honour of the country, to
-symmetrical buildings designed by men of better taste,
-and conforming to the rules of the Greek or Roman
-antique.”</p>
-
-<div id='XXIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_197.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIII.</span>—<em>Lady at Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>Between the courtyard and his beautiful Italian
-garden, he built a small imitation Pantheon, lighted, like
-its model, by a window in the centre of the dome. This
-he filled with busts, antique studies, valuable pictures
-brought from Italy, and other rare and curious objects.
-These he arranged to his own taste; and the arrangement
-of his cabinets, etc., served as a model for rich and
-noble collectors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A picture representing Rubens’s Drawing-room is in
-the National Gallery, Stockholm. It has been attributed
-to Van Dyck, but it is now supposed to have been painted
-by Cornelis de Vos about 1622, for the elder of the two
-women in the foreground seems to be a portrait of De
-Vos’s wife, while the other is Isabella Brandt, Rubens’s
-first wife.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The room is simple but quite elegant in style, with
-windows looking out upon a garden. The walls are
-entirely hung with greenish leather on which the designs—chimaeras
-and children grouped around vases and
-pillars—are in gold. The chimney-piece is of black
-marble supported by red marble pillars, and the firedogs
-are brass. On the right is a sideboard of light
-polished oak, and opposite a table with a rich Oriental
-carpet for a cover. Upon the leather chairs are cushions
-embroidered with flowers. Two pictures hang on the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>walls, and a third is above the chimney-piece. In the
-foreground, there are two ladies engaged in friendly
-conversation, while three children are playing with a
-puppy. The mother of the latter, a white spaniel
-marked with red, anxiously watches this second group.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the sale inventory of Rubens’s house in 1707 there
-is mention of the gilded leather that decorated one of
-the sitting-rooms.</p>
-
-<div id='XXIIIa'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_201.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIIIa.</span>—<em>Spinet, by Ruckers.</em><br /><br />STEINERT COLLECTION, YALE UNIVERSITY, U.S.A.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>This interior in general style and arrangement resembles
-a painting by Barthol. van Bassen, in the Rijks
-Museum, Amsterdam, reproduced on Plate <a href='#XXIV'>XXIV</a>. This
-represents a large hall or dining-room of the beginning
-of the seventeenth century. The floor is tessellated or
-tiled; and facing the spectator is a monumental chimney-piece
-supported by columns. Two superb andirons are
-placed in the fireplace, but the absence of logs and the
-fireback show that the time is spring or summer. The
-mantelpiece is surmounted by a niche containing a figure,
-and above the broken pediment is a cartouche flanked by
-reclining figures in the Renaissance style. On either side
-of the chimney-piece stands a chair of the new style with
-square back and square seat. The square seat and
-back of velvet or stamped leather—it is not clear what
-the covering is—is put on by means of large brass-headed
-nails. The heavy legs are connected by stretchers.
-These chairs are similar to the one on Plate <a href='#XXVIII'>XXVIII</a>;
-but in the latter the stretchers are double. On either side
-of the chimney-piece is a door. One of these is open and
-shows an inner room containing an upholstered bed.
-The doors are very decorative with heavy entablatures
-supported on columns and decorated with swags of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>drapery on the panels. On the right is a colossal buffet
-or sideboard, the pillars being caryatides, and behind
-these is a half-hexagon cupboard. Busts and vases
-adorn the top. Below is a fine salver, evidently in the
-style of Collaert (see Plates XXI and XXII). A very
-ornate doorway leads into an adjoining apartment; it is
-ornamented with caryatides and decorated with elaborate
-carving. Opposite to this is an open portal that seems
-to be the entrance from the garden, or courtyard. This
-door is supported by Corinthian columns. Three large
-and narrow windows give abundant light. Their panes
-are small. The room is hung with gilt leather and above
-the moulding are three landscapes in simple frames. A
-picture—<cite>The Sacrifice of Abraham</cite>—stands over the
-sideboard and a landscape over the door on the right.
-A long, low bench is placed under the window, on which a
-gallant is lounging. The chair occupied by the lady with
-her back to us is a survival of the one shown in Fig. 9,
-and also generally resembles those in Plates XXVI and
-XLII and XLVI; a favourite type of chair with the
-artists of the seventeenth century. The group in the
-foreground are sitting on stools. The wine-cooler is also
-worth noting. There are a number of pets in the room—dogs,
-cats, a monkey and a long-tailed parrot over the
-door. The compartment ceiling—an extraordinary combination
-of octagons, hexagons and crosses—should be
-noticed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although Rubens did not know it, Antwerp received
-a fatal blow to her prosperity at the very moment he
-settled there. In the truce with Holland concluded in
-1609, the Archduke Albert neglected to stipulate for the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>free navigation of the Scheldt; this enabled Amsterdam
-to develop her own commerce at the expense of her rival.
-The effects soon appeared. Seven years later, the English
-ambassador, Rubens’s friend, describes Antwerp as “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">magna
-civitas, magna solitudo</span></i>, for in the whole time we spent
-there I could never set my eyes on the whole length of
-a street upon forty persons at once: I never saw coach
-nor saw man on horseback. In many places, grass
-grows in the streets, yet the buildings are all kept in
-reparation ... <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">splendida paupertas</span></i>, fair and miserable.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As if in compensation for the loss of her commercial
-supremacy, Antwerp saw the dawn of an art of which
-Rubens was the originator and most brilliant representative.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pupils of Rubens did not confine themselves to
-painting and ornamental design. They were often practical
-carvers also. Only a month before his death, Rubens
-wrote a testimonial for Louis Faydherbe, stating that this
-pupil had lived with him for three years and had made
-great progress in painting and carving, excelling especially
-in ivory carving. He therefore exhorts nobles and
-magistracies to encourage him to settle among them and
-embellish their dwellings with his works. Thus we see
-how the <em>style Rubens</em> extended.</p>
-
-<div id='XXIV'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_205.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIV.</span>—<em>Interior, by Barthol van Bassen (Seventeenth Century).</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.<br /><br />Fig. 28: <span class='sc'>Flemish Andiron</span> (Sixteenth Century); Fig. 29: <span class='sc'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></span>, double Candlestick; Fig. 30: <span class='sc'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></span>, single Candlestick.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The universality of the <em>style Rubens</em> in Western Europe
-for half a century is undeniable. This great genius was
-known and honoured in Italy: he was a favourite of the
-King of Spain and his brother, the Viceroy of the Netherlands;
-when he was not painting nor designing something,
-he took a rest by going to some foreign court on an embassy.
-On one of these, Charles I of England knighted
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>him; Philip IV made him Secretary of the Privy Council.
-Pupils flocked to him as if his studio in Antwerp was the
-Mecca of art. He had scarcely established himself
-there when he wrote (1611): “On every side I am overwhelmed
-with solicitations: without the least exaggeration
-I may assure you that I have already had to refuse
-more than a hundred pupils.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Every kind of decoration and design was subject
-to his brush. The Flemish tapestry weavers pestered
-him for cartoons: the famous printer, Moretus, must
-have him design title-pages, borders and vignettes for the
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Imprimerie Plantin</span></i>”: chapel ceilings, cars for cavalcades
-and triumphal arches all came alike to him;
-Marie de’ Medici was not satisfied until he had immortalized
-her in grandiose canvases on the walls of her new
-palace.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the Flemish artists who played a particularly
-important part in the introduction of the new Italian
-style into the Low Countries was Jacques Franquart
-(born in Brussels in 1577 and died there in 1651), an
-architect, who studied in Italy. He became the chief
-architect of the Archduke Albert, and engineer of the
-King of Spain in the Netherlands. Philip III made
-him a knight. Among his important works were the
-Church of the Jesuits in Brussels (the cornerstone of
-which was laid by Albert and Isabella in 1606) and the
-Church of the Grand Béguinage in Mechlin (1629–47).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The next name of importance is that of Artus Quillyn,
-or Quellin, born at St. Trond in 1625. He studied sculpture
-with Artus Quillyn the elder in Antwerp, studied
-in Rome and returned to Antwerp, where he died in 1700.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>The churches of Antwerp are full of his bold and masterly
-works. His masterpiece, the statue of God the Father,
-was executed in 1680 for the Cathedral of St. Sauveur
-in Bruges, where it still stands.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>With Quillyn ranks Peter Verbrugghen of Antwerp.
-It is generally believed that he carved the fine pulpit
-at St. Walburge in Bruges, a work unexcelled among
-the sculpture of the seventeenth century. A kneeling
-figure representing Religion supports the pulpit with
-one hand and holds a cross in the other. Her attitude
-is noble, gracious and animated, and her expression
-admirable and exalted. Each corner of the base is
-ornamented with the figure of an angel in a niche and
-decorated with four medallions representing the four
-evangelists whose features are of imposing majesty. The
-sounding board in the form of a light and graceful shell,
-although supported by two cherubim with outstretched
-wings, seems suspended in the air. The stairway is
-flanked by four figures representing Adoration, Eloquence,
-Meditation and Study; and the balustrade, which is
-beautifully pierced in designs of branches and figures, is
-ornamented with figures representing the four elements:
-Earth, a rabbit chase; Air, hunting the falcon; Water,
-fishing with a line; and Fire, sacrifice of a material love.
-It would be impossible to carve oak more elaborately
-and boldly. This work was restored in 1845 by two
-Bruges artists, Van Wedeveldt and P. Buyck.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemish wood-carver had still plenty of work to do
-in the churches; but in domestic furniture the lathe was
-making his services more and more unnecessary on bars
-and uprights; and the increasing craze for marquetry
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>and the invasion of lacquer and japanned wares left
-him comparatively little to do.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Much beautiful carved work of the seventeenth century
-survives. Vilvorde Church has thirty-six upper and
-thirty-two lower oak stalls carved originally in 1663
-for the priory of Groenendael; this is a magnificent
-specimen of the carver’s art. There is also lovely woodcarving
-of the middle of the century in St. Michael’s,
-Louvain. The Church of St. Walburge, Furnes, is also
-rich in carved oak. On the pulpit is a figure of St.
-John writing the Apocalypse; the upper part is supported
-by two palms, and a rock with an eagle. The
-choir stalls are particularly fine. The Ostend parish
-church has a fine pulpit carved in 1674.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Church of St. Anne in Bruges is rich in carved
-work of this period. The choir stalls of oak were splendidly
-carved in the Renaissance style by Jean Schockaert
-and Fr. Schaepelinck in 1664. The oak organ case was
-carved in 1685 by Jacques Vanden Eynde, who was also
-the organist at Ypres. Fine bas-reliefs in the nave were
-executed by Martin Moenaert in 1673 and the ornate
-confessionals by Jan de Sangher in 1699. There is also
-a handsome communion bench made by an unknown
-carver in 1670, which is decorated with the busts of the
-four Evangelists and four Doctors of the Church with bas-relief
-panels of the Virgin, Joseph, St. Anne, St. Joachim,
-the Pascal Lamb and the Eucharist ornamented with
-bunches of grapes and garlands of wheat.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Carving was by no means confined to the churches:
-those who could afford it still beautified the furniture of
-castle and hall with the work of the chisel. Chests or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahuts</span></i>, cabinets, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i>, tables, chairs and the old
-“sideboards,” known in England in Jacobean days as
-“court cupboards,” and in Flanders as <i><span lang="fro" xml:lang="fro">credences</span></i> or
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffet à deux corps</span></i>,” were as highly ornamented with
-carving in the late Renaissance style as they were with
-Gothic ornament during the fifteenth century. During
-the Louis XIII period, the more important pieces of
-furniture usually assumed the forms and lines of Classic
-architecture. A typical <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bahut</span></i> of this period (<em>see</em> Plate
-<a href='#LVII'>LVII</a>), owes its interest chiefly to its architectural
-decorations. The fluted columns, though somewhat
-squat, which adorn the divisions of the front, produce a
-pleasing effect; the mouldings are strongly accented and
-their ornamentations are bold and in fine style. One
-can easily understand that this chest would not be out of
-place in any late Renaissance apartment, but would
-contribute to the decorative effect of the whole. The
-two side niches representing the two virtues contain
-statuettes—Prudence and Strength. The central panel
-tells the story of Judith and Holofernes with a directness
-and simplicity worthy of a Botticelli.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The two-storied buffet (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffet à deux corps</span></i>) frequently
-received similar treatment, totally at variance with the
-handsome one reproduced in Plate <a href='#XLIII'>XLIII</a>. A splendid
-example decorated with the arms of Ypres, Ghent, Bruges
-and Franc, is preserved in the Ypres Museum. This
-was the work of Jan van de Velde, who carved it in 1644,
-and received 162 florins for his trouble.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bench (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i>), often forms part of the woodwork
-of the wall of a hall in Flanders in the seventeenth century.
-It was frequently placed between the windows and made
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>luxurious with cushions. Movable benches were often
-used. In these the backs turned on an axis and were
-most convenient, as the occupant could arrange the seat
-in any position he pleased. The benches in De Vries’s
-“<cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubiculum</span></cite>” (Plate <a href='#X'>X</a>), should be compared with the
-bench against the wall in Plate <a href='#XXXVIII'>XXXVIII</a> in studying
-the development of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i>. The high <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">banc</span></i>, or settle,
-in this picture is interesting on account of its simplicity.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The general tendency of furniture was a gradual
-breaking away from immovables, a development from
-monumental solidity into grace and lightness. The
-heavy tables of De Vries are cut away, and return in
-general form to the original board and trestles. A glance
-at Fig. 8 will show that the workman had only to connect
-the struts of the trestles in the centre of the table in order
-to produce a rough model of the richly carved tables in
-vogue from the period of Henri II to that of Louis XIV.
-The box form of support, therefore, in this style of table
-gives way to what we may regard as two trestles connected
-in the middle by an upright board. These, as well as
-the edge of the table top, are embellished by beautiful
-carving. The trestles now consist of eagles, lions, chimaeras,
-mermaids, satyrs and other human and animal
-figures; and the central connexion is pierced, balustraded,
-columned and treated in a thousand different ways. In
-the seventeenth century, lightness was carried a step
-further, and the favourite table is simply supported by
-four turned legs with heavy bulb feet, the legs have connecting
-rails close to the floor and usually have one or
-more heavy globular swellings. In England during the
-Tudor and Jacobean periods, this heavy form was known
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>as the drawing-table. It occurs in numberless interiors
-by Dutch and Flemish masters. The desire for greater
-lightness, however, made itself increasingly felt; and early
-in the seventeenth century we find legs turned in plain
-spirals, or with beading. Chair frames naturally corresponded
-with table legs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Though the masters of Decorative Art were constantly
-increasing in numbers, it was three-quarters of a century
-after the appearance of the furniture designs by De
-Vries before another important work of the same nature
-was published. This was by another Dutchman. In
-1642, Crispin van den Passe published at Amsterdam his
-“<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Boutique Menuiserie dans laquelle sont comprins les
-plus notables fondaments non moins arichesse avecq des
-nouvelles inventions</span></cite>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of his life little is known, except that he was the son
-of the great engraver of the same name and was born
-in Utrecht in 1585. His <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Boutique Menuiserie</span></cite> contains
-a series of plates of furniture. It is extremely rare today,
-but was doubtless in every cabinet-maker’s shop of
-the period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The furniture, it will be noticed, is “new.” The
-book was published two years after the death of Rubens,
-while the <em>style Rubens</em> was still in its glory. From a
-study of these plates, together with the engravings of
-Abraham Bosse, we can obtain a clear vision of an
-interior, either Flemish or French, during the reign of
-Louis XIII, for Crispin’s furniture designs were as well
-known to French as to Flemish workmen. Three of
-his chairs, two of them folding, are reproduced in Figs.
-31, 32, and 33; Fig. 34 also shows a small table by him.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>We have already caught a glimpse of Rubens’s home
-in Antwerp; and now we cannot do better than look
-at the interior of the other great master in Amsterdam.
-When that city passed through a great financial crisis
-in 1653, Rembrandt suffered in company with his fellow-citizens.
-He had been living like a lord in a splendid
-dwelling sumptuously furnished and decorated, and
-surrounded by a multitude of objects of art which he
-loved to collect—armour, robes, busts, ceramics, engravings,
-and famous pictures by Italian and native
-artists, as well as his own productions. To satisfy his
-creditors, these all came to the hammer in 1656. The
-inventory gives us a good idea of his home. In the
-vestibule, there were four Spanish chairs covered with
-Russia leather, four Spanish chairs with black seats,
-and one low form of pinewood.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Antechamber contained an ebony-framed mirror
-and an ebony stand, a marble basin, a walnut table
-with a Tournay cover, and seven Spanish chairs covered
-with green velvet. The “Room behind the Antechamber”
-was furnished with a gilded frame, a small
-oak table, four common chairs, a copper cauldron, and
-a portmanteau. In the “Hall,” there were six chairs
-with blue seats, a large mirror, an oak table, with an
-embroidered tablecloth, a bed with blue hangings,
-two pillows and two covers, a matted chair, a set of fire-irons,
-and a “sacerdan” wood press, and a “sacerdan”
-small <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> with doors. The “Art Cabinet” contained
-three East India cups, one East India powder box, one
-East India “jatte” with a little Chinaman, one East
-India workbox, two porcelain “casoars,” two porcelain
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>figurines, one Japanese casque, plaster casts, copper
-and pewter, globes, and seventy natural history specimens.
-On the floor at the back were a great quantity
-of shells, marine plants and other curiosities, statues,
-arms, armour, etc. Here also were many portfolios
-filled with choice engravings, etchings and drawings,
-besides one old chest, four chairs with black leather
-seats, and one pine table. In the “Small Studio,” there
-are musical instruments and armour (119 pieces), and
-a great number of casts of hands, arms and heads from
-nature, and many various kinds of woven materials.
-The “Large Studio” has in it twenty pieces—halberds,
-swords, and Indian fans, costumes of an Indian man
-and woman, cuirasses and trumpets. The “Studio
-Entry” is decorated with the skins of a lion and lioness,
-and other furs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A bedstead stands in the “Little Room.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The “Small Kitchen” is furnished with a little table,
-a larder, some old chairs, two cushioned chairs, some
-pots and pans, and a tin waterpot. Nine white plates
-and two earthen plates decorate the “Corridor.” Rembrandt
-owned a good deal of linen; and most of the
-rooms contained pictures.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No one looking at Rembrandt’s own pictures can
-fail to appreciate his fondness for dressing himself and his
-models in feathers, armour and fantastic costumes, which,
-as we have seen, he kept as properties in his Studio.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rembrandt resided in the Jewish quarter in Amsterdam
-from 1640 to 1656. His house, Jodenbrêe Straat,
-No. 4, next door but one to the bridge, is marked by a
-simple memorial tablet.</p>
-
-<div id='XXV'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_215.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXV.</span>—<em>Panelled Bedstead.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>We can form a very clear idea of the general appearance
-of a street of the Renaissance period from many old
-houses that still stand in Belgium and Holland. The
-interiors in some cases we can also reconstruct by the
-aid of inventories. Mechlin is particularly rich in
-buildings of the sixteenth century. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mont de Piété</span></i>,
-once the home of Canon Busleyden, is a Gothic building
-of 1507, restored in 1864; on the Quay au Sel, there are
-several old timber-houses, the <em>Salm Inn</em>, with a Renaissance
-façade of 1530–34, and a house in the Franco-Flemish
-style, very rich in detail. There is also an
-interesting timber-house in the Quay aux Avoines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Bruges and Ypres contain several houses of the
-seventeenth century; Ghent has two private houses on
-the Quai de la Grue (one of which is named the <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Vliegenden
-Hert</span></i>); and Antwerp, several Guildhouses. Holland
-is richer in houses and buildings of this century. In
-Amsterdam, the royal palace—the Dam—was built in
-1648 as a Town Hall by Jacob van Kampen; the house
-of Admiral de Ruyter may be seen on the Prins-Hendrik-Kade,
-and the house of Baron Six in the Heerengracht,
-and on the Heerengracht and Keizersgracht are many
-houses of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There are also a number of seventeenth century houses
-of great interest to the student of architecture in Alkmaar.
-The Stadhuis, in Enkhuisen, dates from 1688;
-Sneek has a water-tower of 1615, which was restored in
-1878; Zwolle has a guard-house of 1614; and the police-office
-of Deventer is a Renaissance structure of 1632.
-Several brick buildings of the seventeenth century still
-stand in the Zaadmarkt and Groenmarkt of Zutphen;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>there are several houses in Bommel of this period, including
-the famous house of Maarten van Rossum, now
-a district court; and the weigh-house and meat market
-of Gouda date from 1668 and 1691.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The doors and interior woodwork of these houses
-in many cases are precious records of the skill of the
-Dutch and Flemish wood-carvers of the period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the most famous houses in Mechlin in the
-second half of the seventeenth century was a commandery
-called the Pitsembourg; and it was selected
-in 1668 as the most suitable residence for the High
-Constable of Castile and Leon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>An inventory of the furnishings of this establishment
-was taken in 1656, which enables us to go through the
-house.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The first room that we enter is called <em>de Trappenye</em>,
-and was used as an office. Here we find a picture representing
-the <cite>Birth of Christ</cite> and two pieces of sculpture—<cite>The
-Offering</cite> and <cite>The Three Kings</cite>, standing on two
-pedestals that bear the arms of Cratz (Cratz was commander
-of the House of Mechlin from 1564 to 1604).
-In this room are two large cases—one with twenty and
-the other with ten drawers, one lettered, and the other
-numbered—to preserve papers, documents and charts.
-It is warmed by a half-stove, <em>halve stove</em>, according to the
-inventory. For diversion, there is a backgammon board
-with white pieces of boxwood, and black of lignum-vitæ.</p>
-
-<div id='XXVI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_219.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXVI.</span>—<em>The Sick Woman, by Jan Steen.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.<br /><br />Figs. 31 and 33: <span class='sc'>Folding Chairs</span>, by <span class='sc'>Crispin van de Passe</span>; Fig. 32: <span class='sc'>Chair</span>, by <span class='sc'>Crispin van de Passe</span>; Fig. 34; <span class='sc'>Table</span>, by <span class='sc'>Crispin van de Passe</span>.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Passing from this into the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">camer beneffens de trappenye</span></i>,
-we find a bedroom, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">de camer boven de trappenye</span></i>, the most
-conspicuous object of which is a bed. So sumptuous is
-this, in fact, that no other furniture is needed to give
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>this room distinction. To begin with, the framework is
-ornately carved, and it is hung with rich silken curtains
-and sumptuously upholstered. Undoubtedly this bed
-was of the same type as the beautiful Renaissance specimen
-reproduced in Plate <a href='#XXV'>XXV</a>, from the Rijks Museum,
-Amsterdam. A reference to Plate <a href='#X'>X</a> will show this
-is later in style than the “new” one designed by De
-Vries. The “linen-fold” panel has entirely disappeared,
-and the carved accessories are all pure late Renaissance.
-At the time this inventory was taken, however, these
-magnificent wardrobe-shaped beds with elaborate carving
-were already out of date and supplanted in favour by
-the lighter form with simple posts at the corners, the
-whole being entirely closed with curtains. This bed
-appears in Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a> with both
-square and dome-shaped tops, and in many other pictures
-by the Dutch masters of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bed in which upholstery had superseded carving
-had been growing in favour, not only in the homes of
-the middle classes, but also in those of the rich. It even
-occurs in the inner room of the wealthy house represented
-in Plate <a href='#XXIV'>XXIV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This bed, known as the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lit en housse</span></i>, is the typical
-bed of the seventeenth century, and is the one that
-appears in Abraham Bosse’s engravings, whenever a
-bed is introduced—in the homes of the rich, in hospitals,
-and in the rooms of tradesmen and school teachers.
-In this style of bed, the framework is of comparatively
-little importance. The <em>ciel</em>, or canopy, is supported on
-four posts which are carved or painted in harmony
-with the curtains, or covered with the same materials.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>Beneath the valance, a rod runs under the canopy for the
-support of the curtains, which are drawn up or down by
-means of cords and pulleys. When closed, the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lit en
-housse</span></i> looks like a square box. The elegance of the bed
-depended upon its upholstery. The richest beds were
-draped with tapestry, silk, damask brocade and velvet,
-beautifully trimmed with gold and silver braid or lace,
-narrow silk fringe, or fringe of gold or silver threads, or
-decorative cords and tassels. Serge, cloth, East Indian
-goods, linen and cotton materials were also employed.
-The curtains were more or less richly lined and the four
-corners of the canopy above the posts were decorated
-with a carved or turned wooden knob called a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pomme</span></i>
-(which was sometimes gilded or painted), a bunch of
-feathers, or a “bouquet” made of ravelled silk ornaments
-or inverted tassels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Returning now to our examination of the Pitsembourg,
-we note that the next room is that of the master
-brewer, in which there is a very shabby bed, an old
-picture representing the <cite>Elevation during Holy Mass</cite>, a
-wall map of Germany and a standard with the arms of
-Lant-Commander, Werner Spies von Bullesheim, who
-was at the head of the house of Mechlin from 1639 to
-1641.</p>
-
-<div id='XXVII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_223.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXVII.</span>—<em>Woman, with a Parrot, by Jan Steen.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Passing by the unimportant rooms of the servants,
-we enter the old room of the commander, where we note
-an alcove hung with two little green curtains with an
-embroidered border, and in the alcove a bed with bolster,
-pillow and two counterpanes, one white, and the other
-green, a table covered with a cloth, some little stools
-(<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">escarbeaux</span></i>), two chairs covered with green cloth,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>andirons, shovel and tongs of copper, and a number of
-pictures, among which are two little representations of
-castles, the Battle of Calloo, a portrait of Lant-Commander
-Bongaert in full-dress uniform, one of Lant-Commander
-van Ruyssenbergh, one of Commander
-Cratz, and one of Commander Werner Spies von Bullesheim
-kneeling with a chaplain at the feet of the Virgin.
-Two little rooms and a bathroom belonging to the
-chaplain follow, and then we enter a room called <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">In den
-inganck van’t voorhuys</span></i>. In the centre stands an old
-table covered with a “carpet of gilt leather.” There are
-some water-colours on the wall, including two vases
-filled with flowers, and two of decorative motives with
-the inscriptions “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Virtus parit honorem</span></i>” and “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui confidit
-in divitiis corruet</span></i>.” There is also a large painting of
-the arms of the Archduke Maximilian, Grand Master of
-the Order (son of the Emperor Maximilian II).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From the <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Inganck van’t voorhuys</span></i>, we step into a
-more luxurious hall called <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">het cleyn salet naast het voorhuys</span></i>,
-hung with ten large pieces of leather with gold patterns
-on a silver background. The furniture consists of a
-table with oak leaves, covered with a Turkish carpet,
-chairs with stuffed backs of red ribbed silk, a screen
-made of four painted canvases, and eleven pictures,
-one the <cite>Battle of Prague</cite> and the others landscapes,
-ornamental copper andirons, and a hearth-box.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The next salon, <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">de sale naar de Trappenye</span></i>, is hung
-with portraits, and some large pictures, one of which
-represents Samson proving his strength.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the dining-room, <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">in de nieuwe gemaeckte stove</span></i>,
-there are also many pictures, including portraits, a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>“winter scene” and a “Flemish <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Kermesse</span></i>.” The
-principal piece of furniture is a superb sideboard of
-carved oak, on which the following pieces of silver are
-displayed: one <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguière</span></i> and basin with the arms of
-Spies; four candelabra with chiselled sconces, an extinguisher
-with tray, and an amphora, all with the arms of
-Lutzenrode; two large jugs, a deep dish, a mustard-pot
-and six salt-cellars, also with the arms of Lutzenrode;
-a chafing-dish with the Ruyssenbergh arms, twenty-two
-spoons, twenty-six forks, twenty-two knives, and ten
-porcelain wine-jugs with silver tops.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Next to this hall is the bishop’s room, which is
-luxuriously furnished. The walls are hung with eight
-large “tapestries of leather” with gold patterns on a
-silver background. The bed is upholstered with curtains
-of mauve silk trimmed with a silk braid of yellow and
-violet. It is furnished with two mattresses, a bolster,
-two pillows, and two counterpanes—one white, the other
-green—and over the whole is thrown a large counterpane
-of embroidered silk trimmed with a fringe of silk and
-gold thread. The window-curtains, the six chairs,
-and armchair, are covered with the same silk as the
-counterpane. There is a large mirror in an ebony frame
-and portraits of Maximilian, Syberg, and Bongaert.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bishop’s room is next to the salon, <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">groot salet beneden
-d’aarde</span></i>, which is hung with thirteen pieces of “leather
-tapestry,” showing gold patterns on a red background.
-On the mantelpiece there is a crucifix carved of boxwood,
-the foot of which is incrusted with mother-of-pearl,
-and there is a magnificent mirror of gold and
-black wood, the fronton of which is ornamented with a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>silk cord with large tassels, the whole supported by
-three gilded griffins. This room also contains sixteen
-pictures, nine of which are still-life, and are signed
-Jacques van Esch of Antwerp (1606–1666).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The commander’s bedroom is very modest, as becomes
-one who has assumed the vows of poverty: a
-little walnut bed with very ordinary curtains, with a
-mattress, two bolsters, three pillows (one covered with
-white leather, which he takes on his travels), and a
-counterpane of quilted silk. He allowed himself the
-luxury of a fire, because there are andirons and a hearth-box.
-A portrait of the <cite>Virgin</cite> and <cite>The Temptation of St.
-Anthony</cite> are his only pictures, and the one ornament is a
-sculptured <cite>Descent from the Cross</cite>. A little desk and a
-close chair covered in black leather and inlaid with
-copper, complete the furniture of this room, which makes
-an interesting contrast with the bishop’s.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The enormous number of cooking utensils in the
-kitchen show that the most lavish hospitality was
-offered in this house. Every kind of copper pot and
-pan, from the largest saucepan and boiler (<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">de schonck
-of hespenketel</span></i>) to the tiniest pans for cakes and pastry
-(<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">een clein coper panneke waarin men dry eieren kan doppen</span></i>,
-and <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">koek</span></i> and <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">taart<a id='t151'></a> pannen</span></i>), are present in great numbers;
-and, moreover, there are portable ovens to bake tarts,
-ladles, skimmers, sieves, spice-boxes, spits, skewers, ten
-grills, large and small, some of them for roasting oysters—in
-short every article that a cook would need to prepare a
-feast for a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gourmet</span></i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffets</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i> and shelves of the kitchen are
-filled with valuable metal ware, including eight <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguières</span></i>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>and eight dishes, weighing sixty-five pounds. These
-are marked with the arms of Spies and Syberg. Then
-there are seventeen candlesticks, some of which have
-round and others square bases; there are ninety-three
-large and small dishes with the arms of Lutzenrode,
-Spies and Syberg, and a hundred and twenty-eight plates
-with the arms of the various commanders. The shelves
-also contain a great number of wine jars and measures
-and pots for holding grape-juice and a great number of
-earthenware dishes, crocks, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is a special pantry, and near this a pastry-room;
-and a brewery, a harness-room, tool houses, a
-house for the gardener, and in the park, which is a kind
-of botanical garden, there is a pavilion on a knoll, where
-any one desiring to fish could find rods and lines.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The kitchen is the most important room in the
-majority of the middle-class houses; in fact, in many
-a Flemish and Dutch interior it appears as the general
-living-room. Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a> and Plate <a href='#XXXVI'>XXXVI</a> afford
-Dutch examples.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A fine example of a Flemish kitchen of the seventeenth
-century is by Teniers the younger, called <cite>The Good
-Kitchen</cite> in the Hague Gallery. This was painted in 1644.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another fine kitchen of the period occurs in a Family
-Group by Cocx (Coques), in the Cassel Gallery. In the
-foreground a man is seated at a table looking at his son’s
-drawings. Not far away his wife is teaching her daughter
-to make lace, and through a large door the kitchen is
-visible, where fish, oysters, pastries and birds show preparations
-for a feast.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam has a series of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>rooms fitted up in the old style with original furniture.
-The kitchen represented in Plate <a href='#XXXII'>XXXII</a> is equipped
-with all the pots and pans dear to the heart of the Dutch
-housewife. The hearth, ovens and shelves are furnished
-with all the implements and utensils necessary for good
-housekeeping: cauldrons, spits, churns, plate-warmers,
-kettles, bellows, waffle-irons, etc., are all there. A
-Frisian clock hangs on the tiled wall, and the cupboards
-contain everything necessary for cooking and cleaning.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The library of the Pitsembourg was well stored with
-religious works. The chapel, a beautiful edifice built in
-1228 and dedicated to St. Elizabeth of Hungary, contained
-some fine carvings, two crucifixes, one of silver
-and one of copper, organs, carved statues, silver chandeliers;’and
-exceptionally rich vestments, altar-cloths and
-Flemish lace.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It will be noticed that all the principal rooms in this
-establishment were hung with leather, or “leather
-tapestry” in accordance with the taste of the age.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The leather hangings of the seventeenth century are
-even more brilliant than those of the past; and on the
-bright background of scarlet, blue, sea-green, gold or
-silver, a wealth of ornamentation appears—animals,
-birds, flowers, fruits, mascarons and other favourite
-devices of the time. Leather hangings are always
-present in wealthy homes of Holland. An excellent
-example is shown in the picture of <cite>The Young Scholar
-and his Sister</cite> by Coques (Cocx), now in the Cassel Gallery.
-The room, which is richly furnished, is hung with blue
-and gold leather. This picture was painted in the
-seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>The Low Countries by this time had become renowned
-for their fine leather and exported a vast amount of it.
-Notwithstanding the rivalry of the French and Italian
-workshops, there was a special shop in the Rue St. Denis
-in Paris where Flemish and Dutch leathers could be
-obtained. Some of the French inventories of this century
-mention especially “tapestries of leather” from the
-Netherlands; for example, Fouquet has at his Château
-of Vaux, in 1661, “a rich hanging of tapestry of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuir
-doré</span></i> from Flanders, consisting of eight pieces”; and in
-1698, a rich Parisian owns “a hanging of tapestry of
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuir doré de Hollande</span></i>,” with a red background.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Rijks Museum in Amsterdam contains a great
-number of gilt leather hangings of the seventeenth
-century; at the Hôtel de Ville of Furnes, there are some
-hangings of Spanish leather and the Antiquarian Museum
-of Utrecht also contains some embossed gilt leather
-hangings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the seventeenth century, the great centres for
-the production of tapestry shifted to Paris and London.
-This is the period when the famous looms of the Gobelins
-and Mortlake were established. The directors and
-workers in these famous establishments were Flemings.
-It was largely owing to the influence of Le Brun that
-Paris triumphed over Brussels with her Gobelins manufactory
-established in 1662. This was really the outgrowth
-of the high-warp looms established by Henry
-IV in 1597, under an excellent tapestry-worker named
-Laurent. These workshops were first situated in
-the house of the Jesuits in the Faubourg St. Antoine,
-and were transferred to the Louvre in 1603. The King
-sent to Flanders for tapestry-workers over whom he
-placed the Sieur de Fourcy. In 1607 he sent for more
-workers, among whom were Marc Comans (or Coomans)
-and François de la Planche, who were given charge of
-the workshops at Tournelles. These were removed
-to the Faubourg St. Marceau. The tapestries had to
-be made <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">façon de Flandres</span></i>.</p>
-
-<div id='XXVIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_231.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXVIII.</span>—<em>Flemish Chair.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>The King’s enterprises were not universally approved.
-“They cost large sums to his Majesty,” says a contemporary,
-and loss and ruin to his subjects. Witness
-the Brussels tapestries at St. Marcel, the Flemish linens
-at Mantes and the cloths of silk and gold of Milan.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>After the King’s death, Comans and De la Planche
-continued to work in Paris, and in 1630 were engaged
-at the manufactory that afterwards became the Gobelins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Flemish workmen were also employed at Maincy
-near Vaux in 1658. When, owing to the wars, the
-Gobelins was closed in 1694, some of the workmen
-entered the army, twenty-three returned to Flanders
-and others went to Beauvais. This great factory was no
-less indebted than was the Gobelins to the Flemings.
-It was established in 1664 by a “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">marchand tapissier</span></i>,”
-named Louis Hynart, a native of Beauvais, who owned
-a large number of workshops in Flanders as well as in
-Paris. As Beauvais was at that time an important centre
-for woollen stuffs, Hynart proposed to the municipality
-that he should establish workshops of high-warp tapestry
-“in the manner of those of Flanders.” Hynart obtained
-a subsidy and brought a number of Flemish workmen to
-Beauvais. He was negligent, however, and in 1684 the
-directorship of the Beauvais manufactory was given to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>Philippe Béhagle (originally Behagel) of a famed family
-of tapestry-weavers of Oudenarde. Under Béhagle the
-“Royal Manufactory of Tapestry,” flourished until his
-death in 1704. Another workman who contributed greatly
-to the success of Beauvais was Georges Blommaert,
-who was also called to Beauvais in 1684 from Lille,
-where he had established a workshop in 1677.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Georges Blommaert left Lille to go to Beauvais,
-he was succeeded by François and André Pannemaker,
-descendants of the famous Pannemaker family of
-tapestry-makers. In 1688, they had a rival in Jean de
-Melter, of Brussels, who was particularly fond of reproducing
-compositions after Rubens. The Pannemakers
-devoted their skill chiefly to “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Verdures</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The looms at Nancy, established in the seventeenth
-century, and closed in 1625, were also worked by
-men from the Low Countries, among them one Melchior
-van der Hameidan. The Brussels looms were still
-busy in this century, but the corporation of tapestry-workers
-was recruited from a few families, such as the
-De Vos, De Castros, Raës, Van der Borchts, Van der
-Heckes, and Leyniers. They repeated the cartoons
-of the last century; but in the middle of the seventeenth
-Teniers produced many rustic scenes that, known
-as <em>Tenières</em>, became very popular. Flemish tapestry-weavers
-are found in Rome; in Denmark (twenty-six
-were there about 1604); in Russia (Martin Steuerbout
-of Antwerp had a manufactory in Moscow in 1607);
-and in England.</p>
-
-<div id='XXIX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_235.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXIX.</span>—<em>Flemish Chair.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Mortlake manufactory, established by James I
-near London in 1619, was practically a Flemish manufactory.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>In a short while its only rival was the Gobelins.
-The King sent specially to Flanders for skilled workmen
-and no less than fifty arrived in one month, among
-whom were Josse Ampe of Bruges, Simon Heyns, Jacques
-Hendricx, Josse Inghels, and Pierre Foquentin of
-Oudenarde. Rubens and Van Dyck were commissioned
-to supply cartoons; but many of the old favourite
-historical and religious sets of the past century were
-reproduced. Paris and Hampton Court Palace contain
-a number of these.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mortlake had closed when William III ordered his
-victories to be commemorated in woven pictures. The
-cartoons for <cite>The Battle of Bresgate</cite>, <cite>The Descent on Tor
-bay</cite> and <cite>The Battle of the Boyne</cite>, were drawn by Jean
-Lottin, the painter, and made by Clerck, Vander Borcht,
-Cobus and De Vos of Brussels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Flemish tapestry-weavers settled in Sandwich, Canterbury,
-Maidstone, Norwich and Colchester in 1567–8,
-after the persecutions of the Duke of Alva; but
-notwithstanding the good work produced in England,
-Admiral Howard ordered the famous set of six pieces
-to commemorate the destruction of the Spanish Armada
-from the painter H. Cornelis de Vroom of Haarlem
-and Franz Spierinx of Delft. These fine pieces hung in
-the House of Lords, London, until destroyed by the
-fire of 1824.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Religious, mythological and allegorical subjects continue
-in favour during the seventeenth century; and
-subjects inspired by contemporary history are also
-popular. The cartoons by Rubens, however, take
-precedence of everything; and his <cite>History of Achilles</cite>,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span><cite>History of Constantine</cite>, <cite>Scenes from the Old Testament</cite>,
-<cite>Triumph of the Church</cite>, etc., are reproduced in
-every workshop in Europe. His most famous work,
-<cite>The History of Marie de’ Medici</cite>, was finally completed
-at the Gobelins manufactory during the reign of Louis
-Philippe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In furniture, during the seventeenth century, it may
-be said that carved figures gradually gave way to turned
-supports, and uprights; and the surfaces depended for
-decoration on panelling of geometrical designs and
-applied ornaments of real or imitation ebony. Another
-favourite way of decorating the broad surfaces was to
-inlay them in various designs with wood of different
-colours. The latter taste rapidly advanced during this
-century with the constantly increasing importation
-of the beautifully coloured woods of the East and West
-Indies. As the Flemish artists, moreover, went so often
-to Italy for inspiration, Flemish marquetry, doubtless,
-took its first stimulus from Italian taste. To quote a
-learned critic<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a>:
-“The Italians of the Decadence had a passion for
-ebony and coloured woods, and theatrical and complicated
-decorations. Furniture completely changed its
-physiognomy; the decorative panels with all their
-ornaments, are renounced for plain surfaces on which
-marquetry can be displayed to advantage. Forsaken
-by fashion, walnut drops out of use; profiles are multiplied;
-the fine <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cuirs</span></i> that were cut in solid bosses sprawl
-about in an enervated, weakened fashion; the straight,
-firm and springing Classic column now becomes twisted
-and distorted; and the stale and banal decoration has
-neither sinews nor youth. The sculptor yields his
-place to the marquetry-worker and the carpenter
-(<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">menuisier</span></i>) becomes a cabinet-maker (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ébéniste</span></i>).”<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a></p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Bonaffé.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A literal translation is more to the point: the carpenter becomes a worker
-in exotic woods, ebony, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div id='XXX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_239.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXX.</span>—<em>Chairs.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>Until the sixteenth century, marquetry seems to have
-chiefly consisted of ivory and ebony; but at this period
-exotic woods began to be employed. Beautiful marquetry
-was a mark of luxury; for example, in the famous
-pamphlet <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Isle des Hermaphrodites</span></cite>, directed against Henri
-III and his Court, the author says: “As for the furniture
-of wood, we should like to have it all of gold, silver, and
-marquetry, and the pieces, especially the canopies of the
-beds, if possible, of cedar, rose, and other odoriferous
-woods unless you would rather have them of ebony
-and ivory.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In this century Italy carried to perfection, the inlay
-of rare and polished marbles, lapis-lazuli, agates, pebbles,
-etc., called <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">pietra-dura</span></i>, and this style was imitated in
-other countries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the Decadence, the old marquetry of wood
-gave place to incrustations of mother-of-pearl, shell,
-precious stones and coloured marbles, and the furniture
-was made even more sumptuous by the additions of
-chiselled mounts, key-plates, handles, feet, etc., of silver
-or gilt bronze. Painted glass was also a popular kind of
-inlay. A good example of this work is in the hospice
-of Liège—a walnut cabinet with plaques of painted glass
-in many colours in imitation of what the Italians call
-<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">mille fiori</span></i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>A new kind of marquetry, however, made its appearance
-in the seventeenth century and gained in
-popularity. This consisted of large designs of flowers—particularly
-the tulip—birds and foliage represented
-in very gaily-coloured woods of many varieties and
-dyes, and bits of ivory or mother-of-pearl are added to
-the eyes of birds, or petals of flowers, to give a touch
-of brilliancy. Cabinets, bedsteads, writing-desks, china-cupboards,
-tall clocks, the frames of chairs—in short
-every piece of furniture was subject to this style of
-decoration. This kind of marquetry was popular in
-England during the reign of William and Mary, when
-everything Dutch was the rage. It is well known
-that the Dutch were even fonder of marquetry than
-the Flemings. A Dutch cabinet, which depends for
-its decoration entirely on the contrasted colours and
-shapes of its inlaid woods, standing on a low frame with
-spiral legs and knob feet connected by a plain stretcher
-(<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XXXI'>XXXI</a>), is in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam.
-This is a good specimen of geometrical inlay.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Motives of marquetry of a formal floral nature are
-reproduced in Fig. 37.</p>
-
-<div id='XXXI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_243.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXI.</span>—<em>Marquetry Cabinet.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the Spanish dominion in the sixteenth century,
-the chair in which great personages sit for their
-portraits has a high straight back with the side posts
-usually ending in carved lions’ heads, straight or scrolled
-arms and carved or plain straight legs connected by
-stretchers. The feet are sometimes carved with the
-heads or feet of animals. The back and seat are upholstered
-with velvet or stamped leather fixed to the
-frame with large brass-headed nails. This “Spanish
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>chair” was common in Spain, Italy, France and England,
-as well as in the Netherlands. We find it in the
-pictures of the great portrait painters of the Renaissance—Raphael,
-Titian and Velasquez—as well as the
-great Dutch and Flemish masters. Fig. 36 shows a
-fine solid and simple example of this style of chair of
-Flemish workmanship. It is well-proportioned; both
-front and back legs and the arms are turned, and the
-stretchers are grooved and shaped. When in use, of
-course, the seat would be comfortably cushioned. The
-back, seat and arms are covered with leather.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most common chair of the seventeenth century,
-however, is one without arms. It is rather low and is
-a simplified form of the above “Spanish chair.” A fine
-early example of this model is represented in Plate
-<a href='#XXVIII'>XXVIII</a>, now in the Cluny Museum, Paris. It will be
-noticed that the heads on the back posts are still carved,
-and that the legs are shaped and turned, while the rails
-are grooved. The Cluny Museum has a considerable
-number of Flemish chairs of this style and period. One
-of them, stamped with the monogram of Christ and the
-date 1672, probably belonged to an ecclesiastic. The
-ordinary form of this chair appears on either side of the
-chimney-piece in Plate <a href='#XXIV'>XXIV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The low-backed chair without arms is very common
-in interior scenes by Dutch and Flemish masters. Sometimes
-we see guests seated on them at the table; and
-sometimes it will serve as a seat for a lady as she takes
-a music-lesson. (<em>See</em> Plate <a href='#XXXIX'>XXXIX</a>.) It is found in
-various dimensions and proportions. Sometimes it has
-one set of rungs and sometimes two; sometimes the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>legs are plain, and sometimes elegantly turned. Sometimes
-the back posts have lions’ heads and frequently
-not. (<em>See</em> Plates XXXV and XXXIX, and Fig 35.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The design by Crispin de Passe, Fig. 32, shows the
-style for an armchair of the middle of the century.
-Here the centre of the top back bar is raised with ornamental
-carving and the lions’ heads are suppressed. A
-variety of the same style of chair fashionable during
-the period of Louis XIII is represented by the handsome
-piece of Flemish workmanship in Plate <a href='#XXIX'>XXIX</a>,
-also in the Cluny Museum. The arms and bars and
-front legs are turned in elegant spirals effectively relieved.
-The back posts do not rise above the top rail,
-and have no lions’ heads, but finely carved heads terminate
-the arms. The back and seat are covered with
-gilt leather stamped with a beautiful floral design and
-fastened to the frame with the usual large-headed nails.
-Sometimes instead of lions’ heads, we find carved heads
-of other animals and of women. Besides leather and
-velvet, this style of chair was frequently covered with
-embroidered material and tapestry.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A Dutch chair of this general form, though with sloping
-and scrolled arms, is in the Rijks Museum. (<em>See</em> Plate
-<a href='#XXXIII'>XXXIII</a>.) The legs are turned in spirals; and the back
-and seat are upholstered with a rich material figured
-with large flower forms—tulips, roses, irises, etc.</p>
-
-<div id='XXXII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_247.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXII.</span>—<em>Kitchen.</em><br /><br />STEDELIJK MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Still another model of this style of armchair with
-spiral rungs and supports, scrolled arms, carved top and
-leather back and seat, appears on Plate <a href='#XXXIV'>XXXIV</a>. This
-is also a Dutch chair in the Rijks Museum. It is interesting
-to compare it with another armchair on the same
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>plate. This, of carved oak, turned back posts, front
-legs of carved heavy scrolls, diagonal connecting rails
-also formed of heavy scrolls, and scrolled front bar, is
-an interesting example of an armchair of the Dutch
-work of the Louis XIV period. The back has a central
-panel with a scrolled frame, elegantly carved. It is
-filled with woven cane instead of leather, or other upholstery.
-The seat is cane also. A chair without arms,
-which looks as if it might have belonged to the same
-set, though it is now preserved in the Cluny Museum,
-Paris, is shown in Plate <a href='#XLV'>XLV</a>. Another armchair of
-the same period and general style (<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XXXIII'>XXXIII</a>)
-has a carved panel filled with cane, cane seat, scrolled
-arms, turned rails and legs, and carved front bar.
-Chairs of this fashion were extremely popular in the
-Low Countries and in England during the second half
-of the seventeenth century. In all probability, they
-originated in the Netherlands, and became familiar and
-favourites with the exiled Cavaliers between 1640 and
-1660; and at the Restoration the style was imported
-into England. However this may be, this well-known
-carved oak chair, with cane back and seat, is still popularly
-known as the “Charles II Chair.” A light Dutch
-model of this type, with elegantly carved front bar,
-turned rails and posts and scrolled front legs, is shown
-in Plate <a href='#XXXIV'>XXXIV</a>. It has no arms and the back panel
-is divided into two narrow panels of cane, producing
-a very light and elegant effect. The scrolls of the feet
-are much lighter and more graceful than those of the
-armchair at its side.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>An armchair of the same style and period, also
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>from the Rijks Museum, is in the centre on Plate
-<a href='#XXXV'>XXXV</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The central panel of the back is gracefully treated
-with open carved and turned work. The panel proper
-is framed with heavy scrolls, and the central bar is
-pierced and carved with graceful bellflowers running
-downwards and upwards. This <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chute</span></i> of the bell-flower
-now becomes a very favourite ornamentation in decorative
-art, and Bérain, Marot and other artists of the period
-make free use of it. The curved stretchers with the
-vase ornament in the centre is very characteristic of
-Dutch, English, and French furniture of the second
-half of the seventeenth century. It occurs in ordinary
-tables, dressing-tables, stands for cabinets, and, in fact,
-every piece of furniture that stands on four legs. The
-arms and legs consist of the usual scroll, and the feet
-of carved bulbs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A chair with the characteristic scrolled stretcher
-just alluded to occurs on Plate <a href='#XXXIII'>XXXIII</a>. It is richly
-carved, and has turned and carved straight legs, with
-bulbed feet. The back is a richly carved frame, filled
-with cane. The top is crowned with delicate ribbon and
-foliage carving, and the shape of the back is a favourite
-one for the mirrors of the period. The proportions of
-the seat, which is stuffed and covered with velvet fastened
-with small brass nails is quite modern. This chair,
-however, belongs to the end of the seventeenth century.
-The affinities between the chairs we have been describing
-and the designs by Marot, which were so popular
-in Holland, may be studied in the next chapter.</p>
-
-<div id='XXXIII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_251.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXIII.</span>—<em>Chairs.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The masters of this school of ornamentation were
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>numerous. Hitherto Flanders has overshadowed the
-Northern Provinces of the Netherlands in art products;
-but beginning with De Vries, Holland assumes equal
-importance. Peter Soutman (Haarlem 1580–1650), was
-a pupil of Rubens; William Buytenweg worked at
-Rotterdam; Adrian Muntink was famous in Groningen
-(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1610); other goldsmiths and engravers, named
-Laurens, Janss Micker, Geraert van Ryssen, Meinert
-Gelis, Jacobus van der Tverff, Gerritz Hessel (Amsterdam),
-Abraham Hecker (Amsterdam), Hendrik de
-Keyser (Amsterdam), Jacobus Collan (Rotterdam), and
-Arnold Houbraken (Dordrecht), all flourished during
-the first half of the seventeenth century. Their motives
-of garlands, fruits, flowers, human and animal figures,
-birds, insects, etc., were used in the decoration of sumptuous,
-carved furniture, and for marquetry and mosaics,
-as well as for the gold and silver ware of which the nobles
-and rich merchants were so fond.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other masters of ornament of the Netherlands of
-this period, whose works have survived, are Martin van
-Buten (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1607), Franz Aspruck (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1601), Jacques
-de Gheyn (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1610), J. B. Barbé (<em>b.</em> 1585), Blondus
-(1590–1656), Raphael Custode, Michel van Lochon,
-Henderick Lodeweycke (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1626), André Pauli (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i>
-1628).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Following the above, when the <em>style Rubens</em> was
-giving way to the Decadence, we find Michel Natalis
-(1609–80), Arthus Quellin (<em>b.</em> 1609), Jacob van Campen
-(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1660), Peter van den Avont (<em>b.</em> 1619), James
-Collan (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1650), Arnold Houbraken (<em>d.</em> 1660), L. Hendericks
-(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1660), Romanus de Hooghe (1638–1718),
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>Gaspard Bouttats, (1640–1703), J. J. Falkema (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i>
-1680), Isaac Moucheron (1660–1744), Antony de Winter
-(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1690), Peter Paul Bouche (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1693), J. Thuys
-(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1690), J. and F. Harrewyn (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circ.</span></i> 1694), Heinrich
-van Bein (1689–98)<a id='t166'></a>, and G. Vischer, Erasmus Kamyn,
-P. Schentz and M. Heylbrouck, who all worked at the
-close of the century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most extraordinary style of ornamentation
-employed by the masters of Decorative Art during the
-seventeenth century is that known as the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">genre auriculaire</span></i>.
-In this, every part of the human ear is used as
-a decorative motive. The outer rim and lobe had been
-used long before it was carried to excess. A very early
-example is shown in the bed dated 1580 on Plate <a href='#XI'>XI</a>
-where auricular curves are plainly recognizable in the
-carving.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the “<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Buire</span></cite>” (Plate <a href='#XLVI'>XLVI</a>) by Mosyn, however,
-this style is seen in its most exaggerated form. This
-design is by M. Mosyn, an engraver, born at Amsterdam
-about 1630. His chandeliers are equally extravagant.
-Peter Nolpe, born at the Hague (1601–70), was another
-designer of this school, as was also John Lutma of
-Amsterdam (1609–89). The latter represents the very
-decadence of art, with his hideous cartouches, compartments,
-frames and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguières</span></i>, composed of distorted
-and tortured ears. Another master of Amsterdam
-who published many plates in the same extraordinary
-taste was Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout. He
-also worked in the middle of this century. This style
-attained its greatest vogue in Germany. There Friederich
-Unteutsch, a master carpenter of Frankfort, published
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>(1650) 110 plates of all kinds of furniture, on which the
-ear is prominent as an ornament. Daniel Rabel (<em>d.</em>
-1637), also used the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">genre auriculaire</span></i> in France, but
-there its life was short and feeble.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (DUTCH)</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Famous Dutch Architects—The Royal Palace on the Dam, Het Loo,
-the Mauritshuis and Huis ten Bosch—Interior Carvings—Specimens
-of Rooms and Ceilings in the Rijks Museum—Love of the
-Dutch for their Houses—Miniature Dutch Houses and Models of
-Old Amsterdam Houses in the Rijks Museum—Architecture of
-the Seventeenth Century—A Typical Dutch Home—The <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Luifel</span></i>,
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Voorhuis</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptoir</span></i>—Interior Decorations and Furniture—Dutch
-Mania for Cleaning—Descriptions by Travellers of Dutch
-Houses and Cleaning—Cleaning Utensils—House and Furniture
-of Andreas Hulstman Janz, in Dordrecht—Inventory of Gertrude
-van Mierevelt, wife of the painter, in Delft—“Show-rooms” and
-their Furnishings—Cooking Utensils—Bedroom in the House of
-Mrs. Lidia van der Dussen in Dordrecht—The Cradle and “Fire-Basket”—The
-Baby’s Silver—The “Bride’s Basket”—The
-“Bride’s Crown” and “Throne”—Decorations for a Wedding—Description
-by Sir John Lower of the Farewell Entertainment to
-Charles II at The Hague.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The most important architects of this period were
-Hendrik de Keyser (1565–1621), Jacob van
-Kampen (1598–1657), and Philip Vinckboons (1608–75).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Royal Palace on the Dam, Amsterdam, was built
-by Jacob van Kampen for a Town Hall; it was begun
-in 1648 and finished in 1655. It is interesting to note
-that the structure rests on a foundation of 13,659 piles.
-The gables are ornamented with allegorical reliefs by
-Artus Quellin the Elder (see page <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>), representing the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>glories of Amsterdam. Artus Quellin and his assistants
-also adorned the interior with carvings and sculptures in
-marble. There are also in the various rooms elaborately
-carved chimney-pieces, some of them with painted overmantels
-by Jan Lievens, Ferd. Bol, and N. de Helt-Stocade
-(1656). The ceilings were painted by J. G.
-Bronchorst, Cornelis Holsteyn and others. This was not
-used as a palace until the time of Louis Napoleon in
-1808.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Het Loo, near Apeldoorn, the favourite residence of
-William I, William III and the reigning Queen Wilhelmina,
-received additions during this period; and the
-Royal Palace at The Hague was also built in the time of
-William III.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Mauritshuis, on the Vyver (now the home of the
-famous Hague picture gallery), was erected in 1633–44,
-for Count John Maurice of Nassau, the Dutch West
-India Company’s Governor of Brazil, who died in 1679.
-The architects were Jacob van Kampen and Pieter Post.
-This house was rebuilt in 1704–18, after a fire.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These two architects were also responsible for the
-Huis ten Bosch (House in the Wood), the royal villa near
-The Hague, built about 1645 for the Princess Amalia of
-Solms, widow of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange
-(1625–47). The wings were added by William IV in
-1748, and many of the decorations are of the eighteenth
-century. The famous apartments are: the Chinese
-Room, the Japanese Room, and the Orange Saloon, in
-which the Peace Conference met in 1899.</p>
-
-<div id='XXXIV'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_259.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXIV.</span>—<em>Chairs.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Trêves Saloon in the Binnenhof in The Hague
-was built by William III in 1697 as a reception-room. It
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>is embellished with a handsome ceiling and portraits of
-seven stadtholders. The two chimney-pieces in the hall
-of the first chamber represent War by Jan Lievens and
-Peace by Adr. Hanneman.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>An example of Philip Vinckboons’s work is the Trippenhuis
-in Amsterdam, built in 1662 in the classic style.
-This is now occupied by the Royal Academy of Science.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Exceptionally noteworthy specimens of interior carving
-of this period are: Renaissance chimney-piece and
-a Gothic chimney-piece in the Louis XIV style in the
-Antiquarian Museum, Utrecht; a chimney-piece dating
-from the end of the seventeenth century, with a group of
-the stamp-masters of the cloth-hall, by Karel de Moor,
-in the Municipal Museum, Leyden; carved panelling in
-the council chamber, Woerden (1610); carvings in the
-church at Venlo; panelling in the palace of the Princess
-Marie on the Korte Voorhout, The Hague; a pulpit of
-1685 in Broek in the Waterland; and a monument in
-the church of St. Ursula, Delft, to William of Orange,
-begun in 1616 by Hendrik de Keyser, and finished by his
-son Peter.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Rijks Museum possesses many examples of
-panelling, chimney-pieces, and separate pieces of furniture;
-and several entire rooms have been correctly
-arranged. Among these is a room with wall-panellings
-and chimney-piece from Dordrecht (1626). The ceiling,
-supposed to be by Th. van der Schuer (about 1678), represents
-Morning and Evening, and is from the bedroom
-of Queen Mary of England, wife of William III, in the
-Binnenhof, The Hague. The gilt leather hangings and
-other furniture in this room are of the same date.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>Another room contains a beautifully painted cylindrical
-ceiling of wood from the apartment of Mary Stuart,
-wife of William II, Prince of Orange, also in the Binnenhof.
-The panelling, chimney-piece, gilt leather hangings
-and furniture are also of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A notable room is that taken from the house of
-Constantia Huygens in The Hague, built by Jacob van
-Kampen. Blue silk is curiously used to embellish the
-panelling. The ceiling, painted by Gérard de Lairesse
-(1640–1711) represents Apollo and Aurora. This room
-is in the Louis XIV style. A later fashion is, however,
-shown in the splendid “Chinese Boudoir” of the latter
-part of the seventeenth century from the Stadtholder’s
-palace at Leeuwarden.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another room deserving attention is from a small
-hunting-lodge called the Hoogerhuis, near Amersfoort,
-built about 1630 by Jacob van Kampen and inhabited
-by him. The room is lighted by eight small windows,
-over which paintings were hung. There is an interesting
-bedstead here, ornamented with painted garlands, and
-with three compartments, beneath the centred one of
-which is the Spanish motto, “<i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">’El todo es nada</span></i>” (Everything
-is nought).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch of the seventeenth century passed practically
-all their lives at home. With the exception of
-merchants, students and men of affairs, people rarely
-visited their friends and relatives in neighbouring towns.
-As Pieter van Godewijck wrote:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Het reysen is een taeck nyet yder opgelegt,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">En ’t is nyet al te veel en sonder blaêm gezegt,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Het huys is als een graf, waerin wy altyt wonen,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line in10'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">In ’t aerdsche tranendal.</span></i></div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>(Travelling is a task not given to everybody,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And it’s not said so much and without blame</div>
-      <div class='line'>That the home is like a grave, wherein we always dwell,</div>
-      <div class='line in8'>In the earthly vale of tears.)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div id='XXXV'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_263.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXV.</span>—<em>Chairs.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>The house was therefore “their world, their toy,
-their god”; they loved to embellish and decorate it, they
-loved to take care of it and keep it clean, they loved to
-see it painted on panel and canvas; and some of them
-even went so far as to have their house reproduced in
-miniature, with all its furniture and belongings copied in
-wood and metal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It would be a mistake to suppose that the so-called
-dolls’ houses, which may be studied in the museums of
-Amsterdam, Utrecht, and other towns, were merely the
-somewhat elaborate toys with which the English-speaking
-juvenile race sometimes amuse themselves. As the
-old inventories show, dolls’ houses and all their appurtenances
-were very vivid mirrors of contemporary life,
-including furniture and costume. This is particularly
-true of Holland, although other countries of Western
-Europe preserved evidences of the taste for similar
-“toys” of earlier date. Henry IV of France, for instance,
-when a child, played with toys, among which are
-noticeable a suit of clothes in wrought silver.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These dolls’ houses were elaborate and costly; for
-every detail of the real model was represented, including
-the small articles of porcelain, Delft, earthenware, pewter,
-brass and silver. Dolls’ <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">salons</span></i>, too, were often
-painted by noted masters, and cost thousands of florins.
-For example, a beautiful doll’s house of the date 1680, in
-the Antiquarian Museum of Utrecht, has its walls covered
-with paintings by Moucheron. The houses consisted of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>from four to eight rooms with furniture of wood, silver,
-gold, or filigree silver or gold. Such rooms as the kitchen,
-lying-in room and death chamber were often
-included. The latter was draped in black with a canvas
-or silver coffin containing a tiny wax corpse. Often,
-too, the house was completed with a pretty miniature
-garden embellished with a quantity of coral-work, trees,
-hedges, seats, paths and statuettes. We may note that
-Margaretha Godewijck had a doll’s house with a garden
-and arbour, upon which she wrote the following poem:—</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Op myn coraal werk</span></span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Hier siet ghy van coraal in ’t cabinet besloten,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Een baeckermat, een wiegh, een korf, een stoof, een mandt,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Een kleerben opgepronckt, een bedsté, ledikant</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Gevloghten van coraal en na de kunst gegoten,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Gemaeckt van suyver glas, en van verscheyden kleuren,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Aen d’ Aemstelstroom gevormt van blaeuw, van groen en peers,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Want sulck corale werck verdient oock wel een vers,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">En Pallas sou het self voor wat bysonder keuren.</span></i></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>(<span class='sc'>On my coral work.</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Placed in my cabinet here, you see made of coral</div>
-      <div class='line'>A baby’s basket, a cradle, a child’s foot-warmer and a warming-basket,</div>
-      <div class='line'>An ornamental clothes cupboard, a bed and bedstead of twisted and cast coral</div>
-      <div class='line'>And of pure glass, of different colours,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Shaped at Amstel’s stream of blue and green and purple.</div>
-      <div class='line'>For such coral-work deserves indeed a verse,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And even Pallas would judge it more than ordinary.)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Op myne thuyn van syde</span></span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Hoe seer dat Crassus pronckt en stoft op al sijn fruyten,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Gewassen buyten Roôm en aen het Tybers stof,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Hoe seer Lucullus pryst sijn bloemen, planten, spruyten,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Sijn ooft, sijn boom-gewas, sijn za’en, sijn braven hof,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Dit alles kan een wint, een buy en vlaegh verdrijven,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Soodat de bloem verdort en ’t rijpe fruyt verstickt.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Maer mynen hof van syd die sal gedurigh blyven.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mijn fruyt het greetigh oogh, maer niet de mond verquict.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Geen spin, geen worm, geen rups en kan mijn boomen deeren,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mijn bloemtjes somers sijn en ’s winters even groen,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mijn kerssen altyd root, mijn appelen, mijn peeren</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Sijn altyt even gaef, sy konnen ’t ooghe voên.</span></i></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>(<span class='sc'>On my garden of silk</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>How much Cassius may pride himself and boast of all his fruit</div>
-      <div class='line'>Grown outside Rome and on the Tiber’s border;</div>
-      <div class='line'>How much Lucullus may praise his flowers, plants and twigs,</div>
-      <div class='line'>His lawns, his tree-garden, his seeds and a fine orchard—</div>
-      <div class='line'>All these can be scattered by the wind, a shower, or a gust;</div>
-      <div class='line'>So that the flower fades and the ripe fruit perishes,</div>
-      <div class='line'>But my silken garden will remain for ever.</div>
-      <div class='line'>My fruit satisfies the greedy eye, but not the mouth;</div>
-      <div class='line'>No spider, worm, nor caterpillar can hurt my trees;</div>
-      <div class='line'>My flowers are as green in winter as in summer,</div>
-      <div class='line'>My cherries always red, my apples and my pears</div>
-      <div class='line'>Always ripe and sound; they feed the eyes for ever.)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The dolls’ houses of the rich were always made of
-costly woods, and were frequently inlaid with ivory and
-tortoiseshell. At the exhibition of Amsterdam in 1858,
-among a number of these curiosities, was a notable one
-veneered with tortoiseshell and with painted glass doors—a
-present from the King of Denmark to Maarten Harpertz
-Tromp. Another was a typical Dutch house of walnut-root
-wood, furnished with silver furniture and wax dolls;
-there were also two of Italian make with tortoiseshell,
-ebony and brass ornaments, the doors of which were
-painted with Italian sea-towns; and one of ebony, the
-door-panels of which were painted by Peter Breughel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the Rijks Museum are several models in miniature
-of old Amsterdam houses. The finest one is of tortoiseshell
-ornamented with white metal inlay. According to
-tradition, Christoffel Brandt, Peter the Great’s agent in
-Amsterdam, had this house made by order of the Czar,
-and it is said to have cost 20,000 guilders (£2,500), and
-to have required five years to produce. Dating from the
-latter part of the seventeenth or first part of the eighteenth
-century, it contains all the furniture that was to
-be found at that date in an aristocratic dwelling on the
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Heerengracht</span></i> or <em>Keizersgracht</em>. Every object in it was
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>made by the proper artisan, so that it is correct in every
-detail.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another dates from the first half of the eighteenth
-century. Architecturally it is very interesting; but the
-interior furnishings are much simpler than the above.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A third house, belonging to the family Ploos van
-Amstel, dates from the first half of the eighteenth century,
-and is supposed to be inhabited by a doctor. It
-is three storeys high, and has a wide door on the façade
-with the initials P.V.A. (Ploos Van Amstel) artistically
-interlaced. Of its twelve rooms, the most remarkable
-are the parlour and the physician’s study, containing a
-library, a collection of preparations and a collection of
-shells and artistic objects in ivory, every item of which
-is reproduced in miniature.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>According to Mr. E. W. Berg, who gives a minute
-description of this house in <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">De Oude Tyd</span></i> (1872), it is said
-that by this doctor is meant Christoffel Ludeman, the
-well-known “wonder-doctor.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was a fad with the wealthy to possess these curious
-silver toys, which passed from generation to generation.
-Sometimes the collection consisted of hundreds of pieces.
-Mrs. van Varick, of New Amsterdam (1696), had no less
-than eighty-three silver toys to divide among her children.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These silver and gold toys were so artistically made
-that they attracted the attention of many travellers, who
-paid large sums for them. Many beautiful and quaint
-specimens are therefore to be seen in the European
-Museums and private collections on both sides of the
-Atlantic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Sets of dolls’ porcelain were also collected in this
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>century and preserved in show-cases or china-cabinets,
-with a collection of dolls’ clothes. These cabinets of
-dolls’ articles were even found in farmhouses, and sometimes
-jewellery and small articles of value were kept in
-them.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Many of the poorer houses in the seventeenth century
-were built of wood or stone, with wooden gables
-that projected far over the narrow street, so far indeed
-that the occupants of the one could shake hands across
-the street with those in the opposite house. Many of
-these houses were gradually replaced by newer houses of
-a more regular aspect. As the century wears on they
-increase in height and solidity. As a rule, the house is
-of three storeys, with a tiled roof. In the lower floor
-there is a row of small windows with small panes set in
-lead and protected by ornamental iron-work. These
-windows admit light into the small office and entrance-hall,
-and run along the whole width of the house above
-the “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">luifel</span></i>” (verandah), under which in the daytime
-wares are offered for sale, and where on fine evenings the
-burgher sits with his wife and family. Sometimes the
-thrifty housewife may be seen sitting under the verandah
-knitting, spinning, sewing, or darning, with her feet
-on a foot-rest, and the children playing around her.
-The baby’s cradle is sometimes brought out as well.
-On Saturdays the children are bathed and washed under
-the “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">luifel</span></i>,” without the public taking the least notice.
-Gentlemen’s houses, however, have no verandahs, but
-both sides of the door or gate are flanked by windows
-with shutters, and this door is on a level with the entrance.
-The arrangement of the windows on the second
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>floor is like that of the first. Chrysostomus Napolitanus
-says in 1516, “The dwelling-houses have nearly all the
-same shape and architecture. The back walls do not
-rise very high, but end in a point and step-like.” These
-gable steps were sometimes ornamented with stone vases
-or images, and the coping was also decorated. In the
-seventeenth century the houses were built narrower but
-higher, as also the windows, while the wire screens and
-the verandahs gradually disappeared. The copings and
-ornamentations of the cornice were, however, not less
-richly sculptured; and, under the top windows, stone
-figures, Caryatides, lions and coats-of-arms were often
-introduced. In the third storey there were one or two
-windows, above which the arms of the proprietor were
-carved. Instead of the armorial device, sometimes a
-figure, a pair of compasses, or a bell was introduced,
-from which the house took its name; or again the family
-name would be carved in gigantic letters. In the course
-of time the name of the occupant was used less than the
-name of the house in which he lived. We find mention
-of the house Blijenburgh, Moesienbroeck, Cruysenborch,
-Nuysenborch, Blijensteyn, Kleyn Jerusalem, ’t Huys
-Beaumont, Groot en Kleyn Rosendaeal, etc. Behind the
-houses were gardens with summer-houses, surrounded
-with fences of trellis-work. In the common houses a
-stone-paved hallway leads through the house to an open
-back yard, where there is a grass plot to bleach the
-clothes on, and where a room is built with a fireplace
-and kitchen. From the vestibule a stairway leads to the
-second floor, which communicates with a smaller stairway
-and often with a ladder to the floor above.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>Let us enter a rich home and see how the rooms are
-arranged. We pass through a great oaken door painted
-green and furnished with a heavy iron knocker, to enter
-a high and commodious vestibule, the walls of which are
-hung with pictures, deers’ heads or other hunting trophies.
-On one side is a broad oak staircase with a lion,
-griffin, or dragon beautifully carved at the base, and
-holding in his paws the same coat-of-arms that is carved
-in front of the gable. Facing the entrance hangs a magnificent
-oil painting. In less wealthy homes the vestibule
-is encased with blue and white tiles, and the floor
-is also laid in the same, and a carved oak or stone bench
-faces the door. As this “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">voorhuis</span></i>,” or vestibule, is used
-by the less fashionable as a living apartment, there also
-stands here a table, and on the wall a mirror in an ebony
-frame, and many polished brass vessels and Delft dishes
-and plates give a homelike character to the spot. A
-house of this type has a verandah outside, on and under
-which the small merchant conducts his business, although
-his office or “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comptoir</span></i>” is at the back. If this
-happens to be a school, the master or mistress teaches his
-or her class under the “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">luifel</span></i>”; or, if an inn, this is the
-meeting or smoking-room.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comptoir</span></i>” is also found in the homes of the
-rich, and the lady of the house often sits there with her
-children, not because it is the most attractive place, but
-in order to keep the better rooms neat and clean. In
-rich houses many of the rooms are known by individual
-names,—some according to the use to which they were
-put, others on account of the hangings, the name of the
-occupant, or an important piece of furniture. Hence we
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>have the salon, dining-room, show-room, the sleeping-room,
-the little cabinet (office), the gold leather room,
-the damask room, the matted room, the room of Adam
-and Eve, Mr. Arends’s room, Miss Emerentia’s room,
-Mr. Cornelius van Beveren’s sleeping-room, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In wealthy homes the walls of some rooms were encased
-in tiles, decorated with painted figures, flowers,
-arms, or pictorial scenes or mottoes; and upon these
-hung many fine paintings in richly carved ebony frames.
-In some houses every available space on the wall in
-every room was occupied by a picture; so that from top
-to bottom the rooms were filled with masterpieces of art.
-Some rooms on the ground floor were hung with splendid
-tapestries, representing hunting-scenes, Biblical stories,
-coats-of-arms, mythological and historical legends and
-stories, etc., etc. Other rooms were hung with embroidered
-materials, with red velvet, with gold or silver
-flowered borders, or with gold or stamped leather of
-various colours and patterns. Sometimes, also, the walls
-were panelled and wainscotted, particularly where beds
-or cupboards stood. In poor houses the walls were
-simply whitewashed or covered with square tiles of gay
-colours. The ordinary burghers strewed their floors with
-fine sand, and often arranged it so deftly by means of the
-broom in a design of flowers or geometrical figures that
-one would think a figured carpet was laid upon the floor.
-In rich homes the floor, as a rule, was covered with fine
-Spanish matting; and when guests came, a rug or carpet
-was spread over this, but on their departure it was
-carefully rolled up and put away. Some of the floors—often
-those of the garret—were laid in coloured tiles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>One of the principal ornaments in rich houses was the
-painted glass. In some rooms every window was
-adorned with painted glass, but in less wealthy homes
-one window had to suffice. This was generally a round
-one painted in gaudy hues and neatly framed. Such
-glass was a favourite present. Sometimes the engraver
-had inscribed upon it Dutch or Latin proverbs; but
-more frequently it was embellished with the coat-of-arms
-of the master of the house, portraits, landscapes,
-Biblical and popular stories, such as Reynard the Fox,
-The Adventures of the four Heems Children, or The Drolleries
-of Tyll Eulenspiegel. The ceilings rested on heavy
-oak beams with many cross beams; and even in rich
-houses ceilings and beams were artistically painted. In
-the centre of the ceiling was hung a brass, or gilded
-wooden chandelier for wax or tallow candles; and
-additional light was derived from sconces fastened to the
-walls and on either side of the chimney-piece. Occasionally
-the candelabra were of crystal. In some rooms
-models of ships correctly rigged hung from the beams;
-and sometimes stuffed animals, heads, fish, weapons, and
-wedding ornaments and favours kept them company.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chimney-piece always received a good deal of
-attention. It was very wide and high. Wood and peat
-were both burned on the large silver, brass, iron or steel
-andirons. The space in the overmantel was often
-painted by the best master available, or was occupied by
-a painting in a carved frame. On either side of the picture
-were sconces containing wax candles that illuminated
-the painting at night. The broad chimney shelf
-was occupied with Japanese and Chinese porcelains and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>lacquers; and in the summer time the pot that was
-suspended from a crane in the chimney was taken away
-and replaced by large porcelain vases and beakers. A
-handsome chimney cloth was usually hung just below
-the shelf.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Being exceedingly economical, the Dutch could not
-easily squander money for pleasures or recreations, but
-for the “home” they would spend lavishly. A handsome
-piece of furniture or silver, beautiful porcelain,
-rare tulips, rich curtains and rugs, valuable paintings,
-fine glass, and curios from the Far East would induce
-the opulent Dutchman to part with large sums;
-and his wife spent the greater part of her life in ornamenting
-and beautifying the home, taking care of the
-treasures it contained, and, above all, in keeping the
-house and its contents clean and in order. A rich merchant,
-Asselijn, said:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Ziet wat een fraei kasteel! wat heit het me gecost!</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Myn gelt is nyet verbrast aan keur van vremde cost.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Voor paerden en gery en zeldzaeme sieraeden</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">En gaf ik nyet een myt; geen bloem-fluweelgewaden</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Versieren ’t stinckend lyf, de logge madenzak.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Myn huys is myn sieraet, myn huys myn beste pack.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Daer voor is myn tresoor, daer voor myn koffer open,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">En wat myn huys behoeft, dat haest ick my te koopen.</span></i></div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>(See what a beautiful castle! What a sum it costs!</div>
-      <div class='line'>My money is not spent in choice of foreign viands.</div>
-      <div class='line'>For horses and equipages and rare ornaments</div>
-      <div class='line'>I did not spend a mite; no flowery velvet dresses</div>
-      <div class='line'>Adorn the wasting body, the clumsy stomach:</div>
-      <div class='line'>My home is my ornament, my house my best costume,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Therefore my treasury and my coffer are open,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And what my house needs I hasten to buy.)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>And Godewijck puts these words into the mouth of a
-daughter of an alderman:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Myn stoffer is myn swaerd, myn bussem is myn wapen.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Ick kenne geene rust, ick weete van geen slaepen.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Ick denck aen geen salet, ick denck niet aen myn keel.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Geen arbeyt my te swaer, geen zorge my te veel</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Om alles gladdekens en sonder smet te maken.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Ik wil niet dat de maegd myn pronkstuck aan zal raken;</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Ick selve wrijf en boen, ick flodder en ick schrob,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Ick aes op ’t kleinste stof, ik beef niet voor den tob</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Gelyck de pronckmadam.</span></i></div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>(My brush is my sword, my besom is my weapon.</div>
-      <div class='line'>I know no rest, I know no sleep.</div>
-      <div class='line'>I don’t think of my room, I don’t think of my throat.</div>
-      <div class='line'>No labour is too heavy, no care I think too much</div>
-      <div class='line'>To make everything smooth and without blemish.</div>
-      <div class='line'>I will not let the maid touch my pretty things;</div>
-      <div class='line'>I, myself, will rub and polish, I will splash and scrub;</div>
-      <div class='line'>I hunt the speck of dust, I do not fear the tub</div>
-      <div class='line'>Like a fine lady.)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>These are samples of many speeches in the old comedies,
-where the women constantly talk about housecleaning
-and scrubbing.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>English travellers of this period unanimously praised
-the way the Dutch houses were kept. One wrote:
-“They are not large, but neat, beautiful outside and well
-furnished inside; and the furniture is so clean and in
-good order that it appears to be more an exhibition than
-for daily use.” The farms also attracted the attention
-of the stranger. Another traveller said: “The Dutch
-farmer keeps his land as neatly as a courtier trims his
-beard; and his house is as choice as a lady who comes
-out of her dressing-room. A well-dressed lady cannot
-look neater than the fine gable and the thatched roof of
-a Dutch farmhouse.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In his <cite>Brief Character of the Low Countries</cite>, Owen
-Feltham describes an Amsterdam house of the middle of
-the seventeenth century. “When you are entered the
-house,” he writes, “the first thing you encounter is a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>Looking-Glasse. No question but a true Embleme of
-politick hospitality; for though to reflect yourself in
-your own figure, ‘tis yet no longer than while you are
-there before it. When you are gone once, it flatters the
-next commer, without the least remembrance that you
-were ere there.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The next are the vessels of the house marshalled
-about the room like watchmen. All is neat as you were
-in a Citizen’s Wife’s Cabinet; for unless it be themselves,
-they let none of God’s creatures lose anything of their
-native beauty.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Their houses, especially in their Cities, are the best
-eye-beauties of their Country. For cost and sight, they
-far exceed our English, but they want their magnificence.
-Their lining is yet more rich than their outside; not in
-hangings, but pictures, which even the poorest are there
-furnisht with. Not a cobler but has his toyes for ornament.
-Were the knacks of all their homes set together,
-there would not be such another Bartholomew-Faire in
-Europe....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Their beds are no other than land-cabines, high
-enough to need a ladder or stairs. Up once, you are
-walled in with Wainscot, and that is a good discretion to
-avoid the trouble of making your will every night; for
-once falling out else would break your neck promptly.
-But if you die in it this comfort you shall leave your
-friends, that you dy’d in clean linen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Whatsoever their estates be, their houses must be
-fair. Therefore from Amsterdam they have banisht
-seacoale, lest it soyl their buildings, of which the statlier
-sort are sometimes sententious, and in the front carry
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>some conceit of the Owner. As to give you a taste in
-these:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line in2'>‘<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Christus Adjutor Meus;</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hoc abdicato Perenne Quero;</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line in2'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hic Medio tuitus Itur.</span></i>’</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Every door seems studded<a id='t185'></a> with Diamonds. The
-nails and hinges hold a constant brightnesse, as if rust
-there was not a quality incident to Iron. Their houses
-they keep cleaner than their bodies; their bodies than
-their souls. Goe to one, you shall find the Andirons shut
-up in network. At a second, the Warming-pan muffled
-in Italian Cutworke. At a third the Sconce clad in
-Cambrick.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>English travellers are not the only ones to bear witness
-to the extremes to which cleanliness was carried by
-the housewives of the Low Countries. A French writer,
-De Parival, says:—</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The wives and daughters scour and rub benches,
-chests, cupboards, dressers, tables, plate racks, even the
-stairs until they shine like mirrors. Some are so clean
-that they would not enter any of the rooms without
-taking off their shoes and putting on their slippers.
-The women put all their energy and pleasure in keeping
-the house and the furniture clean. The floors are washed
-nearly every day and scoured with sand, and are so neat
-that a stranger is afraid to expectorate on them. If the
-city women keep their houses clean, the farmers’ wives
-are not less particular. They carry this cleanliness even
-into the stables. They scour everything, even the iron
-chains and mounts until they shine like silver.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>The same traveller also says: “The furniture of the
-principal burghers, besides gold and silver ware, consists
-of tapestries, costly paintings (for which no money is
-saved, but rather eked out in economical living), beautifully
-carved woodwork, such as tables, treasure-chests,
-etc., and pewter, brass, earthenware, porcelains, etc.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another foreigner says: “Their interior decorations
-are far more costly than our own [English], not only
-in hangings and ornaments, but in pictures, which are
-found even in the poorer houses. No farmer or even
-common labourer is found who has not some kind of
-interior ornaments and so varied that if all were put
-together it would often fill a booth at the fair.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Chrysostomus Napolitanus, who visited Holland in
-1516, says: “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Goede Hemel! welk eene netheid van het
-gereedschap! welk eene kostelijkheid van bedden en welk
-eene blankheid van servetten, tafels en tafellakens! welk
-een sieraad aan de stoelen! welke zindelijkheid eindelijk
-aan muren, vloer en al het overige! Den bodem der spijs-,
-noen- en slaapvertrekken bestrooien zij met een weinig zand,
-opdat, zoo er bij geval iets morsigs op mocht vallen, zoo
-iemand somwijlen er vuile voeten op mocht zetten, de vloer
-zelve er niet door besmet zou worden, maar men het terstond,
-eer het er zich aan vasthecht, met bezems uit zou kunnen
-keeren.</span></i>”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>(“Good Heavens! What a neatness of the utensils!
-how costly the beds and bedding, and how white the
-sheets, serviettes and tablecloths! What an ornamentation
-on the chairs, and, lastly, what cleanliness
-of the floors, walls and everything! The floors of the
-eating, sleeping and sitting rooms are strewn with a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>little sand, so that if anything should drop and one
-should accidentally step upon it, the floor would not be
-soiled, and before the matter could stick to it, the dirt
-might be removed with a broom.”)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fifty years later, Guicciardini, after praising the
-general state of the civilization and courtesy of the
-people, and remarking on the beauty of the public and
-private buildings, says: “But after all this if one enters
-their homes and notices the abundance of all kinds of
-furniture, and the order and neatness of everything, it
-gives one great pleasure, and one looks upon it as a
-wonder. And indeed it is, for there is nothing like it
-anywhere else in the world.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The inventories of the day give evidence of a great
-variety and number of cleaning utensils. Brooms and
-brushes of all kinds, tubs, pails, buckets, scrubbers tied
-with red leather, dust brushes called hogs, floor brushes,
-hearth hair brushes with brass and wooden handles
-occur in every house. One inventory of 1685 shows
-how well supplied a rich home was with articles for
-cleaning and scrubbing. These are as follows: five
-whiting brushes, one brush to clean the floors, five
-rubbers, three small painting brushes, four dust brushes,
-two floor brushes, two hair brushes, two hearth brooms,
-one chamber broom, one rake brush, one brush, one
-hay broom without a stick, and two Bermudian brooms
-with sticks. Cooking and cleaning implements and
-utensils were kept in the kitchen and in the cellar underneath.
-Pictures by Dutch masters show that in clement
-weather a good deal of housework was done in the tiled
-court or yard adjoining the kitchen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>As an example of the ordinary burgher’s home, let
-us take the house on one of the corners of the Mat Wharf
-on the Voorstraat in Dordrecht, dating from the beginning
-of the seventeenth century, and dwelt in by Andreas
-Hulstman Janz, merchant in wood, his wife Elizabeth
-Balen Matthews, and his children Jan, Christine and
-Alette.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The house has a sharp pointed gable and is three
-storeys high. The windows are provided with balconies,
-and a larger verandah runs along above the blue stone
-stoop. On each side of the rounded door embellished
-with iron-work are small windows supplied with trellises,
-as are likewise the four windows above the verandah
-that light the little office or “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comptoir</span></i>.” As we tap
-the iron knocker, a man or maid servant opens the
-door, and we notice that the little windows dimly divined
-through the creeper-shaded trellis are set in lead and
-supply but little light. The front hall runs on the left-hand
-side directly through the house, opening into a
-little yard that communicates with some smaller apartments
-and the kitchen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the right hand side is a small apartment, called
-the “little <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comptoir</span></i>,” the favourite room of the mother
-and her daughters when the housework is done, for
-they can see through the trellis and “watch the street.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the hallway, a narrow staircase leads to the second
-floor, “the best part,” where the “show” and “guestrooms”
-are situated, while on the third floor are the
-bedrooms, and in the garret, the drying-room, mangle-room,
-brass and tin rooms. Here also the peat and
-firewood are kept. Passing up the stairway, we enter
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>the living-room, which looks upon the front hall, and
-from which, when the door is open, a view of the street
-is obtained. This arrangement is familiar in many
-Dutch pictures, notably in that of <cite>The Sick Lady</cite> (Plate
-<a href='#XXXVII'>XXXVII</a>).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The living-room is rather sombre. The white walls
-are partly covered with pictures, and the floor is strewn
-with fine sand in a pattern resembling a carpet. Three
-large pieces of furniture are conspicuous, two oak cupboards
-standing on heavy ball feet, their broad flat
-tops ornamented with handsome beakers and vases of
-porcelain; the third piece is a large <em>sacredaan kas</em> hung
-with green curtains. In this the library is contained,
-consisting of a few books of travel, atlases, poetry by
-Cats, Vondel, Godewijck, Antonides, a number of
-religious works, commentaries on the catechism, hymn-books,
-the medical works of Battus and Beverwijck, and
-a few translated novels (for in this day there was but
-little Dutch fiction). In the centre of the room there
-stands a large and heavy oak table, with low chairs of
-the same, and covered with leather seats arranged symmetrically
-around it. In one corner of the room we note
-a reading-desk on which rests an enormous Bible bound
-in leather, with great brass mounts. The chimneypiece
-is enormous; if it is winter, a tremendous peat
-and wood fire is perpetually burning; if summer, the
-fireplace is ornamented with large, handsome faïence,
-or porcelain vases. This is the room in which the
-family gathers for breakfast, dinner and supper, and
-passes the winter evenings pleasantly enough.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From this room we enter the kitchen. We hardly
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>know what to notice first—the marble tiles shining like
-glass, the brass and pewter gleaming like gold and silver
-from the racks and dressers, the well-filled china closet,
-the rose-red painted table, with the yellow painted
-rush-bottomed chairs, or the general effect of charm,
-cheerfulness, colour and neatness. We are told that
-the lady of the house calls this her “holy” (as she calls
-the show-room the “tabernacle”), and allows no cooking
-to be done here. There is a small back kitchen built
-for this purpose called “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">snuiver</span></i>” (cooking shed), where
-all the food is prepared.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Before leaving this room we must describe the
-dresser, in which all the articles for breakfast service are
-kept and, in poor houses, left-over food. The used
-napkins are folded and placed here, and there are drawers
-for table linen and other small utensils. It contains a
-candle-drawer, and upon one of its shelves stands the
-heavy brass candlestick. The peculiar extinguisher is
-called familiarly “the cat’s head,” on account of its
-resemblance to the head of a cat. This is narrower at
-the bottom than the top, and has a handle on each side.
-This stands next to the peat-box, often the lower part
-of a pot cupboard opened and shut with a slide
-Underneath the chimney is placed the fire-pot, for
-stoves are not known. These innovations, imported
-from Germany, were heartily despised and called contemptuously
-“stink-pots” and “muff-boxes.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Omitting the cellar and store-rooms, we pass upstairs
-to the bedroom of the master and mistress on the
-second floor. Pictures, chiefly family portraits, adorn
-the walls. The floor is of wood, highly polished, and so
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>slippery that great care is required in walking across it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The furniture consists of chairs with tall backs and
-low seats, a carved table with a tapestry or rug cover,
-a large oak cabinet and a cupboard on four legs, the
-treasure-chest and the wash-buffet, with wash-mops
-and toilet appliances. A heavy green damask curtain
-hangs before the bed, which is so high above the floor
-that it must be entered with the aid of a small stepladder
-that stands in one corner of the room next to
-the brass warming-pan. Sometimes a cradle, called
-“coach,” for the baby stands at the foot and sometimes
-under the bed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These beds have often been ridiculed. The bedstead,
-however, soon supplanted the panelled bed,
-although it has never banished it altogether.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt (1639), wife
-of the painter Van Mierevelt of Delft who died in 1638,
-gives an excellent idea of a comfortable Dutch home
-of the early seventeenth century. First should be
-mentioned six beds with handsome draperies, tapestries,
-rich furniture covers, and other woollen articles (<i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">wollegoet</span></i>),
-that prove how much the artist and his wife liked
-rich textiles. The <i><span lang="mt" xml:lang="mt">tinnewerk</span></i>, consisting of plates,
-dishes, salt-cellars, etc., shows that the table-service was
-of pewter, although twenty-eight articles in porcelain
-and faïence, consisting of plates, bowls and dishes,
-valued at about twenty-six florins, are also enumerated.
-The house also contained a great many copper articles
-and utensils, from tongs and shovels to those fine <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">repoussée</span></i>
-dishes so highly prized to-day by collectors;
-and there was a considerable amount of ironware,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>including two lanterns. There were some statues in
-plaster, including a “Suzanne,” ninety-four paintings,
-chiefly religious, and family portraits, although one
-representing “Pomona and Flora” is mentioned. The
-artist also had some violins, a little book of engravings,
-some wooden panels, and a library of thirty-seven
-volumes. Many of these were illustrated, and dealt
-with religious and historical subjects; and as they were
-all in Dutch it would seem that the artist could read
-no other language. Especially noticeable is the fine collection
-of linen, the pride of the mistress. She had no
-less than twenty-five pairs of sheets, a hundred and
-eighteen serviettes and fifteen tablecloths, one of which
-fetched as much as fifteen florins at the sale in 1639, and
-another of damask (<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">damast taefellaecken</span></i>), twenty florins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most important room of the home of a burgher
-of moderate means was the hall, or general living-room.
-This, as so many pictures show, had a great fireplace, at
-which meals were often cooked. The furniture consisted
-of tables, chairs, cabinets, and, very frequently,
-a bed. The chimney-piece is massive, high and often
-elaborately carved, and above it a landscape, fruit piece,
-Kermesse, flower-piece or battle-scene by a favourite
-painter, is hung to form part of the decoration. This
-chimney-piece is, moreover, filled with porcelain dishes,
-cups, plates, teapots and curios. Below it hangs an
-ornamental chimney cloth embroidered with gaily-coloured
-flowers, red or green silk, white muslin, or
-figured calico. The hearth is framed in blue and white
-tiles, furnished with an iron fireback and supplied with
-brass and irons, racks for the fire-irons, pot-hooks, spits,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>a crane on which a large brass kettle hangs, and small
-hooks from which the bellows, hearth brooms, shovel,
-tongs, etc., hang conveniently for use. A brass or
-copper warming-pan is not far away. The walls are
-adorned with pictures, a large looking-glass in an ebony
-frame, a wall-board with hooks for small cans and jugs
-and a plate rack or two in which some handsome plates
-and dishes are formally arranged. A great linen press,
-or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, filled with tablecloths and napkins, the head of
-which is decorated with large Japanese beakers and
-smaller cups and vases, stands on one side of the room,
-and a glass case filled with teapots, cups and saucers,
-dishes, etc., and an East India cabinet on the other.
-A gaudily-painted Hindeloopen clock ticks on the wall.
-A large table stands in the centre of the room, covered
-with a heavy Turkish rug or “carpet,” and several little
-tables are conveniently disposed. The Russia leather,
-Turkey work and matted chairs are symmetrically
-arranged around the walls beneath the many pictures
-of landscape, interiors or still-life. The windows are
-curtained, the hangings of red or green striped silk or
-flowered calico matching those of the bedstead, which
-can be completely closed like a large box. On the four
-corners of the cornice of this bed are bunches of feathers
-or a painted wooden ornament. The casement windows
-have tiny diamond-shaped or round panes set in lead,
-and on the outside creepers and roses are carefully
-trained, forming a beautiful framework. Upon the sills
-stand flower-pots in which a bright tulip or other favourite
-flower is blooming.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The first apartment entered from the front door of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>a merchant’s house was the “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">voorhuis</span></i>,” or front room,
-where visitors were formally received. This was more
-or less handsomely furnished in accordance with the
-means of the owner. It was usually a sort of hall, sometimes
-of considerable dimensions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">voorhuis</span></i>,” as it appears in an inventory of 1686,
-contains a very handsome marble table with a carved
-wooden frame, a table covered with a handsome cloth,
-and a very fine tall clock. The seats consisted of seven
-Russia leather chairs and one matted chair furnished
-with a cushion. The room was lighted with three glass
-windows with leaden frames, handsomely curtained,
-and eleven pictures decorated the walls. The value of
-this furniture was £125 in present money.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In many houses the second floor was only used for
-“show rooms,” and the family slept in either the lower
-or the top floor. Bernagie writes: “If you go through
-the town, you will find many houses where the husband
-is afraid so much as even to smell at his second floor
-rooms. They always remain downstairs. Have they
-ever so many courtly rooms, they will eat, for their
-wives’ sake, in the small back kitchen.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This was the case in most of the burghers’ houses.
-These show-rooms were used only on some special
-occasion; otherwise they were never entered except
-for cleaning. This took place weekly and oftener, with
-special cleaning in the spring and autumn. Rooms in
-constant use were daily stripped and cleaned, and the
-housewife barely allowed herself time to eat. Some
-enthusiastic housekeepers—although wealthy—would not
-allow the servants to clean their best rooms, but wielded
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>“the scrubbing-brush, rubbing-towel and floor-cloth.”
-There are examples of houses where from thirty to forty
-pails of water were used every day, and where the servants
-did nothing but rub and scrub and scour from
-morning till night. Many of the houses were exceedingly
-damp in consequence, and the inmates constantly ill.
-Notwithstanding the ridicule the Dutch housewife suffered
-in books and on the stage, her mania for cleaning was
-so great that she cared not at all if the house was
-termed “hell” and the cleaners “she-devils.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In some families home was made still more uncomfortable
-on account of the little amount of cooking done.
-Certain dishes were prepared once a week and then
-“warmed up,” so that the stove would not be soiled.
-In North Holland a month would sometimes elapse
-between the making of fires for cooking in the fireplace.
-All the cooking was done by means of a little boiling
-water in the fire-pot.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The show-room, or “holy of holies,” as the Dutch
-woman was pleased to call it, was furnished according
-to the means or class of the owner. Among the higher
-classes a party was often given in it. In such homes the
-floor was covered with expensive Turkish rugs, and the
-walls hung with tapestries, silk damask or gold leather.
-These were further adorned with Venetian mirrors and
-paintings worth their weight in gold. The chairs were
-of rare exotic or foreign woods supplied with embroidered
-cushions, or seats of Utrecht velvet, and the other furniture
-consisted of beautifully painted or inlaid or
-mosaic tables, beautifully carved cupboards, and rare
-cabinets inlaid with silver, ivory or tortoiseshell, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>filled with the finest egg-shell porcelain. Porcelains and
-curios adorned the high carved chimney.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In older aristocratic homes the “show-room” was
-less lavishly furnished, but none the less the pride of the
-mistress. The floor was covered with mats, the walls with
-painted linen, or handsome paintings; but in rare porcelain
-it was the equal of any alderman’s or mayor’s wife.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As time wore on, the walnut cabinet supplanted the
-carved or oak cupboard, the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vitrine</span></i> took the place of
-the china-cabinet and the console and glass appeared
-between the windows, and finally we arrive at the period
-when the small bookcase with glass or mirror doors
-appears and chairs covered with figured rep.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The kitchen usually contained a bedstead with feather
-bed, pillows and curtains, a looking-glass in a black
-frame, a cupboard, chairs, a table, andirons, innumerable
-brooms and brushes, flint and steel for striking a light,
-shovels, tongs, gridirons, dripping-pans, whetting-boards
-for knives, tubs, butter firkins (earthenware, pewter, brass
-and tin), knives, forks, spoons, stills, churns, hanging
-boards, can-boards, pots, pails, skimmers, funnels, salt-boxes,
-candle-boxes, frying-pans, beakers, candlesticks,
-dripping-pans, skewers, stewing-pans with covers, copper
-kettles, chafing-dishes, hour-glasses, lamps, hammers,
-tankards, tin pans to roast apples, pot-hangers, dishes
-to boil fish on, mortars and pestles, waffle-irons, bellows,
-kettles, a birdcage, saucepans, platters, cans, pepper
-mills, tin ware to bake sugar cakes, marzipan pans, racks
-to hang clothes on, wicker baskets, hampers, tubs, glass
-knockers to beat clothes, smoothing irons, tin watering
-pots to wet clothes, rainwater casks, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>In order to gain an idea of a lady’s bedroom of the
-period, let us visit that of the wealthy Mrs. Lidia van der
-Dussen, the daughter of Jacob van Beveren, alderman
-of Dordrecht and bailiff and dike-count of the Country
-of Strijen. The house is one of those with a high
-peaked gable; it has oblong round-headed windows
-with small panes set in lead, and a façade decorated
-with carvings and arms, while the name of the house is
-inscribed in marble at the top. Green and red damask
-curtains at the windows give the exterior an air of cheerfulness
-and comfort. We enter. To the right of the
-large vestibule, the floor of which is laid in marble tiles
-of blue and white, a wide marble staircase leads to a
-wide marble hallway. The floor of this is covered with
-the finest Spanish matting, and on each side of the hall
-are doors opening into various rooms. These heavy
-doors are of oak, and are elaborately carved or painted
-with cherubs, shepherds and shepherdesses, etc. Opening
-one of these doors at the rear—the quietest part of the
-house—we find ourselves in a large room, the stone
-floor of which is covered with rich rugs, while tiles
-ornamented with bright pictorial designs, or mottoes,
-cover the walls. The dark and heavy serge curtains
-that hang at the windows prevent us from distinguishing
-the furniture of the room very clearly; but we gradually
-make out the articles one by one. We note the splendid
-array of vases and beakers that adorn the wide mantelpiece,
-and also the top of the china cabinet of <em>sacredaan</em>
-wood, and the massive and richly carved, or deeply
-panelled, linen wardrobe, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>. A handsome walnut
-bedstead stands in one corner of the room. The four
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>twisted pillars support a canopy, from which fall heavy
-serge curtains, that conceal a wealth of fine linen and
-Flemish lace. The four corners of the canopy are surmounted
-by the favourite ornament of the period, the
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pomme</span></i>” consisting of a bunch of plumes,—in this
-instance of green, red and black. The walls, although
-encased in tiles, are hung with pictures in ebony frames,
-in addition to which there is a large Venetian mirror set
-in a rich crystal frame. A drop-leaf table stands in the
-centre of the room, surrounded by several chairs with
-high backs and low seats. The woodwork of these
-chairs, shining like glass from the devoted polishing it
-receives, is, like the china-cabinet already mentioned,
-of <em>sacredaan</em>. We also note in this room a beautifully
-made wicker cot, or basket, for the baby.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In early days this article of furniture was of large
-dimensions, and the nurse sat beside it with a large
-screen at the side to keep away draughts. Some of these
-cots were shaped like cradles without the rockers, and
-were supplied with a shelf or wing on the side as a protection
-from the heat of the peat fire. At a later period
-of this century, the cradle rested on two rounded rockers,
-and had a rounded hood or canopy. It was made of
-plum-tree wood, or of wicker lined with yellow satin
-and trimmed with costly lace. Royalty was rocked in
-cradles of gold or silver; that of Charles V, however,
-shown in the Brussels Museum, is of wood, carved in the
-Gothic style and painted. A primitive form of Dutch
-cradle was suspended from iron rings on two posts of
-wood, and a later kind, recommended by ‘s Gravesande,
-had a spring on one side and a weight on the other, so
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>that when once put in motion it would continue rocking
-for a long time.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Near the cradle stood the “fire” or “napkin basket,”
-also made of wicker and covered with serge, or with
-richer material if the home was one of wealth. In the
-inventory of Vrouwe Reepmaker (1670), for example,
-“white and satin basket covers” occur. The “fire”
-or “napkin basket” contained everything pertaining to
-the baby’s outfit; and mention is made in the inventories
-of “a neat,” “a simple,” or “a costly fire basket,”
-according to the circumstances of the owner. The “fire
-basket” with its outfit was given as a present to the
-young mother by the husband’s mother or one of the
-aunts. In a celebrated farce of the period, Old Brechtje
-says: “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Van mijn peetje een wonderlicke schoone corf
-ecregen, die voor al myn kyeren eef edient. Ze eef hem
-van lapwerck en fraeykens van croonsaey en passementen
-emaeckt.</span></i>” (“I got from my aunt a wonderfully beautiful
-basket, which has served for all my children. She made
-it of patchwork, and covered it nicely with serge and
-embroidery.”)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On a table, an open buffet, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>, or a glass
-cabinet, all the baby’s silver was arrayed, such as the
-herb-box, the pap-pot, the cinnamon bowl with cover
-and spoon, and the large clothes tray—all inherited
-gifts from godfathers and godmothers of many generations.
-Each piece is variously inscribed, sometimes
-dating as far back as the sixteenth century, or earlier.
-This large silver tray holds the costly clothing that will
-be used at the christening, such as the cambric and lace
-robes and the red velvet robe lined with red silk, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>satin tufted blanket and other articles of baby dress.
-Nor must the large pincushion be forgotten, on which
-the baby’s name will be printed with pins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bride’s basket was just as important as the
-baby’s basket. This was also made of wicker, and,
-according to the means of the parents, lined with rich
-or simple material. It was adorned with flowers, and
-contained, not the bride’s dresses, but the wedding-shawl
-and ornaments belonging to it, the jewels and gloves
-that the bride was to wear at the wedding, and also the
-gifts of the bridegroom.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The “bride’s crown” and “bride’s throne” received
-a great deal of attention from the loving hands that
-were busy with the preparations for the festivities.
-The house was turned into a perfect bower on the occasion
-of a wedding. Garlands of palms, flowers and evergreens
-were interwoven, and hung upon the walls with
-the green boughs that were variously twined and twisted.
-Gold and silver favours, love-knots, marriage-bells and
-other devices and letters forming mottoes and riddles,
-were displayed among the greenery and flowers, and the
-name or initials of the bride and groom were to be seen
-on every side. Magnificent Japanese vases filled with
-flowers, particularly the brilliant tulip, were placed in
-every available space. Handsome mirrors were removed
-from other rooms and hung among the garlands and
-flowers to add more light and beauty to the rooms.
-Not unfrequently the outside of the house received its
-share of decoration, when the street doors were covered
-with greenery and garlands were hung from all the
-windows.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>The Dutch made lavish use of flowers and greenery
-on festive occasions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When Charles II was called home from Holland in
-1660 to ascend the empty throne, he received a magnificent
-farewell entertainment by the States-General.
-The festivities lasted over several days, and are described
-in considerable detail by Sir John Lower, who was present.
-In his book we get an occasional glimpse of the furniture
-of the day, particularly its disposition on gala occasions.
-The great sideboards, or cupboards, are mentioned with
-admiration. The great feasts were given in the Mauritshuis,
-The Hague, which was the scene of lavish hospitality.
-Describing one of these entertainments, Lower tells us:
-“From the centre of the lover or open roof descended
-a Royal Crown, very gallantly made, in the midst of
-four lusters or crystal candlesticks, which with many
-other candlesticks, arms of silver and a great number of
-torches, enlightened all corners much better than the
-Sun could have done at midday. They gave particularly
-a marvellous lustre to the two bottoms of the chimney
-which is on the left side, where two partitions of painted
-wood shut up as many cupboards of crystal glasses,
-and a great store of vessels and of silver plate and vermillion
-gilt. The Hall was furnished with ordinary
-Tapestry, which is of crimson damask, and had no other
-adornments but that here and there there were some
-fair pictures, and that the ends of the chimnies and the
-void places above the cross-bar windows were adorned
-with garlands, leaves and figures of trees loaden
-with oranges and mingled with all sorts of flowers,
-which formed not only a very regular compartment,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>but wonderfully refreshed also the chamber and
-charmed no less the smell by their perfume than they
-pleased the sight through the diversity of their rich
-enamel.”</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>THE IMPORTANCE OF PORCELAIN</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Rise of Dutch Taste in Decorative Art—Influence of Foreign Trade in
-the Dutch Home—Accounts of Porcelain by Mediaeval Travellers:
-Edrisi, Ibn Batuta and Shah Rukh; Quotation from Pigapheta—A
-great European Collection—Monopoly of Trade by the Portuguese—Quotation
-from Pyrard de Laval—Portuguese Carracks—Voyages
-to Goa and Japan—Porcelain and Cabinets—Mendoza’s
-Description of Earthenware—Dutch and English Merchants—Presents
-to Queen Elizabeth—Dutch Expeditions and Establishment
-of the Dutch East India Company—Embassy to the Emperor
-of China in 1655—Descriptions of the Manufacture of Porcelain—Manufacture
-and Potters of Delft—Quotation from d’Entrecolles
-on Porcelain and Oriental Trade—Prices—Tea; Tea-drinking—A
-Dutch Poet on the Tea-table—Chrestina de Ridder’s Porcelain—Prices
-of Porcelain in 1653.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>Until the middle of the seventeenth century, Flanders
-may be said to have overshadowed Holland in
-the field of Decorative Art, although, as we have seen,
-the two most important designers of domestic furniture—De
-Vries and Crispin van de Passe—were Dutch.
-The reason of Flemish preponderance was that the
-sovereigns and regents resided at Mechlin, Ghent, Brussels
-and Antwerp, and to those courts the ablest men in
-the arts and crafts naturally flocked. With the decay
-of Antwerp, we enter the period of the Flemish Decadence,
-and Amsterdam rises to wealth and power at her
-rival’s expense. After the death of Rubens, Dutch art
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>is supreme in the Low Countries; and Dutch taste
-undoubtedly influenced France and England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch home of the seventeenth century was
-profoundly affected by foreign trade. The day of heavy
-carved furniture was over lightness and brightness are
-now the prevailing notes. Broad surfaces are veneered
-and inlaid with exotic woods; and the lathe is freely
-used in the ornamentation of the supports of seats,
-cupboards, cabinets, etc. Above all, we notice a predominance
-of native and Oriental ceramic ware.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch were as fond of earthenware as of tulips;
-and no study of a Dutch interior could be adequate if
-it neglected to take into account the part played by
-Delft and porcelain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The three novelties that impressed the Dutch home
-of the seventeenth century were tea, porcelain and lacquer.
-The importance of tea, with its table and equipage
-as a domestic altar, can hardly be overestimated; but
-its consideration may be deferred for the moment.
-Porcelain affected the arrangement of furniture and
-the decoration of rooms. The cabinet assumed new
-forms and proportions, as porcelain decorated its exterior.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although Chinese porcelains had appeared in the
-cabinets of amateurs of the sixteenth century, the comparative
-rarity of this ware confined its enjoyment to
-the very wealthy. The magnificent ebony cabinets,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</span></i>, or <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">kasten</span></i>, with drawers and interior shelves
-in which women delighted to set in beautiful order
-miniatures and jewels, enamels and ivories, shells and
-rock-crystals, medals and coral, now had also to find
-room for carved ivory and ebony, gods and monsters,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>jade, porcelain, sandal-wood and lacquer boxes, and all
-the rarities that were to be found in the stores of the
-Eastern traders.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Porcelain was early held in high esteem, and a vase
-was regarded as a fit present from one potentate to
-another. It was very rare in Western Europe until
-the Portuguese opened the Eastern gates. Mediaeval
-travellers had frequently referred to its preciousness.
-Edrisi (1154) says of Susah: “Here are made an unequalled
-kind of porcelain, the Ghazar of China.” There
-was always a certain mystery attached to its composition
-and qualities till the beginning of the eighteenth
-century. Ibn Batuta, who travelled in Bengal and
-China about 1350, gives a more or less fabulous account
-of its manufacture. He says: “Porcelain in China
-is of about the same value as earthenware with us, or
-even less. It is exported to India and elsewhere, passing
-from country to country till it reaches us in Morocco.
-It is certainly the finest of all pottery ware.” In 1420
-the Embassy sent by Shah Rukh to the Chinese Court
-mentions a buffet on which were arranged flagons, cups
-and goblets of silver and porcelain. The scribe also
-bears witness to the fact that “in the arts of stone-polishing,
-cabinet-making, pottery and brick-making,
-there is nobody with us who can compare with the
-Chinese.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Early in the sixteenth century, before 1520, A. Pigapheta
-made a voyage to the East. He describes a
-visit to the house of the Queen of Mindanao: “I sat
-down by the side of her; she was weaving a palm mat
-to sleep upon. Throughout her house was seen porcelain
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>vases suspended to the walls and four metal timbals.”
-He tells us that in Borneo, at Bruni: “For one cathil
-(a weight equal to two of our pounds) of quicksilver
-they gave us six porcelain dishes; for a cathil of metal
-they gave one small porcelain vase, and a large vase
-for three knives.... The merchandise which is most
-esteemed here is bronze, quicksilver, cinnabar, glass,
-woollen stuffs, linens; but above all they esteem iron
-and spectacles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Since I saw such use made of porcelain I got some
-information respecting it, and I learned that it is made
-with a kind of very white earth, which is left underground
-for fully fifty years to refine it, so that they
-are in the habit of saying that a father buries it for his
-son. It is said that if poison is put into a vessel of fine
-porcelain it breaks immediately.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is generally supposed that the table service, even
-among the rich, was very limited during the sixteenth
-century. A careful search of the inventories, however,
-shows that a complete service of faïence was to be found
-on the tables of the opulent in the first half of the sixteenth
-century. In 1532, we find that the widow of a
-minister of Francis I had two complete services of beautiful
-faïence: one entirely white, and the other “historied”
-with all kinds of coloured portraits. These
-two services were composed each of four dozen large
-and three dozen small plates, four <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aiguières</span></i>, three round
-and one oval basin, three salts (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sallières</span></i>), eight pots,
-twelve <i><span lang="mt" xml:lang="mt">tazzi</span></i>, and three dozen spoons, some of ivory and
-some of wood and mother-of-pearl, “which we used in
-summer and autumn in serving collations of confitures,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>junkets, custards, syllabubs, fruits and cider to the great
-ladies who came to visit my daughters and myself;
-and in addition I have also many other vessels of the best
-pottery of Italy, Germany, Flanders, England and Spain.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Besides the above, this lady possessed forty-two
-vases, pots, <i><span lang="mt" xml:lang="mt">tazzi</span></i> and plaques of porcelain “of the earliest
-days when Europeans went to China, which are of a
-beautiful white, and decorated with all kinds of little
-paintings.” The owner, who had evidently read Pigapheta,
-adds that the makers did not profit in their own
-lifetime by the manufacture of this “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ravissante</span></i>” porcelain,
-because it had to be buried in the earth for a century
-in order to come to perfection. Another reason
-why it should be prized is that it is “so healthy that
-if it is soiled with poison by evil doers who want to
-injure anybody, it will immediately fall to pieces rather
-than suffer the vile draughts with which people would
-ravage our entrails.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this date, the Oriental wares had not yet supplanted
-those that came through Turkey, Asia Minor and
-Egypt by way of Venice and other Italian ports. Among
-the lady’s possessions we find twenty-eight vases, pots,
-cups and little earthenware bowls of Turkish work,
-decorated on the necks and handles with little tufts
-resembling horses’ tails.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>She also had four hundred beautiful glasses of all
-colours, and other Venetian crystal vessels, “adorned
-with the gayest fancies that the glass-blowers were
-capable of inventing, with which we delighted the eyes
-of royalty and the great ministers of state at the great
-entertainments we gave.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>After Portuguese navigators had found the route
-to the East around the Cape of Good Hope, they were
-able to outstrip Venice as a sea-carrier for Eastern merchandise.
-The Levant trade, with its costly loading and
-unloading from caravan to ship, could not hope to compete
-with an all-sea route, and therefore the Portuguese
-soon acquired a practical monopoly of the traffic between
-Western Europe and Eastern Asia.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a> Lisbon became the
-great mart whence lacquer, porcelain and other wares
-were distributed throughout Europe. Dutch ships
-swarmed in the Tagus, and transferred Oriental merchandise
-to Amsterdam and other European ports.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>We know that much porcelain was brought into Europe through Venice
-from the Levant long after the Portuguese were dominant in the Eastern seas.
-As late as 1623, in Minshen’s Spanish dialogues, <cite><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">China metiall</span></cite> is defined as “the
-fine dishes of earth painted, such as are brought from Venice.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Vicomte de Santarem assures us that from 1497
-to 1521 from Lisbon alone the Portuguese despatched
-thirty-three fleets, composed of 220 ships; and a fleet
-was despatched every year till the next century. The
-fleet of 1604 even consisted of five ships. Two carvels
-also sailed the same year.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We learn what these great ships were like from
-Pyrard de Laval (1601), who wrote:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Three or four Portuguese ships at most go out
-every year; these are the carracks, called by them <i><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">naos
-de voyage</span></i>, which are sent out with the intention that
-they shall return if they can....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The carracks are all built at Lisbon ... they are
-ordinarily of 1,500 to 2,000 tons burden. Sometimes
-more, so that they are the largest vessels in the world
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>so far as I have been able to learn; they cannot float
-in less than ten fathoms of water.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“These great carracks have four decks, on each of
-which a man, however tall, can walk without touching
-his head against the deck above: indeed, he comes not
-within two feet of it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The ships leaving Goa are laden not only with
-silver, but with divers goods of Europe, such as wines,
-woollen fabrics, and among others red scarlet; all
-sorts of glass and crystal wares, clocks which are highly
-prized by the Chinese, much cotton cloth, precious stones
-cut and set in rings, chains, carkanets, tokens, ear-pendants
-and bracelets; for the Chinese like vastly to
-get gems and jewels of all sorts for their wives. The
-ships leave Goa towards October, and touch at Cochin
-for precious stones and spices, such as pepper and cinnamon,
-leaving there the merchandise of Europe or of the
-northern parts of India. Thence they sail for Malaca;
-for they cannot make this voyage without touching at
-Malaca in order to get the Governor’s passport, and
-also to purchase the merchandise of the islands of Sunda
-in exchange for cotton cloths and other goods of India
-and Europe.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Vessels making the voyage from Goa to Japan and
-back may reckon on taking three whole years; nor
-can they reckon on less by reason of the winds called
-by them <i><span lang="af" xml:lang="af">Monssons</span></i> and by us <i><span lang="no" xml:lang="no">Muesons</span></i>, which prevail for
-six months and more. From Malaca they go to Macao,
-and thence to Japan. At all these places they must
-await the <em>Muesons</em>; in the meantime while waiting they
-carry on their trade. At Macao they leave the greater
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>part of their goods, and all their silver, relading with
-other goods of China, such as silks and Spanish white ...
-it is dear, and much in request in Japan, where all
-the women whiten the whole body with it, even down
-to the legs. This white comes from the island of
-Borneo, whence it is carried to China. Then they carry
-to Japan all those China goods and some others from
-Europe and India, which they sell exceeding well; they
-bring back only silver, which they get cheap, and return
-to Macao to resell all their silver, exchanging it
-for other merchandise. They make a long sojourn in
-all those places, and then return to Malaca, where they
-must call; there they make another exchange of goods
-for those of Malaca and the islands of Sunda. Thence
-they return to Goa, or whatever other place the master
-of the ship belongs to.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In Goa, “They have no glasses, except what are
-brought from these parts or from Persia, and that is
-but little, and, moreover, not much esteemed, as they
-get the porcelaines of China at small cost.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The Maldives take their food so nicely that they
-spill nothing, not even a drop of water, though they
-wash the mouth before and after dinner in basins served
-on purpose. The vessel used is of earthenware, like
-that of Fayance, fashioned in the native style, and imported
-from Cambaye; or else it is of China porcelain,
-which is very common and used by almost all. But
-they use not any plate of earthenware, or of porcelain,
-saving one kind of round box, polished and lacquered,
-with a cover of the same; it is manufactured in the
-island....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>“His (the King’s) plate is neither gold nor silver,
-for that is forbidden by their law, but of porcelain or of
-other China fabric.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“It is impossible to tell all the great riches and all
-the rare and beautiful things which the ships bring back;
-among others they bring much gold in ingots. Some
-gold also they have in leaf and some in dust; also great
-store of gilded woodwork, such as all sorts of vessels
-and furniture lacquered, varnished and gilded with a
-thousand pretty designs; then all kinds of silk stuffs,
-good store of unwrought silk, great quantities of musk
-and civet, plenty of the metal called <em>calin</em>,<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a> which is
-much esteemed over all the Indies, and even in Persia
-and elsewhere.... Of this metal they make all their
-utensils and ornaments as we do have of silver and tin;
-they even use it for rings and bracelets for girls and
-children. They import also from thence much porcelain
-ware, which is used throughout India as well by
-the Portuguese as by the Indians. Besides all this, many
-boxes, plates and baskets made of little reeds covered
-with lacquer and varnished in all colours, gilded and
-patterned. Among other things I should mention a great
-number of cabinets of all patterns in the fashion of
-those of Germany. This is an article the most perfect
-and of the finest workmanship to be seen anywhere;
-for they are all of choice woods and inlaid with ivory,
-mother-of-pearl and precious stones; in place of iron
-they are mounted with gold. The Portuguese call them
-<i><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Escritorios de la Chine</span></i>.”</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Malayan tin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>J. G. Mendoza was another traveller who gave Europe
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>the results of his observations of Portuguese activities
-in the Far East, and helped to stimulate a popular taste
-for porcelain. His book was translated into English
-in 1588, by R. Parke. Among other interesting information
-he tells us:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“There be also shops full of earthen vessels of divers
-making, redde, greene, yellow, and gilt; it is so good
-cheepe that for foure rials of plate they give fiftie pieces:
-very strong earth, the which they doo breake all to pieces
-and grinde it and put it into sesternes with water, made
-of lime and stone; and after that they have well tumbled
-and tossed it in the water, of the creame that is upon
-it they make the finest sort of them, and the lower they
-go, spending that substance that is the courser: they
-make them of what colour they please, the which will
-never be lost: then they put them into their killes and
-burne them. This has beene seene and is of a truth, as
-appeareth in a booke set forth in the Italian tongue by
-Duardo Banbosa,<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a> that they do make them of periwinkle
-shelles of the sea: the which they do grinde and
-put them under the ground to refine them, whereas they
-lie 100 years. But if that were true, they should not
-make so great a number of them as is made in that kingdome,
-and is brought into Portugall, and carried into
-the Peru, and Nova Espania, and into other parts of the
-world.... And the Chinos do agree for this to be
-true. The finest sort of this is never carried out of the
-countrie, for that it is spent in the service of the king,
-and his governours, and is so fine and deere, that it
-seemeth to be of fine and perfite cristal: that which is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>made in the province of Saxie is the best and finest....</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>1520.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The fine earthen dishes that are in this countrie
-cannot be declared without many wordes. But that
-which is brought from thence into Spaine is verie course;
-although, unto them that hath not seene the finer sort,
-it seemeth excellent good; but they have such with
-them, that a cubbard thereof amongest us would be
-esteemed as though it were of golde. The finest cannot
-be brought forth of the kingdome upon paine of death;
-neyther can any have the use thereof, but onely the
-<em>loytias</em>, which be there gentlemen.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The glowing accounts of the riches of Ind and Far
-Cathay brought home by the early voyagers naturally
-fired the imagination and cupidity of Dutch, English
-and French merchants and adventurers, who said to
-one another: “We too will go to the hills of the Chankley
-Bore”; and every potentate in Europe connived
-at their subjects’ efforts to trespass on the King of Portugal’s
-Tom Tiddler’s Ground.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Independent efforts had been made by the English
-to get a share of the riches of the East long before the
-Dutch and English East India companies were formed.
-In 1560, the Portuguese ambassador exhibited articles
-for restraining the traffic of English merchants in the
-Indies. In 1566, “Dr. Lewes takes bonds of George
-Fenner not to spoil any of the Queen’s subjects, nor to
-traffic into India, or any other places privileged by the
-King of Spain.” About the same date, the merchants
-petitioned “for reopening the trade with Portugal suspended
-in consequence of the irregular trade of some
-Englishmen to the Indies.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>Instances of poaching and piracy in Portuguese
-preserves might be multiplied, but three will suffice.
-In 1598, Cecil receives a report from a Lisbon agent
-that, “On August 1st, three carracks arrived from India
-and one was burnt there full laden. They bring news
-that two English ships in India have taken two Portugal
-ships, rich with treasure, that were on their voyage
-from Goa to Chine.” And again, on October 16, 1601,
-Sir John Gilbert writes to Cecil: “My ship ... has
-brought home silks, having taken a Brazil vessel with
-porcelain and other wares.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Elizabeth’s luxurious ministers had choice collections
-of porcelain richly mounted in precious metal, from
-which they sometimes offered her presents. For instance,
-among her New Year’s gifts in 1588, we find: “One
-porrynger of white porselyn, garnished with golde, the
-cover of golde, with a lyon on the toppe thereof; all
-given by the Lord Threasorour, 38 oz. Item, one cup
-of green pursselyne, the foot, shanke and cover silver
-guilte chased like droppes. Given by Mr. Robert Cecill,
-15 oz. Item, one cup of pursseline, th’ one side paynted
-red, the foote and cover sylver guilte. Given by Mr.
-Lychfelde, 14 oz.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is natural that from the fact that the Portuguese
-had the monopoly of the East Indian trade, the finest
-examples of Oriental workmanship should be found
-in Portugal and Spain, Lisbon being the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">entrepôt</span></i> of
-European distribution. The Spanish dominions in the
-Low Countries were well supplied with these wares by
-the Dutch mariners.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the sixteenth century, the Dutch were already
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>famed as sea-carriers (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">rouliers des mers</span></i>). With Lisbon
-as a base of supplies, they soon destroyed the monopoly
-of the trade in Oriental wares which Venice had so long
-enjoyed. When Philip II annexed Portugal in 1580,
-however, he naturally sought to take revenge on his
-rebellious subjects of the Low Countries by closing
-against them the ports of the Iberian peninsula.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Finding that their profits from the trade with the
-East Indies were thus practically extinguished, their
-only course was to go to those distant lands themselves.
-How to get there was the question; and this was a
-secret which the Portuguese navigators had carefully
-guarded. The Dutch knew that they were reached
-by some southern route which could only be traversed by
-force of arms, but thought that the lands where one
-might “swim in golden lard” might be reached by a
-north-east passage. Dutch ships vainly attempted
-this in 1594 and 1596, being barred by the ice. In the
-meantime, Corneliz Houtman had managed to buy
-some Portuguese charts, and thus to learn the real route
-around the Cape. He induced ten merchants of Amsterdam
-to form a “Foreign Company” (<em>van verre</em>) and send
-out a sort of exploring expedition. This first attempt
-was made on no lavish scale. The ships could not hope
-to fight the mighty Portuguese armed carracks. The
-four ships of this first voyage were the <em>Maurice</em>, 400
-tons; the <em>Amsterdam</em>, 200 tons; the <em>Dove</em>, 30 tons;
-and the <em>Holland</em>, 400 tons.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>They left<a id='t215'></a> Texel early in April, 1595, and arrived
-home in August, 1597. Their glowing reports encouraged
-the despatch of a second flotilla of eight ships in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>1598, four of which went to the Moluccas and the rest
-no farther than Bantam, returning with rich cargoes
-of spices and other merchandise. Several other companies
-were started in consequence, but in 1602 they
-were all consolidated with a capital of 6,440,000 florins,
-and the Dutch East India Company was established.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch navigators and travellers who sailed the
-Vanderdecken course to the Spice Islands, naturally,
-on their return, gave their fellow-countrymen a full
-account of the wealth and curiosities of art they had
-witnessed in India, Polynesia, China and Japan. Two
-or three of these, not being foreign to our subject, may
-be quoted here. The Netherland East India Company
-sent an embassy to the Emperor of China in 1655, and
-the reporter was evidently most interested in supplying
-his fellow-countrymen with the secrets of the manufacture
-of porcelain, which the Dutch were trying to
-imitate with their delft ware. He says:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Upon the 25th of April we came to a village famous
-for shipping called Ucienjen, where lay great store of vessels
-of several sorts and sizes, which were come thither from
-all parts of China, to lade with China earthenware,
-whereof great store is sold in this village.... Quite
-through the middle of this rich village rims a broad
-street, full of shops on both sides, where all manner
-of commodities are sold; but the chiefest trade is in
-Purceline, or China dishes, which is to be had there in
-great abundance....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The earth whereof this porcelain is made, is digged
-in great quantity out of the mountains situated near
-the chief city Hoei-cheu, in the province of Nanking,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>from whence it is brought in four-square clods to the
-above-mentioned village, which have the Emperor’s
-arms stamped upon them to prevent all manner of
-deceit. The earth is not fat, like clay, or chalk, but
-like to our fine sand, which they mingle with water,
-and so make it into four-square clods. They likewise
-beat and powder the broken China dishes, and make
-new ones of them; (but such as are made of broken
-ware never take so fine colour and gloss as those which
-are made of fresh mould.) The earthen clods which
-are thus brought from the mountains are afterwards
-framed into what fashions they please, after the same
-manner as our potters in Europe form their earthenware.
-Upon the great pots which are made of this
-earth, they have an art to themselves to paint all manner
-of creatures, flowers and trees, which they do very
-curiously only with <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indico</span></i>. This art of painting upon
-the pots is kept so private and secret that they will not
-teach it to any but to their children and near relations,
-wherein the Chineses are so dexterous that you cannot
-show them anything, but they will imitate it upon their
-pots and dishes, which being framed and made of this
-earth, are first dryed in the Sun before they are baked
-in the oven; and when they are thoroughly dryed, they
-are put into an oven and stopt very close, where they
-bake for fifteen days together with a good fire under:
-the time being out, they are continued in the oven
-fifteen days more without any fire; however the oven
-all that while is kept close stopt, and not opened till
-it be quite cold; for if they should take their earthenware
-red-hot out of the oven, it would endanger the breaking
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>and losing their gloss. After the expiration of thirty
-days, the furnace is opened in the presence of an officer
-appointed by the Emperor to take an account of this
-earthenware, and to receive the Emperor’s duty which
-is of such sort the fifth piece, according to the laws of
-the kingdom; the rest they afterwards sell to the
-inhabitants of this village, Ucienjen, where (as they say)
-is the staple of this <em>Purceline</em> trade, which is sent from
-this village, not only through all China, but also through
-the whole world.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From Samedo’s <cite>History of China</cite>, we learn:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“They have altogether relinquished to Europe to
-be served in plate, there being scarce found among
-them a vessel of silver of a considerable bigness, no
-not in the Emperor’s palace, being content to eat in
-porcelain, which is the only vessel in the world for
-neat and delightful cleanliness.... Kiamsi is famous
-for the Porcellane dishes (indeed the only work in the
-world of this kind) which are made only in one of its
-towns: so that all that is used in the kingdom, and
-dispersed through the whole world, are brought from
-this place: although the earth whereof they are made
-cometh from another place: but there only is the water,
-wherewith precisely they are to be wrought to come to
-their perfection, for if they be wrought with other water
-the work will not have so much glosse and lustre. In
-this worke there are not those mysteries that are reported
-of it here, neither in the matter, the form nor the manner
-of working; they are made absolutely of earth, but of a
-neat and excellent quality. They are made in the same
-time, and the same manner, as our earthen vessels; only
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>they make them with more diligence and accuratenesse.
-The blew, wherewith they paint the porcellane, is anill,
-whereof they have abundance, some do paint them with
-vermilion, and (for the king) with yellow.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The same traveller also notes: “The workmanship
-of Europe which they most admired were our
-clocks, but now they make of them such as are set upon
-tables, very good ones.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A Jesuit father, writing from China in 1688, sheds
-further light on the wares that were made there and
-prized in Europe. He says in part:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“As for porcelain, it is such an ordinary moveable,
-that it is the ornament of every house; the tables,
-the sideboards, nay, the kitchen is cumber’d with it,
-for they eat and drink out of it, it is their ordinary
-vessel. There is likewise made huge flower-pots of it.
-The very architects cover roofs and make use of it sometimes
-to incrustate marble buildings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Amongst those that are most in request, there are
-of three different colours; some are yellow, yet though
-the earth be very fine, they appear more coarse than
-the others; and the reason is, because that colour
-does not admit of so fine polishing; it is used in the
-Emperor’s palace. Yellow is his own proper colour,
-which is not allowed to any person to bear; so that
-one may safely say, that as for the business of porcelain,
-the Emperor is the worst served.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The second sort is of a grey colour, with abundance
-of small irregular lines in it, that cross one another,
-as if the vessel was all over striped, or wrought with
-inlaid or mosaic work. I cannot imagine how they form
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>these figures, for I have much ado to believe that they
-are able to draw them with a pencil. However it is,
-these sort of vases partake of a particular beauty; and
-sure I am, the curious amongst us would much value
-them.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Last of all, the third sort of porcelain is white,
-with divers figures of flowers, trees and birds, which
-they paint in blue, such as come hither into Europe.
-This is the commonest of all, and everybody uses it.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The minute descriptions of the manufacture and
-varieties of porcelain furnished by Dutch and other
-travellers must not be charged up to an artistic appreciation
-exclusively. The Dutch were very much in earnest
-in their efforts to manufacture a home product which
-might compete with the foreign. As we have seen,
-Dutch pottery had already attained a high reputation,
-and was much sought after in foreign markets; and
-now, with the influx of porcelain, the Guilds strained
-every nerve to meet the demand.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The manufacture of delft began at the end of the
-sixteenth century with Hermann Pietersz, a native of
-Haarlem. In the first days of its existence, the style
-of decoration was rather complicated, for the subjects
-representing <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kermesses</span></i>, combats, etc., were designed
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en camaïeu</span></i>. In order to sell a piece of pottery, the
-potter had to belong to the Guild of St. Luke. The
-Delft Guild of St. Luke was established in 1611 and
-included all the skilled workmen in the arts and crafts:
-(1) painters; (2) stainers of glass, engravers and glass-makers;
-(3) potters; (4) embroiderers and weavers
-of tapestry; (5) sculptors and carvers; (6) sheath or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>scabbard-makers; (7) art-printers and booksellers; and
-(8) engravers and dealers in paintings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the second half of the seventeenth century, particularly
-under the influence of Abraham de Kooge (1632)
-and Albrecht de Keizer (1642), the Delft potters began
-to imitate the Oriental products in both modelling and
-decoration. De Kooge was famous for his landscapes
-and portraits with names and dates—all in blue; but
-de Keizer, who was the precursor of the celebrated
-Cornelis de Keizer and the two Pynackers, also produced
-coloured ware in imitation of the Chinese and
-Japanese. Other followers were: Pieter Oesterham,
-who devoted himself chiefly to landscapes and national
-portraits; Frederick van Frytom, who was particularly
-fond of blue <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">camaïeu</span></i>: Gerrit Pietersz, who delighted in
-elephants and Chinese subjects; and Augustijn Reygensbergh,
-who made fine imitations of Chinese and Japanese
-ware in red, blue and gold. Lowys Fictoor (1689) and
-Lambertus Eenhoorn (1691) were famous for their black
-delft, with wonderful glaze and ornamented in the
-Chinese style with pagodas and trees in yellow and
-green; Lucas van Dale, for his olive-brown decorated
-with yellow; Leonard van Amsterdam, for figures,
-small landscapes and shipping scenes painted in colours
-on the backs of brushes as well as small dishes; and
-Verhagen sought the prints of Goltzius. Among other
-celebrated potters of this period are the names of two
-other Eenhoorns, five Kams, four Van der Hoevens,
-and two Dextras. The many factories of Delft were
-known under fanciful names, such as The Rose, The
-Star, The Peacock, The Claw, The Three Bells, etc., etc.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>Delft ware declined about the end of the seventeenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The European potters did not gain a clear and sane
-understanding of the composition and manufacture of
-porcelain till the last years of the reign of Louis XIV,
-when d’Entrecolles, a Jesuit father, sent home a full report
-of the mystery. A few extracts from his letter will be
-extremely illuminating on certain points relating to
-European trade and Chinese guile:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“As for the colours of the porcelain, they are of all
-kinds. In Europe, scarcely any are to be seen but
-those that have a strong blue on a white ground. I
-believe, however, that our merchants have brought
-others in. There are some with grounds like our <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">miroirs
-ardents</span></i>; some again are entirely red, and amongst
-these some are dotted with little points like our <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mignatures</span></i>.
-When these are perfect, which is very hard to
-attain, they are infinitely esteemed and extremely dear.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Finally there are porcelains in which the landscapes
-painted on them are made up of almost every colour
-and relieved by gold. They are very beautiful, if we
-judge by their cost: otherwise the ordinary porcelain
-of this kind is not comparable to that painted with
-azure alone.... Black porcelain has also its own price
-and beauty.... The gold that is applied to it, gives
-it a novel charm....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Here also is made another species that I had never
-yet seen: it is all pierced and cut-work: in the centre
-is a cup to contain liquor. The cup is in the same piece
-and forms a part of the cut-work. I have seen other
-porcelains in which Chinese and Tartar ladies were
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>painted to the life. The draperies, the complexion
-and features of the faces were all well rendered. From
-a distance you would take this work for enamel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The Chinese complain of a lost secret: they once
-had the art of painting on the insides of porcelains fishes
-and animals that only became visible when the vessels
-were filled with some liquid. They try from time to
-time to recover the art of this magic painting, but in
-vain.... However that may be, we may say that
-at the present day the beautiful blue has been revived
-on porcelain after having disappeared from it....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The Chinese chiefly succeed in grotesques and
-the representations of animals. They make ducks
-and turtles that float upon the water. I have seen a
-cat painted to the life. In its head had been put a
-little lamp the flame of which shone through the eyes,
-and I was assured that rats were terrified at it. They
-also make here many statues of <em>Kouan in</em>, a Chinese
-goddess, with an infant in her arms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“European merchants often order from the Chinese
-workers porcelain plaques to form the top of a table,
-or back of a chair, or frame of a picture. These works
-are impossible: the greatest length and width of a
-plate is about one foot. If they are made larger than
-that, no matter how thick, they bend.... The history
-of <em>King te ching</em> speaks of divers works ordered by
-Emperors that workmen tried vainly to execute....
-The Mandarins of this province presented a petition
-to the Emperor begging him to have the attempts cease....
-However, the Mandarins who know how ingenious
-Europeans are in invention, have sometimes asked me
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>to have new and curious designs sent from Europe in
-order to have something singular made for presentation
-to the Emperor. On the other hand, the Christians
-strongly urged me not to procure such models, for the
-Mandarins are not so readily satisfied as our merchants
-are when the workmen tell them that a work is impracticable;
-and frequently the bastinado is liberally
-bestowed before the Mandarin abandons a design from
-which he has promised himself great advantages.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“We should not be astonished that porcelain is so
-dear in Europe: we shall be still less so when we learn
-that besides the great profits taken by the European
-merchants and by their Chinese agents, it is rarely
-that a baking is entirely successful; sometimes indeed
-it is a total failure. Thus for one workman who grows
-rich, there are a hundred ruined; but this does not
-deter them from tempting Fortune.... Moreover, the
-porcelain that is sent to Europe is almost always made
-on new and often strange models in which success is
-difficult. However slight the blemishes may be it is
-rejected by the Europeans, who will not take any but
-perfect pieces; so that it remains in the hands of the
-workmen, who are not able to sell it to the Chinese
-because it is not to their taste. The consequence is
-that the pieces that are taken bear the additional charge
-of those that are rejected.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“According to the history of <em>King te ching</em>, the profits
-were formerly much greater than they are now. It
-is hard to believe this, for there must then have been
-a great sale of porcelain in Europe. I have said that
-the difficulty in executing certain models sent from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>Europe is one of the causes of the excessive price of
-porcelain, for it must not be imagined that the workmen
-can work on all the models that reach them from foreign
-countries. There are some impracticable ones in China,
-just as there are some made that astonish foreigners
-who would not think them possible.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The price of china-ware fluctuated considerably during
-the seventeenth century. Sometimes a critic complained,
-as above, that values had greatly appreciated
-because of the demand, and then again others wailed
-that the enormous importations had driven prices down
-till the game was not worth the candle. In Mendelslo’s
-<cite>Voyages</cite> (1639), we read:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The Chinese bring to the island of Java porcelain
-which they sell there very cheaply: for when boats
-arrive from China they buy six porcelain dishes for a
-thousand <i><span lang="vec" xml:lang="vec">caxas</span></i> (a string of two hundred <i><span lang="vec" xml:lang="vec">caxas</span></i> are
-called <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sata</span></i> and are worth about nine <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">deniers</span></i> of French
-money, and five <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">satas</span></i> tied together make a <i><span lang="gl" xml:lang="gl">sapocon</span></i>).”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Again, from <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recueil des Voyages</span></cite> (Constant) we learn:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The (Chinese) ships also bring (to Java) fine and
-coarse porcelain. When the Dutch first arrived, they
-bought five or six dishes of both kinds for 1,000 <i><span lang="vec" xml:lang="vec">caxas</span></i>,
-but afterwards they got no more than two or three,
-rarely more.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“For return freight, they take, besides pepper,
-all the lacca brought from the city of Tolonbaon, where
-there is great abundance. They also load with the
-anil<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a> that comes from Anier in pots; sandal wood,
-musk and tortoiseshell, with which in China they make
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>beautifully wrought <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coffres</span></i>; elephant tusks, with which
-they make beautiful seats that are esteemed as much
-as if they were of silver, and that are used by Mandarins
-and Viceroys.”</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A species of indigo.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The importations were indeed enormous, as the
-bills of lading of the Dutch vessels prove. For example,
-among the cargoes of eleven Dutch ships that arrived
-in Holland from the East Indies in July, 1664, were
-44,943 pieces of very rare Japanese porcelain and 101
-Japan cabinets. The eleven ships that left Batavia
-on December 24 of the same year, brought home 16,580
-pieces of porcelain of divers kinds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch brought to Europe such vast quantities
-of porcelain in the first quarter of the seventeenth century
-as practically to monopolize the trade and undersell
-the English. Thus, Methwold, writing from Masulipatam
-to the East India Company in 1619, says: “The great
-profit first obtained on porcelain has filled all men’s
-hands with plenty (by the Dutch), which makes theirs
-(the East India Company’s) not sought after.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Turning now, for a moment, to tea, we find that
-it made its way into public favour somewhat slowly—far
-more so than porcelain. It was known to the Dutch
-before 1600, but was not in general use till half a century
-later.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>J. H. van Linschoten, describing the manners and
-customs of the Island Japan (1598), says:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“After their meat, they use a certain drinke, which
-is a pot with hote water, which they drinke as hote
-as ever they may indure, whether it be Winter or Summer
-... and the gentlemen make it themselves; and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>when they will entertaine any of their friends, they give
-him some of that warme water to drinke: for the pots
-wherein they seeth it, and wherein the herb is kept,
-with the earthen cups which they drinke it in, they
-esteeme as much of them as we doe of diamonds, rubies,
-and other precious stones, and they are not esteemed
-for their newnes, but for their oldnes, and for that they
-were made by a good workman: and to know and keepe
-such by themselves, they take great and special care,
-as also of such as are the valuers of them, and are skilful
-in them.... So if their pots and cups be of an old and
-excellent workman’s making, they are worth four or
-five thousand ducats or more the peece. The King of
-Bungo did give for such a pot, having three feet, fourteen
-thousand ducats, and a Japan, being a Christian in the
-town of Sacay, gave for such a pot fourteen hundred
-ducats, and yet it had three pieces upon it.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As late as 1639, Mendelslo thought it worth while
-describing again. He says in his <cite>Voyages</cite>:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The Japanese bray the tea as fine as powder, and
-taking a little on the point of a knife put it in a porcelain
-or earthenware cup filled with boiling water.... They
-have no more luxurious articles of furniture than belong
-to this service: teapots have been seen that cost twenty-eight
-thousand crowns.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The use of tea became common among the well-to-do
-and fashionable classes from 1660 to 1680. Every
-house had a special tea-room fitted up, and even the
-burghers had their tea-offices, or drank tea in the front
-room or <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">voorhuis</span></i>; for the social tea always took place
-in the front part of the house. The tea-room was furnished
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>like a reception-room, the important pieces of
-furniture being the tea-buffet and the tea-table. “A
-corner tea-buffet of costly wood” is mentioned in the
-inventory of Develstein, while other inventories mention
-“properly inlaid Chinese lacquered tea-tables mounted
-with silver and mother-of-pearl,” also fir-wood and
-oak tables and tables with drop leaves. On the tea-table
-the porcelain was displayed. This was bordered
-with gold or silver, or was a blue Chinese or a coloured
-Japanese set with the “waffle-mark,” or the six marks
-of the “Long Eliza,” “the cuckoo out of the house” and
-“the cuckoo into the house,” and all kinds of red and
-gold, ribbed or plain porcelain. A complete tea-set
-included large and small teapots, large and small cups
-with and without covers, sugar basins, pastry dishes
-with a small golden fork, and saffron pots. These
-little pots and dishes were of different shapes; and
-we should note that there were a double set of teapots—one
-in which the tea was drawn and the other into which
-it was poured, to be poured out into the cups in turn.
-Sometimes these pots were curiously shaped with open
-or basket sides, the spout formed like the head of a bird
-or animal, while others carried inscriptions or coats-of-arms,
-and the top of the lid bore some grotesque fowl,
-bird or ornament. Square teapots profusely decorated
-with gold paint were very costly. The teacups were
-also gaily decorated. An exhibition in Delft in 1863
-showed thirty famous designs of cups and saucers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>If we were to enter a fashionable tea-room of the
-seventeenth century, we should find ourselves in the
-front of the house in a room furnished according to the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>rank and means of the proprietor. Rich or poor, it is
-always exquisitely clean. As carpets and rugs are
-not common, the floor is covered with bright mats,
-and the walls are either whitewashed, or encased in blue
-and white tiles. Upon them hang pictures, more or
-less valuable. The round table and the chairs are of
-<em>sacredaan</em> wood, and the latter are furnished with cushions
-of Utrecht velvet. The chimney-piece is ornamented
-with Chinese knickknacks that will interest the visitor
-for several hours, and on either side of it are two oak
-cupboards inlaid with ebony. Facing the chimney
-stands the china-cabinet with its fragile treasures, the
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">vrouw’s</span></i> idol, the object of her tenderest care.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The guests usually arrived between two and three
-in the afternoon, and were received and extended many
-formalities peculiar to the occasion. Unless it rained,
-no cloak or wrap was worn, so the guests were received
-in the tea-room at once and immediately seated themselves,
-resting their feet—winter or summer—on a foot-warmer.
-The hostess takes a sample of tea from her
-many tea-caddies, each filled with a different kind of
-tea, and puts them into a different pot, each pot having
-a little silver strainer in the spout. When the tea is
-drawn, she fills the smallest cup with a sample from each
-pot and hands these tiny cups to her friends, so that
-they may discover what kind they prefer. One prefers
-this, and one prefers another; but, as a rule, the choice
-is left to the hostess. Now the tea-making begins in
-earnest. According to the number of guests, the hostess
-takes a single or double teapot, and from a larger caddy
-the tea that has been chosen. While this is being drawn,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>she takes some saffron, and infuses this in a small <em>red</em>
-pot, and serves the tea and saffron in a covered cup, so
-that none of the sweetness nor aroma shall be wasted.
-In spring the saffron is discarded in favour of young
-peach leaves. The tea is sweetened to taste, but milk
-is never served until 1680, when it is used in imitation
-of the French; for the idea of milk in tea originated
-with the Marchioness de la Sablière. The conversation
-at these gatherings turned on tea and general gossip.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The tea-table was of great importance in social
-life. Even poets sang its praises in Holland, as they
-did in England. A picturesque stanza from a Dutch
-poet is worth quoting:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>“<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">In ’t midden van de zaal daar stond een gueridon,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Op ’t zelve een keteltje, zo blank gelijk een zon.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">’t Trekpotje was bekleed met zuiver zilverlaken,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Opdat geen vogt het goud van ’t lofwerk zou mismaaken</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Waar meed het was beleid; de schoteltjes in ’t rond</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Van onder net beplakt met zagte stukjes bont,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Uit vrees dat ’t porcelein het lakwerk mogte schaaren,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Van ’t lief japansche-blad, ’t geen ruste op drie pylaaren</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Van sakredaan, kaneel en pik-zwart ebbenhout.</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Het schenken van de thee werd juffrouw Rois vertrouwt,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Die evenwigtig thee met water wist te mengen.</span></i>”</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>(In the middle of the hall there stood a table</div>
-      <div class='line'>Upon which was a small kettle, bright as the sun.</div>
-      <div class='line'>The teapot was covered with pure silver cloth</div>
-      <div class='line'>So that no liquid would deface the gold from the ornamentation</div>
-      <div class='line'>With which it was covered; the small saucers around it</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pasted underneath with soft furry cloth, so that</div>
-      <div class='line'>The porcelains might not scratch the lacquer</div>
-      <div class='line'>From the pretty Japanese tray, which rested on a tripod</div>
-      <div class='line'>Of sacredaan, cinnamon and jet-black ebony.</div>
-      <div class='line'>The pouring of the tea was trusted to Miss Rois,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Who knew how to mix tea and water properly.)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Thus we see that the tea-table was firmly established
-as a social institution in Holland by the middle of the
-seventeenth century, and porcelain was an important
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>factor in interior decoration long before Dutch William
-drove the Stuarts out of England. A Dutch inventory
-of the time of the Glorious Revolution (1689) is worth
-citation for the sake of illustrating the prevailing taste
-and the price of porcelain of the day:</p>
-
-<p class='c016'><span class='sc'>Statement and inventory of the contents and the goods of Dirck van
-Kessel and Chrestina de Ridder, left without owner by the aforesaid
-Chrestina de Ridder by her death on the 15th of January
-of this year 1689</span></p>
-
-<table class='table1' summary='Statement and inventory'>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='88%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><em>In the Porcelain Room.</em></td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c008'></th>
-    <th class='c012'>FLORINS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain “beguine” pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>150</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain chamber-pot with cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain box, without cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain preserve pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>120</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four large porcelain bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One high pyramidal shaped water jug</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain fruit dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>A jug with a silver lid</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>A porcelain box with lid</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain pot with handles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain crackle bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four porcelain boxes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>A little stewing pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain teapots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain sexagonal pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain printed oil pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain stewing pan coloured, without cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>18</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain apple pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain crackle jars (one broken)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two long porcelain boxes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>5</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain “beguine” pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four porcelain boxes with covers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twenty-four porcelain teacups with covers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>48</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>An East India box with a bamboo</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Thirteen (with inside decoration)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>13</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain bottles with French flowers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>60</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five porcelain butter dishes on the back yellow and green</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Thirteen coloured tea-saucers (one broken)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain cups with knobs on the covers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three large East India teapots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four little East India teapots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four old porcelain stewing pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>40</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five old long shaped bottles, one of which is in pieces</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>Four porcelain boxes that can be shut (with covers)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Eleven little porcelain pieces</td>
-    <td class='c012'>5</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two little candlesticks with extinguishers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two round shaped oblong bottles, one of which is in pieces</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain small plaques</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain dinner plates</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Eight porcelain printed red dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pots with Chinese acrobats</td>
-    <td class='c012'>18</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pots with French scrolls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two old porcelain bottles with a cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four porcelain pots with overlapping covers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>48</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five porcelain swans</td>
-    <td class='c012'>5</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Eighteen porcelain cups, red, with one blue</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Forty porcelain yellow cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four porcelain slop basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Fifty porcelain coffee saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain sexagonal pin-trays</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five porcelain pieces, red and blue</td>
-    <td class='c012'>3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two old inscription bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain bowls with birds on branches</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain rosemary bowl</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain coloured starch basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain “beguine” pot with a delft cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain sexagonal pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain chain pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain pot with a bottle</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain bottle with Chinese</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain “beguine” pot, with handles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain four-square “beguine” pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three Persian basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Seven porcelain butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>21</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain, broken, open-work tray</td>
-    <td class='c012'>2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain mustard pots, with a perforated cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Eight candlesticks</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>21</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain slop basin, one starch basin, and one crackle jar</td>
-    <td class='c012'>5</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain printed cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain printed saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twenty-one porcelain printed coffee cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Ten coloured East India tea-saucers, cups with ducks painted on them</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two Japanese beakers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>50</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One East India beaker with Chinese letters</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One East India beaker with pieces</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One pot with a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">jardinière</span></i></td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One Chinese pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><em>China Closet near the Windows.</em></td></tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five East India half-size wash basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>70</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>Five East India basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>40</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five East India basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>50</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five East India basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>46</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three old porcelain dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three double butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three East India round dishes, in three parts, with flower pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One East India round dish, in three parts, with flower pot and stork</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One engraved tumbler</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Seven porcelain crackle bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two old porcelain pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain beaker with a crack.</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twenty-four brown bottles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four porcelain boxes with covers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain basin and mustard pot without cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain salt cellars, with two mustard pots</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twelve teacups and saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>48</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four porcelain perforated cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain perforated cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>18</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain perforated cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two East India slop basins with storks</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Eight little old porcelain saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain saucers with dragons</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six old porcelain saucers with frogs</td>
-    <td class='c012'>18</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Nine old porcelain saucers with handles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>36</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two slop bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six old porcelain cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain crackle bottles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain breakers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three old porcelain dishes in three parts</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five old porcelain mustard holders</td>
-    <td class='c012'>18</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Seven old porcelain mustard holders</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five great deep saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain blue bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain blue small bottles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One porcelain new dish</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two porcelain butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three porcelain butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six porcelain deep saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One hundred teacups and saucers.</td>
-    <td class='c012'>200</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One East India mat with three Chinese figures</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><em>Upstairs in the Front Room.</em></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three pestles with flowers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>40</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two printed cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>2</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><em>Upstairs in the Rear Room.</em></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two “beguine” pots with landscapes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>70</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One East India “beguine” pot with Chinese</td>
-    <td class='c012'>16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two printed small bottes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>40</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>Two small bottles with Chinese</td>
-    <td class='c012'>25</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six teacups and saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One bottle with a small bird on a tree</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six little old small bottles</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six little old boxes with covers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two teacups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six dragon cups</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three flat saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four coloured ribbed dishes or saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six teacups and tea-saucers</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six dishes with a box cover</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two small baskets and two shelves</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>The porcelain on the shelves</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><em>In the Vestibule.</em></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>The porcelain in the shop, comprising thirteen pieces</td>
-    <td class='c012'>24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><em>In the Porcelain Room.</em></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Firstly, an olive wood carved cabinet</td>
-    <td class='c012'>250</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One gilt and engraved jewel casket</td>
-    <td class='c012'>50</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One olive wood table with stands</td>
-    <td class='c012'>25</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Now follows a collection of large mirrors, which
-we consider of less importance. Of more interest is the
-following:</p>
-
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='4%' />
-<col width='84%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c011'></th>
-    <th class='c008'>&nbsp;</th>
-    <th class='c012'>FLORINS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>148</td>
-    <td class='c008'>sheets and one half of gold leather, being white and gold, valued at 23 stuivers the sheet</td>
-    <td class='c012'>170·15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011' colspan='2'>The pine-apple with colours (decoration), 44 sheets, valued at</td>
-    <td class='c012'>52·16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>61</td>
-    <td class='c008'>sheets, the unicorn green and gold</td>
-    <td class='c012'>70</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>80</td>
-    <td class='c008'>sheets of gold leather</td>
-    <td class='c012'>40</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>42</td>
-    <td class='c008'>ditto</td>
-    <td class='c012'>42</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>lot of remnants, leather</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>lot of patterns and friezes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>100</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>8</td>
-    <td class='c008'>screens</td>
-    <td class='c012'>130</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c008'>curtains and balance and the gold leather that hangs in the kitchen in the rear</td>
-    <td class='c012'>9</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Hereafter follows again some porcelain and other
-articles, as—</p>
-
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='1%' />
-<col width='86%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c011'></th>
-    <th class='c008'>&nbsp;</th>
-    <th class='c012'>FLORINS.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>8</td>
-    <td class='c008'>painted figures</td>
-    <td class='c012'>40</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c008'>broken roll wagons (round shaped bottles)</td>
-    <td class='c012'>24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>porcelain stewing pan</td>
-    <td class='c012'>12</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c008'>half-size wash basins</td>
-    <td class='c012'>24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c008'>ditto</td>
-    <td class='c012'>16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c008'>porcelain bowls</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>6</td>
-    <td class='c008'>porcelain cups with a broken wash jug and a broken roll wagon</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>delft stewing pot</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>6</td>
-    <td class='c008'>gold leather chairs</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>clavecin</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>bundle of old gold leather</td>
-    <td class='c012'>20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c008'>large cup engraved with a battle scene and a large cup with a vine</td>
-    <td class='c012'>30”</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>The value of porcelain may be gathered from the
-pieces mentioned in the inventory of Joh. Gemeelenbrouck,
-“<span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">meester</span> silversmith,” in 1653:</p>
-
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='76%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c008'></th>
-    <th class='c011'>GUILDER.</th>
-    <th class='c012'>STUIVER.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>In the shop</td>
-    <td class='c011'>48</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four whole lamps</td>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Sixteen half lamps</td>
-    <td class='c011'>56</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Sixteen round dishes in three parts</td>
-    <td class='c011'>40</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four double butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c011'>6</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Forty-five cornered butter dishes</td>
-    <td class='c011'>33</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One round shaped oblong bottle</td>
-    <td class='c011'>6</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five “beguine” pots</td>
-    <td class='c011'>30</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Nine “beguine” pots (small)</td>
-    <td class='c011'>22</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three drinking cups</td>
-    <td class='c011'>4</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four drinking cups (small)</td>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three beakers</td>
-    <td class='c011'>3</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three bottles</td>
-    <td class='c011'>4</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three large bottles</td>
-    <td class='c011'>18</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five mustard pots</td>
-    <td class='c011'>3</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four wine cans</td>
-    <td class='c011'>16</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four chamber-pots</td>
-    <td class='c011'>10</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twenty-four parrot basins</td>
-    <td class='c011'>24</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Forty-four cups and saucers</td>
-    <td class='c011'>15</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two cups and saucers</td>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four oil pots</td>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Ten snuff boxes</td>
-    <td class='c011'>10</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Seventy-five mustard pots</td>
-    <td class='c011'>29</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twenty-five deep saucers</td>
-    <td class='c011'>16</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three boxes with lids</td>
-    <td class='c011'>3</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four deep saucers</td>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c012'>8</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Five red pots</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c012'>15</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>THE DUTCH HOME</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Love of Porcelain—The Amsterdam Mart—Prices of China in 1615—Oriental
-Wares before 1520—Luxury of the Dutch Colonists—Rich
-Burghers in New Amsterdam—Inventories of Margarita
-van Varick and Jacob de Lange—Dutch Merchants in the East—Foreign
-Views of Dutch Luxury—Dutch Interiors after the Great
-and Little Masters—House-furnishing by a young married couple—The
-Linen Chest—Clothes Chests and Cupboards—The Great
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Kas</span></i>—The Cabinet—The Toilet—Table-Covers—Foot-warmers—Looking-glasses—Bedsteads—Tables
-and Chairs—Woods—Kitchen
-Utensils—Silverware—Household Pets.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>In the preceding chapter, we have seen the constantly
-increasing importance of porcelain in the Dutch
-home. In England there was quite as great a demand
-for this ware among the wealthy classes; but the London
-East India Company could not supply the demand,
-and the reason is not far to seek. The Dutch were
-more energetic, or, at least, more successful in ousting
-and supplanting the Portuguese, and the Stores of the
-Indies in Amsterdam became recognized as the headquarters
-of distribution of Oriental ceramics. In all
-probability, the English company was not able to import
-wares of such superior quality as were the Dutch. The
-Dutch made themselves masters in the Eastern Seas,
-and British trade had a hard uphill fight there for a
-century and a half. The Dutch carried things with a
-very high hand, and the laws of neither God nor man
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>were respected on the course of Vanderdecken from
-Cape Verde to Japan. The massacre of a few inoffensive
-English traders at Amboyna aroused quite a coolness
-in England towards Holland, and caused a good deal
-of embarrassment to the Government early in the reign
-of Charles I, which was too busy with home affairs to
-insist on reparation. However, the Dutch were only
-carrying on the traditions of “the spacious times of
-great Elizabeth,” when the methods of the great navigators
-were frankly piratical. England became well acquainted
-with Eastern wares when Hawkins, Drake, or
-Cumberland sailed into Plymouth with the rich freight
-of Portuguese carracks which they had waylaid around
-the Azores.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch love of porcelain was very real: it appears
-in many a diary, letter and anecdote. In every home,
-the humble rectory and the house of the rich burgher-master
-alike, the same desire to own porcelain is found.
-When one Pastor Arnold Moonen was asked how much
-he would charge for his translation of Cicero’s <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistolæ
-ad familiares</span></cite>, he answered: “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mijnheer! Ik mij in
-geenen staet bevindende om iet voor mijnen arbeit te kunnen
-eischen, als diergelijken handel ongewoon, zal enelijk van
-UEd. verzoeke te voldoen, de raet van die vrouwe volgen,
-die de Heer mij tot een hulpe gegeven heeft. Deze eischt
-van mij een nooteboomen kabinet met een stelsel in porselein,
-als zijn toebehooren, om daarop te setten, zoo als de
-vrinden kunnen goetvinden.</span></i>” (“Sir! not being in a
-position to charge anything for my labour, as this is
-not an habitual thing, I should take heed of my wife,
-whom the Lord hath given me for a helpmate. She
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>wishes to possess a nutwood cabinet with a set of porcelain
-to go with it, and to place ornaments on the top,
-if the consistory will grant this!”) Such a set of porcelain
-as the good lady required to decorate the top and
-fill the shelves within, cost at that time as much as 300
-double ducats (equal to about £136); but the ladies of
-that period had desires for fine furniture, dress and
-fashion that their husbands were often unable to gratify.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The best china-ware was obtainable in Amsterdam
-only, and English travellers used to buy porcelain there,
-as they now go to Brussels or Mechlin for lace or Cashmere
-for shawls. As late as the reign of Charles II,
-Holland maintained her pre-eminence in this trade. In
-Henry Sidney’s <cite>Diary</cite>, November 18, 1679 (on the eve
-of his departure for Holland) we read: “My sister
-Sunderland spoke to me for a China cup.” Later he
-notes: “I went to see the magazine, the East India
-Stores.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We have already seen the prices of various kinds of
-porcelain in Holland in 1653 and 1689. It may be
-interesting to compare these with English prices earlier
-in the century. From the bill of lading of the <em>Java</em>
-(1615) we gather that the prime cost of porcelain was:
-“Saucer dishes, nearly 2<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i> a piece; flat sallet dishes,
-about 3½<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; sallet cups, 3½<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; posset dishes, 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>;
-small (quarter) basins, 1<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 9<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; larger (half) basins,
-2<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; largest (whole) basins, 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This was evidently china-ware of the cheapest kind,
-and the prices show that porcelain was now on the market
-in such quantities as to drive out the old pewter plates
-and dishes from the homes of the middle classes as well
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>as the aristocracy. During the first quarter of the
-seventeenth century, however, the Oriental wares to be
-found in opulent houses were by no means confined to
-china-ware. The art furniture brought from the East
-was varied and choice.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The inventory of a Dutch or English noble of wealth
-of that period shows the same taste for Eastern fabrics,
-lacquer and porcelain, and evidences the elegance that
-made Madame de Rambouillet famous in France. As
-an example, let us take the Earl of Northampton, who
-was famous and infamous in late Elizabethan and early
-Jacobean days. He died in 1619. Among his possessions
-we find the following goods of Oriental manufacture:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“A cupbord containynge seven parcels of purslane
-cups trimmed with silver and guilte valued at £12;
-a field bedstead of China worke, black and silver, branched
-with silver, with the Arms of the Earle of Northampton
-upon the headpiece, the toppe and valance of purple
-velvett striped downe with silver laces and knots of
-silver, the frindge blewe silk and silver with 8 cuppes
-and plumes spangled suteable, the five curtains of purple
-taffata with buttons and lace of silver, the counterpoint
-of purple damaske suteable laced; one China cushen
-imbrodred with birdes, beastes and flowers, the ground
-of white Grogeron lined with yellow taffeta, 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; thirteen
-yeardes and a quarter of purple gold velvett, China
-with flower-de-luces and diamond work, £8 13<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>;
-a China striped quilt of beastes and antiques, the ground
-whice calico frindged about with a straw coloured frindge,
-£5; another China quilte stayned and spotted in colours
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>£4; another China quilt stitched in checquer work
-with yellow silke, the ground white, £4; and a China
-carpett of several colours, the ground white and weaved
-in with antiques of several colours lined with watchett
-taffata, £4.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“A China guilte cabonett upon a frame, £1 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; a
-large square China worke table and frame of black
-vernishe and gold, £6; one faire crimson velvet chaire
-richlie imbosted with copper and spread eagles and blewe
-and white flowers China worke, the frame painted with
-gold and my Lord’s crest upon the same; one small
-table of China worke in golde and colours with flies and
-wormes upon a pillar suitable, £1; a little gilded couch
-carved and cutt, 15<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; an ebony cabinett inlaid with
-mother-of-pearle, 13<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; a very large bedstead with
-wreathed pillars ballastars for head, side and feete,
-all coloured blacke and gold, £7; a foldinge Indian
-screne, £3 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bonds between England and Holland were very
-close in Puritan days, and the household belongings of
-the two countries, both in hall and cottage, were practically
-identical. In Holland, the Puritans found a refuge
-and congenial surroundings before sailing for the New
-World. The homes of the prosperous burghers of New
-Amsterdam, now New York, faithfully mirrored the
-comfort and taste of those of Amsterdam and The Hague;
-and here we may pause a moment to examine a couple
-of inventories of early dwellers in what is still the most
-important city in the Western Hemisphere.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mrs. Margarita van Varick died in 1696, and her
-bequests to her children are eloquent testimony of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>estimation in which she held her various household goods<a id='t242'></a>.
-In her will she leaves: “In a great chest bound up in
-a napkin for Johanna van Varick, a silver spice-box,
-a silver egg-dish, a silver thimble, a silver wrought East
-India box, 18 pieces of silver children’s toys, 11 pieces
-Arabian and Christian silver money, one gold ring with
-seven diamonds, two gold drops for the ear, one gold
-Arabian ducat, one Dutch Testament with gold clasps,
-one gold chain with a locket with seven diamonds, one
-pearl necklace, one small silver knife and fork, one small
-bundle beaten leaf gold, two gold pins headed with pearls,
-one gold bodkin, and one looking-glass with gilt frame.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“In another napkin for Marinus van Varick, three
-silver wrought East India cups, one ditto dish, three
-pieces of silver money, one medal, 20 pieces of silver
-children’s toys, one silver knife, one gold ring with a
-table diamond, two gold rings, one gold ducat, one gold
-medal, and one small gold box as big as a pea.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“In another napkin for Rudolphus van Varick,
-three silver wrought East India boxes, one small ditto
-dish, one silver tumbler marked R. V., 17 pieces silver
-playthings or toys, 8 pieces of silver money, one silver
-knife, one fork silver studded handle, one gold ring
-with three small diamonds, one gold ring, one ducat,
-two gold buttons, one gilded medal, and a gold piece
-the shape of a diamond.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“In another napkin for Cornelia van Varick, a
-silver wrought East India trunk, a ditto box, a saltcellar,
-28 silver playthings or toys, 20 silver pieces of
-money, a small mother-of-pearl box, a gold comb, a
-Bible with gold clasps, a small bundle of leaf gold, a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>pair of diamond pendants, two gold chains, two gold
-rings with a diamond in each, two small gold rings, one
-pair crystal pendants edged with gold, one Arabian ducat,
-and two gold pins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also for Johanna, the biggest and finest Turkey-work
-carpet, a set of white flowered muslin curtains, a
-chintz flowered carpet, an East India cabinet with ebony
-foot wrought, the picture of Mrs. van Varick, the picture
-of Johanna, three china pots, one feather bed, one bolster,
-two cushions, one quilt, one white calico blanket.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also for Marinus, a Turkey-work carpet, a gold
-bell and chain, a blue satin flowered carpet, a calico
-ditto, a silver-headed cane, a Moorish tobacco-pipe, a
-calico nightgown, a hair brush, a red box, two East
-India cabinets with brass handles, a feather bed, bolster,
-quilt, two cushions and green blanket, a picture of
-J. Abramson, and a ‘large picture of images, sheep and
-ships that hung above the chimney.’</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also for Rudolphus, a small ebony trunk with
-silver handles, a picture with a gilt frame, a cane with
-a silver head, a flowered carpet stitched with gold, a
-calico carpet, and a large picture of himself.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also for Cornelia, the second finest Turkey-work
-carpet, two pictures with glasses before them, a calico
-nightgown, a hair brush, a chintz flowered carpet, a small
-black cabinet with silver hinges, the picture of Cornelia
-Hester deceased, the picture of a flower pot, a china cup
-bound with silver, a large looking-glass with ebony frame,
-two white china cups with covers, a feather bed covered
-with checkered linen, a bolster, three wadding cushions,
-two feather ditto, one quilt and a homespun blanket.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>“Also for Johanna and Cornelia, two glaasen cases
-with 39 pieces of small china-ware, 11 Indian babyes,
-and 6 small and 6 larger china dishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also for Marinus and Rudolphus, 23 pieces of china-ware.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also to be divided equally among them, 37 Dutch
-books 4º; and 46 ditto 8<sup>vo</sup>; and 4 ditto folio; a chest
-with children’s babyes playthings and toys; and 13
-ebony chairs.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mrs. van Varick’s home in New Amsterdam did
-not suffer in comparison with the rich Dutch houses in
-Holland. Her clothes, jewels and bequests to her children
-prove that her life was one of ease, luxury and fashion.
-Her house was not only furnished with every comfort
-known to the period, but was filled with curios, treasures
-from the Far East, rich furniture, and a fine collection
-of china and paintings. Her furniture included fine and
-richly upholstered bedsteads, tables, chairs, cabinets,
-glass cupboards for china, great <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Kasten</span></i>, a handsome
-“painted wooden rack to set china-ware in,” six looking-glasses,
-and ten Indian looking-glasses, “two East
-India cane baskets with covers, one fine East India
-dressing-basket, one round ditto, two wooden gilt East
-India trays, lackered, and one round thing ditto.” Five
-brass hanging candlesticks and handle candlesticks, a
-double brass ditto, snuffers and extinguisher, a pair of
-brass standing candlesticks, and a standing candlestick
-with two brass candlesticks to it, prove that the house
-did not suffer for want of illumination. It was also
-bright with rich curtains and cushions. Among these
-were six satin cushions with gold flowers, a suit of serge
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>bed-curtains and valance with silk fringe, six scarlet
-serge bed-curtains with valance and silk fringe, a green
-serge chimney cloth with fringe, two chimney cloths of
-flowered crimson gauge and six window curtains of the
-same, a painted chimney cloth, a calico curtain, a fine
-chintz carpet, many handsome Turkey-work carpets and
-white flowered muslin curtains. She had fourteen East
-India pictures, some with gilt and some with black
-frames, and twelve prints also in black and gilt frames,
-two maps with black frames, and about twenty well
-chosen paintings. Some of the subjects of these clearly
-show that they were in the style of Jan Steen, Dou,
-etc. In addition to landscapes, battles and fruit-pieces,
-the inventory notes “two pictures of ships with black
-ebony frames,” “one picture of the Apostle,” “one
-large flower pot,” “one with a rummer,” “one birdcage
-and purse, etc.,” “a large horse battle,” and “a large
-picture of roots.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The china exhibited in the cabinets and on the mantelpieces
-and cupboards made a fine display; for in addition
-to the Oriental curios and other pieces willed to her
-daughters the house contained: three large china dishes,
-ten china dishes, four ditto (cracked), three teapots, two
-china basins, one ditto (cracked), one smaller ditto, two
-ditto (cracked), three fine china cups, one china jug, four
-china saucers, six ditto smaller tea dishes, one ditto
-(cracked), six painted tea ditto, four tea ditto, eight
-teacups, four ditto painted brown, six smaller ditto,
-three ditto painted red and blue, two white East India
-flower pots, one ditto (cracked), three ditto smaller,
-two ditto (round), one lion, one china image, and a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>china ink-box and two sand-boxes. Among her articles
-for the table she also owned three wooden painted dishes
-and a wooden tray with feet; also “a thing to put
-spoons in.” A parcel of toys and a collar for a dog
-are among the miscellaneous articles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Turning now to another Dutch house in New Amsterdam—that
-of the barber-surgeon, Mr. Jacob de Lange,
-whose inventory was taken in 1685—we find the rooms
-consisting of a foreroom, side chamber, chamber, kitchen,
-shop and cellar. Mr. de Lange has a remarkable collection
-of porcelain and pictures, a great deal of fine furniture,
-rich clothing, jewels and East India cabinets,
-beautiful hangings, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mr. de Lange’s furniture consists of twelve chairs
-upholstered with red plush, six with green plush, eleven
-matted chairs, seven chairs with wooden backs and a
-church chair. He has two “cann boards,” two small
-“cloak boards,” a hat press, a clothes press, a square
-table, a round table, a small round table, and an oak
-drawing-table, a small square cabinet with brass hoops,
-one waxed East India small trunk, one square black
-small sealing waxed trunk, one silver thread wrought
-small trunk, and an ivory small trunk tipped with silver.
-He also owned an East India rush case containing nineteen
-wine and beer glasses, and an East India waxed
-cabinet with brass bands and hinges, containing gloves,
-ribbons, laces, fourteen fans and seven purses in the
-first partition; laces, buckles and ribbons in the second;
-cloth in the third; caps in the fourth; fans, bands,
-scarfs, garters and girdles in the fifth; silk, fringe and
-calico in the sixth; silk and materials for purses in
-the seventh, and spectacles in the eighth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>The side chamber was furnished with eleven pictures,
-consisting of five East India pictures with red frames, four
-landscapes, one evening and a “small zea.” A looking-glass
-with a gilt frame also hung upon the wall. There
-was an enormous amount of porcelain here. The chimney
-was adorned with seven half-basins, two belly flagons,
-three white men, one sugar pot, two small pots, six
-small porringers and a small goblet. On and in the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> were two great basins, one goblet, two pots, two
-flasks, four drinking glasses, five <em>drillings</em>, six double
-butter dishes, thirty-three butter dishes, two white teapots,
-seven small red teapots, a hundred and twenty-seven
-teapots, one can with a silver joint, one ditto
-with a joint, two flaskets, one barber’s basin, five small
-basins, sixty-seven saucers, four salt-cellars, three small
-mustard pots, five oil pots, one small pot, three small
-men, two small men, one basin, two small cups, one
-small oil can, one ditto spice pot, five saucers, four small
-men, one small dog, two small swans, one small duck,
-two tobacco boxes, one sand-box, four small cans, one
-small spoon, six small flasks, two small oil cans, one
-small chalice, and two fruit dishes. This room contained
-an East India cupboard, ninety books, and a
-pair of blue curtains and valance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The “foreroom” contained a black nutwood chest with
-two black feet under it, worth £2 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>, and some pieces
-of linen, £24 12<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; a looking-glass with a black frame,
-£1 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; two curtains before the glass windows; the
-family coat of arms in a black frame, £5 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; and the
-following paintings: “A great picture being a banquet
-with a black list,” “one ditto something smaller,” “one
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>ditto a bunch of grapes with a pomegranate,” “one
-with apricocks,” “a small countrey,” “a Break of Day,”
-“a small Winter,” “a Cobler” and “a portrait of my
-lord Speelman.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The pictures in the chamber include “a great picture
-banquet, worth £3 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; one ditto, £2 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; one small
-ditto, £1 15<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; one Abraham and Hagar, £1 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; four
-small countreys, £4; two small ditto, £1 12<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; one
-flower pot, one small ditto, one country people frolick,
-one sea-strand, one portraiture, and a plucked cock torn,
-two small countreys, one flower pot small, without a
-list, one small print broken, and thirteen East India prints
-pasted upon paper.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This room was well furnished. There were sixteen
-linen curtains before the glass windows, a large and
-valuable <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> covered or veneered with French nutwood,
-standing on two ball feet, worth £13; a great looking-glass
-with a black frame, a white valance before the
-chimney, “six cloths which they put on the shelves of
-the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, one ditto with lace, two small calico valances
-before the glass windows, one red chimney cloth (probably
-placed over the white valance), two red striped
-silk curtains and two valances of the same, two green
-silk curtains and two embroidered valances, three grey
-striped silk chair cushions, four pieces of tapestry to be
-thrown over chests, one bedstead with white calico hangings
-and luxuriously supplied with cushions, and eight
-East India spreads, besides other spreads of flowered
-calico, red calico, and white calico in squares. There
-were five small East India boxes and a great deal of
-linen, also one white box marked E. W.”</p>
-
-<div id='XXXVI'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_341.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXVI.</span>—<em>The Oyster Feast, by Jan Steen. The Hague.</em><br /><br />Figs. 35–36: <span class='sc'>Chairs</span> (Seventeenth Century); Fig. 37: <span class='sc'>Marquetry Designs</span> (Seventeenth Century).</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>Wherever the Dutch went, they lived not only in
-comfort, but in all the elegance and even splendour
-that their means would allow. In the New or the Old
-World, the merchant princes surrounded themselves with
-sumptuous furniture of mahogany, ebony, marquetry,
-ivory, lacquer, teak and sandal-wood, as well as porcelain,
-embroideries, rugs, screens and all kinds of stamped
-metal and <em>bric-à-brac</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1685, the Count de Forbin says that the General
-of the East India Company at Batavia has a court quite
-royal in numbers and brilliance. “On my arrival (at
-the palace), the usual guard,” he writes, “which is very
-numerous, stood at arms, and, between two ranks of
-men, I was introduced into a gallery adorned with the
-most beautiful Japanese porcelains.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Evelyn and other travellers are enthusiastic in their
-admiration of the riches and luxury they witnessed in
-Holland, although, as we have seen, England was not
-unfamiliar with Oriental art products. The Stuarts
-were art connoisseurs of the first rank, and James II, to
-whom Macaulay denies mental and aesthetic appreciation,
-was an intelligent collector. The most brilliant
-figure in the Court of Louis XIV, the Marquis de Dangeau,
-notes in his <cite>Diary</cite> (January 8, 1689), on the arrival
-of the fugitive Stuart: “The King of England found
-the apartments (of the Dauphin) admirable, and talked
-like a connoisseur of all the pictures, porcelains, crystals
-and other things that he saw there.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the travellers who describes the Eastern goods
-seen in the shops and houses of Amsterdam and other
-Dutch cities, Charles Patin, writes in 1690:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>“I had a sight of all their curiosities and those of
-all sorts, and among other divers paintings that we
-know, and others which are unknown to us; as also
-Indian and Chinese pieces of an inestimable value. In
-these last a curious eye may discover all the secret particulars
-of the history, the manner of living, customs
-and religion of those countries, and there are represented
-certain martyrs, who sacrifice their blood to the transport
-of their zeal, if it may be allowed to make so bad
-an application of that sacred name, which belongs only
-to the heroes of the true religion.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Wills and inventories are invaluable aids to the
-student of Dutch furniture; but even more illuminating
-are the interiors painted by the Great and Little Masters—Jan
-Steen, Metsu, Cocques, Teniers, Rembrandt, Terburg,
-Don Weenix, Hoogstraten, Koedyck and a host
-of others. These are valuable as showing not only
-individual pieces of furniture, but also the general
-arrangement of rooms.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a>, representing <cite>The Sick Woman</cite>, by Jan
-Steen, in the Rijks Museum, shows a very simple room
-with bare floor and bare walls. At the back of the room
-is an upholstered bed with long straight curtains, and
-tester ornamented with fringe and surmounted with
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>.” On the wall hang a lute and a Frisian
-clock. The back of the chair is carved with lions’ heads
-above the arms. The table is covered with a handsome
-“carpet.”</p>
-
-<div id='XXXVII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_345.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXVII.</span>—<em>The Sick Lady, by Hoogstraten.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A similar bed stands in the right hand corner of the
-room, represented in Plate <a href='#XXXVII'>XXXVII</a>, also the picture
-of a <cite>Sick Lady</cite>, by S. van Hoogstraten. The arrangement
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>of this room is extremely interesting, as a short
-flight of seven steps leads into a narrow passage and
-room above. A round window hung with a curtain
-lights the passage-way above, which contains a number
-of fine paintings and a low-backed chair with spirally
-turned legs, the back and seat covered with velvet put
-on with large-headed nails. A door leads into the
-room beyond, but all that we can see of this is a marble
-mantelpiece with a handsome painting above it, and
-heavy andirons. A large square armchair with spirally
-turned legs stands on the left of the bed. The invalid
-is seated on a common stiff chair of no decorative interest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The obvious upper room was always a favourite
-feature of the houses in the Low Countries. An interior
-balcony is shown in Plate <a href='#XXXVIII'>XXXVIII</a>. This interior,
-painted by J. Koedyck about 1650, now in Brussels,
-is very interesting. The ceiling is unusually high, and
-consists of heavy beams; the windows are flush with
-the outside wall with deep interior recesses, and beneath
-them is a long wooden bench rudely carved. The old
-woman seated in a plain, two-backed, rush-bottomed
-chair seems to be dusting the legs of a spinet. Another
-two-backed chair stands in front of the bed, which from
-the positions of its pillows looks as if it might consist
-of an upper and lower berth, as was and still is often
-the case in the simpler homes in the Netherlands. Straight
-curtains hang from the cornice, a warming-pan is seen
-on the right, while above the cornice of the bed a child
-looks out of the shutters in the upper gallery. The
-chimney-piece is without the usual funnel-shaped top,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>and is also lacking in flat architectural ornamentation
-or a large painting. A candlestick and a few plates
-are the sole ornaments. It is carved with caryatids,
-however, and furnished with a chimney-cloth. Near
-the only caryatid visible stands what seems to be a
-metal “blower”; but there is probably no fire in the
-hearth, for the cat has found what she considers the
-most comfortable spot in the room on the foot-warmer.
-The most interesting piece of furniture in the room is
-the high-backed settle in the space between the fireplace
-and the window. This is panelled, and a little decoration
-occurs below the arms. Of course, the seat lifts
-up, and the box is used as a receptacle for articles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a>, one of Jan Steen’s famous interiors,
-from the Rijks Museum, has several interesting features:
-the architectural door and the high chimney-piece with
-stove being the most curious. The bed is dome-shaped
-and upholstered. A good type of chair stands in the
-foreground, and a table, on which is a cloth with deep
-fringe. A beautifully painted birdcage hangs from the
-ceiling.</p>
-
-<div id='XXXVIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_349.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXVIII.</span>—<em>Interior, by J. Koedyck, Brussels.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XXXVI'>XXXVI</a>, known as the <cite>Oyster Feast</cite>, by Jan
-Steen, in The Hague, shows an interesting room, which
-serves as hall, dining-room and kitchen. A large curtain
-is looped over the balustrade, which runs midway across
-the hall. This gallery leads from one of the upper
-sleeping apartments to another. One large window,
-with four panes, supplies the light. To the left of it is
-a bed, and next to it a mantelpiece with marble columns.
-Near this a parrot is sitting in a ring. Next comes the
-fireplace, where the oysters are being cooked. Waffle-irons
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>lean up against the handsome chair in the foreground.
-Beneath the window a jovial man sits in a low-backed
-chair, near the group playing tric-trac on the
-long table, over which hangs a landscape in a handsome
-frame. Another table with a rich carpet is placed on
-the extreme right, at which two persons are enjoying
-their oysters. A clock hangs on the wall, and also a
-lute and birdcages. A large birdcage, similar to the
-one in Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a>, hangs before the window. A
-dog, a kitten and playful children add a merry touch
-to the scene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XXXIX'>XXXIX</a> represents <cite>The Music Lesson</cite>, by
-Terburg, in the National Gallery, London. Here we
-have an ordinary sitting or living-room of a well-to-do
-household. The bed in the background resembles those
-in Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XXXVII'>XXXVII</a>. On the wall
-hangs a picture in a rich frame. The fair musician sits
-on a low-backed chair with her foot on a foot-warmer.
-The table is covered with a very handsome carpet.
-Upon it stands a handsome candlestick.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XLI'>XLI</a>, <cite>The Breakfast</cite>, by G. Metsu (1630–67)
-(Dresden Gallery), shows us the interior of an inn, with
-comparatively little furniture. The chair on which the
-woman is sitting is a good example of the period. The
-table, on which a “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buire</span></i>” stands, is of the most primitive
-kind. The birdcage hanging from the ceiling is similar
-to the one represented in Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XLII'>XLII</a>, by Jan Steen, representing a jovial
-company, is chiefly interesting for our purpose on account
-of the chair in which the host sits, the tablecloth and
-the larder at the back of the room, on which stand a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>mortar and pestle, a vase with flowers, a pot and two
-plates. In the right-hand corner stands a bed, and from
-this hangs the legend on a piece of paper: “As the
-old ones sing, so will the young ones pipe.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XL'>XL</a>, by J. B. Weenix (1621–60), shows a simple
-interior from the Brussels Museum—a lady at her toilet.
-The chair on which she sits is very interesting, with its
-low back, carved top rail and spirally turned stretchers.
-The “table carpet” is a superb Oriental rug, and the
-mirror with its massive frame is a magnificent example
-of carving and gilding. The candlestick is also massive.
-The windows, flush with the walls, are set with small
-panes, and are furnished with a curtain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A very interesting interior of the seventeenth century
-occurs in a picture by G. Metsu in The Hague Gallery.
-In a room with a very fine chimney-piece supported by
-marble pillars, and above which is a fine picture and a
-beautiful chandelier, a lady is standing improvising
-upon a lute. Another lady seated at a table is taking
-down the music, while a man looks over her shoulder.
-The lady is seated upon a low-back leather chair studded
-with heavy nails. Her foot rests upon a foot-warmer.
-The table has heavy ball-feet connected with stretchers,
-and the heavy cloth or carpet is pushed back carelessly.
-A tray or “standish,” holding the ink bottles, etc., is
-carelessly placed upon the folds of the cover. The lady
-holds a quill pen in her hand.</p>
-
-<div id='XXXIX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_353.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XXXIX.</span>—<em>The Music Lesson, by Terborch.</em><br /><br />NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>No subject was more congenial to the Dutch painters
-than scenes of home life and familiar interiors. Not
-only were Jan Steen, Teniers, Dou, Metsu and others
-of like rank attracted to the home, but an army of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>mediocre masters devoted their talents to this subject.
-If the works of the “Little Masters” found their way
-into royal and princely collections, the works of more
-obscure painters decorated the homes of the citizens,
-country people and colonists. The stranger who visited
-the Dutch cities was amazed at the many interiors and
-landscapes that were exhibited in the booths, at the
-fairs, and under the verandahs in front of the houses of
-the masters. These were often bought for a small sum
-by travellers, who sold them in their own country at
-considerable profit.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When a bride went to her new home, she often found
-that it had been furnished from top to bottom; but
-this was not always the case. As a rule, wealthy burghers
-did not do this. The young wife, accompanied by one
-or two of her near relatives and followed by a couple
-of servants and a truckman, went about from shop to
-shop to select what she needed. This was called “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">ten
-huisraet vaeren</span></i>” (going furnishing), and De Vrij devotes
-a chapter to this pleasant occupation under the title
-of “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">De vrou vaert ten huysraet</span></i>” (the wife goes out to
-furnish). In his time the old simplicity had vanished
-in favour of a general luxury hardly equalled to-day.
-De Vrij, therefore, allows his wealthy lady to purchase
-“down beds, fine plush and wadded coverlids, costly
-hangings, large Venetian mirrors, Indian crackle porcelain,
-lounging chairs, Turkish carpets, Amsterdam gold
-leather, costly paintings, a silver service, a <em>sacredaan</em>
-cupboard, an ebony table, a curio cabinet, a napkin
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, a large quantity of napkins, tablecloths and other
-fine household linen, and a thousand other articles.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>One has only to glance at the contemporary inventories
-to realize the wealth and luxury of the period. It is
-only in a few instances, such as the old Castle of Develstein,
-when occupied by Cornelius van Beveren, that
-the old simplicity rules; for the old grey town on the
-Merwede (Dordrecht), although the richest and oldest,
-was not the most luxurious in Holland. It conserved
-its own customs, while Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Delft
-and other cities vied with The Hague.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One or two large chests always stood in the bedroom.
-In these linen and clothing were kept. As a
-rule, the chest was of <em>sacredaan</em>, with brass or silver
-mounts, and neatly lined inside with cloth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Linen was also kept in the great <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">kasten</span></i>. These
-were ornately carved or panelled, made of different
-woods, and often inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Some
-of them cost as much as 1,000 fl. Rare porcelain was
-always placed on the top of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great linen chest or coffer, and the great cupboard
-in which household linen and articles of clothing were
-kept, were among the most important articles of furniture
-in a Dutch household. The chest was tall and
-wide, and made, as a rule, of <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">lignum vitæ</span></i>, or <em>sacredaan</em>,
-or other East India wood, frequently covered outside
-with leather and lined inside with linen or some other
-textile. It was often mounted with brass or silver,
-sometimes richly wrought.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The cupboard, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, was very broad and very tall,
-and was made of oak, ebony, or walnut, and stood on
-four heavy balls, which were often repeated on the four
-corners of the top, and are described by Van Nispen as
-“guardians of the porcelain ornaments,” which adorned
-the top.</p>
-
-<div id='XL'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_357.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XL.</span>—<em>Interior, by J. B. Weenix, Brussels.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>As many as ten or twelve each of chests and <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">kasten</span></i>
-have been noticed in old inventories in one dwelling,
-and they are described according to the wood of which
-they are made, or the name of the room in which they
-stood. Accordingly, we read of coffers and cupboards
-of oak, <em>sacredaan</em>, cherry, and plum-tree wood, blue and
-red grained East India wood, iron coffers, Prussia leather
-and lacquered coffers, the office coffer, the office cupboard,
-the kitchen cupboard, the cupboard of the green
-painted room, of the gold leather room, of the tapestry
-room, etc., etc. Let us examine some of the cupboards
-in the home of Sara de Roovere, second wife of Adriaan
-van Blyenborgh, Keeper of the Count’s Mint, and known
-as a Latin poet. This home is in Dordrecht.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the “gold leather room” stand several cupboards,
-some of which are of rare wood and richly carved. These
-cupboards contain a rich store of snow-white linen,
-damask tablecloths, napkins, bed-clothing, towels, shirts,
-bibs, neckerchiefs, frills, handkerchiefs, etc., “saved
-from grandmother’s time with economy, or inherited
-from great-aunt and kept as precious treasures,” all
-for her own use, or as wedding gifts to her children,
-Jacob, Adriaan, Charlotte, or Adriana. Like many
-another Dutch lady, every penny won at play, every
-present, and everything that could be saved from the
-household money, this thrifty housewife devoted to increase
-the treasure. A great part of the day she spent
-with her daughters in the front room (<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">voorhuis</span></i>), or with
-the maids in the kitchen, at the spinning-wheel, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>sewing-cushions, the work-table, or the ironing-board.
-She considered it an honour to have a rich <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Linnenkast</span></i>,
-and she was proud of being called a “house jewel
-careful of the third part” and deserving of the name,
-as she possessed “mountains of her own make and
-foreign produced stuff.” Her inventory shows that she
-possessed no less than twenty-four dozen chemises, forty
-dozen tablecloths and napkins, and coffers full of uncut
-linen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some burghers’ wives had their linen made up by
-the seamstress.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In another cupboard, called the “scalloped,” owing
-to the many St. James’ shells carved upon it, Joffer
-van Blyenborgh kept one of the most costly articles of
-her attire—the breast or forepiece. These breast-pieces,
-or stomachers, were worn on the corsage, to which they
-were fastened by means of pretty silk cords. They
-were made of silk, satin, or velvet, and often profusely
-decorated with pearls or jewels, and sometimes cost
-as much as £10,000.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Vrouwe van Blyenborgh had coffers filled with
-petticoats of scarlet cloth and also of wool cloth, coarse
-grey, black and white linen under petticoats, jackets,
-hoop skirts, mantles and rain cloaks. Her cupboards
-and coffers also included: rich robes of sarcenet and
-serge of fire colour, rose colour and ground colour, covered
-with ribbons, bows, galloons; bodices embroidered and
-trimmed with lace and fringe; petticoats garnished
-with fringe of fire colour; grey cloth dresses lined with
-blue serge; and Japanese night robes of dead leaf
-colour, embellished with aurora hued flowers and
-lined with wadding. Neatly folded among these rich
-articles were white satin robes lined with amaranth
-taffeta, black velvet robes with cloth of silver, and
-petticoats embroidered with golden flowers and lined
-with <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">taffeta d’Avignon</span></i>. She also had some cloth of gold
-valued at £16 a yard.</p>
-
-<div id='XLI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_361.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLI.</span>—<em>Breakfast, by G. Metsu, Dresden.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>Dress and furniture became so extravagant during
-this period that the stage ridiculed the lavish expenditure,
-and the other censor of public morals—the pulpit—denounced
-the needless splendour as degrading before
-God and men. The Dordrecht preacher, Joh. Becius,
-exclaimed: “Are the pride and splendour of to-day
-more extreme than with the people of Israel? Certainly
-not; but rather worse; for women go about, not only
-with bare necks, but half-bared bosoms partly covered
-with a thin net or cambric cloth—and in the robes and
-dresses they are more splendid than the proud peacock,
-more changeable than the chameleon or the weather-cock
-on the church steeple. They almost dance along the
-streets dressed up as dolls for a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kermesse</span></i>; and these
-creatures, so gaily attired, vie with each other to enter
-the Lord’s House where is preached Christ born in a
-manger and wrapped in swaddling clothes.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the other vanities carefully preserved in the
-drawers and on the shelves were the fans, masks, lace
-and jewels; <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">châtelaines</span></i>, ribbons, hats, bonnets and
-caps; silk, cloth and serge stockings richly embroidered;
-fancy shoes and slippers with high heels, and leather
-and silk gloves sweetly perfumed. Vrouwe van Blyenborgh
-had a number of thin, beautiful, scented, leather
-gloves; a large stock of “shoework” of silk, satin, gold
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>and silver leather, and yellow, green and scarlet stockings.
-We must not forget to mention the round silver mirrors
-suspended from gold hooks at the belt, and the delicately
-painted miniatures worn as lockets or breast-pins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> was as conspicuous in the houses of
-the Dutch colonists as it was at home. Every inventory
-of the prosperous burgher of New Amsterdam mentions
-it, and it is highly appraised. To take a few instances:
-“One great case covered with French nutwood
-and two black knots (balls) under it, £13” (1685);
-“a cupboard or case of French nutwood, £20” (1686);
-a white oak cupboard, £2 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> (1688); a large cupboard,
-£6 (1690); cupboard for clothes, a press and porcelain,
-£5; and a “Holland cubbart furnished with earthenware
-and porcelain,” £15 (1692); a great black walnut cupboard,
-£10 (1702); a Dutch painted cupboard, £1 (1702);
-a black walnut cupboard, £9 (1703); and a case of nutwood,
-£10 (1712). The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> was often a valued bequest:
-Mrs. van Varick had one “great Dutch <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> that could
-not be removed from Flatbush”; and, therefore, was sold
-for £25.</p>
-
-<div id='XLII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_365.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLII.</span>—<em>Interior, by Jan Steen. The Hague.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the rooms of the Castle of Develstein were standing
-mirrors and mirrors in ebony, metal and crystal
-frames, on the walls; and in the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">salon</span></i>” was a mirror
-of Venetian glass. In this room was seen the “kingwood
-hall buffet,” where, on festive or ceremonial occasions,
-the family silver and crystal were exhibited, such
-as silver plates, dishes, spoons, knives, beakers, decanters
-and mugs, silver-mounted horns and night cups—all
-engraved with the family arms, or with conventional
-rhymes or mottoes. In the “salon” or “show salon”
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>was placed the “root-wood (root of the walnut tree)
-table,” formed like steps (a survival of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>),
-on which the rarest and finest porcelains were shown.
-Here also was the richly carved walnut <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> containing
-a rare display of fine china, while on the wall walnut
-racks, beautifully carved and ornamented with gold,
-the handsomest plaques were arranged. There was also
-a pewter table in this room, on which stood many pewter
-dishes, cups, tankards, etc., engraved with the family
-arms; but most of the pewter was kept in the pewter
-cupboards (<i><span lang="lt" xml:lang="lt">tinkasten</span></i>), in the pewter room, or in rows
-upon the dresser in the kitchen, ready for immediate
-use. Silver table-ware was not in general use, for pewter
-took its place as an everyday article. Among the glassware
-shown in this room were cordial, wine and beer
-glasses, chalices and loving-cups of white and green
-glass, engraved with arms, ornaments, proverbs, and
-shell-like Venetian glasses, supposed to be proof against
-poison.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Two interesting examples of <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">kasten</span></i> are given on
-Plates XLIII and XLIV.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XLIII'>XLIII</a> represents a large Dutch <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">buffet
-à deux corps</span></i>, from the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. This
-magnificent specimen is of solid ebony inlaid with ivory.
-Its grooved columns, panels and niches break up the
-plain surface with much variety. It stands on eight
-bulb feet. It is similar in shape to the English
-“court cupboard” of the same century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#XLIV'>XLIV</a> represents a large <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>, or kas, from
-the Cluny Museum, Paris. This was made in Holland.
-The front is ornamented with three pilasters with carved
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>capitals, between which are the two doors or wings
-decorated with carved panels. The cornice is ornamented
-with three lions’ heads. Beneath the columns
-are drawers with simple knobs. This piece of furniture
-stands on flattened bulb feet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the
-cabinet was found in every home of moderate wealth. In
-an inventory of 1679, “a root-wood cabinet, with Japanese
-small dishes and ‘colossol’ (very large) pots under its
-high feet” is mentioned. These cabinets stood on high
-legs, sometimes with only one drawer underneath. They
-were frequently made of rough pinewood painted red;
-but often they were very handsome (<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XXXI'>XXXI</a>).
-In the bedroom of Lady Reepmaker in the Castle of
-Develstein there was a “cabinet-maker’s small cupboard
-to put dresses in, one one-drawer cabinet on a high base,
-one hair-dressing table, one ditto chair, one ditto mirror
-with ebony frame, one gold leather comb-holder, and
-the ‘<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">nachtbouquet</span></i>’” (night bouquet), a piece of furniture
-used by the upper classes after 1672, in which everything
-relating to the toilet of the period was found,
-such as: a silver framed mirror, powder boxes, silver
-trays, pin-books, patch-boxes, hair and clothes brushes,
-and other small toilet articles, as well as silver candlesticks,
-snuffers and snuffer-trays.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When a wealthy lady sat in front of her “dressing-cloth,”
-as her dressing-table was familiarly called, she
-had before her an array of bottles and boxes containing
-perfumes, powders, paints and beauty patches, as well
-as a treasure-house of pearls, diamonds, rings and bracelets
-set with glittering stones, ear-rings, necklaces, chains
-of pearls, gold and silver pins, spangles, half-moons, so
-that she looked like “a sun surrounded by suns,” or
-a “diamond surrounded by rubies.”</p>
-
-<div id='XLIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_369.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLIII.</span>—<em>Kas of Ebony and Ivory.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>Her innumerable toilet-boxes of tortoiseshell and
-mother-of-pearl, her silver and gold scent-boxes, her
-boxes of filigree, her ivory, ebony and porcelain boxes
-and trays for her patches and cosmetics, her rich jewel
-cases of gold, silver, tortoiseshell or ivory, lined with
-velvet, her brushes and her shoe-horns, and her beautiful
-work-boxes supplied with thimbles, bodkins, knitting-needles,
-hooks, scissors, and everything that could be
-used for sewing and fancy needlework are displayed on
-her toilet-table and in her cabinets.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The table-cover or “carpet” was a most important
-decorative feature of the Dutch room. It was generally
-a handsome Oriental rug. This was thrown over
-the dining-table, the ordinary table in the hall or kitchen
-(<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a> and Plate <a href='#XXXVI'>XXXVI</a>), in the bedroom
-(<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XXXVII'>XXXVII</a>), and used also for
-the toilet-table (<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XL'>XL</a>). Often it was ornamented
-with handsome fringe (<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XXVII'>XXVII</a>).
-When an impromptu meal was served, it was the custom
-to cover the handsome cloth with a white cloth, of which
-the Dutch housewife always had a large supply (<em>see</em>
-Plate <a href='#XXXVI'>XXXVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XLII'>XLII</a>). Four exceptionally
-handsome table “carpets” appear in Plate <a href='#XL'>XL</a>, Plate
-<a href='#XXXIX'>XXXIX</a>, Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a> and Plate <a href='#XXXVII'>XXXVII</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In nearly every Dutch interior one notes the presence
-of the foot-warmer or foot-stove—a little wooden box
-with a perforated top and sometimes perforated sides
-of wood or brass. In this, glowing embers were placed.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>One of these is seen in Plate <a href='#XXVI'>XXVI</a> and another in Plate
-<a href='#XXXVII'>XXXVII</a>, while in Plate <a href='#XXXVIII'>XXXVIII</a> a cat is seen comfortably
-keeping itself warm. On Plate <a href='#XXXIX'>XXXIX</a> the
-lady playing the double-necked lute has her foot on
-one of these universally used articles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These foot-warmers that served as footstools, and were
-carried to church, are described in Roemer Visscher’s
-<cite><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Sinnenpoppen</span></cite> (Animated Dolls). He calls them “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mignon
-des dames</span></i>,” and says: “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Een stoef met vier daer in, is
-een bemint juweel by onse Hollandsche vrouwen, bysonder
-als de sneeuwvlocken vlieghen ende hagel ende rijp het lof
-van de boomen jaeght.</span></i>”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>(“A stove with fire in it is a beloved jewel of our
-Dutch wives, especially when the snowflakes are flying
-and the hail rattles.”)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The author of the Dutch <cite><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mercurius</span></cite> calls it “a small
-wooden piece of carpentry with four holes in the top.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The “Looking-Glasse” that attracted Owen Feltham’s
-attention was a luxury. The <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">spiegel-maker</span></i> (mirror-maker)
-was only to be found in the large cities. He
-was not allowed to make the frames, nor to gild them;
-for this was the work of the Carpenters’ and Gilders’
-Guild. The signs, however, read—“<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">spyeghelwinckel</span></i>,”
-“<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">de nyeuwe spyeghelwinckel</span></i>,” “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">spyeghel-magazijn</span></i>,”
-“<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">allerley spyeghels groot en clijn</span></i>,” and “<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">de Venetiaense
-spyeghelwinckel</span></i>.” (The “mirror shop,” “the new mirror shop,”
-“mirror magazine,” “all kinds of mirrors,
-large and small,” and “Venetian mirrors.”)</p>
-
-<div id='XLIV'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_373.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLIV.</span>—<em>Dutch Kas.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The glass mirror was a novelty, for, until the seventeenth
-century, polished metal was used; but at this
-period a method of silvering glass with a mixture of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>quicksilver and pewter was invented in the celebrated
-factory of Murano. The Venetians monopolized the
-trade until the end of the century, when Abraham
-Thevart made mirrors (84 × 50 inches) in Paris. Both
-Venetian and French mirrors adorned the reception
-rooms of the rich <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">stadhouders</span></i> and mayors of Holland,
-and hung above the toilet-tables of ladies (<em>see</em> Plate
-<a href='#XL'>XL</a>). The archives of the Castle of Develstein mention:
-a “very large mirror from France,” “Venetian
-mirrors,” “a small coarse mirror in a black frame,”
-“a fine Venetian mirror in the Salon, with flowered
-crystal border”; “an Amsterdam mirror of medium
-size,” and “one French mirror, large and beautiful.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mirrors were not only valued for their thick glass
-and fine silvering, but on account of their choice frames.
-Inventories speak of scroll frames, open-work frames,
-frames with lions or griffins supporting a coat-of-arms,
-etc. Ladies also carried German and English mirrors
-suspended from their waists, for the purpose of arranging
-their coiffure, ruff, or patches.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mirror, like other expensive luxuries, was often
-prohibited by the clergy of the Protestant Church; and
-many a rich burgher was reprimanded for spending so
-much money on mirrors, porcelain and furniture, and
-giving so little to the Church.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most beautiful mirrors were probably found in
-The Hague, where the reception rooms and bedrooms
-were usually decorated in the “style Louis XIV.” Some
-of these were of Venetian glass with beautiful crystal
-borders and crystal lustres at the side. Frequently
-these were placed above the richly carved mantelpiece.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>The bedsteads, often richly carved, were of oak,
-walnut or <em>sacredaan</em>, and were always hung with curtains.
-A deep valance often decorated the base. The
-centre of the canopy was ornamented with the family
-coat-of-arms, and each corner with a bouquet of many
-coloured plumes. Sometimes the bedstead was on a
-platform, and the rich hangings were supported by caryatides
-and the festoons of the canopy by carved cupids.
-The bedsteads were high, and a ladder or steps was
-required to climb into them. Little steps or foot benches
-stood in front of the bedstead and were sometimes used
-for seats or tables, somewhat like the old <em>escarbeau</em> of
-Mediaeval days.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One species of bedstead was known as the “coach,”
-or “rolling coach.” This was intended for children,
-and the name “coach” was extended to include the
-children’s sleeping-place. Mention is made in a treasurer’s
-account of Dordrecht (1586) of “three bedsteads
-with a coach underneath,” which shows that the coach
-is the trundle or truckle bed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Tables and chairs were found in every room. About
-1640, the “drop-leaf” or “hang-ear” tables came into use.
-They were usually made of solid walnut- or <em>sacredaan</em>
-wood.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chairs had high curved, or leather, backs and low
-seats of leather, on top of which were placed loose cushions
-or pillows, which were often piled up so high on the seat
-that a child standing on tiptoe could not see over the
-pillow on the seat of the chair. Chairs were also covered
-with rich damask, serge and other woollen goods. In
-the old inventories mention is made of “Prussia leather
-table chairs,” ebony carved chairs, red cloth covered
-<em>sacredaan</em> wood chairs with pillows of different shapes,
-and of high-backed carved walnut table chairs.</p>
-
-<div id='XLV'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_377.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLV.</span>—<em>Flemish Chair.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>Typical chairs are shown in Plates XXXIII and
-XXXIV from the Rijks Museum. In the first there is a
-caned armchair on the left, an upholstered armchair
-on the right, with turned legs and rails; and in the middle
-a chair in the Marot style, with a mirror-shaped back,
-cane panel, straight legs and crossed straining-rails.
-The example on the extreme left of Plate <a href='#XXXIV'>XXXIV</a> is an
-armchair of carved oak, with scrolled arms and cane
-seat and back. It is similar to the one without arms
-from Cluny in Plate <a href='#XLV'>XLV</a>. A cane chair without arms
-appears in the centre, and on the right an armchair
-with turned legs, carved top rail, and leather back and
-seat. The Flemish chair on Plate <a href='#XLV'>XLV</a> is constantly
-seen in the rooms of the seventeenth century.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The chair on the left of Plate <a href='#XXX'>XXX</a> in the Cluny
-Museum, called “Spanish of the Seventeenth Century,”
-is a curious transitional piece. The high back and seat
-are covered with Spanish leather put on with large-headed
-nails. The pattern of the leather represents peacocks,
-flowers and human figures. The ornamentation
-of the top rail consists of a leaf and scrolls ending in
-sharp spikes at the corners, very much in the early
-Regency style. On the rail below the seat is carved a
-heart-shaped ornament. The front legs are cabriole,
-connected with stretchers and ending in hoof feet. The
-back legs, also connected by stretchers, are straight.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Other furniture included spinets and harpsichords,
-Friesland clocks, table watches and pocket watches,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>which, when not in use, were placed in little cases, as
-were the mirrors the ladies wore at their waists. Sand- or
-hour-glasses were to be found especially in the
-kitchens, and the table-bell, which had now supplanted
-the whistle as a call for the servants.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The woods used for furniture were oak, walnut, cedar,
-olive, nutwood, ebony (black, green and yellow); kingwood,
-from Brazil, a hard wood with black veins on a
-chocolate ground; beef-wood, from New Holland, of a
-pale red used for borders; <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">palissandre</span></i>, or violet wood,
-from Guiana, for inlays on fine furniture; and, above
-all, <em>sacredaan</em>, or Java mahogany, a very hard wood,
-sweet smelling and of a bright yellow or pale orange
-colour. This was a favourite wood for chests, as the
-odour served to protect furs and woollen stuffs from
-the attacks of moths, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch kitchen towards the end of the century
-was fully equipped with all kinds of brushes, brooms,
-pots, pans and every utensil that was necessary to effect
-the cleanliness and produce the good cheer so necessary
-to every prosperous burgher. In 1680, a kitchen
-of a man of moderate means in New Amsterdam contained
-the following:</p>
-
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='86%' />
-<col width='1%' />
-<col width='5%' />
-<col width='5%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c008'></th>
-    <th class='c011'>£</th>
-    <th class='c011'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></th>
-    <th class='c012'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i></th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Fourteen pewter dishes, little and great</td>
-    <td class='c011'>3</td>
-    <td class='c011'>5</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three ditto basons, one salt seller, one pye plate</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>9</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four chamber potts, one warming pan of brasse</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>15</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pewter flagons, a little one and a greate one</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>5</td>
-    <td class='c012'>7½</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two smoothing-irons, three pewter quart potts</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>7</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Three pewter pint potts, 1½ pint pot and two muck potts</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>6</td>
-    <td class='c012'>9</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Four old pewter saucers and ½ doz. plates</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>6</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Six dozen wooden trenchers, three tin cover lids</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>8</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two frying pans, five spitts, two dripin pans, iron and tin</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>2</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One puding pan of tin, one greate brasse kettle, three iron potts, one brasse skillett</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>16</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two copper saucepans, one little iron kettle</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>6</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pair iron pott hookes, a jack with a w<sup>t</sup> of 56 lbs.</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>14</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pair andirons, one brasse ladle, one iron beefe forke</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pair of tongs, one fire shovell, a long bar of iron</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>4</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One iron chaine in the chimney and three pot hangers</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>15</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One bellows, a board to whet knives upon</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two copper pots, two brass candlesticks, six tin candlesticks</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>10</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div id='XLVI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_381.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLVI.</span>—<em>“Buire,” by Mosyn, Auricular Style.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>Silverware was an important item in the possessions
-of the merchant class as well as the nobility. In
-1682, we find the following items in the inventory of a
-prosperous butcher:</p>
-
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='82%' />
-<col width='5%' />
-<col width='5%' />
-<col width='5%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c008'></th>
-    <th class='c011'>£</th>
-    <th class='c011'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></th>
-    <th class='c012'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i></th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Twenty-two silver spoons, one silver forke, three silver gobletts, one ditto tankard, one ditto mustard pot, one ditto cup with two eares, five silver small cuppes, one ditto, one goblet, two ditto salt sellars, one ditto cup, two ditto saucers, one ditto cup, one ditto spice box, a Cornelia tree cup with silver, two ditto dishes, weight in all ten pounds</td>
-    <td class='c011'>48</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>A silver girdle with hanging keys, one ditto with three chaines with hookes, one gold bodkin, two silver bodkins, “silver for my booke with a chaine,” silver to a belt for a sworde</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>4</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One silver hat band</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>13</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One silver tumbler</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One silver bell</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>18</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One silver watch</td>
-    <td class='c011'>1</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Two pair silver buckles</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>8</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>Fourteen gold rings</td>
-    <td class='c011'>10</td>
-    <td class='c011'>7</td>
-    <td class='c012'>6</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c008'>One pair silver buttons, and one silver knife</td>
-    <td class='c011'>0</td>
-    <td class='c011'>12</td>
-    <td class='c012'>0</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>No view of a Dutch interior of the seventeenth century
-would be complete if it neglected to take into consideration
-the family pets. These are very much in evidence
-in the pictures, by Dutch masters. These consist of
-monkeys, parrots, peacocks, pheasants, cats and dogs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The monkey is quite a privileged character. Sometimes
-he is perched on the top of a spinet and sometimes
-on a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> or a chimney-piece.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The masters of vessels that sailed the Eastern Seas,
-both English and Dutch, were commissioned by nobles
-and potentates to bring home rare animals. In 1609,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>for instance, the East India Company issued letters for
-reserving “all strange fowls and beasts to be found
-there,” for the Council. In 1623, we find a note that
-to the governor of the Company a “Caccatoa” was sent
-from Batavia. The cockatoo is a familiar resident in
-Dutch homes. He and other kinds of parrots, domiciled
-in wicker and wire cages, are very much in evidence in
-the <em>genre</em> pictures of the age. The golden and silver
-pheasants were also privileged members of the household,
-and were allowed the freedom of the hall. Sometimes
-we see them perched on cornices, and sometimes strutting
-on the tiled floor. The monkey, which played so
-important a part in the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">singerie</span></i>” decoration of the
-late <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Louis Quatorze</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régence</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Louis Quinze</span></i> periods,
-was imported in considerable numbers. A gossipy
-journal—<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Courrier du temps</span></cite>, conducted by Fouquet de
-Croissy who undertook to tell the secret happenings in
-the court of every prince in Europe—records the following
-item of news from Amsterdam, under date of September
-1, 1649:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“This week several ships have arrived here from the
-Indies. Among the other riches with which the good
-agent was charged, he has brought a dozen of the rarest
-and most beautiful monkeys that have ever been seen in
-these parts. Cardinal Mazarin has sent for them to put
-them in his wardrobe and anti-chambers to divert those
-who pay court to him and to judge the affection they
-have for his service by the civility and good treatment
-of the animals, the favourites of his Eminence, receive
-from them.”</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>DUTCH FURNITURE UNDER FRENCH AND ORIENTAL INFLUENCE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>The Dutch Craftsmen in the Employ of Louis XIV—Huguenot
-Emigration—Marot—The Sopha—Upholstery—The Bed—Chairs—Sconces—Tables—Rooms—English
-and Dutch Alliances—Hampton
-Court—Queen Mary—Looking-glasses—Chandeliers—Chimney-pieces—The
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i>—John Hervey’s Purchases—Oriental
-Furniture manufactured after European Patterns—Complaints of
-Home Manufacturers—Trade with the Indies—“Prince Butler’s
-Tale”—Enormous Importations—Imported Textiles—Foreign Textiles
-for Upholstery.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>The last designer of furniture of any importance
-that has hitherto demanded attention is Crispin
-van de Passe. The next one is also a Dutchman. It
-is noticeable that the arts and crafts of France and
-England were always deeply affected by the activities of
-the Low Countries. France, even during the reign of
-Louis XIV, owed much to Dutch culture and energy.
-Boulle, who was of Dutch extraction (<em>see</em> page <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>),
-gave his name to a special kind of furniture which he
-developed and elaborated.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another name famous in Decorative Art was that of
-Cander Jean Oppenordt, born in Guelderland in 1639.
-He emigrated to Paris to seek his fortune, and became
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ébéniste du Roi</span></i>,” was naturalized in 1679, and allowed
-a lodging in the Louvre in 1684. To him was given the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>charge of furnishing the Palace of Versailles, and in
-1688 he made some beautiful marquetry furniture for the
-Duke of Burgundy. His son, Gilles Marie Oppenord
-(1672–1742), was architect to the Duke of Orleans.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>France owed much to Italy, Belgium and Holland
-during the first half of the seventeenth century, but what
-she borrowed she repaid with interest. In 1685, the
-Revocation of the Edict of Nantes induced fifty thousand
-families of the best French blood, intellect, art, culture
-and craftsmanship to seek voluntary exile. The Huguenots
-took refuge from the <em>Dragonnades</em> in England,
-Holland and Germany; and those countries benefited
-by the short-sighted policy of a bigoted king. So many
-goldsmiths, carvers, architects, designers and artists were
-among the emigrants that their subsequent work in the
-art world came to be known as the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Undoubtedly the most commanding figure in this
-band was Daniel Marot. He was a member of a family
-of eminent French artists. He was a pupil of Lepautre,
-who for many years worked at the Gobelins manufactory
-and dominated the first period of the Louis XIV
-style. This style was particularly majestic, pompous
-and heavy, the general forms consisting of a mixture of
-the straight line and curve, and broad surfaces adapted
-for decoration. The heavy straining-rail and pilaster as
-a support are also characteristic. The ornaments consist
-of Roman and heroic trophies of antiquity, helmets,
-cuirasses, casques, plumes, swords, shields, laurel-wreaths
-and clubs, winged Victories, the elliptical cartouche,
-river gods leaning on urns, large cornucopias, heavy
-garlands, or swags, of fruit and leaves, the broad acanthus
-leaf, the mascaron, the swelling scroll, and the combination
-of scroll and shell. Lepautre was also fond of
-introducing the alcove into a room.</p>
-
-<div id='f39'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_387.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Fig. 39.</span>—<em>Screen in the style refugié.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>A typical screen of this period is shown in Fig. 39.
-The massiveness and boldness of curve of the lines of the
-frame are characteristic of the artists of the Louis XIV
-period who formed the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i>; and the grace and
-fancy of the design in the tapestry filling are worthy
-of more than passing consideration. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i> influence
-is already apparent in the small hanging canopy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this date the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sopha</span></i> was greatly in vogue. This
-was really nothing more than the old settle with carved
-framework, and richly upholstered. It rarely accommodated
-more than two persons, and, as a rule, only one
-is shown sitting upon it. The legs and straining-rail
-followed the general lines and decoration of those of the
-stands for cabinets, toilet-tables, etc. The arms were
-sometimes solid or stuffed, and sometimes open-work
-covered with velvet or other textiles. Sometimes the
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sopha</span></i> is furnished with a bolster at both ends. Typical
-forms are shown in Figs. 40, 41 and 42.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although Marot was well acquainted with porcelain
-and Eastern wares in France, he found the prevailing
-taste much more extravagant when he took refuge in
-Holland. There he became the supreme exponent of
-the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i>. William of Orange appointed him his
-chief architect and minister of works, and Marot accompanied
-him to England at the Glorious Revolution
-a couple of years later. In Holland, he designed
-much interior work for palaces and noblemen’s seats,
-including staircases, panelling, chimney-pieces, cornices,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>china-shelves and brackets, and all kinds of domestic
-furniture. He was also extremely prolific in designs for
-sumptuous upholstery in velvet, worsted and other
-textiles for chairs, screens, hangings, curtains, bed-heads,
-etc. Marot died in 1718; and his published works of
-Decorative Art include many hundred designs representative
-of that period immediately preceding the Regency,
-known in England as “William and Mary” and “Queen
-Anne.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Upholstery was an exceedingly important part of
-interior decoration at that period, and there were right
-and wrong ways to hang curtains and decorate the framework
-of beds with valances, fringes, lambrequins, etc.
-Figs. 44 and 45 show two of Marot’s arrangements of
-lambrequins.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The massive bed with its four posts of carved oak,
-which had so long been in fashion, had now been
-supplanted by one in which upholstery was the chief
-decorative feature. This bed consisted of a light frame
-supporting a canopy, the four corners of which were surmounted
-by a bunch of plumes, or ornaments, or knobs,
-in imitation of ostrich feathers, called “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>.” The
-furnishings of the bed, including head-board, canopy,
-counterpane, curtains and valances, were of the same
-material—velvet, brocade, silk, satin, chintz, or white
-dimity worked in coloured crewels or worsted. Three
-beds of this period are to be seen at Hampton Court
-Palace—William’s, Mary’s and Queen Anne’s. Both
-William’s and Mary’s are now in the Private Diningroom.
-The former, which is about fifteen feet high, is
-covered entirely with crimson damask, and Mary’s, which
-is much smaller, with crimson velvet. The small bed
-used by George II when he lived in this Palace, and
-which stands between William’s and Mary’s, may also
-belong to this period. Queen Anne’s bed is more elaborate.
-This stands in her State Bed-chamber; and it is
-not unlikely that Queen Anne’s bed originally belonged
-to Mary; for she owned a number of very handsome
-beds draped with materials of the latest fashion. The
-elaborate designs upon the rich Genoa velvet that adorns
-this piece of furniture are quite in the Marot style.</p>
-
-<div id='XLVII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_391.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLVII.</span>—<em>Carved Oak Bahut.</em><br /><br />CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS.<br /><br />Fig. 38: Ornament in the Auricular Style.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>The bed of this period was particularly suited to
-Marot’s taste, and he made many designs, in which the
-festoon is conspicuous.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The bed shown in the frontispiece of this book is a
-typical example of Marot. The heavy cornice is adorned
-with a cartouche in the centre and four “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>” of
-ostrich feathers in vases at the corners. The headboard
-is also characteristic of Marot, and consists of an
-urn with swags of leaves and husks, with mermaids as
-caryatides or supporters at the sides. At the base of
-the bed is a mascaron. The silk draperies are arranged
-in formal swags tied with bows of silk and cords and
-tassels, and the valance around the bottom of the bed is
-similar to the cornice decoration. Running around the
-cornice is a brass rail for the outside curtains, which can
-be drawn around the bed enclosing it entirely, with the
-exception of the “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>.” The counterpane, bolster
-and pillow are covered with material that carries Marot
-designs. The pillow is adorned with tassels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another of Marot’s designs for a bed is reproduced
-in Plate <a href='#XLVIII'>XLVIII</a>. This is interesting on more than
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>one account. The carving of the canopy shows the
-advent of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">rocaille</span></i> work that ran mad during the
-periods of the Regency and Louis XV. The scrolls in
-the woodwork at the foot of the bed are of the same
-form as the stretchers in tables, chairs, stands and stools
-of the period. The decoration of the room is worth
-notice also. The walls are covered with tapestry, and
-the same lambrequin that adorns the bed is repeated all
-along the walls under the cornice. The same decoration
-is repeated around the seat of the armchair on either
-side of the bed. The low foot-posts of the bed are
-surmounted by “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>,” which usually hold the positions
-above, here occupied by carved shells. Finally,
-the sconce mirror over the chair is graceful in form.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Queen Anne’s bed at Hampton Court Palace gives
-one a good idea of the Marot decoration. It has a square
-canopy and tester, below which hang curtains that when
-drawn enclose the entire bed. The head-board is upholstered.
-The furnishings of this bed are entirely of
-stamped or cut velvet, a white ground with formal patterns
-of crimson and orange. The chairs, tabourets and
-long forms are also covered with this material.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A beautiful chandelier of silver decorated with glass
-balls hangs from the ceiling, which was painted by Sir
-James Thornhill. The design depicts Aurora rising
-from the ocean in her chariot, drawn by four white
-horses and attended by cupids, while Night and Sleep
-sink away.</p>
-
-<div id='f40'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_395.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Figs. 40, 41 and 42.—“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sophas.</span></i>” Fig. 43.—<em>Lower part of Chair, by Marot.</em> Figs. 44 and 45.—<em>Lambrequins, by Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Marot’s armchairs owe their effect almost entirely
-to upholstery: the framework is certainly solid, heavy
-and ungainly. He prefers carved feet of animals’ claws
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>to the popular Dutch bulb. A typical form of the seat
-and legs appears in Fig. 43. The top of the back is
-usually a straight line, though, if the chair is designed for
-a prince or noble, the centre sometimes rises in a carved
-crown or coronet. The woodwork is generally gilded.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Marot’s sconces usually had only one candle socket
-(<em>see</em> Plate <a href='#XLIX'>XLIX</a>). When the mirror was of silver, or
-any burnished metal, its surface was generally convex.
-When it was of glass it was flat, but very often the edges
-were bevelled. The three examples on Plate <a href='#XLIX'>XLIX</a>
-show the characteristic ornamental details of mascarons,
-floral scrolls, and heavy <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chutes</span></i> of the bell-flower or
-wheat-ear. The same ornamentation, intermingled with
-“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pommes</span></i>,” geometrical lines and broken scrolls, distinguishes
-the two large mirrors above. Other handsome
-oval and rectangular mirrors appear on Plate <a href='#L'>L</a>. The
-lower one on the right, with cornucopias disgorging <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chutes</span></i>
-of fruit, bears the crossed double L of Louis XIV, with
-a royal crown, and therefore must belong to Marot’s
-early period before he went to Holland. The mascarons
-and human figures on the other mirrors on this plate
-also belong to the early Louis Quatorze period.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On Plate <a href='#LI'>LI</a> are two more mirrors, large and small,
-one above an inlaid console table and three candle or
-candelabra stands. These are interesting as showing the
-extent to which Marot made use of caryatides and swags
-in decorative work. It will be noticed that his Junos,
-Floras and Venuses are functional as well as graceful
-and decorative. With their heads and arms they have
-real work to do and weights to support.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Tables of Marot’s design are represented on Plate
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>LII, which also gives a series of eight mascarons. Plate
-<a href='#LIII'>LIII</a> shows three of Marot’s tall clocks, with details of
-decoration and designs for key handles. The little frieze
-of designs for keyholes at the top of the Plate show that
-the forms of china-ware were even invading goldsmiths’
-work.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It will be noticed that the grandfather’s clock in
-Marot’s mind was somewhat more ornate than the modern
-idea of that timepiece. Chippendale owed a heavy
-debt to Marot’s forms of clocks and candlestands.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Marot’s designs for rooms show the limit to which
-porcelain could be used as a decorative feature. There
-are brackets, brackets everywhere. Vases of different
-shapes and sizes stand on the ledges, oval, circular or
-straight, above the doors and stud the cornices; but it
-is the chimney-pieces that serve, as the tiered <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dressoir</span></i>
-did in Mediaeval days for plate, in the display of porcelain.
-The corner chimney-pieces of Hampton Court with their
-diminishing shelves give some faint idea of the many
-plates of Marot’s designs. Some of these show brackets
-and shelves that support hundreds of cups, saucers, pots,
-bowls, bottles and vases. In one extreme case more
-than three hundred pieces may be counted on the chimneypiece
-and hearth alone. These are not merely suggestions,
-for we have evidence that, in Holland, rooms
-decorated in this style really existed. Thus one poet
-sings:</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>Of The Porcelain Room</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">.... Geheel zijn huis, ja zelfs het klein gemak,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Blonk als een diamant—duizend fijne kopjes</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Vercierden ’t kabinet, hoe veel japanse popjes,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Uit amber, zeekoraal en roosverw paerlemoer,</span></i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Vervulden ’t groot salet.</span></i></div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line in4'>(His whole house, even his small parlour,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Shone like a diamond—a thousand small cups</div>
-      <div class='line'>Decorated this parlour; how many Japanese figures (dolls)</div>
-      <div class='line'>Of amber, sea-coral and pink mother-of-pearl</div>
-      <div class='line'>Filled the big room!)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div id='XLVIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_399.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLVIII.</span>—<em>Bed and Bedroom, by Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>On Plate <a href='#L'>L</a> two brackets will be noticed, for the support
-respectively of one and three China jars.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A typical English mansion of this period is Holme
-Lacy in Herefordshire. Though dating from Tudor
-days, it was partly rebuilt and decorated in the reign of
-William III. The principal apartments are well proportioned,
-and are embellished with richly stuccoed
-ceilings, with compartments of flowers and other designs.
-The “saloon” is particularly remarkable for its ceiling
-of pendent flowers and fruits, and carvings by Grinling
-Gibbons over the chimney-piece. Superb carvings by
-this great master, representing birds, shell-fish, fruit
-and flowers, are to be seen in all of the rooms on the
-ground floor, which communicate with one another by
-folding doors. The gardens, too, are noticeable, for they
-were also laid out in the style of King William’s day,
-and contain yew hedges of extraordinary height and
-thickness.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this period English and Dutch taste were identical.
-This is only what we might expect when we consider
-the bonds that united the reigning houses and nobility
-of the two countries. Mary, the eldest daughter of
-Charles I, married the Prince of Orange; and their son,
-William, married Mary, the daughter of James II. During
-this period, also, some of the English nobility went
-to the Low Countries for wives. In 1650, the Earl of
-Derby married Dorothea Helena, a daughter of John
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>Baron de Rupa, in Holland. She was a Maid of Honour
-of another ill-fated Stuart, Elizabeth, the beautiful
-Queen of Bohemia. Baron Colepepper married Margaret
-van Hesse, and the Earl of Arlington married
-another Dutch woman, Isabella, daughter of Henry of
-Nassau, Lord of Auverquerque, in the early days of the
-Restoration. The Earl of Bellomont married Isabella’s
-sister. The Earl of Ailesbury, in 1700, married Charlotte
-d’Argenteau, Countess d’Esseneux and Baroness
-de Melobroeck in Flanders: and the list might be extended.
-Incidentally we may note that, in 1646, the
-Earl of Berkeley married Elizabeth Massingberd, the
-daughter of the treasurer of the East India Company.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It has already been noted that Charles II was hospitably
-entertained in Holland at his sister’s court during
-part of his exile. We have also seen that James II
-was a connoisseur in Oriental art products. When the
-daughter of the latter, Mary, married her cousin William
-and settled down in Holland, her mind was fully receptive
-to Dutch tastes and ways of living. When she
-became Queen of England, on the exile of her father,
-it was a Dutch palace into which she transformed Hampton
-Court, that splendid enforced gift of Wolsey’s to
-Henry VIII. The English student, therefore, need not
-cross the Channel to study Dutch interior decoration
-and furniture of the close of the seventeenth century.
-The majority of the rooms and grounds are still practically
-in the same condition as they were when inhabited
-by William and Mary, under whose direct orders the
-work was designed and supervised by Marot and Sir
-Christopher Wren. A considerable amount of the
-Marot furniture still survives there. Defoe tells us in
-his <cite>Tour</cite> (1724):</p>
-
-<div id='XLIX'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_403.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate XLIX.</span>—<em>Mirrors and Sconces, by Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>“Her Majesty (Mary) had here a fine apartment
-(Hampton Court), with a set of lodgings for her private
-retreat only, but most exquisitely furnished, particularly
-a fine chintz bed, then a great curiosity; another of her
-own work while in Holland, very magnificent, and
-several others; and here also was Her Majesty’s fine
-collection of delft ware, which indeed was very large and
-fine; and here was also a vast stock of fine china-ware,
-the like whereof was not then to be seen in England;
-the long gallery, as above, was filled with this china,
-and every other place where it could be placed with
-advantage.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Although an Englishwoman, Mary had all the virtues
-and tastes of a Dutch <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">vrouw</span></i>. She kept her husband
-informed of all that happened from day to day, bewailed
-his absence and neglect, and busied herself and
-her Maids of Honour with needlework, and, perhaps,
-with tenderly dusting her cherished porcelain. When
-in London, she used to spend many an hour and all her
-pocket money shopping at the India houses and in the
-New Exchange. She set the fashion for china-mania,
-and may well have inspired Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s
-lines:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>“What shall I do to spend the hateful day ...</div>
-      <div class='line'>Strait then I’ll dress and take my wonted range</div>
-      <div class='line'>Thro’ India shops, to Motteux’s, or the Change,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Where the tall jar erects its stately pride,</div>
-      <div class='line'>With antique shapes in China’s azure dyed;</div>
-      <div class='line'>There careless lies a rich brocade unrolled,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Here shines a cabinet with burnished gold.</div>
-      <div class='line'>But then, alas! I must be forced to pay,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And bring no penn’orths, not a fan away!”</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>Hampton Court was remodelled under Mary’s direction.
-It almost entirely lost its Tudor character, and
-became characteristically Dutch in appearance. Sir
-Christopher Wren’s talents were called into requisition
-to design the shelves, cornices and tiered corner chimney-pieces
-that are still to be seen there. Verrio was employed
-to adorn the staircases and ceilings with his gaudy
-frescoes. Grinling Gibbons, a Dutchman, whom Evelyn
-had discovered, was responsible for the carvings that
-even to-day are the admiration and despair of the woodworker.
-The fish-ponds and gardens were laid out in
-the formal Dutch taste, with fountains, clipped trees,
-hedges, avenues, geometrical beds, an orangery and an
-aviary of tropical birds. The furniture was due to
-Marot and Wren.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The comparatively small amount of furniture now to
-be seen in the show-rooms of Hampton Court belongs
-mainly to this period. It consists principally of chairs,
-stools (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tabourets</span></i>), beds, card-tables, mirrors and chandeliers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Many of these specimens are extremely interesting,
-showing the Marot taste. Of the latter, there are stools,
-chairs and tables with the heavy scroll foot and stretchers,
-the latter joining in the centre and supporting there a
-carved ornament; other tables have four scroll supports
-and stand on bulb feet. Some of the stools and
-tabourets have gilded woodwork. Among the later
-style we may note a chair in William III’s Presence
-Chamber, with tall back, jar-shaped splat, cabriole leg,
-hoof feet and straining-rails, the front one higher than
-the other; and also two card-tables in the King’s Drawing-room,
-with slender legs ending in the hoof foot,
-and the tops supplied with wells for the counters and
-slight depressions for the candles.</p>
-
-<div id='L'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_407.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate L.</span>—<em>Mirrors, by Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>About thirty handsome looking-glasses of the period
-are there. Many of them are pier-glasses hung, of course,
-between the windows. One of the most noticeable of
-these is a fine pier-glass in William III’s State Bedroom,
-dating from his time. This has a border of cut blue
-glass, the edges are bevelled, and the centre contains the
-monogram W. R., surmounted by the crown in blue and
-white glass. A similar mirror hangs over the fireplace.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another looking-glass with a blue glass frame hangs
-between the windows in Queen Mary’s Closet.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another beautiful chandelier hangs in William III’s
-Presence Chamber: this is of silver, with eight lower
-and four upper arms. It is decorated with the harp,
-thistle, etc. A still more ornate one hangs in the
-Queen’s Audience Chamber. This is a magnificent
-combination of silver and crystal, with silver sea-horses
-and lions supporting the silver branches, crystal balls
-and drops, and a crystal crown on top.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mantelpieces are extremely interesting, as many
-of them are of the old inverted funnel shape, and are
-supplied with tiers of shelves—sometimes as many as
-six—for the reception of ornaments. Upon these now
-stands a good deal of blue and white china, many pieces
-of which belonged to Queen Mary. Pieces that are
-known to have belonged to her are two blue and white
-jars and two goddesses in Queen Mary’s Closet, and
-two goddesses and two vases, about eighteen inches high,
-on the mantelpiece of William III’s Presence Chamber.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>Charles II, who, while a royal refugee, spent much
-time in Holland, had acquired the new taste. It was
-there, doubtless, that he saw visions of wealth in the
-Indies that later led him to grant the English East India
-Company a charter, and to embark on a disastrous and
-inglorious war, which resulted in London hearing foreign
-guns for the first time since England was a nation. His
-keen appreciation of Oriental works of art, however, was
-somewhat dulled when his bride, Catherine of Braganza,
-brought him a shipload of cabinets and ceramics in lieu
-of the dowry her mother had promised, although Evelyn,
-in his description of Hampton Court (1662), says: “The
-Queen brought over with her from Portugal such Indian
-cabinets as had never before been seen here.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is frequently asserted with apparent authority
-that Mary carried the Dutch taste for porcelain and the
-manufactures of the Far East into England; but, as we
-have seen, this idea is not well founded. Herself a
-china-maniac, she merely set the royal stamp of approval
-on contemporary taste, and made Hampton Court a
-model of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i>. That style dominated English
-and Dutch homes before she heartlessly danced in
-the Palace of Whitehall from which her father had
-fled.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Hampton Court, remodelled under her directions, was
-not completed till 1693. Many documents show that
-the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style refugié</span></i> was popular in English aristocratic
-homes before that date.</p>
-
-<div id='LI'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_411.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LI.</span>—<em>Mirrors, Console Table and Candlesticks, by Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>Under William and Mary, London swarmed with
-Dutch merchants and refugee Huguenot arts and craftsmen,
-and was almost as much of an Eastern bazaar as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>Amsterdam was. Mary set the pace, and wealth and
-aristocracy gladly followed. As an example of the
-vogue, we cannot do better than take the diary of the
-wealthy John Hervey, afterwards Earl of Bristol, and
-quote a few entries of expenditure.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He was always buying porcelain and other Oriental
-wares “for dear wife.” On July 6, 1689, he notes:
-“Paid to Katherine Scott for 12 leaves of cut Japan
-skreens, 2 pieces of India damask and 6 Dutch chairs,
-£65.” In the following July, he also bought from John
-van Colima, a Dutchman, who had probably followed
-William III to London, “a parcel of old China for
-£3 2<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>” Though the Earl dealt more extensively
-with “Medina ye Jew,” “Leeds ye mercer,” “Seamer
-ye goldsmith” and many “India houses” in the New
-Exchange, we find him still patronizing the Dutchman
-after the death of his first wife, as is shown by the following
-entries: “1696, Jan. 11: Paid Calama, ye Dutchman
-in Green Street, for a parcell of china for my dear
-wife, £31 8<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i> May 4: Calamar, ye Dutchman, for
-another parcel of China, £10 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>” Two years later he
-also pays “John Van Collema, for an Indian trunk, £35.”
-Another Dutchman who enjoyed this nobleman’s patronage
-was “Mr. Gerreit Johnson, ye Cabinett-maker,” who,
-on May 25, 1696, was paid £70 “for ye black sett of
-glass, table and stands, and for ye glasses, etc., over ye
-chimneys and elsewhere in my dear wife’s apartment.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Gerreit Johnson, whom the Earl patronized, was a
-fashionable cabinet-maker who made the china-cabinets
-for Queen Mary that were placed in a room at Hampton
-Court called “the Delft Ware Closett.” It is interesting
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>to note that the mirrors and cabinets in the Countess
-of Bristol’s boudoir had black japanned framework.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His diary and expense account shows that his purchases
-of furniture and <em>bric-à-brac</em> faithfully reflected
-the prevailing taste for Oriental wares and the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style
-refugié</span></i>. He did not exclusively patronize Dutchmen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1688, he paid “to Frenoye, the silkman, for the
-fringe of the bed, edgings for the window curtains, etc.,
-£155”; “to the joyner who made the chairs, stools
-and squabs for my wife, £19”; and “for gold and crimson
-fringe for the India bed quilt, £17.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1689, he bought “for dear wife” a white teapot
-and basin, £4 16<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 9<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; two china basins, £1 1<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; an
-India trunk, £7; India quilt for a bed, £38; a “brockadal
-hanging in my wife’s anti-chamber, £11 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”; and
-“to a French varnisher for ten chairs, a couch and two
-tabourettes, £12.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1690, his purchases included “silver andirons, for
-my dear wife her closett chimney, £13 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>“; “a glass
-screen, £1 1<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>”; “two pair of basins for dear wife,
-£1 12<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>“; “a large China punch-bowl, with a large jarr
-and two white cupps, £3 5<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>“; “sett of cupps and
-saucers, £2”; six other saucers, 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; “two china beakers,
-£2 11<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>“; two great jarrs of china and two smaller ones,
-“with one very little one,” £7 3<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; a parcel of old china,
-£21; another parcel of old china, £6 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; “another
-sett of old china for dear wife, £22”; “a pair of
-old china roul wagons” (large blue and white vases),
-£7 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; a pair of china cupps and a little jarr,
-£1 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; for a china teapot basin, £1 1<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>; an old
-china bottle and two china dishes, £1 15<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>; “at a
-curiosity shop, 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>“; “a rich piece of India atlas,
-£13 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”; “a parcel of Indian things, £5 7<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>”;
-and “a pair of china jarrs, £1 4<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”</p>
-
-<div id='LII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_415.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LII.</span>—<em>Tables and Mascarons, by Maret.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>In 1691, he bought a “Jappan travelling strong water
-cellar, £5 7<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i> 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i>”; a “Persian carpet (all of silk) to lay
-under a bed, and an old china roulwaggon, 22 guineys”;
-“a piece of blue Indian stuff, £2 15<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”; and “a candle-skreen,
-£1 6<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>” (The “roulwaggon” is a kind of vase.)</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1692, he enters “two china rice potts for dear wife,
-£5”; “a china jarr, £2 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”; and “a parcel of china,
-£2 14<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i>”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is evident from the above that at the close of the
-seventeenth century, Huguenot, Chinese, Japanese, Indian,
-English and Dutch artists and artisans had combined to
-produce a style, the leading spirit of which in England
-and Holland was Marot.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A noticeable fact in connexion with the European
-craze for Asiatic art products is that, though the English
-and Dutch highly admired the native wares, the European
-merchants sent out their own patterns and designs
-for furniture and ceramics. It is even maintained that
-the famous “Willow Plate” was the design of a Dutchman.
-The evidence of the practice of exploiting foreign
-labour in the field of home taste is overwhelming; and,
-as the century advanced, the guilds, city companies
-and other trades unions in England, France and Holland
-grew more and more restive under the burden of “Chinese
-cheap labour.” Mazarin was one of the early enthusiasts
-in France to encourage Eastern importations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoirs</span></cite> of La Grande Mademoiselle (1658),
-we read: “The Cardinal (Mazarin) behaved in a very
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>delightful and galant manner. He took the two Queens
-(Anne of Austria and Henrietta Maria) and the Princess
-of England and myself into a gallery that was filled with
-all that could be imagined in the way of precious stones,
-jewels, furniture, stuffs and everything beautiful from
-China; crystal chandeliers, mirrors, tables and cabinets
-of all kinds, silver vessels, perfumes, gloves, ribbons and
-fans.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Towards the close of the century the craze for Oriental
-wares had assumed such proportions that in France
-Louis XIV enacted sumptuary laws to protect native
-industries; and in Holland and England the artisans
-grumbled bitterly over the hard times occasioned by the
-vogue. The Eastern workmen accepted patterns and
-supplied orders that natives of Western Europe could not
-venture to undertake. The guilds and city companies
-admitted the superiority of Oriental work, and cried
-aloud for protection. Thus, in 1700, the Joiners’ Company
-addressed a petition against the importation of
-manufactured cabinet work from the East Indies. In
-this they state that they have “of late years arrived at
-so great a perfection as exceeds all Europe.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“But several merchants and others,” they continue,
-“have procured to be made in London of late years and
-sent over to the East Indies patterns and models of all
-forms of cabinet goods, and have yearly returned from
-thence such quantities of cabinet wares, manufactured
-there after the English fashion, that the said trade in
-England is in great danger of being utterly ruined, etc., etc.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The following goods, manufactured in India, have
-been imported within these four years, viz.:</p>
-
-<div id='LIII'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_419.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LIII.</span>—<em>Clocks and Details, by Marot.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table2' summary=''>
-  <tr><td class='c007' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>244</td>
-    <td class='c017'>cabinets.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>655</td>
-    <td class='c017'>tops for stands.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>6,580</td>
-    <td class='c017'>tea-tables.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>818</td>
-    <td class='c017'>lacquered boards.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>428</td>
-    <td class='c017'>chests.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>597</td>
-    <td class='c017'>sconces.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>70</td>
-    <td class='c017'>trunks.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>589</td>
-    <td class='c017'>looking-glasses.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>52</td>
-    <td class='c017'>screens.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>4,120</td>
-    <td class='c017'>dressing, comb and powder-boxes.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Japanners also brought their grievances before
-the authorities in 1710. The taste for japanned goods
-had forced them to endeavour to make worthy imitations
-for home consumption, and they thought they were
-entitled to patronage and tariff protection. The evils
-are fully indicated in the preamble to their petition:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Many of the artificers (cabinet-makers, turners,
-goldbeaters and coppersmiths) have brought (the curious
-and ingenious art and mystery of japanning, so much
-improved in England of late years) to so great perfection
-as to exceed all manner of Indian lacquer, and to equal
-the right japan itself, by enduring the fire in the boiling
-of liquors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Also it will, if encouraged, vastly improve both the
-wood and iron trades for cisterns, monteiths, punch-bowls,
-tea-tables and several sorts of ironware, which
-would be useless if not improved by our English lacquer.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“But the merchants, sending over English patterns
-and models to India, and bringing such quantities of
-Indian lacquered wares (especially within the last two
-years), great numbers of families are by that means
-reduced to miserable poverty.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The trade with the Indies thus encountered bitter
-opposition, and many tracts were published calling attention
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>to the alleged grievances of native workmen from
-its prosecution. In 1700, <cite>Reasons</cite>, a tract, tells us: “The
-charter of the East India Company was confirmed by
-King Charles II in the thirteenth year of his reign, and
-the law for permitting bullion to be exported was
-made soon after. In 1672 or 1673, several artificers
-were sent over by the Company with great quantity
-of English patterns to teach the Indians how to manufacture
-goods to make them vendible in England and the
-rest of the European markets. After which began the
-trade in manufactured goods from the Indies.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1699, also, a bitter wail went up in a broadside
-entitled <cite>Prince Butler’s Tale</cite>:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>When first the India trade began,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And ships beyond the tropics ran</div>
-      <div class='line'>In quest of various drugs and spices,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And sundry other strange devices.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Saltpetre, drugs, spice and such trading</div>
-      <div class='line'>Composed the bulk of all their lading:</div>
-      <div class='line'>Bengals and silks of India’s making</div>
-      <div class='line'>Our merchants then refused to take in,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Knowing it would their country ruin</div>
-      <div class='line'>And might prove to their own undoing.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nor did they carry gold or bullion</div>
-      <div class='line'>To fetch home what supplants our woollen;</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nor were this nation fond to wear</div>
-      <div class='line'>Such Indian toys which cost so dear.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Then were we clad in woollen stuffs,</div>
-      <div class='line'>With cambric bands and lawn ruffs,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Or else in silk which was imported</div>
-      <div class='line'>For woollen goods which we exported;</div>
-      <div class='line'>Which silk our English weavers bought</div>
-      <div class='line'>And into various figures wrought.</div>
-      <div class='line'>That scarce a child was to be seen</div>
-      <div class='line'>Without Say frock, that was of green.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Our hangings, beds, our coats and gowns</div>
-      <div class='line'>Made of our wool in clothing towns,</div>
-      <div class='line'>This nation then was rich and wealthy</div>
-      <div class='line'>And in a state which we call’d healthy.</div>
-      <div class='line'>But since the men of Gath arose,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And for their chief Goliath chose,</div>
-      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>And since that mighty giant’s reign</div>
-      <div class='line'>Whose chiefest aim was private gain,</div>
-      <div class='line'>This trade was drove on by such measures</div>
-      <div class='line'>As soon exhausted much our treasures;</div>
-      <div class='line'>For then our chiefest artists went</div>
-      <div class='line'>With patterns, and with money sent,</div>
-      <div class='line'>To make and purchase Indian ware,</div>
-      <div class='line'>For which this nation pays full dear.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Then by great gifts of <em>finest</em> touches</div>
-      <div class='line'>To lords and ladies, dukes and duchess,</div>
-      <div class='line'>So far prevailed as set the fashion</div>
-      <div class='line'>Which, plague-like, soon spread o’er the nation.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Our ladies all were set a gadding,</div>
-      <div class='line'>After these toys they ran a madding;</div>
-      <div class='line'>And nothing then would please their fancies,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nor Dolls, nor Joans, nor wanton Nancies</div>
-      <div class='line'>Unless it was of Indians’ making;</div>
-      <div class='line'>And if ‘twas so, ‘twas wondrous taking.</div>
-      <div class='line'>This antick humour so prevailed,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Tho’ many ‘gainst it <em>greatly</em> railed,</div>
-      <div class='line'>‘Mongst all degrees of female kind</div>
-      <div class='line'>That nothing else could please their mind.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Tell ‘em the following of such fashion</div>
-      <div class='line'>Wou’d beggar and undo the nation</div>
-      <div class='line'>And ruin all our labouring poor</div>
-      <div class='line'>That must or starve, or beg at door,</div>
-      <div class='line'>They’d not at all regard your story,</div>
-      <div class='line'>But in their painted garments glory;</div>
-      <div class='line'>And such as were not Indian proof</div>
-      <div class='line'>They scorn’d, despised, as paltry stuff;</div>
-      <div class='line'>And like gay peacocks proudly strut it,</div>
-      <div class='line'>When in our streets along they foot it.</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>&#8196; &#8196; &#8196; &#8196;*&#8196; &#8196; &#8196; &#8196;*&#8196; &#8196; &#8196; &#8196;*&#8196; &#8196; &#8196; &#8196;*&#8196; &#8196; &#8196; &#8196;*</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>And happy thrice would England be,</div>
-      <div class='line'>If, while they’re living, we could see</div>
-      <div class='line'>Our noble ladies but beginning</div>
-      <div class='line'>To wear our wool of finest spinning,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Or in such silks our workmen make,</div>
-      <div class='line'>For which our merchants cloth to take;</div>
-      <div class='line'>Which soon would bring them in such fashion</div>
-      <div class='line'>As they’d be worn throughout this nation,</div>
-      <div class='line'>By all degrees, and sex, and ages,</div>
-      <div class='line'>From highest peers to lowest pages;</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nor would the meanest trull, or besses,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Delight to wear these Indian dresses,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Which certainly would profit bring</div>
-      <div class='line'>To them, their tenants, and their king.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>To show how enormous was the trade with the East
-Indies at the end of the century, we need only examine
-the records of sales of the cargoes of three ships at the
-East India House in 1700. In this we omit all mention
-of sugar, tea, coffee, bezoar stones, ambergris, drugs of
-all sorts, sweetmeats, gems, musk, aloes, carpets, rugs,
-and all kinds of woven silk and cotton goods. The other
-goods, “besides great quantities unsold of toyes and
-small goods,” fetched over £200,000, which at the present
-day might represent three-quarters of a million sterling:</p>
-
-<table class='table2' summary=''>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c009'></th>
-    <th class='c012'>£</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>China-ware pieces</td>
-    <td class='c012'>150,000</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Fans</td>
-    <td class='c012'>38,557</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d sticks for fans</td>
-    <td class='c012'>13,470</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d trunks, escretors, bowls, cups, dishes, etc.</td>
-    <td class='c012'>10,500</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d tables inlaid</td>
-    <td class='c012'>189</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d panels in frames, painted and carved for rooms</td>
-    <td class='c012'>47</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d boards</td>
-    <td class='c012'>178</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d brushes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>3,099</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d tables not inlaid</td>
-    <td class='c012'>277</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d fans for fire</td>
-    <td class='c012'>174</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Lacquer’d boards for screens</td>
-    <td class='c012'>54</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Screens set in frames</td>
-    <td class='c012'>71</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Paper josses</td>
-    <td class='c012'>1,799</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Shells painted double gilt</td>
-    <td class='c012'>281</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Paper painted for fans</td>
-    <td class='c012'>377</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Images of copper, stone, wood and earth</td>
-    <td class='c012'>600</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Pictures</td>
-    <td class='c012'>669</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Brass and iron leaves for lanthorns</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Brass hinges in chests</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c009'>Embroideries for curtains, valloons and counterpanes</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c000'>Among the textiles that were imported from the
-East Indies, Persia and China at the end of the seventeenth
-century, and used for curtains, upholstery, cushions,
-etc., were many varieties of wrought silks, “dyed
-Bengals,” and printed or stained “callicoes,” known
-under the following names:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>Allibanies.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Allejaes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Ammores.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Addecannees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Agentbannies.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Atlasses.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Addaties.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Brawles.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Bengalis or Nilas.</div>
-      <div class='line'>China silks.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chawters.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Cherconnees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chucklaes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Checquered silks.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Carpetts.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Callawaypoose.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Canvas bolts.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Cuttannees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Cuttannees, Striped.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Cuttannees, Flowered.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Cuttannees, Wrought.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Culgees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Serunge.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Caddy.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Surrat.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Brampore.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Culme.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Pattanna,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Gulconda.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Chints, Wrought.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Damasks.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Derribasts.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Damask nankeens.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Elatches.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Elatches, Lingua.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Ginghams coloured.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Gelongs.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Gelongs, printed and painted.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Gelongs, striped.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Gorgoreas.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Gauzes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Goachon Cherulas.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Guiney stripes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Girdles.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Herba Taffeties.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Herba Lungees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Hockings.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Jammawars.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Longes Flowered.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Mahobutt Bannes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Mocha silks.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Muttrasses.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nankeen Taffeties.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nillaes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Niccannees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Paunches.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pelongs.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Putkaes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Peniascoes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Phota Lungees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pallungpores.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Peniascoes or Penasses.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pholcarees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Quilts.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Romalls silk.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Romalls cotton.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Romalls serunge.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Rastaes.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Shalbasts.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Soofeys.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sattins plain.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Satin nankeens.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Soops.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Seersuckers.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sacerguntees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sooseys.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Shaulbasts.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Silk Lungees.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Taffeties.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Taffety nankeens.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Velvets.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The above list is copied from a tract protesting
-against foreign importations that was printed about 1700.</p>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Lacquer—Oriental Methods—European Importations and Limitations—Prices—An
-Ambassador’s Report—<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Singerie</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i> and
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rocaille</span></i>—The Dutch Decadence—Interiors of Cornelis Troost—Mirrors—Wealth
-and Luxury of Dutch Merchants—Court Contrast—Tapestry—Brussels
-as a Centre of Art and Luxury—Eighteenth
-Century Furniture—The Empire Style in the Low Countries—Dutch
-Homes of the Nineteenth Century—The Maarken House
-and Furniture—Typical Farmhouse and Furniture—Country Seats
-and Town Houses—Hindeloopen Houses and Furniture—A Friesland
-House—Canal Boat Furniture—Dutch Love of Symmetry—Collectors
-and Collections.</p>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_0_6 c006'>So far little attention has been paid in these pages
-to lacquer, though important articles of household
-furniture that owed their beauty and value to this species
-of ornamentation have appeared in inventories and
-diaries under the designation of “vernish,” “japan”
-or “japanned.” Sometimes this work was referred
-to as “black” merely, as in the case of John Hervey’s
-“dear wife’s” boudoir.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Oriental method of lacquering requires a vast
-amount of patience and skill. After the wood has been
-smoothly planed, it is covered with a thin sheet of paper
-or silk gauze. Over this is spread a thick coating of
-buffalo’s gall and powdered red sandstone. When dry,
-this is rubbed with wax and polished, or washed over
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>with gum and chalk. The varnish is laid on with a
-flat brush. The article is now thoroughly dried, and
-again moistened and polished with a piece of soft slate,
-or the stalks of a special grass. The workman then
-repeats the process, giving it a second coating of lacquer,
-and again dries and polishes it. Sometimes as many
-as eighteen or twenty coatings are applied, but never
-less than three.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The lacquer used by the Chinese and Japanese is
-derived from the juice of the “varnish tree.” This
-juice, a natural secretion, is acrid, and soon hardens
-into a black resin. To obtain it, pieces of bamboo are
-inserted into the bark and allowed to remain all night,
-for the juice flows more freely at night than during the
-day. This is boiled with equal parts of oil obtained
-from the fruit of the <em>mimusops elengi</em>. The chief trees
-that yield this gum are the black varnish tree (<em>melanorrhoea
-usitata</em>) and the Japan varnish tree (<em>rhus vernicifera</em>).</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There are grades in lacquer. Lacquer on a gold
-ground is the most highly prized; and the first examples
-of this kind that reached Europe were gifts to Dutch
-officials from Japanese princes. This sort of lacquer is
-seldom found on furniture, with the exception of delicate
-little boxes and occasionally plaques that were inserted
-into furniture.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Lacquered wares were brought into Holland, England
-and France in large quantities all through the seventeenth
-century, as the bills of lading (see page <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>) show.
-We have seen that the European merchants sent out
-designs for forms and decorations of Oriental porcelain;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>and they did the same for carved ebony, teak and ivory,
-and especially lacquer. Many of the screens, clocks,
-bedsteads, cabinets, panels, tables, etc., of the period
-show unmistakable signs of Oriental attempts to supply
-European demands. In textiles also, especially in screen-fillings,
-and other textiles used in upholstery for couches,
-chairs and hangings, we frequently find views of Dutch
-towns and social life, indoors and outdoors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The framework of large pieces of furniture was sometimes
-both carved on the edges, and the flat surfaces
-were lacquered. Sometimes the frames of screens were
-of carved rosewood (home-made), and the apertures were
-filled with genuine Eastern textiles. Tables of inlaid
-ivory and mother-of-pearl were also in general vogue.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Lacquered furniture was highly prized and very
-costly during the days of William of Orange, our “Dutch
-William.” “A grand Japan cabinet” (probably a wardrobe)
-in the bedroom of a Countess in 1675 was valued
-at £200 in present money. In 1698 an “Indian trunk”
-is listed at £35 in money of that date. In valuations
-that might be perhaps multiplied fivefold to-day in
-actual cash, apart from appreciation in art or sentimental
-value, we find also: a pair of India cut Japan
-screens, £60; a black bureau, £6; a Japan scrutoire,
-£60; a Japan cabinet, £35; and India-cut Japan
-frame and glasses, £10 10<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We have seen from the complaint of the japanners
-in England that strong attempts had been made to
-imitate the home demands; and considerable success
-had rewarded the efforts of the artists and cabinetmakers.
-The trouble was that they could not obtain
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>the proper lacquer or “vernish” in England, France or
-Holland for many years. The Dutch, holding such a
-dominant position in the East Indies, practically throughout
-the seventeenth century, naturally had the best
-chance to discover the secret of the constitution and
-manufacture of the far-famed varnish. They tried to
-reproduce the Oriental product of lacquer just as persistently
-as they did the porcelain with delft. Good as
-their imitations were, however, they could not produce a
-lacquer that could compete with the Japanese any more
-than the English could. They used native varnishes,
-therefore, and produced beautiful work which, alas!
-was not destined to last. The surface soon cracked,
-scaled off and left the framework decrepit and friendless,—relegated
-to the attic, kitchen or wood pile.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As Dutch enterprise led the way in imitations of
-Oriental wares, of porcelain in delft, so also imitations
-of lacquer first found fame in the Netherlands. A
-Dutchman named Huygens was famous for his japanned
-work early in the eighteenth century. He was called
-to France, and was probably largely instrumental in the
-invention or perfection of the celebrated <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vernis Martin</span></i>.
-This was a species of lacquer that beautifies many sumptuous
-examples of Louis Quinze furniture, and is highly
-prized by collectors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The character of lacquered and other Oriental wares
-obtainable early in the eighteenth century may be
-gathered from the report of an ambassador to Pekin
-in 1721. Among other things he says:</p>
-
-<div id='LIV'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_431.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LIV.</span>—<em>Interior, by Cornelis Troost.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The most valuable furniture of lackered ware, viz.,
-cabinets, chairs, tables, baskets, and other things of that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>sort, as also the richest porcelain ware, come from Japan.
-For when the Emperor sends any person to Japan in a
-public character, most of the princes and great men
-of the court seldom fail to engage him to bring them
-some of those things at his return....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“After the lackered ware of Japan, that of the province
-of Fokien, is looked upon as the best; but none of it
-comes to Pekin because the great lords of China oppress
-the merchants to a great degree and take their goods
-from them upon many frivolous pretences, without leaving
-them the least hopes of ever obtaining any payment.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“They have at Pekin a people dexterous enough at
-lackering, but their works fall short of those of Japan
-and Fokien, which may be attributed to the difference
-of climate; and it is for this reason that the lackered
-work made at Pekin is always much cheaper than the
-other. Nevertheless, the lackered work made at
-Pekin infinitely exceeds any work of that kind made
-in Europe.... The European merchants carry away
-from Canton raw silk; damasks wrought according to
-draughts furnished to them; wrought silks; lackered
-ware; tea, green and bohea; badians, a seed having a
-taste like aniseed; canes and china-ware, made according
-to models given them.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“For the rest they carry to China from Europe, and
-bring back from China, a very great variety of toys and
-different sorts of curiosities, upon which they make a
-very considerable profit; but these are so numerous
-that it is not possible to furnish a complete specification
-of them.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the eighteenth century Dutch and Belgian
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>furniture, in common with English and German, humbly
-submitted to the dictates of the great French designers.
-The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Singerie</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rocaille</span></i> work of Watteau,
-Boucher, Meissonnier, Oppenord, Cressent, Huet, Gillot
-and others were welcomed and adapted to local tastes
-in the Low Countries. Many of the most beautiful
-cabinets and china-closets of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régence</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Louis
-Quinze</span></i> period that are preserved in Continental museums
-owe their origin to the skilled workmen of Belgium,
-especially of the School of Lille. Many fine specimens
-of the decorative work of this period may be seen in
-the Lille Museum. A typical example from Liège appears
-in Fig. 46. This shows the use as an ornamental feature
-of the broken curve, the auricle, a more sober descendant
-of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">style auriculaire</span></i>. The use of this ornament
-encountered rabid opposition in Regency days in France,
-England and the Low Countries, but it forced its way
-into favour shoulder to shoulder with the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i>,
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Singerie</span></i> and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rocaille</span></i> ornamentation. This double-bodied
-cabinet is made for the preservation and display of
-delft and porcelain. Ledges at the top are also provided
-for urns and jars as decorative accessories.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It may be interesting to see what a typical china-cabinet
-contained at the beginning of the eighteenth
-century. In 1700, we note one of carved walnut with
-four doors. In the lower compartment there were twenty
-vases of red India ware, a porcelain vinaigrette, a cup
-of enamelled glass, a little horn cup and a multitude
-of miscellaneous curios. Another cabinet having two
-lower doors, a middle drawer and one glass door above,
-contained fine delft vases, two cups and saucers, a big
-faïence jug and two little ones, six big rare sea-shells
-and other Oriental curios.</p>
-
-<div id='f46'  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_435.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Fig. 46.—<em>Cabinet from Liège.</em> Fig. 47.—<em>Dutch Mirror Frame.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>Dutch art was now in its decadence; it had lost
-its pre-eminence. The French artists set the fashion.
-The painter who is commonly held responsible for the
-decadence is Gérard de Lairesse (Liège, 1641–1711).
-He shows all the technique of the old school, and arranges
-his compositions in accordance with the laws
-of Italian taste, but he is decidedly artificial. His contemporaries
-and successors are feeble imitators of the
-Great and Little masters, and those who have the greatest
-reputations are miniaturists and still-life painters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>For Dutch interiors we now have to go to the pastels
-of Cornelis Troost (Amsterdam, 1697–1750), whose compositions
-gained for him the name of the “Dutch Hogarth.”
-Two reproductions of interiors by this artist
-are shown in Plates LIV and LV. The chairs, tables,
-sideboards, candlestands, chandeliers, buffets and chimney-pieces
-in these pictures in nowise differ from those
-used in England during the early Georgian era.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dutch taste ran to heaviness and over-loading in
-ornamentation. During the <em>Louis Quinze</em> period, Schubler
-was more in favour in wealthy Dutch houses, as
-he was in Germany, than were the French designers of
-a lighter touch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A handsome example of Dutch carving of the early
-eighteenth century is shown in the mirror frame in
-Fig. 47. This is of carved and gilded wood, representing
-scrolls, leaves, flowers, a mascaron and a female figure
-issuing from one of the scrolls. “This kind of mirror,
-made to be hung upon the woodwork or tapestries of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>the rooms, is often of a rather heavy and inelegant execution,”
-writes a critic, who referring to this special example
-continues, “but in this specimen where the outlines
-are so accentuated the effect is quite happy. The hooks
-intended for the metal sconces in the lower part of the
-frame should be noticed.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Holland was profiting so much by her mercantile
-ventures and, perhaps, unscrupulous trade dealings as
-to arouse bitter envy, jealousy and animosity. The
-famous despatch of Canning:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c014'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>“In matters of business the fault of the Dutch</div>
-      <div class='line'>Lies in giving too little and asking too much,”</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>would have been investigated a century earlier by both
-English and French merchants if they could have forced
-their Governments’ hands. Thus in <cite>The Trade and
-Navigation of Great Britain Considered</cite> the following
-occurs:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Trade with Holland: the balance paid us is thrice
-as much as we receive from either Portugal or Spain.
-But when we consider the great number of smuggling
-ships that are employed between this country and Holland,
-and the supply we have from them of pepper and
-all other sorts of India spice, with callicoes, muslins,
-India silks and romals, and other manufactures of India,
-coffee, tea, China-ware, and very great quantities of Hollands
-and fine lace, etc., it is apt to furnish the thinking
-part of mankind with other notions.”</p>
-
-<div id='LV'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_439.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LV.</span>—<em>Interior, by Cornelis Troost.</em><br /><br />RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutch merchants were able to indulge all their
-artistic and luxurious tastes in furnishing their houses.
-Some of them were wildly lavish and ostentatious in
-interior decoration and furniture years before the frenzied
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>finance of the Mississippi Scheme and South Sea
-Bubble, when valets became millionaires while they
-slept and senselessly squandered their gains in a month.
-As early as 1709, in Shaw’s <cite>Travels Through Holland</cite>,
-we read: “Glorious monuments of the excessive wealth
-acquired in trade are to be seen at Mr. Tripp’s and
-Pinto, the rich Jew’s houses; in this last is a room pav’d
-with ducatoons, or crown-pieces, and these laid edgewise.
-But, indeed, the whole new Heer Graff is fronted
-with houses like the palaces of princes, where glittering
-guildings, exquisite paintings, rich china, screens, gold,
-pearls, diamonds enchant you, and rival the apartments
-of monarchs in haughty magnificence.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is no exaggeration to say that the establishments
-of opulent merchants of the Low Countries at this period
-could match and sometimes even outshine those of
-princely courts. Life was very dull in Belgium at the
-court of the Austrian princess who ruled the Netherlands
-when George II came to the throne. Marie Elizabeth
-was forty-five when her brother gave her the rule
-of the Low Countries in 1725. She was very pious,
-and eschewed all gaiety. The only description of a
-festival given during her reign is that of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Fête de
-l’oiseau</span></i> given in Brussels, October 10, 1729, on the occasion
-of the birth of Monseigneur le Dauphin (born September
-4, 1729), and was written by the minister from France,
-Chaillon de Joinville, who arranged it, to the Marquis
-de Chauvelin. After the ball they went to supper at
-half-past ten, and we learn that “In the ‘<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">grande gallerie</span></i>’
-there was a long table of ninety covers with two large
-buffets at the two ends, and in the balcony of the ‘<i><span lang="frm" xml:lang="frm">gallerie</span></i>’
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>there were four trumpeters and a drummer, who
-played all through supper; and there were eighteen
-instrumental players for the ball.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Flemish tapestries of the eighteenth century are
-of slight importance, for the great workshops of the
-Low Countries have now fallen into evil days. At the
-beginning of this century, Brussels has only eight manufacturers,
-fifty-three looms and about a hundred and
-fifty workmen, and by 1768 only one manufacturer is
-left—Jacques van der Borcht. The last loom perishes
-at his death in 1794. The Oudenarde looms are stilled
-for ever in 1772, and those of Ghent about the same
-time.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Flemish workmen are, however, still employed at
-Beauvais, of which Oudry becomes director in 1726;
-and their services are valued throughout Europe. Adrian
-Neusse of Oudenarde, a former workman at Beauvais,
-establishes a workshop at Gisors in 1703, and Jean Baert
-and his son one at Cambrai in 1724. Until 1738, when
-Boucher takes charge of them, Lille’s workshops are
-directed by Wernier of Brussels. When the first high-warp
-loom was established at Madrid in 1720, the first
-director was Jacques van der Goten, a tapestry-weaver
-of Antwerp, who aided in founding that of Seville in
-the same year; and the tapestry manufactory, founded
-by Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, employed workmen
-from Brussels in 1777–8.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the eighteenth century, tapestry is put to a
-new use, which makes it especially important in connexion
-with the study of furniture. In the Middle
-Ages, we found it was a custom for the rich to throw
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>over their carved chairs and benches, sumptuous pieces
-of tapestry and other handsome textiles; in this age
-we now find the weavers making covers for the backs
-and seats of chairs, sofas and screens, the patterns or
-pictures for which are specially designed. Throughout
-Europe, the drawing-rooms are furnished with these
-beautiful sets of tapestry furniture, always consisting of
-two sofas, armchairs and chairs. This new fashion
-practically made the fortune of the Beauvais manufactory.
-The most delicate pictures, artistically framed,
-were woven: landscapes, scenes from <cite>Æsop’s Fables</cite>,
-pastorals, emblems, mythological stories, baskets of
-fruit, baskets of flowers, garlands of flowers, bird cages,
-shepherds and shepherdesses, monkeys, swings, children
-playing, animals, birds, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The majestic style of Le Brun gives place to the
-airy charm of Watteau, Boucher and Van Loo. <cite>The
-Hunts of Louis XV</cite>, <cite>The Adventures of Don Quixote</cite>,
-<cite>The Gardens of Armida</cite>, <cite>Aurora and Cephalus</cite>, <cite>Venus
-on the Waters</cite>, <cite>Venus at the Forge of Vulcan</cite>, <cite>Cupid and
-Psyche</cite>, <cite>Children Playing</cite>, <cite>The Swing</cite>, <cite>Genii of the Arts</cite>,
-<cite>Endymion</cite>, <cite>Rustic Festivals</cite>, <cite>Fortune Tellers</cite>, <cite>Fishing</cite>,
-<cite>Rural Amusements</cite>, scenes from Molière’s comedies,
-Indian hangings, Chinese hangings and scenes in which
-monkeys appear in grotesque attitudes and costumes,
-supplant heroic triumphs and religious pictures as subjects
-for wall decorations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some of the last historical pieces that were made
-in Brussels were <cite>The Campaigns of the Duke of Marlborough</cite>,
-<cite>The History of the Duchy of Brabant</cite> and <cite>Victories
-of Prince Eugene</cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>The Flemings of the early eighteenth century still
-maintained their ancient eminence in Decorative Art.
-Their weavers were still sought after, and their craftsmen
-produced many pieces of carved furniture of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régence</span></i>
-and <em>Louis Quinze</em> periods that are still preserved and
-admired. The schools of Liège, Brussels and Lille (the
-latter just across the border in France, being practically
-still in Belgium, as originally it was) were famous for
-the high excellence of workmanship produced. Jacques
-Verberckt, who was born in Antwerp and died in Paris
-in 1771, was accepted at the Academy of Painting and
-Sculpture, and executed or planned the greatest number
-of decorative sculpture made during the reign of Louis
-XV at Versailles. He was also employed by the Marquise
-de Pompadour to decorate her <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">château</span></i> of Bellevue.
-Verberckt worked with a delicate touch in marble, wood,
-or metal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Brussels was an important centre of industry and
-art throughout the century. Its citizens included many
-men of wealth who took interest in art, science and
-literature.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In his <cite>Journey in the Year 1793 through Flanders,
-Brabant and Germany</cite>, the Rev. C. Este says: “The
-town is tolerably well built as to the walls of the houses;
-but their windows and doors are after the manner of
-the French. The lower windows are also deformed
-with iron bars, offensive even beyond the eye, as implying
-something wrong in the place, either from real
-danger, or from false fear.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The buildings at Bruxelles compare in one point
-advantageously with Paris. For the houses having fewer
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>floors, but three or four, generally have but one
-family under one roof.... The places for a traveller
-to see, if he has time, are the Archduke’s Château de
-Schoemburg (in the village of Lack), and the villa of
-M. Walkiers the banker. They are not half an hour’s
-drive from Bruxelles and close to one another; besides
-the way is through the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Allée Verte</span></i>, those beautiful vistas
-of elms and limes, where the canal goes to join the
-Scheldt....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The Archduke’s <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">château</span></i> is a modern building,
-Ionic without, Corinthian within, with two fronts of
-260 feet, the depth 150, with a central portico at the
-entrance and a bow in the centre behind. The effect of
-the building at a distance is gay and imposing enough;
-when close to it the effect is maimed by bad figures at
-the top of the building, and the pediment of the portico
-being filled by a clock, which seems fit only where the
-character of the building is appropriate, as at Inigo’s
-church at Covent Garden, to simplicity and use. The
-gate of approach, loaded with bad ornaments, cupids
-and what not, is at once lofty and trifling, elaborate
-and dull.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“In the internal distribution the best rooms are
-forty feet square—a dining-room 52 by 40—a chapel
-27 by 22—and the state room a circle 54 feet in diameter;
-the dome is the ceiling of the room, and midway between
-the bottom and the top there is a small gallery on twelve
-Corinthian pillars. The floors in the other rooms are
-inlaid mixture, angular shapes of oak, mahogany and
-petrified cedar. In the circular room the floor is shewy,
-formed of various marbles. There are five windows,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>which should have five looking-glasses opposite—there
-are but two, with three glass doors, but not looking-glass.
-The looking-glasses are the manufacture of Venice.
-And these, eight feet by six, are among the largest ever
-blown there. For that is the Venetian process; not by
-the mould as in France and England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“There are few objects of art. The only pictures
-are four large ones by De Lance of Antwerp. They
-are mythological subjects; of course, the worst in the
-world. Le Roi of Namur supplied the five feet full
-length of the Virgin in the chapel. It is not bad statuary,
-for it has, which is very rare, thought and emotion.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The architect was Montoyer. He built also the
-Vauxhall in the park at Bruxelles. The house was
-begun in 1782—it was finished in 1788. A small temple
-and the pagoda, the only buildings in the garden, are
-also by him.’ The pagoda has eleven floors. And
-there, as in Kew, it may be considered as a well-placed
-trifle....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The grounds the Archbishop keeps in his hands are
-between two and three hundred acres. There is an
-artificial water, fifty <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">toises</span></i> across and a quarter of a
-league long—the lawn sloping down to it from the house,
-with the uplands on the other side, and the fine woody
-hill form the prettiest scene.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The adjoining villa of M. Walkiers, the banker, is
-another more pretty building by Montoyer, amidst the
-same little fertile scenery. The architecture is Ionic.
-With a <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">loggio</span></i> throughout the middle floor of one front,
-like an Italian villa, the ground plan of the house is
-about 150 feet by 50. There is a small grass plot before
-and behind with side walks, through very small trees,
-in half a dozen strait alleys: not one of the trees are
-worth five shillings. There is no gravel for the feet,
-no water for the eye, and the inclosure is a flimsy two-feet
-hedge which a child may either pass through or
-step over.”</p>
-
-<div id='LVI'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_447.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LVI.</span>—<em>Room in the Stedelijk Museum.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>The new style of ornamentation of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régence</span></i> and
-<em>Louis Quinze</em> periods, with its broken curves, auricles,
-rococo and <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">rocaille</span></i> work, was carried to greater extremes
-in Germany and Holland than in France. The school
-of Borromini, Oppenord and Meissonier carried everything
-before it, in spite of great opposition on the part
-of those who clung stubbornly to the traditions of Renaissance
-art. Carved panelling adorned the walls of rooms,
-and ceilings, picture and mirror frames, chairs, beds,
-tables, etc., all submitted to the new designs for chisel-work.
-A room with furniture of the early eighteenth
-century is illustrated in Plate <a href='#LVI'>LVI</a>. This is in the
-Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, and the woodwork
-and painted ceiling come from an old Dutch <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">château</span></i>.
-The chairs, with their carved frames and stretchers,
-were in vogue in the last years of Louis XIV and under
-the Regency. The cabinet with its graded top for the
-accommodation of porcelain vases is characteristic of
-the period. The frames of the mirror and picture and
-the mantelpiece are also fine examples of Decorative
-Art of the days immediately after British soldiers used
-such bad language in the Low Countries. In passing
-it may be noticed that Marlborough’s campaigns in the
-Netherlands had considerable influence on English taste
-of the day and forming the “Queen Anne” style, by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>familiarizing British officers with the Decorative Arts of
-the United Provinces. The Peace of Utrecht (1713)
-left the Netherlands free to pursue the arts of peace,
-which they did, so far as internal decoration is concerned,
-in the wake of the foe they had so bitterly combated.
-We may note here that the richly carved table
-on which the Peace of Utrecht is said to have been
-signed is preserved in the Antiquarian Museum of
-Utrecht.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The course of Dutch and Flemish furniture during
-the rest of the eighteenth century tamely follows the
-channels of French design.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the
-Empire style was in vogue in Holland, as it was throughout
-Europe. When the Town Hall on the Dam in
-Amsterdam was presented by the city to the King of
-Holland, Louis Napoleon, in 1808, the Royal apartments
-were fitted up in the Empire style, and these hangings and
-furniture may be seen to-day. A great deal of Empire
-furniture is scattered through the museums of Belgium
-and Holland, as well as in the castles and mansions
-of the nobles and merchants who followed the fashions.
-A trace of the Empire style is found in the following
-description of the palace of Laeken, the residence of the
-royal family, near Brussels, by Robert Hill (<cite>Sketches in
-Flanders and Holland</cite>, 1816):</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The apartments had very little of royal magnificence
-about them: there were no pictures. A few
-pieces of indifferent tapestry, pier glasses economically
-put up in three pieces each, and tables, chairs, etc.,
-which might only be called handsome, made up all that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>I recollect of their furniture. This palace has undergone
-strange vicissitudes. It was built for an Austrian
-archduchess; in one of the rooms a sky blue canopied
-bed was shown, which had belonged to the late Empress
-Josephine, had next been occupied by Maria Louisa,
-and, shortly before my visit, had been slept in by the
-Queen of the Netherlands.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mr. Hill was not greatly impressed with the Dutch
-house of the middle class. He says:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“I saw few things about their furniture and household
-arrangements worth noticing. The lower parts
-of their houses were commonly lined with glazed Dutch
-tiles, and stoves made of the same kind of clay were
-as commonly used to warm their apartments....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“There are two singularities about the houses of the
-Dutch which must not be forgotten. The first is that
-every country seat from the merchant’s domain to the
-little peddling tradesman’s smoking-box, though surrounded
-perhaps by nothing but marshes, damps and
-duckweed, is almost sure to bear on its front or over
-its entrance the words <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Land Lust</span></i> (Country Delight),
-or <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Land Zight</span></i> (Country Prospect), <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Belle Vue</span></i>, or some
-other title expressive of the beauties of the situation,
-or the comforts and ornaments which are to be found
-within. The other is that the windows of these <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Land
-Lusts</span></i> and <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Zights</span></i>, as well as those of houses in the midst
-of towns, are generally furnished with little looking-glasses,
-which, projecting from their sides, command
-every passing object. These are by no means to be
-considered as ornamental, but they are so placed (sometimes
-two or three on each side) that they indulge the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>curiosity of their owners without putting them to the
-expense of showing themselves in return.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He also notes the peculiar custom of breakfasting
-and dining in bedrooms. “At the country box of one
-of the most respectable tradesmen in Holland,” he writes,
-“I dined with his family in the principal room, which
-had beds concealed behind parts of its wainscoting.”
-This was in Rotterdam. He says: “At the end of
-this garden stood a pretty little summer residence,
-among whose lower apartments was a kitchen with
-furniture that displayed all the brightness and neatness
-for which the culinary arrangements of the Dutch have
-been celebrated, and above which was a large bay windowed
-room in which we dined. A natural inquiry
-respecting bed-chambers was here answered by opening
-parts of the wainscot, behind which were concealed
-canopies of the master, mistress and their children.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The homes of Holland changed little during the
-century, and the cottages, farmhouses and homes of
-the peasants may be said to have changed not at
-all. Take, for instance, the fishing village of Maarken,
-in the Zuyder Zee, of which Esquiros writes:</p>
-
-<div id='LVII'  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_453.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='sc'>Plate LVII.</span>—<em>In Bruitlaen, by Artz.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Most frequently the same room serves at once as
-bedroom, kitchen and storehouse for the fishing utensils.
-Some houses, however, have a second and separate
-room, called here the saloon, in which furniture and
-clothes are kept, but that is almost aristocratic luxury.
-The rooms which are flush with the ground have no
-ceiling, and communicate with the garret, over which
-the tile or thatch roof rises at right angles. The houses
-are equally deficient in chimneys as a rule, but before
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>the principal window there is a large flat stone surrounded
-by a row of bricks. A piece of iron is fastened at the
-back of this stone, against which the fire is kindled.
-An opening in the roof allows exit to the smoke, which,
-before emerging, spreads through the loft, where the
-nets are dried. Only thirty houses are remarkable for
-possessing chimneys. Several times a year the interior
-is cleaned and whitewashed. A table surrounded by
-very low chairs, an old <em>escritoire</em> loaded with pretty china,
-an eight-day clock, milk tubs whose copper rings shine
-like gold, produce in the houses of the island an alliance
-of facts rarely found among other races, namely, of
-cleanliness with poverty. This taste for china, old
-glass, curtains and flowered counterpanes is a delicate
-feature in the Batavian character. Art sits down by the
-side of Misery at the fireside, which it enlivens with a
-consolatory beam.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Plate <a href='#LVII'>LVII</a>, entitled <cite>In Bruitlaen</cite>, by Artz, in the
-Rijks Museum, shows the modern artist’s conception of
-a peasant room and furniture. First we notice a large
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i> or <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoire</span></i>, with heavy ball feet and pieces of china
-arranged on the top. More china adorns the chimney-shelf,
-and the chimney-piece with its valance is characteristic.
-The heavy carved beams, the windows with
-small leaded panes decorated with coats-of-arms, the
-tiled floor spread with a carpet, give an air of comfort
-to the room. The chairs are of the four-backed variety,
-the table is square, the stool has turned legs and stretchers,
-and there is a Bible on a stand and a Friesland clock
-on the wall.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The old farmhouse of which the modern traveller
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>sees so many examples, with its red-tiled or thatched
-roof visible beneath its sentinel poplars, usually consists
-of a large living-room, a kitchen, a cheese-room, a dairy,
-two small bedrooms in the garret, a big cow-stable at
-the back, and an outside kitchen called the “baking-house.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A native writer says:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The ‘baking-house’ is often used as a living-room
-in summer, which is more cheerful than the solemn
-apartment into which the visitor is invariably ushered.
-A wide chimney lined with tiles stretches nearly across
-one side of this room; but the open fire on the hearth has
-long ago disappeared and given place to an ugly stove.
-Quaint brass fire-irons hang behind it, and on either
-side is an armchair, differing from its humbler brethren
-only in the possession of wooden arms. If there is a
-baby in the family, it is likely to be reposing in a cradle
-with green baize curtains as near as possible to the fireplace,
-in defiance of all laws of health. Two or three
-large cupboards, sometimes handsomely carved, always
-kept well polished, stand against the whitewashed walls.
-One of them generally has glass doors in the upper part;
-and on its shelves the family china—often of great value—is
-exposed to view. Unfortunately, these heirlooms
-in old families have been largely bought up by enterprising
-Jews. Sometimes, however, sentiment has proved
-stronger than the love of money, and the farmer has
-not parted with his family possessions. In a corner of
-the room a chintz curtain, or sometimes a double door,
-shows where the big press-bed is—an institution of pre-hygienic
-times which, to the peasant mind, has no inconveniences
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>whatever. In the middle of the room a table
-stands on a carpet; and, as people take off their shoes
-at the door and go about in their thick woollen stockings,
-neither it nor the painted floor ever shows signs of mud.
-Another table stands near one of the windows, of which
-there are two or three. The linen blinds so closely
-meet the spotless muslin curtains, which are drawn
-stiffly across the lower panes on two horizontal sticks,
-that a stray sunbeam can hardly make its way into the
-room, even if it has been able to struggle through the
-thick branches of the clipt lime-trees that adorn the front
-of the house. On one of the tables a tray stands, with
-a hospitable array of cups and saucers, teapot, etc., and
-is protected from the dust by a crochet or muslin cover.
-The huge family Bible, with its huge brass clasps, has
-an honourable place, often on a stand by itself. Rough
-woodcuts or cheap prints, and a group of family photographs,
-which do not flatter the originals, are hung on
-the walls. The framed and glazed sampler, worked in
-wools by the farmer’s wife in her young days, usually
-makes a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dessus de porte</span></i>. The alphabet is the principal
-part of this extraordinary work of art; but it bears
-various other figures, which, on patient investigation,
-appears to have some resemblance to certain birds and
-flowers.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The country home of wealth is usually built of small,
-hard, reddish-brown bricks resembling those used in the
-Elizabethan houses in England. The front entrance is
-often embellished with a handsome pediment and a stone
-<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">loggia</span></i> and steps. Flower beds, canals and woods surround
-the house, which has a dignified and attractive
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>air. It is no less so within, for many Dutch houses,
-both in the country and city, are beautifully finished.
-The woodwork, whether of oak or mahogany, is often
-exquisitely carved and highly polished, and consists of
-broad staircases with ornate banisters, doors, panelled
-walls, mantelpieces and mirror frames. Many of the
-doors and windows are decorated with carvings of garlands
-of fruits, flowers and other devices, according to the
-period in which the house was built. In some of the
-old houses the walls are still hung with the old gilt leather
-of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Suburban houses as well as country seats bear fanciful
-names; and on the outskirts of The Hague, Rotterdam,
-Amsterdam and other large cities you may read
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Lust en Rust</span></i> (Pleasure and Repose), <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Buiten Zorg</span></i> (Without
-Care), <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Myn Rust</span></i> (My Repose), <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mon Bijou</span></i> (My Jewel),
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Rosen Lust</span></i> (Rose Pleasure), <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Honigbij</span></i> (Honey Bee), <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Mijn
-Lust en Leven</span></i> (My Pleasure and Life), <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Vriendschap en
-Gezelschap</span></i> (Friendship and Sociability), and other such
-names. These retreats are often covered with creepers,
-and are situated in the centre of a lawn made gay with
-flower beds, arbours and sometimes strange ornaments
-of painted clay—gnomes trundling wheelbarrows, curious
-vases, windmills, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The town houses and such country houses as are
-built on reclaimed land are constructed on piles. They
-begin to build in Holland by digging to the depth of
-two or three feet. This excavation soon fills with water.
-Piles are then driven into the ground, and the ends are
-cut off evenly; and on this level surface beams of oak
-are laid. The back and front of the house are not added
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>until long after the roof is laid on, so that the air may pass
-through and dry the walls thoroughly. The houses
-are lightly constructed of brick, iron or wood, with outer
-casings of stone or marble, intended for show and not
-for solidity. At the back of the house there is usually
-a little garden, to which it is necessary to bring every
-year earth and gravel to replace the soil that the water
-has carried away.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Frequently the Dutch town house consists of two
-apartments; for land is dear, and so are house rents in
-the cities. The lower apartment is called <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">benedenhuis</span></i>,
-which comprises a cellar and the ground floor; while
-the second apartment, called <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">bovenwoning</span></i>, is composed
-of the first and second floors and a garret. Each
-apartment has its separate entrance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The houses are deeper than they are wide, and the
-ordinary arrangement consists of a drawing-room in the
-front, a dining-room in the back, and a dark room in
-the middle. The latter is the family sitting-room, particularly
-in winter evenings, for its complete isolation
-from the outside protects the inhabitants from the cold
-air. Of late years this middle room has become less
-popular, and every room in recently built dwellings contains
-one or two windows. The houses are comfortable,
-and are heated throughout.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The outsides of the houses, with their cheerful white
-cornices on windows and doors, ornamental roofs and
-large windows with Flemish shades and adorned with
-blooming plants and boxes of flowers, give an impression
-of comfort and prosperity.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These homes are comfortably or luxuriously furnished,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>according to the purses and tastes of the dwellers,
-with the ordinary modern furniture; but every prosperous
-family possesses a few inherited pieces of furniture.
-Nearly every home contains one <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, if not more, and
-a small collection of porcelain, earthenware and silver.
-Oriental goods from the Dutch colonies are not rare.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One peculiarity of the Dutch home is the arrangement
-for storing and washing household linen. From the
-moment of a little girl’s birth her female relatives begin
-to collect the household linen she will have as a portion
-of her dowry; and the large cupboards and presses of
-every well-to-do home are stored with linen and damask.
-As the family washing is done but four times a year,
-great hampers are used as receptacles for the soiled
-linen. These are lowered by ropes from the cranes at
-the top of the house, placed in the canal boats, and
-carried to the meadows, where they are washed in the
-canals and laid on the grass. There they are sprinkled
-by means of curiously shaped wooden spoons with long
-handles that are dipped in the canal. The clothes, again
-packed in the hampers, are carried to the house, where
-they are mangled. The mangle and the napkin-press
-are found in every house, and the press is not unfrequently
-a decorative piece of furniture.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of the most interesting provinces in Holland
-is Friesland—as yet unspoiled by tourists and rich in
-old buildings, quaint villas and picturesquely costumed
-inhabitants. Workum and Hindeloopen (celebrated for
-its gaily-painted houses) both contain some good buildings
-of the seventeenth century; while at Leeuwarden,
-the residence of the governors of Friesland (of the Nassau-Dietz
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>family, and ancestors of the reigning house of
-Holland), the Frisian Museum, with its fine collection
-of antiquities and porcelain, repays more than a brief
-visit. Here are two rooms from Hindeloopen, correctly
-furnished; and many houses with similar rooms still
-exist in that town. The walls of the smaller room are
-encased with blue and white Dutch tiles, ornamented
-with Scriptural or other subjects. The floor is laid with
-red and brown tiles. A cabinet containing articles of
-porcelain and curious little silver ornaments hangs upon
-the wall; and, hidden behind the painted woodwork, is
-a bed, like a bunk in a steamer, to which access is gained
-by means of a small and gaily painted ladder. The
-tables, chairs and other furniture are of simple form,
-and are painted with bright flowers on a cream or white
-background. The other room is similarly furnished, and
-has a number of wax figures of men, women and children
-dressed in the Hindeloopen costume.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Rijks Museum also contains a Hindeloopen room
-with characteristic furniture.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We may, perhaps, be permitted to quote an extract
-from <cite>On Dutch Waterways</cite>, by G. Christopher Davies,
-as a vivid picture of the modern Frisian home.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“We crossed a tiny little bridge, over a tiny moat,
-passed through a tiny and spotlessly clean yard to the
-back door. The front door of a Dutch house in the
-country is for ornament only, and not for use, and is
-rarely opened save to be cleaned and painted afresh.
-This house was the most minutely clean and unique any
-of us had ever seen, and was a perfect and rich museum
-of the wealthier side of Frisian life. In the passage
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>by the house door was a well, and the polish on its mahogany
-cover was only exceeded by the glisten on the
-copper bucket, with brass bands, and the shining brass
-chain which took the place of the ordinary rope. The
-floor of the hall as well as the doors leading from it
-looked as if they had only been painted yesterday.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The kitchen, the living-room on the ground floor,
-the hall, a passage and a staircase were lined with Dutch
-tiles, those in the passage and dark staircase and corridors
-being white, or with a pattern or figure of an animal
-painted on them. At the foot of the stairs were hung
-several wooden bowls, painted with cupids and flowers
-in many colours. Climbing up the narrow staircase, we
-were ushered into the sacred front room, which would
-rarely be used for any purpose but show. It was the
-museum of the house, where a collection of antique
-treasures were preserved in a place which was worthy
-of them.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The room was so jealously guarded from daylight
-by drawn inner and outer blinds that we could see nothing
-distinctly until one shutter was opened, and as we crept
-about cautiously over the highly polished oaken floor
-we had an uneasy feeling that we ought to have taken
-our shoes off, and, in fact, did debate in whispers whether
-we should do so or not.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Three sides of the room were completely lined
-with tiles. Up to the height of six feet or so the tiles
-were adorned with various Biblical subjects, the Dutch
-conception of which was, in many instances, extremely
-comical. Above this dado the tiles were plain white,
-except that a blue bordering went round the oaken
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>beams which supported the roof. On the fourth side
-was a range of magnificent oak cabinets, with lattice
-or fretwork doors, through the interstices of which the
-contents were visible. These consisted of rare old china
-and antique silver articles of every kind, spoons, teapots,
-pins, brooches, and even a silver birdcage.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Many of the things were so curious that we could
-assign neither use nor ornament to them, and much of
-the interest of the collection was lost to us for want of
-some one to explain the uses of what we saw. Probably
-the following paragraph, which I have just seen in a
-weekly newspaper, may give the true explanation of
-the small size of some of the objects: The rich Dutch
-burghers of old believed very much in teaching children
-by means of their playthings, and used to give them
-elaborate dolls’ houses furnished with utensils in solid
-silver that worked perfectly, and were exact models of
-those in daily use in the family. There were silver
-lamps and coffee pots, dishes, spice boxes and everything
-in miniature. Thus the little Dutch girls were housewives
-from their babyhood.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Along the top of this rare old piece of furniture
-was suspended a row of porcelain plates. About the
-room were curiously carved and designed chairs and
-tables, some of the latter finely inlaid; and on the wall
-I particularly noticed mirrors with tortoiseshell frames.
-The waning light left us too little time to examine the
-contents of the room in detail, but we all thought it
-the choicest thing of the kind we had ever seen in public
-or private.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In a study of Dutch furniture the canal boat should not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>be overlooked. More than two centuries ago an English
-traveller asked if there were not more people living on
-the water in Holland than on the land. In that country
-canals lead from town to town and village to village,
-and boats perform transport service. Vegetables, fruits,
-flowers and dairy produce, flour and all kinds of merchandise
-are transported in boats; furniture is moved
-from house to house by means of the canal boats, and
-passengers are also carried.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Many families know no other home than the <i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">trekschuyt</span></i>:
-cradled on the drowsy waters the inmates grow
-to manhood and womanhood, and die in these floating
-homes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The traveller in Holland never fails to be interested
-in the canal boats that are constantly arriving and departing
-in the <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">grachten</span></i> of the large cities; but he rarely sees
-their interiors. The following description by Alphonse
-Esquiros shows how these canal homes are furnished, and
-gives us an idea of the life spent there:</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Along nearly the whole length, which is about
-thirty feet, runs a box or wooden house, frequently
-painted green; the roof, on which the sailors walk to
-perform sundry operations, being covered with a layer
-of pounded cockle shells. This house is divided into
-two compartments or cabins; the larger one, situated
-near the prow, is common to passengers and luggage.
-Here, during the winter, the worthy people, shut up as
-in a box, swim along in a cloak of tobacco smoke, which
-relieves the tedium of the voyage. In summer the
-wooden shutters are removed, and the hatch is raised
-from the orifice by which the travellers descend. The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>second compartment is the cabinet, called in Dutch the
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">roef</span></i>, which is entered through folding doors. The second
-cabin is small, but fitted up with some degree of taste.
-The windows, four or six in number, are glazed and have
-red or white curtains, according to the season. In the
-centre is a table with a copper vessel containing fire,
-and another smaller one to receive cigar ash, both cleaned
-and polished in a manner only found in Holland. Add
-to this, to complete the furniture, a mat, a looking-glass,
-and, in winter for the ladies, a foot-warmer, called the
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">stoef</span></i>, containing a small earthenware vessel with two
-or three lumps of lighted peat in it. Along two sides of
-this cabin run cushioned benches, on which the travellers
-sit down opposite to each other. Sometimes there are
-on a shelf a few volumes belonging to the boat and forming
-a floating library at the service of the studious passengers.
-The whole national character is revealed in
-this simple and minute attention to comfort. At the
-bows, the space not occupied by the cabinet is filled with
-merchandise, bales, and barrels; while the poop is left
-to travellers who wish to take the fresh air, and the
-helmsman, who steers and smokes the while with the
-regularity of a steamer....</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“On the <i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">trekschuyten</span></i> floats old Holland, with its language,
-manners and conscientious and powerful originality.
-There are some <i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">trekschuyten</span></i> in which you pass the
-night; at about six in the evening, in the event of the
-master being polite (and we never met any who were
-not so), he invites you to take tea. You then see a
-little cabinet produced, containing cups, sugar-basin,
-and teapot of black earthenware, which is not inelegant.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>The kettle is placed on a species of stove covered with
-Chinese designs, and containing a vessel filled with burning
-peat. At night the <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">roef</span></i> is divided into two parts—a
-saloon and a small sleeping-room, of which the curtains
-are raised. A common bed, occupying the entire width
-of the cabin, and on which men and women sleep honestly
-side by side, invites you to take your share of the universal
-calm and rest of nature. This bed is composed
-of a mattress and counterpane, and you lie down on it
-full dressed. During this period the boat continues its
-noiseless voyage through the waters, which divide in a
-silver furrow on either side the prow.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Dutchman has always been famous for his clinging
-to cleanliness, order and symmetry. Cleanliness in
-the house and order in the garden, with its clipped trees
-and hedges of formal designs and stiff flower beds, still
-persist. The Dutch house of the present day is described
-by the Rev. J. Ballingal <cite>In the North Holland
-Polders</cite> as follows: “Their houses are as often furnished
-in very modern style, though the furniture is sure to be
-solid and good. They have the utmost contempt for
-anything sham and flimsy. In their jewellery, of which
-a great deal is worn, they would never think of buying
-false diamonds or imitation coral. Their houses are
-models of neatness and cleanliness, but there is no trace
-of aesthetic feeling. Symmetry is admired above everything.
-Trees planted round the house at equal distances,
-trimmed to an exact height, and whitewashed to a certain
-height of the trunk, windows and doors to correspond,
-gates freshly painted, and gravel walks without a foot-print—that
-is the country ideal. There is a story of a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>Boer who fancied a piano would be a handsome addition
-to his best room, and having bought one and got it
-placed, he returned a few weeks after to the piano warehouse.
-‘Did the instrument give satisfaction?’ the dealer
-anxiously inquired. Oh, yes! yes! I’ve no complaint
-to make, for nobody has even touched it. What annoys
-us is we don’t like the look of it in the room. It is not
-<i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">symmetrisch</span></i>, so I’ve come to buy another, exactly the
-same, to stand in the opposite corner.’ Such a story is
-credible enough when one sees the exactly similar way
-in which, through a large district, houses are built, and
-trees planted round them, as if every detail were compulsory.
-The love of cleanliness, too, has its extravagances,
-as, for instance, in the neighbourhood we speak
-of we once enjoyed the comic spectacle of a man sitting
-astride on the ridge of his house, with a pail slung round
-his neck, scrubbing away at the tiles.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Holland has not escaped the present taste for the
-collection of antiquities; but in that country where
-there is so deep a love of home, and where the peasants
-guard their possessions with the same tenacity and affection
-as the rich do their heirlooms, the collector is only
-rewarded after long years of patient search. However,
-many of the wealthy merchants and travellers, who are
-spending the well-earned afternoon and evening of their
-lives in their country seats near Arnhem, Amsterdam,
-Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leyden, Dordrecht, Middelburg,
-Maestricht and other large cities and small towns, are
-able to show rare and interesting relics of the past. A
-house of a rich traveller will reflect naturally enough the
-wanderings as well as the taste of its owner. The spoils
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>of Java, Dutch Guiana, the West Indies and other colonies,
-not to mention those of Egypt, Spain and Italy, adorn
-his rooms and render his cabinets highly interesting.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As a rule his study and the boudoirs of his wife and
-daughters, his drawing-room with its adjoining conservatory,
-his library and his bedrooms are furnished in
-the latest French taste. The dining-room is frequently
-painted in pale green, and here are displayed in the cupboards
-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vitrines</span></i>, cabinets, and on the hanging shelves his
-family treasures, consisting of curious and beautifully
-engraved glass, silver, and choice sets and individual
-pieces of porcelain. If, however, as is often the case,
-the owner is the collector, then he takes especial delight
-in the “antique-room,” which he has fitted up in the
-style of a cabinet of the seventeenth century. The
-general impression of this apartment is brown, derived
-not only from the panelled ceiling, high wainscot and
-carved chimney-piece, but from the wall hangings of
-leather with its raised patterns of faded gold and the
-high-backed carved furniture.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Brightness is contributed by the array of brass, porcelain,
-delft, rugs, cushions and tiled fireplace, with its
-fine brass andirons, bellows and other equipments. On
-the ledge of the wainscot handsome jars and vases and
-other specimens of porcelain and delft are symmetrically
-arranged, and on the wall hang plaques and brass sconces.
-The room receives additional light from old brass chandeliers.
-A cabinet full of curios, a large <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">kas</span></i>, a Bible on
-a stand, a spinning-wheel, foot-warmers, pipes and old
-kitchen utensils are sure to be found here; and to these
-articles we may add a carved napkin-press, a mangle,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>an old carved board and rolling-pin for doing up fine
-linen, and an ancient carved, gilded and painted sled.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Collecting is not confined to the individual; for the
-study of old furniture and other antiquities that contribute
-so great an aid to the historian in constructing
-the social life of the past and so great an aid to the artist,
-architect and decorator, is widespread in Holland. The
-great museums of the large cities contain many superb
-and valuable specimens, and display them with great
-taste. In some cases whole rooms have been removed
-from some old palace or <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">stadhouder’s</span></i> house with their
-original ceilings, chimney-pieces, hangings and furniture;
-and, again, entire rooms have been fitted up in the
-characteristic style of some province whose individual
-manners and customs are fast disappearing. Many of
-the small towns have a collection of local antiquities,
-which are, as a rule, attractively displayed; for the
-members of the numerous Dutch antiquarian societies
-take great pride in the history of their country. Sometimes,
-as in the case of the “Museum van Kunstnyverheid”
-in Haarlem, the collection embraces the artistic
-industries of ancient and modern times. This museum
-contains a particularly fine collection of kitchen utensils
-and other articles and furniture familiar to us in the
-pictures of Jan Steen, Maes and other Dutch masters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The museums of Belgium are equally rich in old
-furniture, tapestries and other treasures.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>THE END</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>
-  <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul class='index c003'>
-  <li class='c018'>Abbaye de Montréal, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— d’ Oignies, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Abbey of Charlieu, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Citeaux, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Clairvaux, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Cluny, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Saint Maximin, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Vézélay, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Abbeys of Burgundy, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Aelst, Peter van, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Æsop’s Fables</em>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Agnes Sorel, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Aiguière</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Aiguières</span></i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Alart du Hameel, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Albert, Archduke, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— and Isabella, Court of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Aliénor of Poitiers, quoted, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>–5, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Alost, looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Amsterdam, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, stores in, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Leonard van, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Amber, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Andirons, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Anil, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Antwerp, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>–6;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, artists of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>–3;</li>
-      <li>——, cabinets of, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, clavecin-makers of, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>–8;</li>
-      <li>——, wealth of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Arabesques, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>–6, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Arche</span></i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Architecture, Early Renaissance, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ards, W., <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Armchairs, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Armoire</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Armoires</span></i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>–4, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Arphe, Juan de, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Arras, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— looms, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>–6</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Artisans, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>–3, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>–8, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Artists, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>–8, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>–6, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>–7, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>–20</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Artz, picture by, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Aspruck, Franz, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Asselijn, quoted, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Auricular style, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>–7, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.
-    <ul>
-      <li><em>See</em> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Genre auriculaire</span></i></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Avignon, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Avont, Peter van den, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Babou, Philibert, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Baby’s outfit, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>–200</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Baert, Jean, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Baerze, Jacques de, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bahut</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bahuts</span></i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Baldwin, Count of Flanders, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ballingal, J., quoted, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>–5</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Banbosa, D. 212</li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Banc</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bancs</span></i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>–14, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>–1</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Banderole, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Banquiers</span></i>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Barbé, J. B., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bass viol, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bataille, Colin. <em>See</em> Bataille, Nicholas;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Nicholas, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Battle of Nancy, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Nicopolis, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Pavia, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beaugrant, Guyot de, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beaumetz, John de, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beauneveu, André, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beauvais, tapestry of, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>–6, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>–5</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Becius, Joh., quoted, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bed, Beds, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>–11, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— chest, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, folding, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Josephine’s, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Mary of Burgundy’s, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Queen Anne’s, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, panelled, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li>
-      <li>——, from Rijks Museum, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— tapestry, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, William’s, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bedroom, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>–4,104–5. 190–1, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>–8;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Marot’s, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>–6;</li>
-      <li>——, Mary’s, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bedsteads, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beef-wood, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Béhagle, Philippe, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bein, Heinrich van, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Belgium, buildings in, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>–6;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, museums of, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Benches, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bérain, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Berent, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Berenberge, Pierre van, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bernagie, quoted, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bernard, Michel, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bernard, Pierre, quoted, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>–100</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Berruguete, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beughem, Louis van, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Beveren, Cornelius van, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>Blommaert, Georges, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Blondeel, Lancelot, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>–80</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Blyenborgh, Adrian, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Vrouwe van, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>–9, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>–60</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Board and trestles, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Boegarden, Henry van, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bol, F., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bolsward, Church of, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bonaffé, quoted, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bonte, C. de, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Borromini, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Borcht, Jacques van der, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bos, Cornelius, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bosse, Abraham, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Boteram, Rinaldo, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bouche, P. P., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Boucher, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Boulle, A. C., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Pierre, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bouts, Derick, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bouttats, Gaspard, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Brackets, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Brassware, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Breda, Church of, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Breughel, Pierre, the Elder, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Peter, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bride’s basket, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— crown, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— house-furnishing, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— throne, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Broederlam, M., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Broederkerk. <em>See</em> Bolsward</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Broec, L. van den, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bronchorst, J. G., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bronzino, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bruges, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, looms of, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Palais de Justice, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, St. Anne, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, St. Walburge (pulpit), <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Brulh, Van der, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Brussels, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— looms, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— museum, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— school of, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— tapestries, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bruyn, Charles de, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bry, Theodore de, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Buffet, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>–5,43;
-    <ul>
-      <li>à deux corps, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Bulteel, John, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Burgundian etiquette, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— style, the, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>–7</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Burgundy, Dukes of, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>–2, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, House of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>–2</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Buten, Martin van, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Buytenweg, William, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Cabinet, Cabinets, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>–90, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>–5, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>–9, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cabinet-makers, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Calin, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cambrai, Peace of, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cameryck, C. van, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Campen, J. van. <em>See</em> Kampen</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Canal-boats, furniture of, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Candlesticks, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>–5, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Canning, quoted, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cape of Good Hope, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Carest, Josse, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Caron, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Carpenter, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Carpets, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, table, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Carracks, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cartoons, tapestry, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cartouche, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Carvers, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>–3, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Carving, Carvings, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>–6, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>–3, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>–40, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Caryatid, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cathedral of Antwerp, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Dietz, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Tournay, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Catherine of Braganza, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cats, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— head, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cavalli, M., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cecil, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cedar, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ceilings from the Binnenhof, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cellini, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ceramics, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>–7, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chair, Chairs, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>–3, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>–4, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>–7, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chambre, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— de parade, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Champeaux, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chandelier, Chandeliers, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Charles I. (England), <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— II.(England), <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— —— chair, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— V. (France), <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–7;</li>
-      <li>—— V. (Emperor of Germany), <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— VI. (France), <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— VIII.(France), <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— the Bold, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>–43, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chastelain, Georges, quoted, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>–6, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Château de Schoemburg, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chest, chests, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>–13, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— bed, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— -upon-chest, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chimney-pieces, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>–9, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>China, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— mania, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— -cabinets, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— -ware, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>. <em>See</em> Porcelain</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chinese boudoir, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— style, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>. <em>See</em> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chippendale, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Choir-stalls, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>–6, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>–8, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>–3, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Chronicle of St. Trond, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Claas, Alaert, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Claire, Godefroid de, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Classic architecture in furniture, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— orders, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— style, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>Clavecin, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— makers, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>–8</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Clavichord, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Clays, Pierre, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cleaning-utensils, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Clerc, G. de, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Clocks, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cluny Museum, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Coach-bed, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cock, Jerome, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cockatoo, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cocques, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Coeck of Alost, Peter, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>–8, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Coffers, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Colars, N., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Colima, John van, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Collaert, Adrian, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Hans, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Collan, J., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Collection of porcelain, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Collectors of tapestry, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cologne, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Comans, Marc, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Communes, The, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Compartiment</span></i>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Comptoir, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Constant, quoted, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Constantinople, fall of, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cooking-utensils, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Coral, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cordova, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cosmo I., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cotgrave, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Court-cupboard, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Court pointerie</span></i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Coxie, Michel, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cradles, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Credence, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>–15, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cressent, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Crispin de Passe, the Elder. <em>See</em> Passe, Crispin van de</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Croissy, Fouquet de, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Crusade, the First, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Crusades, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Crusaders, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubiculum</span></cite>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cuirs</span></i>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cupboards, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>–8, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Curios, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>–2, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>–5, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>–5, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>–1</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Curtains, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Cushions, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Custode, Dominic, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Raphael, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'><em>Daïs</em>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dale, Lucas van, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dam, The, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Damme, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dangeau, quoted, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Daret, Jehan, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Davies, G. C., quoted, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>–21</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Decadence, The, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>–9, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Dutch Art, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Flemish, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Decorations, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Decorative designers, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>–7, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>D’Erembert, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Defoe, quoted, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Delft, looms, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— ware, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>–2, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— ware, Closett, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— ware, Mary’s, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>De Parival, quoted, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Develstein, Castle of, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>–1, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>De Vries. <em>See</em> Vries, Hans V. de</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dextras, The, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dijon, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Museum, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Palais de Justice, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>–6;</li>
-      <li>—— St. Michel’s, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dinant, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dinanderie</span></i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>–1, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Dinantairs</em>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dixmuiden, St. Nicholas, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dogs, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dolls, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>–7;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— houses, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>–6</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Don Juan of Austria, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dordin, Jacques. <em>See</em> Dourdain</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dordrecht, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Groote Kerk, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dou, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Douay, looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dourdain, Jacques, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dragée</span></i>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Drageoir</span></i>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Dragonnades</em>, The, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Drawing-table, The, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>–2, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dressing-cloth, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— table, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>–3</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dressoir</span></i>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>–5, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Du Cerceau, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, “the Dutch,” <em>See</em> Vries, H. V. de</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Duke of Alva, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Anjou, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Berry, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Orleans, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dukes of Burgundy. <em>See</em> Burgundy</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dulcken, Peter van, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dürer, Albrecht, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dussen, Mrs. Lidia van der, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Dutch, The, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>–4;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Art, Decadence of, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— artisans in London, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— artists, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— beds, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— carving, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>–2;</li>
-      <li>—— collectors, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>–7;</li>
-      <li>—— country houses, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>–6;</li>
-      <li>—— in the East, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>–6, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>–8;</li>
-      <li>—— farmhouses,313–5;</li>
-      <li>—— furniture, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>–8;</li>
-      <li>—— homes and houses, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>–98, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>–91, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>–8, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>–2, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>–7;</li>
-      <li>—— love of home, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>–3, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>–3;</li>
-      <li>—— love of marquetry, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— love of porcelain, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>–9;</li>
-      <li>—— love of symmetry, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>–5;</li>
-      <li>—— luxury, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, 255–6, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>–3;</li>
-      <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>—— mania for cleaning, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>–7, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>–5, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— and English marriages, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>–80;</li>
-      <li>—— navigators, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>–6;</li>
-      <li>—— ships, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— taste, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>–5, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Duysbourg, H. van, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Ear, as decorative motive, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>. <em>See</em> Auricular style</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Earl of Pembroke, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Warwick, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>East India Company, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of England, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>East, trade with the, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ébéniste</span></i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ebn’ Abd el Noûr el Hamîri et Toûnsi, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ebony, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ecclesiastical Art, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>–6, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— hangings, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>–9</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Edrisi, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Eeckhout, G. van der, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Eenhoorn, L., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Egmont, Counts of, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Queen of Bohemia, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Embroiderers, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Embroideries, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Empire Style, The, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Encoinçons</span></i>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Engravers, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>England and Holland, relations of, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>English workmen, complaints of, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— and Dutch pirates, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Entrecolles, Father d’, quoted, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>–5</li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Escarbeau</em>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">Escritorios de la Chine</span></i>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Esquiros, Alphonse, quoted, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>–3, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Este, C., quoted, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Etiquette, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>–7, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>European patterns sent to the East, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>–5, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Evelyn, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Eycken, John van der, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'><cite>Faerie Queen, The</cite>, quoted, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Faïence, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Faldstools, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Falkema, J. S., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Faydherbe, L., <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Feast of the Pheasant, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Feltham, Owen, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ferdinand of Aragon, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ferrara, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Fête de l’oiseau</span></i>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Fictoor, Lowys, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Fire-basket, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Fireplace, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Flanders, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Flemings, artistic character of the, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>–5</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Flemish artisans, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— artisans abroad, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>–9, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>–5, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>–8, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— carvers, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>–3;</li>
-      <li>—— glass-workers, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>–7;</li>
-      <li>—— teachers, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>–7, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>–5</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>“Flemish Raphael,” The, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Floreins, John, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Florence, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Floris, Cornelius, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Francis, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, James, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Style, the, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>–3</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Flowers, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Folding-beds, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— tables, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Fontainebleau, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— School of, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Foot-stove, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Forbin, Count de, quoted, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Forms, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Fouquet, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Francis I., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>François de la Planche, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Francouart, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Franquart, Jacques, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>French influence in Low Countries, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>–300</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Friar Hugo, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Friesland, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Frytom, F. van, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Furnes, St. Walburge, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Furnishing, house, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Furnishings of Banquet Hall, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Furniture, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>–2, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>–5;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, canal boat, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>–4;</li>
-      <li>——, Duchess of Burgundy’s, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>–5;</li>
-      <li>——, Dutch painted, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Century, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>–2;</li>
-      <li>—— at Hampton Court, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>–4;</li>
-      <li>——, inlaid, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>–60;</li>
-      <li>——, Italian, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>–92;</li>
-      <li>——, Japanned, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, lacquered, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>–9;</li>
-      <li>——, Margaret of Austria’s, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>–72;</li>
-      <li>——, mediaeval, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>–7, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>–8, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— mounts, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Renaissance, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>–4, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>–5, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>–17, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>–42;</li>
-      <li>——, Seventeenth century, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>–52, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>–64;</li>
-      <li>—— tapestry, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>–5. <em>See</em> Cluny, Marquetry, Rijks</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Gaîne, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Galle, Theodore, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Galles, Phillip, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gance, J. van den, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gardens, Dutch, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gazoni, quoted, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Genre auriculaire</span></i>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>–7, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Geraerts, M., <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gerard, Marc, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gerbier, B., <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ghent, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— tapestry, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>Gheyn, Jacques de, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Giacomo d’Angelo, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gibbons, Grinling, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gilbert, Sir John, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gillot, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Giovanna, Francesca, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Giovanni da Udine, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Glass, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>–8, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— blowers, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>–8;</li>
-      <li>—— makers, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, painted, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, painting on, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— windows, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Glosencamp, L., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Glusomack, Henry, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Goa, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gobelins, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Godewijck, Margaretha, quoted, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>–5;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, P. van, quoted, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>–3, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>–3</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Golden Age of Tapestry, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Golden Fleece, Knights of the, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Order of the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Goldsmiths, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Corporation of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Goldsmiths’ work, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>–6, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Goler, Pierre, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Goltius, Hubert, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Goten, Jacques van der, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gothic Art, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>–8;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— ornamentation, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>–5, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— style, the, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>–8, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>–3, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Gruuthuuse, pew, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Guadameciles, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Guicciardini, quoted, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>–20, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Guilds of St. Luke, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>–1</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Guionet, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Haarlem, Groote Kerk, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hague, The, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hall, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>–3;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, furniture of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>–6</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Halles (Brussels), <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hameidan, M. van der, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hampton Court Palace, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Handel, clavecin of, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hangings, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Harpsichords, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Harrewyn, J. J., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hee, Gilles de la, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hecker, A., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Heemskerck, M. van, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Héliot, B., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Helt-Stocade, N. de, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hendricks, L., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Henri II., style, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— IV., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Henry le Backer, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— VIII., <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hervey, John, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>–7, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hervormde Kerk. <em>See</em> Breda</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Heylbrouck, M., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hessels, Gerrit (Gerritz), <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Het Loo</span></i>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hicks, Robert, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hill, Robert, quoted, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hindeloopen, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hoevens, The van der, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>“Hogarth, The Dutch,” 301</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Holland, buildings, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>–6;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, jealousy of, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>. <em>See</em> Dutch Holme, Lacy, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Holsteyn, C., <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Hoogerhuis</em>, room from the, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hooghe, R. de, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hoogstraten, S. van, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hosemant, J., <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Houbraken, A., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hour-glasses, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>House-in-the-Wood, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Houses, miniature, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>–6;
-    <ul>
-      <li>Seventeenth century, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>–6</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Houtman, C., <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Howard, Admiral, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Huche</span></i>, <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Huches</span></i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Huchiers</span></i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>–9, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">menuisiers</span></i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Huet, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Huguenot emigrants, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Huis ten Bosch</span></i>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hulst, John, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Huygens, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Hynart, Louis, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Ibn Batuta, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Importations, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>India, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— -houses, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Inlaid furniture, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>–160</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Interiors of the Great and Little Masters, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>–5</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Inventories, Dutch, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>–52, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>–2, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>–5, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>–6, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>–8, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>–61, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Isabella of Bourbon, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Castile, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Portugal, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Isle des hermaphrodites, L’</span></cite>, quoted, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Italian furniture, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ivory, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Jackenon of Nivelles, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Jane of Burgundy, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Janz, House of A. H., <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>–91</li>
-  <li class='c018'>James II., <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Japan, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Japanned furniture, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— goods, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Japanners, complaint of, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Jaspar, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Java mahogany, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Jehan de Bruges, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— de Dinant, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Jewel-boxes, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>Jewelry, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>John of Brussels, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>John III., Count of Hainault, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Johnson, Gerreit, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Joiners, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Company, petition of, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>–9</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Joinville, C. de, quoted, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>–4</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Joanna the Mad, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jouées</span></i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Kampen, Jacob van, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Kampen, Town-hall, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Kams, The, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Kamyn, Erasmus, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Karcher, John, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Nicholas, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Karel de Moor, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Kas</span></i>, <i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Kasten</span></i>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Keizer, Albrecht de, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Cornelis de, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Keldermans, M., <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, R., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Key, William, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Keyser, Hendrik de, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>King-wood, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Kitchen, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>–90, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>–9;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Rembrandt’s, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— utensils, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>–9</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Koedyck, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Kooge, Abraham de, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Lacquer, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>–9;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— imitation of, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lacquered furniture, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Laeken, Palace of, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>–1</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lairesse, G. de, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lame, Jahn de, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Landenspelder, John, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lange, Jacob de, home of, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Launoy, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Laval, P. de, quoted, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>–11</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Layens, M. de, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Leather hangings, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>–4, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, paintings on, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Spanish, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Leathers, gilded. 99, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Le Brun, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Leeuwarden, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Le Maître à la Navette, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Leo X., <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Leonardo da Vinci, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lepautre, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lerambert, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Leyden, Lucas van, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Liefrinck, Hans, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Liège, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, School of, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, tapestry-weavers of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lievens, Jan, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lignum vitæ, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lille, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Museum, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, School of, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Linen, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, paintings on, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, printed, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Linen-fold pattern, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Linkerk, Peter, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Linschoten, J. H. van, quoted, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lisbon, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lit en housse</span></i>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Living-room, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lochon, M. van, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lodeweycke, H. 165</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lombard, Lambert, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Looms, Flemish, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Louis XII., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— XIII., <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Napoleon, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Quatorze Period, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>–3;</li>
-      <li>—— Quinze Period, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Louvain, St. Michael’s, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Town-hall, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Louvre, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lower, Sir John, quoted, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Loyet, Gérard, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lucidel, Nicholas, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Luifel</span></i>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lute, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Lutma, John, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Luxury, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>–43, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>–1, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c003'>Maarken, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Macé, Jean, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mademoiselle, La Grande</span></cite>, quoted, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Madrid, looms, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maes, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maestricht, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Majolica factory, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Malaca, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maldives, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mantua, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mantegna, Andrea, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mantel-piece, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maps, Tapestry, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Marchaut, Countess of Artois, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Margaret of Austria, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>–72, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of York, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Marguerite of Valois, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>–101</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Marie Elizabeth, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>–4;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— de Medici, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Marot, Daniel, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>–8, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— style, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Marquetry, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>–60</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Marville, John de, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mary of Burgundy, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Hungary, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>–8;</li>
-      <li>—— of Orange, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Queen of England, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>–2, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mascarons, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>Masters, The Great, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, the Little, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Matsys, C., <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Matteo del Nassaro, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mauritshuis, The, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maurice of Nassau, Count John, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maussel, Guillaume, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Maximilian, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mazarin, Cardinal, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mechlin, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, house in, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>–52</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mediaeval room, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Meissonnier, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Melter, J. de, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Memling, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mendelslo, quoted, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mendoza, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mercurius, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Metal chairs, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, wrought, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Methwold, quoted, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Metsu, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Meyt, Conrad, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Michael Angelo, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Micker, James, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Middelburg, looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mierevelt, Gertrude van, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Milan, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mindanao, Queen of, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Miniatures of MSS., importance of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mirrors, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>–5, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Miséricorde</span></i>, The, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Moelenere, Thierry de, House of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Molensleyer, Godefroy den, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Henry den, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Monet, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Monkeys, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>–70;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— in decoration, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>. <em>See</em> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Singerie</span></i></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Montagu, Lady Mary, quoted, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Montoyer, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Moonen, quoted, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Morales, A., quoted, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Moretus, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mortlake tapestry, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mosquito net, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mostaert, Jean, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mosyn, M., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Moucheron, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Mounts, Furniture, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Muntink, A., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Museaux</span></i>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Museum van Kunstnyverheid, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Music, love of, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Musical instruments, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Musicians, list of, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Nachtbouquet</span></i>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Nancy, looms, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Napkin basket, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Napolitanus, C., quoted, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Natalis, M., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Needlework, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>. <em>See</em> Embroiderers</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Netherland East India Company, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Netherlands, Luxury in the, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>–1</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Neusse, A., <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>New Amsterdam, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>New Year’s Gifts to Queen Elizabeth, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Niello</span></i>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Nieucasteel, Nicholas de, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Nispen, Van, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Nivelles, Church of, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Nolpe, Peter, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Northampton, Earl of, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>–1</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Noye, Jacques van, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Sebastian van, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Numismatics, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Nutwood, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Oak, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Oesterham, Pieter, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite>Old Brechtje</cite>, quoted, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Olive-wood, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Olivier de la Marche, quoted, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Oost, Peter van, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Oppenord, G. M., <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Oppenordt, C. J., <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Or bazané</span></i>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Orfèvres.</span></i> <em>See</em> Goldsmiths</li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Orfèvrerie</span></i>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Oriental goods, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Orley, Bernard van, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ornamentation, Renaissance, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ornaments, decorative, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ort, A. van, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Oudenarde, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Hôtel de Ville, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Paintings, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Palissandre</span></i>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Palissy, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Panellings, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Panelled-bed, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pand, Le, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pannemaker, André, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, François, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, William de, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Paraclose</em>, The, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Paris, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Parrots, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Passe, Crispin de, or van de, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>–1, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Passo, P., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Paston, John, quoted, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pauli, André, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Patin, Charles, quoted, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>–50</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Peacocks, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pekin, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Penon, J. H., <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pentin, J., <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Peter the Great, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Campana, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pets, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>–70</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Perréal, John, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>Pewter, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pheasants, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Philibert of Savoy, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Philip de Comines, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— the Bold, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>–50, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— the Good, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>–8, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>–6;</li>
-      <li>—— (of Spain), <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— II., <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— III., <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— IV., <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pictures, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>–8</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pietersz, Gerrit, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Hermann, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pietra-dura, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pigapheta, A., <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>–6, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pilaster, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pillow, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pirates, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pitsembourg, The, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>–52</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Plantin, Christopher, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Plantin-Moretus house, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pointed Style, The, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pommes</span></i>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Porcelain, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>–90, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>,196, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>–8, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>–4, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>–20, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>–8, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>–5, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>–9, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>–7;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, marks on, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Marot’s use of, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, prices of, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— room, verse on, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>–9</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pordenone, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Portugal, trade with, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>–13</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Portuguese navigators, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Post, Pieter, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pourbus, Peter, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Primaticcio, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite>Prince Butler’s Tale</cite>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Princess Amalia of Solms, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Prindale, J. M. H. van, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Printing, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— presses, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>–2</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Pynackers, The, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Quarré, Jean, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Queen Anne’s bed, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Queen Anne Style, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Quellin, Artus, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>–8, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Quillyn, Artus. <em>See</em> Quellin</li>
-  <li class='c003'>Rabel, Daniel, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Raephorst, B. van, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rambouillet, Mme. de, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Raphael, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rasch, A., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite>Reasons, The</cite>, quoted, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régence</span></i> period, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Regency style, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Relai</span></i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>–2</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rembrandt, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>–4, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, house, furniture and porcelain, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>–4</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Renaissance, Dawn of the, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>–7;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— in Flanders, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— furniture, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>–5, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>–17, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>–42;</li>
-      <li>—— ornaments, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>–96</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Retables</span></i>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Reygensbergh, A., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rheims, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rijks Museum, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Richard II., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Robbia, Luca della, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Robert, Duke of Albany, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Sicily, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rocaille</span></i>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Roelants, John, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Roman</em>, The, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Romano, Giulio, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rooms, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>–5, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Root-wood, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Roovere, Sara de, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rost, John, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rozmital, Leo van, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rubens, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>–3, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>–7, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>–8, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, house of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>–4;</li>
-      <li>—— pupils of, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— School of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ruckers, Andreas, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>–8;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Andreas the Younger, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Christofel, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Hans, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>–6;</li>
-      <li>——, Jean, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>–7</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Rugs, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Sablière, Marchioness de, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sacerdan. <em>See</em> Sacredaan</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sacredaan-wood, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sadeler, Ægidius, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Saffron-pots, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Saint-Florent of Saumur, Monastery of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— Gertrude, Louvain, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>–8;</li>
-      <li>—— Waltrude in Herentals, altar-piece, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Salutation angélique</span></cite>, The, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>–10</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Salviati, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sambin, Hughes, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Samedo, quoted, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sandom, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sarto, A. del, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Schelden, Paul van, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Peter van, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Scheldein, Jean van der, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Schentz, P., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>School of Fontainebleau, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— of Liège, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Lille, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Rhine, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— of Rubens, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Scent-boxes, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Schubler, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Serlio, Sebastian, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Serviettes</span></i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Settle. <em>See</em> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Banc</span></i></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Shah Rukh, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sheldon, William, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Ships, Portuguese, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>–9</li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>Show-rooms, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sideboards, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>–5, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sidney, Henry, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Silk manufactory, Palermo, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Silver, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>–40, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>–1, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Singerie</span></i>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>. <em>See</em> Monkeys</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Shaw’s <cite>Travels Through Holland</cite>, quoted, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sluter, Nicholas, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Smet, Roger de, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Smout, Williken, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Smuggling, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sopha, The, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>South Kensington Museum, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Soutman, Peter, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Spanish Armada tapestry, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— chair, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>–1;</li>
-      <li>—— influence in the Netherlands, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>–9</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Spenser, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Spierinck, Franz, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Spinets, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Staete, P. de, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Stavelot, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Steen, Jon, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Steen Museum, The, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Steenberch, Adam, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Stedelijk Museum, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Stoef.</span></i> <em>See</em> Foot-stove</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Stool, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Stradan, J., beds by, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Stuarts as art connoisseurs, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Style, Auricular, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>–7, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Chinese, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a> (<em>see</em> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chinoiserie</span></i>);</li>
-      <li>——, Classic, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Empire, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Floris, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>–3;</li>
-      <li>——, Gothic, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>–8, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>–3, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Henri II., <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, —— Louis Quatorze, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a> 272;</li>
-      <li>—— Louis Quinze, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Marot, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Pointed, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Queen Anne, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Refugié, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>–3, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Regency or Régence, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— Rubens, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, William and Mary, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sultan Bajazet, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>–7</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sumptuary Laws, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Sybrandszoon, Diderik, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Table in Utrecht Museum, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tables, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>–2, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>–2, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>–8;
-    <ul>
-      <li>Table-bell, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— -carpet, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— -cover, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— and trestles, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Taillebert, V., <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tapestry, Tapestries, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>–8. 19–22, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>–7, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>–9, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>–70, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>–7, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>–1, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>–8, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>–5. <em>See</em> Leather.
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— weavers, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>–21, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>–9, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>–7, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tapisserie.</span></i> <em>See</em> Tapestry</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tea, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, afternoon, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>–30;</li>
-      <li>—— buffet, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, Dutch poet on, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— pots, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— room, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>–9;</li>
-      <li>—— sets, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— table, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><em>Tenières</em>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Teniers, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Terburg, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Terme, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tetzel, quoted, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Textiles, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Theophilus, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Theorbo, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Thornhill, Sir James, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Thuys, J., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tiles, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Titian, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Toilet-table, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>–3</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tournay, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Toys, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>–4, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Trade with the East, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>–20, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>–8, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>–92, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— <em>and Navigation of Great Britain Considered</em>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Travellers, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— in Holland, quoted, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>–7</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fy" xml:lang="fy">Trekschuyt</span></i>, The, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Trestles, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Trèves, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Troost, Cornelis, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Trundle-bed, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Trunk, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tulips, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Turquet, Pierre, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Turkey-work, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Tverff, J. van der, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Unteutsch, F. 166</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Upholstery, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Utrecht Museum, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Peace of, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c003'>Valance, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Valenciennes, looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Valentin d’Arras, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Van Dyck, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Van Eycks, The, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Van Varick, Mrs., possessions, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>–6, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, toys of, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Van Loo, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Varnish-tree, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vasari, quoted, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>–6</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vases, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Velasquez, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Venice, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Venetian glass, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Verberckt, Jacques, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Verbrugghen, Peter, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Verdures</span></i>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>Verhagen, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vermay, Jan, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vernis Martin</span></i>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Veronese, Paul, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Verrio, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Versailles, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vestibule, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vigarny, P., <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Villain, Jehan, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vilvorde Church, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vinckboons, Philip, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Viol da gamba</span></i>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Violet-wood, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Virginals, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vischer, G., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</li>
-  <li class='c018'>Visscher, Roemer, quoted, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vlaenders, Jan, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Voeren, G. van der, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Voorhuis</span></i>, The, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Voyeuse</span></i>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vriendt, Cornelius de, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Floris de, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vries, Hans Vredemann de, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>–6, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, Paul de, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vrij, De, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Vroom, H. C. de, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Waydere, M. de, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Wall-cabinets, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Walnut, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Wars of the Roses, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Washing of linen, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Watches, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Watervliet, Van, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Watteau, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Waulsort, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Waydere, M. de, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Weenix, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Wernier, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Werve, Nicholas van de, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Westerhem, J. de, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Westerhen, Roger, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Weyden Roger, van der, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Wilhelmina, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>William III. of England, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— and Mary Style, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Willow Plate, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Windebank, Sir F., <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Window-seats, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Windows, glass, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, painted, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Winter, Antony, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Wood-carvers, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>–3, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>—— -carving, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li>
-      <li>—— -work, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>–2.</li>
-      <li><em>See</em> Panelling</li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Woods, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, exotic, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-  <li class='c018'>Work-boxes, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Workmen, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Workum, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></li>
-  <li class='c018'>Wren, Sir Christopher, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li>
-  <li class='c003'>Ypres, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;
-    <ul>
-      <li>——, looms, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li>
-      <li>——, St. Martin’s, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li>
-    </ul>
-  </li>
-</ul>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><em>Butler and Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London</em></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c004' />
-</div>
-<div class='tnotes'>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2>
-</div>
- <ol class='ol_1 c003'>
-    <li>Did not change the word ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">jouées</span>’ as it was used consistently. The word
-    ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">joues</span>’ might be more appropriate.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>"In Bruitlaen" might be an English-pseudo-phonetic transcription of "In Bruikleen"
-    (On Loan). Did not change.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Jehan/Jan/Jean Maluel/Malouel and Hennequin/Hannequin van/of/de Prindale/Prindael are
-    likely two separate individuals. They are considered sometimes as the same person and
-    sometimes as different persons. Did not change.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Did not attempt to correct any English translation errors from the Dutch.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Did not change ‘daïs’ as it is an old spelling of ‘dais’.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘Itedelijk’ to ‘Stedelijk’ on p. <a href='#vii'>vii</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘Aubri de Bourguinon’ to ‘Aubri de Bourguignon’ on p. <a href='#t37'>37</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">maestra di panni de razza</span>’ to ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">maestra di panni de arazzi</span>’ on p.
-    <a href='#t59'>59</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘Turween’ to ‘Terween’ on p. <a href='#t82'>82</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘Judocus Hondius’ to ‘Jodocus Hondius’ on p. <a href='#t107'>107</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Added ‘in’ before ‘1589’ on p. <a href='#t116'>116</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘<span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">tart pannen</span>’ to ‘<span lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">taart pannen</span>’ on p. <a href='#t151'>151</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Did not change the dates (1689–98) provided for Heinrich van Bein on p. <a href='#t166'>166</a>.
-    Could not determine the actual lifespan.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘studied with Diamonds’ to ‘studded with Diamonds’ on p. <a href='#t185'>185</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘They left the Texel’ to ‘They left Texel’ on p. <a href='#t215'>215</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed ‘household gods’ to ‘household goods’ on p. <a href='#t242'>242</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Silently corrected typographical errors.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
-    </li>
-  </ol>
-
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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