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diff --git a/old/54552-0.txt b/old/54552-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 86bbe02..0000000 --- a/old/54552-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12486 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Dutch and Flemish Furniture, by Esther Singleton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Dutch and Flemish Furniture - -Author: Esther Singleton - -Release Date: April 15, 2017 [EBook #54552] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE - - -[Illustration: - - FRONTISPIECE. _Bed by Daniel Marot._ -] - - - - - DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE - - - By - ESTHER SINGLETON - Author of “French and English Furniture,” etc - - - _With numerous illustrations_ - - - NEW YORK: - THE McCLURE COMPANY - 44–60 EAST TWENTY-THIRD STREET - 1907 - - - - - _Butler and Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, France, and London_ - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE - - -No special inducement need be held out to an educated Englishman at the -present day to take an interest in a particular field of the arts and -crafts of the Low Countries. Long before the nobles of Flanders, France -and England were associated in attempts to free the holy places from the -pollution of infidel possession, the dwellers on the opposite coasts of -England, Normandy and the Netherlands had been bound together by many -dynastic and trade bonds. As we follow the course of history, we find -that the interests of the English and the Flemings were inextricably -connected; and there was a constant stream of the manufactures of the -Low Countries pouring into English ports. The English supplied much of -the raw material upon which the Flemings depended for subsistence. In -mediaeval days the inhabitants of the Low Countries could always be -forced by English statecraft to help the Plantagenet kings in their -continental intrigues by the mere cutting off of the supply of wool. -Later, the community of tastes and interests in Reformation days drew -the races closer together; and all through Elizabethan days, and then -onwards till the close of the Marlborough campaigns, the inhabitants of -England and the Netherlands were on terms of intimate acquaintance, -socially and industrially. - -In the following pages, therefore, constant evidence will appear of the -influence of the arts and crafts of the Low Countries on English -manufactures and importations. Trade rivalry frequently gave rise to -coolness between England and Holland, and to an inglorious war in the -days of the Merry Monarch. The latter period I have treated at -considerable length on account of the importance of the Oriental trade -on the interior decorations of Dutch homes. - -On taking a general survey of the Decorative Arts of the Low Countries, -we notice several well-defined periods and influences. - -Materials are too meagre for us to learn much about domestic interiors -during the Dark Ages, but we know that, in common with England and -Northern France, Scandinavian Art largely prevailed. - -The feudal lords of the territories that now formed the Netherlands were -enthusiastic in assuming the cross; and for two centuries the arts and -crafts of Byzantium and the luxury of the East dominated Western Europe. - -About 1300 the influence of Byzantium had waned, and the Gothic style -was bursting into full bloom. For the next two centuries it held full -sway, and was then pushed aside by the Renaissance, which made itself -felt at the end of the fifteenth century. - -At the end of the sixteenth century we find the Renaissance fully -developed; and for the next fifty years Flanders is the willing slave of -Rubens and his school. The Decadence quickly follows. - -The provinces that now constitute Holland and Belgium went hand in hand -in the Decorative Arts until about 1600. If there was any difference, -Holland was more influenced by German and Flanders by French Art. After -the establishment of the Dutch trade with the Far East at the beginning -of the seventeenth century, Dutch and Flemish Art diverge. - -In the following chapters I have tried to trace these influences and -developments. - -In illustrating the book I have gone to the original works of the great -masters of design—De Vries, Van de Passe, Marot and others. As for Dutch -interiors, nothing can convey a clearer idea of the home than the famous -pictures by the Great and Little Masters—Jan Steen, Teniers, Rembrandt, -Cocques, Metsu, Maes, Terburg, Dou, Weenix, Van Hoogstraten, Troost, -etc., etc., many of whose famous canvases are reproduced here. - -I also include photographic reproductions of authentic examples of Dutch -and Flemish furniture preserved in the Cluny, Rijks, Stedelijk and other -museums. - -In my attempt to reconstruct Dutch and Flemish interiors of past days, I -have consulted not only histories, memoirs and books of travel, but -wills and inventories as well. - -I wish to thank Mr. Arthur Shadwell Martin for valuable research and aid -for both text and illustrations. - - E. S. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - - PAGES - - THE MIDDLE AGES 1–29 - - Ecclesiastical Art—Wood-carving and Carvers—Primitive - Character of the Furniture of Castles and Mansions— - _Huchiers_—_Menuisiers_—A Typical Bedroom—_Dinanderie_— - Wood-work and panelling—Chest, _banc_, _bahut_, sideboard, - _dressoir_, credence, table and chair—Embroideries— - Definition of _Chambre_—Textiles and Tapestries— - Ecclesiastical Hangings—Tapestry-weavers—Tapestry of - Philip the Bold—Flemish Looms—Cordovan and Flemish - Leathers—Goldsmith’s Work—Glass and Glass-workers—Guilds - of St. Luke. - - - CHAPTER II - - THE BURGUNDIAN PERIOD 31–62 - - The luxurious Dukes of Burgundy—Possessions of the House - of Burgundy—The Burgundian Court—Household of Philip the - Good—the Feast of the Pheasant—the Duke of Burgundy at the - Coronation of Louis XI—Arras Tapestries—Sumptuous - _Dressoirs_ and their Adornments—Celebrations in honour of - the Knights of the Golden Fleece—Luxury of Charles the - Bold—Charles the Bold at Trèves—Furnishings of the Abbey - of Saint-Maximin—Charles the Bold’s Second Marriage— - Furnishings of the Banqueting Hall at Bruges—Descriptions - by Olivier de la Marche—Aliénor of Poitiers’ Descriptions - of the Furniture of the Duchess of Burgundy’s Apartments— - Rich _Dressoirs_—the _Drageoir_ and its Etiquette—the - Etiquette of the _Escarbeau_—Philip the Bold’s Artisans— - Flemish Carving—the _Forme_ or _Banc_—Burgundian - Workmanship—Ecclesiastical Work—Noted Carvers—Furniture of - the Period—the “Golden Age of Tapestry”—Embroideries— - Tapestry-weavers of the Low Countries—Introduction of - Italian Cartoons—Goldsmiths’ Work—Furniture of the - Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. - - - CHAPTER III - - THE RENAISSANCE: PART I 63–96 - - Dawn of the Renaissance—The Transitional Period—Coffers - and _Bahuts_—Court of Margaret of Austria—Perrèal’s Style— - Margaret’s Tomb by Perrèal—Taste of the Regent—Margaret’s - Tapestries, Carpets, Table-covers and Cushions—Her Curios— - Flemish Tapestries—Cartoons by Bernard van Orley—William - de Pannemaker—English Tapestries—Last Days of the Gothic - Style—Guyot de Beaugrant, Lancelot Blondeel and Peter - Pourbus—Stalls in the Groote Kerk, Dordrecht—Carvings in - Haarlem—Invasion of the Renaissance—Walnut, the Favourite - Wood for Furniture and Carving—Versatility of the Artists— - the Fleming as Emigrant—the Renaissance in Burgundy—Hugues - Sambin—Sebastian Serlio—Peter Coeck of Alost—Pupils of - Peter Coeck—Lambert Lombard—Francis Floris, the “Flemish - Raphael”—the Craze for Numismatics—Hubert Goltzius— - Cabinets of the Sixteenth Century—Italian Furniture— - Characteristic Features of Renaissance Furniture— - Ornaments, the Arabesque, Pilaster, Cartouche, _Cuirs_, - Banderole and Caryatid—Publications of Decorative Design— - Alaert Claes, Lucas van Leyden, Cornelis Bos and Martin - van Heemskerck. - - - CHAPTER IV - - THE RENAISSANCE: PART II 97–129 - - Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary— - Charles V a Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in - Spain—Gilded Leather—Wealth of the Nobles in the - Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at Namur—Antwerp in the - Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin—Cornelis and James - Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries—Jacques van - Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second Period - of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs, - _Armoires_, Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass - Cupboards—Windows and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the - Artists of the Low Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de - Passe the Elder—the Collaerts—Wood-carving—Music and - Musical Instruments. - - - CHAPTER V - - SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (FLEMISH) 131–167 - - Renewed Italian Influence—Rubens: his Studio, his House, - his Pupils, his Influence, his Successors—Seventeenth - Century Wood-carvers—Development and Tendencies of - Furniture—Crispin van den Passe—Rembrandt’s Goods and - Chattels—Old Belgian Houses—The Pitsembourg—Kitchens— - Leather-hangings—Tapestry—Marquetry—Chairs—Masters of - Ornamental Design—The “Auricular Style.” - - - CHAPTER VI - - SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (DUTCH) 169–202 - - Famous Dutch Architects—The Royal Palace on the Dam, Het - Loo, The Mauritshuis and Huis Ten Bosch—Interior Carvings— - Specimens of Rooms and Ceilings in the Rijks Museum—Love - of the Dutch for their Houses—Miniature Dutch Houses and - Models of Old Amsterdam Houses in the Rijks Museum— - Architecture of the Seventeenth Century—A Typical Dutch - Home—The _Luifel_, _Voorhuis_ and _Comptoir_—Interior - Decorations and Furniture—Dutch Mania for Cleaning— - Descriptions by Travellers of Dutch Houses and Cleaning— - Cleaning Utensils—House and Furniture of Andreas Hulstman - Janz, in Dordrecht—Inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt, - wife of the painter, in Delft—“Show-Rooms” and their - Furnishings—Cooking Utensils—Bedroom in the House of Mrs. - Lidia van der Dussen in Dordrecht—The Cradle and - “Fire-Basket”—The Baby’s Silver—The “Bride’s Basket”—The - “Bride’s Crown” and “Throne”—Decorations for a Wedding— - Description by Sir John Lower of the Farewell - Entertainment to Charles II at the Hague. - - - CHAPTER VII - - THE IMPORTANCE OF PORCELAIN 203–235 - - Rise of Dutch Taste in Decorative Art—Influence of Foreign - Trade in the Dutch Home—Accounts of Porcelain by Mediaeval - Travellers: Edrisi, Ibn Batuta and Shah Rukh—Quotation - from Pigapheta—A Great European Collection—Monopoly of - Trade by the Portuguese—Quotation from Pyrard de Laval— - Portuguese Carracks—Voyages to Goa and Japan—Porcelain and - Cabinets—Mendoza’s Description of Earthenware—Dutch and - English Merchants—Presents to Queen Elizabeth—Dutch - Expeditions and Establishment of the Dutch East India - Company—Embassy to the Emperor of China in 1655— - Descriptions of the Manufacture of Porcelain—Manufacture - and Potters of Delft—Quotation from d’Entrecolles on - Porcelain and Oriental Trade—Prices—Tea—Tea-drinking—A - Dutch Poet on the Tea-table—Chrestina de Ridder’s - Porcelain—Prices of Porcelain in 1653. - - - CHAPTER VIII - - THE DUTCH HOME 237–270 - - Love of porcelain—The Amsterdam Mart—Prices of China in - 1615—Oriental wares before 1520—Luxury of the Dutch - Colonists—Rich Burghers in New Amsterdam—Inventories of - Margarita van Varick and Jacob de Lange—Dutch Merchants in - the East—Foreign Views of Dutch Luxury—Dutch Interiors - after the Great and Little Masters—House-furnishing by a - young married couple—The Linen Chest—Clothes Chests and - Cupboards—The Great _Kas_—The Cabinet—The Toilet— - Table-covers—Foot-warmers—Looking-glasses—Bedsteads—Tables - and Chairs—Woods—Kitchen Utensils—Silverware—Household - Pets. - - - CHAPTER IX - - DUTCH FURNITURE UNDER FRENCH AND ORIENTAL INFLUENCE 271–293 - - The Dutch Craftsmen in the Employ of Louis XIV—Huguenot - Emigration—Marot—The Sopha—Upholstery—The Bed—Chairs— - Sconces—Tables—Rooms—English and Dutch Alliances—Hampton - Court—Queen Mary—Looking-glasses—Chandeliers— - Chimney-pieces—The _style refugié_—John Hervey’s - Purchases—Oriental Furniture manufactured after European - Patterns—Complaints of Home Manufacturers—Trade with the - Indies—“Prince Butler’s Tale”—Enormous Importations— - Imported Textiles—Foreign Textiles for Upholstery. - - - CHAPTER X - - FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES 295–327 - - Lacquer—Oriental Methods—European Importations and - Limitations—Prices—An Ambassador’s Report—_Singerie_, - _Chinoiserie_ and _Rocaille_—The Dutch Decadence—Interiors - of Cornelis Troost—Mirrors—Wealth and Luxury of Dutch - Merchants—Court Contrasts—Tapestry—Brussels as a Centre of - Art and Luxury—Eighteenth Century Furniture—The Empire - Style in the Low Countries—Dutch Homes of the Nineteenth - Century—The Maarken House and Furniture—Typical Farmhouse - and Furniture—Country Seats and Town Houses—Hindeloopen - Houses and Furniture—A Friesland House—Canal Boat - Furniture—Dutch Love of Symmetry—Collectors and - Collections. - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PLATE FACING PAGE - - Bed by Daniel Marot _Frontispiece_ - - I. Choir-Stall 4 - - II. Bedroom (Fifteenth Century) and Figs. 1–5 8 - - III. Flemish Dressoir (Fifteenth Century), and Figs. 14 - 6–9 - - IV. Credence (Fifteenth Century) 38 - - V. Coffer in Flemish Style 66 - - VI. Flemish Coffer or Huche 68 - - VII. Huche, or Bahut (Sixteenth Century) 70 - - VIII. Cabinet (Sixteenth Century) 84 - - IX. Armoire (Burgundian School) 86 - - X. Bedroom, by De Vries 92 - - XI. Flemish Bedstead (1580) and Figs. 10–18 94 - - Bed, Tables, Chair and Footstool, Flemish 106 - Chairs. Figs. 19–25 - - XII. Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan 108 - - XIII. Bedstead, by De Vries 110 - - XIV. Bedstead, Rijks Museum 112 - - XV. Armoire, Rijks Museum 114 - - XVI. Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries 116 - - XVII. Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries 118 - - XVIII. Flemish Armoire and Figs. 26–27 120 - - XIX. Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries. Design for 122 - Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock - - XX. Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries. Design for 124 - Goldsmith’s Work, by Jerome Cock - - XXI. Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert 126 - - XXII. Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert 128 - - XXIII. Lady at Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer 132 - - XXIIIA. Spinet, by Ruckers 134 - - XXIV. Interior, by Barthol van Bassen (Seventeenth 136 - Century) and Figs. 28–30 - - XXV. Panelled Bedstead, Rijks Museum 144 - - XXVI. The Sick Woman, by Jan Steen, and Figs. 31–34 146 - - XXVII. Woman with a Parrot, by Jan Steen 148 - - XXVIII. Flemish Chair, Cluny Museum 154 - - XXIX. Flemish Chair Cluny Museum 156 - - XXX. Chairs, Cluny Museum 158 - - XXXI. Marquetry Cabinet, Rijks Museum 160 - - XXXII. Kitchen, Stedelijk Museum 162 - - XXXIII. Chairs, Rijks Museum 164 - - XXXIV. Chairs, Rijks Museum 170 - - XXXV. Chairs, Rijks Museum 172 - - XXXVI. The Oyster Feast, by Jan Steen, and Figs. 35–37 248 - - XXXVII. The Sick Lady, by Hoogstraten 250 - - XXXVIII. Interior, by J. Koedyck 252 - - XXXIX. The Music Lesson, by Terborch 254 - - XL. Interior, by J. B. Weenix 256 - - XLI. Breakfast, by G. Metsu 258 - - XLII. Interior, by Jan Steen 260 - - XLIII. Kas of Ebony and Ivory, Rijks Museum 262 - - XLIV. Dutch Kas, Cluny Museum 264 - - XLV. Flemish Chair, Cluny Museum 266 - - XLVI. “Buire,” by Mosyn, Auricular Style 268 - - Screen in the Style Refugié. Fig. 39 272 - - XLVII. Carved Oak Bahut, Cluny Museum, and Fig. 38 274 - - Sophas, Lower part of Chair, Lambrequins. Figs. 276 - 40–45 - - XLVIII. Bed and Bedroom, by Marot 278 - - XLIX. Mirrors and Sconces, by Marot 280 - - L. Mirrors, by Marot 282 - - LI. Mirrors, Console Table and Candlestands, by 284 - Marot - - LII. Tables and Mascarons, by Marot 286 - - LIII. Clocks and Details, by Marot 288 - - LIV. Interior, by Cornelis Troost 298 - - Cabinet from Liège, Dutch Mirror Frame. Figs. 300 - 46–47 - - LV. Interior, by Cornelis Troost 302 - - LVI. Room in the Stedelijk Museum 308 - - LVII. In Bruitlaen, by Artz 312 - - - - - CHAPTER I - THE MIDDLE AGES - - Ecclesiastical Art—Wood-carving and Carvers—Primitive character of the - Furniture of Castles and Mansions—_Huchiers_—_Menuisiers_—A - Typical Bedroom—_Dinanderie_—Wood-work and panelling—Chest, - _banc_, _bahut_, sideboard, _dressoir_, _credence_, table and - chair—Embroideries—Definition of _Chambre_—Textiles and - Tapestries—Ecclesiastical hangings—Tapestry-weavers—Tapestry of - Philip the Bold—Flemish Looms—Cordovan and Flemish Leathers— - Goldsmith’s Work—Glass and Glass-workers—Guilds of St. Luke. - - -In the turbulent days of the Middle Ages, the goods of the Church were -the only ones respected, and, sometimes, not even those. The castles -afforded protection to those in their immediate vicinity, but rival -feudal ambitions rendered the calling of a luxurious craftsman more or -less precarious. The abbey walls always sheltered a community of -carpenters, joiners, leather-dressers, iron-workers, goldsmiths, -sculptors, painters and calligraphists. - -Towards the end of the Crusades, the new organization of the Communes, -after the period of anarchy, becomes firmly established. Industry, -commerce and art begin to make rapid strides in the towns, and craftsmen -form themselves into corporations that receive special privileges from -their titular overlords. So long as the artists of the ecclesiastical -school remained under the protection of the monastic houses, they -naturally followed a hieratic road. The ornamentation they were called -upon to produce for the Church, they reproduced when luxurious furniture -was required in domestic life. The great Corporations, however, as they -grew in wealth and power, demanded something superior to, or at least, -different from, the work of their forerunners. In the monastic houses, -it was long before this influence made itself felt; but among the -secular clergy it received a hearty welcome. - -The distinguishing character of Mediaeval work is the freedom of -execution allowed to the workman. The architect decided on heights, -dimensions, dispositions of parts and profiles of stalls, or _armoires_; -but the details were left to be worked out by the artistic ability of -the skilled workman. Individual expression was allowed full play, while -the original conception of the designer was respected. - -Gradually, as the Communes became more powerful and were able to afford -stable protection to their members, the spirit of association and -solidarity tended to break away from exclusively ecclesiastical art. - -The art of wood-carving was developed principally in the production of -choir-stalls and altar-pieces. The building of a beautiful temple to the -glory of God was usually begun by some pious founder from motives of -gratitude or repentance. It was dedicated to some patron saint, and the -work was carried out under the supervision of some abbey or other -religious house. Often the church or cathedral was originally the abbey -church itself. In early Mediaeval days, the arts and sciences were -confined to the cloister, and the embellishment of the Holy House was a -labour of love. Many an obscure monk put all that was beautiful and -fanciful in his nature into the production of carvings in stone and wood -that have never been surpassed. - -The precise date at which choir-stalls were introduced into churches is -not known; but it is certain that they were in general use as soon as -the Pointed Style was finally established, that is to say, not later -than the thirteenth century. When the sanctuary was railed off from the -rest of the church, the priests, in their light garb, naturally wanted -to be protected from cold, damp and draught by woodwork, which, like the -high back of a settle, enclosed the choir. - -The stall is composed of several parts: the socle, the tablet, or seat, -half of which can be raised, as it turns on hinges, the half thus -raised, called the _miséricorde_, serves as a support for a person -resting, half standing, half sitting; the _paraclose_, or sides that -separate it from the adjoining stalls [the forward extremities of these -are called _museaux_ (snouts)]; the arm rest; the high back; the daïs, -or baldaquin; and, lastly, the woodwork at each end of a set of stalls, -called _jouées_ (cheeks). - -With the exceptions of the socle and seat, every part of the stall in -all the great Gothic churches has received very richly carved -ornamentation, which is often remarkable for its profusion of detail. - -The _miséricorde_ is ordinarily decorated with foliage and fruits; but -it often presents fantastic objects, such as dragons, sirens, dogs, -bears, and hybrid monsters of every kind. Frequently also we find -personages in ridiculous and gross attitudes, and all sorts of human and -animal caricatures. The _paraclose_ is decorated with Gothic tracery in -the earliest examples; and later with foliage, tendrils and branches of -elegant curve. These are usually open-work, the pierced oak producing a -charmingly light and graceful effect. Sometimes here also we find human -and animal forms. The high backs are enriched with bas-reliefs, the -subjects of which are by no means taken exclusively from the Old or New -Testament. On the contrary, here the carvers have given free rein to -their fancy by reproducing scenes of private life, and graceful -compositions of flowers and fruits with little animals intermingled. -Sometimes the subjects are framed in clusters of _colonnettes_, or in -pilasters decorated with niches containing statues. Sometimes also -statues of considerable size adorn this woodwork. The _jouées_ receive -the most beautiful decorations, and frequently these side entrances to -the stalls are ornamented by statues. The daïs, which at first was -merely a shelter of boards on an inclined plane over the whole range of -stalls, began to assume great importance in the fifteenth century. It -curved into vaultings; and very soon each seat received a separate daïs -decorated with _ogives_, pinnacles, little steeples, pendentives, -_culs-de-lampe_ and crockets; and the skilful carver did not hesitate to -introduce delightful statuettes into the company of all these -decorations. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE I.—_Choir-Stall._ -] - -A fine example of a Mediaeval carved oak stall is shown in Plate I. By -the richness of the carving it must originally have held an important -position in some choir. Richly ornamented with Gothic shafting and -tracery, it is a splendid example of architectural furniture. The -_miséricorde_ represents a knight fighting with a dragon. The scene -depicted with the chisel on the back is the favourite _Judgment of -Solomon_. Around the elbows are various animals and men on all fours. -The side scrolls under the daïs are decorated with angels playing -trumpets. - -The names of the carvers who embellished the Mediaeval choirs have, as a -rule, been lost; and fire and iconoclasm have destroyed most of their -work. Some few relics, however, of the splendour of wood-carving as it -existed before the Renaissance are still to be found. For elaborate oak -carving of the fifteenth century, it would be hard to find a more -interesting example than the carved oak stalls in the great church of -Bolsward (Broederkerk) in Holland. This was built in 1280 A.D.; but the -richly carved late Gothic choir stalls date from about 1450. - -One of the earliest churches of the Low Countries is that of Nivelles. -The convent was founded about 650 A.D. by Ita, wife of Pepin of Landen. -The Romanesque church, built in the eleventh century, somewhat spoilt by -bad restoration, still stands. On the high altar is the shrine of St. -Gertrude, which was carved in 1272 by the _orfèvres_ Nicolas Colars, of -Douai and Jackenon of Nivelles. This work of art is famous for the -delicacy and beauty of its details. - -The Protestant Church of Breda (Hervormde Kerk), built in 1290, also -contains notable carving, especially on the side entrances of the stalls -(_jouées_). The choir was consecrated in 1410, and here the carvers gave -free rein to satire on the clergy, representing the monks in various -comical attitudes. - -Examples of ecclesiastical furniture of Mediaeval days are naturally -scarce, as might be expected on the “Battlefield of Europe.” It is -indeed astonishing that so much has survived after the ordeal by fire -and sword to which the Netherlands have been so often subjected. -Occasionally we come across a muniment chest. An interesting one, the -front of which is perforated with quatrefoils, is to be seen in Notre -Dame, Huy. This dates from 1225. Two others in the same treasury are by -the hand of Godefroid de Claire, called “the noble high goldsmith”; -these, however, have lost their original character, having been restored -in 1560 by Jaspar, a Namur goldsmith. - -The ordinary movable furniture of a castle or Mediaeval mansion was of a -very primitive character. It must be remembered that in those days -merchants travelled from town to town in veritable caravans. Nobles -whose business or pleasure induced them constantly to be changing their -residence, also travelled with an escort and baggage-train that -resembled a small army. The necessary furniture and goods for the -comfort of the household were carried in carts and on the backs of -mules. The wooden furniture was, therefore, primitive. The tables -consisted of boards and trestles; the beds were of similarly elemental -construction; and what seats were taken along were also of the folding -variety. The beds and benches were supplied with cushions carried in -chests, and the walls were hung with printed linen or tapestry, while -the floors were covered with rugs, or, in the majority of cases, with -odoriferous plants, rushes, or straw. Luxury chiefly declared itself in -rich products of the goldsmith’s art, which were displayed on buffets of -shelves rising like steps. These customs prevailed for several -centuries. - -Pieces of furniture of earlier date than 1400 are exceedingly rare; and -those existing had a religious destination, and are preserved in, or -taken from, churches and convents. - -In the fourteenth century, as Gothic Art blossomed after the disturbing -influence of the Crusades, carving entered more extensively into the -decoration of furniture, as it was more highly developed in -ecclesiastical art. The cabinet-makers of the period were skilful -carvers: in France and Flanders these _huchiers-menuisiers_ were called -upon to supply royal and princely castles with artistic furniture, the -accounts of which have come down to us. We find not only carved oak, but -also tables inlaid with ebony and ivory. The chief feature, however, of -interior decoration during the fourteenth century was the hangings. The -Genoese and Venetians still had a monopoly of the trade with the Levant; -and Europe was supplied by the Italians with Oriental rugs, tablecloths -and hangings. The Flemish looms also produced rich stuffs for upholstery -and chamber hangings, which were often sumptuously embroidered. - -Through the fourteenth century, wood-carving kept pace with the lovely -stone sculpture of the cathedrals. We learn there was no light furniture -in palace or castle, but that even in the lady’s chamber there were only -benches, trestles, forms, faldstools and armchairs. The wood-carver -carved these with a mass of bas-reliefs and bosses; the carpenters -surrounded them with panelling; and the artists painted them red and -decorated them with white rosettes. - -In studying the arts and crafts of the Middle Ages, we must always bear -in mind the fact that art was not specialized. The workmen were -thoroughly trained, and their artistic talents had free play. We find -many men who were at once architects, sculptors, painters, goldsmiths -and image-makers. This condition existed till the middle of the -seventeenth century. - -In the Middle Ages, the carpenter made the household furniture which -formed an integral part of the dwelling; and he was quite capable of -giving to it the Gothic ornamentation in vogue. - -It was not till the fourteenth century that the increase of luxury and -the progress of the arts demanded a division of labour; and that the -_huchiers_ and joiners formed separate bodies from the carpenters. The -_huchiers_, who then became exclusively what we should now call joiners -and cabinet-makers, devoted their attention especially to all that -required ornate treatment in carving, such as doors, windows, shutters -and panelling, as well as chests, benches, bedsteads, chairs, dressers -and wardrobes. These were largely fixtures and formed part of the -permanent woodwork of a hall, or bedroom. The mouldings and other -ornaments were carved directly out of the oak, and not applied. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE II.—_Bedroom (Fifteenth Century)._ - - Fig. 1: AIGUIÈRE (Fifteenth Century); Fig. 2: AIGUIÈRE (Fourteenth - Century); Fig. 3: BRACKET CANDLESTICK; Fig. 4: BED, CHAIR, AND STOOL - (Fourteenth Century); Fig. 5: BAHUT AND CHAIR (Fifteenth Century). -] - -Before the great artists of the Netherlands arise, we must go to the -miniatures of early manuscripts in order to form a correct idea of a -Mediaeval interior. We usually find a very simple arrangement of -furniture, which consists of a bed, a bench, an armchair and some kind -of _dressoir_, or sideboard. The floor is tiled, or tessellated; and -sometimes the bed stands on a rug or carpet, which also covers part of -the adjoining floor space. The windows with small leaded panes are -supplied with shutters of two or three wings: these are sometimes -covered with leather fastened with large brass-headed nails. The -chimney-piece is always wide and high; the funnel shape of this occurs -in the earliest examples. The shelf above the opening is usually adorned -with glass, plate or earthenware. The armchair stands beside, or near, -the bed; the _dressoir_ is close by; and the settle is beside, or -sometimes in front of, the fire. The bed is often nothing but a long -chest on short legs with a mattress and pillows on top; and this is -moved out in front of the fire in case of need. The curtains and canopy -are suspended by cords from the rafters, as is also the chandelier. - -This same arrangement of furniture occurs in a picture of the -_Salutation angélique_ in the Louvre, by an unknown Flemish painter: it -has been attributed both to Lucas van Leyden and Memling. This room, -reproduced in Plate II, is one of the middle class at the end of the -fifteenth century. The walls are bare, the ceiling shows open rafters of -natural wood, and the floor is tiled. The panes of the windows are -leaded, and the inner shutters, which are trebly hinged so as at need to -fold into the thickness of the wall, are, moreover, divided in two -parts, so that only the top may be opened if needed. The other window -has a window seat. The high chimneypiece is furnished with the lateral -shelves in use throughout Mediaeval times from the twelfth century -onward. The chimney diminishes in size as it rises, like an inverted -funnel. In summer time, when the fire was not needed, the fireplace was -masked by a wooden screen to prevent draughts. In front of this, with -its back to the screen, was placed the high-backed settle, which in -winter faced, or was placed laterally to the cheerful blaze of the -hearth. The bench shown in this picture is made of plain boards, with a -little plain Gothic carving below the seat. For comfort, it is supplied -with three red cushions. The bed, which is raised on a low platform, is -also furnished with red curtains, bolster and counterpane. The tester is -suspended by cords from the ceiling. Beside the head of the bed is a -chair, and next to that a credence, which is used as a wash-hand stand. -On it are placed a ewer and shallow basin. These, and the brass -chandelier hanging above, are of the manufacture of Dinant, a metal ware -known all over Europe under the name of _Dinanderie_. The chandelier has -six branches, each a grotesque form of some animal, and the top of it is -surmounted by the figure of a seated quadruped. It is raised and lowered -by a pulley and chain. - -The ewer, or _aiguière_, standing on the credence, is an excellent -specimen of _Dinanderie_ of the fifteenth century; it has a double -spout, as shown in Fig. 1. Other examples of _Dinanderie_ of this period -are represented in Fig. 2, a grotesque _aiguière_; and Fig. 3, a bracket -candlestick of very graceful form. - -_Dinanderie_ became celebrated as early as the thirteenth century. -Although made at first in Dinant, its manufacture spread throughout the -valley of the Meuse, and _Dinantairs_ were established in various cities -and towns in the Netherlands, Germany, England and France. In 1380, one -Jehan de Dinant, living at Rheims, furnished some articles to the King. -Among the copper and brass ware delivered at this period to the royal -household and to the establishments of other great personages by this -workman, we find all kinds of kitchen articles, cooking utensils, stoves -of all sizes, wash-basins, kettles for heating water for the bath, -barbers’ basins, large boilers of all kinds, warming-pans for the beds, -candlesticks, chandeliers, and _aiguières_ (ewers). - -The permanent woodwork of the apartments in Mediaeval days was -furniture, without being “movables,” just like the carved oak in the -choir of a cathedral. The panelling contained cupboards and wardrobes; -bedsteads were contrived in the timbered lining of the walls; and the -woodwork readily lent itself to the adaptation of window seats, settles -and benches. It may easily be understood how the woodwork of a room -might conceal a whole series of shelves to which sliding panels, or -panels opening outwards as doors, gave access. These various -compartments served as cabinets for curios, bookcases, glass and plate -cupboards, wardrobes and larders. When one of these compartments was -made as a separate piece of furniture to stand by itself out against the -flat wall of a room, it was called a cabinet, or _armoire_. As late as -the middle of the seventeenth century, however, the _armoire_ was -generally part of the fixed woodwork. _Relai_ was another name for it. -Thus in 1635, Monet defines _armoire_, _armaire_, _aumoire_ as a -“_reservoir pratique en la muraille à servir et garder tout chose_”; and -Cotgrave (1673) has: “_Relai_” as “_armaire_, a hole or box contrived in -or against a wall.” - -The plain box, or chest, was the origin of all the developments of -Mediaeval furniture. It had many uses: it contained the treasures and -valuables of the lord; it was used as a packing-case or trunk for -travelling; with supports at the four corners and back, and arms added -above, it served as a chair or settle, with a seat that could be lifted -on hinges; raised also on legs and supplied with a daïs, it became a -_dressoir_, credence, or sideboard; chest-upon-chest superimposed, -developed into the elaborate _armoire_; and, finally, supplied with a -head and foot rail and made comfortable with mattress or pillows, it -served as a bed. - -In the old manuscripts of the Middle Ages, we find many illustrations of -the developments of the chest and its various uses. Fig. 4 shows a long -chest with short solid legs on which bedding is laid, and over which a -canopy with curtains has been raised. By its side is a chair, the seat -of which is manifestly the lid of a small chest. The chest-bed and chair -stand on a carpet: the floor is tiled. The shape of the pillow is -characteristic of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The carving of -the panels in bed and chair show the “linen fold,” which was so popular -in the Netherlands and which was laid in even more intricate folds by -the English carvers. Gothic tracery in furniture, in combination with -the “linen-fold” is shown in the chair of Fig. 5, which exhibits also -another chest, or _bahut_. The original illustration shows flames -leaping up the chimney, against which the bed is closely placed. The -cushions, with heavy tassels at each corner, are similar in shape to -those in Fig. 4. - -There were several varieties of the chest, known by various names, such -as _huche_, _bahut_ and _arche_. The _huche_ usually had a flat top: it -was the oldest and simplest form—a plain oblong box. As time wore on the -_huche_ gave its name to the cabinet-makers (the _huchiers_) of the -Middle Ages. They made windows, doors, panels, shutters, _bancs_, -_bahuts_, _armoires_, credences, and whatever else was required; and the -guild of _huchiers_ was one of the largest corporations of the period. - -The _huchiers_ were particularly distinguished for their execution of -choir-stalls and splendid carving. The _huche_, at first a very simple -piece of furniture, was later decorated with beautiful paintings and -rich carvings; moreover, it was enriched and strengthened with chiselled -and pierced iron hinges and locks. - -The chests until the thirteenth century were works of simple carpentry. -The faces consist of plain surfaces which are ornamented with paintings -on linen or leather; and further adorned with hinges and clamps of -pierced and wrought metal. - -The _bancs_, benches or settles, were made in the Middle Ages by the -_huchiers_. They were made of planks and often had backs and arms. In -the fifteenth century, they were enriched with sculpture and surmounted -by a canopy or daïs. They were also called _formes_ or _bancs d’œuvre_. -The Cluny Museum possesses many fine examples of this period, both civil -and religious. In the halls and bedrooms of the Mediaeval _châteaux_ the -_banc_ is often seen placed laterally before the wide chimney-piece, and -its high back was very useful in keeping off the draughts. It may be -thought that their rigid form and absence of upholstery rendered them -uncomfortable, but the numerous soft cushions with which they were -supplied quite atoned for the absence of upholstery. (_See_ Plate II.) - -The chief use of the Mediaeval sideboard was the display of ornate -plate, crystal and similar articles. The kitchen dresser with its -shelves holding plates and dishes set upright against the wall is a -lineal descendant of the old _dressoir_. The shelves of the _dressoir_ -were regulated by etiquette: every noble person could have a _dressoir_ -with three shelves; others, only two; royalty had four and five. - -According to some authorities, the difference between the _dressoir_ and -the buffet is simply this: the _dressoir_ was intended to display the -articles taken from the buffet, and had no drawers and no cupboard; the -buffet, on the other hand, contained both drawers and cupboards. The -buffet of our dining-rooms and our cellarets that close with lock and -key, are therefore survivals of the _credence_ of the Middle Ages. - -Sometimes the _credence_ and _dressoir_ were combined in one piece, or -rather the _dressoir_ served as a _credence_. A small one shown in the -illuminated MS. of the _Histoire de Gérard, Comte de Nevers_, has but -one shelf, upon which the silver platters are arranged, leaning against -the back, which is covered with some kind of fabric. The cupboard -serving as a _credence_ is covered with a cloth on which are placed -three silver ewers—_aiguières_. This was, therefore, more of a buffet -than a _dressoir_, for the real _dressoir_, as we have seen, was -composed of shelves (_gradins_) and had a back (_dorsal_), or sometimes -a daïs of stuff or sculptured wood. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE III.—_Flemish Dressoir (Fifteenth Century)._ - - Figs. 6–7: DRESSOIRS (Fifteenth Century); Fig. 8: TABLE ON TRESTLES; - Fig. 9: METAL CHAIR. -] - -Varieties of the _dressoir_ of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries -appear in Plate III, and Figs. 6 and 7; and a _credence_ of the -fifteenth century of Gothic decoration from the Cluny Museum, Paris, on -Plate IV. - -The Mediaeval table was a simple affair, with either fixed or movable -supports. In nine cases out of ten, either in hall or cottage, it -consisted simply of a board and trestles. In court and castle, kings and -nobles sat only on one side, the other being left free for service, and -for a clear view of the mummers, jongleurs and minstrels who entertained -the company during the feast. These boards and trestles could be readily -folded up and packed away in carts for travelling. A good example of the -fifteenth century table of this construction occurs in a picture of Mary -Magdalen at the feet of Jesus, by Derick Bouts (1410–1475). This is -represented in Fig. 8. - -We have seen that the chest with its various developments—chair, bench, -bed and _dressoir_—furnished the Mediaeval chamber. The ordinary hall -contained merely a plain buffet and a table, consisting of boards and -trestles, with simple forms for seats. Chairs there were none, except -for the lord and honoured guests at the head of the board. It must not -be supposed, however, that there was no attempt at comfort or decoration -in the homes of the Middle Ages. It would be difficult to attach too -much importance to the use of cushions and hangings. - -We have already seen one form of chair in Figs. 4 and 5, which show a -box with a lid for the seat, on which is a cushion. This chair has arms -and a high panelled back. The common stool, faldstool, or _escarbeau_ -also appears in Fig. 4. The rigid square high-backed chair, however, was -not the only form known in the Middle Ages. The type represented in Fig. -9 was in great favour. This chair is reproduced from a miniature by -Jehan de Bruges (fl. 1370). This form of chair, with curved lines in the -back, arms and supports, was a great favourite, not only in the -Netherlands, but throughout Europe for several centuries. Sometimes it -was made of wood, and carved on the extremities of the back, arms and -legs; and sometimes it was made of wrought metal, brass, silver and even -gold. In the latter case it was probably plated. Sometimes the -inventories mention chairs of great value and very precious workmanship. -Some of them were even ornamented with enamel. These were the work of -the _orfèvre_. Brass and copper chairs of this type were made in large -numbers by the skilful smiths of Dinant. Naturally they were comfortably -and sumptuously upholstered. An inventory of 1328 contains an item of a -chair of copper garnished with velvet. - -Flanders was always famous for its woven stuffs: wool was the staple on -which its prosperity depended. The Duke of Burgundy recognized this when -he chose the Golden Fleece as the emblem of his great Order of -Knighthood. Apart from the looms, the art of the needle was also held in -high esteem; and ladies of high and low estate devoted much of their -time to embroidery. - -Everything was embroidered: vestments and cloths for the church; shoes, -gloves, hats and clothes of men and women; and cushions and draperies -for the house. Notwithstanding the lavish use of tapestry, the taste for -embroidered materials was ever on the increase. The entire furnishings -for a bedroom were often the product of the needle; for instance, the -“embroidered chamber” of Jane of Burgundy, Queen of Philip V, at her -coronation at Rheims in 1330, was ornamented with 1321 parrots, with the -arms of the King, and 1321 butterflies, with the arms of Burgundy. - -In Mediaeval days, the word “_chambre_” had a broader signification than -it has to-day. By _chambre_ was meant the whole of the rugs, curtains, -hangings and upholstery that adorned a bedroom. There was a distinction -drawn between “_court pointerie_” and “_tapisserie_.” “_Court -pointerie_” included everything pertaining to the bed, such as the daïs, -mattress, head-board, etc. The “_tapisserie_” was changed every season -like the altar cloths and vestments of church and clergy. Cords were run -across the rafters, and the curtains and canopies were hung on these -with hooks. Thus the rooms at the various seasons received such names as -the “Easter,” “Christmas,” or “All Saints’ Chamber.” Then again the -rooms were named after the subjects (mythological, historical, romantic -or religious), of the tapestry that adorned them, such as the Chamber of -the Cross, of the Lions, of the Conquest of England, of Queen -Penthesile, of the Nine Paladins, of the Unicorn and Maiden, etc., etc. - -Plate II shows how the canopy and curtains of the bed were usually -supported. Sometimes, however, the hangings were attached to the rods by -means of tenterhooks. - -The inventories and chronicles of the Middle Ages frequently mention -textiles; but it is difficult to know from the numerous terms the old -scribes employ whether they are describing woollen and silk tapestry, -brocades, damasks, velvets, or embroidered material. The fabrics are of -many varieties, and their names vary with the details of production and -places of manufacture, as well as the material of which they are -composed, and the subjects they depict. - -A great deal of Byzantine tapestry, with other hangings and carpets, was -brought into Western Europe, by those returning from the First Crusade -(1096–1099); and after 1146, when Count Robert of Sicily brought home -from his expedition into Greece some captive silk-workers, and -established a manufactory for brocades and damasks at Palermo, beautiful -materials were carried northward from Italy. - -During the early centuries the use of tapestry was very extensively -devoted to the decoration of churches, and therefore represented scenes -from the Scriptures, and lives of the Saints and the Virgin. - -Cathedrals and monasteries were very rich in hangings of tapestry, -brocades, and embroideries of various kinds, as well as stuffs on which -ornaments were laid and sewn. About 985, the Abbot Robert of the -monastery of Saint Florent of Saumur, ordered a number of curtains, -carpets, cushions, _dossers_ and wall-hangings, all of wool; and, -moreover, had two large pieces of tapestry made in which silk was -introduced, and on which lions and elephants were represented upon a red -background. - -In 1133, another Abbot of the same monastery had two _dossers_ made to -hang in the choir during festivals. On one of these the twenty-four -elders of the Apocalypse with citharas and viols were depicted. The -hangings he got for the nave, represented centaurs, lions and other -animals. - -On all festal occasions, the cathedrals were beautifully decorated with -superb tapestries. Some of them served as hangings and door-curtains, -others draped the altars, while the seats and backs of the benches were -covered with pieces called _bancalia_, _spaleriae_, and _dossalia_. -Tapestries also covered the baldachins, or canopies; and foot-carpets, -called _substratoria_, _tapetes_, _tapeta_, or _tapecii_ were lavishly -spread upon the ground. - -During the thirteenth century tapestries came into general use for -hangings in private mansions. It is not unlikely that Baldwin, Count of -Flanders, who came into power in 1204, stimulated the work of the -Netherland looms; for, from the very opening years of the thirteenth -century, the Flemish weavers adopted brighter colours in their -tapestries; and Damme, the poet of Bruges, received all kinds of goods -from the East, including “seeds for producing the scarlet dye.” - -This was the period when the _Roman_ was in full flower, and the -tapestries naturally turned from Biblical to heroic stories. The artists -and weavers now begin to devote their energies to the production of -secular subjects. The stories of _Paris and Helen_, _Æneas_, and others -from Grecian mythology, become as popular as those inspired by the -Bible. - -High-warp workers were established in Paris, Arras, Brussels and Tournay -in the first half of the fourteenth century; but it is not until the -reign of Charles V (1364–1380) that they are explicitly described in the -inventories. The King was a collector of French and Flemish tapestries: -he had more than 130 armorial tapestries and 33 “_tapis à images_” that -decorated the walls. - -The Dukes of Anjou, Orleans, Berry and Burgundy, had very valuable sets. -Charles VI also had fine pieces. He bought from Nicholas Bataille, a -Flemish worker, who calls himself a citizen of Paris in 1363, about 250 -hangings. Bataille produced many superb pieces for the wealthy houses of -the day, and many sets for Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. A -fellow-worker, Jacques Dourdain, who died in 1407, made tapestries for -the Duke of Burgundy, to whom he sent in 1389 _The Conquest of the King -of Friesland by Aubri the Burgundian_, _The Story of Marionet_, _Ladies -setting out for the Chase_, _The Wishes of Love_, _The Nine Amazons_, -_The History of Bertrand Duguesclin_, and _A History of the Romance of -the Rose_. The latter must have been very choice, as it was woven “in -gold of Cyprus and Arras thread.” He also furnished this rich patron -with other hangings, the greater number of which were cloth of gold. - -The marriage of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, to the daughter and -heir of the Count of Flanders, in 1369, greatly helped the Flemish -tapestry-workers, who soon equalled those of Paris. For instance, the -Duke gave an order to Michel Bernard of Arras for a fine piece, called -_The Battle of Rosbeck_, of colossal dimensions. It measured 285 square -yards, and cost 2,600 _francs d’or_. Other sets purchased from the Arras -looms were: _The Coronation of Our Lady_, _The Seven Ages_, _Story of -Doon de la Roche_, _History of King Pharaoh and the People of Moses_, -_Life of St. Margaret_, _The Virtues and Vices_, _History of Froimont de -Bordeaux_, _Story of St. George_, _Story of Shepherds and -Shepherdesses_, _Life of St. Anne_, _Story of Percival the Gaul_, _Hunt -of Guy of Romany_, _History of Amis and Amile_, _History of Octavius of -Rome_, _History of King Clovis_, _History of King Alexander, and of -Robert the Fusileer_, _History of William of Orange_, and a _Pastoral_. - -The Flemish looms thus early acquired a great reputation, rivalling -those of the midland and northern provinces of France. Paris, Arras, -Brussels and Tournay were the chief centres for the most beautiful -high-warp tapestry. Arras was celebrated as early as 1311, when -Marchaut, Countess of Artois, paid a large sum for “a woollen cloth -worked with various figures bought at Arras”; and in 1313 she ordered -from the same town “five cloths worked in high warp.” The name became -generic: the Italians called all woven tapestries _Arazzi_; the -Spaniards, _Panos de raz_; and the English, “Arras,” a name that was -used for many centuries. Polonius hides “behind the arras,” in _Hamlet_, -and Spenser, in _The Faerie Queen_, says: - - Thence to the hall, which was on every side - With rich array and costly arras dight. - - Book I., Canto iv. - -Agnes Sorel owned a superb specimen at her _Château de Beauté_ in 1350. -It is described as “a large piece of Arras, on which are pictured the -deeds and battles of Judas Maccabaeus and Antiochus, and stretches from -one of the gables of the gallery of Beauté to the other, and is the same -height as the said gallery.” - -During the troublous times in France under Charles VI, the Paris looms -ceased to work, and Flanders supplied all the tapestry that came to -France. In 1395, the Duke of Orleans orders his treasurer to deliver to -Jaquet Dordin, “merchant and bourgeois of Paris,” 1,800 francs for -“three pieces of high-warp tapestry of fine Arras thread.” - -Leather was also extensively used during the Middle Ages for interior -decoration: it was hung upon the walls and beds; it was spread upon the -floors; and it covered the seats and backs of chairs, coffers, cabinets, -shelves, folding stools, frames, frames for mirrors, and all kinds of -boxes both large and small. In 1420, we hear of a piece of Cordovan -called _cuirace vermeil_ “to put on the floor around a bed,” and also a -“chamber hanging” of “silvered _cuir de mouton_, ornamented with red -figures.” Charles V of France had “fifteen _cuirs d’Arragon_ to put on -the floor in summer,” and the Duke of Burgundy’s inventory of 1427 -mentions “leathers to spread in the chamber in summer time.” - -The Duke of Berry had twenty-nine great _cuirs_ among his possessions, -which were used to cover the walls, beds and chairs. - -Leather made a very sumptuous, durable and decorative wall-hanging. The -patterns of flowers, foliage, arms, devices and other figures were -richly gilded, and stood out in high relief from the brilliant -backgrounds of red, blue, green, orange, violet, brown or silver. -Although the use of gilded leather (_cuirs dorés_) did not become -general until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the art of -gilding, silvering, painting and goffering leather had long been known. -It is more than probable that the First Crusaders brought home -specimens; but it is certain that Cordova was making beautiful gilded -leathers in the eleventh century. The most beautiful, as well as the -most beautifully worked, leathers came from Spain, where they were often -called _Guadameciles_, from Ghadames in Africa where they were prepared -for many years, and from which town the Moors carried the art into -Cordova. Ebn’ Abd el Noûr el Hamîri el Toûnsi (of Tunis), in his -geographical work written in the twelfth century, thinks it worth while -to mention that the _djild el Ghadâmosi_ comes from Ghadames. The monk, -Theophilus, in his _Diversarum artium Schedula_ shows how well Arabian -leather was known, and describes the methods of preparing it for -decoration; but from what he says it appears that leather was used at -that period only for the coverings of chairs, stalls, benches, stools, -etc., and not for wall-hangings. - -From Cordova the manufacture spread into Portugal, Italy, France and -Brabant. The great centres for gilded leathers in the Middle Ages were -Cordova, Lille, Brussels, Liège, Antwerp, Mechlin and Venice; and each -town impressed a special style upon its productions, which -_connoisseurs_ are able to recognize. - -The Cordovan leathers are stamped with patterns of very high relief, -gilded and painted, the designs consisting of branches or large flowers -in the style of the textiles of Damascus and India. The South Kensington -Museum has a very fine collection of Spanish leathers ornamented with -foliage, flowers, vases, birds and pomegranates. The colours of the -background are green, blue, white, gold, red, etc. - -The Flemish leathers are very similar to those of Cordova, but the -relief is less pronounced and the designs are more delicate. The -hangings of Flanders are almost exclusively made of calfskin, and they -were highly prized throughout Europe. - -Generally speaking, the earliest specimens of gilded leathers resemble -on a large scale the miniatures in the manuscripts: there is little or -no perspective, and the subjects are like those of the contemporary -tapestry drawn from sacred or mythological stories. The details of the -faces, ornaments, costumes, arms, etc., are stamped by hand-work and -finished with a brush; and the background, instead of representing sky, -is ornamented by guilloches (twisted bands) in gold and colour, applied -by means of a goffering iron. - -The Low Countries were almost as celebrated for their _orfèvrerie_ as -for their tapestries. Celebrated schools of goldsmith’s work existed in -the Netherlands during the tenth and eleventh centuries in Waulsort -under the direction of d’Erembert, in Stavelot and in Maestricht; and -the diocese of Liège had an important _atelier_ for enamel-work in the -twelfth century. A very skilful goldsmith named Godefroid de Clerc -worked in the town of Huy in the first half of the thirteenth century, -and another was Friar Hugo, who made in the Abbaye d’Oignies the famous -pieces now in the treasury of the Sisters of Notre Dame in Namur. - -The principal towns of Flanders, Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Liège and -Brussels, possessed in the thirteenth century skilful goldsmiths who -followed the principles of the School of the Rhine. In 1266, the -Brussels goldsmiths formed an important Corporation to which John III, -Count of Hainault, granted privileges. It was in the fourteenth century -particularly that the Flemish goldsmiths acquired a great reputation. - -A great deal of the goldsmith’s work during these centuries was -ornamented with _niello_, the style of decoration following the Rhenish -School. - -The goldsmiths were sculptors, chisellers and engravers, as well as -designers; and, moreover, modelled beautifully in wax. When their works -were cast in silver, they ornamented these themselves with beaten -bas-reliefs, or traced delicate patterns upon the surface of the metal -with the burin. Wishing to make the figures stand out more prominently, -they used cross-hatchings on the background and cut out the shadowy -parts, which they then filled with black enamel. This made the uncovered -portions of the silver shine with more brilliancy. To this effective -work was given the name _niello_ (_nigellum_), on account of its colour. -This black enamel was used to ornament the chalices and other church -vessels, the hilts of swords, handles of knives, and particularly the -handsome little coffers, or cabinets, which, with the _bahut_, comprised -the furniture that the bride always carried to her new home. These -little boxes were usually of ebony, ornamented more or less with -incrustations of ivory, shell, mother-of-pearl, _pietra-dura_, or -_niello_, according to the wealth of the respective families. When -decorated with _niello_, the designs consisted of simple ornaments or -arabesques, single figures or groups. - -Western Europe made no glass in Mediaeval days: what was used in church -and castle all came from the East. In the early inventories, whenever an -object of coloured glass is found, it is always accompanied by a mention -of its Oriental origin. It is doubtful whether even plain glass was -manufactured in England, France, Germany or the Netherlands before the -close of the Crusades. The efforts made as late as the fourteenth -century by several French and German princes to attract glass-blowers to -their dominions shows how scarce they were. - -In 1338, we find a feudal noble giving a portion of his forest to a -certain Guionet, who was acquainted with the methods of glass-making, to -set up a glass factory, on condition of supplying his house every year -with one hundred dozen bell glasses, twelve dozen little vase-shaped -glasses, twenty dozen hanaps, or cups with feet, twelve amphorae, and -other objects. As in all the other industrial arts, Flanders was well to -the fore in the manufacture of plain glass. Before 1400, glass factories -existed there; but the products were only white glass, not gilded nor -enamelled. The Flemish wares, however, were highly prized, and were -freely exported to other countries. In 1379, we find in the inventory of -Charles V of France: “_Ung gobelet et une aiguière de voirre blant de -Flandres garni d’argent_.” - -To have glass mounted in silver shows how precious it was considered in -those days. Moreover, the royal accounts of the end of the fourteenth -century prove that Charles VI accorded high protection and recompense to -the Flemish glass-blowers who established their industry in France. -Before the end of the fifteenth century, we find entries that would seem -to show that the Low Countries were no longer exclusively dependent on -the Orient for coloured and enamelled glass. In the inventory of Charles -the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1477), we read: “_Une coupe de voirre jaune -garny d’or; ... une couppe de voirre vert garny d’or; ... un pot de -voirre de couleur vert, garny d’or; ... un aiguière de voirre vert -torssé garny d’or; ... deux petis pots de voirre bleu espez, garnis -d’argent doré; ... ung voirre taillé d’un esgle, d’un griffon et d’une -double couronne garny d’argent_.” These, however, may have come from -Venice, which city had in the latter half of the fifteenth century -learned from the Greeks the secret of making coloured, gilded and -enamelled glass. - -Painting on glass was never held in higher honour than during the -fifteenth century: castles and mansions were adorned with coloured -windows like the churches; and, therefore, a considerable number of -windows of this period have survived. The Cathedrals of Tournay, Dietz -and Antwerp offer splendid examples. In M. Levy’s _Histoire de la -peinture sur verre_, are the names of several Flemish glass-painters -that have escaped oblivion. - -The principal schools that fostered all forms of Decorative Art were the -Guilds of St. Luke. They sprang up in every prosperous city, and were -very close corporations of trades unionism. The idea probably originated -in Italy. A Society of St. Luke was established in Venice before 1290, -and another in Florence in 1349. One Gerard de Groote organized a -brotherhood of this kind in Cologne in the fourteenth century; and -Societies of St. Luke were founded in Flanders in the fifteenth century. -These Guilds exerted the greatest influence upon taste and skill, for in -these Societies of Guilds of St. Luke, side by side with the Masters of -Painting and Sculpture, were placed what we may call the Masters of the -Decorative Arts. There were workers in stone and marble including -mosaics in colour for the decoration of churches and chapels; workers in -enamel and ceramics for vases, panelling and pavements; workers in wood, -sculptors and carvers for the altar fronts, canopies, choir stalls, etc. -(these _menuisiers_ also worked in marquetry and _intarsie_, and -produced furniture for the sacristy, coffers, _bahuts_, etc., and -pontifical seats); glass-workers who produced windows, panels and -embroideries with glass beads for decoration; metalworkers, including -goldsmiths, bronze-workers, who made sacred vessels, luminaries, fonts -ornamented with _repoussé_-work, chiselling, engraving, incrustation -with precious stones and _niello-niellure_; leather-workers (including -makers of harness for wars and tourneys); gilders, setters of jewels; -bookbinders; illuminators and painters of manuscripts; weavers and -embroiderers of tapestries, silken stuffs, etc. - -Society benefited by development of these arts very greatly, and the -sumptuous adornment of the churches soon extended to private dwellings. -Carved panels, or panels inlaid with precious woods, soon decorated the -walls of wealthy houses that were further enriched by magnificent -tissues of silk and gold, tapestries or panels of stamped leather as a -background for pictures beautifully framed in carved and gilt wood. In -marquetry furniture, the most remarkable objects were the coffers for -jewels, and the cabinets (_stipi_), in ebony, shell and ivory, -embellished with gilt, bronze, and the dower chests, “_arches de -mariage_.” - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE BURGUNDIAN PERIOD - - The luxurious Dukes of Burgundy—Possessions of the House of Burgundy— - The Burgundian Court—Household of Philip the Good—the Feast of the - Pheasant—the Duke of Burgundy at the Coronation of Louis XI—Arras - Tapestries—Sumptuous _Dressoirs_ and their Adornments—Celebrations - in honour of the Knights of the Golden Fleece—Luxury of Charles - the Bold—Charles the Bold at Trèves—Furnishings of the Abbey of - Saint-Maximin—Charles the Bold’s Second Marriage—Furnishings of - the Banqueting Hall at Bruges—Descriptions by Olivier de la - Marche—Aliénor of Poitier’s Descriptions of the Furniture of the - Duchess of Burgundy’s Apartments—Rich _Dressoirs_—the Drageoir and - its Etiquette—the Etiquette of the _Escarbeau_—Philip the Bold’s - Artisans—Flemish Carving—the _Forme_ or _Banc_—Burgundian - Workmanship—Ecclesiastical Work—Noted Carvers—Furniture of the - Period—the “Golden Age of Tapestry”-Embroideries—Tapestry-weavers - of the Low Countries—Introduction of Italian Cartoons—Goldsmiths’ - Work—Furniture of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. - - -The most luxurious prince of his age was Philip the Bold, Duke of -Burgundy (1342–1404), son of John the Good, King of France. By its -alliances, conquests and inheritances, the House of Burgundy attained -such wealth and power as to overshadow the French throne itself. Under -his grandson, Philip the Good, the Burgundian Court displayed greater -splendour than any other in Europe. The reigning dukes were powerful -protectors of the arts. Their immense resources, drawn from the Flemish -hives of industry, enabled them to indulge their taste for architecture, -painting, sculpture, illuminated books, tapestry, goldsmiths’ work and -sumptuous furniture. They were also insatiable collectors of everything -that was curious and rare. Any able artist, sculptor, architect, -goldsmith, or image-maker, driven from home by the perpetual civil wars -in England, France and Italy, was sure of refuge and employment at the -Court of Burgundy. Thus, for a century and a half, the Low Countries -were the most important art centre of Europe. Dijon and Brussels, the -capitals of the Burgundian dominions, were Meccas of Mediaeval Art; and -Tournay, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Dinant, and many other industrial centres -swarmed with craftsmen who produced all that was luxurious and beautiful -for domestic comfort and decoration. - -The house of Burgundy constantly increased its possessions. Some idea of -its power is gained by a list of Philip the Good’s titles. He was Duke -of Burgundy, of Brabant, of Lothier, of Luxembourg; Count of Flanders, -of Artois and of Burgundy; Palatine of Hainault, of Holland, of Zeeland, -of Namur and of Charolais; Marquis of the Holy Empire; and Lord of -Friesland, of Salins and of Mechlin. - -The brilliance and luxury of the Burgundian Court are attested by many -chroniclers. The pages of Philip de Comines, Olivier de la Marche, and -others are full of descriptions of feasts and pageantry from which we -can form an idea of the luxurious appointments of the palatial dwellings -of the day. Foreigners also, who were well acquainted with other -European courts, bore witness to Burgundian splendour. One of these, Leo -von Rozmital, who visited the courts of Europe in 1465–7, saw the Duke -of Burgundy’s treasures. His suite was overpowered by the magnificence. -The scribe, Tetzel, tried to enumerate and describe these marvels, but -gave up the task in despair, noting “there was nothing like it in the -whole world and that it far exceeded the Venetian collection.” - -The son and successor of John the Fearless, Philip the Good (1396–1467), -was even more luxurious than his grandfather, Philip the Bold. His Court -was unequalled in Europe, and when in attendance upon the King of -France, his retinue completely eclipsed royalty. His palaces in -Brussels, Dijon and Paris were sumptuously furnished; and his -collections of tapestries, silver, gold, jewels, embroideries, -illuminated manuscripts and printed books excited the admiration of the -travellers and chroniclers of the age. His household, composed of four -great divisions—the _Panetrie_, _Échansonnerie_, _Cuisine_ and _Écurie_, -with subordinate departments, was subject to the strictest rules of -etiquette and was adopted as a model by the Spanish sovereigns of the -sixteenth century. The ceremonies of the levee, procession, council, -audience, service of spices, banquet, etc., were selected as precedents -for Vienna and Paris, as well as Madrid. - -One of Philip’s most celebrated banquets—the Feast of the Pheasant, -which took place at Lille in 1454—will serve to give a glimpse of the -Court entertainments in his day. The large hall was hung with tapestry -representing the labours of Hercules, and was encircled by five tiers of -galleries for the spectators. The _dressoir_ of enormous size was -adorned with gold and silver vessels, and on either side of it stood a -column. One of these had attached to it a carved female figure from -whose breast flowed a fountain of hippocras; and to the other was -fastened by an iron chain a live lion from Africa, a great curiosity in -those days. The three great tables were covered with the most ingenious -productions of the cooks, confectioners and machinists. “On a raised -platform at the head of the first table sat the Duke. He was arrayed -with his accustomed splendour—his dress of black velvet serving as a -dark ground that heightened the brilliancy of the precious stones, -valued at a million of gold crowns, with which it was profusely decked. -Among the guests were a numerous body of knights who had passed the -morning in the tilting-field, and fair Flemish dames whose flaunting -beauty had inspired these martial sports. Each course was composed of -forty-four dishes, which were placed on chariots painted in gold and -azure, and were moved along the tables by concealed machinery.” As soon -as the company was seated, the bells began to peal from the steeple of a -huge pastry church with stained windows that concealed an organ and -choir of singers, and three little choristers issued from the edifice -and sang “a very sweet _chanson_.” Twenty-eight musicians hidden in a -mammoth pie performed on various instruments, and the fine viands and -wines were circulated. After the exhibition of _entremets_, the pheasant -was brought in, the Crusade proclaimed against the Sultan, and the vows -registered. - -Another instance of the magnificent display of this Duke occurred when -he accompanied Louis XI to Rheims for the ceremony of his coronation in -1461. This is described as follows by the Duke of Burgundy’s chronicler, -Georges Chastelain (1403–75): - -“Their journey resembled a triumphal procession, in which the Duke of -Burgundy appeared as if he were the conqueror and Louis the illustrious -captive. The trappings of the horses, that reached to the ground, were -of velvet and silk, covered with precious stones and ornaments of gold, -embroidered with the Burgundian arms and decorated with silver bells, -the jingling of which was very agreeable and solacing. A great number of -wagons draped with cloth of gold and hung with banners carried the -Duke’s tapestries, furniture, silver and other table service and the -utensils for the kitchen. These were followed by herds of fat oxen and -flocks of sheep intended for food during the progress of the Duke and -his suite. Philip and his son, with the principal nobles, appeared in -their greatest magnificence, and were preceded and followed by pages, -archers and men-at-arms, all in gorgeous costumes and blazing with -jewels.” - -Their entrance into Rheims was regarded as the most superb spectacle -France had ever witnessed. Louis was crowned by the Duke of Burgundy, -“the dean of the peers of France”; and at the banquet that followed the -coronation, the Duke of Burgundy was still the most conspicuous figure. -The same chronicler continues: - -“Though the King sat at the head of the table, arrayed in regal attire, -with the crown upon his head, he was still the guest of his fair uncle, -whose cooks had provided the dinner, whose plate was displayed upon the -sideboards and whose servants waited upon the company. In the midst of -the repast, the doors were opened and porters entered bearing a costly -present for the new sovereign. Such of the guests as were strangers, -except from hearsay, to the splendours of the Burgundian Court, gazed in -astonishment at the images, goblets, miniature ships, and other articles -of the finest gold and rarest workmanship—amounting in value to more -than two hundred thousand crowns—which Philip presented to the King as -an emphatic token of his loyalty and good-will.” - -Chastelain’s note of the great number of wagons that were required to -carry the Duke’s tapestries in his journeyings is of interest. The -products of the Flemish looms were highly prized by the Burgundian -dukes, and great encouragement was given by them to the best work of -this nature. - -It was from Arras that they chiefly filled their superb store-chambers -in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Arras looms had become -famous, far and wide; for, when Philip the Bold’s son was taken prisoner -at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Sultan Bajazet said to the Duke -of Burgundy’s envoy that he “would be pleased to see some high-warp -tapestries worked in Arras and Picardy,” and that “they should represent -good old stories.” Philip thereupon sent two pack-horses laden with -“high-warp cloths, collected and made at Arras, the finest that could be -found on this side of the mountains.” The set he chose was _The History -of Alexander_. In 1374, there is an entry in the accounts of the Duke of -Burgundy “to Colin Bataille, _tapissier et bourgeois de Paris_,” for six -pieces of tapestry “of Arras workmanship,” with the arms of M. the Duke -of Burgundy “to cover the pack-horses of Monseigneur when he travelled.” -The favourite subjects produced at Arras were romances of chivalry, such -as _Charlemagne and his Peers_, _Doon de la Roche_, _Baudouin de -Sebourg_, _Percival the Gaul_, _Renaud de Montauban_, _Aubri de -Bourguignon_, etc.; stories from Greek mythology, such as _Theseus_, -_Jason_, _Paris and Helen_, _The Destruction of Troy_, etc.; and -contemporary events such as _The Battle of Rosbeck_, _The Battle of -Liège_, _History of Bertrand Duguesclin_, _The Jousts of St. Denis_ and -_The Battle of the Thirty_. Hunting scenes and pictures of cavaliers and -ladies in everyday life were popular, and stories from the Old and New -Testaments, Lives of the Saints and Acts of the Martyrs. Allegory also -makes its appearance as a subject for cartoons, such as the _Virtues and -Vices_, the _Seven Cardinal Sins_, the _Tree of Life_, _Fountain of -Youth_, etc. - -When Philip the Good married Isabella of Portugal, Le Fèvre de Saint -Rémy notes that on each side of the hall there was a _dressoir_ twenty -feet long on a platform two feet high and well enclosed by barriers -three feet high, on the side of which was a little gate for entrance and -exit; and both _dressoirs_ had five stages, each two and a half feet -high. The three upper tiers were covered and loaded with vessels of fine -gold; and the two lower ones with many great vessels of silver gilt. - -Again, Chastelain, describing a banquet given by Philip the Good, says: -“The Duke had made in the great hall a _dressoir_ constructed in the -form of a round castle, ten steps (_degrés_) in height filled with gold -plate in pots and flagons of various kinds, amounting to 6,000 marks -(_argent doré_) not counting those on the top which were of fine gold -set with rich gems of marvellous price.” - -The above gives some idea of the importance of the _dressoir_, which -undoubtedly was the most showy piece of furniture in hall or chamber. It -often assumed enormous proportions on great state occasions. - -A very ornate one of this period is reproduced in Plate III. It is -beautifully carved with Gothic tracery, leaf-work, Biblical scenes and -personages, and coats-of-arms. It is interesting to compare this with -the simple form of Plate IV, which has no intermediate shelf for the -display of plate; but is also interesting on account of its carving. -This, with its drawers and cupboards, was a most serviceable piece of -furniture and must have produced a fine effect in a room when the -cupboard head was decked with plate. - -The great celebrations in honour of the Knights of the Golden Fleece -also offered occasion for the display of the greatest splendour at the -Burgundian Court. A veritable army of painters, sculptors, illuminators, -carvers and machinists was employed to design and prepare the -_entremets_ exhibited during the banquets. Among the _huchiers_ who -worked for the banquet given to the Knights of the Golden Fleece in 1453 -were Guillaume Maussel and his son, Jacob Haquinet Penon, Jehan Daret -and his two companions, and Jehan de Westerhem. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE IV.—_Credence (Fifteenth Century)._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -When Charles the Bold (1433–1477) succeeded his father, Philip the Good, -in 1467, he maintained his Court with the same state, ceremony and -luxury. His daily life was surrounded by pomp and punctilious etiquette. -He dined in state every day and was always attended by a retinue of -knights, equerries and pages. When he went to war, he always carried -rich silver and tapestries, as well as costly viands and wines. The -Swiss gained rich spoils after the Battle of Nancy and carried away -among other articles of value tapestries which can be seen to-day in -Nancy, Berne and other cities. - -The meeting of Charles the Bold with the Emperor at Trèves, in 1473, -occasioned a great display of magnificence. The far-famed luxury of the -Burgundian Court was well exhibited during the eight weeks that the two -Courts spent in the Rhenish city. Charles gave the most superb -entertainments. The Abbey of Saint Maximin, which the Duke chose for his -temporary residence, was fitted up for the occasion with furniture, -tapestries, richly embroidered stuffs, gold and silver from his palaces. -The great hall was hung with tapestries, and the chair of state for the -Emperor, the canopy and the seats for the other great personages on the -daïs were covered with rich embroidered hangings. The arms of Burgundy, -the insignia of the Golden Fleece and other heraldic decorations were -conspicuously displayed. Many of the most valuable ecclesiastical -treasures collected by Philip the Good, such as silver images, -candlesticks, and crucifixes, and reliquaries of gold studded with gems -were brought to adorn the altars and shrines of the church; and, in the -refectory, an immense _dressoir_, twenty feet broad, reached from floor -to ceiling, its ten receding shelves gleaming with gold and silver -plate. - -Charles the Bold’s second marriage in 1468 to Margaret of York furnished -another occasion for the display of his wealth and magnificence. John -Paston, who went to Bruges to attend the wedding, was simply dazzled and -overwhelmed by what he saw. Writing to his mother, he says: “As for the -Dwkys coort, as of lords, ladys and gentylwomen, knyts, sqwyers and -gentylmen, I herd never of non lyek it, save King Artourys cort. And by -my trowthe, I have no wyt nor remembrans to wryte to you, half the -worchep that is her.” - -Passing by the descriptions of jousts and other entertainments, we may -note that workmen—painters, decorators and machinists—had been engaged -for many months to adorn Bruges fittingly for the nuptial festivities. -The streets were hung with tapestries and cloth of gold, triumphal -arches were erected at intervals, and at different points along the road -the bride was diverted with “Histories,” the joint productions of -dramatist, decorator, painter and machinist. The front of the palace was -covered with paintings of heraldic devices and magnificent decorations, -and behind the palace, in the tennis court, a new banqueting hall was -erected for the occasion. This building was a hundred and forty feet -long, seventy feet wide and more than sixty feet high. The walls were -hung with some of the Duke’s most famous tapestries, one set of which -represented Jason’s quest of the Golden Fleece; the ceiling was painted, -and at every possible place banners and heraldic devices were hung. An -enormous _dressoir_ in the centre of the hall displayed on its tiers of -shelves an overwhelming exhibition of gold and silver treasures -glittering with gems. The tables were arranged lengthwise on either side -of the hall, except one reserved for the Duke’s family and the guests of -highest rank. This table was placed on a raised platform at the upper -end of the hall, and over it was spread a canopy with curtains hanging -to the floor, so as to present the appearance of an open pavilion. The -chroniclers of the day note that “the hall was lighted by chandeliers in -the form of castles surrounded by forests and mountains, with revolving -paths on which serpents, dragons and other monstrous animals seemed to -roam in search of prey, spouting forth jets of flame that were reflected -in huge mirrors, so arranged as to catch and multiply the rays. The -dishes containing the principal meats represented vessels, seven feet -long, completely rigged, the masts and cordage gilt, the sails and -streamers of silk, each floating in a silver lake between shores of -verdure and enamelled rocks, and attended by a fleet of boats laden with -lemons, olives and condiments. There were thirty of these vessels and as -many huge pasties in a castellated shape with banners waving from their -battlements and towers; besides tents and pavilions for the fruit, jelly -dishes of crystal supported by figures of the same material dispensing -streams of lavender and rosewater, and an immense profusion of gold and -silver plate.” - -The festivities continued for more than a week. Every day a tournament, -banquet and dance took place. At one of the banquets, the decorations -were so wonderful that the guests marched around the tables to examine -the artistic creations. These consisted of gardens made of a mosaic-work -of rare and highly polished stones, inlaid with silver, and surrounded -with hedges made of gold. In the centre of each enclosure was placed a -tree of gold with branches, foliage and fruit exquisitely enamelled in -imitation of orange, pear, apple and other trees. Fountains of variously -perfumed waters rendered the air deliciously fragrant. - -Olivier de la Marche’s description of the banqueting hall is as follows: - -“In this hall were three tables, one of which was placed across the ends -of the others. This table, higher than the others, stood upon a -platform. The other two tables were placed on the two sides of the hall, -occupying the whole length; they were very long and very handsome, and -in the centre of the said hall a high and rich buffet in the form of a -lozenge was placed. The top of the said buffet was enclosed with a -balustrade, and the whole was covered with tapestries and hung with the -arms of Monsieur le Duc; and above rose the steps and degrees on which -were displayed many vessels, the largest on the lowest, and the richest -and smallest on the top shelves; that is to say, on the lowest shelves -stood the silver-gilt vessels, and above them the vessels of gold -garnished with precious stones, of which he had a great number. On the -top of the buffet stood a rich jewelled cup, and on each of the four -corners large and entire unicorns’ horns, and these were very large and -very handsome. These vessels of parade were not to be used, for there -were other vessels, pots and cups of silver in the hall and chambers -intended for service.” - -Turning now from the _buffet d’apparat_, he describes the “_buffet -d’usage_.” Regarding the service, “The new Duchess was served by the -cup-bearer, the carver and the pantler, all English, all knights and men -of noble birth, and the usher of the hall cried: ‘Knights to the meat!’ -And then they all went to the buffet to fetch the meat, and all the -relations of Monsieur and all the knights marched around the buffet in -the order of the great house two by two after the trumpeters before the -meat.” - -We sometimes get a glimpse of a luxurious chamber of the Burgundian -Court from Aliénor of Poitiers, who wrote _Les Honneurs de la Court_. -Her testimony is trustworthy, for her mother was maid of honour to the -Duchess Isabella, third wife of Philip the Good; and, therefore, she -undoubtedly witnessed what she describes. She tells us that the chamber -of Isabella of Bourbon, wife of Charles the Bold, Count of Charolais, -was very large and contained two beds, separated by a space four or five -feet wide. A large _ciel_, or canopy, of green damask covered both beds; -and from it hung curtains of satin which moved on rings, and could -completely screen the beds when desired. The lambrequin of the canopy -and the curtains were fringed with green silk. On each bed was an ermine -counterpane, lined with very fine violet cloth. The chronicler expressly -notes that the black tails were left on the fur. “_La grande chambre_” -from which the “_Chambre de Madame_” was entered, called the “_chambre -de parement_,” contained one large bed in crimson satin. The _ciel_ was -very richly embroidered with a great gold sun, and “this tapestry was -called _la chambre d’Utrecht_, for it is believed that Utrecht gave it -to the Duke Philip,” writes Aliénor, who adds: “The curtains of crimson -samite are looped up like those of a bed in which nobody sleeps.” The -hangings of the wall were of red silk. At one end of the bolster was a -great square cushion of gold and crimson, and by the side of the bed a -“large shaggy carpet.” - -In each of these rooms there was a handsome _dressoir_; and our scribe -continues: “In the chamber of the Countess de Charolais there was a -large _dressoir_ of four beautiful shelves, the whole length of the -_dressoir_, each covered with a cloth; the said _dressoir_ and the -shelves filled with vessels of crystal garnished with gold and precious -stones, and some of fine gold; for all the richest vessels of Duke -Philip were there—pots, cups and beakers of fine gold, and other vessels -that are never exhibited except on state occasions. Among other vessels -there were on the said _dressoir_ three _drageoirs_ of gold and precious -stones, one of which is estimated at 14,000 _écus_, and another at -30,000 _écus_. On the back of the dressoir was hung a _dorset_ -(_dorsal_) of cloth of gold and crimson, bordered with black velvet, and -on the black velvet was delicately embroidered the device of Duke -Philip, which was a gun.... - -“Item, on the _dressoir_ which was in the chamber of the said lady, -there were always two silver candlesticks which they called at Court -_mestiers_,[1] in which two lights were always burning, for it was -fifteen days before the windows of her room were allowed to be opened. -Near the _dressoir_ in a corner was a little low table containing the -cups and saucers in which something to drink was served to those ladies -who came to see Madame, after they had been offered a _dragée_[2]; but -the _drageoir_ stood upon the _dressoir_.” - -Footnote 1: - - Night candles. - -Footnote 2: - - Bonbons. - -In the “_chambre de parade_” there stood a very large _dressoir_, -ornamented with superb pieces of gold and silver. - -It was the custom for both lords and ladies to receive their -acquaintances informally in the “_chambre de parade_,” while the inner -room was reserved for their intimate friends. On the occasion of a -birth, these two rooms were as superbly furnished as the house could -afford. The richest cloths and tapestries were brought out, and the -_dressoir_ was adorned with articles of gold and silver that were only -placed on view on important occasions. - -When Mary of Burgundy was born, the same authority informs us that -Isabella of Bourbon’s room was very richly furnished; and in honour of -Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and heir of Charles the Bold, there were -five shelves upon the _dressoir_, a privilege reserved for queens only. - -The _drageoir_ was a very important article. It contained the various -“_épices de chambre_,” generally called _dragée_, and meaning all kinds -of sugar plums and _confitures_, conserves, sugared rose leaves (_sucré -rosat_), etc. A writer in the sixteenth century mentions “Curious -_dragées_ of all colours, some in the shape of beasts, others fashioned -like men, women and birds.” Sometimes the bonbons were taken with the -fingers, as may be seen in one of the fine set of tapestries in the -Cluny Museum, representing _The Lady and the Unicorn_. An attendant -kneeling presents the _drageoir_ to the lady, who is standing with a pet -bird on her left arm, and she is about to dip the fingers of her right -hand into the _drageoir_ to get something to delight the bird. - -The _drageoir_ was generally handed to the guests after dinner, and made -its appearance at all ceremonial feasts. Froissart, describing the -reception to the English knights sent by the King of England in 1390 to -negotiate peace in France, says they were entertained at the Louvre, and -“when they had dined they retired to the King’s chamber, and there they -were served with wine and sweetmeats in large _drageoirs_ of silver and -gold.” It was always handed with solemnity, and subject to strict -etiquette. The Constable of France had the honour of presenting the -_drageoir_ to the King. At the Duke of Burgundy’s Court, according to -Olivier de la Marche, the steward handed the _drageoir_ to the first -chamberlain, who handed it to the most important personage present, who -then presented it to the prince or duke. When the latter had helped -himself, the honoured guest returned it to the chamberlain, who gave it -to the steward. - -Aliénor also informs us: “When one of the princes had served Monsieur -and Madame (the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy) with sweetmeats, one of -the most important personages, for example, the first chamberlain, or -Madame’s _chevalier d’honneur_, took the _drageoir_ and served the -Duke’s nephews and nieces; and after they had been served it was handed -to everybody.” - -The _drageoir_ was one of the most valued and popular presents during -the Middle Ages. In the inventory of Margaret of Austria occurs a -beautiful and large silver-gilt _drageoir_, fluted, presented to Madame -by the gentlemen of the town of Brussels for her New Year, 1520. - -Aliénor de Poitiers also says there should always be in the lady’s room -a chair with a back near the bolster of the bed; and that this chair -should be covered with silk or velvet, for “velvet is the most -honourable covering, no matter what colour”; and “near the chair should -be placed a little bench, or stool, covered with a _banquier_ and some -silk cushions for visitors to sit on when they call to see the invalid.” - -The little stool or bench, called _escarbeau_, was very low and without -back or arms. Sometimes it was triangular in form. Sometimes it served -for a low table. Rich people often threw over these _bancs_ a piece of -tapestry or silk, known as _banquiers_. - -The memory of the vast majority of the artists of this period has -perished, but a few names have survived. - -When Philip the Bold built a second St. Denis for his race at Dijon -(1390), his art and craftsmen were all drawn from the Low Countries. -Nicholas Sluter was in charge; and under his direction the Chartreuse -became a veritable Flemish museum of carving. He sent for his nephew, -Nicholas van de Werve, and paid him from six to seven shillings per -week. Other Flemish workmen in his employ were: Jehan Malouel, Hennequin -van Prindale, Roger Westerhen, Peter Linkerk, John Hulst, John de -Marville, John de Beaumetz and Williken Smout. The coloured windows were -made at Mechlin, by Henry Glusomack. The oak retables with their -numerous figurines, were the work of a Flemish carver named Baerze of -Termonde. - -In fact, the only Frenchman who had any part in the work was Berthelot -Héliot, “_varlet de Monseigneur_,” an ivory-carver. - -The two _retables_ carved by Jacques de Baerze in 1391 for the -Chartreuse are now in the Dijon Museum. One was made for the Duke’s -chapel at Termonde (Dendermonde), and the other for the Abbey of -Billoche, near Ghent. These were painted and gilded by Jehan Malouel and -Melchior Broederlam, who had been engaged by the Counts of Flanders; and -worked in Hesdin and Ypres before becoming court-painters to Philip the -Bold. - -The same Museum contains three cylindrical boxes of beautiful -workmanship of the same period. Two of these are ornamented with -arabesques and birds painted and gilded; the third is decorated with -polychromatic bas-reliefs, and a round boss representing scenes from the -New Testament. These boxes are supposed to have belonged to the -toilet-tables of the Duchesses of Burgundy. Two _retables_, ornamented -with bas-reliefs in the Cluny Museum are called “_oratoires des -Duchesses de Bourgogne_.” These were bought from Berthelot Héliot, -“_valet de chambre_” of Philip the Bold; and it is thought that they -came from Italy. - -Another fine piece of Flemish wood-carving is preserved in the old -_Salles des Gardes_ of the Palace in Dijon, where it forms a decoration -of the chimney-piece. This is a panel of carved wood, the last remnant -of the choir-stalls in the ducal chapel. The centre of the panel was the -back of John the Fearless’s seat. The upper part terminating in a -pointed arch and bordered with festoons ornamented with foliage -surrounds the Duke’s shield, which is supported by two angels. The arms -of eight dependent provinces are carved in the lower part of the panel, -enlaced in a trellis of mouldings decorated with chicory leaves, and -further enriched by four angels playing various instruments. - -The Dijon Museum contains another splendid piece of wood-carving of the -same date in the seat or _forme_ for the accommodation of the priest, -deacon, and subdeacon of the Chartreuse. This was carved in 1395 by John -of Liège, a carpenter, for the sum of two hundred and fifty francs, to -which another hundred were afterwards added in recognition of the -excellence of the work. - -The _forme_ is a species of _banc_ divided by arms into stalls like -choir-stalls. The _forme_ always had a back which grew larger about the -end of the twelfth century, and at a later date, it was surmounted by a -daïs. The _forme_ was always considered to be a seat of honour. - -John de Marville set to work on the Duke’s tomb in 1383, and in 1388 was -succeeded by Claus Sluter, who also executed much important work. In the -chapel of the Chartreuse at Dijon, he represented Philip the Bold and -the Duchess Margaret kneeling at the feet of St. Anthony and St. Anne. -In 1404, he retired to the monastery of St. Etienne de Dijon, and was -succeeded in his post of “_imagier_ and _valet de chambre_” to the Duke -of Burgundy by his nephew Claes, or Nicholas, van de Werve. - -In 1393, Philip the Bold sent his painter, Jehan de Beaumetz, and his -sculptor, Claus Sluter, to see the works that his brother, the Duke of -Berry, had had André Beauneveu make at the Château Mehun-sur-Yèvre. - -Burgundy was especially famous among French provinces for its woodwork. -Many masterpieces were created by the Dukes of Burgundy. There were, -however, other patrons of this art, the great Abbeys of Clairvaux, -Citeaux, Cluny and Vézélay. Numerous schools of workmen gathered around -these monasteries, faithfully preserving the traditions of the -master-sculptors of the past and bequeathing them to their successors of -the Renaissance. A great deal of their most ornate and skilful work was -naturally upon the choir-stalls. Those in the Abbey of Charlieu with -figures of saints painted on wooden panels (later in the Church of -Charolais), and the old Abbaye de Montréal (Yonne) are especially -notable. - -The Brabant artists perhaps manifested their fertility most in -wood-carving. Flanders, during the fifteenth century, produced an -enormous number of _retables_, choir-stalls, pulpits, chairs, tables, -communion benches, and similar work. The energies of the skilful -wood-carvers found vent in civil as well as ecclesiastical work. The -public buildings of the prosperous cities contained many beautiful -products of the chisel. - -The ducal expense accounts that have come down to us contain many -entries of payments made to various Flemish joiners and cabinet-makers -(_huchiers-menuisiers_). When the great _Halles_ of Brussels had to be -rebuilt in 1409, the following experts were employed to do the work: -Louis Van den Broec, Pierre de Staete, Henry and Godefroy den -Molensleyer, Adam Steenberch, Henry van Duysbourg, Pierre van -Berenberge, Henry van Boegarden and John van den Gance. We find these -names employed on other contemporary work. A few years later, Charles de -Bruyn executed the wood-carving for the Louvain cathedral. In 1409, John -Bulteel of Courtray was commissioned to carve the choir-stalls for the -chapel of the oratory of Ghent. Peter van Oost received the order for -the ceiling of the town hall of Bruges; and in 1449, W. Ards was carving -that of the town hall of Mechlin. In 1470, the great altar-piece of -Saint Waltrude in Herentals was executed by B. van Raephorst. In 1459, -the beautiful stalls of the Abbey of Tournay, which were unfortunately -destroyed by fire in the following century, were carved by Jan -Vlaenders. - -A noted carver of this age was Jehan Malouel Hennequin van Prindale, -who, as we have seen, was in the employ of the Duke of Burgundy. The -hands only of a Magdalen that he made (1399–1400) are in the Dijon -Museum. This statue was remarkable as having a copper nimbus, or diadem. - -The fame of the Flemish wood-carvers spread far beyond the confines of -their own provinces, and their services were eagerly sought in England, -France, Spain, Italy and even Germany. - -Although German wood-carvers were plentiful, John Floreins was employed -on the choir-stalls of the Cologne Cathedral. In 1465, Flemish -_huchiers_ were called upon to carve the stalls of Rouen. Italy -attracted many artists whose work still attests their ability. Among the -innumerable workers in intaglio and marquetry of that period, we find -the names of almost as many Northerners as native Italians. The Church -of St. Georgio Maggiore, Venice, contains forty-eight stalls, adorned by -Van der Brulh of Antwerp with carved bas-reliefs illustrating the life -of St. Benedict. The _armoires_ of the sacristy of Ferrara bear the -signatures of Henry and William, two Flemish carvers; and many other -examples might be cited. - -In Spain, the entire Spanish school, until Berruguete brought the New -Art from Michelangelo’s studio in 1520, was led by Philippe Vigarny, a -Burgundian, who was considered the best wood-carver in Spain. His style -was frankly Gothic. - -The influence of the Flemish and French was so great in Spain at this -time, that Juan de Arphe severely reprimands his fellow-workers, who -never cease copying the “_papelas y estampas flamencas y francesas_.” - -There was not a prosperous city in the Netherlands whose public and -private buildings were not embellished with the products of the great -artists in wood-carving. The great masters of Bruges were Guyot de -Beaugrant, L. Glosencamp, Roger de Smet and André Rasch, sculptors and -carpenters who executed the chimneypiece in the _Palais du Franc_ in -Bruges after the designs of Lancelot Blondeel. - -One of the most characteristic specimens of Flemish carpentry-work of -the fifteenth century is the oak pew richly carved in the Gothic style -(1474), belonging to the Van der Gruuthuuse family in Notre Dame of -Bruges that is connected by a passage with the Gruuthuuse Mansion, built -in (1465–70). - -It is important to keep constantly in mind the fact that at this period -architects, sculptors, painters and goldsmiths did not confine -themselves to one particular field of labour. Sculptors worked both in -wood and stone in both civil and religious buildings, and the best -talent was employed equally on _retables_, choir-stalls, pulpits, -bishops’ thrones, _armoires_, _dressoirs_, chests and seats. The Duke’s -accounts show many entries of payments for elaborate furniture. Two -examples will suffice: “June 20, 1399: From the Duke of Burgundy to -Sandom, _huchier_, living in Arras, for a _dressoir_, with lock and -keys, which was placed in the chamber of our very dear and much-loved -son Anthoyne, xxxii _sols pariis_”; and again, “To Pierre Turquet, -_huchier_, living in the said town of Arras, for a bench, a table, a -pair of trestles, and for a _dressoir_ with lock and key for our chamber -in our abode in the said place, for goods supplied by him four _livres -pariis_.” - -The fifteenth century has been called the “Golden Age of Tapestry.” Not -only were the halls and chambers of rich lords hung with “noble auncyent -stories,” woven in silk and wool of the most gorgeous hues and enlivened -with shining threads of gold, but the store-rooms were filled with sets -that were brought forth to decorate the outsides as well as the -interiors of houses on the occasion of some great festival, marriage, -tournament, or return of a conqueror from the wars. Wealthy princes -often took valuable sets to war to decorate their tents. Charles the -Bold, for example, had with him some of his richest treasures, which -became the trophies of his Swiss conquerors and are now in Berne. - -Owing to her wars, the industries of France had declined, and among them -her tapestry. Flanders now, particularly under the patronage of the rich -and powerful Dukes of Burgundy, enjoyed the greatest prosperity. -Flanders became the centre of the manufacture of tapestry; and Arras, -Brussels and Bruges produced works that have never been surpassed. - -Every subject lent itself to reproduction. The inventory of a princely -but small collector in 1406–7 mentions: _A Stag in a Wood_, _Story of -Pyramus and Thisbe_, _History of the God of Love_, _History of King -Pepin_, _Hawking_, _A Lord and Lady playing at Chess_, _A Trapped Hare_, -_Monkeys_, _Castles_, _Parrots_, and _Verdures_. The latter shows how -early the beautiful landscapes were valued. Throughout this century the -tapestries show charming backgrounds of daisies, violets, strawberries, -jessamine, primroses, bellflowers and lovely leaves often scattered in -artistic disorder. - -The influence of Memling and the Van Eycks and their school was -insistent, although comparatively few of their pictures were translated -into tapestry. One of the pupils of the Van Eycks, Roger van der Weyden, -designed many cartoons, among which were the _Legend of Trajan_ and -_Story of Heckenbald_ for the Town Hall of Brussels. - -The great impetus to the Flemish looms was given by the Dukes of -Burgundy. Philip the Bold (1384–1404) encouraged the weavers of Arras by -giving orders and large payments in advance. Finally, he owned such a -superb collection that he had a special officer, a _garde de la -tapisserie_, to take charge of it. - -Philip the Good (1419–1467) inherited this taste for beautiful tapestry -and gave numerous orders to the tapestry-makers of Flanders. The -inventory of his treasury made in Dijon in 1420, shows that he possessed -at the beginning of his reign five _chambres_ of tapestry, each -comprising several pieces, and more than seventy high warp “storied” -tapestries to ornament the halls and the chapel. Among them was a set of -eleven pieces containing portraits of “the late Duke Jehan and Madame -his wife on foot and on horseback,” hawking, with birds on their wrists -and birds flying all around them. The same prince also had: “A red room -of high-warp tapestry woven with gold, on which were represented ladies, -pheasants, persons of distinction and rank, nobles, simple folk, and -others, with a canopy ornamented with falcons.” - -Then there was a rich “chamber,” “with high-warp tapestry of Arras -thread, called the _chambre_ of the little children, furnished with the -canopy, head-board, and coverlet of a bed, worked with gold and silk, -the head-board and coverlet being strewn with trees, grasses, and little -children, and the canopy representing trails of flowering rose-trees on -a red background.” - -Another set of “high-warp tapestry, worked in Arras thread and gold” was -called “The Chamber of the Coronation of Our Lady.” It was furnished -with “a canopy, a head-board, a bed coverlet, and six curtains two of -which were worked with gold, and the remaining four without gold. On -each of these were two figures, the late Duke Anthony of Brabant and his -wife and their children, screened with a small _dosser_; the whole was -of Brabant work.” - -In addition to these superb sets, there were sixty “saloon tapestries” -in which the hangings woven with gold depicted scenes from famous -romances, stories from Grecian mythology, pastoral scenes, and -contemporary events. - -There were thirty-six _dossers, banquiers_ and thirty-six hassocks, and -nineteen long-pile carpets. Then there were thirteen “chapel hangings,” -with religious subjects, an altar-cloth “entirely of gold and silk,” -besides high-warp tapestries “of gold and Arras thread.” - -Philip the Good was also a collector of embroidery. In his inventory -(1420) are mentioned many “_chambres_” of velvet and silk, embroidered -with gold and silks. More than thirty famous embroiderers were employed -regularly at the Court of Burgundy. - -There was no more valuable possession in the Middle Ages than tapestry. -When Mary of Burgundy was married to the Duke of Cleves in 1415, one -prized item in her dowry was a “superb bed of tapestry representing a -deer hunt.” - -Tapestry was considered one of the most complimentary gifts that could -be offered to a royal personage, or diplomatist; and when it is -remembered that every nobleman of wealth was a collector, a present of -this nature had to be of rare quality and exceptional beauty. The Dukes -of Burgundy were fond of making gifts from the looms they patronized. - -For example, Philip the Bold sent several pieces to Richard II in 1394 -and 1395, and superb sets to the Dukes of Lancaster and York. John the -Fearless gave the Earl of Pembroke, ambassador of Henry IV, three -handsome pieces, and to the Earl of Warwick, ambassador of Henry V, in -1416, “a rich hanging covered with various figures and numerous birds.” -In 1414, a “_chambre de tapisserie_” was sent as a present to Robert, -Duke of Albany, who then governed Scotland. - -The weavers of Liège boasted as high an antiquity as those of Louvain. -The _Chronicle of St. Trond_ says that the weavers in 1133 at St. Trond -and Tongres, and they were more independent and high-spirited, or, to -quote more exactly, “more forward and proud than other artisans.” - -Brussels, which in after years eclipsed both Paris and Arras in the -manufacture of tapestries, possessed one corporation only of -tapestry-workers (_tapitewevers_) in 1340. In 1448, these were -reorganized under the name of _Legwerckers Ambacht_ (tapestry-weavers -trade), but there was no great interest in the Brussels looms until -1466, when Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, bought in that city _The -History of Hannibal_ in six pieces and a set of eight landscapes. - -The looms of Ypres, Middelburg, Alost, Lille, Valenciennes, Douay and -Oudenarde flourished during the fifteenth century. To this list we must -add the fine looms of Bruges, established by Philip the Good, which for -a time eclipsed all others in Flanders. After Bruges supplied this Duke -of Burgundy with _The History of the Sacrament_ and “two chambers of -tapestry” in 1440, many commissions were received from foreign -countries. The Medicis and other Italian families ordered rich sets, but -they supplied their own cartoons by Andrea Mantegna, Leonardo da Vinci -and other great painters. - -Bruges, doubtless, owed no little of its fame as a centre for fine -tapestry to the Flemish artists, Memling and the Van Eycks and their -school who lived there. It is believed that the famous tapestry that -found a home in the Château des Aygalades, representing the marriage of -Charles VIII and Anne of Brittany, under the allegorical figures of -Esther and Ahasuerus, was made in Bruges. The cartoons have been -attributed to the school of Van Eyck. - -In 1449–53, Philip ordered from Tournay _The History of Gideon_ and _The -Story of the Golden Fleece_ in eight pieces. - -In 1430, one Jean Hosemant, a tapestry-weaver of Tournay, was in Avignon -and the Pope’s chamberlain, the Archbishop of Narbonne, ordered him to -make “a tapestried chamber on the hangings of which were to be -represented foliage, trees, meadows, rivers and clouds, as well as birds -and quadrupeds.” Italy also attracted the French and Flemish weavers to -learn their secrets, and they flocked in numbers to Rome and other -cities. Their work was in such demand that the Flemish workers found -encouragement everywhere; and in the fifteenth century they emigrated to -England, Spain, Italy and even Hungary. - -Rinaldo Boteram of Brussels was in charge of the workshop in the court -of the Gonzagas in Mantua, where Andrea Mantegna was employed to design -the cartoons. Jehan de Bruges and Valentin d’Arras directed the -workshops in Venice as early as 1421; Giacomo d’Angelo the Fleming had -charge of the Marquis d’Este’s tapestries at Ferrara with a large number -of Flemish weavers under him. Flemish workmen and master workmen were -engaged in Siena, Florence, Correggio, Urbino and also by the Sforzas in -Milan. - -A woman was also weaving Arras at Todi in 1468, one Giovanna Francesa, -“_maestra di panni de arazzi_.” - -At home, the Flemings grew ever more and more realistic, weaving into -their woollen pictures types of character, costumes and scenes with -which they were familiar; and while their technical skill was -appreciated in Italy, their pictures certainly were not liked. All the -orders sent from princely patrons to the looms of the Low Countries were -accompanied by cartoons, which became the property of the workshop, and -were repeated again and again as their popularity asserted itself. The -Italians introduced perspective, clearness of grouping and a dramatic -feeling entirely opposed to the Flemish school. The Italian cartoons, -particularly those of Raphael and Romano, had a great influence upon the -Flemish tapestries. - -Like all the other industrial arts, that of the goldsmith flourished -under the patronage of the Dukes of Burgundy. They spent an enormous -amount of money in acquiring fine pieces of gold and silver and richly -set jewels for their own treasury and use, and to give as presents. It -was not long before the chief cities in Burgundy, Artois and Flanders -saw the workshops of gold and silversmiths multiply greatly and gain a -widespread reputation. These goldsmiths not only produced vases and -chalices for the churches and chapels and beautiful articles for the -Duke’s _dressoirs_, but they particularly excelled in the setting of -jewels and in making beautiful pieces of delicately worked gold and -silver, with which the costumes were laden to such an extent that -Martial d’Auvergne, the author of _Arrets d’amour_, says “_on -s’harnachoit d’orfévrerie_.” - -Some of the Duke’s silver is especially described in his inventory, and -among his possessions at the end of the fourteenth century, we find two -silver chandeliers for the chapel. The central bulbs were fluted and -they were hung with crystal. On the foot, the arms of France were -engraved. There were also three other chandeliers (these were evidently -what we should now rather call candlesticks), and were carved profusely -with big leaves; and also three candlesticks of silver for the -“_fruiterie_,” bearing on the base the arms of the Duke of Burgundy. The -foot of another silver-gilt candlestick was decorated with three -dragons; another candlestick of white silver (_argent blanc_) was -decorated with the arms of the Dowager Countess of Hainault. In all -probability these were among the candlesticks that Charles the Bold took -to the Abbey of St. Maximin. - -Among the artisans that were patronized by the Dukes of Burgundy, we -find the names of Jehan Villain, a goldsmith of Dijon from 1411 to 1431, -and _valet de chambre_ to John the Fearless and Philip the Bold; Jehan -Pentin, goldsmith of Bruges under Philip the Good; Corneille de Bonte, a -celebrated goldsmith of Ghent; and Henry le Backer of Brussels and -Gérard Loyet, both goldsmiths of Charles the Bold. The former executed a -famous altar group for the Count of Charolais (Charles the Bold) in -1456, consisting of a great cross at the foot of which knelt the Count -and Countess of Charolais with St. George and St. Elizabeth. Gérard -Loyet, who was goldsmith and _valet de chambre_ to Charles the Bold, -made in 1466 a statue of gold that the Duke presented to the Cathedral -of St. Lambert of Liège. He also made in the year of Charles the Bold’s -death two silver busts and two statues of that Duke. The busts, of -natural size, were made for St. Adrien de Grammont and St. Sebastian of -Brussels and the statues for Notre Dame d’Ardembourg and Notre Dame de -Grâce of Brussels. The latter, although of silver, were coloured and -were large in size. They represented Charles kneeling with folded hands -dressed in armour with sword at his side and wearing the collar of the -Golden Fleece. - -There is very little furniture of the fourteenth and fifteenth century -in existence. One of the few good buildings dating from the fourteenth -century is the Guildhouse of the Tanners (Toreken) on the Rue des -Peignes, Ghent. The Rijks Museum in Amsterdam has a copy of the solid -oak ceiling of the Senate House at Sluis, dating from 1396, an imitation -of the ceiling and chimney of the Senate House at Zwolle, built by the -architect Berent in 1447; and a cast of an ornamental fireplace of the -fifteenth century from the Markiezenhof at Bergen-op-Zoom. The Rijks -also owns several Gothic cabinets, and a large Gothic cupboard of the -fourteenth century from a convent in Utrecht. The Museum in the Steen, -Antwerp, contains some good fifteenth century furniture. - -A few names of wood-carvers of this period have survived. For example, -the Town Hall of Louvain, the ancient capital of Brabant, is a very rich -and lovely example of late Gothic work. It even surpasses the famous -Town Halls of Brussels, Oudenarde, Ghent and Bruges. This was built by -Matthew de Layens between 1447 and 1463. It is very rich in statues of -local celebrities, and the supporting corbels are ornamented with almost -detached reliefs representing biblical subjects. - -The models in wood for the stone-cutters were executed after the designs -of De Layens, by John Vander Eycken, Goswin Van der Voeren, Mathew -Keldermans and John Roelants in 1448. - -In decorative art, the Gothic style is feebly represented by great names -that have survived. Most of the glorious work that was done by the -Mediaeval carvers has perished, and the names of its producers have -perished with it. Two names, of the period immediately before the -Renaissance, of men who applied themselves to the composition and -engraving of ornaments have survived. Le Maître à la Navette was born at -Zwott; and was at work about 1475. Alart du Hameel was a native of -Bois-le-Duc; and lived at the close of the fifteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER III - THE RENAISSANCE: PART I - - Dawn of the Renaissance—The Transitional Period—Coffers and Bahuts— - Court of Margaret of Austria—Perréal’s Style—Margaret’s Tomb by - Perréal—Taste of the Regent—Margaret’s Tapestries, Carpets, - Table-covers and Cushions—Her Curios—Flemish Tapestries—Cartoons - by Bernard Van Orley—William de Pannemaker—English Tapestries—Last - Days of the Gothic Style—Guyot de Beaugrant, Lancelot Blondeel and - Peter Pourbus—Stalls in the Groote Kerk, Dordrecht—Carvings in - Haarlem—Invasion of the Renaissance—Walnut, the Favourite Wood for - Furniture and Carving—Versatility of the Artists—the Fleming as - Emigrant—the Renaissance in Burgundy—Hugues Sambin—Sebastian - Serlio—Peter Coeck of Alost—Pupils of Peter Coeck—Lambert Lombard— - Francis Floris, the “Flemish Raphael”—the Craze for Numismatics— - Hubert Goltzius—Cabinets of the Sixteenth Century—Italian - Furniture—Characteristic Features of Renaissance Furniture— - Ornaments: the Arabesque, Pilaster, Cartouche, _Cuirs_, Banderole - and Caryatid—Publications of Decorative Design—Alaert Claes, Lucas - van Leyden, Cornelis Bos and Martin van Heemskerck. - - -As in all other departments of human taste, thought and activity, there -is no sudden change in Decorative Art, no swift rupture with old -traditions. There is a period of transition, during which one style -supplants another almost imperceptibly. Even when one great genius -arises, he meets with opposition from the members of the old school; and -it takes years for his ideas finally to triumph. Moreover, periods -overlap: in one district the old style will persist half a century after -the new is firmly established in another. Again, even in the same town, -we sometimes find the two streams flowing side by side for some time. -This is true of the Renaissance, as of all other styles. We even find -that a palace within a space of ten years’ time might be begun in the -Gothic and completed in the Renaissance style. - -When Charles the Bold received his deathblow on the field of Nancy, a -new era was dawning. The arts that had been fostered by the splendid -Dukes of Burgundy already felt the impetus of a new movement. It was a -period of momentous changes. Printing had already been invented, and -designs for title-pages alone were to have a tremendous effect on -Decorative Art. America was shortly to be discovered, and before long -exotic woods were to end the exclusive sway of walnut and oak. Above -all, Italy was to be practically rediscovered by Western Europe. -Although many courts benefited by the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, -the luxurious Italian states received by far the greater number of -skilled artisans who brought with them the traditions of Classic Art. -The maritime republics were, moreover, no strangers to the art products -of the gorgeous East; and Venice especially then held almost a monopoly -of the Levant trade, and distributed Oriental wares to France, Germany, -England and the Netherlands. - -The days of Feudalism had come to an end: Mediaevalism was dead. Wars of -petty piracy and private spite ended almost simultaneously in Western -Europe; wars of national competition in trade and bitter wars of -religion were to succeed. In England, the Wars of the Roses were -extinguished in 1485: the last private battle between the retainers of -feudal lords was fought in 1483. In France, Louis XI, after the death of -Charles the Bold, had reduced his other great vassals to order. In -Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella had expelled the Moors and married their -mad daughter, Joanna, to the heir of the Burgundian dominions, the issue -of this marriage being Charles V, who was born at Ghent in 1500. In -1494, Charles VIII had crossed the Alps; and in Italy the French were as -dazzled by the luxury and magnificence they saw as the Crusaders had -been at Byzantium four centuries before. On their return, the -Renaissance in France and the Netherlands may be said to have begun to -bloom. - -Before the opening of the sixteenth century, however, there was a -remarkable activity in all the arts; and a coming change can be felt. -The spirit of the Gothic and of the Classic style—Christian and Pagan— -were already at war. In the Low Countries, this transitional period is -noticeable during the last days of the House of Burgundy. -Simultaneously, architecture and ornament insensibly underwent -modifications, in which we recognize the earliest Renaissance, as it -appeared also in France under the reign of Louis XII. Building and -furniture have already become Classic in form and general aspect: the -antique column becomes a leading feature of decoration, although the -pilaster, which offers a convenient flat surface for the carving of -arabesques, is often preferred. These arabesques are particularly -characteristic of this transitional period. They consist of rather -slender and simple branches, allowing considerable spaces of the -background to appear; and very frequently they are divided into two -symmetrical parts about a strongly accented middle axis. There is little -relief and little projection in the composition. The details of -ornamentation are taken especially from the floral world; and, if human -figures or animals are used, they are attenuated and expressionless, and -play an unimportant rôle. Figures of this description appear in Plate V -that represents a coffer in carved wood in the Flemish style, from the -Cluny Museum, Paris. The panel in the centre represents the -_Annunciation_, rudely carved. Pilasters decorated with leaves separate -it from two niches that contain figures boldly but crudely carved. Above -the _Annunciation_ is a lock of fine workmanship, the flap of which -bears the figure of the crowned Virgin, in high relief. - -Another typical coffer, or _huche_, of Flemish workmanship of the -sixteenth century appears on Plate VI. Here we have three panels -separated by caryatides. The subjects of the panels are _Christ on the -Cross_, the _Annunciation_, and the _Adoration of the Infant Jesus_. The -panels are also decorated with the heads of cherubs. - -Another _huche_, or _bahut_, of the sixteenth century, of more delicate -workmanship, is shown in Plate VII. The subject of the central panel is -taken from the story of David. Allegorical figures decorate the -pilasters, and Mercury and Cybele fill the niches. This is also from -Cluny and is of French work of the sixteenth century. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE V.—_Coffer in Flemish Style._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -The Renaissance was too strong a movement not to carry everything before -it; but it must not be imagined that it met with no opposition. There -were people in high places who clung obstinately to the old order of -things and resented innovations. Gothic art was still supreme under the -short rule of Mary of Burgundy; but her daughter Margaret of Austria, -Regent of the Netherlands, had to face the new ideas, and found it hard -to reconcile herself with them, notwithstanding her encouragement of the -arts as a whole. She kept a brilliant court, and she and her husband, -Philibert of Savoy, warmly encouraged genius and talent. She gathered -around her more than one hundred and fifty painters, sculptors, -architects and decorators in all branches of art. - -On the death of her husband she was inconsolable; and planned a splendid -church in which his and her remains should finally rest side by side. In -1505, she intrusted the planning of the work to Jean Perréal. In an -early letter, he writes to her that he is delighted to undertake the -work, and will take advantage of all he has observed regarding convents -in Italy, where the most beautiful in all the world are to be found. In -another letter, in 1509, we read: “_Jy me suis mis après tant pour mon -devoir envers nostre Majesté que pour l’amour que je vous doy, et ay -revyré mes pour-traictures, au moins des choses antiques que j’ay eues -ès parties d’Italie, pour faire de toutes belles fleurs ung trossé -bouquet, dont j’ai monstré le jet au dict Le Maire_.” - -The Flemish character of Peréal’s early style had undoubtedly made him -acceptable to the Regent. During her residence in France, from 1483 to -1493, she had then been subjected to no other than Flemish influence in -art. The Italian taste had not yet reached Paris. But Perréal crossed -the Alps with Charles VIII in 1495; Louis XII went into Italy in 1502, -and again in 1509. We are thus on the threshold of the Renaissance. -Perréal, as the above quotation shows, instead of remaining true to the -memories of his Flemish education, wanted to seek adventures in the -domain of Italian art. He had the temerity to offer to Margaret for her -tombs a bunch of his _troussés bouquets_. She was scandalized, and broke -off all relations with the erring artist. She looked around her for an -artist who conformed to the principles of Flemish art, one who would not -be likely to betray national traditions for foreign modes. Her choice -fell upon a master mason named Louis van Beughem to build the great -church of Brou. A member of one of the corporations of St. Luke, -faithful to Gothic art, van Beughem produced a work that shows that -style in its latest development and decadence. He showed so much zeal -and ability that Margaret forced him to take charge of not only the -masonry, but of the woodwork and windows too. With him were associated -John of Brussels for the decorative work, and Conrad Meyt for the -carving. Conrad of Mechlin was Margaret’s favourite “image-maker.” She -paid him the generous salary of five _sous_ a day. She paid her head -cook twenty-six. Conrad carved the choir-stalls and other woodwork that -demanded decorative treatment. He also executed all the great sculptural -work on the tombs, including the life-size figures of Philibert of -Savoy, Margaret’s dead spouse, and herself, represented both alive and -dead, Margaret of Bourbon, ten children, a couching lion and many -armorial devices. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE VI.—_Flemish Coffer or Huche._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -This instance is interesting as showing that the greatest abilities in -that age were applied to the smallest matters of art as well as the -greatest. Among the objects for which Conrad was paid in 1518–19, we -find two Hercules in wood, and two portraits of the princess in wood -(for these he received eight _Philippus_ in all), a wooden turret for -the Regent’s cabinet and a carved stag’s head for her library -chimney-piece. - -Margaret’s tastes are easily learned from the inventory she drew up with -her own hand of her possessions in Mechlin shortly before her death. She -seems to have cared almost exclusively for paintings, rich embroideries -and curios. She made a complete list of her pictures, many of which were -undoubtedly painted to please her by the artists of her Court. Among her -embroideries were a great number of handsome ecclesiastical vestments -and a few coifs, belts and gorgets for herself embroidered with gold -thread “_à la mode d’Espagne_.” The greater number of her tapestries, -bed-hangings, cases for cushions, table-covers and _serviettes_, etc., -to adorn the shelves of _dressoirs_ were from Spain. Her tapestries are -worth noting. She had two pieces woven of gold, silver and silk, -representing the history of Alexander the Great, which came from Spain; -four pieces, representing the story of Esther, also of gold, silver and -silk, also from Spain; three pieces of gold and silk depicting the life -of the Cid; two of the Seven Sacraments, another of Alexander; and four -of Saint Helena. In addition to these Spanish tapestries, she had six -pieces called the “_Cité des Dames_,” presented to her by the city of -Tournay when she went there to meet the King of England. - -The gift of the _Cité des Dames_ may perhaps have made some atonement -for her vexation at having to attend that splendid meeting of the King -and Emperor. She was very unwilling to go, and wrote to her father -Maximilian, on September 22, 1513, as follows: - -“If you think it necessary for me to go and I can be of service to you, -I am ready to do all that it pleases you to order, but otherwise, it is -not the part of a widow woman to _trotter_ and visit armies for -pleasure.” - -She also owned seventeen rich Spanish velvet carpets. Among her -chamber-hangings, bed-hangings, and canopies were several articles made -of rich cloth of gold, bordered with crimson and embroidered with the -arms and device of the “late King of Aragon.” - -She had a camp (or folding) bed with hangings of cloth of gold richly -embroidered with gold thread and silk, and a canopy for a camp bed -covered with cloth of gold and trimmed with a fringe of black silk and -gold threads; and she also owned four large pieces of cloth of gold, -each differently bordered, to decorate her throne, and also one of green -velvet. She had two curtains of green and grey tafetas, and four of -crimson tafetas, a number of pieces of cloth of gold, four hangings for -a chamber of green velvet and white damask, and two palls, one of white -silk embroidered with gold, and the other gold, green, red and white; -and the furnishing of a camp bed with canopy, counterpane and three -curtains of green tafetas lined with black. Margaret did not despise -leather hangings, for she had several pieces of “tapestry of red -morocco” each 4½ ells long and just as wide, trimmed with bands of green -brightened with gold, and three other pieces of “red morocco” with -gilded bands. These probably came from Spain. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE VII.—_Huche, or Bahut (Sixteenth Century)._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -A “pavilion” of grey and yellow silk threads “as a protection against -the flies,” shows how early the mosquito net was known. - -We should also note “packs for mules in the Spanish style,” covered with -cloth of gold and silver. - -Among her table-covers was one of cloth of gold and white with trimmings -of crimson velvet embroidered and fringed with gold, and one of cloth of -gold with a crimson satin border. - -The collection of “_serviettes_” were exquisitely embroidered with gay -coloured silks and gold threads. Some of them were trimmed with silk -borders and some with narrow fringe. One, for instance, was embroidered -with violet, and adorned with a violet fringe; another was embroidered -in silver, blue, flesh-colour, crimson and green and had a little fringe -of red, blue and gold. The two dozen beautiful cushions were of cloth of -gold with gold tassels; of gold and blue lozenges; and embroidered in -variously coloured silks.’ - -The choice articles in her cabinet included three fine pieces of amber; -a branch of coral in a wooden box; four other branches of coral; a piece -of coral shaped like a horn; a little silver box with two coral images; -a little _parfumador_ of silver for scent-balls; a little Spanish fan, -beautifully made; a little gilded St. George in a black leather case; a -little agate salt-cellar with a gilded foot; three spoons—one of -mother-of-pearl with a silver handle, the others of cornelian with -handles of chalcedony; a picture of St. Mark on canvas; two East India -boxes; a pair of East Indian slippers; a piece of violet silk; a little -_retable_, containing an image of Notre Dame and St. Joseph; another, -with a hawthorn in blossom; a little paradise with all the apostles -represented; a lacquer box garnished with silver; a little silver cage; -two tablets of wood framing pictures; two clocks, the larger one -striking the hours and half hours; a Saint Margaret made in the likeness -of Mlle. de Mon-Lambert; a little crying child painted by a good artist; -the Emperor’s face in black and white; the little Duke of Milan on -canvas; an Annunciation on canvas; a Saint Anthony made by Master -Jacques; a little ivory picture given to Madame by M. de Chièvres; the -face of the Duke Philip; a silver gilt picture of the Annunciation with -two leaves of porcelain, portraits of the late King Philip and Queen -Joanna, his wife; a Notre Dame in amber; a beautiful steel mirror; a -Notre Dame of alabaster; a round piece of alabaster in which a lion is -cut; and several sets of chess, of silver, silver-gilt, ivory, carved -wood, ivory and wood; a set in jasper wrapped in a flag; and a set of -chalcedony and jasper in an old painted box. She also had two -dice-boxes, one gilt and one ivory. She also owned a good deal of -curious needlework; two steel mirrors, one framed in silver gilt; and a -netted purse of green and silver, marked with a unicorn. - -Margaret was by no means peculiar in her liking for sumptuous -tapestries. The walls of every palace, castle and mansion of the day -were adorned with rich hangings, and these products of the Flemish looms -were sought by prince and prelate throughout Europe. - -Although Flanders continued to produce the most important sets of -tapestry during the sixteenth century, and cartoons were supplied by the -Flemish artists, Bernard van Orley, Michel Coxie and Peter of Campana, -and the French artists, Primaticcio, Matteo del Nassaro, Caron and -Lerambert, by far the greater number of designs came from Italy. Paul -Veronese, Titian, Pordenone, Salviati, A. del Sarto, Bronzino, Giovanni -da Udine, Giulio Romano and Raphael are among the most prolific -designers; and in the tapestries after their cartoons, the grouping and -distribution of the figures as well as the colouring (that requires much -more shading) differ greatly from the works of the past. The borders are -also more varied; instead of being decorated only with fruits and -flowers tied with ribbons, other motives are introduced—birds, nude -children, fishes, crustaceans, vegetables, emblems, quivers, masks, -grotesques, etc., etc. - -Most of these fine sets were made in Brussels to order; but many -tapestries were made there and sold in Antwerp. If Brussels was the -workshop of Europe, Antwerp was the mart. In this city, where all kinds -of merchandise abounded, Guicciardini informs us that more than a -thousand foreign merchants had established themselves and exhibited for -sale to the eyes of purchasers the fine tapestries made in Brussels. -There was a special place, “Le Pand, _halle aux tapisseries_, where many -beautiful and marvellous inventions and works were exhibited and sold.” - -Regarding the Brussels tapestries, the same old traveller tells us: - -“Especially admirable and yielding great profit, is the trade of the -tapestry-makers, who weave, design and warp pieces in high warp in silk, -gold and silver, at great expense, and with an industry that wins -everybody’s admiration and wonder.” - -During the sixteenth century, the looms of Flanders enjoyed great vogue -and received orders from all the princes of Europe. When the merchants -of Florence wished to enrich the Church of St. John with tapestry, they -sent to Flanders; when Francis I, who possessed some magnificent pieces -of Flemish tapestry, wanted to make a present to the Pope, he had twelve -scenes from the _Life of Christ_ made at Arras, from cartoons by -Raphael; and from 1518–39 there are many entries in the accounts of the -Treasury of France for sums paid for Flemish tapestries for the King. As -there was no manufactory for high-warp tapestry in France, Francis I -decided to establish one in Fontainebleau in 1539, and gathered there -fifteen skilled Flemish workmen whom he placed under the direction of -Philibert Babou, Sieur de la Bourdaizière, and Sebastian Serlio, the -Italian architect. - -Throughout the Renaissance, tapestry was regarded on a level with -painting. The Pope, the Doges of Venice and the wealthy families—the -D’Estes, the Medicis and Sforzas—made superb collections and decorated -their halls with splendid hangings. The greater number of these were -made in Flanders, although a few lords—the D’Estes and Sforzas, for -example—had looms of their own, worked by Flemings. - -Subjects from mythology, the Scriptures and martyrology are still -popular, but scenes from the old romances of chivalry are banished. -Valiant princes and prosperous cities make use of the weaver’s art to -commemorate their victories and triumphs, and many gorgeous sets -depicting current events are hung in mansions, villas, and town halls. -Antwerp, for example, orders _The Course of the Scheldt_ for her Town -Hall. Flanders also makes such pieces as _The Hunts of Maximilian_, -_Battle of Pavia_, _Victories of the Duke of Alva_, _Destruction of the -Armada_, _The Deliverance of Leyden in 1574_, _The Defeat of the -Spaniards by the Zealanders_, _Genealogy of the Princes of Nassau_, etc. - -Brussels produced the famous set of ten, _The Acts of the Apostles_, -ordered by Leo X in 1515. The cartoons, for which Raphael received 100 -ducats each (£200), were sent to Peter van Aelst, the most noted -tapestry-worker in Flanders. The Pope paid him 15,000 gold ducats -(£30,000) for the set. Peter van Aelst was _varlet de chambre_ and -weaver to Philippe le Beau, in 1504, and later to his son, Charles V. -Bernard van Orley, a pupil of Raphael, was associated with him in the -production of _The Acts of the Apostles_, which were hung in the Sistine -Chapel, December 26, 1519. In 1549, Vasari wrote of them: “One is -astonished at the sight of this series; its execution is marvellous. One -can hardly imagine how it was possible, with simple threads, to produce -such delicacy in the hair and beards, and to express the suppleness of -flesh. It is a work more Godlike than human; the waters, the animals and -the habitations are so perfectly represented that they appear painted -with a brush and not woven.” - -Another beautiful set, _The Loves of Vertumnus and Pomona_, now in -Madrid, was also made by Flemish weavers from Italian cartoons; and were -bought by Charles V in Antwerp, before 1546. - -Bernard van Orley designed _The Grand Hunts of Guise, or of Maximilian_, -formerly attributed to Dürer. In these realistic pictures of costume, -landscape and national types, there is a return to the Flemish disregard -for perspective and grouping. - -Mention should be made of the famous _Lucas Months_, long believed to be -the work of Lucas van Leyden, but certainly by a Flemish artist. These -were frequently copied at the Gobelins. In the month “January” a superb -sideboard is represented. - -A very celebrated tapestry-worker, William de Pannemaker, was -commissioned by Charles V to weave _The Conquest of Tunis_, the cartoons -for which were made by Jan Vermay, or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near -Haarlem. Although eighty-four workers were employed, it took five years -to complete it. - -Pannemaker also made _The Victories of the Duke of Alva_. - -What the principal centres of tapestry were, we learn from an edict of -Charles V, in 1544, that says: “It is forbidden to manufacture -tapestries outside of Brussels, Louvain, Antwerp, Bruges, Oudenarde, -Alost, Enghien, Binche, Ath, Lille, Tournay and other free towns, where -the craft is organized and regulated by ordinances.” - -Holland also produced tapestry in this century. Looms were set up in -Middelburg in 1562; and later in Delft, where Franz Spierinck worked. - -A little tapestry was produced in Italy, but even there the greater -number of weavers were Flemings. Two Flemish tapestry-workers, Nicholas -and John Karcher, were employed by the Duke d’Este, at his court in -Ferrara; and Cosmo I employed Nicholas Karcher and John Rost of Brussels -at his establishment, the “_Arazzeria Medicea_,” in Florence. - -The store-rooms of royalty and nobles in England were filled with superb -sets that were brought out for decoration on occasions. Most of these -were imported from the Continent; but towards the end of Henry VIII’s -reign, William Sheldon orders one Robert Hicks to make maps of Oxford, -Worcester, Gloucester and Warwick counties at his manor in Warwickshire, -and calls Hicks “the only auteur and beginner of tapestry and arras -within this realm.” - -Returning now to the consideration of furniture as an architectural -accessory, we find that Margaret of Austria’s tastes were shared by many -of her contemporaries. The Gothic style lingered here and there far into -the sixteenth century, and even those whose sympathies were frankly in -favour of the Renaissance did not entirely cast away Gothic traditions. -(_See_ Plate X.) - -For example, let the student examine the beautiful choir of St. Gertrude -in Louvain. The stalls are adorned with statuettes and twenty-eight -reliefs of scenes from the lives of Our Lord, of St. Augustine, and of -the patron saint, Gertrude. The ornamentation recalls the last days of -the Gothic style. The work ranks among the finest examples of -wood-carving in Belgium. It was executed by Mathias de Waydere, of -Brussels in 1550. - -Mechlin was the capital of the Netherlands while Margaret was Regent. -Her palace, now the _Palais de Justice_, shows both the old and new -styles. The older parts date from 1507, and were built in the late -Gothic style by Rombout Keldermans. Before the palace was finished, in -1517, a French architect, Guyot de Beaugrant, was associated with -Rombout in the work. This part of the palace is the oldest Renaissance -building in Belgium. - -It is somewhat puzzling to reconcile Margaret’s preference for Gothic -art with the fact that her own palace shows a halting between two -opinions. It may be that she merely drew the line between civil and -ecclesiastical edifices, and would welcome in a palace, or town hall, -decorations that she would exclude from a church. - -Oudenarde, the birthplace of Margaret’s grandniece, who was also to be -Regent of the Netherlands, contains work that marks this transitional -period. The doorway of the Council Chamber in the Town Hall is a -splendid piece of Renaissance wood-carving, executed by Paul van -Schelden in 1531; and a fine chimney-piece carved in the Flamboyant -style only two years earlier. Another late Gothic chimney-piece, by his -brother Peter, is in the _Salle des Pas Perdus_. - -Guyot de Beaugrant was the architect who executed the most famous and -important monument of this period. This is the chimney-piece of the -_Palais de Justice_ at Bruges. Of all the productions of this kind that -the sixteenth century has bequeathed to us, and they are numerous, none -is more remarkable, either for its dimensions or the beauty of the work. -Its general effect is imposing, and its masses are distributed with that -feeling for effect that reveals the man of genius. - -The lower part is of black marble with four reliefs in white marble on -the frieze, representing the story of Susanna and the Elders. The -painter, Lancelot Blondeel of Bruges, supplied the designs for the upper -part, which is of carved oak. The statues represent Charles V as Count -of Flanders, Mary of Burgundy and her spouse, Maximilian, Ferdinand of -Aragon and Isabella of Castile, all ancestors of Charles. Busts of his -parents, Philip and Joanna, adorn the throne; and on two small -medallions are Margaret herself and Launoy the commander at Pavia. - -As for the details, pilaster, figurines, bas-reliefs, shields, -medallions, trophies of arms, etc., everything is of incomparable -finish, and the art of wood-carving has never been so boldly pushed to -its uttermost expression. This occupies nearly the entire side of the -Court Room and was made in memory of the Battle of Pavia and the Peace -of Cambrai, by which the independence of Flanders was recognized. This -masterpiece was begun in 1529; it was completed in 1530, the year of -Margaret’s death. - -Lancelot Blondeel, of Poperinghe, was essentially a painter of the -transition period. He was a man of most extraordinary gifts, being at -the same time a painter, sculptor, mason and engineer. Besides painting, -he designed several masterpieces of sculpture in addition to this -celebrated _Cheminée du Franc_. He was also a wood-engraver, and made -drawings for the glass painters and tapestry-workers. In 1546, moreover, -he submitted plans to the magistracy of Bruges for a canal to connect -that city with the sea. He gave his daughter in marriage to Peter -Pourbus, the last of the great painters of the school of Bruges. Pourbus -was as versatile as his father-in-law, and was intrusted by the city -with the organization of public festivals and rejoicings. He dabbled a -little in architecture, engineering and cartography. - -Works of the early Renaissance are rarer in Holland than in Flanders; -but Holland possesses one of the most remarkable carvings of the -sixteenth century, the stalls of the Groote Kerk in Dordrecht done by -Jan Terween Aertsz, of Antwerp, in 1538–42. Four years only were -required to carve this great allegory. These stalls, of magnificent -proportions, are divided into two sections: one, at the side of the -altar, consists of thirty stalls in two tiers. This is the most richly -treated, being intended for the clergy. The sides on the passageways are -most elaborately carved. The second section is much simpler and has no -separate seats. It is intended for the choristers. No work in the Low -Countries surpasses this. The spectator is first attracted by the superb -construction and handsome outlines, but it is only when the details are -examined that the work is fully appreciated. The dazzled eye notes such -a profusion of ornamental figures and motives that it would be hard to -find their equal. The only carvings in the Netherlands that can be -compared with them are the choir-stalls in the cathedral at Ypres, made -in 1598, but these have not quite the same distinction in execution. The -first carvings one notes are the friezes in relief above the seats and -under the graceful little columns that adorn the back. The subjects of -these bas-reliefs are the _Triumph of Christ_; the _Triumph of the -Eucharist_; _Scenes from the Old and New Testament_; the _Triumphal -Procession of Mutius Scaevola_; and the _Triumphal Entry of Charles V in -Dordrecht_, on July 21, 1540. The cycle of the Triumph of Christ opens -with two archangels with trumpets, announcing the King of Kings; then -follow Adam and Eve, Noah with the Ark, Moses with the Tables of the -Law, Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, David with his harp, Jonah, -Samson with the lion, Elias and John the Baptist—all prototypes of -Christ. Then come the twelve apostles with palm branches, and Christ in -a triumphal car, decorated with dragons’ heads and richly ornamented -with the symbols of the Cross and dove, and drawn by symbols -personifying the four Evangelists. Chained to Christ’s car is Death, -accompanied by the monster Sin, swallowed by the colossal open jaws of -Hell, in which the Devil is seen riding. Lastly, come Mary and the four -saints, Catherine, Barbara, Lawrence and Christopher. - -The _Triumph of the Eucharist_ opens with choristers and other children -singing, followed by Franciscan monks, nuns, canons, deacons, deans, the -Fathers of the Church—Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory, then the -Church in a triumphal chariot with the Holy Sacrament, then the Pope, -cardinals and bishops. The procession of Mutius Scaevola is, of course, -Roman in character, and consists, likewise, of eight panels. The -_Triumph of Charles V_ resembles in some respects the Triumph of -Maximilian by Dürer (Dürer visited the Low Countries in 1520). Two -cavaliers with trumpets open the march and are followed by three others; -then comes a grandee of Spain with the orb of the Empire, his horse led -by pages. Other grandees follow, then the imperial train, guided by -allegorical virgins, and the Emperor, seated under a baldaquin in a -richly-decorated chariot, with the palm of peace in his left, and the -sceptre in his right hand. The sword and orb of state lie at his feet. - -Some of the terminal figures on the ends of the stalls are very fine, -particularly Matthew, Luke, David, Solomon and Daniel in the lions’ den. -The heads and busts that are developed out of the foliage are of -exceptional interest. The _miséricordes_ (seats) are decorated with -humorous and Biblical scenes. The luxuriant foliage that forms no little -part of the ornamentation is in the style of the first Italian -Renaissance and in many places is mingled with musical instruments, -heads, fruits, figurines, children and coats-of-arms. - -Terween is supposed to have been born in Dordrecht, in 1511. He died in -1598. For other Gothic carved work during the early Renaissance the -student may go to the Groote Kerk of Haarlem. This is also especially -interesting on account of its transitional features; for while the -magnificent choir-stalls and rood-screen still retain the Gothic -character (the screen was erected in 1540 by Diderik Sybrandszoon, of -Mechlin, and bears several municipal coats-of-arms), the side railings -of the inner choir are in the style of the early Renaissance. A -remarkable example of Mediaeval carved oak, called the “_H. Geest -Stoel_,” is also preserved in this church. - -The church of St. Nicolas, at Dixmuiden, also contains a splendid -rood-loft carved in the richest Flamboyant style, dating from about -1520. - -The Gothic period, therefore, practically ended at the close of the -fifteenth century. The Renaissance restored Greek and Latin taste. In -furniture, it followed the forms and ornaments of architecture, as the -Gothic had done; so that now, instead of pointed arches with trefoils, -quatrefoils, or flamboyant tracery, we have pediments and various Orders -with their columns, capitals, arcades and superpositions of colonnades. - -After the transitional period, during which the Decorative Arts freed -themselves from the domination of ecclesiastical influence and acquired -individuality of form, we find a rapid development during the sixteenth -century. The Renaissance quickly passed through its stages of growth in -the styles of Louis XII and François I, and burst into full bloom in the -Henri II style. - -Before the invasion of the new school, Gothic tracery quickly -disappears; and with all the wealth of decoration, cartouches, mascarons -of gods, heroes, nymphs, etc., in order to produce the proper effect and -the correct massing of details, it becomes necessary to submit furniture -to the rules of Classic architecture; and furniture, therefore, breaks -with all traditions of the past and becomes a special art. New tools, -new methods, and a new technique are invented. Walnut becomes the -fashionable wood, and to follow the taste of the day the Flemings -forsake their much-loved oak. Nearly all the great pieces of the -Burgundian school of this period are carved in this wood. - -After slight hesitation, Flanders welcomed the Renaissance with open -arms. Like the Venetian, the Fleming was artistic and commercial at the -same time, and thoroughly understood how to turn his talents into -profit. He scented a new fashion as soon as it made its appearance, -assimilated it and added a touch or two of his own. The Renaissance -found in Flanders, moreover, as we have seen, a ground already prepared -by the princes of the House of Burgundy. Skilful engravers provided the -studios with models and designs, wood-carvers multiplied to embellish -the palace and church, town-halls and guild-houses, castle of the lord -and home of the burgher and merchant. - -The great artists of the period were extraordinarily versatile: they -were architects, sculptors, painters, glass-painters, goldsmiths, -designers for furniture and triumphal arches, machinists, historians, -engravers, numismatologists, and sometimes geographers and poets all at -once; and a talent for art always seemed to run through all the members -of one family through several generations, including both men and women. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE VIII.—_Cabinet (Sixteenth Century)._ -] - -They had great intellects that were equal to every conception, and their -skilful hands were capable of the most minute as well as the most -important work. If the Renaissance produced so many original works, the -cause must be sought in the complete education of the masters of this -remarkable period. The artists of the Low Countries knew how to -assimilate in the most complete fashion the artistic principles of other -schools; but although drawing inspiration from foreign sources they knew -how to imprint on their creations a particular cachet, which -distinguishes Flemish work. They used to great advantage the colour of -the material, the exigences of the climate and produced picturesque -combinations. - -The Fleming was the traveller _par excellence_ of the Renaissance— -sculptor, cabinet-maker, painter, architect, potter, weaver, goldsmith— -we find him everywhere. He even reaches Hungary, Russia and Turkey. -Spain he finds a congenial soil, and also England. - -Although Burgundy resisted the Italian invasion for a time, the -Renaissance was destined to reach, perhaps, its most brilliant -development, after Italy, in this very province. It is generally -conceded that the Burgundian style owes its character to Hughes Sambin, -an architect and master carpenter, born about the beginning of the -sixteenth century. In 1535, he finished the porch of St. Michel’s in -Dijon, and in 1572, published in Lyons, after a period of study in -Michael Angelo’s studio, a book filled with wood engravings, and -entitled _Oeuvres de la diversité des termes dont on se sert en -architecture, réduit en ordre par Maistre Hughes Sambin, architecteur en -la ville de Dijon_. - -Sambin’s most important work is the _Palais de Justice_ in Dijon, where -there is a very beautiful wooden door carved by him, or under his -direction, and the _Salle des Procurateurs_, built under Henri II, the -ceiling of which is carved wood. Sambin’s book shows that he was an -adept in the Renaissance style, and devoted to the study of antique -monuments. Regarding him, Champeaux says: - -“In truth, it is the taste for caryatides and grotesque figures -surrounded by garlands, and supporting broken pediments that predominate -in all his compositions. The result is a certain character of heaviness -and _bizarrerie_ that is more conspicuous in the buildings contributed -by him than in his furniture, for the material of the latter, less cold -than stone, allows more scope to the original fantasy of the artist. The -furniture inspired by Sambin’s designs does not exhibit the ponderous -grace of the _armoires_ and _buffets_ made in Paris; the lines are not -traced with the same tasteful harmony; but it must be recognized that no -school equals the vigour and the dramatic expression of the Burgundian -artists of this period. The figures of the caryatides and chimerical -animals that support the various parts of their furniture and conceal -the uprights, are animated with a brutal energy that only skilful -chisels can create. Moreover, the walnut wood of which they are carved -has been clothed with a warm tone that sometimes equals that of -Florentine bronzes.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE IX.—_Armoire, Burgundian School._ -] - -A fine example of the Burgundian school appears on Plate IX. This is an -_armoire_ showing fine and bold carving with Renaissance motives. The -panels of the lower drawers are carved with grotesque figures, flanked -by pilasters bearing caryatides. The drawers above them are furnished -with keyholes. The upper section has a large central panel with a -terminal figure in the centre, the head of which forms a fine ornament -between the broken pediment. On either side are terminal figures. This -beautiful _armoire_ resembles in form the “court cupboard” that was so -extensively used in England at this period. - -Many of the great artists of the day went to Italy to study on the spot, -but it would seem that the works of Sebastian Serlio were in high -repute, and were closely studied in the Low Countries. Guicciardini, who -wrote in 1588, tells us that “Peter Coucq of Alost was great in cartoons -or designs for tapestry; and has the peculiar praise of first bringing -from Italy the canon of architecture, and translated into Flemish the -work of Sebastian Serlio of Bologna, to the great advantage of the -Netherlands.” - -Peter Coeck was born in Alost in 1502, and died in Brussels in 1550. He -was a devoted follower of Serlio. He translated his works into French -and Flemish, and engraved all the plates for this publication himself. -These were issued in Antwerp: parts I-III in 1516, part IV in 1539, and -part V was published by his widow in 1553. - -Coeck was painter to Charles V, and to his sister, Mary of Austria, -Queen of Hungary (born in Brussels in 1503), to whom Charles V gave the -government of the Low Countries. In her the arts and sciences found as -enthusiastic a patron as they had in her aunt Margaret of Austria. Just -as the latter had had her favourite painters in van Orley and Jean -Mostaert, so she chose Peter Coeck for hers. - -Coeck achieved great fame in the remarkable triumphal arches which he -designed for the joyous entrance of Philip II into Antwerp. In 1527, he -was made master of the Guild of St. Luke. Thierry de Moelenere intrusted -him with the decoration of his rich house in Antwerp, in which he -displayed his knowledge as architect, painter and sculptor. Some of the -caryatides from this house are now preserved in the Steen Museum. A -superb mantelpiece with three tiers of subjects carved by his hand is in -the Town Hall of Antwerp. - -Coeck also executed a window for the Church of Notre Dame in Antwerp. - -Among his pupils were the painters, Pierre Clays, Gilles de la Hee, -Nicholas van Nieucasteel, surnamed Nicholas Lucidel, and Pierre Breugel -the Elder (who married his daughter). - -Lambert Lombard (1506–66), went to Italy in 1537. He returned to Liège -in 1539. He was a painter, and more particularly an architect. He set up -a school of painting and engraving, the first of its kind there. Three -of his pupils brought great honour to his school: these were Francis -Floris, called the “Flemish Raphael,” William Key and Hubert Goltzius. -He worked very little himself beyond designs for engravers, and more -often for paintings on glass. He was rich enough to indulge his taste -for objects of antiquity. It was at this date that the study of -numismatics came into existence in Belgium, and learned men took delight -in setting up a cabinet of medals and coins: among the wealthy it became -even a mania that was carried to extremes. Lombard’s collection, the -beauty of which was praised by all his contemporaries, was composed of -medals, coins, carvings, and other objects of high antiquity. - -Hubert (or Hugo) Goltius (or Goltz), was a painter, engraver, -numismatologist and historian. He was born at Venlo in 1526 and died in -1583. He studied under Lambert Lombard and was also influenced by -Erasmus’ friend, van Watervliet, who guided him in his classic studies, -Greek and Roman antiquities, etc. - -Goltius visited all the great towns in Belgium, Holland, Germany, France -and Italy, in order to examine the cabinets of collectors for material -for his book on coins. His itinerary reveals an astonishing number of -collectors of coins and medals. - -Goltius made the decorations in Antwerp for the fêtes of the Golden -Fleece. He was also appointed historian to Philip II. - -A marriage coffer of leather, designed by him, represented the King of -Spain and Margaret of Austria standing beside the Fountain of Love. - -The craze for medals, coins and curios during the sixteenth century was -widespread. We have seen that the Regent had a coffer full of corals and -various trifles. To meet the demand for housing curios, the cabinet was -developed. This was usually a double chest, the upper one smaller than -the other. Both closed with doors and contained drawers and shelves. - -Like almost all the pieces of furniture called “cabinets” of the -sixteenth and seventeenth century, the one reproduced on Plate VIII is -in two parts, the upper being smaller than, and standing back on the top -of, the lower. It is carved in walnut wood, enriched with sculptures, -and here and there plaques of marble are set in order to relieve the -monotony resulting from the sole use of wood. Stone of various colours -was largely used at this period, as an inlay for furniture in the -Netherlands and France, and more especially in Germany. - -The principal fault with which the Flemish artists of the period are -reproached is that of “painting the lily.” They frequently are lacking -in restraint, and overcharge their surfaces with riot of ill-combined -mouldings and carvings; but in this specimen we have fine restraint. Its -structure and general disposition are strong and well-contrived; the -mouldings have a good profile; the sculpture is in the right place, and, -at the same time, is subordinated to the lines whose mission is to -contain and quiet it. This piece belongs to the best school of the -Renaissance, and will hold its own in almost any surroundings. - -In the lower part of this cabinet, the two panels that form the doors -are carved with the figures of Diana and Juno with their attributes. The -drawers above are decorated also: the central one has a lion’s head, to -which a ring is suspended, and the two others have a simple knob. In the -panels of the upper doors, Paris is presenting the golden apple to -Venus, whose beauty has outshone that of her rivals. A garland of fruits -with a mascaron in the centre is above this, and the whole is topped by -a broken pediment framing an armed Pallas. - -If we cast a glance at Italian furniture, we shall see that the French -and Flemish artists at first frankly copied what they had seen when they -accompanied the three expeditions to Naples. - -In the sixteenth, as in the preceding century, the Italians were -particularly fond of the Roman triumphal arch and sarcophagus, as forms -for furniture. The Classic Orders were in great vogue, and the arabesque -and candelabra-shaped pilasters, introduced so long ago into decoration, -were renewed and made popular by Raphael. To the ancient style of -marquetry, composed of little geometrically-cut cubes of natural wood, -there succeeded a marquetry of coloured woods arranged to form actual -pictures with perspective. Some of the furniture was carved, and then -painted, or gilded; but other furniture shows large surfaces that are -decorated with beautiful oil paintings. - -The Italian furniture was particularly _da pompa_, made for the -adornment of long galleries, enriched with paintings, gildings, -tapestries, velvets, damasks, brocades, cushions, curtains, mirrors, and -sumptuous _cassoni_. Beds, chairs, tables, cabinets, mirror and picture -frames, standing candelabra, bellows, coffers, chests, seats and buffets -(_credenza_), are of the most luxurious nature; and the latter display -magnificent gold and silver work (Cellini is busy at this period), and -marvellous examples of faïence; for, be it remembered, it is also the -period of Luca della Robbia and his school. - -The Italians cared little or nothing for the large chimney-pieces, so -dear to the northern races in their colder climate; and the great seats -by the fireside have also no attractions. The Italian has no oak, nor -half-timbered houses with pointed gables without and heavy beams within: -his woods are walnut, pine and chestnut for ordinary furniture, and -ebony, cedar and cypress for his luxurious articles. His materials, like -his taste, are more decorative than practical. - -Such was the taste that invaded the Low Countries during the -Renaissance; much of it brought home by the Flemish artists who visited -Italy; and some of it coming into the country by way of France, where -Serlio was the guiding spirit, Cellini had settled, and the school of -Fontainebleau was in full blast. - -The characteristic feature of Renaissance furniture consists in the -monumental façade that is like a Roman temple, and various orders of -Classic architecture are superimposed: it is Doric at the base; Doric in -the centre; and Corinthian at the top. The whole is surmounted by a -pediment, the triangle of which is broken in the centre to receive a -bust, vase or statuette. (_See_ Plate VIII.) - -The projections stand out boldly and form sharp cornices. In the panels, -in the supports and between the columns, niches are cut out and framed -in an architectural motive of some kind. In them are figures of heroes -or classic deities. Sometimes also there are round medallions in the -form of dormer windows from which curious heads with outstretched necks -peer forth. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE X.—_Bedroom, by De Vries “Cubiculum.”_ -] - -Ornate pieces of furniture exhibit a whole world of real or imaginary -beings, mingled with garlands of fruits, or flowers, and ribbons. Often -the figures are fantastically developed out of the leaves and floral -branches. The favourite decorative motives are antique columns, -pediments, broken pediments, terms, garlands, pagan deities, classical -heroes, caryatides, grotesque figures, initial letters smothered in -branches of foliage, cartouches, pilasters and arabesques. Gothic -perforations are also used, although they are more geometrical than -during the preceding period. (_See_ Plate X.) The favourite linen-fold -pattern dies very hard. Strips of leather called “_cuirs_,” variously -folded and plaited, enjoy a great vogue. (_See_ panel on Plates XXI and -XX). The _encoinçon_ (_see_ Figs. 17 and 18) is also popular; and the -“_compartiment_” appears in hundreds of designs. The compartment ceiling -is a favourite room decoration, and is often ornamented with roses, -brackets, floral designs and monograms. A compartment ceiling of -intricate design appears in Plate XXIV. - -The arabesque, which so often forms a central motive, is usually in the -form of a flower stem, a knot of ribbon or a candelabra, symmetrically -arranged with branches to right and left, and charged with trophies, -vases, fantastic beings, animals, etc., at the caprice of the artist. -These delicate ornaments flourish in the panels, mingling with the horn -of plenty, bold sirens, and medallions of antique heroes in high relief. - -The arabesque was beautifully treated by many artists, but the most -successful were Marc Gerard, a celebrated painter, sculptor and -architect of Bruges, and Lucas van Leyden whose style of treating -arabesques follows Albrecht Dürer. Examples of Lucas van Leyden appear -in Figs. 10, 11 and 12. - -The pilaster is a decorative necessity of the upright, marking the -division of the façades, or accenting the uprights of the chests, -chairs, _dressoirs_, etc. - -The cartouche (Italian _cartoccio_) scrolled paper, is generally -composed of a frame made of mouldings, or scrolls, enclosing a plain, -convex, or concave space, of regular or irregular form intended for an -inscription, coat of arms, cypher, etc. Vredemann de Vries and Theodore -de Bry decorate their cartouches with swags of fruits, which were copied -by Gerrit Hessels, a Dutch engraver whose compositions mark the -transition between those artists and Crispin de Passe, Francouart and -the school of Rubens. One of the peculiar features of the cartouche of -the sixteenth century is the use of motives composed of strips of -leather twisted, and variously decorated. Vredemann de Vries calls these -“Compartments” in his well-known _Multarum variarumque protractionum -(compartimenta vulgus pictorum vocat) libellus utilissimus, jam recens -delineatus per Johannem Vreedemanum, Frisium Gerardus Judaeus -exculpebat_ (Antwerp MDLV). - -This peculiar style of leather ornamentation known as _cuirs_, and -consisting of strips interlaced in so many forms, is a much loved -decoration of the Flemish school. A notable collection of _cuirs_ was -published by Jerome Cock, the printer-engraver, in Antwerp, his native -town. - -Among the favourite decorations is the banderole, the floating ribbon or -streamer which had been much used during the Middle Ages. It was used in -great variety by many artists during the Renaissance. - -The peculiar form of caryatid called _gaîne_ or _terme_, a species of -support, is also extremely popular. It is used by Peter Coeck of Alost, -in most of his compositions; and by his pupil Vredemann de Vries, who -composed a special collection of _Caryatides ou termes_. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XI.—_Flemish Bedstead_ (1580). - - Figs. 10–12: Designs by LUCAS VAN LEYDEN; Figs. 13–16: Designs by A. - CLACES; Figs. 17–18: ÉCOINÇON, by DE VRIES. -] - -In studying the furniture of the early Renaissance, the works of the -masters of design are most important aids. Before 1500, as we have seen, -publications of purely decorative design, and even of architecture as a -whole, are exceedingly scarce. From the opening of the sixteenth -century, however, such publications rapidly multiply. Interior -decorators who used the chisel in panel and pillar, and the contemporary -joiners and cabinet-makers decorated their surfaces with details and -motives taken from the Italians, and from the designs of native -goldsmiths, engravers, painters and architects. As we have seen, it was -no uncommon thing for one individual to be an adept in all these -branches. - -Therefore, the decorations of the designers of the early Renaissance -have a special interest for us when we want to see what motives -supplanted Gothic tracery, Biblical scenes and angels on carved chests, -_credences_, _armoires_, beds and seats. - -The first decorative designers who adopted the style of the Renaissance -were Alaert Claas, Lucas van Leyden and Cornelis Bos. Claas (painter and -engraver) worked in Utrecht from 1520 to 1555. Lucas van Leyden (painter -and engraver), whose family name was Damesz, was born in Leyden in 1494 -and died in 1533. Cornelis Bos (glass painter, architect and engraver), -was born in Bois-le-Duc about 1510. He worked in Rome and was famous -from 1530 to 1560. Another artist and engraver who belonged to the same -school of decorative art was Martin van Heemskerck (1494–1574). He -worked and died in Haarlem. - -A mascaron with typical floral scroll-work dated 1523, the work of Lucas -van Leyden, appears in Fig. 10. Another decorative composition with -grotesque sirens and floral scrolls in Fig. 11, also by the same master, -is dated 1528. A third and very graceful design of the same date by -Lucas van Leyden is shown in Fig. 12. Decorations for panels, or other -flat surfaces in wood, stone or goldsmith’s work are represented in -Figs. 13 and 14 and Figs. 15 and 16; these are by Alaert Claas (or -Claasen). - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE RENAISSANCE: PART II - - Second Period of the Renaissance—Court of Mary of Hungary—Charles V a - Fleming—Influence of Burgundian Court in Spain—Gilded Leather— - Wealth of the Nobles in the Netherlands—Margaret of Valois at - Namur—Antwerp in the Sixteenth Century—Christopher Plantin— - Cornelius and James Floris—Jerome Cock—Hans and Paul de Vries— - Jacques van Noye—Famous Designers—Characteristics of the Second - Period of the Renaissance—Bedsteads, Tables and Chairs, Armoires, - Cabinets and Chests—Porcelain, Glass and Glass Cupboards—Windows - and Glass-painters—Guicciardini on the Artists of the Low - Countries—Paul de Vries—Crispin de Passe the Elder—the Collaerts— - Wood-carving—Music and Musical Instruments. - - -The first half of the sixteenth century in western Europe was completely -filled with the ambitions, intrigues and wars of three powerful -sovereigns—Charles V, Francis I and Henry VIII. Each of these was a -chivalrous and luxurious monarch, devoted to the arts, science and -literature. At their courts, the Renaissance received every -encouragement; and at their death, half-way through the century, the -Renaissance is generally regarded as entering on its second period. -Henry and Francis both died in 1547, and Charles in 1558. - -On the death of Margaret of Austria in 1530, Charles had intrusted the -government of his Burgundian inheritance to his sister, Mary of Hungary. -She was as liberal a patron of the arts as her aunt Margaret had been. -She kept a splendid court, and was entirely in sympathy with the new -school. The artists who were struggling against foreign influence could -not look to Mary for support. The stream of Flemish pilgrims to Rome was -constantly broadening; and the Romanists under her Regency gained -disciples daily in Brussels, Mechlin, Liège and Antwerp. - -At this period, the Low Countries bowed to no foreign authority in the -art domain except the Italian. It must be borne in mind that Charles was -a prince of the House of Burgundy, who had been brought up by his aunt, -the daughter of the heiress of Burgundy, and the Emperor of Austria. He -was a Fleming by birth and training. He was born at Ghent in 1500, and -spent the first sixteen years of his life in the Netherlands. His pride -in his natal town is well known. It is recorded in his famous pun—that -he could put the whole of Paris in his _Gant_ (glove). Spanish -influence, therefore, did not affect the studios and workshops of the -Flemish hives of industry till late in the century; for when Charles -went to Spain, his train was full of Flemings, who influenced Spanish -art; but we find no return influx of Spaniards to modify Flemish art. -The splendid traditions of the Court of Burgundy still dominated in the -Low Countries; and its unbending formality survives in Spain to-day. -When Philip II joined his father Charles V in Brussels in 1548, his -natural inclination led him readily to adopt the multitudinous equipage -and minute and pompous etiquette of his Burgundian ancestors; all this -he retained and transmitted to his descendants. Till the end of the -century, the Flemish Renaissance was a domestic development of purely -Italian inspiration. The principal things that the Netherlands obtained -from the Iberian peninsula were ornamental leather and Oriental wares, -through Lisbon. - -The Renaissance gave a great impetus to gilded leathers, the manufacture -of which was still flourishing at Cordova and increasing in the -Netherlands. It would seem that workmen emigrated from Spain to other -countries. Tomaso Gazoni in his _Piazza universale_ (1560) writes -regarding gilded leather: “Some people think that the origin of this -noble work is due to Spain, because from that country come the best -masters of modern times who have obtained the greatest renown in this -kind of work.” A native of Cordova, Ambrosio Morales, writing in 1575, -says: “This manufacture brings much wealth to the town, and also gives a -fine appearance to its principal streets. In truth, when these stamped, -painted and gilded leathers are spread out on large tables to dry in the -sun they make a beautiful sight, for the streets are adorned with the -greatest splendour and variety.” - -The inventories of the period show us how important was the use of -leather. Margaret of Austria has at Mechlin in 1527 several pieces of -“_tapisserie de marroquin_,” as we have noted. - -The gilded leather was often called _or bazané_ and regarded as a mark -of opulence. For instance, Pierre Binard, a tapestry-worker and author -of a collection of _Noëls_, dedicated to Marguerite, wife of Henri IV, -says in one of his verses: - - Au moins est-elle bien coëffée - De fins rézeaux? - Et sa couche est-elle estoffée - De beaux rideaux? - Son ciel n’est-il pas de brodeure - Tout campané? - N’a-t-il pas aussi pour bordeure - L’or bazané? - -The nobles vied with royalty in luxury, and the beautiful tapestries, -furniture, gold and silver work, enamels, etc., found ready sale. Such -magnificent homes as the Counts of Egmont excited the anger of the -populace; and those of many successful artists and rich merchants were -hardly inferior. - -The clergy did not suffer either. Granvelle, for example, made Bishop of -Arras, and chief adviser to Philip II in all the affairs of the -Netherlands, had a magnificent establishment. His furniture, tapestry -and other personalty amounted to no less than £50,000. - -Contemporary travellers are constantly speaking of the startling -splendours they encountered in the Low Countries. When Marguerite of -Valois, Queen of Navarre, who was certainly used to splendour, went to -Spa in 1577, with the excuse to drink the waters, but really to intrigue -in Hainault so as to advance the interests of her brother, the Duke -d’Alençon, in the Netherlands, she was received at Namur by Don Juan of -Austria. When this gallant escort, who rode by her litter, escorted the -Queen to her lodgings, she was “astonished at the magnificence of the -apartments.”[3] A superb hall gorgeously furnished led into a series of -chambers. The bedroom and bed prepared for the Queen were hung with -superb tapestries, which, appropriately enough, represented the Battle -of Lepanto. - -Footnote 3: - - _Memoirs of Marguerite de Valois._ - -Antwerp now becomes the centre of commerce, and the town expressed so -much wealth and was so crowded with ships that when the Ambassador from -Venice, Marino Cavalli, landed on the Scheldt, in 1551, he exclaimed in -amazement: “Venice is surpassed!” In 1567, Guicciardini wrote: “One word -alone can define the number of trades exercised in Antwerp; it is the -word _all_!” - -In 1560, Antwerp numbered three hundred and sixty painters and -sculptors: artists and decorators flocked thither, and many new -industries were likewise attracted; for instance, Piccol Passo of Urbino -established a factory for Italian majolica; Amould van Ort of Nimeguen, -the celebrated stained-glass maker, transplanted his workshops; Jahn de -Lame of Cremona, Murano glass; and Christopher Plantin of Tours -(1514–89), his printing-presses, from which so many books of decorative -design were issued. He settled in Antwerp in 1549; but from 1576 to the -present day, the business has been conducted in the house known as the -Musée Plantin-Moretus, in the Marché du Vendredi. Plantin’s son-in-law -Moretus or Moerentorf, succeeded him. In 1876, this house, with its -antique furniture, pictures, tapestries and other collections, was -bought by the city of Antwerp for a Museum. The greater part of the -furniture, staircases, mantelpieces, etc., date from the seventeenth -century; but despite this fact and many restorations, this house affords -an interesting picture of the dwelling and office of a rich Fleming of -the sixteenth century. The printing offices are untouched, and two of -the rooms are hung with gilt Spanish leather of the sixteenth century. - -In the last chapter we brought the masters of Decorative Art down to the -middle of the sixteenth century. After these came Cornelius and James -Floris, whose family name was de Vriendt. The head of the family, -Cornelius de Vriendt, a stone-cutter, used the name of his grandfather, -Floris de Vriendt, a member of the Guild _des Quatres-Couronnes_ in -1476. Cornelius had four sons: John, a potter, who settled in Spain; -Frans Floris (1518?-70), a painter; James (1524–81), a celebrated -glass-painter; and Cornelius (1514–74), a sculptor and architect, who -was responsible for the Antwerp Town Hall, the house of the Hanseatic -League, the tabernacle of Léan and the rood-loft of the Cathedral of -Tournay. - -James was also a skilful engraver, and was particularly noted for his -panels, or compartments, which in his day were such favourite designs. -His drawings were edited by Jerome Cock, and obtained a great success. - -Jerome Cock produced a great deal of decorative design in the second -half of this century. His figures are graceful and well disposed, and -his draperies and garlands of fruits and flowers are charmingly -effective. Two of his designs for goldsmiths’ work are reproduced on -Plate XIX and Plate XX. - -Cornelius and James Floris developed a new style, still known in -Flanders as the Floris style. The school included many able designers -whose names still survive, including that of Vredemann de Vries. The -ornamentation is principally composed of “_cuirs_” cut into various -shapes and rolled, accompanied by a mixture of figures, animals, birds, -flowers and fruits, all tied together by ornamental motives, ribbons, -draperies, etc., a form of decoration which the Flemish masters carried -to its highest point of perfection. - -It was the custom of the day for these masters of ornament to supply -designs for furniture when “the newest thing out” was required. Their -designs that have survived consist chiefly of grotesques, cartouches, -“_cuirs_,” panels, compartments, friezes, trophies, “_pendeloques_” and -other goldsmiths’ motives. Contemporary with Floris were Hans Liefrinck -(1510–80); Cornelis Matsys (1500–56); Jerome Cock (1510–70); John -Landenspelder (_b._ 1511); Adrian Collaert (_b._ 1520); Hans Collaert -(1540–1622). These all worked at Antwerp. - -The most famous designers of the Renaissance, however, were the De -Vrieses, father and son, Hans and Paul. Hans Vredemann de Vries, -painter, architect, sculptor, designer, and poet, was born at Leeuwarden -in Friesland (whence his name) in 1527. For five years he studied in -Amsterdam in the studio of Reijnier Gerritsz, the painter, and he -studied architecture under Coeck of Alost. His pictures are valued -highly and are crowded with architectural details. He also studied -painting on glass. Owing to his special aptitudes and varied knowledge, -as well as the skill with which he treated the different styles of -architecture and ornamentation, he may be said to sum up in himself the -great period of the Flemish Renaissance. - -Vredemann published a great many collections of designs that are highly -valued for the interesting studies they present of the Flemish Art of -the Renaissance. His sons, Paul and Solomon, followed his style. - -De Vries was famous for his leather ornamentation (_cuirs_) and his -_encoinçons_, which apply to oval frames and ornament the corners of -twelve of his twenty-one oval plates among the fifty composing the -collection, _Variae Architecturae formae a Joanne Vredemanni Vriesio, -magno artis hujus studiosorum commodo inventae_. (_See_ Figs. 17 and -18.) - -In his own country, he was called the king of architects. He may be -called the Dutch Du Cerceau. He was contemporary with Du Cerceau; and -was apparently greatly influenced by the work of the latter, or it may -be that they both got their inspiration from the same Italian source. A -comparison of the work of the two masters will show individuality in De -Vries. His designs are not so light and graceful as the Frenchman’s. -Besides all kinds of architecture, gardens, wells, fountains, vases, -armour and decorative work for goldsmiths, he designed _Differents -Pourtraicts de Menuiserie à sçavoir_, _Portaux_, _Bancs_, _Tables_, -_Escabelles_, _Buffets_, _Frises_, _Corniches_, _Licts de camp_, -_Ornements à prendre à l’essuoir les mains_, _Fontaines à laver les -mains_. This collection of designs appeared about 1580, and forms a most -valuable record for those who desire to study the style of the early -Renaissance in the Netherlands. It is noticeable that the change is not -so much in the general form of the furniture as in the ornamentation. As -an example, let us take the bedroom (Plate X). This was published in -1580; but it evidently belongs to the transitional period, since the -furniture reveals almost as many Gothic as Renaissance features. - -It will be noticed that De Vries expressly styles his design a _modern_ -bedroom; so that it deserves study as the latest novelty about the -middle of the sixteenth century. The first thing that strikes one is -that though the ornamental details of Gothic tracery have almost -disappeared, yet the linen-fold in the panelling is everywhere. Even the -_dressoir_ on the left with its Classic columns and spiralled caryatides -has Gothic panels; and the presses between the fireplace and the window -have Gothic panels with a Renaissance daïs. The long heavy chests that -serve as benches also belong to Mediaeval days. The massive table looks -transitional also. It is also to be noticed that the furniture cannot -yet be designated as “moveables”; it is still an integral part of the -carpentry work that lines the walls of the room. The chair beside the -bed is the sole note that tones down its severity. At the time the plate -was published (1580), the Renaissance was in full flower, and its -interest for us lies chiefly in the disposition of the furniture and the -evidence it supplies of Gothic tenacity. The floor is tessellated -diagonally with squares of wood or stone. The chimney-piece with its -funnel-shaped top is essentially the same as represented in miniatures -of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The _credence_ or _dressoir_ -is opposite to the door, the bed, well protected by woodwork and -curtains against draughts, is close to the fireplace, and the table in -front of the window. A general effect of coldness is noticeable, due to -the almost total lack of upholstery; but this is doubtless owing to the -artist’s intent to emphasize the woodwork. - -Though De Vries was the most important designer of furniture in the -Netherlands during the sixteenth century, he was by no means the only -one to influence the taste of the day. There were many architects, -goldsmiths and engravers whose designs contributed to the development of -the Renaissance style. One of these was Jacques van Noye. He was -employed by Cardinal Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, to embellish the palace -in Besançon, built by his father, Sebastian van Noye, also a notable -architect. - -In 1550, Van Noye became architect of Philip II; and called to Spain by -the King, died in Madrid. One of his important works was the palace that -the Cardinal erected at Brussels on the Coperbeke. - -Other designers in decorative art who lived during the second half of -the sixteenth century were Mark Geraerts (1530–90); Hendrick van Schoel; -Martin de Vos (1531–1603); G. Tielt (1580–1630); Cornelius Grapheus -(1549-?); Baltazar Silvius (_circ._ 1554); Guilhelmus de la Queweelerie -(_circ._ 1560); Peter Miricenis (1520–66); Hans Bol (1535–93); Abraham -de Bruyn (1538-?); Crispin de Passe, the Elder (1536-?); Peter van der -Borcht (1540–1608); Peter Baltens (1540–79); Paul van Wtanvael (_circ._ -1570); Nicholas de Bruyn (1560–1635); Clement Perrete (_circ._ 1569); -Assuerus van Londerseel (_b._ 1548); Jerome Wierix (_b._ 1551); John -Wierix (_b._ 1550); John Sadeler (1550–1610); Raphael Sadeler -(1555–1628); Ægidius Sadeler (1570–1629); Dominic Custode (_b._ 1560); -Ger. Groningus; Cornelis Galle (1570–1641); Philip Galle (1537–1612); -Theodore Galle (_b._ 1560); Cornelis Dankherts (_b._ 1561); John Sambuci -(_circ._ 1574); Francis Sweert (_circ._ 1690); Jodocus Hondius -(1563–1611); James Hannervogt, and some anonymous engravers. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 19: BED, by J. STRADEN; Figs 20–22: TABLES, by DE VRIES; Fig. 23: - CHAIR AND FOOTSTOOL, by DE VRIES; Figs. 24–25: FLEMISH CHAIRS. -] - -Of the above, the most prolific were the Galles. They were particularly -rich in frames, but their ornamentation already shows signs of the -Decadence; and the work of Philip alone shows traces of the pure -Renaissance. Most of these masters of ornamental design were natives of, -or were attracted to, Antwerp; though some of them travelled far afield. -Custode worked at Augsburg; Ægidius Sadeler died at Prague; Geraerts -died in England; Cornelius Bos worked in Rome; and Crispin de Passe, the -Elder, worked in Utrecht, Amsterdam, Cologne, Paris and London. - -In the second period of the Renaissance, the general effect is more -severe and geometrical; the projections are more restrained, and the -general form of furniture more rectangular. The vertical lines are more -conspicuous than the horizontal lines; and columns with elongated shafts -and delicate flutings or grooves replace human figures that in the first -period of the Renaissance act as uprights and supports. The bed on Plate -XIV is a good example of the second period. - -There is also during the second period a great, and often elegant, use -of ceramics. Some pieces of furniture, particularly cabinets, are -decorated with incrustations of stones, amber, enamelled work and even -Venetian glass. - -Gothic decoration still lingers for a time in the ordinary bedsteads -(_see_ Plate X) but those of the new fashion show all the popular -ornaments of the Renaissance. Caryatides sometimes appear as columns; -and sometimes and ever more frequently as time wears on, slender pillars -cut in the form of balusters, lances or distaffs, often grooved, and -more or less decorated with carving. Later in the century, the columns -are frequently enveloped in the same material as the hangings, which -become so important that the sculptor and joiner give place to the -upholsterer and embroiderer. The beds are so high, or built so high with -mattresses, that it is impossible to get into them without the aid of -bed-steps. - -A glance at Plate II will inform us that the bed of the fifteenth -century depends more for its effect upon the curtains and other -draperies than on the framework. In the time of the Renaissance, we find -the bedstead of supreme importance. It is carved in the richest fashion, -and is often enriched with gilding and painting; it is also adorned with -marquetry. The mattresses, bolsters and pillows are of down or feathers, -the sheets and blankets of finest linen and wool, for which Flanders is -famous; and the hangings are of silk, velvet, tapestry, serge, or gilded -leather. The Renaissance bed is never allowed to stand in an alcove: it -is far too handsome a piece of furniture for that. Its canopy, often -richly carved, is rectangular and exactly the size of the bed, which is -large; and it is no longer suspended by cords from the ceiling, but -rests on carved or grooved columns. It is usually finished with a -projecting cornice, variously ornamented, and to this cornice the -curtains are attached. In Fig. 19 and Plate XII, we see exactly how -these curtains were hung. These beds, from engravings by J. Stradan -(1578), also show us how the curtains were looped up in the daytime, how -the square pillows were placed formally at the foot of the bed, and the -shape of the round bolster. These beds could be completely enclosed by -curtains. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XII.—_Bedstead, Chairs and Table, by J. Stradan._ -] - -The bed in Fig. 19 is interesting as an example of a Renaissance bed -without supporting corner posts. The canopy and curtains are evidently -suspended from the ceiling by cords in the old style, for there is no -woodwork visible above the carved head-board. This is very unusual and -is doubly interesting as the bed in Plate XII, by the same artist, is -massive in form, and the dome is supported by strong Classic columns. In -the latter design the curtains are looped around the columns and a -pillow is placed on the bolster at the back. The canopy is dome-shaped -and the top of each column is decorated with a “_pomme_,” destined to -develop and survive as a decoration for the bedstead. The head-board is -quite ornate, and the bedstead, like that in Fig. 19, stands upon a low -platform. - -A similar dome-topped bed appears in the inner room in the background of -Plate XXIV. - -One of De Vries’ designs for a bed is reproduced on Plate XIII. It has a -heavy panelled head-board surmounted by a pediment with _pommes_; and -the four supporting posts consist of turned caryatides. The bedstead -proper that holds the mattress and other bedding is supported -independently by vase-shaped legs. The frieze of the canopy is decorated -with scroll-work. In this style of bed, the curtains did not hide the -elaborately carved woodwork; they hung from the cornice and feet -_inside_ the outer posts. The hangings could thus be very sumptuous -without detracting from the effect of the carved woodwork. Plate XIV, -which represents a beautiful bed of this period, massive and richly -carved, shows the same arrangement of curtains. It should be borne in -mind that wherever the framework is richly carved, curtains were never -intended to hide it. This magnificent specimen, from the Rijks Museum, -Amsterdam, is of beautiful proportions. The ornamentation is chaste and -in perfect harmony, consisting of carved panels, cornice and Corinthian -columns. The woodwork is walnut and the hangings are pale blue damask. - -The Plantin Museum in Antwerp contains an _armoire_ and a bed after the -designs of De Vries. - -Another De Vries bed in the now dispersed Minard of Ghent collection had -a canopy and balusters and the central part was arranged in the form of -an _armoire_ with two shutters decorated with low reliefs of religious -subjects. Upon the upper gallery was a cartouche held by two angels, and -on this cartouche the inscription, “Vriese inv. 1565.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XIII.—_Bedstead, by De Vries._ -] - -An interesting example of Renaissance work is the bedstead on Plate XI. -The distaff or lance-shaped columns shoot boldly upward from a floral -calix that stands on the head of a mermaid at the foot, and the head of -a merman at the head of the bed. A frame for a dome-shaped canopy is -connected with the four posts by a tester. The bedstead is panelled and -stands on four large square blocks. In the centre of the headboard is a -cartouche for a coat-of-arms; in the centre of the footboard the head of -a cherub is carved. The peculiar characteristic of the decoration of -this piece of furniture is that the scrolls are all carved in the shape -of the human ear. This is an early example of the _genre auriculaire_, -which was destined to become popular in Flanders and Germany. On this -piece of furniture the ear is omnipresent—on the head and foot board, on -the sweeps of the canopy and on the square feet—wriggling, squirming and -unrestful. - -Folding-beds are frequently mentioned in the inventories. Margaret of -Austria (1523), had two wooden camp or folding-beds. - -The Flemings were particularly skilful in the production of tables and -chairs. We have now come a long distance from the simple board and -trestles of the past, for we find dining-tables, writing-tables, -bureau-tables, card-tables, chair-tables, bench-tables (_tables à -banc_), round tables, square tables, oval tables, tables that stand on -one foot, tables that stand on three feet, and tables of walnut, oak, -maple, cedar, cypress, marble and even silver. We also find tables of -mosaic work and of marquetry and tables beautifully carved and -embellished with gold. - -The drawing-table was much in vogue. It was composed of extra leaves -superimposed on lower ones that could be drawn forward so that the top -leaves could fall into the space they made and form with the lower -leaves, thus lengthened, one continuous surface. The mechanism by which -these leaves were lengthened and dropped was very intricate and -ingenious. Jacques Wecker, a physician of Colmar, in his treatise _De -Secretis_ (Bâle, 1582), says: “One must not despise the make of these -tables that I have often seen in Ghent in Flanders.” - -The tables designed by De Vries and reproduced in Figs. 20, 21 and 22, -are a great advance on the one that appears in his _Cubiculum_. (Plate -X.) The form is much the same as those in Figs. 20 and 21, but the -linenfold has given way to panels and pilasters of pure Renaissance -character and the corner supports of sphinxes and animals and vases have -no memory of the Gothic age. Fig. 22 shows us a table of an entirely -different character. It is much lighter and has drawers. With its -foot-rails it is well adapted for a dining-table. - -A much more ornate specimen of this period called a “fan-shaped table,” -(“_table à l’éventail_”) is owned by the Dijon Museum. It is of -Burgundian workmanship. The support, which still shows traces of -gilding, is formed of an eagle with outspread wings standing between two -winged chimaera with lions’ paws, these paws connected with a -straining-rail, or stretcher. The open-work shelf is ornamented with -leaves and a mascaron, and the two upper and lower straining rails are -ornamented with a very clearly defined and handsome decoration. The top -of the table is surrounded by a thread of marquetry. - -Folding-tables were also in use; in Margaret of Austria’s inventory, -mention is made of “a little table in the Spanish fashion which opens -and closes.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XIV.—_Bedstead._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -Chairs are still heavy and carved more or less richly. Two typical -specimens appear in Plate XII. As shown in these examples, the seats and -backs were often covered with stamped leather, velvet, silk, or some -woollen material and ornamented with tassels. The covers are tacked to -the frame by means of large-headed nails that also form part of the -decoration. A chair and footstool by Vredemann de Vries, of very -characteristic model, are shown in Fig. 23. The chair is three-cornered, -with a triangular seat, and the legs are connected with straining-rails. -It much resembles the _voyeuse_ of which Cardinal Mazarin had several; -and which was again popular in the days of Louis XVI, in France and -elsewhere. It was essentially a chair for a man, who faced the back and -rested his arms on the top rail. - -A Flemish chair of the second half of the sixteenth century is -reproduced in Figs. 24 and 25. This is pure Renaissance in its simplest -and certainly its least elegant form. The legs consist of Doric columns -connected by stretchers close to the ground. The back slants, and is of -somewhat confused carved decoration consisting of a mascaron and Classic -architectural and floral motives. - -When not built in the panels of the room, the _armoire_ bears a very -close likeness to the large double cabinet with doors, which is, as we -have seen, merely a chest-upon-chest, and which we shall find developing -into the great Dutch _kas_ of the seventeenth century. Plate XV shows -the great double cabinet, or _armoire_, of the Renaissance with carved -panels, pillars and caryatides. This stands on ball feet. It is of the -same period as the bed represented in Plate XIV. - -A magnificent specimen of the late sixteenth century, now in the _Musée -des Arts Décoratifs_, Paris, is reproduced in Plate XVIII. This is in -two stories and is frankly architectural. The doors of the _armoire_, or -cabinet, are decorated to look like windows, and the niches and -pilasters lend their aid in making the front of this piece of furniture -look like the façade of a handsome Renaissance residence. - -Cabinets or _armoires_ designed by De Vries are reproduced in Plate XIX -and Plate XX. As usual, we have a large choice in central and side -supports, pediments and panels. There is a good variety of mascarons for -the cabinet-maker to select from. It will be noticed that the “_cuirs_,” -so popular with the designers of the period, enter largely into the -decoration of the doors and drawers. - -Spanish influence was now making itself felt. Hispano-Flemish carving -appears on many a panel and drawer front towards the end of this -century. Characteristic carving of this style is shown in Fig. 26 and -Fig. 27. - -Perhaps of all kinds of furniture, Flanders excelled in making cabinets. -Antwerp was especially renowned for them. The cabinet is, of course, an -object of special luxury, for the display of little articles of value -possessed only by the rich. Whether carved or inlaid, its shelves were -lined with crimson velvet, cloth of gold, green taffeta, or beautifully -tooled leather; and very frequently silvered ribbon twined into a kind -of geometrical lattice-work into the initials or monogram of the owner -of the cabinet was hung behind the glass and supplied with hooks from -which jewels, watches, pocket-mirrors and other pretty trinkets were -suspended. A cabinet collection in the sixteenth century included -watches, jewels, rings, bracelets, necklaces, pearls from the Orient, -gold and silver work, buttons, perfumed gloves, costly musk and amber, -scent-bottles, pomanders on handsome chains, small scissors, pocket -knives, pocket mirrors, coral beads, rosaries of rock-crystal, little -books, _eau de Damas_, _eau de rose_, _eau d’oeillet_, and other -delicate essences, medals, little pictures, rare stones, fans, etc. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XV.—_Armoire._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -French noblemen had such a fancy for collecting Flemish cabinets that -Henri IV sent French workmen to the Netherlands to learn the art of -making these choice pieces of furniture, and particularly the trick of -carving in ebony. On their return, he established them in the Louvre. -The first was Laurent Stabre; another was Pierre Boulle (uncle of the -great André Charles Boulle), supposed to be of Flemish origin. Jean -Macé, who called himself “_menuisier-ébéniste de Blois_,” was also given -a studio in the Louvre, “on account of his long practice of this art in -the Low Countries, and the skill he has shown in his cabinet-work in -ebony and other woods of various colours that he has presented to the -Regent Queen.” - -Another cabinet-maker who lived in the Louvre was Pierre Golle, a native -of the Netherlands, whose name was originally Goler, and who left -Holland at Mazarin’s request to settle in Paris. He made various -artistic pieces for the Dauphin, the great Cardinal and other patrons of -art. - -Burgundy was also remarkable for its cabinets, and made a specialty of -wall-cabinets that hung at the sides of a room on invisible supports. A -famous specimen of Burgundian work was bought several years ago at the -Soltykoff sale by the Baron Sellières, for no less than 16,500 francs! -It was a large double cabinet, the two parts of nearly equal dimensions, -both ornately carved with satyrs, fruits, garlands, palms, Tritons and -Nereids. - -The chest is as important as ever. It is found in every room in the -house. In it are kept household linen, clothing and many treasures and -gifts. When the top is flat, in which case the article is still called -_huche_, it often serves as a seat. Although the chest is finely carved -in the sixteenth century, it never attains the sumptuousness nor the -delicacy of either _dressoir_ or cabinet; it always remains a robust -piece of furniture. It is decorated with architectural motives, -fantastic arabesques, panels ornamented with bas-reliefs representing -Biblical or mythological scenes, allegorical subjects, pilasters in the -form of terms, and not unfrequently mascarons. Sometimes chests are -covered with stamped leather and sometimes decorated with marquetry. - -Flemish chests were in great demand in France. In an inventory, we learn -that Marguerite des Bordes, Bordeaux, had, in 1589, a “_bahut de -Flandres_,” barred with iron bands, two locks and keys; George Beaunon, -a merchant of Bordeaux, had, in 1607, “more than one _coffre de -Flandres_,” garnished with bands of white iron and three little -“_cassettes de boys de Flandres_” were owned by Nicholas Lemerotel of -St. Malo in 1638. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XVI.—_Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries._ -] - -Porcelain as yet was very rare, though kings and rich nobles had a few -pieces of this ware on their shelves. Philip II had quite a respectable -collection of ceramics, and wealthy Flemings were always fond of foreign -and domestic wares of this nature. Palissy was at work and his -productions were highly prized. The Netherlands had a brisk trade by sea -with Portugal, and through Lisbon considerable quantities of porcelain -were finding their way into the cupboards of the wealthy. Venetian glass -also was highly prized, so that we are not astonished to find De Vries -devoting a good deal of attention to designing _vitrines_, or small -cupboards with glass fronts, for the preservation and safe display of -glass, china and earthenware. In many instances, these were elaborately -carved with all the Renaissance ornamentation. Four handsome glass -cupboards or _vitrines_, designed by De Vries, are shown in Plate XVI -and Plate XVII. In the centre of the broken pediments, we see Bacchus -and Cupid. The supporting sides consist of Classic columns, pilasters or -caryatides; and all the decoration is in harmony with the rest of the -furniture of this period. - -On looking over the pictures by the great artists of the Netherlands, we -cannot help noticing their delight in painting glass. The play of light -and shade, and direct and reflected rays in flasks, bottles, vases, -goblets and wine glasses of varied form strongly appealed to the great -masters of _genre_ and still life. - -The Flemings of the sixteenth century undoubtedly manufactured much -glass for home consumption and export. England took all they and Germany -and France could supply. Queen Elizabeth tried to attract glass-blowers -to settle in her realm. The first recorded name to accept the invitation -is that of Cornelius de Launoy. In 1567, the Queen sent to the Low -Countries for Jean Quarré, a native of Antwerp, and other workers in -glass, to establish a factory for making the same kind of glass as -existed in France. - -The windows not only of churches but of civic and palatial buildings -were beautified with the work of great artists. Even in more modest -dwellings, the windows of the hall, studio, or living-room were -decorated with the coat-of-arms of the owner. - -Designs for painted windows formed by no means an unimportant part of -the activities of a great artist; in fact, they held the same rank as -cartoons for tapestry. In 1567, Guicciardini notes as follows: - -“But it is also proper to mention some eminent artists in encaustic or -painting on glass, inasmuch as this department has also its pretensions -to importance; and Vasari has observed that the Flemings have brought it -to perfection. For, not to dwell on the beauty and vivacity of the -colours, they invented the mode of burning them into the glass, so as to -be safe from the corrosion of water, wind and even time; which was not -the case when they were only tempered with gum and some other mixture. -And the Flemings also invented the manner of making leaden casements. - -“The first eminent painters on glass were Arnold van Hordt of Nymwegen, -and a citizen of Antwerp, a great imitator of the Italian school and the -first inventor of the art of burning colours into crystalline glass. -Theodore Jacobs Felaet, an artist of eminent invention; Theodore Stass -of Campen; John Ack of Antwerp, who executed the windows in St. Gudule’s -Church and the Chapel of the Sacrament at Brussels; Cornelis of -Bois-le-Duc. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XVII.—_Glass Cupboard, or Vitrine, by De Vries._ -] - -“There still flourish Cornelis Dale, who, with singular art, burns any -colours, not only into glass, but into crystal, so that they appear like -painting in oil; and his designs are elegant; Jodoc Vereg, a skilful -artist, employed by the Emperor; James Florence, all of Antwerp. John -Stass, son of the above Theodore and the heir of his father’s talents; -John Zele of Utrecht. Nor in architecture and sculpture have excellent -artists been wanting in the Netherlands. Such were Sebastian Oje of -Utrecht, the celebrated architect to Charles V, and afterwards to Philip -his son. He, to his great praise, planned the fortifications of Hesdin, -Charlmont, and Philipville, strong towns on the frontiers. William Keur -of Gouda, a good architect, a superior sculptor. Among others were John -Dale, a sculptor and poet; Lucas van Leyden, a celebrated engraver -(1495–1533); William of Antwerp, a famous architect. There still -flourish James Bruck of St. Omers, a man of noble birth and an excellent -sculptor and architect, who, while the Queen of Hungary governed the -Netherlands, planned Bossu and Marimont and some grand buildings. John -Bologne of Douay, his disciple, now employed by the Duke of Florence. -John Minsheeren of Ghent, an excellent architect and sculptor, whose son -Lucas, is an eminent painter, the inventor of many things and excels in -poetry; Matthew Mandemaker of Antwerp, a famous sculptor, in the service -of the King of the Romans; Cornelis Florence, brother of Francis, an -excellent sculptor and architect, diligent and attentive, who has the -praise of first bringing from Italy the art of accurately rendering the -insides of caves called by the Italians _grotescas_. Henry Paschen of -Antwerp, an excellent architect, who designed the Palace and office of -the Hansa towns in Antwerp, and was afterwards called to London to plan -the Exchange; Lambert Suaf of Liège, a good architect and engraver; -James Iongeling of Antwerp, an excellent sculptor and statuary, who -lately made those wonderful brass statues of the seven planets and -Bacchus which the magistrates of Antwerp presented to the Prince of -Parma; William Paludan, brother of the above Henry, a great and accurate -sculptor, whose son Raphael is also of high repute; John Sart of -Nymegen, an excellent sculptor, as are Simon of Delft and Jodoc Janson -of Amsterdam; George Robins of Yperen, Theodore Volcart Cornhert and -Philip Galle, both of Haarlem, exquisite engravers.” - -Guicciardini continues: “The others it would be prolix to enumerate,” -and informs us that most of these artists visit Italy. “Some return -loaded with wealth and honour to their native country,” while “others go -to Great Britain and Germany, but chiefly to Denmark, Sweden, Norway, -Poland and even Muscovy, not to mention those who, allured by honours -and rewards, visit France, Spain and Portugal.” - -The younger De Vries (Paul), was born at Antwerp in 1554. He designed -_Plusieurs menuiseries comme Portaulx, Garderobes, Buffets, Chalicts, -Tables, Arches, Selles, Bancs, Escabelles, Rouleaux à pendre, touailles, -Casses à vertes et beaucoup d’autres ouvrages_. The style of furniture -shown in the works of the De Vrieses lasted till Rubens arose. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XVIII.—_Flemish Armoire._ - - Figs. 26–27: HISPANO-FLEMISH DRAWERS. -] - -Crispin de Passe, or Van der Passe the elder, was born in Arnemuiden -about 1560, and was a pupil of Dirk Coornhert (born in Amsterdam in -1522, died in Gouda in 1590). He left a great number of compositions and -many remarkable portraits painted in Germany, France, and England, as -well as in Holland. A writer, too, of considerable merit, he published -many works which he illustrated with his own engravings. In 1585, he -became a member of the Guild of St. Luke of Antwerp. Being such a fine -engraver, it is not astonishing to find that he excelled in -_niello_-work. His composition in this medium, representing “The Five -Senses,” resembles in its delicacy the lace, embroidery and -incrustations of ivory of the same period. His patterns, sometimes in -relief and sometimes in depression, sometimes in white and sometimes in -black, are very beautiful. Crispin de Passe had three sons: Crispin -(born in Utrecht in 1585); William (1590); and Simon (1591), all of whom -were excellent engravers. His daughter, Madeleine (born 1583), was also -a good engraver. - -Among the famous engravers also were the Collaerts. Adrian Collaert, -born in Antwerp in 1560, was admitted to the Guild of St. Luke in 1580, -and died in 1618. He studied in Italy and on his return composed and -engraved many designs of great merit. His son, Hans, born in Antwerp, -was also a designer and engraver of note. He worked until 1622. His son, -William, was a famous engraver. - -Adrian Collaert’s designs for goldsmith’s work, silver plate and all -artistic products of that nature had a great vogue, and worthily -represent the decorations of the Flemish Renaissance. Two of his -characteristic designs are reproduced in Plate XXI and Plate XXII. - -Wood-carving continued to be one of the glories of Flemish Art. -Sixteenth century pulpits, bishops’ thrones and choir-stalls still exist -in many of the old churches. The names of some of the masters of the -chisel who executed these beautiful works have been preserved, and may -properly be recalled here. - -St. Martin’s Church at Ypres contains beautiful stalls carved by Victor -Taillebert. He received four thousand florins in payment for his work. - -Colyn van Cameryck made a magnificent marble mantelpiece for the Kampen -Town Hall. The work was done between 1543 and 1545. - -Jean van der Scheldein, carpenter and sculptor, made a monumental door -in the Hôtel de Ville, Oudenarde, in the Renaissance style in 1531. This -is ornamented with columns, a pediment, figures and rectangular panels -adorned with arabesques in the best taste and with masterly execution. - -Peter van Dulcken carved the beautiful stalls for the _échevins_, and -the balustraded screen of the Nimeguen Town Hall, in the second half of -the sixteenth century. These are the finest that have escaped -destruction except those of the Kampen Town Hall, which are even more -elaborate. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XIX.—_Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s - Work, by Jerome Cock._ -] - -The Netherlands early enjoyed a reputation for music, and from about -1450 to 1550 the most celebrated “_maîtres de chapelle_” came from the -Low Countries. They were engaged in the churches and in the courts of -kings and establishments of the nobility in France, Germany, Italy, -Hungary, Denmark and Spain. Guicciardini says they had brought music “to -a state of perfection,” and praises the melodious songs of the men and -the skill of the women who played all kinds of instruments. He also pays -tribute to their knowledge of harmony and proficiency in composition and -says that Flemish musicians are at the “Court of every Christian -prince,” and he then gives a list of famous musicians of the Low -Countries. These are “Giovanni del Tintore di Nivelli, Iusquino di Pres, -Obrecht Ockegem, Ricciafort, Adriano Willaert, Giovanni Monton, -Verdelot, Gomberto Lupus Lupi, Cortois Crequillon, Clementi non Papa and -Cornelio Canis.” To these, “who are now dead,” he adds the following -list of living celebrities: Cipriano de Rove, Gian le Coick, Filippo de -Monti, Orlando di Lassus, Mancicourt, Iusquino Baston, Christiano -Hollando, Giaches di Waet, Bonmarche, Severino Cornetto, Piero du Hot, -Gherardo di Tornout, Huberto Waelrant, Giachetto di Berckem vicino -d’Anversa, Andrea Peuermage and Cornelio Verdonk and “many other masters -of music who are celebrated throughout the world.” - -This universal love of music is attested by the Dutch and Flemish -masters. In tavern scenes, as well as scenes of domestic and social -life, musical instruments are frequently introduced. To catalogue the -works of Jan Steen, Terborch, Teniers, Metsu, Van Mieris and other -painters of the seventeenth century directly inspired by music, such as -musical parties, harpsichord lessons, duets, lute-players, ladies at the -spinet, etc., would be quite a task. - -No home of wealth was complete without musical instruments, and owing to -the exquisite paintings with which the case and top, both inside and -out, were ornamented, the clavecin, harpsichord, or spinet was -frequently the handsomest and costliest piece of furniture in the house. -The case and legs were subject to changes in fashion. Sometimes the -stand is simple with heavy ball feet connected by stretchers, as shown -in Plate XXIII, a _Lady Playing the Spinet_, by J. M. Molenaer, in the -Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. Sometimes the instrument stands on baluster -legs and arches; and sometimes case and stand are of lacquer in the -prevailing taste for the Chinese style. The top was always delicately -painted, as shown in the picture just referred to; and it is interesting -to note that in nearly every case where a lady is playing an instrument, -she rests her foot upon a foot-warmer. - -Without being able to see the internal mechanism, it is difficult to -define the precursors of the pianoforte from their outward appearance in -the pictures. - -These instruments were so beautifully decorated that the clavecin-makers -of Antwerp ranked as artists and became members of the St. Luke’s Guild -of that city. They were first enrolled as “painters and sculptors,” and -not as clavecin-makers. - -According to a pamphlet entitled _Recherches sur les Facteurs de -Clavecins et les Luthiers d’Anvers_, by the Chevalier Léon de Burbure -(Brussels, 1863), at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the -sixteenth centuries, the clavichord was in greater vogue than the -clavecin, and about 1500 the clavecin had been made into the clavichord -shape in Venice and called the spinet. The new form soon travelled to -the Netherlands and superseded the clavichord. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XX.—_Cabinet, or Armoire, by De Vries; Design for Goldsmith’s - Work, by Jerome Cock._ -] - -A clavecin-maker named Josse Carest or Joos Kerrest was admitted to the -St. Luke’s Guild as “a sculptor and painter of clavichords” as noted in -_De Liggeren en andere Historische Archieven der Antwerpsche Sint -Lucasgilde_, by Rombouts en van Lerius (Antwerp and The Hague, 1872), -and another Carest had been admitted in 1519 as an apprentice painter of -clavecins. In 1557, Josse Carest headed a petition of clavecin-makers to -be admitted to the St. Luke’s Guild as clavecin-makers and not as -painters and sculptors. They were accepted. Their pupils and all who -were subsequently admitted had to exhibit “master-works,” namely: -“clavecins” that were oblong or with bent sides (square or grand, we -should call them now) or to quote directly “_viercante oft gehoecte -clavisimbale_.” These had to be five feet long at least and made in the -workshops of master-experts (two of whom were yearly elected) and to -have the trade mark or device of the maker “_syn eygen marck teecken, -oft wapene_.” This mark, known as rose, rosetta or rosace, usually made -of gilded lead, was placed in the sound-holes. - -The most famous clavecin-makers of Antwerp, and, indeed, of The -Netherlands, were the Ruckers, who worked between 1579 and 1667, or -later. The name is variously written. The most celebrated was Hans -Ruckers, who was admitted a member of the St. Luke’s Guild in 1579 as -“Hans Ruyckers, clavisinbal makerre.” His beautiful instruments were -bought in France and England, as well as in the Low Countries; and it is -thought that Queen Elizabeth owned one. In England they were called -virginals. Many of the Ruckers’ instruments are still in existence, -owned by collectors and museums. The Museum of the Brussels Conservatory -owns an oblong one, dated 1610. This has two keyboards, one above the -other, and consists of 4½ octaves, and white naturals. The Museum of the -Paris Conservatory has one of 5 octaves, black naturals, and bent side, -dated 1590; The Musée du Steen, Antwerp, owns an oblong one dated 1611; -and Messrs. Chappell and Co., of London, have an undated oblong of 4 -octaves. This stands on an arcade with six balusters and is decorated -with fine paintings. A similar instrument on Plate XXIII_a_, by this -maker, is in the Steinert collection at Yale University, U.S.A. It is a -double spinet of four octaves. The painting on the lid represents the -favourite Apollo and Marsyas contest. Above, and below the movable -spinet are painted landscapes with children dancing. The little spinet -on the left, which sets into the spinet proper, is tuned one octave -higher than the one on the right. In performing upon both instruments at -once, the smaller instrument is removed and set upon a table. On the -jack rails of both spinets may be read: “_Johannes Ruqvers me fecit_.” - -Martinus Vander Biest entered the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp in 1558 as -one of the ten clavecin-makers. An oblong clavecin, made by him in -Antwerp is in the Museum at Nuremberg, and is signed and dated Martinus -Vander Biest, 1580. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXI.—_Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert._ -] - -Hans Ruckers the younger, known as Jean, because he used the initials J. -R. in his rose, was also a master in the St. Luke’s Guild of Antwerp. He -made beautiful instruments from 1617 to 1642. These were of both shapes, -bent side and oblong, were furnished with one or two keyboards and were -sometimes decorated with paintings in Vernis Martin. A beautiful example -with two keyboards, 4¾ octaves, black naturals, owned by the Baroness -James de Rothschild. The case and top are black and gold lacquer in the -Chinese style, and the painting inside the top is said to be by Lancret. -It is dated 1630 and inscribed “Joannes Ruckers me fecit, Antverpiae.” -Another by the same maker, also in a black and gold case, is owned by -the South Kensington Museum. This is bent side, has one keyboard and is -dated 1639. The Museum of the Paris Conservatory also owns a bent side -clavecin, made by Jean Ruckers, of two keyboards and 5 octaves. This is -painted outside by Teniers and Brouwer and inside by Breughel and Paul -Bril. To him has also been attributed a spinet in the Cluny Museum with -bent side, one keyboard, 4½ octaves and blackwood case incrusted with -ivory. - -In 1638, the private secretary of Charles I, Sir F. Windebank, had a -long correspondence with a painter named Balthazar Gerbier, then in -Brussels, regarding the purchase of a virginal in Antwerp for the King -of England. Gerbier described one made by Hans Ruckers for the Infanta. -It had a double keyboard and four stops and was beautifully painted. The -picture inside the cover was Cupid and Psyche by Rubens. This instrument -was bought for £30, but was unsatisfactory on account of insufficient -compass. Gerbier was asked to exchange it, but he wrote back that the -maker had not another on sale. - -Andries Ruckers, another son of the elder Hans, was born in 1579. In -1619, the Guild of St. Luke ordered a clavecin from him. The Museum of -the Brussels Conservatory owns one dated 1613, with one keyboard and -four octaves. The Musée Archéologique of Bruges owns a bent side one, -dated 1624, of 5 octaves and 3 stops, and the Musée du Steen, Antwerp -has a bent side one, undated, with 3 stops and two keyboards, the lower -one 4 octaves and the upper 3¾ octaves. In the South Kensington Museum -there is another by Andries Ruckers, said to have been Handel’s. This is -dated 1651, and inscribed _Sic transit Gloria Mundi_ and _Acta Virum -Probant_. On the belly of the instrument, of the bent side shape, a -concert of monkeys is represented. One monkey is conducting. - -Andries Ruckers the younger, born in 1617, married a daughter of Dirck -de Vries, also a clavecin-maker. The Château de Perceau, near Cosné, -owned a bent side clavecin by Andries the younger, dated 1655. Its case -was painted in blue camaïeu in the rococo style. This passed to a -private collector. - -Christofel Ruckers was the last important member of this family of -clavecin-makers. - -A beautifully decorated clavecin occurs in the picture of _The Young -Scholar and His Sister_, by Cocx (Coques) in the Cassel Gallery. The -room is decorated with hangings of blue leather, ornamented with gold, -above which hang pictures in ebony frames. The young man is seated at a -table beneath the window and his sister is at the clavecin opposite. The -latter is exquisitely painted, the top showing the story of Apollo and -Marsyas. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXII.—_Design for Goldsmith’s Work, by Adrian Collaert._ -] - -In the latter part of the sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth -centuries, the bass viol was much played in England, France and the Low -Countries and was called the _viol da gamba_. This instrument frequently -appears in the works of the Dutch masters, in which not unfrequently -ladies are represented playing it, as, for example, in Jan Verkolje’s -(1650–93) _Musical Party_ in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, where the lady -is seated upon a low-backed leather chair with her foot upon a -foot-warmer. The instrument is turned from the spectator. - -The lute, which so frequently appears in early pictures, was superseded -about 1600 by the theorbo, or double-necked lute with two sets of -strings and two sets of tuning pegs. The theorbo is represented in -Terborch’s _Lute-Player_ in The Cassel Gallery; a lute also appears in -Van Mieris’s _The Painter and his Wife_ in the Hague Gallery, a charming -domestic picture, in which the painter is teasing a puppy and its -mother. The lute lies carelessly on the table. - -Brassware contributed very greatly to the brightness and cheerfulness of -an apartment during the Renaissance period as well as during the -centuries before and after. The chandelier with its graceful curves -appears in many a picture; and the best art of the day was devoted to -the hearth-furnishings. Dogs and andirons assumed large proportions and -considerable decorative importance. An interesting Flemish dog of the -sixteenth century is represented in Fig. 28. It is similar to those -metal andirons on the hearth in Plate XXIV. Besides human and animal -figures, this kind of _dinanderie_ assumed many other forms. Other kinds -of _dinanderie_, consisting of candlesticks of human figures in -contemporary costumes are shown in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30. - - - - - CHAPTER V - SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (FLEMISH) - - Renewed Italian Influence—Rubens: his Studio, his House, his Pupils, - his Influence, his Successors—Seventeenth Century Woodcarvers— - Developments and Tendencies of Furniture—Crispin Van Den Passe— - Rembrandt’s Goods and Chattels—Old Belgian Houses—The Pitsembourg— - Kitchens—Leather-hangings—Tapestry—Marquetry—Chairs—Masters of - Ornamental Design—The “Auricular Style.” - - -Just as the seventeenth century was about to dawn, the Decadence that -had affected Italy for nearly half a century began to make itself felt -in the Low Countries. Those responsible for it were, Michael Angelo and -Borromeo, who abandoned the graceful forms of the Renaissance for -disproportionate and exuberant decoration. The Flemish architects, -artists, and decorative designers willingly subjected themselves to the -Italian influence again as they had done a century before. - -Rubens undoubtedly had the greatest influence on the art taste of Europe -during the first three-quarters of the seventeenth century. Going to -Italy in 1600, he spent, with short breaks, seven years there. He found -that the Italians had already broken away from the sober lines of the -antique, and with an unrestrained curve were already giving promise of -the exaggerations indulged in later by Borromini, who, in line and form, -broke with all the old traditions. Rubens was affected by the new vogue; -and, on his return, the great Fleming introduced into his own country -the style of architecture and ornamentation still known as the _style -Rubens_. Rubens was too well inspired with the genius of the sublime -Michael Angelo not to know where to use restraint, but in the hands of -his followers and imitators this style soon degenerated. From breadth -and amplitude, it fell into weakness of form and contour, and great -heaviness in the ornamentation. - -Albert and Isabella kept a splendid Archducal court at Brussels, and -there every form of art was sure of encouragement and support. The -palace was an imposing mass, picturesquely situated in the highest part -of the city. A French visitor in 1612 dwells on the magnificence of the -various apartments filled with splendid works of art, and thronged with -courtiers and attendants, the richness of the equipages and stables, and -the beauty of the park and gardens. When Rubens visited Brussels at the -Imperial request, he immediately found favour. - -When Rubens took up his abode in Antwerp, he bought a house, and altered -and enlarged it from time to time to suit his tastes or needs. He -embellished it in every possible way with his collections of pictures, -busts and archaeological objects. In 1617, he had the banisters of the -chief staircase carved by Jan van Mildert. He had very decided ideas on -architecture, and supplied the workmen with his own plans. He was -originally attracted to the house because it was built somewhat on the -model of the Italian houses he had so greatly admired. In 1622, he -published a book on the Palaces of Genoa, and from the preface we learn -that he was greatly delighted to see the old style known as “barbarous” -or “Gothic” go out of style and disappear from Flanders, “giving place, -to the great honour of the country, to symmetrical buildings designed by -men of better taste, and conforming to the rules of the Greek or Roman -antique.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXIII.—_Lady at Spinet, by J. M. Molenaer._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -Between the courtyard and his beautiful Italian garden, he built a small -imitation Pantheon, lighted, like its model, by a window in the centre -of the dome. This he filled with busts, antique studies, valuable -pictures brought from Italy, and other rare and curious objects. These -he arranged to his own taste; and the arrangement of his cabinets, etc., -served as a model for rich and noble collectors. - -A picture representing Rubens’s Drawing-room is in the National Gallery, -Stockholm. It has been attributed to Van Dyck, but it is now supposed to -have been painted by Cornelis de Vos about 1622, for the elder of the -two women in the foreground seems to be a portrait of De Vos’s wife, -while the other is Isabella Brandt, Rubens’s first wife. - -The room is simple but quite elegant in style, with windows looking out -upon a garden. The walls are entirely hung with greenish leather on -which the designs—chimaeras and children grouped around vases and -pillars—are in gold. The chimney-piece is of black marble supported by -red marble pillars, and the firedogs are brass. On the right is a -sideboard of light polished oak, and opposite a table with a rich -Oriental carpet for a cover. Upon the leather chairs are cushions -embroidered with flowers. Two pictures hang on the walls, and a third is -above the chimney-piece. In the foreground, there are two ladies engaged -in friendly conversation, while three children are playing with a puppy. -The mother of the latter, a white spaniel marked with red, anxiously -watches this second group. - -In the sale inventory of Rubens’s house in 1707 there is mention of the -gilded leather that decorated one of the sitting-rooms. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXIIIA.—_Spinet, by Ruckers._ - - STEINERT COLLECTION, YALE UNIVERSITY, U.S.A. -] - -This interior in general style and arrangement resembles a painting by -Barthol. van Bassen, in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, reproduced on Plate -XXIV. This represents a large hall or dining-room of the beginning of -the seventeenth century. The floor is tessellated or tiled; and facing -the spectator is a monumental chimney-piece supported by columns. Two -superb andirons are placed in the fireplace, but the absence of logs and -the fireback show that the time is spring or summer. The mantelpiece is -surmounted by a niche containing a figure, and above the broken pediment -is a cartouche flanked by reclining figures in the Renaissance style. On -either side of the chimney-piece stands a chair of the new style with -square back and square seat. The square seat and back of velvet or -stamped leather—it is not clear what the covering is—is put on by means -of large brass-headed nails. The heavy legs are connected by stretchers. -These chairs are similar to the one on Plate XXVIII; but in the latter -the stretchers are double. On either side of the chimney-piece is a -door. One of these is open and shows an inner room containing an -upholstered bed. The doors are very decorative with heavy entablatures -supported on columns and decorated with swags of drapery on the panels. -On the right is a colossal buffet or sideboard, the pillars being -caryatides, and behind these is a half-hexagon cupboard. Busts and vases -adorn the top. Below is a fine salver, evidently in the style of -Collaert (see Plates XXI and XXII). A very ornate doorway leads into an -adjoining apartment; it is ornamented with caryatides and decorated with -elaborate carving. Opposite to this is an open portal that seems to be -the entrance from the garden, or courtyard. This door is supported by -Corinthian columns. Three large and narrow windows give abundant light. -Their panes are small. The room is hung with gilt leather and above the -moulding are three landscapes in simple frames. A picture—_The Sacrifice -of Abraham_—stands over the sideboard and a landscape over the door on -the right. A long, low bench is placed under the window, on which a -gallant is lounging. The chair occupied by the lady with her back to us -is a survival of the one shown in Fig. 9, and also generally resembles -those in Plates XXVI and XLII and XLVI; a favourite type of chair with -the artists of the seventeenth century. The group in the foreground are -sitting on stools. The wine-cooler is also worth noting. There are a -number of pets in the room—dogs, cats, a monkey and a long-tailed parrot -over the door. The compartment ceiling—an extraordinary combination of -octagons, hexagons and crosses—should be noticed. - -Although Rubens did not know it, Antwerp received a fatal blow to her -prosperity at the very moment he settled there. In the truce with -Holland concluded in 1609, the Archduke Albert neglected to stipulate -for the free navigation of the Scheldt; this enabled Amsterdam to -develop her own commerce at the expense of her rival. The effects soon -appeared. Seven years later, the English ambassador, Rubens’s friend, -describes Antwerp as “_magna civitas, magna solitudo_, for in the whole -time we spent there I could never set my eyes on the whole length of a -street upon forty persons at once: I never saw coach nor saw man on -horseback. In many places, grass grows in the streets, yet the buildings -are all kept in reparation ... _splendida paupertas_, fair and -miserable.” - -As if in compensation for the loss of her commercial supremacy, Antwerp -saw the dawn of an art of which Rubens was the originator and most -brilliant representative. - -The pupils of Rubens did not confine themselves to painting and -ornamental design. They were often practical carvers also. Only a month -before his death, Rubens wrote a testimonial for Louis Faydherbe, -stating that this pupil had lived with him for three years and had made -great progress in painting and carving, excelling especially in ivory -carving. He therefore exhorts nobles and magistracies to encourage him -to settle among them and embellish their dwellings with his works. Thus -we see how the _style Rubens_ extended. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXIV.—_Interior, by Barthol van Bassen (Seventeenth Century)._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. - - Fig. 28: FLEMISH ANDIRON (Sixteenth Century); Fig. 29: DINANDERIE, - double Candlestick; Fig. 30: DINANDERIE, single Candlestick. -] - -The universality of the _style Rubens_ in Western Europe for half a -century is undeniable. This great genius was known and honoured in -Italy: he was a favourite of the King of Spain and his brother, the -Viceroy of the Netherlands; when he was not painting nor designing -something, he took a rest by going to some foreign court on an embassy. -On one of these, Charles I of England knighted him; Philip IV made him -Secretary of the Privy Council. Pupils flocked to him as if his studio -in Antwerp was the Mecca of art. He had scarcely established himself -there when he wrote (1611): “On every side I am overwhelmed with -solicitations: without the least exaggeration I may assure you that I -have already had to refuse more than a hundred pupils.” - -Every kind of decoration and design was subject to his brush. The -Flemish tapestry weavers pestered him for cartoons: the famous printer, -Moretus, must have him design title-pages, borders and vignettes for the -“_Imprimerie Plantin_”: chapel ceilings, cars for cavalcades and -triumphal arches all came alike to him; Marie de’ Medici was not -satisfied until he had immortalized her in grandiose canvases on the -walls of her new palace. - -One of the Flemish artists who played a particularly important part in -the introduction of the new Italian style into the Low Countries was -Jacques Franquart (born in Brussels in 1577 and died there in 1651), an -architect, who studied in Italy. He became the chief architect of the -Archduke Albert, and engineer of the King of Spain in the Netherlands. -Philip III made him a knight. Among his important works were the Church -of the Jesuits in Brussels (the cornerstone of which was laid by Albert -and Isabella in 1606) and the Church of the Grand Béguinage in Mechlin -(1629–47). - -The next name of importance is that of Artus Quillyn, or Quellin, born -at St. Trond in 1625. He studied sculpture with Artus Quillyn the elder -in Antwerp, studied in Rome and returned to Antwerp, where he died in -1700. The churches of Antwerp are full of his bold and masterly works. -His masterpiece, the statue of God the Father, was executed in 1680 for -the Cathedral of St. Sauveur in Bruges, where it still stands. - -With Quillyn ranks Peter Verbrugghen of Antwerp. It is generally -believed that he carved the fine pulpit at St. Walburge in Bruges, a -work unexcelled among the sculpture of the seventeenth century. A -kneeling figure representing Religion supports the pulpit with one hand -and holds a cross in the other. Her attitude is noble, gracious and -animated, and her expression admirable and exalted. Each corner of the -base is ornamented with the figure of an angel in a niche and decorated -with four medallions representing the four evangelists whose features -are of imposing majesty. The sounding board in the form of a light and -graceful shell, although supported by two cherubim with outstretched -wings, seems suspended in the air. The stairway is flanked by four -figures representing Adoration, Eloquence, Meditation and Study; and the -balustrade, which is beautifully pierced in designs of branches and -figures, is ornamented with figures representing the four elements: -Earth, a rabbit chase; Air, hunting the falcon; Water, fishing with a -line; and Fire, sacrifice of a material love. It would be impossible to -carve oak more elaborately and boldly. This work was restored in 1845 by -two Bruges artists, Van Wedeveldt and P. Buyck. - -The Flemish wood-carver had still plenty of work to do in the churches; -but in domestic furniture the lathe was making his services more and -more unnecessary on bars and uprights; and the increasing craze for -marquetry and the invasion of lacquer and japanned wares left him -comparatively little to do. - -Much beautiful carved work of the seventeenth century survives. Vilvorde -Church has thirty-six upper and thirty-two lower oak stalls carved -originally in 1663 for the priory of Groenendael; this is a magnificent -specimen of the carver’s art. There is also lovely woodcarving of the -middle of the century in St. Michael’s, Louvain. The Church of St. -Walburge, Furnes, is also rich in carved oak. On the pulpit is a figure -of St. John writing the Apocalypse; the upper part is supported by two -palms, and a rock with an eagle. The choir stalls are particularly fine. -The Ostend parish church has a fine pulpit carved in 1674. - -The Church of St. Anne in Bruges is rich in carved work of this period. -The choir stalls of oak were splendidly carved in the Renaissance style -by Jean Schockaert and Fr. Schaepelinck in 1664. The oak organ case was -carved in 1685 by Jacques Vanden Eynde, who was also the organist at -Ypres. Fine bas-reliefs in the nave were executed by Martin Moenaert in -1673 and the ornate confessionals by Jan de Sangher in 1699. There is -also a handsome communion bench made by an unknown carver in 1670, which -is decorated with the busts of the four Evangelists and four Doctors of -the Church with bas-relief panels of the Virgin, Joseph, St. Anne, St. -Joachim, the Pascal Lamb and the Eucharist ornamented with bunches of -grapes and garlands of wheat. - -Carving was by no means confined to the churches: those who could afford -it still beautified the furniture of castle and hall with the work of -the chisel. Chests or _bahuts_, cabinets, _armoires_, tables, chairs and -the old “sideboards,” known in England in Jacobean days as “court -cupboards,” and in Flanders as _credences_ or “_buffet à deux corps_,” -were as highly ornamented with carving in the late Renaissance style as -they were with Gothic ornament during the fifteenth century. During the -Louis XIII period, the more important pieces of furniture usually -assumed the forms and lines of Classic architecture. A typical _bahut_ -of this period (_see_ Plate LVII), owes its interest chiefly to its -architectural decorations. The fluted columns, though somewhat squat, -which adorn the divisions of the front, produce a pleasing effect; the -mouldings are strongly accented and their ornamentations are bold and in -fine style. One can easily understand that this chest would not be out -of place in any late Renaissance apartment, but would contribute to the -decorative effect of the whole. The two side niches representing the two -virtues contain statuettes—Prudence and Strength. The central panel -tells the story of Judith and Holofernes with a directness and -simplicity worthy of a Botticelli. - -The two-storied buffet (_buffet à deux corps_) frequently received -similar treatment, totally at variance with the handsome one reproduced -in Plate XLIII. A splendid example decorated with the arms of Ypres, -Ghent, Bruges and Franc, is preserved in the Ypres Museum. This was the -work of Jan van de Velde, who carved it in 1644, and received 162 -florins for his trouble. - -The bench (_banc_), often forms part of the woodwork of the wall of a -hall in Flanders in the seventeenth century. It was frequently placed -between the windows and made luxurious with cushions. Movable benches -were often used. In these the backs turned on an axis and were most -convenient, as the occupant could arrange the seat in any position he -pleased. The benches in De Vries’s “_Cubiculum_” (Plate X), should be -compared with the bench against the wall in Plate XXXVIII in studying -the development of the _banc_. The high _banc_, or settle, in this -picture is interesting on account of its simplicity. - -The general tendency of furniture was a gradual breaking away from -immovables, a development from monumental solidity into grace and -lightness. The heavy tables of De Vries are cut away, and return in -general form to the original board and trestles. A glance at Fig. 8 will -show that the workman had only to connect the struts of the trestles in -the centre of the table in order to produce a rough model of the richly -carved tables in vogue from the period of Henri II to that of Louis XIV. -The box form of support, therefore, in this style of table gives way to -what we may regard as two trestles connected in the middle by an upright -board. These, as well as the edge of the table top, are embellished by -beautiful carving. The trestles now consist of eagles, lions, chimaeras, -mermaids, satyrs and other human and animal figures; and the central -connexion is pierced, balustraded, columned and treated in a thousand -different ways. In the seventeenth century, lightness was carried a step -further, and the favourite table is simply supported by four turned legs -with heavy bulb feet, the legs have connecting rails close to the floor -and usually have one or more heavy globular swellings. In England during -the Tudor and Jacobean periods, this heavy form was known as the -drawing-table. It occurs in numberless interiors by Dutch and Flemish -masters. The desire for greater lightness, however, made itself -increasingly felt; and early in the seventeenth century we find legs -turned in plain spirals, or with beading. Chair frames naturally -corresponded with table legs. - -Though the masters of Decorative Art were constantly increasing in -numbers, it was three-quarters of a century after the appearance of the -furniture designs by De Vries before another important work of the same -nature was published. This was by another Dutchman. In 1642, Crispin van -den Passe published at Amsterdam his “_Boutique Menuiserie dans laquelle -sont comprins les plus notables fondaments non moins arichesse avecq des -nouvelles inventions_.” - -Of his life little is known, except that he was the son of the great -engraver of the same name and was born in Utrecht in 1585. His _Boutique -Menuiserie_ contains a series of plates of furniture. It is extremely -rare today, but was doubtless in every cabinet-maker’s shop of the -period. - -The furniture, it will be noticed, is “new.” The book was published two -years after the death of Rubens, while the _style Rubens_ was still in -its glory. From a study of these plates, together with the engravings of -Abraham Bosse, we can obtain a clear vision of an interior, either -Flemish or French, during the reign of Louis XIII, for Crispin’s -furniture designs were as well known to French as to Flemish workmen. -Three of his chairs, two of them folding, are reproduced in Figs. 31, -32, and 33; Fig. 34 also shows a small table by him. - -We have already caught a glimpse of Rubens’s home in Antwerp; and now we -cannot do better than look at the interior of the other great master in -Amsterdam. When that city passed through a great financial crisis in -1653, Rembrandt suffered in company with his fellow-citizens. He had -been living like a lord in a splendid dwelling sumptuously furnished and -decorated, and surrounded by a multitude of objects of art which he -loved to collect—armour, robes, busts, ceramics, engravings, and famous -pictures by Italian and native artists, as well as his own productions. -To satisfy his creditors, these all came to the hammer in 1656. The -inventory gives us a good idea of his home. In the vestibule, there were -four Spanish chairs covered with Russia leather, four Spanish chairs -with black seats, and one low form of pinewood. - -The Antechamber contained an ebony-framed mirror and an ebony stand, a -marble basin, a walnut table with a Tournay cover, and seven Spanish -chairs covered with green velvet. The “Room behind the Antechamber” was -furnished with a gilded frame, a small oak table, four common chairs, a -copper cauldron, and a portmanteau. In the “Hall,” there were six chairs -with blue seats, a large mirror, an oak table, with an embroidered -tablecloth, a bed with blue hangings, two pillows and two covers, a -matted chair, a set of fire-irons, and a “sacerdan” wood press, and a -“sacerdan” small _kas_ with doors. The “Art Cabinet” contained three -East India cups, one East India powder box, one East India “jatte” with -a little Chinaman, one East India workbox, two porcelain “casoars,” two -porcelain figurines, one Japanese casque, plaster casts, copper and -pewter, globes, and seventy natural history specimens. On the floor at -the back were a great quantity of shells, marine plants and other -curiosities, statues, arms, armour, etc. Here also were many portfolios -filled with choice engravings, etchings and drawings, besides one old -chest, four chairs with black leather seats, and one pine table. In the -“Small Studio,” there are musical instruments and armour (119 pieces), -and a great number of casts of hands, arms and heads from nature, and -many various kinds of woven materials. The “Large Studio” has in it -twenty pieces—halberds, swords, and Indian fans, costumes of an Indian -man and woman, cuirasses and trumpets. The “Studio Entry” is decorated -with the skins of a lion and lioness, and other furs. - -A bedstead stands in the “Little Room.” - -The “Small Kitchen” is furnished with a little table, a larder, some old -chairs, two cushioned chairs, some pots and pans, and a tin waterpot. -Nine white plates and two earthen plates decorate the “Corridor.” -Rembrandt owned a good deal of linen; and most of the rooms contained -pictures. - -No one looking at Rembrandt’s own pictures can fail to appreciate his -fondness for dressing himself and his models in feathers, armour and -fantastic costumes, which, as we have seen, he kept as properties in his -Studio. - -Rembrandt resided in the Jewish quarter in Amsterdam from 1640 to 1656. -His house, Jodenbrêe Straat, No. 4, next door but one to the bridge, is -marked by a simple memorial tablet. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXV.—_Panelled Bedstead._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -We can form a very clear idea of the general appearance of a street of -the Renaissance period from many old houses that still stand in Belgium -and Holland. The interiors in some cases we can also reconstruct by the -aid of inventories. Mechlin is particularly rich in buildings of the -sixteenth century. The _Mont de Piété_, once the home of Canon -Busleyden, is a Gothic building of 1507, restored in 1864; on the Quay -au Sel, there are several old timber-houses, the _Salm Inn_, with a -Renaissance façade of 1530–34, and a house in the Franco-Flemish style, -very rich in detail. There is also an interesting timber-house in the -Quay aux Avoines. - -Bruges and Ypres contain several houses of the seventeenth century; -Ghent has two private houses on the Quai de la Grue (one of which is -named the _Vliegenden Hert_); and Antwerp, several Guildhouses. Holland -is richer in houses and buildings of this century. In Amsterdam, the -royal palace—the Dam—was built in 1648 as a Town Hall by Jacob van -Kampen; the house of Admiral de Ruyter may be seen on the -Prins-Hendrik-Kade, and the house of Baron Six in the Heerengracht, and -on the Heerengracht and Keizersgracht are many houses of the seventeenth -century. - -There are also a number of seventeenth century houses of great interest -to the student of architecture in Alkmaar. The Stadhuis, in Enkhuisen, -dates from 1688; Sneek has a water-tower of 1615, which was restored in -1878; Zwolle has a guard-house of 1614; and the police-office of -Deventer is a Renaissance structure of 1632. Several brick buildings of -the seventeenth century still stand in the Zaadmarkt and Groenmarkt of -Zutphen; there are several houses in Bommel of this period, including -the famous house of Maarten van Rossum, now a district court; and the -weigh-house and meat market of Gouda date from 1668 and 1691. - -The doors and interior woodwork of these houses in many cases are -precious records of the skill of the Dutch and Flemish wood-carvers of -the period. - -One of the most famous houses in Mechlin in the second half of the -seventeenth century was a commandery called the Pitsembourg; and it was -selected in 1668 as the most suitable residence for the High Constable -of Castile and Leon. - -An inventory of the furnishings of this establishment was taken in 1656, -which enables us to go through the house. - -The first room that we enter is called _de Trappenye_, and was used as -an office. Here we find a picture representing the _Birth of Christ_ and -two pieces of sculpture—_The Offering_ and _The Three Kings_, standing -on two pedestals that bear the arms of Cratz (Cratz was commander of the -House of Mechlin from 1564 to 1604). In this room are two large cases— -one with twenty and the other with ten drawers, one lettered, and the -other numbered—to preserve papers, documents and charts. It is warmed by -a half-stove, _halve stove_, according to the inventory. For diversion, -there is a backgammon board with white pieces of boxwood, and black of -lignum-vitæ. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXVI.—_The Sick Woman, by Jan Steen._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. - - Figs. 31 and 33: FOLDING CHAIRS, by CRISPIN VAN DE PASSE; Fig. 32: - CHAIR, by CRISPIN VAN DE PASSE; Fig. 34; TABLE, by CRISPIN VAN DE - PASSE. -] - -Passing from this into the _camer beneffens de trappenye_, we find a -bedroom, _de camer boven de trappenye_, the most conspicuous object of -which is a bed. So sumptuous is this, in fact, that no other furniture -is needed to give this room distinction. To begin with, the framework is -ornately carved, and it is hung with rich silken curtains and -sumptuously upholstered. Undoubtedly this bed was of the same type as -the beautiful Renaissance specimen reproduced in Plate XXV, from the -Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. A reference to Plate X will show this is later -in style than the “new” one designed by De Vries. The “linen-fold” panel -has entirely disappeared, and the carved accessories are all pure late -Renaissance. At the time this inventory was taken, however, these -magnificent wardrobe-shaped beds with elaborate carving were already out -of date and supplanted in favour by the lighter form with simple posts -at the corners, the whole being entirely closed with curtains. This bed -appears in Plate XXVI and Plate XXVII with both square and dome-shaped -tops, and in many other pictures by the Dutch masters of the seventeenth -century. - -The bed in which upholstery had superseded carving had been growing in -favour, not only in the homes of the middle classes, but also in those -of the rich. It even occurs in the inner room of the wealthy house -represented in Plate XXIV. - -This bed, known as the _lit en housse_, is the typical bed of the -seventeenth century, and is the one that appears in Abraham Bosse’s -engravings, whenever a bed is introduced—in the homes of the rich, in -hospitals, and in the rooms of tradesmen and school teachers. In this -style of bed, the framework is of comparatively little importance. The -_ciel_, or canopy, is supported on four posts which are carved or -painted in harmony with the curtains, or covered with the same -materials. Beneath the valance, a rod runs under the canopy for the -support of the curtains, which are drawn up or down by means of cords -and pulleys. When closed, the _lit en housse_ looks like a square box. -The elegance of the bed depended upon its upholstery. The richest beds -were draped with tapestry, silk, damask brocade and velvet, beautifully -trimmed with gold and silver braid or lace, narrow silk fringe, or -fringe of gold or silver threads, or decorative cords and tassels. -Serge, cloth, East Indian goods, linen and cotton materials were also -employed. The curtains were more or less richly lined and the four -corners of the canopy above the posts were decorated with a carved or -turned wooden knob called a _pomme_ (which was sometimes gilded or -painted), a bunch of feathers, or a “bouquet” made of ravelled silk -ornaments or inverted tassels. - -Returning now to our examination of the Pitsembourg, we note that the -next room is that of the master brewer, in which there is a very shabby -bed, an old picture representing the _Elevation during Holy Mass_, a -wall map of Germany and a standard with the arms of Lant-Commander, -Werner Spies von Bullesheim, who was at the head of the house of Mechlin -from 1639 to 1641. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXVII.—_Woman, with a Parrot, by Jan Steen._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -Passing by the unimportant rooms of the servants, we enter the old room -of the commander, where we note an alcove hung with two little green -curtains with an embroidered border, and in the alcove a bed with -bolster, pillow and two counterpanes, one white, and the other green, a -table covered with a cloth, some little stools (_escarbeaux_), two -chairs covered with green cloth, andirons, shovel and tongs of copper, -and a number of pictures, among which are two little representations of -castles, the Battle of Calloo, a portrait of Lant-Commander Bongaert in -full-dress uniform, one of Lant-Commander van Ruyssenbergh, one of -Commander Cratz, and one of Commander Werner Spies von Bullesheim -kneeling with a chaplain at the feet of the Virgin. Two little rooms and -a bathroom belonging to the chaplain follow, and then we enter a room -called _In den inganck van’t voorhuys_. In the centre stands an old -table covered with a “carpet of gilt leather.” There are some -water-colours on the wall, including two vases filled with flowers, and -two of decorative motives with the inscriptions “_Virtus parit honorem_” -and “_Qui confidit in divitiis corruet_.” There is also a large painting -of the arms of the Archduke Maximilian, Grand Master of the Order (son -of the Emperor Maximilian II). - -From the _Inganck van’t voorhuys_, we step into a more luxurious hall -called _het cleyn salet naast het voorhuys_, hung with ten large pieces -of leather with gold patterns on a silver background. The furniture -consists of a table with oak leaves, covered with a Turkish carpet, -chairs with stuffed backs of red ribbed silk, a screen made of four -painted canvases, and eleven pictures, one the _Battle of Prague_ and -the others landscapes, ornamental copper andirons, and a hearth-box. - -The next salon, _de sale naar de Trappenye_, is hung with portraits, and -some large pictures, one of which represents Samson proving his -strength. - -In the dining-room, _in de nieuwe gemaeckte stove_, there are also many -pictures, including portraits, a “winter scene” and a “Flemish -_Kermesse_.” The principal piece of furniture is a superb sideboard of -carved oak, on which the following pieces of silver are displayed: one -_aiguière_ and basin with the arms of Spies; four candelabra with -chiselled sconces, an extinguisher with tray, and an amphora, all with -the arms of Lutzenrode; two large jugs, a deep dish, a mustard-pot and -six salt-cellars, also with the arms of Lutzenrode; a chafing-dish with -the Ruyssenbergh arms, twenty-two spoons, twenty-six forks, twenty-two -knives, and ten porcelain wine-jugs with silver tops. - -Next to this hall is the bishop’s room, which is luxuriously furnished. -The walls are hung with eight large “tapestries of leather” with gold -patterns on a silver background. The bed is upholstered with curtains of -mauve silk trimmed with a silk braid of yellow and violet. It is -furnished with two mattresses, a bolster, two pillows, and two -counterpanes—one white, the other green—and over the whole is thrown a -large counterpane of embroidered silk trimmed with a fringe of silk and -gold thread. The window-curtains, the six chairs, and armchair, are -covered with the same silk as the counterpane. There is a large mirror -in an ebony frame and portraits of Maximilian, Syberg, and Bongaert. - -The bishop’s room is next to the salon, _groot salet beneden d’aarde_, -which is hung with thirteen pieces of “leather tapestry,” showing gold -patterns on a red background. On the mantelpiece there is a crucifix -carved of boxwood, the foot of which is incrusted with mother-of-pearl, -and there is a magnificent mirror of gold and black wood, the fronton of -which is ornamented with a silk cord with large tassels, the whole -supported by three gilded griffins. This room also contains sixteen -pictures, nine of which are still-life, and are signed Jacques van Esch -of Antwerp (1606–1666). - -The commander’s bedroom is very modest, as becomes one who has assumed -the vows of poverty: a little walnut bed with very ordinary curtains, -with a mattress, two bolsters, three pillows (one covered with white -leather, which he takes on his travels), and a counterpane of quilted -silk. He allowed himself the luxury of a fire, because there are -andirons and a hearth-box. A portrait of the _Virgin_ and _The -Temptation of St. Anthony_ are his only pictures, and the one ornament -is a sculptured _Descent from the Cross_. A little desk and a close -chair covered in black leather and inlaid with copper, complete the -furniture of this room, which makes an interesting contrast with the -bishop’s. - -The enormous number of cooking utensils in the kitchen show that the -most lavish hospitality was offered in this house. Every kind of copper -pot and pan, from the largest saucepan and boiler (_de schonck of -hespenketel_) to the tiniest pans for cakes and pastry (_een clein coper -panneke waarin men dry eieren kan doppen_, and _koek_ and _taart -pannen_), are present in great numbers; and, moreover, there are -portable ovens to bake tarts, ladles, skimmers, sieves, spice-boxes, -spits, skewers, ten grills, large and small, some of them for roasting -oysters—in short every article that a cook would need to prepare a feast -for a _gourmet_. - -The _buffets_, _armoires_ and shelves of the kitchen are filled with -valuable metal ware, including eight _aiguières_ and eight dishes, -weighing sixty-five pounds. These are marked with the arms of Spies and -Syberg. Then there are seventeen candlesticks, some of which have round -and others square bases; there are ninety-three large and small dishes -with the arms of Lutzenrode, Spies and Syberg, and a hundred and -twenty-eight plates with the arms of the various commanders. The shelves -also contain a great number of wine jars and measures and pots for -holding grape-juice and a great number of earthenware dishes, crocks, -etc. - -There is a special pantry, and near this a pastry-room; and a brewery, a -harness-room, tool houses, a house for the gardener, and in the park, -which is a kind of botanical garden, there is a pavilion on a knoll, -where any one desiring to fish could find rods and lines. - -The kitchen is the most important room in the majority of the -middle-class houses; in fact, in many a Flemish and Dutch interior it -appears as the general living-room. Plate XXVII and Plate XXXVI afford -Dutch examples. - -A fine example of a Flemish kitchen of the seventeenth century is by -Teniers the younger, called _The Good Kitchen_ in the Hague Gallery. -This was painted in 1644. - -Another fine kitchen of the period occurs in a Family Group by Cocx -(Coques), in the Cassel Gallery. In the foreground a man is seated at a -table looking at his son’s drawings. Not far away his wife is teaching -her daughter to make lace, and through a large door the kitchen is -visible, where fish, oysters, pastries and birds show preparations for a -feast. - -The Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam has a series of rooms fitted up in the -old style with original furniture. The kitchen represented in Plate -XXXII is equipped with all the pots and pans dear to the heart of the -Dutch housewife. The hearth, ovens and shelves are furnished with all -the implements and utensils necessary for good housekeeping: cauldrons, -spits, churns, plate-warmers, kettles, bellows, waffle-irons, etc., are -all there. A Frisian clock hangs on the tiled wall, and the cupboards -contain everything necessary for cooking and cleaning. - -The library of the Pitsembourg was well stored with religious works. The -chapel, a beautiful edifice built in 1228 and dedicated to St. Elizabeth -of Hungary, contained some fine carvings, two crucifixes, one of silver -and one of copper, organs, carved statues, silver chandeliers;’and -exceptionally rich vestments, altar-cloths and Flemish lace. - -It will be noticed that all the principal rooms in this establishment -were hung with leather, or “leather tapestry” in accordance with the -taste of the age. - -The leather hangings of the seventeenth century are even more brilliant -than those of the past; and on the bright background of scarlet, blue, -sea-green, gold or silver, a wealth of ornamentation appears—animals, -birds, flowers, fruits, mascarons and other favourite devices of the -time. Leather hangings are always present in wealthy homes of Holland. -An excellent example is shown in the picture of _The Young Scholar and -his Sister_ by Coques (Cocx), now in the Cassel Gallery. The room, which -is richly furnished, is hung with blue and gold leather. This picture -was painted in the seventeenth century. - -The Low Countries by this time had become renowned for their fine -leather and exported a vast amount of it. Notwithstanding the rivalry of -the French and Italian workshops, there was a special shop in the Rue -St. Denis in Paris where Flemish and Dutch leathers could be obtained. -Some of the French inventories of this century mention especially -“tapestries of leather” from the Netherlands; for example, Fouquet has -at his Château of Vaux, in 1661, “a rich hanging of tapestry of _cuir -doré_ from Flanders, consisting of eight pieces”; and in 1698, a rich -Parisian owns “a hanging of tapestry of _cuir doré de Hollande_,” with a -red background. - -The Rijks Museum in Amsterdam contains a great number of gilt leather -hangings of the seventeenth century; at the Hôtel de Ville of Furnes, -there are some hangings of Spanish leather and the Antiquarian Museum of -Utrecht also contains some embossed gilt leather hangings. - -In the seventeenth century, the great centres for the production of -tapestry shifted to Paris and London. This is the period when the famous -looms of the Gobelins and Mortlake were established. The directors and -workers in these famous establishments were Flemings. It was largely -owing to the influence of Le Brun that Paris triumphed over Brussels -with her Gobelins manufactory established in 1662. This was really the -outgrowth of the high-warp looms established by Henry IV in 1597, under -an excellent tapestry-worker named Laurent. These workshops were first -situated in the house of the Jesuits in the Faubourg St. Antoine, and -were transferred to the Louvre in 1603. The King sent to Flanders for -tapestry-workers over whom he placed the Sieur de Fourcy. In 1607 he -sent for more workers, among whom were Marc Comans (or Coomans) and -François de la Planche, who were given charge of the workshops at -Tournelles. These were removed to the Faubourg St. Marceau. The -tapestries had to be made _façon de Flandres_. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXVIII.—_Flemish Chair._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -The King’s enterprises were not universally approved. “They cost large -sums to his Majesty,” says a contemporary, and loss and ruin to his -subjects. Witness the Brussels tapestries at St. Marcel, the Flemish -linens at Mantes and the cloths of silk and gold of Milan. - -After the King’s death, Comans and De la Planche continued to work in -Paris, and in 1630 were engaged at the manufactory that afterwards -became the Gobelins. - -Flemish workmen were also employed at Maincy near Vaux in 1658. When, -owing to the wars, the Gobelins was closed in 1694, some of the workmen -entered the army, twenty-three returned to Flanders and others went to -Beauvais. This great factory was no less indebted than was the Gobelins -to the Flemings. It was established in 1664 by a “_marchand tapissier_,” -named Louis Hynart, a native of Beauvais, who owned a large number of -workshops in Flanders as well as in Paris. As Beauvais was at that time -an important centre for woollen stuffs, Hynart proposed to the -municipality that he should establish workshops of high-warp tapestry -“in the manner of those of Flanders.” Hynart obtained a subsidy and -brought a number of Flemish workmen to Beauvais. He was negligent, -however, and in 1684 the directorship of the Beauvais manufactory was -given to Philippe Béhagle (originally Behagel) of a famed family of -tapestry-weavers of Oudenarde. Under Béhagle the “Royal Manufactory of -Tapestry,” flourished until his death in 1704. Another workman who -contributed greatly to the success of Beauvais was Georges Blommaert, -who was also called to Beauvais in 1684 from Lille, where he had -established a workshop in 1677. - -When Georges Blommaert left Lille to go to Beauvais, he was succeeded by -François and André Pannemaker, descendants of the famous Pannemaker -family of tapestry-makers. In 1688, they had a rival in Jean de Melter, -of Brussels, who was particularly fond of reproducing compositions after -Rubens. The Pannemakers devoted their skill chiefly to “_Verdures_.” - -The looms at Nancy, established in the seventeenth century, and closed -in 1625, were also worked by men from the Low Countries, among them one -Melchior van der Hameidan. The Brussels looms were still busy in this -century, but the corporation of tapestry-workers was recruited from a -few families, such as the De Vos, De Castros, Raës, Van der Borchts, Van -der Heckes, and Leyniers. They repeated the cartoons of the last -century; but in the middle of the seventeenth Teniers produced many -rustic scenes that, known as _Tenières_, became very popular. Flemish -tapestry-weavers are found in Rome; in Denmark (twenty-six were there -about 1604); in Russia (Martin Steuerbout of Antwerp had a manufactory -in Moscow in 1607); and in England. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXIX.—_Flemish Chair._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -The Mortlake manufactory, established by James I near London in 1619, -was practically a Flemish manufactory. In a short while its only rival -was the Gobelins. The King sent specially to Flanders for skilled -workmen and no less than fifty arrived in one month, among whom were -Josse Ampe of Bruges, Simon Heyns, Jacques Hendricx, Josse Inghels, and -Pierre Foquentin of Oudenarde. Rubens and Van Dyck were commissioned to -supply cartoons; but many of the old favourite historical and religious -sets of the past century were reproduced. Paris and Hampton Court Palace -contain a number of these. - -Mortlake had closed when William III ordered his victories to be -commemorated in woven pictures. The cartoons for _The Battle of -Bresgate_, _The Descent on Tor bay_ and _The Battle of the Boyne_, were -drawn by Jean Lottin, the painter, and made by Clerck, Vander Borcht, -Cobus and De Vos of Brussels. - -Flemish tapestry-weavers settled in Sandwich, Canterbury, Maidstone, -Norwich and Colchester in 1567–8, after the persecutions of the Duke of -Alva; but notwithstanding the good work produced in England, Admiral -Howard ordered the famous set of six pieces to commemorate the -destruction of the Spanish Armada from the painter H. Cornelis de Vroom -of Haarlem and Franz Spierinx of Delft. These fine pieces hung in the -House of Lords, London, until destroyed by the fire of 1824. - -Religious, mythological and allegorical subjects continue in favour -during the seventeenth century; and subjects inspired by contemporary -history are also popular. The cartoons by Rubens, however, take -precedence of everything; and his _History of Achilles_, _History of -Constantine_, _Scenes from the Old Testament_, _Triumph of the Church_, -etc., are reproduced in every workshop in Europe. His most famous work, -_The History of Marie de’ Medici_, was finally completed at the Gobelins -manufactory during the reign of Louis Philippe. - -In furniture, during the seventeenth century, it may be said that carved -figures gradually gave way to turned supports, and uprights; and the -surfaces depended for decoration on panelling of geometrical designs and -applied ornaments of real or imitation ebony. Another favourite way of -decorating the broad surfaces was to inlay them in various designs with -wood of different colours. The latter taste rapidly advanced during this -century with the constantly increasing importation of the beautifully -coloured woods of the East and West Indies. As the Flemish artists, -moreover, went so often to Italy for inspiration, Flemish marquetry, -doubtless, took its first stimulus from Italian taste. To quote a -learned critic[4]: “The Italians of the Decadence had a passion for -ebony and coloured woods, and theatrical and complicated decorations. -Furniture completely changed its physiognomy; the decorative panels with -all their ornaments, are renounced for plain surfaces on which marquetry -can be displayed to advantage. Forsaken by fashion, walnut drops out of -use; profiles are multiplied; the fine _cuirs_ that were cut in solid -bosses sprawl about in an enervated, weakened fashion; the straight, -firm and springing Classic column now becomes twisted and distorted; and -the stale and banal decoration has neither sinews nor youth. The -sculptor yields his place to the marquetry-worker and the carpenter -(_menuisier_) becomes a cabinet-maker (_ébéniste_).”[5] - -Footnote 4: - - Bonaffé. - -Footnote 5: - - A literal translation is more to the point: the carpenter becomes a - worker in exotic woods, ebony, etc. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXX.—_Chairs._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -Until the sixteenth century, marquetry seems to have chiefly consisted -of ivory and ebony; but at this period exotic woods began to be -employed. Beautiful marquetry was a mark of luxury; for example, in the -famous pamphlet _L’Isle des Hermaphrodites_, directed against Henri III -and his Court, the author says: “As for the furniture of wood, we should -like to have it all of gold, silver, and marquetry, and the pieces, -especially the canopies of the beds, if possible, of cedar, rose, and -other odoriferous woods unless you would rather have them of ebony and -ivory.” - -In this century Italy carried to perfection, the inlay of rare and -polished marbles, lapis-lazuli, agates, pebbles, etc., called -_pietra-dura_, and this style was imitated in other countries. - -During the Decadence, the old marquetry of wood gave place to -incrustations of mother-of-pearl, shell, precious stones and coloured -marbles, and the furniture was made even more sumptuous by the additions -of chiselled mounts, key-plates, handles, feet, etc., of silver or gilt -bronze. Painted glass was also a popular kind of inlay. A good example -of this work is in the hospice of Liège—a walnut cabinet with plaques of -painted glass in many colours in imitation of what the Italians call -_mille fiori_. - -A new kind of marquetry, however, made its appearance in the seventeenth -century and gained in popularity. This consisted of large designs of -flowers—particularly the tulip—birds and foliage represented in very -gaily-coloured woods of many varieties and dyes, and bits of ivory or -mother-of-pearl are added to the eyes of birds, or petals of flowers, to -give a touch of brilliancy. Cabinets, bedsteads, writing-desks, -china-cupboards, tall clocks, the frames of chairs—in short every piece -of furniture was subject to this style of decoration. This kind of -marquetry was popular in England during the reign of William and Mary, -when everything Dutch was the rage. It is well known that the Dutch were -even fonder of marquetry than the Flemings. A Dutch cabinet, which -depends for its decoration entirely on the contrasted colours and shapes -of its inlaid woods, standing on a low frame with spiral legs and knob -feet connected by a plain stretcher (_see_ Plate XXXI), is in the Rijks -Museum, Amsterdam. This is a good specimen of geometrical inlay. - -Motives of marquetry of a formal floral nature are reproduced in Fig. -37. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXI.—_Marquetry Cabinet._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -During the Spanish dominion in the sixteenth century, the chair in which -great personages sit for their portraits has a high straight back with -the side posts usually ending in carved lions’ heads, straight or -scrolled arms and carved or plain straight legs connected by stretchers. -The feet are sometimes carved with the heads or feet of animals. The -back and seat are upholstered with velvet or stamped leather fixed to -the frame with large brass-headed nails. This “Spanish chair” was common -in Spain, Italy, France and England, as well as in the Netherlands. We -find it in the pictures of the great portrait painters of the -Renaissance—Raphael, Titian and Velasquez—as well as the great Dutch and -Flemish masters. Fig. 36 shows a fine solid and simple example of this -style of chair of Flemish workmanship. It is well-proportioned; both -front and back legs and the arms are turned, and the stretchers are -grooved and shaped. When in use, of course, the seat would be -comfortably cushioned. The back, seat and arms are covered with leather. - -The most common chair of the seventeenth century, however, is one -without arms. It is rather low and is a simplified form of the above -“Spanish chair.” A fine early example of this model is represented in -Plate XXVIII, now in the Cluny Museum, Paris. It will be noticed that -the heads on the back posts are still carved, and that the legs are -shaped and turned, while the rails are grooved. The Cluny Museum has a -considerable number of Flemish chairs of this style and period. One of -them, stamped with the monogram of Christ and the date 1672, probably -belonged to an ecclesiastic. The ordinary form of this chair appears on -either side of the chimney-piece in Plate XXIV. - -The low-backed chair without arms is very common in interior scenes by -Dutch and Flemish masters. Sometimes we see guests seated on them at the -table; and sometimes it will serve as a seat for a lady as she takes a -music-lesson. (_See_ Plate XXXIX.) It is found in various dimensions and -proportions. Sometimes it has one set of rungs and sometimes two; -sometimes the legs are plain, and sometimes elegantly turned. Sometimes -the back posts have lions’ heads and frequently not. (_See_ Plates XXXV -and XXXIX, and Fig 35.) - -The design by Crispin de Passe, Fig. 32, shows the style for an armchair -of the middle of the century. Here the centre of the top back bar is -raised with ornamental carving and the lions’ heads are suppressed. A -variety of the same style of chair fashionable during the period of -Louis XIII is represented by the handsome piece of Flemish workmanship -in Plate XXIX, also in the Cluny Museum. The arms and bars and front -legs are turned in elegant spirals effectively relieved. The back posts -do not rise above the top rail, and have no lions’ heads, but finely -carved heads terminate the arms. The back and seat are covered with gilt -leather stamped with a beautiful floral design and fastened to the frame -with the usual large-headed nails. Sometimes instead of lions’ heads, we -find carved heads of other animals and of women. Besides leather and -velvet, this style of chair was frequently covered with embroidered -material and tapestry. - -A Dutch chair of this general form, though with sloping and scrolled -arms, is in the Rijks Museum. (_See_ Plate XXXIII.) The legs are turned -in spirals; and the back and seat are upholstered with a rich material -figured with large flower forms—tulips, roses, irises, etc. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXII.—_Kitchen._ - - STEDELIJK MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -Still another model of this style of armchair with spiral rungs and -supports, scrolled arms, carved top and leather back and seat, appears -on Plate XXXIV. This is also a Dutch chair in the Rijks Museum. It is -interesting to compare it with another armchair on the same plate. This, -of carved oak, turned back posts, front legs of carved heavy scrolls, -diagonal connecting rails also formed of heavy scrolls, and scrolled -front bar, is an interesting example of an armchair of the Dutch work of -the Louis XIV period. The back has a central panel with a scrolled -frame, elegantly carved. It is filled with woven cane instead of -leather, or other upholstery. The seat is cane also. A chair without -arms, which looks as if it might have belonged to the same set, though -it is now preserved in the Cluny Museum, Paris, is shown in Plate XLV. -Another armchair of the same period and general style (_see_ Plate -XXXIII) has a carved panel filled with cane, cane seat, scrolled arms, -turned rails and legs, and carved front bar. Chairs of this fashion were -extremely popular in the Low Countries and in England during the second -half of the seventeenth century. In all probability, they originated in -the Netherlands, and became familiar and favourites with the exiled -Cavaliers between 1640 and 1660; and at the Restoration the style was -imported into England. However this may be, this well-known carved oak -chair, with cane back and seat, is still popularly known as the “Charles -II Chair.” A light Dutch model of this type, with elegantly carved front -bar, turned rails and posts and scrolled front legs, is shown in Plate -XXXIV. It has no arms and the back panel is divided into two narrow -panels of cane, producing a very light and elegant effect. The scrolls -of the feet are much lighter and more graceful than those of the -armchair at its side. - -An armchair of the same style and period, also from the Rijks Museum, is -in the centre on Plate XXXV. - -The central panel of the back is gracefully treated with open carved and -turned work. The panel proper is framed with heavy scrolls, and the -central bar is pierced and carved with graceful bellflowers running -downwards and upwards. This _chute_ of the bell-flower now becomes a -very favourite ornamentation in decorative art, and Bérain, Marot and -other artists of the period make free use of it. The curved stretchers -with the vase ornament in the centre is very characteristic of Dutch, -English, and French furniture of the second half of the seventeenth -century. It occurs in ordinary tables, dressing-tables, stands for -cabinets, and, in fact, every piece of furniture that stands on four -legs. The arms and legs consist of the usual scroll, and the feet of -carved bulbs. - -A chair with the characteristic scrolled stretcher just alluded to -occurs on Plate XXXIII. It is richly carved, and has turned and carved -straight legs, with bulbed feet. The back is a richly carved frame, -filled with cane. The top is crowned with delicate ribbon and foliage -carving, and the shape of the back is a favourite one for the mirrors of -the period. The proportions of the seat, which is stuffed and covered -with velvet fastened with small brass nails is quite modern. This chair, -however, belongs to the end of the seventeenth century. The affinities -between the chairs we have been describing and the designs by Marot, -which were so popular in Holland, may be studied in the next chapter. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXIII.—_Chairs._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -The masters of this school of ornamentation were numerous. Hitherto -Flanders has overshadowed the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands in -art products; but beginning with De Vries, Holland assumes equal -importance. Peter Soutman (Haarlem 1580–1650), was a pupil of Rubens; -William Buytenweg worked at Rotterdam; Adrian Muntink was famous in -Groningen (_circ._ 1610); other goldsmiths and engravers, named Laurens, -Janss Micker, Geraert van Ryssen, Meinert Gelis, Jacobus van der Tverff, -Gerritz Hessel (Amsterdam), Abraham Hecker (Amsterdam), Hendrik de -Keyser (Amsterdam), Jacobus Collan (Rotterdam), and Arnold Houbraken -(Dordrecht), all flourished during the first half of the seventeenth -century. Their motives of garlands, fruits, flowers, human and animal -figures, birds, insects, etc., were used in the decoration of sumptuous, -carved furniture, and for marquetry and mosaics, as well as for the gold -and silver ware of which the nobles and rich merchants were so fond. - -Other masters of ornament of the Netherlands of this period, whose works -have survived, are Martin van Buten (_circ._ 1607), Franz Aspruck -(_circ._ 1601), Jacques de Gheyn (_circ._ 1610), J. B. Barbé (_b._ -1585), Blondus (1590–1656), Raphael Custode, Michel van Lochon, -Henderick Lodeweycke (_circ._ 1626), André Pauli (_circ._ 1628). - -Following the above, when the _style Rubens_ was giving way to the -Decadence, we find Michel Natalis (1609–80), Arthus Quellin (_b._ 1609), -Jacob van Campen (_circ._ 1660), Peter van den Avont (_b._ 1619), James -Collan (_circ._ 1650), Arnold Houbraken (_d._ 1660), L. Hendericks -(_circ._ 1660), Romanus de Hooghe (1638–1718), Gaspard Bouttats, -(1640–1703), J. J. Falkema (_circ._ 1680), Isaac Moucheron (1660–1744), -Antony de Winter (_circ._ 1690), Peter Paul Bouche (_circ._ 1693), J. -Thuys (_circ._ 1690), J. and F. Harrewyn (_circ._ 1694), Heinrich van -Bein (1689–98), and G. Vischer, Erasmus Kamyn, P. Schentz and M. -Heylbrouck, who all worked at the close of the century. - -The most extraordinary style of ornamentation employed by the masters of -Decorative Art during the seventeenth century is that known as the -_genre auriculaire_. In this, every part of the human ear is used as a -decorative motive. The outer rim and lobe had been used long before it -was carried to excess. A very early example is shown in the bed dated -1580 on Plate XI where auricular curves are plainly recognizable in the -carving. - -In the “_Buire_” (Plate XLVI) by Mosyn, however, this style is seen in -its most exaggerated form. This design is by M. Mosyn, an engraver, born -at Amsterdam about 1630. His chandeliers are equally extravagant. Peter -Nolpe, born at the Hague (1601–70), was another designer of this school, -as was also John Lutma of Amsterdam (1609–89). The latter represents the -very decadence of art, with his hideous cartouches, compartments, frames -and _aiguières_, composed of distorted and tortured ears. Another master -of Amsterdam who published many plates in the same extraordinary taste -was Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout. He also worked in the middle of this -century. This style attained its greatest vogue in Germany. There -Friederich Unteutsch, a master carpenter of Frankfort, published (1650) -110 plates of all kinds of furniture, on which the ear is prominent as -an ornament. Daniel Rabel (_d._ 1637), also used the _genre auriculaire_ -in France, but there its life was short and feeble. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (DUTCH) - - Famous Dutch Architects—The Royal Palace on the Dam, Het Loo, the - Mauritshuis and Huis ten Bosch—Interior Carvings—Specimens of - Rooms and Ceilings in the Rijks Museum—Love of the Dutch for their - Houses—Miniature Dutch Houses and Models of Old Amsterdam Houses - in the Rijks Museum—Architecture of the Seventeenth Century—A - Typical Dutch Home—The _Luifel_, _Voorhuis_ and _Comptoir_— - Interior Decorations and Furniture—Dutch Mania for Cleaning— - Descriptions by Travellers of Dutch Houses and Cleaning—Cleaning - Utensils—House and Furniture of Andreas Hulstman Janz, in - Dordrecht—Inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt, wife of the - painter, in Delft—“Show-rooms” and their Furnishings—Cooking - Utensils—Bedroom in the House of Mrs. Lidia van der Dussen in - Dordrecht—The Cradle and “Fire-Basket”—The Baby’s Silver—The - “Bride’s Basket”—The “Bride’s Crown” and “Throne”—Decorations for - a Wedding—Description by Sir John Lower of the Farewell - Entertainment to Charles II at The Hague. - - -The most important architects of this period were Hendrik de Keyser -(1565–1621), Jacob van Kampen (1598–1657), and Philip Vinckboons -(1608–75). - -The Royal Palace on the Dam, Amsterdam, was built by Jacob van Kampen -for a Town Hall; it was begun in 1648 and finished in 1655. It is -interesting to note that the structure rests on a foundation of 13,659 -piles. The gables are ornamented with allegorical reliefs by Artus -Quellin the Elder (see page 137), representing the glories of Amsterdam. -Artus Quellin and his assistants also adorned the interior with carvings -and sculptures in marble. There are also in the various rooms -elaborately carved chimney-pieces, some of them with painted overmantels -by Jan Lievens, Ferd. Bol, and N. de Helt-Stocade (1656). The ceilings -were painted by J. G. Bronchorst, Cornelis Holsteyn and others. This was -not used as a palace until the time of Louis Napoleon in 1808. - -Het Loo, near Apeldoorn, the favourite residence of William I, William -III and the reigning Queen Wilhelmina, received additions during this -period; and the Royal Palace at The Hague was also built in the time of -William III. - -The Mauritshuis, on the Vyver (now the home of the famous Hague picture -gallery), was erected in 1633–44, for Count John Maurice of Nassau, the -Dutch West India Company’s Governor of Brazil, who died in 1679. The -architects were Jacob van Kampen and Pieter Post. This house was rebuilt -in 1704–18, after a fire. - -These two architects were also responsible for the Huis ten Bosch (House -in the Wood), the royal villa near The Hague, built about 1645 for the -Princess Amalia of Solms, widow of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange -(1625–47). The wings were added by William IV in 1748, and many of the -decorations are of the eighteenth century. The famous apartments are: -the Chinese Room, the Japanese Room, and the Orange Saloon, in which the -Peace Conference met in 1899. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXIV.—_Chairs._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -The Trêves Saloon in the Binnenhof in The Hague was built by William III -in 1697 as a reception-room. It is embellished with a handsome ceiling -and portraits of seven stadtholders. The two chimney-pieces in the hall -of the first chamber represent War by Jan Lievens and Peace by Adr. -Hanneman. - -An example of Philip Vinckboons’s work is the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, -built in 1662 in the classic style. This is now occupied by the Royal -Academy of Science. - -Exceptionally noteworthy specimens of interior carving of this period -are: Renaissance chimney-piece and a Gothic chimney-piece in the Louis -XIV style in the Antiquarian Museum, Utrecht; a chimney-piece dating -from the end of the seventeenth century, with a group of the -stamp-masters of the cloth-hall, by Karel de Moor, in the Municipal -Museum, Leyden; carved panelling in the council chamber, Woerden (1610); -carvings in the church at Venlo; panelling in the palace of the Princess -Marie on the Korte Voorhout, The Hague; a pulpit of 1685 in Broek in the -Waterland; and a monument in the church of St. Ursula, Delft, to William -of Orange, begun in 1616 by Hendrik de Keyser, and finished by his son -Peter. - -The Rijks Museum possesses many examples of panelling, chimney-pieces, -and separate pieces of furniture; and several entire rooms have been -correctly arranged. Among these is a room with wall-panellings and -chimney-piece from Dordrecht (1626). The ceiling, supposed to be by Th. -van der Schuer (about 1678), represents Morning and Evening, and is from -the bedroom of Queen Mary of England, wife of William III, in the -Binnenhof, The Hague. The gilt leather hangings and other furniture in -this room are of the same date. - -Another room contains a beautifully painted cylindrical ceiling of wood -from the apartment of Mary Stuart, wife of William II, Prince of Orange, -also in the Binnenhof. The panelling, chimney-piece, gilt leather -hangings and furniture are also of the seventeenth century. - -A notable room is that taken from the house of Constantia Huygens in The -Hague, built by Jacob van Kampen. Blue silk is curiously used to -embellish the panelling. The ceiling, painted by Gérard de Lairesse -(1640–1711) represents Apollo and Aurora. This room is in the Louis XIV -style. A later fashion is, however, shown in the splendid “Chinese -Boudoir” of the latter part of the seventeenth century from the -Stadtholder’s palace at Leeuwarden. - -Another room deserving attention is from a small hunting-lodge called -the Hoogerhuis, near Amersfoort, built about 1630 by Jacob van Kampen -and inhabited by him. The room is lighted by eight small windows, over -which paintings were hung. There is an interesting bedstead here, -ornamented with painted garlands, and with three compartments, beneath -the centred one of which is the Spanish motto, “_’El todo es nada_” -(Everything is nought). - -The Dutch of the seventeenth century passed practically all their lives -at home. With the exception of merchants, students and men of affairs, -people rarely visited their friends and relatives in neighbouring towns. -As Pieter van Godewijck wrote:— - - _Het reysen is een taeck nyet yder opgelegt, - En ’t is nyet al te veel en sonder blaêm gezegt, - Het huys is als een graf, waerin wy altyt wonen, - In ’t aerdsche tranendal._ - - (Travelling is a task not given to everybody, - And it’s not said so much and without blame - That the home is like a grave, wherein we always dwell, - In the earthly vale of tears.) - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXV.—_Chairs._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -The house was therefore “their world, their toy, their god”; they loved -to embellish and decorate it, they loved to take care of it and keep it -clean, they loved to see it painted on panel and canvas; and some of -them even went so far as to have their house reproduced in miniature, -with all its furniture and belongings copied in wood and metal. - -It would be a mistake to suppose that the so-called dolls’ houses, which -may be studied in the museums of Amsterdam, Utrecht, and other towns, -were merely the somewhat elaborate toys with which the English-speaking -juvenile race sometimes amuse themselves. As the old inventories show, -dolls’ houses and all their appurtenances were very vivid mirrors of -contemporary life, including furniture and costume. This is particularly -true of Holland, although other countries of Western Europe preserved -evidences of the taste for similar “toys” of earlier date. Henry IV of -France, for instance, when a child, played with toys, among which are -noticeable a suit of clothes in wrought silver. - -These dolls’ houses were elaborate and costly; for every detail of the -real model was represented, including the small articles of porcelain, -Delft, earthenware, pewter, brass and silver. Dolls’ _salons_, too, were -often painted by noted masters, and cost thousands of florins. For -example, a beautiful doll’s house of the date 1680, in the Antiquarian -Museum of Utrecht, has its walls covered with paintings by Moucheron. -The houses consisted of from four to eight rooms with furniture of wood, -silver, gold, or filigree silver or gold. Such rooms as the kitchen, -lying-in room and death chamber were often included. The latter was -draped in black with a canvas or silver coffin containing a tiny wax -corpse. Often, too, the house was completed with a pretty miniature -garden embellished with a quantity of coral-work, trees, hedges, seats, -paths and statuettes. We may note that Margaretha Godewijck had a doll’s -house with a garden and arbour, upon which she wrote the following -poem:— - - OP MYN CORAAL WERK - - _Hier siet ghy van coraal in ’t cabinet besloten, - Een baeckermat, een wiegh, een korf, een stoof, een mandt, - Een kleerben opgepronckt, een bedsté, ledikant - Gevloghten van coraal en na de kunst gegoten, - Gemaeckt van suyver glas, en van verscheyden kleuren, - Aen d’ Aemstelstroom gevormt van blaeuw, van groen en peers, - Want sulck corale werck verdient oock wel een vers, - En Pallas sou het self voor wat bysonder keuren._ - - (ON MY CORAL WORK. - - Placed in my cabinet here, you see made of coral - A baby’s basket, a cradle, a child’s foot-warmer and a warming-basket, - An ornamental clothes cupboard, a bed and bedstead of twisted and cast - coral - And of pure glass, of different colours, - Shaped at Amstel’s stream of blue and green and purple. - For such coral-work deserves indeed a verse, - And even Pallas would judge it more than ordinary.) - - OP MYNE THUYN VAN SYDE - - _Hoe seer dat Crassus pronckt en stoft op al sijn fruyten, - Gewassen buyten Roôm en aen het Tybers stof, - Hoe seer Lucullus pryst sijn bloemen, planten, spruyten, - Sijn ooft, sijn boom-gewas, sijn za’en, sijn braven hof, - Dit alles kan een wint, een buy en vlaegh verdrijven, - Soodat de bloem verdort en ’t rijpe fruyt verstickt. - Maer mynen hof van syd die sal gedurigh blyven. - Mijn fruyt het greetigh oogh, maer niet de mond verquict. - Geen spin, geen worm, geen rups en kan mijn boomen deeren, - Mijn bloemtjes somers sijn en ’s winters even groen, - Mijn kerssen altyd root, mijn appelen, mijn peeren - Sijn altyt even gaef, sy konnen ’t ooghe voên._ - - (ON MY GARDEN OF SILK - - How much Cassius may pride himself and boast of all his fruit - Grown outside Rome and on the Tiber’s border; - How much Lucullus may praise his flowers, plants and twigs, - His lawns, his tree-garden, his seeds and a fine orchard— - All these can be scattered by the wind, a shower, or a gust; - So that the flower fades and the ripe fruit perishes, - But my silken garden will remain for ever. - My fruit satisfies the greedy eye, but not the mouth; - No spider, worm, nor caterpillar can hurt my trees; - My flowers are as green in winter as in summer, - My cherries always red, my apples and my pears - Always ripe and sound; they feed the eyes for ever.) - -The dolls’ houses of the rich were always made of costly woods, and were -frequently inlaid with ivory and tortoiseshell. At the exhibition of -Amsterdam in 1858, among a number of these curiosities, was a notable -one veneered with tortoiseshell and with painted glass doors—a present -from the King of Denmark to Maarten Harpertz Tromp. Another was a -typical Dutch house of walnut-root wood, furnished with silver furniture -and wax dolls; there were also two of Italian make with tortoiseshell, -ebony and brass ornaments, the doors of which were painted with Italian -sea-towns; and one of ebony, the door-panels of which were painted by -Peter Breughel. - -In the Rijks Museum are several models in miniature of old Amsterdam -houses. The finest one is of tortoiseshell ornamented with white metal -inlay. According to tradition, Christoffel Brandt, Peter the Great’s -agent in Amsterdam, had this house made by order of the Czar, and it is -said to have cost 20,000 guilders (£2,500), and to have required five -years to produce. Dating from the latter part of the seventeenth or -first part of the eighteenth century, it contains all the furniture that -was to be found at that date in an aristocratic dwelling on the -_Heerengracht_ or _Keizersgracht_. Every object in it was made by the -proper artisan, so that it is correct in every detail. - -Another dates from the first half of the eighteenth century. -Architecturally it is very interesting; but the interior furnishings are -much simpler than the above. - -A third house, belonging to the family Ploos van Amstel, dates from the -first half of the eighteenth century, and is supposed to be inhabited by -a doctor. It is three storeys high, and has a wide door on the façade -with the initials P.V.A. (Ploos Van Amstel) artistically interlaced. Of -its twelve rooms, the most remarkable are the parlour and the -physician’s study, containing a library, a collection of preparations -and a collection of shells and artistic objects in ivory, every item of -which is reproduced in miniature. - -According to Mr. E. W. Berg, who gives a minute description of this -house in _De Oude Tyd_ (1872), it is said that by this doctor is meant -Christoffel Ludeman, the well-known “wonder-doctor.” - -It was a fad with the wealthy to possess these curious silver toys, -which passed from generation to generation. Sometimes the collection -consisted of hundreds of pieces. Mrs. van Varick, of New Amsterdam -(1696), had no less than eighty-three silver toys to divide among her -children. - -These silver and gold toys were so artistically made that they attracted -the attention of many travellers, who paid large sums for them. Many -beautiful and quaint specimens are therefore to be seen in the European -Museums and private collections on both sides of the Atlantic. - -Sets of dolls’ porcelain were also collected in this century and -preserved in show-cases or china-cabinets, with a collection of dolls’ -clothes. These cabinets of dolls’ articles were even found in -farmhouses, and sometimes jewellery and small articles of value were -kept in them. - -Many of the poorer houses in the seventeenth century were built of wood -or stone, with wooden gables that projected far over the narrow street, -so far indeed that the occupants of the one could shake hands across the -street with those in the opposite house. Many of these houses were -gradually replaced by newer houses of a more regular aspect. As the -century wears on they increase in height and solidity. As a rule, the -house is of three storeys, with a tiled roof. In the lower floor there -is a row of small windows with small panes set in lead and protected by -ornamental iron-work. These windows admit light into the small office -and entrance-hall, and run along the whole width of the house above the -“_luifel_” (verandah), under which in the daytime wares are offered for -sale, and where on fine evenings the burgher sits with his wife and -family. Sometimes the thrifty housewife may be seen sitting under the -verandah knitting, spinning, sewing, or darning, with her feet on a -foot-rest, and the children playing around her. The baby’s cradle is -sometimes brought out as well. On Saturdays the children are bathed and -washed under the “_luifel_,” without the public taking the least notice. -Gentlemen’s houses, however, have no verandahs, but both sides of the -door or gate are flanked by windows with shutters, and this door is on a -level with the entrance. The arrangement of the windows on the second -floor is like that of the first. Chrysostomus Napolitanus says in 1516, -“The dwelling-houses have nearly all the same shape and architecture. -The back walls do not rise very high, but end in a point and step-like.” -These gable steps were sometimes ornamented with stone vases or images, -and the coping was also decorated. In the seventeenth century the houses -were built narrower but higher, as also the windows, while the wire -screens and the verandahs gradually disappeared. The copings and -ornamentations of the cornice were, however, not less richly sculptured; -and, under the top windows, stone figures, Caryatides, lions and -coats-of-arms were often introduced. In the third storey there were one -or two windows, above which the arms of the proprietor were carved. -Instead of the armorial device, sometimes a figure, a pair of compasses, -or a bell was introduced, from which the house took its name; or again -the family name would be carved in gigantic letters. In the course of -time the name of the occupant was used less than the name of the house -in which he lived. We find mention of the house Blijenburgh, -Moesienbroeck, Cruysenborch, Nuysenborch, Blijensteyn, Kleyn Jerusalem, -’t Huys Beaumont, Groot en Kleyn Rosendaeal, etc. Behind the houses were -gardens with summer-houses, surrounded with fences of trellis-work. In -the common houses a stone-paved hallway leads through the house to an -open back yard, where there is a grass plot to bleach the clothes on, -and where a room is built with a fireplace and kitchen. From the -vestibule a stairway leads to the second floor, which communicates with -a smaller stairway and often with a ladder to the floor above. - -Let us enter a rich home and see how the rooms are arranged. We pass -through a great oaken door painted green and furnished with a heavy iron -knocker, to enter a high and commodious vestibule, the walls of which -are hung with pictures, deers’ heads or other hunting trophies. On one -side is a broad oak staircase with a lion, griffin, or dragon -beautifully carved at the base, and holding in his paws the same -coat-of-arms that is carved in front of the gable. Facing the entrance -hangs a magnificent oil painting. In less wealthy homes the vestibule is -encased with blue and white tiles, and the floor is also laid in the -same, and a carved oak or stone bench faces the door. As this -“_voorhuis_,” or vestibule, is used by the less fashionable as a living -apartment, there also stands here a table, and on the wall a mirror in -an ebony frame, and many polished brass vessels and Delft dishes and -plates give a homelike character to the spot. A house of this type has a -verandah outside, on and under which the small merchant conducts his -business, although his office or “_comptoir_” is at the back. If this -happens to be a school, the master or mistress teaches his or her class -under the “_luifel_”; or, if an inn, this is the meeting or -smoking-room. - -The “_comptoir_” is also found in the homes of the rich, and the lady of -the house often sits there with her children, not because it is the most -attractive place, but in order to keep the better rooms neat and clean. -In rich houses many of the rooms are known by individual names,—some -according to the use to which they were put, others on account of the -hangings, the name of the occupant, or an important piece of furniture. -Hence we have the salon, dining-room, show-room, the sleeping-room, the -little cabinet (office), the gold leather room, the damask room, the -matted room, the room of Adam and Eve, Mr. Arends’s room, Miss -Emerentia’s room, Mr. Cornelius van Beveren’s sleeping-room, etc., etc. - -In wealthy homes the walls of some rooms were encased in tiles, -decorated with painted figures, flowers, arms, or pictorial scenes or -mottoes; and upon these hung many fine paintings in richly carved ebony -frames. In some houses every available space on the wall in every room -was occupied by a picture; so that from top to bottom the rooms were -filled with masterpieces of art. Some rooms on the ground floor were -hung with splendid tapestries, representing hunting-scenes, Biblical -stories, coats-of-arms, mythological and historical legends and stories, -etc., etc. Other rooms were hung with embroidered materials, with red -velvet, with gold or silver flowered borders, or with gold or stamped -leather of various colours and patterns. Sometimes, also, the walls were -panelled and wainscotted, particularly where beds or cupboards stood. In -poor houses the walls were simply whitewashed or covered with square -tiles of gay colours. The ordinary burghers strewed their floors with -fine sand, and often arranged it so deftly by means of the broom in a -design of flowers or geometrical figures that one would think a figured -carpet was laid upon the floor. In rich homes the floor, as a rule, was -covered with fine Spanish matting; and when guests came, a rug or carpet -was spread over this, but on their departure it was carefully rolled up -and put away. Some of the floors—often those of the garret—were laid in -coloured tiles. - -One of the principal ornaments in rich houses was the painted glass. In -some rooms every window was adorned with painted glass, but in less -wealthy homes one window had to suffice. This was generally a round one -painted in gaudy hues and neatly framed. Such glass was a favourite -present. Sometimes the engraver had inscribed upon it Dutch or Latin -proverbs; but more frequently it was embellished with the coat-of-arms -of the master of the house, portraits, landscapes, Biblical and popular -stories, such as Reynard the Fox, The Adventures of the four Heems -Children, or The Drolleries of Tyll Eulenspiegel. The ceilings rested on -heavy oak beams with many cross beams; and even in rich houses ceilings -and beams were artistically painted. In the centre of the ceiling was -hung a brass, or gilded wooden chandelier for wax or tallow candles; and -additional light was derived from sconces fastened to the walls and on -either side of the chimney-piece. Occasionally the candelabra were of -crystal. In some rooms models of ships correctly rigged hung from the -beams; and sometimes stuffed animals, heads, fish, weapons, and wedding -ornaments and favours kept them company. - -The chimney-piece always received a good deal of attention. It was very -wide and high. Wood and peat were both burned on the large silver, -brass, iron or steel andirons. The space in the overmantel was often -painted by the best master available, or was occupied by a painting in a -carved frame. On either side of the picture were sconces containing wax -candles that illuminated the painting at night. The broad chimney shelf -was occupied with Japanese and Chinese porcelains and lacquers; and in -the summer time the pot that was suspended from a crane in the chimney -was taken away and replaced by large porcelain vases and beakers. A -handsome chimney cloth was usually hung just below the shelf. - -Being exceedingly economical, the Dutch could not easily squander money -for pleasures or recreations, but for the “home” they would spend -lavishly. A handsome piece of furniture or silver, beautiful porcelain, -rare tulips, rich curtains and rugs, valuable paintings, fine glass, and -curios from the Far East would induce the opulent Dutchman to part with -large sums; and his wife spent the greater part of her life in -ornamenting and beautifying the home, taking care of the treasures it -contained, and, above all, in keeping the house and its contents clean -and in order. A rich merchant, Asselijn, said:— - - _Ziet wat een fraei kasteel! wat heit het me gecost! - Myn gelt is nyet verbrast aan keur van vremde cost. - Voor paerden en gery en zeldzaeme sieraeden - En gaf ik nyet een myt; geen bloem-fluweelgewaden - Versieren ’t stinckend lyf, de logge madenzak. - Myn huys is myn sieraet, myn huys myn beste pack. - Daer voor is myn tresoor, daer voor myn koffer open, - En wat myn huys behoeft, dat haest ick my te koopen._ - - (See what a beautiful castle! What a sum it costs! - My money is not spent in choice of foreign viands. - For horses and equipages and rare ornaments - I did not spend a mite; no flowery velvet dresses - Adorn the wasting body, the clumsy stomach: - My home is my ornament, my house my best costume, - Therefore my treasury and my coffer are open, - And what my house needs I hasten to buy.) - -And Godewijck puts these words into the mouth of a daughter of an -alderman:— - - _Myn stoffer is myn swaerd, myn bussem is myn wapen. - Ick kenne geene rust, ick weete van geen slaepen. - Ick denck aen geen salet, ick denck niet aen myn keel. - Geen arbeyt my te swaer, geen zorge my te veel - Om alles gladdekens en sonder smet te maken. - Ik wil niet dat de maegd myn pronkstuck aan zal raken; - Ick selve wrijf en boen, ick flodder en ick schrob, - Ick aes op ’t kleinste stof, ik beef niet voor den tob - Gelyck de pronckmadam._ - - (My brush is my sword, my besom is my weapon. - I know no rest, I know no sleep. - I don’t think of my room, I don’t think of my throat. - No labour is too heavy, no care I think too much - To make everything smooth and without blemish. - I will not let the maid touch my pretty things; - I, myself, will rub and polish, I will splash and scrub; - I hunt the speck of dust, I do not fear the tub - Like a fine lady.) - -These are samples of many speeches in the old comedies, where the women -constantly talk about housecleaning and scrubbing. - -English travellers of this period unanimously praised the way the Dutch -houses were kept. One wrote: “They are not large, but neat, beautiful -outside and well furnished inside; and the furniture is so clean and in -good order that it appears to be more an exhibition than for daily use.” -The farms also attracted the attention of the stranger. Another -traveller said: “The Dutch farmer keeps his land as neatly as a courtier -trims his beard; and his house is as choice as a lady who comes out of -her dressing-room. A well-dressed lady cannot look neater than the fine -gable and the thatched roof of a Dutch farmhouse.” - -In his _Brief Character of the Low Countries_, Owen Feltham describes an -Amsterdam house of the middle of the seventeenth century. “When you are -entered the house,” he writes, “the first thing you encounter is a -Looking-Glasse. No question but a true Embleme of politick hospitality; -for though to reflect yourself in your own figure, ‘tis yet no longer -than while you are there before it. When you are gone once, it flatters -the next commer, without the least remembrance that you were ere there. - -“The next are the vessels of the house marshalled about the room like -watchmen. All is neat as you were in a Citizen’s Wife’s Cabinet; for -unless it be themselves, they let none of God’s creatures lose anything -of their native beauty. - -“Their houses, especially in their Cities, are the best eye-beauties of -their Country. For cost and sight, they far exceed our English, but they -want their magnificence. Their lining is yet more rich than their -outside; not in hangings, but pictures, which even the poorest are there -furnisht with. Not a cobler but has his toyes for ornament. Were the -knacks of all their homes set together, there would not be such another -Bartholomew-Faire in Europe.... - -“Their beds are no other than land-cabines, high enough to need a ladder -or stairs. Up once, you are walled in with Wainscot, and that is a good -discretion to avoid the trouble of making your will every night; for -once falling out else would break your neck promptly. But if you die in -it this comfort you shall leave your friends, that you dy’d in clean -linen. - -“Whatsoever their estates be, their houses must be fair. Therefore from -Amsterdam they have banisht seacoale, lest it soyl their buildings, of -which the statlier sort are sometimes sententious, and in the front -carry some conceit of the Owner. As to give you a taste in these:— - - ‘_Christus Adjutor Meus; - Hoc abdicato Perenne Quero; - Hic Medio tuitus Itur._’ - -“Every door seems studded with Diamonds. The nails and hinges hold a -constant brightnesse, as if rust there was not a quality incident to -Iron. Their houses they keep cleaner than their bodies; their bodies -than their souls. Goe to one, you shall find the Andirons shut up in -network. At a second, the Warming-pan muffled in Italian Cutworke. At a -third the Sconce clad in Cambrick.” - -English travellers are not the only ones to bear witness to the extremes -to which cleanliness was carried by the housewives of the Low Countries. -A French writer, De Parival, says:— - -“The wives and daughters scour and rub benches, chests, cupboards, -dressers, tables, plate racks, even the stairs until they shine like -mirrors. Some are so clean that they would not enter any of the rooms -without taking off their shoes and putting on their slippers. The women -put all their energy and pleasure in keeping the house and the furniture -clean. The floors are washed nearly every day and scoured with sand, and -are so neat that a stranger is afraid to expectorate on them. If the -city women keep their houses clean, the farmers’ wives are not less -particular. They carry this cleanliness even into the stables. They -scour everything, even the iron chains and mounts until they shine like -silver.” - -The same traveller also says: “The furniture of the principal burghers, -besides gold and silver ware, consists of tapestries, costly paintings -(for which no money is saved, but rather eked out in economical living), -beautifully carved woodwork, such as tables, treasure-chests, etc., and -pewter, brass, earthenware, porcelains, etc.” - -Another foreigner says: “Their interior decorations are far more costly -than our own [English], not only in hangings and ornaments, but in -pictures, which are found even in the poorer houses. No farmer or even -common labourer is found who has not some kind of interior ornaments and -so varied that if all were put together it would often fill a booth at -the fair.” - -Chrysostomus Napolitanus, who visited Holland in 1516, says: “_Goede -Hemel! welk eene netheid van het gereedschap! welk eene kostelijkheid -van bedden en welk eene blankheid van servetten, tafels en tafellakens! -welk een sieraad aan de stoelen! welke zindelijkheid eindelijk aan -muren, vloer en al het overige! Den bodem der spijs-, noen- en -slaapvertrekken bestrooien zij met een weinig zand, opdat, zoo er bij -geval iets morsigs op mocht vallen, zoo iemand somwijlen er vuile voeten -op mocht zetten, de vloer zelve er niet door besmet zou worden, maar men -het terstond, eer het er zich aan vasthecht, met bezems uit zou kunnen -keeren._” - -(“Good Heavens! What a neatness of the utensils! how costly the beds and -bedding, and how white the sheets, serviettes and tablecloths! What an -ornamentation on the chairs, and, lastly, what cleanliness of the -floors, walls and everything! The floors of the eating, sleeping and -sitting rooms are strewn with a little sand, so that if anything should -drop and one should accidentally step upon it, the floor would not be -soiled, and before the matter could stick to it, the dirt might be -removed with a broom.”) - -Fifty years later, Guicciardini, after praising the general state of the -civilization and courtesy of the people, and remarking on the beauty of -the public and private buildings, says: “But after all this if one -enters their homes and notices the abundance of all kinds of furniture, -and the order and neatness of everything, it gives one great pleasure, -and one looks upon it as a wonder. And indeed it is, for there is -nothing like it anywhere else in the world.” - -The inventories of the day give evidence of a great variety and number -of cleaning utensils. Brooms and brushes of all kinds, tubs, pails, -buckets, scrubbers tied with red leather, dust brushes called hogs, -floor brushes, hearth hair brushes with brass and wooden handles occur -in every house. One inventory of 1685 shows how well supplied a rich -home was with articles for cleaning and scrubbing. These are as follows: -five whiting brushes, one brush to clean the floors, five rubbers, three -small painting brushes, four dust brushes, two floor brushes, two hair -brushes, two hearth brooms, one chamber broom, one rake brush, one -brush, one hay broom without a stick, and two Bermudian brooms with -sticks. Cooking and cleaning implements and utensils were kept in the -kitchen and in the cellar underneath. Pictures by Dutch masters show -that in clement weather a good deal of housework was done in the tiled -court or yard adjoining the kitchen. - -As an example of the ordinary burgher’s home, let us take the house on -one of the corners of the Mat Wharf on the Voorstraat in Dordrecht, -dating from the beginning of the seventeenth century, and dwelt in by -Andreas Hulstman Janz, merchant in wood, his wife Elizabeth Balen -Matthews, and his children Jan, Christine and Alette. - -The house has a sharp pointed gable and is three storeys high. The -windows are provided with balconies, and a larger verandah runs along -above the blue stone stoop. On each side of the rounded door embellished -with iron-work are small windows supplied with trellises, as are -likewise the four windows above the verandah that light the little -office or “_comptoir_.” As we tap the iron knocker, a man or maid -servant opens the door, and we notice that the little windows dimly -divined through the creeper-shaded trellis are set in lead and supply -but little light. The front hall runs on the left-hand side directly -through the house, opening into a little yard that communicates with -some smaller apartments and the kitchen. - -On the right hand side is a small apartment, called the “little -_comptoir_,” the favourite room of the mother and her daughters when the -housework is done, for they can see through the trellis and “watch the -street.” - -In the hallway, a narrow staircase leads to the second floor, “the best -part,” where the “show” and “guestrooms” are situated, while on the -third floor are the bedrooms, and in the garret, the drying-room, -mangle-room, brass and tin rooms. Here also the peat and firewood are -kept. Passing up the stairway, we enter the living-room, which looks -upon the front hall, and from which, when the door is open, a view of -the street is obtained. This arrangement is familiar in many Dutch -pictures, notably in that of _The Sick Lady_ (Plate XXXVII). - -The living-room is rather sombre. The white walls are partly covered -with pictures, and the floor is strewn with fine sand in a pattern -resembling a carpet. Three large pieces of furniture are conspicuous, -two oak cupboards standing on heavy ball feet, their broad flat tops -ornamented with handsome beakers and vases of porcelain; the third piece -is a large _sacredaan kas_ hung with green curtains. In this the library -is contained, consisting of a few books of travel, atlases, poetry by -Cats, Vondel, Godewijck, Antonides, a number of religious works, -commentaries on the catechism, hymn-books, the medical works of Battus -and Beverwijck, and a few translated novels (for in this day there was -but little Dutch fiction). In the centre of the room there stands a -large and heavy oak table, with low chairs of the same, and covered with -leather seats arranged symmetrically around it. In one corner of the -room we note a reading-desk on which rests an enormous Bible bound in -leather, with great brass mounts. The chimneypiece is enormous; if it is -winter, a tremendous peat and wood fire is perpetually burning; if -summer, the fireplace is ornamented with large, handsome faïence, or -porcelain vases. This is the room in which the family gathers for -breakfast, dinner and supper, and passes the winter evenings pleasantly -enough. - -From this room we enter the kitchen. We hardly know what to notice -first—the marble tiles shining like glass, the brass and pewter gleaming -like gold and silver from the racks and dressers, the well-filled china -closet, the rose-red painted table, with the yellow painted -rush-bottomed chairs, or the general effect of charm, cheerfulness, -colour and neatness. We are told that the lady of the house calls this -her “holy” (as she calls the show-room the “tabernacle”), and allows no -cooking to be done here. There is a small back kitchen built for this -purpose called “_snuiver_” (cooking shed), where all the food is -prepared. - -Before leaving this room we must describe the dresser, in which all the -articles for breakfast service are kept and, in poor houses, left-over -food. The used napkins are folded and placed here, and there are drawers -for table linen and other small utensils. It contains a candle-drawer, -and upon one of its shelves stands the heavy brass candlestick. The -peculiar extinguisher is called familiarly “the cat’s head,” on account -of its resemblance to the head of a cat. This is narrower at the bottom -than the top, and has a handle on each side. This stands next to the -peat-box, often the lower part of a pot cupboard opened and shut with a -slide Underneath the chimney is placed the fire-pot, for stoves are not -known. These innovations, imported from Germany, were heartily despised -and called contemptuously “stink-pots” and “muff-boxes.” - -Omitting the cellar and store-rooms, we pass upstairs to the bedroom of -the master and mistress on the second floor. Pictures, chiefly family -portraits, adorn the walls. The floor is of wood, highly polished, and -so slippery that great care is required in walking across it. - -The furniture consists of chairs with tall backs and low seats, a carved -table with a tapestry or rug cover, a large oak cabinet and a cupboard -on four legs, the treasure-chest and the wash-buffet, with wash-mops and -toilet appliances. A heavy green damask curtain hangs before the bed, -which is so high above the floor that it must be entered with the aid of -a small stepladder that stands in one corner of the room next to the -brass warming-pan. Sometimes a cradle, called “coach,” for the baby -stands at the foot and sometimes under the bed. - -These beds have often been ridiculed. The bedstead, however, soon -supplanted the panelled bed, although it has never banished it -altogether. - -The inventory of Gertrude van Mierevelt (1639), wife of the painter Van -Mierevelt of Delft who died in 1638, gives an excellent idea of a -comfortable Dutch home of the early seventeenth century. First should be -mentioned six beds with handsome draperies, tapestries, rich furniture -covers, and other woollen articles (_wollegoet_), that prove how much -the artist and his wife liked rich textiles. The _tinnewerk_, consisting -of plates, dishes, salt-cellars, etc., shows that the table-service was -of pewter, although twenty-eight articles in porcelain and faïence, -consisting of plates, bowls and dishes, valued at about twenty-six -florins, are also enumerated. The house also contained a great many -copper articles and utensils, from tongs and shovels to those fine -_repoussée_ dishes so highly prized to-day by collectors; and there was -a considerable amount of ironware, including two lanterns. There were -some statues in plaster, including a “Suzanne,” ninety-four paintings, -chiefly religious, and family portraits, although one representing -“Pomona and Flora” is mentioned. The artist also had some violins, a -little book of engravings, some wooden panels, and a library of -thirty-seven volumes. Many of these were illustrated, and dealt with -religious and historical subjects; and as they were all in Dutch it -would seem that the artist could read no other language. Especially -noticeable is the fine collection of linen, the pride of the mistress. -She had no less than twenty-five pairs of sheets, a hundred and eighteen -serviettes and fifteen tablecloths, one of which fetched as much as -fifteen florins at the sale in 1639, and another of damask (_damast -taefellaecken_), twenty florins. - -The most important room of the home of a burgher of moderate means was -the hall, or general living-room. This, as so many pictures show, had a -great fireplace, at which meals were often cooked. The furniture -consisted of tables, chairs, cabinets, and, very frequently, a bed. The -chimney-piece is massive, high and often elaborately carved, and above -it a landscape, fruit piece, Kermesse, flower-piece or battle-scene by a -favourite painter, is hung to form part of the decoration. This -chimney-piece is, moreover, filled with porcelain dishes, cups, plates, -teapots and curios. Below it hangs an ornamental chimney cloth -embroidered with gaily-coloured flowers, red or green silk, white -muslin, or figured calico. The hearth is framed in blue and white tiles, -furnished with an iron fireback and supplied with brass and irons, racks -for the fire-irons, pot-hooks, spits, a crane on which a large brass -kettle hangs, and small hooks from which the bellows, hearth brooms, -shovel, tongs, etc., hang conveniently for use. A brass or copper -warming-pan is not far away. The walls are adorned with pictures, a -large looking-glass in an ebony frame, a wall-board with hooks for small -cans and jugs and a plate rack or two in which some handsome plates and -dishes are formally arranged. A great linen press, or _kas_, filled with -tablecloths and napkins, the head of which is decorated with large -Japanese beakers and smaller cups and vases, stands on one side of the -room, and a glass case filled with teapots, cups and saucers, dishes, -etc., and an East India cabinet on the other. A gaudily-painted -Hindeloopen clock ticks on the wall. A large table stands in the centre -of the room, covered with a heavy Turkish rug or “carpet,” and several -little tables are conveniently disposed. The Russia leather, Turkey work -and matted chairs are symmetrically arranged around the walls beneath -the many pictures of landscape, interiors or still-life. The windows are -curtained, the hangings of red or green striped silk or flowered calico -matching those of the bedstead, which can be completely closed like a -large box. On the four corners of the cornice of this bed are bunches of -feathers or a painted wooden ornament. The casement windows have tiny -diamond-shaped or round panes set in lead, and on the outside creepers -and roses are carefully trained, forming a beautiful framework. Upon the -sills stand flower-pots in which a bright tulip or other favourite -flower is blooming. - -The first apartment entered from the front door of a merchant’s house -was the “_voorhuis_,” or front room, where visitors were formally -received. This was more or less handsomely furnished in accordance with -the means of the owner. It was usually a sort of hall, sometimes of -considerable dimensions. - -A “_voorhuis_,” as it appears in an inventory of 1686, contains a very -handsome marble table with a carved wooden frame, a table covered with a -handsome cloth, and a very fine tall clock. The seats consisted of seven -Russia leather chairs and one matted chair furnished with a cushion. The -room was lighted with three glass windows with leaden frames, handsomely -curtained, and eleven pictures decorated the walls. The value of this -furniture was £125 in present money. - -In many houses the second floor was only used for “show rooms,” and the -family slept in either the lower or the top floor. Bernagie writes: “If -you go through the town, you will find many houses where the husband is -afraid so much as even to smell at his second floor rooms. They always -remain downstairs. Have they ever so many courtly rooms, they will eat, -for their wives’ sake, in the small back kitchen.” - -This was the case in most of the burghers’ houses. These show-rooms were -used only on some special occasion; otherwise they were never entered -except for cleaning. This took place weekly and oftener, with special -cleaning in the spring and autumn. Rooms in constant use were daily -stripped and cleaned, and the housewife barely allowed herself time to -eat. Some enthusiastic housekeepers—although wealthy—would not allow the -servants to clean their best rooms, but wielded “the scrubbing-brush, -rubbing-towel and floor-cloth.” There are examples of houses where from -thirty to forty pails of water were used every day, and where the -servants did nothing but rub and scrub and scour from morning till -night. Many of the houses were exceedingly damp in consequence, and the -inmates constantly ill. Notwithstanding the ridicule the Dutch housewife -suffered in books and on the stage, her mania for cleaning was so great -that she cared not at all if the house was termed “hell” and the -cleaners “she-devils.” - -In some families home was made still more uncomfortable on account of -the little amount of cooking done. Certain dishes were prepared once a -week and then “warmed up,” so that the stove would not be soiled. In -North Holland a month would sometimes elapse between the making of fires -for cooking in the fireplace. All the cooking was done by means of a -little boiling water in the fire-pot. - -The show-room, or “holy of holies,” as the Dutch woman was pleased to -call it, was furnished according to the means or class of the owner. -Among the higher classes a party was often given in it. In such homes -the floor was covered with expensive Turkish rugs, and the walls hung -with tapestries, silk damask or gold leather. These were further adorned -with Venetian mirrors and paintings worth their weight in gold. The -chairs were of rare exotic or foreign woods supplied with embroidered -cushions, or seats of Utrecht velvet, and the other furniture consisted -of beautifully painted or inlaid or mosaic tables, beautifully carved -cupboards, and rare cabinets inlaid with silver, ivory or tortoiseshell, -and filled with the finest egg-shell porcelain. Porcelains and curios -adorned the high carved chimney. - -In older aristocratic homes the “show-room” was less lavishly furnished, -but none the less the pride of the mistress. The floor was covered with -mats, the walls with painted linen, or handsome paintings; but in rare -porcelain it was the equal of any alderman’s or mayor’s wife. - -As time wore on, the walnut cabinet supplanted the carved or oak -cupboard, the _vitrine_ took the place of the china-cabinet and the -console and glass appeared between the windows, and finally we arrive at -the period when the small bookcase with glass or mirror doors appears -and chairs covered with figured rep. - -The kitchen usually contained a bedstead with feather bed, pillows and -curtains, a looking-glass in a black frame, a cupboard, chairs, a table, -andirons, innumerable brooms and brushes, flint and steel for striking a -light, shovels, tongs, gridirons, dripping-pans, whetting-boards for -knives, tubs, butter firkins (earthenware, pewter, brass and tin), -knives, forks, spoons, stills, churns, hanging boards, can-boards, pots, -pails, skimmers, funnels, salt-boxes, candle-boxes, frying-pans, -beakers, candlesticks, dripping-pans, skewers, stewing-pans with covers, -copper kettles, chafing-dishes, hour-glasses, lamps, hammers, tankards, -tin pans to roast apples, pot-hangers, dishes to boil fish on, mortars -and pestles, waffle-irons, bellows, kettles, a birdcage, saucepans, -platters, cans, pepper mills, tin ware to bake sugar cakes, marzipan -pans, racks to hang clothes on, wicker baskets, hampers, tubs, glass -knockers to beat clothes, smoothing irons, tin watering pots to wet -clothes, rainwater casks, etc., etc. - -In order to gain an idea of a lady’s bedroom of the period, let us visit -that of the wealthy Mrs. Lidia van der Dussen, the daughter of Jacob van -Beveren, alderman of Dordrecht and bailiff and dike-count of the Country -of Strijen. The house is one of those with a high peaked gable; it has -oblong round-headed windows with small panes set in lead, and a façade -decorated with carvings and arms, while the name of the house is -inscribed in marble at the top. Green and red damask curtains at the -windows give the exterior an air of cheerfulness and comfort. We enter. -To the right of the large vestibule, the floor of which is laid in -marble tiles of blue and white, a wide marble staircase leads to a wide -marble hallway. The floor of this is covered with the finest Spanish -matting, and on each side of the hall are doors opening into various -rooms. These heavy doors are of oak, and are elaborately carved or -painted with cherubs, shepherds and shepherdesses, etc. Opening one of -these doors at the rear—the quietest part of the house—we find ourselves -in a large room, the stone floor of which is covered with rich rugs, -while tiles ornamented with bright pictorial designs, or mottoes, cover -the walls. The dark and heavy serge curtains that hang at the windows -prevent us from distinguishing the furniture of the room very clearly; -but we gradually make out the articles one by one. We note the splendid -array of vases and beakers that adorn the wide mantelpiece, and also the -top of the china cabinet of _sacredaan_ wood, and the massive and richly -carved, or deeply panelled, linen wardrobe, or _kas_. A handsome walnut -bedstead stands in one corner of the room. The four twisted pillars -support a canopy, from which fall heavy serge curtains, that conceal a -wealth of fine linen and Flemish lace. The four corners of the canopy -are surmounted by the favourite ornament of the period, the “_pomme_” -consisting of a bunch of plumes,—in this instance of green, red and -black. The walls, although encased in tiles, are hung with pictures in -ebony frames, in addition to which there is a large Venetian mirror set -in a rich crystal frame. A drop-leaf table stands in the centre of the -room, surrounded by several chairs with high backs and low seats. The -woodwork of these chairs, shining like glass from the devoted polishing -it receives, is, like the china-cabinet already mentioned, of -_sacredaan_. We also note in this room a beautifully made wicker cot, or -basket, for the baby. - -In early days this article of furniture was of large dimensions, and the -nurse sat beside it with a large screen at the side to keep away -draughts. Some of these cots were shaped like cradles without the -rockers, and were supplied with a shelf or wing on the side as a -protection from the heat of the peat fire. At a later period of this -century, the cradle rested on two rounded rockers, and had a rounded -hood or canopy. It was made of plum-tree wood, or of wicker lined with -yellow satin and trimmed with costly lace. Royalty was rocked in cradles -of gold or silver; that of Charles V, however, shown in the Brussels -Museum, is of wood, carved in the Gothic style and painted. A primitive -form of Dutch cradle was suspended from iron rings on two posts of wood, -and a later kind, recommended by ‘s Gravesande, had a spring on one side -and a weight on the other, so that when once put in motion it would -continue rocking for a long time. - -Near the cradle stood the “fire” or “napkin basket,” also made of wicker -and covered with serge, or with richer material if the home was one of -wealth. In the inventory of Vrouwe Reepmaker (1670), for example, “white -and satin basket covers” occur. The “fire” or “napkin basket” contained -everything pertaining to the baby’s outfit; and mention is made in the -inventories of “a neat,” “a simple,” or “a costly fire basket,” -according to the circumstances of the owner. The “fire basket” with its -outfit was given as a present to the young mother by the husband’s -mother or one of the aunts. In a celebrated farce of the period, Old -Brechtje says: “_Van mijn peetje een wonderlicke schoone corf ecregen, -die voor al myn kyeren eef edient. Ze eef hem van lapwerck en fraeykens -van croonsaey en passementen emaeckt._” (“I got from my aunt a -wonderfully beautiful basket, which has served for all my children. She -made it of patchwork, and covered it nicely with serge and embroidery.”) - -On a table, an open buffet, or _dressoir_, or a glass cabinet, all the -baby’s silver was arrayed, such as the herb-box, the pap-pot, the -cinnamon bowl with cover and spoon, and the large clothes tray—all -inherited gifts from godfathers and godmothers of many generations. Each -piece is variously inscribed, sometimes dating as far back as the -sixteenth century, or earlier. This large silver tray holds the costly -clothing that will be used at the christening, such as the cambric and -lace robes and the red velvet robe lined with red silk, the satin tufted -blanket and other articles of baby dress. Nor must the large pincushion -be forgotten, on which the baby’s name will be printed with pins. - -The bride’s basket was just as important as the baby’s basket. This was -also made of wicker, and, according to the means of the parents, lined -with rich or simple material. It was adorned with flowers, and -contained, not the bride’s dresses, but the wedding-shawl and ornaments -belonging to it, the jewels and gloves that the bride was to wear at the -wedding, and also the gifts of the bridegroom. - -The “bride’s crown” and “bride’s throne” received a great deal of -attention from the loving hands that were busy with the preparations for -the festivities. The house was turned into a perfect bower on the -occasion of a wedding. Garlands of palms, flowers and evergreens were -interwoven, and hung upon the walls with the green boughs that were -variously twined and twisted. Gold and silver favours, love-knots, -marriage-bells and other devices and letters forming mottoes and -riddles, were displayed among the greenery and flowers, and the name or -initials of the bride and groom were to be seen on every side. -Magnificent Japanese vases filled with flowers, particularly the -brilliant tulip, were placed in every available space. Handsome mirrors -were removed from other rooms and hung among the garlands and flowers to -add more light and beauty to the rooms. Not unfrequently the outside of -the house received its share of decoration, when the street doors were -covered with greenery and garlands were hung from all the windows. - -The Dutch made lavish use of flowers and greenery on festive occasions. - -When Charles II was called home from Holland in 1660 to ascend the empty -throne, he received a magnificent farewell entertainment by the -States-General. The festivities lasted over several days, and are -described in considerable detail by Sir John Lower, who was present. In -his book we get an occasional glimpse of the furniture of the day, -particularly its disposition on gala occasions. The great sideboards, or -cupboards, are mentioned with admiration. The great feasts were given in -the Mauritshuis, The Hague, which was the scene of lavish hospitality. -Describing one of these entertainments, Lower tells us: “From the centre -of the lover or open roof descended a Royal Crown, very gallantly made, -in the midst of four lusters or crystal candlesticks, which with many -other candlesticks, arms of silver and a great number of torches, -enlightened all corners much better than the Sun could have done at -midday. They gave particularly a marvellous lustre to the two bottoms of -the chimney which is on the left side, where two partitions of painted -wood shut up as many cupboards of crystal glasses, and a great store of -vessels and of silver plate and vermillion gilt. The Hall was furnished -with ordinary Tapestry, which is of crimson damask, and had no other -adornments but that here and there there were some fair pictures, and -that the ends of the chimnies and the void places above the cross-bar -windows were adorned with garlands, leaves and figures of trees loaden -with oranges and mingled with all sorts of flowers, which formed not -only a very regular compartment, but wonderfully refreshed also the -chamber and charmed no less the smell by their perfume than they pleased -the sight through the diversity of their rich enamel.” - - - - - CHAPTER VII - THE IMPORTANCE OF PORCELAIN - - Rise of Dutch Taste in Decorative Art—Influence of Foreign Trade in - the Dutch Home—Accounts of Porcelain by Mediaeval Travellers: - Edrisi, Ibn Batuta and Shah Rukh; Quotation from Pigapheta—A great - European Collection—Monopoly of Trade by the Portuguese—Quotation - from Pyrard de Laval—Portuguese Carracks—Voyages to Goa and Japan— - Porcelain and Cabinets—Mendoza’s Description of Earthenware—Dutch - and English Merchants—Presents to Queen Elizabeth—Dutch - Expeditions and Establishment of the Dutch East India Company— - Embassy to the Emperor of China in 1655—Descriptions of the - Manufacture of Porcelain—Manufacture and Potters of Delft— - Quotation from d’Entrecolles on Porcelain and Oriental Trade— - Prices—Tea; Tea-drinking—A Dutch Poet on the Tea-table—Chrestina - de Ridder’s Porcelain—Prices of Porcelain in 1653. - - -Until the middle of the seventeenth century, Flanders may be said to -have overshadowed Holland in the field of Decorative Art, although, as -we have seen, the two most important designers of domestic furniture—De -Vries and Crispin van de Passe—were Dutch. The reason of Flemish -preponderance was that the sovereigns and regents resided at Mechlin, -Ghent, Brussels and Antwerp, and to those courts the ablest men in the -arts and crafts naturally flocked. With the decay of Antwerp, we enter -the period of the Flemish Decadence, and Amsterdam rises to wealth and -power at her rival’s expense. After the death of Rubens, Dutch art is -supreme in the Low Countries; and Dutch taste undoubtedly influenced -France and England. - -The Dutch home of the seventeenth century was profoundly affected by -foreign trade. The day of heavy carved furniture was over lightness and -brightness are now the prevailing notes. Broad surfaces are veneered and -inlaid with exotic woods; and the lathe is freely used in the -ornamentation of the supports of seats, cupboards, cabinets, etc. Above -all, we notice a predominance of native and Oriental ceramic ware. - -The Dutch were as fond of earthenware as of tulips; and no study of a -Dutch interior could be adequate if it neglected to take into account -the part played by Delft and porcelain. - -The three novelties that impressed the Dutch home of the seventeenth -century were tea, porcelain and lacquer. The importance of tea, with its -table and equipage as a domestic altar, can hardly be overestimated; but -its consideration may be deferred for the moment. Porcelain affected the -arrangement of furniture and the decoration of rooms. The cabinet -assumed new forms and proportions, as porcelain decorated its exterior. - -Although Chinese porcelains had appeared in the cabinets of amateurs of -the sixteenth century, the comparative rarity of this ware confined its -enjoyment to the very wealthy. The magnificent ebony cabinets, -_armoires_, or _kasten_, with drawers and interior shelves in which -women delighted to set in beautiful order miniatures and jewels, enamels -and ivories, shells and rock-crystals, medals and coral, now had also to -find room for carved ivory and ebony, gods and monsters, jade, -porcelain, sandal-wood and lacquer boxes, and all the rarities that were -to be found in the stores of the Eastern traders. - -Porcelain was early held in high esteem, and a vase was regarded as a -fit present from one potentate to another. It was very rare in Western -Europe until the Portuguese opened the Eastern gates. Mediaeval -travellers had frequently referred to its preciousness. Edrisi (1154) -says of Susah: “Here are made an unequalled kind of porcelain, the -Ghazar of China.” There was always a certain mystery attached to its -composition and qualities till the beginning of the eighteenth century. -Ibn Batuta, who travelled in Bengal and China about 1350, gives a more -or less fabulous account of its manufacture. He says: “Porcelain in -China is of about the same value as earthenware with us, or even less. -It is exported to India and elsewhere, passing from country to country -till it reaches us in Morocco. It is certainly the finest of all pottery -ware.” In 1420 the Embassy sent by Shah Rukh to the Chinese Court -mentions a buffet on which were arranged flagons, cups and goblets of -silver and porcelain. The scribe also bears witness to the fact that “in -the arts of stone-polishing, cabinet-making, pottery and brick-making, -there is nobody with us who can compare with the Chinese.” - -Early in the sixteenth century, before 1520, A. Pigapheta made a voyage -to the East. He describes a visit to the house of the Queen of Mindanao: -“I sat down by the side of her; she was weaving a palm mat to sleep -upon. Throughout her house was seen porcelain vases suspended to the -walls and four metal timbals.” He tells us that in Borneo, at Bruni: -“For one cathil (a weight equal to two of our pounds) of quicksilver -they gave us six porcelain dishes; for a cathil of metal they gave one -small porcelain vase, and a large vase for three knives.... The -merchandise which is most esteemed here is bronze, quicksilver, -cinnabar, glass, woollen stuffs, linens; but above all they esteem iron -and spectacles. - -“Since I saw such use made of porcelain I got some information -respecting it, and I learned that it is made with a kind of very white -earth, which is left underground for fully fifty years to refine it, so -that they are in the habit of saying that a father buries it for his -son. It is said that if poison is put into a vessel of fine porcelain it -breaks immediately.” - -It is generally supposed that the table service, even among the rich, -was very limited during the sixteenth century. A careful search of the -inventories, however, shows that a complete service of faïence was to be -found on the tables of the opulent in the first half of the sixteenth -century. In 1532, we find that the widow of a minister of Francis I had -two complete services of beautiful faïence: one entirely white, and the -other “historied” with all kinds of coloured portraits. These two -services were composed each of four dozen large and three dozen small -plates, four _aiguières_, three round and one oval basin, three salts -(_sallières_), eight pots, twelve _tazzi_, and three dozen spoons, some -of ivory and some of wood and mother-of-pearl, “which we used in summer -and autumn in serving collations of confitures, junkets, custards, -syllabubs, fruits and cider to the great ladies who came to visit my -daughters and myself; and in addition I have also many other vessels of -the best pottery of Italy, Germany, Flanders, England and Spain.” - -Besides the above, this lady possessed forty-two vases, pots, _tazzi_ -and plaques of porcelain “of the earliest days when Europeans went to -China, which are of a beautiful white, and decorated with all kinds of -little paintings.” The owner, who had evidently read Pigapheta, adds -that the makers did not profit in their own lifetime by the manufacture -of this “_ravissante_” porcelain, because it had to be buried in the -earth for a century in order to come to perfection. Another reason why -it should be prized is that it is “so healthy that if it is soiled with -poison by evil doers who want to injure anybody, it will immediately -fall to pieces rather than suffer the vile draughts with which people -would ravage our entrails.” - -At this date, the Oriental wares had not yet supplanted those that came -through Turkey, Asia Minor and Egypt by way of Venice and other Italian -ports. Among the lady’s possessions we find twenty-eight vases, pots, -cups and little earthenware bowls of Turkish work, decorated on the -necks and handles with little tufts resembling horses’ tails. - -She also had four hundred beautiful glasses of all colours, and other -Venetian crystal vessels, “adorned with the gayest fancies that the -glass-blowers were capable of inventing, with which we delighted the -eyes of royalty and the great ministers of state at the great -entertainments we gave.” - -After Portuguese navigators had found the route to the East around the -Cape of Good Hope, they were able to outstrip Venice as a sea-carrier -for Eastern merchandise. The Levant trade, with its costly loading and -unloading from caravan to ship, could not hope to compete with an -all-sea route, and therefore the Portuguese soon acquired a practical -monopoly of the traffic between Western Europe and Eastern Asia.[6] -Lisbon became the great mart whence lacquer, porcelain and other wares -were distributed throughout Europe. Dutch ships swarmed in the Tagus, -and transferred Oriental merchandise to Amsterdam and other European -ports. - -Footnote 6: - - We know that much porcelain was brought into Europe through Venice - from the Levant long after the Portuguese were dominant in the Eastern - seas. As late as 1623, in Minshen’s Spanish dialogues, _China metiall_ - is defined as “the fine dishes of earth painted, such as are brought - from Venice.” - -The Vicomte de Santarem assures us that from 1497 to 1521 from Lisbon -alone the Portuguese despatched thirty-three fleets, composed of 220 -ships; and a fleet was despatched every year till the next century. The -fleet of 1604 even consisted of five ships. Two carvels also sailed the -same year. - -We learn what these great ships were like from Pyrard de Laval (1601), -who wrote: - -“Three or four Portuguese ships at most go out every year; these are the -carracks, called by them _naos de voyage_, which are sent out with the -intention that they shall return if they can.... - -“The carracks are all built at Lisbon ... they are ordinarily of 1,500 -to 2,000 tons burden. Sometimes more, so that they are the largest -vessels in the world so far as I have been able to learn; they cannot -float in less than ten fathoms of water. - -“These great carracks have four decks, on each of which a man, however -tall, can walk without touching his head against the deck above: indeed, -he comes not within two feet of it. - -“The ships leaving Goa are laden not only with silver, but with divers -goods of Europe, such as wines, woollen fabrics, and among others red -scarlet; all sorts of glass and crystal wares, clocks which are highly -prized by the Chinese, much cotton cloth, precious stones cut and set in -rings, chains, carkanets, tokens, ear-pendants and bracelets; for the -Chinese like vastly to get gems and jewels of all sorts for their wives. -The ships leave Goa towards October, and touch at Cochin for precious -stones and spices, such as pepper and cinnamon, leaving there the -merchandise of Europe or of the northern parts of India. Thence they -sail for Malaca; for they cannot make this voyage without touching at -Malaca in order to get the Governor’s passport, and also to purchase the -merchandise of the islands of Sunda in exchange for cotton cloths and -other goods of India and Europe. - -“Vessels making the voyage from Goa to Japan and back may reckon on -taking three whole years; nor can they reckon on less by reason of the -winds called by them _Monssons_ and by us _Muesons_, which prevail for -six months and more. From Malaca they go to Macao, and thence to Japan. -At all these places they must await the _Muesons_; in the meantime while -waiting they carry on their trade. At Macao they leave the greater part -of their goods, and all their silver, relading with other goods of -China, such as silks and Spanish white ... it is dear, and much in -request in Japan, where all the women whiten the whole body with it, -even down to the legs. This white comes from the island of Borneo, -whence it is carried to China. Then they carry to Japan all those China -goods and some others from Europe and India, which they sell exceeding -well; they bring back only silver, which they get cheap, and return to -Macao to resell all their silver, exchanging it for other merchandise. -They make a long sojourn in all those places, and then return to Malaca, -where they must call; there they make another exchange of goods for -those of Malaca and the islands of Sunda. Thence they return to Goa, or -whatever other place the master of the ship belongs to.” - -In Goa, “They have no glasses, except what are brought from these parts -or from Persia, and that is but little, and, moreover, not much -esteemed, as they get the porcelaines of China at small cost. - -“The Maldives take their food so nicely that they spill nothing, not -even a drop of water, though they wash the mouth before and after dinner -in basins served on purpose. The vessel used is of earthenware, like -that of Fayance, fashioned in the native style, and imported from -Cambaye; or else it is of China porcelain, which is very common and used -by almost all. But they use not any plate of earthenware, or of -porcelain, saving one kind of round box, polished and lacquered, with a -cover of the same; it is manufactured in the island.... - -“His (the King’s) plate is neither gold nor silver, for that is -forbidden by their law, but of porcelain or of other China fabric. - -“It is impossible to tell all the great riches and all the rare and -beautiful things which the ships bring back; among others they bring -much gold in ingots. Some gold also they have in leaf and some in dust; -also great store of gilded woodwork, such as all sorts of vessels and -furniture lacquered, varnished and gilded with a thousand pretty -designs; then all kinds of silk stuffs, good store of unwrought silk, -great quantities of musk and civet, plenty of the metal called -_calin_,[7] which is much esteemed over all the Indies, and even in -Persia and elsewhere.... Of this metal they make all their utensils and -ornaments as we do have of silver and tin; they even use it for rings -and bracelets for girls and children. They import also from thence much -porcelain ware, which is used throughout India as well by the Portuguese -as by the Indians. Besides all this, many boxes, plates and baskets made -of little reeds covered with lacquer and varnished in all colours, -gilded and patterned. Among other things I should mention a great number -of cabinets of all patterns in the fashion of those of Germany. This is -an article the most perfect and of the finest workmanship to be seen -anywhere; for they are all of choice woods and inlaid with ivory, -mother-of-pearl and precious stones; in place of iron they are mounted -with gold. The Portuguese call them _Escritorios de la Chine_.” - -Footnote 7: - - Malayan tin. - -J. G. Mendoza was another traveller who gave Europe the results of his -observations of Portuguese activities in the Far East, and helped to -stimulate a popular taste for porcelain. His book was translated into -English in 1588, by R. Parke. Among other interesting information he -tells us: - -“There be also shops full of earthen vessels of divers making, redde, -greene, yellow, and gilt; it is so good cheepe that for foure rials of -plate they give fiftie pieces: very strong earth, the which they doo -breake all to pieces and grinde it and put it into sesternes with water, -made of lime and stone; and after that they have well tumbled and tossed -it in the water, of the creame that is upon it they make the finest sort -of them, and the lower they go, spending that substance that is the -courser: they make them of what colour they please, the which will never -be lost: then they put them into their killes and burne them. This has -beene seene and is of a truth, as appeareth in a booke set forth in the -Italian tongue by Duardo Banbosa,[8] that they do make them of -periwinkle shelles of the sea: the which they do grinde and put them -under the ground to refine them, whereas they lie 100 years. But if that -were true, they should not make so great a number of them as is made in -that kingdome, and is brought into Portugall, and carried into the Peru, -and Nova Espania, and into other parts of the world.... And the Chinos -do agree for this to be true. The finest sort of this is never carried -out of the countrie, for that it is spent in the service of the king, -and his governours, and is so fine and deere, that it seemeth to be of -fine and perfite cristal: that which is made in the province of Saxie is -the best and finest.... - -Footnote 8: - - 1520. - -“The fine earthen dishes that are in this countrie cannot be declared -without many wordes. But that which is brought from thence into Spaine -is verie course; although, unto them that hath not seene the finer sort, -it seemeth excellent good; but they have such with them, that a cubbard -thereof amongest us would be esteemed as though it were of golde. The -finest cannot be brought forth of the kingdome upon paine of death; -neyther can any have the use thereof, but onely the _loytias_, which be -there gentlemen.” - -The glowing accounts of the riches of Ind and Far Cathay brought home by -the early voyagers naturally fired the imagination and cupidity of -Dutch, English and French merchants and adventurers, who said to one -another: “We too will go to the hills of the Chankley Bore”; and every -potentate in Europe connived at their subjects’ efforts to trespass on -the King of Portugal’s Tom Tiddler’s Ground. - -Independent efforts had been made by the English to get a share of the -riches of the East long before the Dutch and English East India -companies were formed. In 1560, the Portuguese ambassador exhibited -articles for restraining the traffic of English merchants in the Indies. -In 1566, “Dr. Lewes takes bonds of George Fenner not to spoil any of the -Queen’s subjects, nor to traffic into India, or any other places -privileged by the King of Spain.” About the same date, the merchants -petitioned “for reopening the trade with Portugal suspended in -consequence of the irregular trade of some Englishmen to the Indies.” - -Instances of poaching and piracy in Portuguese preserves might be -multiplied, but three will suffice. In 1598, Cecil receives a report -from a Lisbon agent that, “On August 1st, three carracks arrived from -India and one was burnt there full laden. They bring news that two -English ships in India have taken two Portugal ships, rich with -treasure, that were on their voyage from Goa to Chine.” And again, on -October 16, 1601, Sir John Gilbert writes to Cecil: “My ship ... has -brought home silks, having taken a Brazil vessel with porcelain and -other wares.” - -Elizabeth’s luxurious ministers had choice collections of porcelain -richly mounted in precious metal, from which they sometimes offered her -presents. For instance, among her New Year’s gifts in 1588, we find: -“One porrynger of white porselyn, garnished with golde, the cover of -golde, with a lyon on the toppe thereof; all given by the Lord -Threasorour, 38 oz. Item, one cup of green pursselyne, the foot, shanke -and cover silver guilte chased like droppes. Given by Mr. Robert Cecill, -15 oz. Item, one cup of pursseline, th’ one side paynted red, the foote -and cover sylver guilte. Given by Mr. Lychfelde, 14 oz.” - -It is natural that from the fact that the Portuguese had the monopoly of -the East Indian trade, the finest examples of Oriental workmanship -should be found in Portugal and Spain, Lisbon being the _entrepôt_ of -European distribution. The Spanish dominions in the Low Countries were -well supplied with these wares by the Dutch mariners. - -During the sixteenth century, the Dutch were already famed as -sea-carriers (_rouliers des mers_). With Lisbon as a base of supplies, -they soon destroyed the monopoly of the trade in Oriental wares which -Venice had so long enjoyed. When Philip II annexed Portugal in 1580, -however, he naturally sought to take revenge on his rebellious subjects -of the Low Countries by closing against them the ports of the Iberian -peninsula. - -Finding that their profits from the trade with the East Indies were thus -practically extinguished, their only course was to go to those distant -lands themselves. How to get there was the question; and this was a -secret which the Portuguese navigators had carefully guarded. The Dutch -knew that they were reached by some southern route which could only be -traversed by force of arms, but thought that the lands where one might -“swim in golden lard” might be reached by a north-east passage. Dutch -ships vainly attempted this in 1594 and 1596, being barred by the ice. -In the meantime, Corneliz Houtman had managed to buy some Portuguese -charts, and thus to learn the real route around the Cape. He induced ten -merchants of Amsterdam to form a “Foreign Company” (_van verre_) and -send out a sort of exploring expedition. This first attempt was made on -no lavish scale. The ships could not hope to fight the mighty Portuguese -armed carracks. The four ships of this first voyage were the _Maurice_, -400 tons; the _Amsterdam_, 200 tons; the _Dove_, 30 tons; and the -_Holland_, 400 tons. - -They left Texel early in April, 1595, and arrived home in August, 1597. -Their glowing reports encouraged the despatch of a second flotilla of -eight ships in 1598, four of which went to the Moluccas and the rest no -farther than Bantam, returning with rich cargoes of spices and other -merchandise. Several other companies were started in consequence, but in -1602 they were all consolidated with a capital of 6,440,000 florins, and -the Dutch East India Company was established. - -The Dutch navigators and travellers who sailed the Vanderdecken course -to the Spice Islands, naturally, on their return, gave their -fellow-countrymen a full account of the wealth and curiosities of art -they had witnessed in India, Polynesia, China and Japan. Two or three of -these, not being foreign to our subject, may be quoted here. The -Netherland East India Company sent an embassy to the Emperor of China in -1655, and the reporter was evidently most interested in supplying his -fellow-countrymen with the secrets of the manufacture of porcelain, -which the Dutch were trying to imitate with their delft ware. He says: - -“Upon the 25th of April we came to a village famous for shipping called -Ucienjen, where lay great store of vessels of several sorts and sizes, -which were come thither from all parts of China, to lade with China -earthenware, whereof great store is sold in this village.... Quite -through the middle of this rich village rims a broad street, full of -shops on both sides, where all manner of commodities are sold; but the -chiefest trade is in Purceline, or China dishes, which is to be had -there in great abundance.... - -“The earth whereof this porcelain is made, is digged in great quantity -out of the mountains situated near the chief city Hoei-cheu, in the -province of Nanking, from whence it is brought in four-square clods to -the above-mentioned village, which have the Emperor’s arms stamped upon -them to prevent all manner of deceit. The earth is not fat, like clay, -or chalk, but like to our fine sand, which they mingle with water, and -so make it into four-square clods. They likewise beat and powder the -broken China dishes, and make new ones of them; (but such as are made of -broken ware never take so fine colour and gloss as those which are made -of fresh mould.) The earthen clods which are thus brought from the -mountains are afterwards framed into what fashions they please, after -the same manner as our potters in Europe form their earthenware. Upon -the great pots which are made of this earth, they have an art to -themselves to paint all manner of creatures, flowers and trees, which -they do very curiously only with _Indico_. This art of painting upon the -pots is kept so private and secret that they will not teach it to any -but to their children and near relations, wherein the Chineses are so -dexterous that you cannot show them anything, but they will imitate it -upon their pots and dishes, which being framed and made of this earth, -are first dryed in the Sun before they are baked in the oven; and when -they are thoroughly dryed, they are put into an oven and stopt very -close, where they bake for fifteen days together with a good fire under: -the time being out, they are continued in the oven fifteen days more -without any fire; however the oven all that while is kept close stopt, -and not opened till it be quite cold; for if they should take their -earthenware red-hot out of the oven, it would endanger the breaking and -losing their gloss. After the expiration of thirty days, the furnace is -opened in the presence of an officer appointed by the Emperor to take an -account of this earthenware, and to receive the Emperor’s duty which is -of such sort the fifth piece, according to the laws of the kingdom; the -rest they afterwards sell to the inhabitants of this village, Ucienjen, -where (as they say) is the staple of this _Purceline_ trade, which is -sent from this village, not only through all China, but also through the -whole world.” - -From Samedo’s _History of China_, we learn: - -“They have altogether relinquished to Europe to be served in plate, -there being scarce found among them a vessel of silver of a considerable -bigness, no not in the Emperor’s palace, being content to eat in -porcelain, which is the only vessel in the world for neat and delightful -cleanliness.... Kiamsi is famous for the Porcellane dishes (indeed the -only work in the world of this kind) which are made only in one of its -towns: so that all that is used in the kingdom, and dispersed through -the whole world, are brought from this place: although the earth whereof -they are made cometh from another place: but there only is the water, -wherewith precisely they are to be wrought to come to their perfection, -for if they be wrought with other water the work will not have so much -glosse and lustre. In this worke there are not those mysteries that are -reported of it here, neither in the matter, the form nor the manner of -working; they are made absolutely of earth, but of a neat and excellent -quality. They are made in the same time, and the same manner, as our -earthen vessels; only they make them with more diligence and -accuratenesse. The blew, wherewith they paint the porcellane, is anill, -whereof they have abundance, some do paint them with vermilion, and (for -the king) with yellow.” - -The same traveller also notes: “The workmanship of Europe which they -most admired were our clocks, but now they make of them such as are set -upon tables, very good ones.” - -A Jesuit father, writing from China in 1688, sheds further light on the -wares that were made there and prized in Europe. He says in part: - -“As for porcelain, it is such an ordinary moveable, that it is the -ornament of every house; the tables, the sideboards, nay, the kitchen is -cumber’d with it, for they eat and drink out of it, it is their ordinary -vessel. There is likewise made huge flower-pots of it. The very -architects cover roofs and make use of it sometimes to incrustate marble -buildings. - -“Amongst those that are most in request, there are of three different -colours; some are yellow, yet though the earth be very fine, they appear -more coarse than the others; and the reason is, because that colour does -not admit of so fine polishing; it is used in the Emperor’s palace. -Yellow is his own proper colour, which is not allowed to any person to -bear; so that one may safely say, that as for the business of porcelain, -the Emperor is the worst served. - -“The second sort is of a grey colour, with abundance of small irregular -lines in it, that cross one another, as if the vessel was all over -striped, or wrought with inlaid or mosaic work. I cannot imagine how -they form these figures, for I have much ado to believe that they are -able to draw them with a pencil. However it is, these sort of vases -partake of a particular beauty; and sure I am, the curious amongst us -would much value them. - -“Last of all, the third sort of porcelain is white, with divers figures -of flowers, trees and birds, which they paint in blue, such as come -hither into Europe. This is the commonest of all, and everybody uses -it.” - -The minute descriptions of the manufacture and varieties of porcelain -furnished by Dutch and other travellers must not be charged up to an -artistic appreciation exclusively. The Dutch were very much in earnest -in their efforts to manufacture a home product which might compete with -the foreign. As we have seen, Dutch pottery had already attained a high -reputation, and was much sought after in foreign markets; and now, with -the influx of porcelain, the Guilds strained every nerve to meet the -demand. - -The manufacture of delft began at the end of the sixteenth century with -Hermann Pietersz, a native of Haarlem. In the first days of its -existence, the style of decoration was rather complicated, for the -subjects representing _kermesses_, combats, etc., were designed _en -camaïeu_. In order to sell a piece of pottery, the potter had to belong -to the Guild of St. Luke. The Delft Guild of St. Luke was established in -1611 and included all the skilled workmen in the arts and crafts: (1) -painters; (2) stainers of glass, engravers and glass-makers; (3) -potters; (4) embroiderers and weavers of tapestry; (5) sculptors and -carvers; (6) sheath or scabbard-makers; (7) art-printers and -booksellers; and (8) engravers and dealers in paintings. - -In the second half of the seventeenth century, particularly under the -influence of Abraham de Kooge (1632) and Albrecht de Keizer (1642), the -Delft potters began to imitate the Oriental products in both modelling -and decoration. De Kooge was famous for his landscapes and portraits -with names and dates—all in blue; but de Keizer, who was the precursor -of the celebrated Cornelis de Keizer and the two Pynackers, also -produced coloured ware in imitation of the Chinese and Japanese. Other -followers were: Pieter Oesterham, who devoted himself chiefly to -landscapes and national portraits; Frederick van Frytom, who was -particularly fond of blue _camaïeu_: Gerrit Pietersz, who delighted in -elephants and Chinese subjects; and Augustijn Reygensbergh, who made -fine imitations of Chinese and Japanese ware in red, blue and gold. -Lowys Fictoor (1689) and Lambertus Eenhoorn (1691) were famous for their -black delft, with wonderful glaze and ornamented in the Chinese style -with pagodas and trees in yellow and green; Lucas van Dale, for his -olive-brown decorated with yellow; Leonard van Amsterdam, for figures, -small landscapes and shipping scenes painted in colours on the backs of -brushes as well as small dishes; and Verhagen sought the prints of -Goltzius. Among other celebrated potters of this period are the names of -two other Eenhoorns, five Kams, four Van der Hoevens, and two Dextras. -The many factories of Delft were known under fanciful names, such as The -Rose, The Star, The Peacock, The Claw, The Three Bells, etc., etc. Delft -ware declined about the end of the seventeenth century. - -The European potters did not gain a clear and sane understanding of the -composition and manufacture of porcelain till the last years of the -reign of Louis XIV, when d’Entrecolles, a Jesuit father, sent home a -full report of the mystery. A few extracts from his letter will be -extremely illuminating on certain points relating to European trade and -Chinese guile: - -“As for the colours of the porcelain, they are of all kinds. In Europe, -scarcely any are to be seen but those that have a strong blue on a white -ground. I believe, however, that our merchants have brought others in. -There are some with grounds like our _miroirs ardents_; some again are -entirely red, and amongst these some are dotted with little points like -our _mignatures_. When these are perfect, which is very hard to attain, -they are infinitely esteemed and extremely dear. - -“Finally there are porcelains in which the landscapes painted on them -are made up of almost every colour and relieved by gold. They are very -beautiful, if we judge by their cost: otherwise the ordinary porcelain -of this kind is not comparable to that painted with azure alone.... -Black porcelain has also its own price and beauty.... The gold that is -applied to it, gives it a novel charm.... - -“Here also is made another species that I had never yet seen: it is all -pierced and cut-work: in the centre is a cup to contain liquor. The cup -is in the same piece and forms a part of the cut-work. I have seen other -porcelains in which Chinese and Tartar ladies were painted to the life. -The draperies, the complexion and features of the faces were all well -rendered. From a distance you would take this work for enamel. - -“The Chinese complain of a lost secret: they once had the art of -painting on the insides of porcelains fishes and animals that only -became visible when the vessels were filled with some liquid. They try -from time to time to recover the art of this magic painting, but in -vain.... However that may be, we may say that at the present day the -beautiful blue has been revived on porcelain after having disappeared -from it.... - -“The Chinese chiefly succeed in grotesques and the representations of -animals. They make ducks and turtles that float upon the water. I have -seen a cat painted to the life. In its head had been put a little lamp -the flame of which shone through the eyes, and I was assured that rats -were terrified at it. They also make here many statues of _Kouan in_, a -Chinese goddess, with an infant in her arms. - -“European merchants often order from the Chinese workers porcelain -plaques to form the top of a table, or back of a chair, or frame of a -picture. These works are impossible: the greatest length and width of a -plate is about one foot. If they are made larger than that, no matter -how thick, they bend.... The history of _King te ching_ speaks of divers -works ordered by Emperors that workmen tried vainly to execute.... The -Mandarins of this province presented a petition to the Emperor begging -him to have the attempts cease.... However, the Mandarins who know how -ingenious Europeans are in invention, have sometimes asked me to have -new and curious designs sent from Europe in order to have something -singular made for presentation to the Emperor. On the other hand, the -Christians strongly urged me not to procure such models, for the -Mandarins are not so readily satisfied as our merchants are when the -workmen tell them that a work is impracticable; and frequently the -bastinado is liberally bestowed before the Mandarin abandons a design -from which he has promised himself great advantages. - -“We should not be astonished that porcelain is so dear in Europe: we -shall be still less so when we learn that besides the great profits -taken by the European merchants and by their Chinese agents, it is -rarely that a baking is entirely successful; sometimes indeed it is a -total failure. Thus for one workman who grows rich, there are a hundred -ruined; but this does not deter them from tempting Fortune.... Moreover, -the porcelain that is sent to Europe is almost always made on new and -often strange models in which success is difficult. However slight the -blemishes may be it is rejected by the Europeans, who will not take any -but perfect pieces; so that it remains in the hands of the workmen, who -are not able to sell it to the Chinese because it is not to their taste. -The consequence is that the pieces that are taken bear the additional -charge of those that are rejected. - -“According to the history of _King te ching_, the profits were formerly -much greater than they are now. It is hard to believe this, for there -must then have been a great sale of porcelain in Europe. I have said -that the difficulty in executing certain models sent from Europe is one -of the causes of the excessive price of porcelain, for it must not be -imagined that the workmen can work on all the models that reach them -from foreign countries. There are some impracticable ones in China, just -as there are some made that astonish foreigners who would not think them -possible.” - -The price of china-ware fluctuated considerably during the seventeenth -century. Sometimes a critic complained, as above, that values had -greatly appreciated because of the demand, and then again others wailed -that the enormous importations had driven prices down till the game was -not worth the candle. In Mendelslo’s _Voyages_ (1639), we read: - -“The Chinese bring to the island of Java porcelain which they sell there -very cheaply: for when boats arrive from China they buy six porcelain -dishes for a thousand _caxas_ (a string of two hundred _caxas_ are -called _sata_ and are worth about nine _deniers_ of French money, and -five _satas_ tied together make a _sapocon_).” - -Again, from _Recueil des Voyages_ (Constant) we learn: - -“The (Chinese) ships also bring (to Java) fine and coarse porcelain. -When the Dutch first arrived, they bought five or six dishes of both -kinds for 1,000 _caxas_, but afterwards they got no more than two or -three, rarely more. - -“For return freight, they take, besides pepper, all the lacca brought -from the city of Tolonbaon, where there is great abundance. They also -load with the anil[9] that comes from Anier in pots; sandal wood, musk -and tortoiseshell, with which in China they make beautifully wrought -_coffres_; elephant tusks, with which they make beautiful seats that are -esteemed as much as if they were of silver, and that are used by -Mandarins and Viceroys.” - -Footnote 9: - - A species of indigo. - -The importations were indeed enormous, as the bills of lading of the -Dutch vessels prove. For example, among the cargoes of eleven Dutch -ships that arrived in Holland from the East Indies in July, 1664, were -44,943 pieces of very rare Japanese porcelain and 101 Japan cabinets. -The eleven ships that left Batavia on December 24 of the same year, -brought home 16,580 pieces of porcelain of divers kinds. - -The Dutch brought to Europe such vast quantities of porcelain in the -first quarter of the seventeenth century as practically to monopolize -the trade and undersell the English. Thus, Methwold, writing from -Masulipatam to the East India Company in 1619, says: “The great profit -first obtained on porcelain has filled all men’s hands with plenty (by -the Dutch), which makes theirs (the East India Company’s) not sought -after.” - -Turning now, for a moment, to tea, we find that it made its way into -public favour somewhat slowly—far more so than porcelain. It was known -to the Dutch before 1600, but was not in general use till half a century -later. - -J. H. van Linschoten, describing the manners and customs of the Island -Japan (1598), says: - -“After their meat, they use a certain drinke, which is a pot with hote -water, which they drinke as hote as ever they may indure, whether it be -Winter or Summer ... and the gentlemen make it themselves; and when they -will entertaine any of their friends, they give him some of that warme -water to drinke: for the pots wherein they seeth it, and wherein the -herb is kept, with the earthen cups which they drinke it in, they -esteeme as much of them as we doe of diamonds, rubies, and other -precious stones, and they are not esteemed for their newnes, but for -their oldnes, and for that they were made by a good workman: and to know -and keepe such by themselves, they take great and special care, as also -of such as are the valuers of them, and are skilful in them.... So if -their pots and cups be of an old and excellent workman’s making, they -are worth four or five thousand ducats or more the peece. The King of -Bungo did give for such a pot, having three feet, fourteen thousand -ducats, and a Japan, being a Christian in the town of Sacay, gave for -such a pot fourteen hundred ducats, and yet it had three pieces upon -it.” - -As late as 1639, Mendelslo thought it worth while describing again. He -says in his _Voyages_: - -“The Japanese bray the tea as fine as powder, and taking a little on the -point of a knife put it in a porcelain or earthenware cup filled with -boiling water.... They have no more luxurious articles of furniture than -belong to this service: teapots have been seen that cost twenty-eight -thousand crowns.” - -The use of tea became common among the well-to-do and fashionable -classes from 1660 to 1680. Every house had a special tea-room fitted up, -and even the burghers had their tea-offices, or drank tea in the front -room or _voorhuis_; for the social tea always took place in the front -part of the house. The tea-room was furnished like a reception-room, the -important pieces of furniture being the tea-buffet and the tea-table. “A -corner tea-buffet of costly wood” is mentioned in the inventory of -Develstein, while other inventories mention “properly inlaid Chinese -lacquered tea-tables mounted with silver and mother-of-pearl,” also -fir-wood and oak tables and tables with drop leaves. On the tea-table -the porcelain was displayed. This was bordered with gold or silver, or -was a blue Chinese or a coloured Japanese set with the “waffle-mark,” or -the six marks of the “Long Eliza,” “the cuckoo out of the house” and -“the cuckoo into the house,” and all kinds of red and gold, ribbed or -plain porcelain. A complete tea-set included large and small teapots, -large and small cups with and without covers, sugar basins, pastry -dishes with a small golden fork, and saffron pots. These little pots and -dishes were of different shapes; and we should note that there were a -double set of teapots—one in which the tea was drawn and the other into -which it was poured, to be poured out into the cups in turn. Sometimes -these pots were curiously shaped with open or basket sides, the spout -formed like the head of a bird or animal, while others carried -inscriptions or coats-of-arms, and the top of the lid bore some -grotesque fowl, bird or ornament. Square teapots profusely decorated -with gold paint were very costly. The teacups were also gaily decorated. -An exhibition in Delft in 1863 showed thirty famous designs of cups and -saucers. - -If we were to enter a fashionable tea-room of the seventeenth century, -we should find ourselves in the front of the house in a room furnished -according to the rank and means of the proprietor. Rich or poor, it is -always exquisitely clean. As carpets and rugs are not common, the floor -is covered with bright mats, and the walls are either whitewashed, or -encased in blue and white tiles. Upon them hang pictures, more or less -valuable. The round table and the chairs are of _sacredaan_ wood, and -the latter are furnished with cushions of Utrecht velvet. The -chimney-piece is ornamented with Chinese knickknacks that will interest -the visitor for several hours, and on either side of it are two oak -cupboards inlaid with ebony. Facing the chimney stands the china-cabinet -with its fragile treasures, the _vrouw’s_ idol, the object of her -tenderest care. - -The guests usually arrived between two and three in the afternoon, and -were received and extended many formalities peculiar to the occasion. -Unless it rained, no cloak or wrap was worn, so the guests were received -in the tea-room at once and immediately seated themselves, resting their -feet—winter or summer—on a foot-warmer. The hostess takes a sample of -tea from her many tea-caddies, each filled with a different kind of tea, -and puts them into a different pot, each pot having a little silver -strainer in the spout. When the tea is drawn, she fills the smallest cup -with a sample from each pot and hands these tiny cups to her friends, so -that they may discover what kind they prefer. One prefers this, and one -prefers another; but, as a rule, the choice is left to the hostess. Now -the tea-making begins in earnest. According to the number of guests, the -hostess takes a single or double teapot, and from a larger caddy the tea -that has been chosen. While this is being drawn, she takes some saffron, -and infuses this in a small _red_ pot, and serves the tea and saffron in -a covered cup, so that none of the sweetness nor aroma shall be wasted. -In spring the saffron is discarded in favour of young peach leaves. The -tea is sweetened to taste, but milk is never served until 1680, when it -is used in imitation of the French; for the idea of milk in tea -originated with the Marchioness de la Sablière. The conversation at -these gatherings turned on tea and general gossip. - -The tea-table was of great importance in social life. Even poets sang -its praises in Holland, as they did in England. A picturesque stanza -from a Dutch poet is worth quoting: - - “_In ’t midden van de zaal daar stond een gueridon, - Op ’t zelve een keteltje, zo blank gelijk een zon. - ’t Trekpotje was bekleed met zuiver zilverlaken, - Opdat geen vogt het goud van ’t lofwerk zou mismaaken - Waar meed het was beleid; de schoteltjes in ’t rond - Van onder net beplakt met zagte stukjes bont, - Uit vrees dat ’t porcelein het lakwerk mogte schaaren, - Van ’t lief japansche-blad, ’t geen ruste op drie pylaaren - Van sakredaan, kaneel en pik-zwart ebbenhout. - Het schenken van de thee werd juffrouw Rois vertrouwt, - Die evenwigtig thee met water wist te mengen._” - - (In the middle of the hall there stood a table - Upon which was a small kettle, bright as the sun. - The teapot was covered with pure silver cloth - So that no liquid would deface the gold from the ornamentation - With which it was covered; the small saucers around it - Pasted underneath with soft furry cloth, so that - The porcelains might not scratch the lacquer - From the pretty Japanese tray, which rested on a tripod - Of sacredaan, cinnamon and jet-black ebony. - The pouring of the tea was trusted to Miss Rois, - Who knew how to mix tea and water properly.) - -Thus we see that the tea-table was firmly established as a social -institution in Holland by the middle of the seventeenth century, and -porcelain was an important factor in interior decoration long before -Dutch William drove the Stuarts out of England. A Dutch inventory of the -time of the Glorious Revolution (1689) is worth citation for the sake of -illustrating the prevailing taste and the price of porcelain of the day: - - STATEMENT AND INVENTORY OF THE CONTENTS AND THE GOODS OF DIRCK VAN - KESSEL AND CHRESTINA DE RIDDER, LEFT WITHOUT OWNER BY THE - AFORESAID CHRESTINA DE RIDDER BY HER DEATH ON THE 15TH OF JANUARY - OF THIS YEAR 1689 - - _In the Porcelain Room._ - - FLORINS. - - Two porcelain “beguine” pots 150 - - One porcelain chamber-pot with cover 6 - - One porcelain box, without cover 6 - - Three porcelain preserve pots 120 - - Four large porcelain bowls 30 - - One high pyramidal shaped water jug 12 - - Two porcelain fruit dishes 15 - - A jug with a silver lid 10 - - A porcelain box with lid 12 - - One porcelain cover 10 - - One porcelain pot with handles 4 - - Two porcelain crackle bowls 10 - - Four porcelain boxes 10 - - A little stewing pot 10 - - Two porcelain teapots 6 - - One porcelain sexagonal pot 20 - - Two porcelain printed oil pots 10 - - One porcelain stewing pan coloured, without cover 18 - - One porcelain apple pot 30 - - Two porcelain crackle jars (one broken) 15 - - Two long porcelain boxes 5 - - Two porcelain “beguine” pots 30 - - Four porcelain boxes with covers 15 - - Four butter dishes 6 - - Twenty-four porcelain teacups with covers 48 - - An East India box with a bamboo 10 - - Thirteen (with inside decoration) 13 - - Two porcelain bottles with French flowers 60 - - Five porcelain butter dishes on the back yellow and green 10 - - Thirteen coloured tea-saucers (one broken) 8 - - Two porcelain cups with knobs on the covers 6 - - Three large East India teapots 24 - - Four little East India teapots 6 - - Four old porcelain stewing pots 40 - - Five old long shaped bottles, one of which is in pieces 30 - - Four porcelain boxes that can be shut (with covers) 20 - - Eleven little porcelain pieces 5 - - Two little candlesticks with extinguishers 16 - - Two round shaped oblong bottles, one of which is in pieces 15 - - Three porcelain small plaques 8 - - Six porcelain dinner plates 12 - - Eight porcelain printed red dishes 12 - - Two pots with Chinese acrobats 18 - - Two pots with French scrolls 24 - - Two old porcelain bottles with a cover 15 - - Four porcelain pots with overlapping covers 48 - - Five porcelain swans 5 - - Eighteen porcelain cups, red, with one blue 12 - - Forty porcelain yellow cups 12 - - Four porcelain slop basins 12 - - Fifty porcelain coffee saucers 30 - - Three porcelain sexagonal pin-trays 8 - - Five porcelain pieces, red and blue 3 - - Two old inscription bowls 16 - - Two porcelain bowls with birds on branches 20 - - One porcelain rosemary bowl 8 - - Three porcelain coloured starch basins 6 - - One porcelain “beguine” pot with a delft cover 16 - - One porcelain sexagonal pot 10 - - One porcelain chain pot 10 - - One porcelain pot with a bottle 8 - - One porcelain bottle with Chinese 30 - - One porcelain “beguine” pot, with handles 30 - - One porcelain four-square “beguine” pot 6 - - Three Persian basins 8 - - Seven porcelain butter dishes 21 - - One porcelain, broken, open-work tray 2 - - Three porcelain mustard pots, with a perforated cover 8 - - Eight candlesticks - - Two porcelain butter dishes 21 - - One porcelain slop basin, one starch basin, and one crackle 5 - jar - - Six porcelain printed cups 8 - - Three porcelain printed saucers 4 - - Twenty-one porcelain printed coffee cups 10 - - Ten coloured East India tea-saucers, cups with ducks painted 20 - on them - - Two Japanese beakers 50 - - One East India beaker with Chinese letters 30 - - One East India beaker with pieces 12 - - One pot with a _jardinière_ 20 - - One Chinese pot 30 - - _China Closet near the Windows._ - - Five East India half-size wash basins 70 - - Five East India basins 40 - - Five East India basins 50 - - Five East India basins 46 - - Three old porcelain dishes 30 - - Three double butter dishes 20 - - Three East India round dishes, in three parts, with flower 30 - pots - - One East India round dish, in three parts, with flower pot and 12 - stork - - One engraved tumbler 20 - - Seven porcelain crackle bowls 24 - - Two old porcelain pots 15 - - One porcelain beaker with a crack. 10 - - Twenty-four brown bottles 15 - - Four porcelain boxes with covers 12 - - One porcelain basin and mustard pot without cover 3 - - Two porcelain salt cellars, with two mustard pots 12 - - Twelve teacups and saucers 48 - - Four porcelain perforated cups 15 - - Six porcelain perforated cups 18 - - Six porcelain perforated cups - - Two East India slop basins with storks 10 - - Eight little old porcelain saucers 16 - - Six porcelain saucers with dragons 12 - - Six old porcelain saucers with frogs 18 - - Nine old porcelain saucers with handles 36 - - Two slop bowls 6 - - Six old porcelain cups 6 - - Two porcelain crackle bottles 30 - - Three porcelain breakers 30 - - Three old porcelain dishes in three parts 10 - - Five old porcelain mustard holders 18 - - Seven old porcelain mustard holders 10 - - Five great deep saucers 20 - - Two porcelain blue bowls 12 - - Two porcelain blue small bottles 3 - - One porcelain new dish 4 - - Two porcelain butter dishes 8 - - Six porcelain butter dishes 15 - - Three porcelain butter dishes 6 - - Six porcelain deep saucers 12 - - One hundred teacups and saucers. 200 - - One East India mat with three Chinese figures 4 - - _Upstairs in the Front Room._ - Three pestles with flowers 40 - - Two printed cups 2 - - _Upstairs in the Rear Room._ - Two “beguine” pots with landscapes 70 - - One East India “beguine” pot with Chinese 16 - - Two printed small bottes 40 - - Two small bottles with Chinese 25 - - Six teacups and saucers 15 - - One bottle with a small bird on a tree 10 - - Three butter dishes 20 - - Six little old small bottles 8 - - Six little old boxes with covers 8 - - Two teacups 6 - - Six dragon cups 6 - - Three flat saucers 4 - - Four coloured ribbed dishes or saucers 6 - - Six teacups and tea-saucers 15 - - Six dishes with a box cover 8 - - Two small baskets and two shelves 6 - - The porcelain on the shelves 12 - - _In the Vestibule._ - The porcelain in the shop, comprising thirteen pieces 24 - - _In the Porcelain Room._ - Firstly, an olive wood carved cabinet 250 - - One gilt and engraved jewel casket 50 - - One olive wood table with stands 25 - -“Now follows a collection of large mirrors, which we consider of less -importance. Of more interest is the following: - - FLORINS. - - 148 sheets and one half of gold leather, being white and gold, 170·15 - valued at 23 stuivers the sheet - - The pine-apple with colours (decoration), 44 sheets, valued at 52·16 - - 61 sheets, the unicorn green and gold 70 - - 80 sheets of gold leather 40 - - 42 ditto 42 - - 1 lot of remnants, leather 30 - - 1 lot of patterns and friezes 100 - - 8 screens 130 - - 2 curtains and balance and the gold leather that hangs in 9 - the kitchen in the rear - -“Hereafter follows again some porcelain and other articles, as— - - FLORINS. - - 8 painted figures 40 - - 2 broken roll wagons (round shaped bottles) 24 - - 1 porcelain stewing pan 12 - - 2 half-size wash basins 24 - - 2 ditto 16 - - 2 porcelain bowls 4 - - 6 porcelain cups with a broken wash jug and a broken roll 4 - wagon - - 1 delft stewing pot 4 - - 6 gold leather chairs 20 - - 1 clavecin 4 - - 1 bundle of old gold leather 20 - - 1 large cup engraved with a battle scene and a large cup with 30” - a vine - -The value of porcelain may be gathered from the pieces mentioned in the -inventory of Joh. Gemeelenbrouck, “meester silversmith,” in 1653: - - GUILDER. STUIVER. - In the shop 48 - Four whole lamps - Sixteen half lamps 56 - Sixteen round dishes in three parts 40 - Four double butter dishes 6 - Forty-five cornered butter dishes 33 15 - One round shaped oblong bottle 6 - Five “beguine” pots 30 - Nine “beguine” pots (small) 22 10 - Three drinking cups 4 10 - Four drinking cups (small) 2 8 - Three beakers 3 15 - Three bottles 4 - Three large bottles 18 - Five mustard pots 3 15 - Four wine cans 16 - Four chamber-pots 10 - Twenty-four parrot basins 24 - Forty-four cups and saucers 15 4 - Two cups and saucers 2 - Four oil pots 2 8 - Ten snuff boxes 10 10 - Seventy-five mustard pots 29 - Twenty-five deep saucers 16 - Three boxes with lids 3 - Four deep saucers 2 8 - Five red pots 0 15 - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - THE DUTCH HOME - - Love of Porcelain—The Amsterdam Mart—Prices of China in 1615—Oriental - Wares before 1520—Luxury of the Dutch Colonists—Rich Burghers in - New Amsterdam—Inventories of Margarita van Varick and Jacob de - Lange—Dutch Merchants in the East—Foreign Views of Dutch Luxury— - Dutch Interiors after the Great and Little Masters— - House-furnishing by a young married couple—The Linen Chest—Clothes - Chests and Cupboards—The Great _Kas_—The Cabinet—The Toilet— - Table-Covers—Foot-warmers—Looking-glasses—Bedsteads—Tables and - Chairs—Woods—Kitchen Utensils—Silverware—Household Pets. - - -In the preceding chapter, we have seen the constantly increasing -importance of porcelain in the Dutch home. In England there was quite as -great a demand for this ware among the wealthy classes; but the London -East India Company could not supply the demand, and the reason is not -far to seek. The Dutch were more energetic, or, at least, more -successful in ousting and supplanting the Portuguese, and the Stores of -the Indies in Amsterdam became recognized as the headquarters of -distribution of Oriental ceramics. In all probability, the English -company was not able to import wares of such superior quality as were -the Dutch. The Dutch made themselves masters in the Eastern Seas, and -British trade had a hard uphill fight there for a century and a half. -The Dutch carried things with a very high hand, and the laws of neither -God nor man were respected on the course of Vanderdecken from Cape Verde -to Japan. The massacre of a few inoffensive English traders at Amboyna -aroused quite a coolness in England towards Holland, and caused a good -deal of embarrassment to the Government early in the reign of Charles I, -which was too busy with home affairs to insist on reparation. However, -the Dutch were only carrying on the traditions of “the spacious times of -great Elizabeth,” when the methods of the great navigators were frankly -piratical. England became well acquainted with Eastern wares when -Hawkins, Drake, or Cumberland sailed into Plymouth with the rich freight -of Portuguese carracks which they had waylaid around the Azores. - -The Dutch love of porcelain was very real: it appears in many a diary, -letter and anecdote. In every home, the humble rectory and the house of -the rich burgher-master alike, the same desire to own porcelain is -found. When one Pastor Arnold Moonen was asked how much he would charge -for his translation of Cicero’s _Epistolæ ad familiares_, he answered: -“_Mijnheer! Ik mij in geenen staet bevindende om iet voor mijnen arbeit -te kunnen eischen, als diergelijken handel ongewoon, zal enelijk van -UEd. verzoeke te voldoen, de raet van die vrouwe volgen, die de Heer mij -tot een hulpe gegeven heeft. Deze eischt van mij een nooteboomen kabinet -met een stelsel in porselein, als zijn toebehooren, om daarop te setten, -zoo als de vrinden kunnen goetvinden._” (“Sir! not being in a position -to charge anything for my labour, as this is not an habitual thing, I -should take heed of my wife, whom the Lord hath given me for a helpmate. -She wishes to possess a nutwood cabinet with a set of porcelain to go -with it, and to place ornaments on the top, if the consistory will grant -this!”) Such a set of porcelain as the good lady required to decorate -the top and fill the shelves within, cost at that time as much as 300 -double ducats (equal to about £136); but the ladies of that period had -desires for fine furniture, dress and fashion that their husbands were -often unable to gratify. - -The best china-ware was obtainable in Amsterdam only, and English -travellers used to buy porcelain there, as they now go to Brussels or -Mechlin for lace or Cashmere for shawls. As late as the reign of Charles -II, Holland maintained her pre-eminence in this trade. In Henry Sidney’s -_Diary_, November 18, 1679 (on the eve of his departure for Holland) we -read: “My sister Sunderland spoke to me for a China cup.” Later he -notes: “I went to see the magazine, the East India Stores.” - -We have already seen the prices of various kinds of porcelain in Holland -in 1653 and 1689. It may be interesting to compare these with English -prices earlier in the century. From the bill of lading of the _Java_ -(1615) we gather that the prime cost of porcelain was: “Saucer dishes, -nearly 2_d._ a piece; flat sallet dishes, about 3½_d._; sallet cups, -3½_d._; posset dishes, 4_d._; small (quarter) basins, 1_s._ 9_d._; -larger (half) basins, 2_s._ 6_d._; largest (whole) basins, 5_s._” - -This was evidently china-ware of the cheapest kind, and the prices show -that porcelain was now on the market in such quantities as to drive out -the old pewter plates and dishes from the homes of the middle classes as -well as the aristocracy. During the first quarter of the seventeenth -century, however, the Oriental wares to be found in opulent houses were -by no means confined to china-ware. The art furniture brought from the -East was varied and choice. - -The inventory of a Dutch or English noble of wealth of that period shows -the same taste for Eastern fabrics, lacquer and porcelain, and evidences -the elegance that made Madame de Rambouillet famous in France. As an -example, let us take the Earl of Northampton, who was famous and -infamous in late Elizabethan and early Jacobean days. He died in 1619. -Among his possessions we find the following goods of Oriental -manufacture: - -“A cupbord containynge seven parcels of purslane cups trimmed with -silver and guilte valued at £12; a field bedstead of China worke, black -and silver, branched with silver, with the Arms of the Earle of -Northampton upon the headpiece, the toppe and valance of purple velvett -striped downe with silver laces and knots of silver, the frindge blewe -silk and silver with 8 cuppes and plumes spangled suteable, the five -curtains of purple taffata with buttons and lace of silver, the -counterpoint of purple damaske suteable laced; one China cushen -imbrodred with birdes, beastes and flowers, the ground of white Grogeron -lined with yellow taffeta, 10_s._; thirteen yeardes and a quarter of -purple gold velvett, China with flower-de-luces and diamond work, £8 -13_s._ 4_d._; a China striped quilt of beastes and antiques, the ground -whice calico frindged about with a straw coloured frindge, £5; another -China quilte stayned and spotted in colours £4; another China quilt -stitched in checquer work with yellow silke, the ground white, £4; and a -China carpett of several colours, the ground white and weaved in with -antiques of several colours lined with watchett taffata, £4. - -“A China guilte cabonett upon a frame, £1 10_s._; a large square China -worke table and frame of black vernishe and gold, £6; one faire crimson -velvet chaire richlie imbosted with copper and spread eagles and blewe -and white flowers China worke, the frame painted with gold and my Lord’s -crest upon the same; one small table of China worke in golde and colours -with flies and wormes upon a pillar suitable, £1; a little gilded couch -carved and cutt, 15_s._; an ebony cabinett inlaid with mother-of-pearle, -13_s._; a very large bedstead with wreathed pillars ballastars for head, -side and feete, all coloured blacke and gold, £7; a foldinge Indian -screne, £3 4_s._” - -The bonds between England and Holland were very close in Puritan days, -and the household belongings of the two countries, both in hall and -cottage, were practically identical. In Holland, the Puritans found a -refuge and congenial surroundings before sailing for the New World. The -homes of the prosperous burghers of New Amsterdam, now New York, -faithfully mirrored the comfort and taste of those of Amsterdam and The -Hague; and here we may pause a moment to examine a couple of inventories -of early dwellers in what is still the most important city in the -Western Hemisphere. - -Mrs. Margarita van Varick died in 1696, and her bequests to her children -are eloquent testimony of the estimation in which she held her various -household goods. In her will she leaves: “In a great chest bound up in a -napkin for Johanna van Varick, a silver spice-box, a silver egg-dish, a -silver thimble, a silver wrought East India box, 18 pieces of silver -children’s toys, 11 pieces Arabian and Christian silver money, one gold -ring with seven diamonds, two gold drops for the ear, one gold Arabian -ducat, one Dutch Testament with gold clasps, one gold chain with a -locket with seven diamonds, one pearl necklace, one small silver knife -and fork, one small bundle beaten leaf gold, two gold pins headed with -pearls, one gold bodkin, and one looking-glass with gilt frame. - -“In another napkin for Marinus van Varick, three silver wrought East -India cups, one ditto dish, three pieces of silver money, one medal, 20 -pieces of silver children’s toys, one silver knife, one gold ring with a -table diamond, two gold rings, one gold ducat, one gold medal, and one -small gold box as big as a pea. - -“In another napkin for Rudolphus van Varick, three silver wrought East -India boxes, one small ditto dish, one silver tumbler marked R. V., 17 -pieces silver playthings or toys, 8 pieces of silver money, one silver -knife, one fork silver studded handle, one gold ring with three small -diamonds, one gold ring, one ducat, two gold buttons, one gilded medal, -and a gold piece the shape of a diamond. - -“In another napkin for Cornelia van Varick, a silver wrought East India -trunk, a ditto box, a saltcellar, 28 silver playthings or toys, 20 -silver pieces of money, a small mother-of-pearl box, a gold comb, a -Bible with gold clasps, a small bundle of leaf gold, a pair of diamond -pendants, two gold chains, two gold rings with a diamond in each, two -small gold rings, one pair crystal pendants edged with gold, one Arabian -ducat, and two gold pins. - -“Also for Johanna, the biggest and finest Turkey-work carpet, a set of -white flowered muslin curtains, a chintz flowered carpet, an East India -cabinet with ebony foot wrought, the picture of Mrs. van Varick, the -picture of Johanna, three china pots, one feather bed, one bolster, two -cushions, one quilt, one white calico blanket. - -“Also for Marinus, a Turkey-work carpet, a gold bell and chain, a blue -satin flowered carpet, a calico ditto, a silver-headed cane, a Moorish -tobacco-pipe, a calico nightgown, a hair brush, a red box, two East -India cabinets with brass handles, a feather bed, bolster, quilt, two -cushions and green blanket, a picture of J. Abramson, and a ‘large -picture of images, sheep and ships that hung above the chimney.’ - -“Also for Rudolphus, a small ebony trunk with silver handles, a picture -with a gilt frame, a cane with a silver head, a flowered carpet stitched -with gold, a calico carpet, and a large picture of himself. - -“Also for Cornelia, the second finest Turkey-work carpet, two pictures -with glasses before them, a calico nightgown, a hair brush, a chintz -flowered carpet, a small black cabinet with silver hinges, the picture -of Cornelia Hester deceased, the picture of a flower pot, a china cup -bound with silver, a large looking-glass with ebony frame, two white -china cups with covers, a feather bed covered with checkered linen, a -bolster, three wadding cushions, two feather ditto, one quilt and a -homespun blanket. - -“Also for Johanna and Cornelia, two glaasen cases with 39 pieces of -small china-ware, 11 Indian babyes, and 6 small and 6 larger china -dishes. - -“Also for Marinus and Rudolphus, 23 pieces of china-ware. - -“Also to be divided equally among them, 37 Dutch books 4º; and 46 ditto -8^{vo}; and 4 ditto folio; a chest with children’s babyes playthings and -toys; and 13 ebony chairs.” - -Mrs. van Varick’s home in New Amsterdam did not suffer in comparison -with the rich Dutch houses in Holland. Her clothes, jewels and bequests -to her children prove that her life was one of ease, luxury and fashion. -Her house was not only furnished with every comfort known to the period, -but was filled with curios, treasures from the Far East, rich furniture, -and a fine collection of china and paintings. Her furniture included -fine and richly upholstered bedsteads, tables, chairs, cabinets, glass -cupboards for china, great _Kasten_, a handsome “painted wooden rack to -set china-ware in,” six looking-glasses, and ten Indian looking-glasses, -“two East India cane baskets with covers, one fine East India -dressing-basket, one round ditto, two wooden gilt East India trays, -lackered, and one round thing ditto.” Five brass hanging candlesticks -and handle candlesticks, a double brass ditto, snuffers and -extinguisher, a pair of brass standing candlesticks, and a standing -candlestick with two brass candlesticks to it, prove that the house did -not suffer for want of illumination. It was also bright with rich -curtains and cushions. Among these were six satin cushions with gold -flowers, a suit of serge bed-curtains and valance with silk fringe, six -scarlet serge bed-curtains with valance and silk fringe, a green serge -chimney cloth with fringe, two chimney cloths of flowered crimson gauge -and six window curtains of the same, a painted chimney cloth, a calico -curtain, a fine chintz carpet, many handsome Turkey-work carpets and -white flowered muslin curtains. She had fourteen East India pictures, -some with gilt and some with black frames, and twelve prints also in -black and gilt frames, two maps with black frames, and about twenty well -chosen paintings. Some of the subjects of these clearly show that they -were in the style of Jan Steen, Dou, etc. In addition to landscapes, -battles and fruit-pieces, the inventory notes “two pictures of ships -with black ebony frames,” “one picture of the Apostle,” “one large -flower pot,” “one with a rummer,” “one birdcage and purse, etc.,” “a -large horse battle,” and “a large picture of roots.” - -The china exhibited in the cabinets and on the mantelpieces and -cupboards made a fine display; for in addition to the Oriental curios -and other pieces willed to her daughters the house contained: three -large china dishes, ten china dishes, four ditto (cracked), three -teapots, two china basins, one ditto (cracked), one smaller ditto, two -ditto (cracked), three fine china cups, one china jug, four china -saucers, six ditto smaller tea dishes, one ditto (cracked), six painted -tea ditto, four tea ditto, eight teacups, four ditto painted brown, six -smaller ditto, three ditto painted red and blue, two white East India -flower pots, one ditto (cracked), three ditto smaller, two ditto -(round), one lion, one china image, and a china ink-box and two -sand-boxes. Among her articles for the table she also owned three wooden -painted dishes and a wooden tray with feet; also “a thing to put spoons -in.” A parcel of toys and a collar for a dog are among the miscellaneous -articles. - -Turning now to another Dutch house in New Amsterdam—that of the -barber-surgeon, Mr. Jacob de Lange, whose inventory was taken in 1685—we -find the rooms consisting of a foreroom, side chamber, chamber, kitchen, -shop and cellar. Mr. de Lange has a remarkable collection of porcelain -and pictures, a great deal of fine furniture, rich clothing, jewels and -East India cabinets, beautiful hangings, etc., etc. - -Mr. de Lange’s furniture consists of twelve chairs upholstered with red -plush, six with green plush, eleven matted chairs, seven chairs with -wooden backs and a church chair. He has two “cann boards,” two small -“cloak boards,” a hat press, a clothes press, a square table, a round -table, a small round table, and an oak drawing-table, a small square -cabinet with brass hoops, one waxed East India small trunk, one square -black small sealing waxed trunk, one silver thread wrought small trunk, -and an ivory small trunk tipped with silver. He also owned an East India -rush case containing nineteen wine and beer glasses, and an East India -waxed cabinet with brass bands and hinges, containing gloves, ribbons, -laces, fourteen fans and seven purses in the first partition; laces, -buckles and ribbons in the second; cloth in the third; caps in the -fourth; fans, bands, scarfs, garters and girdles in the fifth; silk, -fringe and calico in the sixth; silk and materials for purses in the -seventh, and spectacles in the eighth. - -The side chamber was furnished with eleven pictures, consisting of five -East India pictures with red frames, four landscapes, one evening and a -“small zea.” A looking-glass with a gilt frame also hung upon the wall. -There was an enormous amount of porcelain here. The chimney was adorned -with seven half-basins, two belly flagons, three white men, one sugar -pot, two small pots, six small porringers and a small goblet. On and in -the _kas_ were two great basins, one goblet, two pots, two flasks, four -drinking glasses, five _drillings_, six double butter dishes, -thirty-three butter dishes, two white teapots, seven small red teapots, -a hundred and twenty-seven teapots, one can with a silver joint, one -ditto with a joint, two flaskets, one barber’s basin, five small basins, -sixty-seven saucers, four salt-cellars, three small mustard pots, five -oil pots, one small pot, three small men, two small men, one basin, two -small cups, one small oil can, one ditto spice pot, five saucers, four -small men, one small dog, two small swans, one small duck, two tobacco -boxes, one sand-box, four small cans, one small spoon, six small flasks, -two small oil cans, one small chalice, and two fruit dishes. This room -contained an East India cupboard, ninety books, and a pair of blue -curtains and valance. - -The “foreroom” contained a black nutwood chest with two black feet under -it, worth £2 10_s._, and some pieces of linen, £24 12_s._; a -looking-glass with a black frame, £1 5_s._; two curtains before the -glass windows; the family coat of arms in a black frame, £5 4_s._; and -the following paintings: “A great picture being a banquet with a black -list,” “one ditto something smaller,” “one ditto a bunch of grapes with -a pomegranate,” “one with apricocks,” “a small countrey,” “a Break of -Day,” “a small Winter,” “a Cobler” and “a portrait of my lord Speelman.” - -The pictures in the chamber include “a great picture banquet, worth £3 -5_s._; one ditto, £2 10_s._; one small ditto, £1 15_s._; one Abraham and -Hagar, £1 5_s._; four small countreys, £4; two small ditto, £1 12_s._; -one flower pot, one small ditto, one country people frolick, one -sea-strand, one portraiture, and a plucked cock torn, two small -countreys, one flower pot small, without a list, one small print broken, -and thirteen East India prints pasted upon paper.” - -This room was well furnished. There were sixteen linen curtains before -the glass windows, a large and valuable _kas_ covered or veneered with -French nutwood, standing on two ball feet, worth £13; a great -looking-glass with a black frame, a white valance before the chimney, -“six cloths which they put on the shelves of the _kas_, one ditto with -lace, two small calico valances before the glass windows, one red -chimney cloth (probably placed over the white valance), two red striped -silk curtains and two valances of the same, two green silk curtains and -two embroidered valances, three grey striped silk chair cushions, four -pieces of tapestry to be thrown over chests, one bedstead with white -calico hangings and luxuriously supplied with cushions, and eight East -India spreads, besides other spreads of flowered calico, red calico, and -white calico in squares. There were five small East India boxes and a -great deal of linen, also one white box marked E. W.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXVI.—_The Oyster Feast, by Jan Steen. The Hague._ - - Figs. 35–36: CHAIRS (Seventeenth Century); Fig. 37: MARQUETRY DESIGNS - (Seventeenth Century). -] - -Wherever the Dutch went, they lived not only in comfort, but in all the -elegance and even splendour that their means would allow. In the New or -the Old World, the merchant princes surrounded themselves with sumptuous -furniture of mahogany, ebony, marquetry, ivory, lacquer, teak and -sandal-wood, as well as porcelain, embroideries, rugs, screens and all -kinds of stamped metal and _bric-à-brac_. - -In 1685, the Count de Forbin says that the General of the East India -Company at Batavia has a court quite royal in numbers and brilliance. -“On my arrival (at the palace), the usual guard,” he writes, “which is -very numerous, stood at arms, and, between two ranks of men, I was -introduced into a gallery adorned with the most beautiful Japanese -porcelains.” - -Evelyn and other travellers are enthusiastic in their admiration of the -riches and luxury they witnessed in Holland, although, as we have seen, -England was not unfamiliar with Oriental art products. The Stuarts were -art connoisseurs of the first rank, and James II, to whom Macaulay -denies mental and aesthetic appreciation, was an intelligent collector. -The most brilliant figure in the Court of Louis XIV, the Marquis de -Dangeau, notes in his _Diary_ (January 8, 1689), on the arrival of the -fugitive Stuart: “The King of England found the apartments (of the -Dauphin) admirable, and talked like a connoisseur of all the pictures, -porcelains, crystals and other things that he saw there.” - -One of the travellers who describes the Eastern goods seen in the shops -and houses of Amsterdam and other Dutch cities, Charles Patin, writes in -1690: - -“I had a sight of all their curiosities and those of all sorts, and -among other divers paintings that we know, and others which are unknown -to us; as also Indian and Chinese pieces of an inestimable value. In -these last a curious eye may discover all the secret particulars of the -history, the manner of living, customs and religion of those countries, -and there are represented certain martyrs, who sacrifice their blood to -the transport of their zeal, if it may be allowed to make so bad an -application of that sacred name, which belongs only to the heroes of the -true religion.” - -Wills and inventories are invaluable aids to the student of Dutch -furniture; but even more illuminating are the interiors painted by the -Great and Little Masters—Jan Steen, Metsu, Cocques, Teniers, Rembrandt, -Terburg, Don Weenix, Hoogstraten, Koedyck and a host of others. These -are valuable as showing not only individual pieces of furniture, but -also the general arrangement of rooms. - -Plate XXVI, representing _The Sick Woman_, by Jan Steen, in the Rijks -Museum, shows a very simple room with bare floor and bare walls. At the -back of the room is an upholstered bed with long straight curtains, and -tester ornamented with fringe and surmounted with “_pommes_.” On the -wall hang a lute and a Frisian clock. The back of the chair is carved -with lions’ heads above the arms. The table is covered with a handsome -“carpet.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXVII.—_The Sick Lady, by Hoogstraten._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -A similar bed stands in the right hand corner of the room, represented -in Plate XXXVII, also the picture of a _Sick Lady_, by S. van -Hoogstraten. The arrangement of this room is extremely interesting, as a -short flight of seven steps leads into a narrow passage and room above. -A round window hung with a curtain lights the passage-way above, which -contains a number of fine paintings and a low-backed chair with spirally -turned legs, the back and seat covered with velvet put on with -large-headed nails. A door leads into the room beyond, but all that we -can see of this is a marble mantelpiece with a handsome painting above -it, and heavy andirons. A large square armchair with spirally turned -legs stands on the left of the bed. The invalid is seated on a common -stiff chair of no decorative interest. - -The obvious upper room was always a favourite feature of the houses in -the Low Countries. An interior balcony is shown in Plate XXXVIII. This -interior, painted by J. Koedyck about 1650, now in Brussels, is very -interesting. The ceiling is unusually high, and consists of heavy beams; -the windows are flush with the outside wall with deep interior recesses, -and beneath them is a long wooden bench rudely carved. The old woman -seated in a plain, two-backed, rush-bottomed chair seems to be dusting -the legs of a spinet. Another two-backed chair stands in front of the -bed, which from the positions of its pillows looks as if it might -consist of an upper and lower berth, as was and still is often the case -in the simpler homes in the Netherlands. Straight curtains hang from the -cornice, a warming-pan is seen on the right, while above the cornice of -the bed a child looks out of the shutters in the upper gallery. The -chimney-piece is without the usual funnel-shaped top, and is also -lacking in flat architectural ornamentation or a large painting. A -candlestick and a few plates are the sole ornaments. It is carved with -caryatids, however, and furnished with a chimney-cloth. Near the only -caryatid visible stands what seems to be a metal “blower”; but there is -probably no fire in the hearth, for the cat has found what she considers -the most comfortable spot in the room on the foot-warmer. The most -interesting piece of furniture in the room is the high-backed settle in -the space between the fireplace and the window. This is panelled, and a -little decoration occurs below the arms. Of course, the seat lifts up, -and the box is used as a receptacle for articles. - -Plate XXVII, one of Jan Steen’s famous interiors, from the Rijks Museum, -has several interesting features: the architectural door and the high -chimney-piece with stove being the most curious. The bed is dome-shaped -and upholstered. A good type of chair stands in the foreground, and a -table, on which is a cloth with deep fringe. A beautifully painted -birdcage hangs from the ceiling. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXVIII.—_Interior, by J. Koedyck, Brussels._ -] - -Plate XXXVI, known as the _Oyster Feast_, by Jan Steen, in The Hague, -shows an interesting room, which serves as hall, dining-room and -kitchen. A large curtain is looped over the balustrade, which runs -midway across the hall. This gallery leads from one of the upper -sleeping apartments to another. One large window, with four panes, -supplies the light. To the left of it is a bed, and next to it a -mantelpiece with marble columns. Near this a parrot is sitting in a -ring. Next comes the fireplace, where the oysters are being cooked. -Waffle-irons lean up against the handsome chair in the foreground. -Beneath the window a jovial man sits in a low-backed chair, near the -group playing tric-trac on the long table, over which hangs a landscape -in a handsome frame. Another table with a rich carpet is placed on the -extreme right, at which two persons are enjoying their oysters. A clock -hangs on the wall, and also a lute and birdcages. A large birdcage, -similar to the one in Plate XXVII, hangs before the window. A dog, a -kitten and playful children add a merry touch to the scene. - -Plate XXXIX represents _The Music Lesson_, by Terburg, in the National -Gallery, London. Here we have an ordinary sitting or living-room of a -well-to-do household. The bed in the background resembles those in Plate -XXVI and Plate XXXVII. On the wall hangs a picture in a rich frame. The -fair musician sits on a low-backed chair with her foot on a foot-warmer. -The table is covered with a very handsome carpet. Upon it stands a -handsome candlestick. - -Plate XLI, _The Breakfast_, by G. Metsu (1630–67) (Dresden Gallery), -shows us the interior of an inn, with comparatively little furniture. -The chair on which the woman is sitting is a good example of the period. -The table, on which a “_buire_” stands, is of the most primitive kind. -The birdcage hanging from the ceiling is similar to the one represented -in Plate XXVII. - -Plate XLII, by Jan Steen, representing a jovial company, is chiefly -interesting for our purpose on account of the chair in which the host -sits, the tablecloth and the larder at the back of the room, on which -stand a mortar and pestle, a vase with flowers, a pot and two plates. In -the right-hand corner stands a bed, and from this hangs the legend on a -piece of paper: “As the old ones sing, so will the young ones pipe.” - -Plate XL, by J. B. Weenix (1621–60), shows a simple interior from the -Brussels Museum—a lady at her toilet. The chair on which she sits is -very interesting, with its low back, carved top rail and spirally turned -stretchers. The “table carpet” is a superb Oriental rug, and the mirror -with its massive frame is a magnificent example of carving and gilding. -The candlestick is also massive. The windows, flush with the walls, are -set with small panes, and are furnished with a curtain. - -A very interesting interior of the seventeenth century occurs in a -picture by G. Metsu in The Hague Gallery. In a room with a very fine -chimney-piece supported by marble pillars, and above which is a fine -picture and a beautiful chandelier, a lady is standing improvising upon -a lute. Another lady seated at a table is taking down the music, while a -man looks over her shoulder. The lady is seated upon a low-back leather -chair studded with heavy nails. Her foot rests upon a foot-warmer. The -table has heavy ball-feet connected with stretchers, and the heavy cloth -or carpet is pushed back carelessly. A tray or “standish,” holding the -ink bottles, etc., is carelessly placed upon the folds of the cover. The -lady holds a quill pen in her hand. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XXXIX.—_The Music Lesson, by Terborch._ - - NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. -] - -No subject was more congenial to the Dutch painters than scenes of home -life and familiar interiors. Not only were Jan Steen, Teniers, Dou, -Metsu and others of like rank attracted to the home, but an army of -mediocre masters devoted their talents to this subject. If the works of -the “Little Masters” found their way into royal and princely -collections, the works of more obscure painters decorated the homes of -the citizens, country people and colonists. The stranger who visited the -Dutch cities was amazed at the many interiors and landscapes that were -exhibited in the booths, at the fairs, and under the verandahs in front -of the houses of the masters. These were often bought for a small sum by -travellers, who sold them in their own country at considerable profit. - -When a bride went to her new home, she often found that it had been -furnished from top to bottom; but this was not always the case. As a -rule, wealthy burghers did not do this. The young wife, accompanied by -one or two of her near relatives and followed by a couple of servants -and a truckman, went about from shop to shop to select what she needed. -This was called “_ten huisraet vaeren_” (going furnishing), and De Vrij -devotes a chapter to this pleasant occupation under the title of “_De -vrou vaert ten huysraet_” (the wife goes out to furnish). In his time -the old simplicity had vanished in favour of a general luxury hardly -equalled to-day. De Vrij, therefore, allows his wealthy lady to purchase -“down beds, fine plush and wadded coverlids, costly hangings, large -Venetian mirrors, Indian crackle porcelain, lounging chairs, Turkish -carpets, Amsterdam gold leather, costly paintings, a silver service, a -_sacredaan_ cupboard, an ebony table, a curio cabinet, a napkin _kas_, a -large quantity of napkins, tablecloths and other fine household linen, -and a thousand other articles.” - -One has only to glance at the contemporary inventories to realize the -wealth and luxury of the period. It is only in a few instances, such as -the old Castle of Develstein, when occupied by Cornelius van Beveren, -that the old simplicity rules; for the old grey town on the Merwede -(Dordrecht), although the richest and oldest, was not the most luxurious -in Holland. It conserved its own customs, while Amsterdam, Rotterdam, -Delft and other cities vied with The Hague. - -One or two large chests always stood in the bedroom. In these linen and -clothing were kept. As a rule, the chest was of _sacredaan_, with brass -or silver mounts, and neatly lined inside with cloth. - -Linen was also kept in the great _kasten_. These were ornately carved or -panelled, made of different woods, and often inlaid with -mother-of-pearl. Some of them cost as much as 1,000 fl. Rare porcelain -was always placed on the top of the _kas_. - -The great linen chest or coffer, and the great cupboard in which -household linen and articles of clothing were kept, were among the most -important articles of furniture in a Dutch household. The chest was tall -and wide, and made, as a rule, of _lignum vitæ_, or _sacredaan_, or -other East India wood, frequently covered outside with leather and lined -inside with linen or some other textile. It was often mounted with brass -or silver, sometimes richly wrought. - -The cupboard, or _kas_, was very broad and very tall, and was made of -oak, ebony, or walnut, and stood on four heavy balls, which were often -repeated on the four corners of the top, and are described by Van Nispen -as “guardians of the porcelain ornaments,” which adorned the top. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XL.—_Interior, by J. B. Weenix, Brussels._ -] - -As many as ten or twelve each of chests and _kasten_ have been noticed -in old inventories in one dwelling, and they are described according to -the wood of which they are made, or the name of the room in which they -stood. Accordingly, we read of coffers and cupboards of oak, -_sacredaan_, cherry, and plum-tree wood, blue and red grained East India -wood, iron coffers, Prussia leather and lacquered coffers, the office -coffer, the office cupboard, the kitchen cupboard, the cupboard of the -green painted room, of the gold leather room, of the tapestry room, -etc., etc. Let us examine some of the cupboards in the home of Sara de -Roovere, second wife of Adriaan van Blyenborgh, Keeper of the Count’s -Mint, and known as a Latin poet. This home is in Dordrecht. - -In the “gold leather room” stand several cupboards, some of which are of -rare wood and richly carved. These cupboards contain a rich store of -snow-white linen, damask tablecloths, napkins, bed-clothing, towels, -shirts, bibs, neckerchiefs, frills, handkerchiefs, etc., “saved from -grandmother’s time with economy, or inherited from great-aunt and kept -as precious treasures,” all for her own use, or as wedding gifts to her -children, Jacob, Adriaan, Charlotte, or Adriana. Like many another Dutch -lady, every penny won at play, every present, and everything that could -be saved from the household money, this thrifty housewife devoted to -increase the treasure. A great part of the day she spent with her -daughters in the front room (_voorhuis_), or with the maids in the -kitchen, at the spinning-wheel, the sewing-cushions, the work-table, or -the ironing-board. She considered it an honour to have a rich -_Linnenkast_, and she was proud of being called a “house jewel careful -of the third part” and deserving of the name, as she possessed -“mountains of her own make and foreign produced stuff.” Her inventory -shows that she possessed no less than twenty-four dozen chemises, forty -dozen tablecloths and napkins, and coffers full of uncut linen. - -Some burghers’ wives had their linen made up by the seamstress. - -In another cupboard, called the “scalloped,” owing to the many St. -James’ shells carved upon it, Joffer van Blyenborgh kept one of the most -costly articles of her attire—the breast or forepiece. These -breast-pieces, or stomachers, were worn on the corsage, to which they -were fastened by means of pretty silk cords. They were made of silk, -satin, or velvet, and often profusely decorated with pearls or jewels, -and sometimes cost as much as £10,000. - -Vrouwe van Blyenborgh had coffers filled with petticoats of scarlet -cloth and also of wool cloth, coarse grey, black and white linen under -petticoats, jackets, hoop skirts, mantles and rain cloaks. Her cupboards -and coffers also included: rich robes of sarcenet and serge of fire -colour, rose colour and ground colour, covered with ribbons, bows, -galloons; bodices embroidered and trimmed with lace and fringe; -petticoats garnished with fringe of fire colour; grey cloth dresses -lined with blue serge; and Japanese night robes of dead leaf colour, -embellished with aurora hued flowers and lined with wadding. Neatly -folded among these rich articles were white satin robes lined with -amaranth taffeta, black velvet robes with cloth of silver, and -petticoats embroidered with golden flowers and lined with _taffeta -d’Avignon_. She also had some cloth of gold valued at £16 a yard. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLI.—_Breakfast, by G. Metsu, Dresden._ -] - -Dress and furniture became so extravagant during this period that the -stage ridiculed the lavish expenditure, and the other censor of public -morals—the pulpit—denounced the needless splendour as degrading before -God and men. The Dordrecht preacher, Joh. Becius, exclaimed: “Are the -pride and splendour of to-day more extreme than with the people of -Israel? Certainly not; but rather worse; for women go about, not only -with bare necks, but half-bared bosoms partly covered with a thin net or -cambric cloth—and in the robes and dresses they are more splendid than -the proud peacock, more changeable than the chameleon or the -weather-cock on the church steeple. They almost dance along the streets -dressed up as dolls for a _kermesse_; and these creatures, so gaily -attired, vie with each other to enter the Lord’s House where is preached -Christ born in a manger and wrapped in swaddling clothes.” - -Among the other vanities carefully preserved in the drawers and on the -shelves were the fans, masks, lace and jewels; _châtelaines_, ribbons, -hats, bonnets and caps; silk, cloth and serge stockings richly -embroidered; fancy shoes and slippers with high heels, and leather and -silk gloves sweetly perfumed. Vrouwe van Blyenborgh had a number of -thin, beautiful, scented, leather gloves; a large stock of “shoework” of -silk, satin, gold and silver leather, and yellow, green and scarlet -stockings. We must not forget to mention the round silver mirrors -suspended from gold hooks at the belt, and the delicately painted -miniatures worn as lockets or breast-pins. - -The great _kas_ was as conspicuous in the houses of the Dutch colonists -as it was at home. Every inventory of the prosperous burgher of New -Amsterdam mentions it, and it is highly appraised. To take a few -instances: “One great case covered with French nutwood and two black -knots (balls) under it, £13” (1685); “a cupboard or case of French -nutwood, £20” (1686); a white oak cupboard, £2 5_s._ (1688); a large -cupboard, £6 (1690); cupboard for clothes, a press and porcelain, £5; -and a “Holland cubbart furnished with earthenware and porcelain,” £15 -(1692); a great black walnut cupboard, £10 (1702); a Dutch painted -cupboard, £1 (1702); a black walnut cupboard, £9 (1703); and a case of -nutwood, £10 (1712). The _kas_ was often a valued bequest: Mrs. van -Varick had one “great Dutch _kas_ that could not be removed from -Flatbush”; and, therefore, was sold for £25. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLII.—_Interior, by Jan Steen. The Hague._ -] - -In the rooms of the Castle of Develstein were standing mirrors and -mirrors in ebony, metal and crystal frames, on the walls; and in the -“_salon_” was a mirror of Venetian glass. In this room was seen the -“kingwood hall buffet,” where, on festive or ceremonial occasions, the -family silver and crystal were exhibited, such as silver plates, dishes, -spoons, knives, beakers, decanters and mugs, silver-mounted horns and -night cups—all engraved with the family arms, or with conventional -rhymes or mottoes. In the “salon” or “show salon” was placed the -“root-wood (root of the walnut tree) table,” formed like steps (a -survival of the _dressoir_), on which the rarest and finest porcelains -were shown. Here also was the richly carved walnut _kas_ containing a -rare display of fine china, while on the wall walnut racks, beautifully -carved and ornamented with gold, the handsomest plaques were arranged. -There was also a pewter table in this room, on which stood many pewter -dishes, cups, tankards, etc., engraved with the family arms; but most of -the pewter was kept in the pewter cupboards (_tinkasten_), in the pewter -room, or in rows upon the dresser in the kitchen, ready for immediate -use. Silver table-ware was not in general use, for pewter took its place -as an everyday article. Among the glassware shown in this room were -cordial, wine and beer glasses, chalices and loving-cups of white and -green glass, engraved with arms, ornaments, proverbs, and shell-like -Venetian glasses, supposed to be proof against poison. - -Two interesting examples of _kasten_ are given on Plates XLIII and XLIV. - -Plate XLIII represents a large Dutch _kas_, or _buffet à deux corps_, -from the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. This magnificent specimen is of solid -ebony inlaid with ivory. Its grooved columns, panels and niches break up -the plain surface with much variety. It stands on eight bulb feet. It is -similar in shape to the English “court cupboard” of the same century. - -Plate XLIV represents a large _armoire_, or kas, from the Cluny Museum, -Paris. This was made in Holland. The front is ornamented with three -pilasters with carved capitals, between which are the two doors or wings -decorated with carved panels. The cornice is ornamented with three -lions’ heads. Beneath the columns are drawers with simple knobs. This -piece of furniture stands on flattened bulb feet. - -In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the cabinet was found in -every home of moderate wealth. In an inventory of 1679, “a root-wood -cabinet, with Japanese small dishes and ‘colossol’ (very large) pots -under its high feet” is mentioned. These cabinets stood on high legs, -sometimes with only one drawer underneath. They were frequently made of -rough pinewood painted red; but often they were very handsome (_see_ -Plate XXXI). In the bedroom of Lady Reepmaker in the Castle of -Develstein there was a “cabinet-maker’s small cupboard to put dresses -in, one one-drawer cabinet on a high base, one hair-dressing table, one -ditto chair, one ditto mirror with ebony frame, one gold leather -comb-holder, and the ‘_nachtbouquet_’” (night bouquet), a piece of -furniture used by the upper classes after 1672, in which everything -relating to the toilet of the period was found, such as: a silver framed -mirror, powder boxes, silver trays, pin-books, patch-boxes, hair and -clothes brushes, and other small toilet articles, as well as silver -candlesticks, snuffers and snuffer-trays. - -When a wealthy lady sat in front of her “dressing-cloth,” as her -dressing-table was familiarly called, she had before her an array of -bottles and boxes containing perfumes, powders, paints and beauty -patches, as well as a treasure-house of pearls, diamonds, rings and -bracelets set with glittering stones, ear-rings, necklaces, chains of -pearls, gold and silver pins, spangles, half-moons, so that she looked -like “a sun surrounded by suns,” or a “diamond surrounded by rubies.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLIII.—_Kas of Ebony and Ivory._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -Her innumerable toilet-boxes of tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl, her -silver and gold scent-boxes, her boxes of filigree, her ivory, ebony and -porcelain boxes and trays for her patches and cosmetics, her rich jewel -cases of gold, silver, tortoiseshell or ivory, lined with velvet, her -brushes and her shoe-horns, and her beautiful work-boxes supplied with -thimbles, bodkins, knitting-needles, hooks, scissors, and everything -that could be used for sewing and fancy needlework are displayed on her -toilet-table and in her cabinets. - -The table-cover or “carpet” was a most important decorative feature of -the Dutch room. It was generally a handsome Oriental rug. This was -thrown over the dining-table, the ordinary table in the hall or kitchen -(_see_ Plate XXVII and Plate XXXVI), in the bedroom (_see_ Plate XXVI -and Plate XXXVII), and used also for the toilet-table (_see_ Plate XL). -Often it was ornamented with handsome fringe (_see_ Plate XXVI and Plate -XXVII). When an impromptu meal was served, it was the custom to cover -the handsome cloth with a white cloth, of which the Dutch housewife -always had a large supply (_see_ Plate XXXVI and Plate XLII). Four -exceptionally handsome table “carpets” appear in Plate XL, Plate XXXIX, -Plate XXVI and Plate XXXVII. - -In nearly every Dutch interior one notes the presence of the foot-warmer -or foot-stove—a little wooden box with a perforated top and sometimes -perforated sides of wood or brass. In this, glowing embers were placed. -One of these is seen in Plate XXVI and another in Plate XXXVII, while in -Plate XXXVIII a cat is seen comfortably keeping itself warm. On Plate -XXXIX the lady playing the double-necked lute has her foot on one of -these universally used articles. - -These foot-warmers that served as footstools, and were carried to -church, are described in Roemer Visscher’s _Sinnenpoppen_ (Animated -Dolls). He calls them “_mignon des dames_,” and says: “_Een stoef met -vier daer in, is een bemint juweel by onse Hollandsche vrouwen, bysonder -als de sneeuwvlocken vlieghen ende hagel ende rijp het lof van de boomen -jaeght._” - -(“A stove with fire in it is a beloved jewel of our Dutch wives, -especially when the snowflakes are flying and the hail rattles.”) - -The author of the Dutch _Mercurius_ calls it “a small wooden piece of -carpentry with four holes in the top.” - -The “Looking-Glasse” that attracted Owen Feltham’s attention was a -luxury. The _spiegel-maker_ (mirror-maker) was only to be found in the -large cities. He was not allowed to make the frames, nor to gild them; -for this was the work of the Carpenters’ and Gilders’ Guild. The signs, -however, read—“_spyeghelwinckel_,” “_de nyeuwe spyeghelwinckel_,” -“_spyeghel-magazijn_,” “_allerley spyeghels groot en clijn_,” and “_de -Venetiaense spyeghelwinckel_.” (The “mirror shop,” “the new mirror -shop,” “mirror magazine,” “all kinds of mirrors, large and small,” and -“Venetian mirrors.”) - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLIV.—_Dutch Kas._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -The glass mirror was a novelty, for, until the seventeenth century, -polished metal was used; but at this period a method of silvering glass -with a mixture of quicksilver and pewter was invented in the celebrated -factory of Murano. The Venetians monopolized the trade until the end of -the century, when Abraham Thevart made mirrors (84 × 50 inches) in -Paris. Both Venetian and French mirrors adorned the reception rooms of -the rich _stadhouders_ and mayors of Holland, and hung above the -toilet-tables of ladies (_see_ Plate XL). The archives of the Castle of -Develstein mention: a “very large mirror from France,” “Venetian -mirrors,” “a small coarse mirror in a black frame,” “a fine Venetian -mirror in the Salon, with flowered crystal border”; “an Amsterdam mirror -of medium size,” and “one French mirror, large and beautiful.” - -Mirrors were not only valued for their thick glass and fine silvering, -but on account of their choice frames. Inventories speak of scroll -frames, open-work frames, frames with lions or griffins supporting a -coat-of-arms, etc. Ladies also carried German and English mirrors -suspended from their waists, for the purpose of arranging their -coiffure, ruff, or patches. - -The mirror, like other expensive luxuries, was often prohibited by the -clergy of the Protestant Church; and many a rich burgher was reprimanded -for spending so much money on mirrors, porcelain and furniture, and -giving so little to the Church. - -The most beautiful mirrors were probably found in The Hague, where the -reception rooms and bedrooms were usually decorated in the “style Louis -XIV.” Some of these were of Venetian glass with beautiful crystal -borders and crystal lustres at the side. Frequently these were placed -above the richly carved mantelpiece. - -The bedsteads, often richly carved, were of oak, walnut or _sacredaan_, -and were always hung with curtains. A deep valance often decorated the -base. The centre of the canopy was ornamented with the family -coat-of-arms, and each corner with a bouquet of many coloured plumes. -Sometimes the bedstead was on a platform, and the rich hangings were -supported by caryatides and the festoons of the canopy by carved cupids. -The bedsteads were high, and a ladder or steps was required to climb -into them. Little steps or foot benches stood in front of the bedstead -and were sometimes used for seats or tables, somewhat like the old -_escarbeau_ of Mediaeval days. - -One species of bedstead was known as the “coach,” or “rolling coach.” -This was intended for children, and the name “coach” was extended to -include the children’s sleeping-place. Mention is made in a treasurer’s -account of Dordrecht (1586) of “three bedsteads with a coach -underneath,” which shows that the coach is the trundle or truckle bed. - -Tables and chairs were found in every room. About 1640, the “drop-leaf” -or “hang-ear” tables came into use. They were usually made of solid -walnut- or _sacredaan_ wood. - -The chairs had high curved, or leather, backs and low seats of leather, -on top of which were placed loose cushions or pillows, which were often -piled up so high on the seat that a child standing on tiptoe could not -see over the pillow on the seat of the chair. Chairs were also covered -with rich damask, serge and other woollen goods. In the old inventories -mention is made of “Prussia leather table chairs,” ebony carved chairs, -red cloth covered _sacredaan_ wood chairs with pillows of different -shapes, and of high-backed carved walnut table chairs. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLV.—_Flemish Chair._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. -] - -Typical chairs are shown in Plates XXXIII and XXXIV from the Rijks -Museum. In the first there is a caned armchair on the left, an -upholstered armchair on the right, with turned legs and rails; and in -the middle a chair in the Marot style, with a mirror-shaped back, cane -panel, straight legs and crossed straining-rails. The example on the -extreme left of Plate XXXIV is an armchair of carved oak, with scrolled -arms and cane seat and back. It is similar to the one without arms from -Cluny in Plate XLV. A cane chair without arms appears in the centre, and -on the right an armchair with turned legs, carved top rail, and leather -back and seat. The Flemish chair on Plate XLV is constantly seen in the -rooms of the seventeenth century. - -The chair on the left of Plate XXX in the Cluny Museum, called “Spanish -of the Seventeenth Century,” is a curious transitional piece. The high -back and seat are covered with Spanish leather put on with large-headed -nails. The pattern of the leather represents peacocks, flowers and human -figures. The ornamentation of the top rail consists of a leaf and -scrolls ending in sharp spikes at the corners, very much in the early -Regency style. On the rail below the seat is carved a heart-shaped -ornament. The front legs are cabriole, connected with stretchers and -ending in hoof feet. The back legs, also connected by stretchers, are -straight. - -Other furniture included spinets and harpsichords, Friesland clocks, -table watches and pocket watches, which, when not in use, were placed in -little cases, as were the mirrors the ladies wore at their waists. Sand- -or hour-glasses were to be found especially in the kitchens, and the -table-bell, which had now supplanted the whistle as a call for the -servants. - -The woods used for furniture were oak, walnut, cedar, olive, nutwood, -ebony (black, green and yellow); kingwood, from Brazil, a hard wood with -black veins on a chocolate ground; beef-wood, from New Holland, of a -pale red used for borders; _palissandre_, or violet wood, from Guiana, -for inlays on fine furniture; and, above all, _sacredaan_, or Java -mahogany, a very hard wood, sweet smelling and of a bright yellow or -pale orange colour. This was a favourite wood for chests, as the odour -served to protect furs and woollen stuffs from the attacks of moths, -etc. - -The Dutch kitchen towards the end of the century was fully equipped with -all kinds of brushes, brooms, pots, pans and every utensil that was -necessary to effect the cleanliness and produce the good cheer so -necessary to every prosperous burgher. In 1680, a kitchen of a man of -moderate means in New Amsterdam contained the following: - - £ _s._ _d._ - - Fourteen pewter dishes, little and great 3 5 0 - - Three ditto basons, one salt seller, one pye plate 0 9 0 - - Four chamber potts, one warming pan of brasse 0 15 0 - - Two pewter flagons, a little one and a greate one 0 5 7½ - - Two smoothing-irons, three pewter quart potts 0 7 6 - - Three pewter pint potts, 1½ pint pot and two muck potts 0 6 9 - - Four old pewter saucers and ½ doz. plates 0 6 0 - - Six dozen wooden trenchers, three tin cover lids 0 8 0 - - Two frying pans, five spitts, two dripin pans, iron and tin 1 2 6 - - One puding pan of tin, one greate brasse kettle, three iron 1 16 0 - potts, one brasse skillett - - Two copper saucepans, one little iron kettle 0 6 0 - - Two pair iron pott hookes, a jack with a w^t of 56 lbs. 1 14 0 - - Two pair andirons, one brasse ladle, one iron beefe forke 1 0 6 - - Two pair of tongs, one fire shovell, a long bar of iron 0 4 6 - - One iron chaine in the chimney and three pot hangers 0 15 6 - - One bellows, a board to whet knives upon 0 1 0 - - Two copper pots, two brass candlesticks, six tin 0 10 0 - candlesticks - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLVI.—_“Buire,” by Mosyn, Auricular Style._ -] - -Silverware was an important item in the possessions of the merchant -class as well as the nobility. In 1682, we find the following items in -the inventory of a prosperous butcher: - - £ _s._ _d._ - - Twenty-two silver spoons, one silver forke, three silver 48 0 0 - gobletts, one ditto tankard, one ditto mustard pot, - one ditto cup with two eares, five silver small - cuppes, one ditto, one goblet, two ditto salt sellars, - one ditto cup, two ditto saucers, one ditto cup, one - ditto spice box, a Cornelia tree cup with silver, two - ditto dishes, weight in all ten pounds - - A silver girdle with hanging keys, one ditto with three 1 4 0 - chaines with hookes, one gold bodkin, two silver - bodkins, “silver for my booke with a chaine,” silver - to a belt for a sworde - - One silver hat band 0 13 6 - - One silver tumbler 1 0 0 - - One silver bell 0 18 0 - - One silver watch 1 0 0 - - Two pair silver buckles 0 8 0 - - Fourteen gold rings 10 7 6 - - One pair silver buttons, and one silver knife 0 12 0 - -No view of a Dutch interior of the seventeenth century would be complete -if it neglected to take into consideration the family pets. These are -very much in evidence in the pictures, by Dutch masters. These consist -of monkeys, parrots, peacocks, pheasants, cats and dogs. - -The monkey is quite a privileged character. Sometimes he is perched on -the top of a spinet and sometimes on a _kas_ or a chimney-piece. - -The masters of vessels that sailed the Eastern Seas, both English and -Dutch, were commissioned by nobles and potentates to bring home rare -animals. In 1609, for instance, the East India Company issued letters -for reserving “all strange fowls and beasts to be found there,” for the -Council. In 1623, we find a note that to the governor of the Company a -“Caccatoa” was sent from Batavia. The cockatoo is a familiar resident in -Dutch homes. He and other kinds of parrots, domiciled in wicker and wire -cages, are very much in evidence in the _genre_ pictures of the age. The -golden and silver pheasants were also privileged members of the -household, and were allowed the freedom of the hall. Sometimes we see -them perched on cornices, and sometimes strutting on the tiled floor. -The monkey, which played so important a part in the “_singerie_” -decoration of the late _Louis Quatorze_, _Régence_ and _Louis Quinze_ -periods, was imported in considerable numbers. A gossipy journal—_Le -Courrier du temps_, conducted by Fouquet de Croissy who undertook to -tell the secret happenings in the court of every prince in Europe— -records the following item of news from Amsterdam, under date of -September 1, 1649: - -“This week several ships have arrived here from the Indies. Among the -other riches with which the good agent was charged, he has brought a -dozen of the rarest and most beautiful monkeys that have ever been seen -in these parts. Cardinal Mazarin has sent for them to put them in his -wardrobe and anti-chambers to divert those who pay court to him and to -judge the affection they have for his service by the civility and good -treatment of the animals, the favourites of his Eminence, receive from -them.” - - - - - CHAPTER IX - DUTCH FURNITURE UNDER FRENCH AND ORIENTAL INFLUENCE. - - The Dutch Craftsmen in the Employ of Louis XIV—Huguenot Emigration— - Marot—The Sopha—Upholstery—The Bed—Chairs—Sconces—Tables—Rooms— - English and Dutch Alliances—Hampton Court—Queen Mary— - Looking-glasses—Chandeliers—Chimney-pieces—The _style refugié_— - John Hervey’s Purchases—Oriental Furniture manufactured after - European Patterns—Complaints of Home Manufacturers—Trade with the - Indies—“Prince Butler’s Tale”—Enormous Importations—Imported - Textiles—Foreign Textiles for Upholstery. - - -The last designer of furniture of any importance that has hitherto -demanded attention is Crispin van de Passe. The next one is also a -Dutchman. It is noticeable that the arts and crafts of France and -England were always deeply affected by the activities of the Low -Countries. France, even during the reign of Louis XIV, owed much to -Dutch culture and energy. Boulle, who was of Dutch extraction (_see_ -page 115), gave his name to a special kind of furniture which he -developed and elaborated. - -Another name famous in Decorative Art was that of Cander Jean Oppenordt, -born in Guelderland in 1639. He emigrated to Paris to seek his fortune, -and became “_ébéniste du Roi_,” was naturalized in 1679, and allowed a -lodging in the Louvre in 1684. To him was given the charge of furnishing -the Palace of Versailles, and in 1688 he made some beautiful marquetry -furniture for the Duke of Burgundy. His son, Gilles Marie Oppenord -(1672–1742), was architect to the Duke of Orleans. - -France owed much to Italy, Belgium and Holland during the first half of -the seventeenth century, but what she borrowed she repaid with interest. -In 1685, the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes induced fifty thousand -families of the best French blood, intellect, art, culture and -craftsmanship to seek voluntary exile. The Huguenots took refuge from -the _Dragonnades_ in England, Holland and Germany; and those countries -benefited by the short-sighted policy of a bigoted king. So many -goldsmiths, carvers, architects, designers and artists were among the -emigrants that their subsequent work in the art world came to be known -as the _style refugié_. - -Undoubtedly the most commanding figure in this band was Daniel Marot. He -was a member of a family of eminent French artists. He was a pupil of -Lepautre, who for many years worked at the Gobelins manufactory and -dominated the first period of the Louis XIV style. This style was -particularly majestic, pompous and heavy, the general forms consisting -of a mixture of the straight line and curve, and broad surfaces adapted -for decoration. The heavy straining-rail and pilaster as a support are -also characteristic. The ornaments consist of Roman and heroic trophies -of antiquity, helmets, cuirasses, casques, plumes, swords, shields, -laurel-wreaths and clubs, winged Victories, the elliptical cartouche, -river gods leaning on urns, large cornucopias, heavy garlands, or swags, -of fruit and leaves, the broad acanthus leaf, the mascaron, the swelling -scroll, and the combination of scroll and shell. Lepautre was also fond -of introducing the alcove into a room. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 39.—_Screen in the style refugié._ -] - -A typical screen of this period is shown in Fig. 39. The massiveness and -boldness of curve of the lines of the frame are characteristic of the -artists of the Louis XIV period who formed the _style refugié_; and the -grace and fancy of the design in the tapestry filling are worthy of more -than passing consideration. The _Chinoiserie_ influence is already -apparent in the small hanging canopy. - -At this date the _sopha_ was greatly in vogue. This was really nothing -more than the old settle with carved framework, and richly upholstered. -It rarely accommodated more than two persons, and, as a rule, only one -is shown sitting upon it. The legs and straining-rail followed the -general lines and decoration of those of the stands for cabinets, -toilet-tables, etc. The arms were sometimes solid or stuffed, and -sometimes open-work covered with velvet or other textiles. Sometimes the -_sopha_ is furnished with a bolster at both ends. Typical forms are -shown in Figs. 40, 41 and 42. - -Although Marot was well acquainted with porcelain and Eastern wares in -France, he found the prevailing taste much more extravagant when he took -refuge in Holland. There he became the supreme exponent of the _style -refugié_. William of Orange appointed him his chief architect and -minister of works, and Marot accompanied him to England at the Glorious -Revolution a couple of years later. In Holland, he designed much -interior work for palaces and noblemen’s seats, including staircases, -panelling, chimney-pieces, cornices, china-shelves and brackets, and all -kinds of domestic furniture. He was also extremely prolific in designs -for sumptuous upholstery in velvet, worsted and other textiles for -chairs, screens, hangings, curtains, bed-heads, etc. Marot died in 1718; -and his published works of Decorative Art include many hundred designs -representative of that period immediately preceding the Regency, known -in England as “William and Mary” and “Queen Anne.” - -Upholstery was an exceedingly important part of interior decoration at -that period, and there were right and wrong ways to hang curtains and -decorate the framework of beds with valances, fringes, lambrequins, etc. -Figs. 44 and 45 show two of Marot’s arrangements of lambrequins. - -The massive bed with its four posts of carved oak, which had so long -been in fashion, had now been supplanted by one in which upholstery was -the chief decorative feature. This bed consisted of a light frame -supporting a canopy, the four corners of which were surmounted by a -bunch of plumes, or ornaments, or knobs, in imitation of ostrich -feathers, called “_pommes_.” The furnishings of the bed, including -head-board, canopy, counterpane, curtains and valances, were of the same -material—velvet, brocade, silk, satin, chintz, or white dimity worked in -coloured crewels or worsted. Three beds of this period are to be seen at -Hampton Court Palace—William’s, Mary’s and Queen Anne’s. Both William’s -and Mary’s are now in the Private Diningroom. The former, which is about -fifteen feet high, is covered entirely with crimson damask, and Mary’s, -which is much smaller, with crimson velvet. The small bed used by George -II when he lived in this Palace, and which stands between William’s and -Mary’s, may also belong to this period. Queen Anne’s bed is more -elaborate. This stands in her State Bed-chamber; and it is not unlikely -that Queen Anne’s bed originally belonged to Mary; for she owned a -number of very handsome beds draped with materials of the latest -fashion. The elaborate designs upon the rich Genoa velvet that adorns -this piece of furniture are quite in the Marot style. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLVII.—_Carved Oak Bahut._ - - CLUNY MUSEUM, PARIS. - - Fig. 38: Ornament in the Auricular Style. -] - -The bed of this period was particularly suited to Marot’s taste, and he -made many designs, in which the festoon is conspicuous. - -The bed shown in the frontispiece of this book is a typical example of -Marot. The heavy cornice is adorned with a cartouche in the centre and -four “_pommes_” of ostrich feathers in vases at the corners. The -headboard is also characteristic of Marot, and consists of an urn with -swags of leaves and husks, with mermaids as caryatides or supporters at -the sides. At the base of the bed is a mascaron. The silk draperies are -arranged in formal swags tied with bows of silk and cords and tassels, -and the valance around the bottom of the bed is similar to the cornice -decoration. Running around the cornice is a brass rail for the outside -curtains, which can be drawn around the bed enclosing it entirely, with -the exception of the “_pommes_.” The counterpane, bolster and pillow are -covered with material that carries Marot designs. The pillow is adorned -with tassels. - -Another of Marot’s designs for a bed is reproduced in Plate XLVIII. This -is interesting on more than one account. The carving of the canopy shows -the advent of the _rocaille_ work that ran mad during the periods of the -Regency and Louis XV. The scrolls in the woodwork at the foot of the bed -are of the same form as the stretchers in tables, chairs, stands and -stools of the period. The decoration of the room is worth notice also. -The walls are covered with tapestry, and the same lambrequin that adorns -the bed is repeated all along the walls under the cornice. The same -decoration is repeated around the seat of the armchair on either side of -the bed. The low foot-posts of the bed are surmounted by “_pommes_,” -which usually hold the positions above, here occupied by carved shells. -Finally, the sconce mirror over the chair is graceful in form. - -Queen Anne’s bed at Hampton Court Palace gives one a good idea of the -Marot decoration. It has a square canopy and tester, below which hang -curtains that when drawn enclose the entire bed. The head-board is -upholstered. The furnishings of this bed are entirely of stamped or cut -velvet, a white ground with formal patterns of crimson and orange. The -chairs, tabourets and long forms are also covered with this material. - -A beautiful chandelier of silver decorated with glass balls hangs from -the ceiling, which was painted by Sir James Thornhill. The design -depicts Aurora rising from the ocean in her chariot, drawn by four white -horses and attended by cupids, while Night and Sleep sink away. - -[Illustration: - - Figs. 40, 41 and 42.—“_Sophas._” Fig. 43.—_Lower part of Chair, by - Marot._ Figs. 44 and 45.—_Lambrequins, by Marot._ -] - -Marot’s armchairs owe their effect almost entirely to upholstery: the -framework is certainly solid, heavy and ungainly. He prefers carved feet -of animals’ claws to the popular Dutch bulb. A typical form of the seat -and legs appears in Fig. 43. The top of the back is usually a straight -line, though, if the chair is designed for a prince or noble, the centre -sometimes rises in a carved crown or coronet. The woodwork is generally -gilded. - -Marot’s sconces usually had only one candle socket (_see_ Plate XLIX). -When the mirror was of silver, or any burnished metal, its surface was -generally convex. When it was of glass it was flat, but very often the -edges were bevelled. The three examples on Plate XLIX show the -characteristic ornamental details of mascarons, floral scrolls, and -heavy _chutes_ of the bell-flower or wheat-ear. The same ornamentation, -intermingled with “_pommes_,” geometrical lines and broken scrolls, -distinguishes the two large mirrors above. Other handsome oval and -rectangular mirrors appear on Plate L. The lower one on the right, with -cornucopias disgorging _chutes_ of fruit, bears the crossed double L of -Louis XIV, with a royal crown, and therefore must belong to Marot’s -early period before he went to Holland. The mascarons and human figures -on the other mirrors on this plate also belong to the early Louis -Quatorze period. - -On Plate LI are two more mirrors, large and small, one above an inlaid -console table and three candle or candelabra stands. These are -interesting as showing the extent to which Marot made use of caryatides -and swags in decorative work. It will be noticed that his Junos, Floras -and Venuses are functional as well as graceful and decorative. With -their heads and arms they have real work to do and weights to support. - -Tables of Marot’s design are represented on Plate LII, which also gives -a series of eight mascarons. Plate LIII shows three of Marot’s tall -clocks, with details of decoration and designs for key handles. The -little frieze of designs for keyholes at the top of the Plate show that -the forms of china-ware were even invading goldsmiths’ work. - -It will be noticed that the grandfather’s clock in Marot’s mind was -somewhat more ornate than the modern idea of that timepiece. Chippendale -owed a heavy debt to Marot’s forms of clocks and candlestands. - -Marot’s designs for rooms show the limit to which porcelain could be -used as a decorative feature. There are brackets, brackets everywhere. -Vases of different shapes and sizes stand on the ledges, oval, circular -or straight, above the doors and stud the cornices; but it is the -chimney-pieces that serve, as the tiered _dressoir_ did in Mediaeval -days for plate, in the display of porcelain. The corner chimney-pieces -of Hampton Court with their diminishing shelves give some faint idea of -the many plates of Marot’s designs. Some of these show brackets and -shelves that support hundreds of cups, saucers, pots, bowls, bottles and -vases. In one extreme case more than three hundred pieces may be counted -on the chimneypiece and hearth alone. These are not merely suggestions, -for we have evidence that, in Holland, rooms decorated in this style -really existed. Thus one poet sings: - - OF THE PORCELAIN ROOM - - _.... Geheel zijn huis, ja zelfs het klein gemak, - Blonk als een diamant—duizend fijne kopjes - Vercierden ’t kabinet, hoe veel japanse popjes, - Uit amber, zeekoraal en roosverw paerlemoer, - Vervulden ’t groot salet._ - - (His whole house, even his small parlour, - Shone like a diamond—a thousand small cups - Decorated this parlour; how many Japanese figures (dolls) - Of amber, sea-coral and pink mother-of-pearl - Filled the big room!) - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLVIII.—_Bed and Bedroom, by Marot._ -] - -On Plate L two brackets will be noticed, for the support respectively of -one and three China jars. - -A typical English mansion of this period is Holme Lacy in Herefordshire. -Though dating from Tudor days, it was partly rebuilt and decorated in -the reign of William III. The principal apartments are well -proportioned, and are embellished with richly stuccoed ceilings, with -compartments of flowers and other designs. The “saloon” is particularly -remarkable for its ceiling of pendent flowers and fruits, and carvings -by Grinling Gibbons over the chimney-piece. Superb carvings by this -great master, representing birds, shell-fish, fruit and flowers, are to -be seen in all of the rooms on the ground floor, which communicate with -one another by folding doors. The gardens, too, are noticeable, for they -were also laid out in the style of King William’s day, and contain yew -hedges of extraordinary height and thickness. - -At this period English and Dutch taste were identical. This is only what -we might expect when we consider the bonds that united the reigning -houses and nobility of the two countries. Mary, the eldest daughter of -Charles I, married the Prince of Orange; and their son, William, married -Mary, the daughter of James II. During this period, also, some of the -English nobility went to the Low Countries for wives. In 1650, the Earl -of Derby married Dorothea Helena, a daughter of John Baron de Rupa, in -Holland. She was a Maid of Honour of another ill-fated Stuart, -Elizabeth, the beautiful Queen of Bohemia. Baron Colepepper married -Margaret van Hesse, and the Earl of Arlington married another Dutch -woman, Isabella, daughter of Henry of Nassau, Lord of Auverquerque, in -the early days of the Restoration. The Earl of Bellomont married -Isabella’s sister. The Earl of Ailesbury, in 1700, married Charlotte -d’Argenteau, Countess d’Esseneux and Baroness de Melobroeck in Flanders: -and the list might be extended. Incidentally we may note that, in 1646, -the Earl of Berkeley married Elizabeth Massingberd, the daughter of the -treasurer of the East India Company. - -It has already been noted that Charles II was hospitably entertained in -Holland at his sister’s court during part of his exile. We have also -seen that James II was a connoisseur in Oriental art products. When the -daughter of the latter, Mary, married her cousin William and settled -down in Holland, her mind was fully receptive to Dutch tastes and ways -of living. When she became Queen of England, on the exile of her father, -it was a Dutch palace into which she transformed Hampton Court, that -splendid enforced gift of Wolsey’s to Henry VIII. The English student, -therefore, need not cross the Channel to study Dutch interior decoration -and furniture of the close of the seventeenth century. The majority of -the rooms and grounds are still practically in the same condition as -they were when inhabited by William and Mary, under whose direct orders -the work was designed and supervised by Marot and Sir Christopher Wren. -A considerable amount of the Marot furniture still survives there. Defoe -tells us in his _Tour_ (1724): - -[Illustration: - - PLATE XLIX.—_Mirrors and Sconces, by Marot._ -] - -“Her Majesty (Mary) had here a fine apartment (Hampton Court), with a -set of lodgings for her private retreat only, but most exquisitely -furnished, particularly a fine chintz bed, then a great curiosity; -another of her own work while in Holland, very magnificent, and several -others; and here also was Her Majesty’s fine collection of delft ware, -which indeed was very large and fine; and here was also a vast stock of -fine china-ware, the like whereof was not then to be seen in England; -the long gallery, as above, was filled with this china, and every other -place where it could be placed with advantage.” - -Although an Englishwoman, Mary had all the virtues and tastes of a Dutch -_vrouw_. She kept her husband informed of all that happened from day to -day, bewailed his absence and neglect, and busied herself and her Maids -of Honour with needlework, and, perhaps, with tenderly dusting her -cherished porcelain. When in London, she used to spend many an hour and -all her pocket money shopping at the India houses and in the New -Exchange. She set the fashion for china-mania, and may well have -inspired Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s lines: - - “What shall I do to spend the hateful day ... - Strait then I’ll dress and take my wonted range - Thro’ India shops, to Motteux’s, or the Change, - Where the tall jar erects its stately pride, - With antique shapes in China’s azure dyed; - There careless lies a rich brocade unrolled, - Here shines a cabinet with burnished gold. - But then, alas! I must be forced to pay, - And bring no penn’orths, not a fan away!” - -Hampton Court was remodelled under Mary’s direction. It almost entirely -lost its Tudor character, and became characteristically Dutch in -appearance. Sir Christopher Wren’s talents were called into requisition -to design the shelves, cornices and tiered corner chimney-pieces that -are still to be seen there. Verrio was employed to adorn the staircases -and ceilings with his gaudy frescoes. Grinling Gibbons, a Dutchman, whom -Evelyn had discovered, was responsible for the carvings that even to-day -are the admiration and despair of the woodworker. The fish-ponds and -gardens were laid out in the formal Dutch taste, with fountains, clipped -trees, hedges, avenues, geometrical beds, an orangery and an aviary of -tropical birds. The furniture was due to Marot and Wren. - -The comparatively small amount of furniture now to be seen in the -show-rooms of Hampton Court belongs mainly to this period. It consists -principally of chairs, stools (_tabourets_), beds, card-tables, mirrors -and chandeliers. - -Many of these specimens are extremely interesting, showing the Marot -taste. Of the latter, there are stools, chairs and tables with the heavy -scroll foot and stretchers, the latter joining in the centre and -supporting there a carved ornament; other tables have four scroll -supports and stand on bulb feet. Some of the stools and tabourets have -gilded woodwork. Among the later style we may note a chair in William -III’s Presence Chamber, with tall back, jar-shaped splat, cabriole leg, -hoof feet and straining-rails, the front one higher than the other; and -also two card-tables in the King’s Drawing-room, with slender legs -ending in the hoof foot, and the tops supplied with wells for the -counters and slight depressions for the candles. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE L.—_Mirrors, by Marot._ -] - -About thirty handsome looking-glasses of the period are there. Many of -them are pier-glasses hung, of course, between the windows. One of the -most noticeable of these is a fine pier-glass in William III’s State -Bedroom, dating from his time. This has a border of cut blue glass, the -edges are bevelled, and the centre contains the monogram W. R., -surmounted by the crown in blue and white glass. A similar mirror hangs -over the fireplace. - -Another looking-glass with a blue glass frame hangs between the windows -in Queen Mary’s Closet. - -Another beautiful chandelier hangs in William III’s Presence Chamber: -this is of silver, with eight lower and four upper arms. It is decorated -with the harp, thistle, etc. A still more ornate one hangs in the -Queen’s Audience Chamber. This is a magnificent combination of silver -and crystal, with silver sea-horses and lions supporting the silver -branches, crystal balls and drops, and a crystal crown on top. - -The mantelpieces are extremely interesting, as many of them are of the -old inverted funnel shape, and are supplied with tiers of shelves— -sometimes as many as six—for the reception of ornaments. Upon these now -stands a good deal of blue and white china, many pieces of which -belonged to Queen Mary. Pieces that are known to have belonged to her -are two blue and white jars and two goddesses in Queen Mary’s Closet, -and two goddesses and two vases, about eighteen inches high, on the -mantelpiece of William III’s Presence Chamber. - -Charles II, who, while a royal refugee, spent much time in Holland, had -acquired the new taste. It was there, doubtless, that he saw visions of -wealth in the Indies that later led him to grant the English East India -Company a charter, and to embark on a disastrous and inglorious war, -which resulted in London hearing foreign guns for the first time since -England was a nation. His keen appreciation of Oriental works of art, -however, was somewhat dulled when his bride, Catherine of Braganza, -brought him a shipload of cabinets and ceramics in lieu of the dowry her -mother had promised, although Evelyn, in his description of Hampton -Court (1662), says: “The Queen brought over with her from Portugal such -Indian cabinets as had never before been seen here.” - -It is frequently asserted with apparent authority that Mary carried the -Dutch taste for porcelain and the manufactures of the Far East into -England; but, as we have seen, this idea is not well founded. Herself a -china-maniac, she merely set the royal stamp of approval on contemporary -taste, and made Hampton Court a model of the _style refugié_. That style -dominated English and Dutch homes before she heartlessly danced in the -Palace of Whitehall from which her father had fled. - -Hampton Court, remodelled under her directions, was not completed till -1693. Many documents show that the _style refugié_ was popular in -English aristocratic homes before that date. - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LI.—_Mirrors, Console Table and Candlesticks, by Marot._ -] - -Under William and Mary, London swarmed with Dutch merchants and refugee -Huguenot arts and craftsmen, and was almost as much of an Eastern bazaar -as Amsterdam was. Mary set the pace, and wealth and aristocracy gladly -followed. As an example of the vogue, we cannot do better than take the -diary of the wealthy John Hervey, afterwards Earl of Bristol, and quote -a few entries of expenditure. - -He was always buying porcelain and other Oriental wares “for dear wife.” -On July 6, 1689, he notes: “Paid to Katherine Scott for 12 leaves of cut -Japan skreens, 2 pieces of India damask and 6 Dutch chairs, £65.” In the -following July, he also bought from John van Colima, a Dutchman, who had -probably followed William III to London, “a parcel of old China for £3 -2_s._ 6_d._” Though the Earl dealt more extensively with “Medina ye -Jew,” “Leeds ye mercer,” “Seamer ye goldsmith” and many “India houses” -in the New Exchange, we find him still patronizing the Dutchman after -the death of his first wife, as is shown by the following entries: -“1696, Jan. 11: Paid Calama, ye Dutchman in Green Street, for a parcell -of china for my dear wife, £31 8_s._ 4_d._ May 4: Calamar, ye Dutchman, -for another parcel of China, £10 4_s._” Two years later he also pays -“John Van Collema, for an Indian trunk, £35.” Another Dutchman who -enjoyed this nobleman’s patronage was “Mr. Gerreit Johnson, ye -Cabinett-maker,” who, on May 25, 1696, was paid £70 “for ye black sett -of glass, table and stands, and for ye glasses, etc., over ye chimneys -and elsewhere in my dear wife’s apartment.” - -Gerreit Johnson, whom the Earl patronized, was a fashionable -cabinet-maker who made the china-cabinets for Queen Mary that were -placed in a room at Hampton Court called “the Delft Ware Closett.” It is -interesting to note that the mirrors and cabinets in the Countess of -Bristol’s boudoir had black japanned framework. - -His diary and expense account shows that his purchases of furniture and -_bric-à-brac_ faithfully reflected the prevailing taste for Oriental -wares and the _style refugié_. He did not exclusively patronize -Dutchmen. - -In 1688, he paid “to Frenoye, the silkman, for the fringe of the bed, -edgings for the window curtains, etc., £155”; “to the joyner who made -the chairs, stools and squabs for my wife, £19”; and “for gold and -crimson fringe for the India bed quilt, £17.” - -In 1689, he bought “for dear wife” a white teapot and basin, £4 16_s._ -9_d._; two china basins, £1 1_s._ 6_d._; an India trunk, £7; India quilt -for a bed, £38; a “brockadal hanging in my wife’s anti-chamber, £11 -10_s._”; and “to a French varnisher for ten chairs, a couch and two -tabourettes, £12.” - -In 1690, his purchases included “silver andirons, for my dear wife her -closett chimney, £13 5_s._“; “a glass screen, £1 1_s._ 6_d._”; “two pair -of basins for dear wife, £1 12_s._“; “a large China punch-bowl, with a -large jarr and two white cupps, £3 5_s._“; “sett of cupps and saucers, -£2”; six other saucers, 10_s._; “two china beakers, £2 11_s._“; two -great jarrs of china and two smaller ones, “with one very little one,” -£7 3_s._; a parcel of old china, £21; another parcel of old china, £6 -10_s._; “another sett of old china for dear wife, £22”; “a pair of old -china roul wagons” (large blue and white vases), £7 10_s._ 6_d._; a pair -of china cupps and a little jarr, £1 6_s._; for a china teapot basin, £1 -1_s._ 6_d._; an old china bottle and two china dishes, £1 15_s._; “at a -curiosity shop, 10_s._“; “a rich piece of India atlas, £13 10_s._”; “a -parcel of Indian things, £5 7_s._ 6_d._”; and “a pair of china jarrs, £1 -4_s._” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LII.—_Tables and Mascarons, by Maret._ -] - -In 1691, he bought a “Jappan travelling strong water cellar, £5 7_s._ -6_d._”; a “Persian carpet (all of silk) to lay under a bed, and an old -china roulwaggon, 22 guineys”; “a piece of blue Indian stuff, £2 -15_s._”; and “a candle-skreen, £1 6_s._” (The “roulwaggon” is a kind of -vase.) - -In 1692, he enters “two china rice potts for dear wife, £5”; “a china -jarr, £2 10_s._”; and “a parcel of china, £2 14_s._” - -It is evident from the above that at the close of the seventeenth -century, Huguenot, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, English and Dutch artists -and artisans had combined to produce a style, the leading spirit of -which in England and Holland was Marot. - -A noticeable fact in connexion with the European craze for Asiatic art -products is that, though the English and Dutch highly admired the native -wares, the European merchants sent out their own patterns and designs -for furniture and ceramics. It is even maintained that the famous -“Willow Plate” was the design of a Dutchman. The evidence of the -practice of exploiting foreign labour in the field of home taste is -overwhelming; and, as the century advanced, the guilds, city companies -and other trades unions in England, France and Holland grew more and -more restive under the burden of “Chinese cheap labour.” Mazarin was one -of the early enthusiasts in France to encourage Eastern importations. - -In the _Mémoirs_ of La Grande Mademoiselle (1658), we read: “The -Cardinal (Mazarin) behaved in a very delightful and galant manner. He -took the two Queens (Anne of Austria and Henrietta Maria) and the -Princess of England and myself into a gallery that was filled with all -that could be imagined in the way of precious stones, jewels, furniture, -stuffs and everything beautiful from China; crystal chandeliers, -mirrors, tables and cabinets of all kinds, silver vessels, perfumes, -gloves, ribbons and fans.” - -Towards the close of the century the craze for Oriental wares had -assumed such proportions that in France Louis XIV enacted sumptuary laws -to protect native industries; and in Holland and England the artisans -grumbled bitterly over the hard times occasioned by the vogue. The -Eastern workmen accepted patterns and supplied orders that natives of -Western Europe could not venture to undertake. The guilds and city -companies admitted the superiority of Oriental work, and cried aloud for -protection. Thus, in 1700, the Joiners’ Company addressed a petition -against the importation of manufactured cabinet work from the East -Indies. In this they state that they have “of late years arrived at so -great a perfection as exceeds all Europe.” - -“But several merchants and others,” they continue, “have procured to be -made in London of late years and sent over to the East Indies patterns -and models of all forms of cabinet goods, and have yearly returned from -thence such quantities of cabinet wares, manufactured there after the -English fashion, that the said trade in England is in great danger of -being utterly ruined, etc., etc.” - -The following goods, manufactured in India, have been imported within -these four years, viz.: - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LIII.—_Clocks and Details, by Marot._ -] - - 244 cabinets. - 655 tops for stands. - 6,580 tea-tables. - 818 lacquered boards. - 428 chests. - 597 sconces. - 70 trunks. - 589 looking-glasses. - 52 screens. - 4,120 dressing, comb and powder-boxes. - -The Japanners also brought their grievances before the authorities in -1710. The taste for japanned goods had forced them to endeavour to make -worthy imitations for home consumption, and they thought they were -entitled to patronage and tariff protection. The evils are fully -indicated in the preamble to their petition: - -“Many of the artificers (cabinet-makers, turners, goldbeaters and -coppersmiths) have brought (the curious and ingenious art and mystery of -japanning, so much improved in England of late years) to so great -perfection as to exceed all manner of Indian lacquer, and to equal the -right japan itself, by enduring the fire in the boiling of liquors. - -“Also it will, if encouraged, vastly improve both the wood and iron -trades for cisterns, monteiths, punch-bowls, tea-tables and several -sorts of ironware, which would be useless if not improved by our English -lacquer. - -“But the merchants, sending over English patterns and models to India, -and bringing such quantities of Indian lacquered wares (especially -within the last two years), great numbers of families are by that means -reduced to miserable poverty.” - -The trade with the Indies thus encountered bitter opposition, and many -tracts were published calling attention to the alleged grievances of -native workmen from its prosecution. In 1700, _Reasons_, a tract, tells -us: “The charter of the East India Company was confirmed by King Charles -II in the thirteenth year of his reign, and the law for permitting -bullion to be exported was made soon after. In 1672 or 1673, several -artificers were sent over by the Company with great quantity of English -patterns to teach the Indians how to manufacture goods to make them -vendible in England and the rest of the European markets. After which -began the trade in manufactured goods from the Indies.” - -In 1699, also, a bitter wail went up in a broadside entitled _Prince -Butler’s Tale_: - - When first the India trade began, - And ships beyond the tropics ran - In quest of various drugs and spices, - And sundry other strange devices. - Saltpetre, drugs, spice and such trading - Composed the bulk of all their lading: - Bengals and silks of India’s making - Our merchants then refused to take in, - Knowing it would their country ruin - And might prove to their own undoing. - Nor did they carry gold or bullion - To fetch home what supplants our woollen; - Nor were this nation fond to wear - Such Indian toys which cost so dear. - Then were we clad in woollen stuffs, - With cambric bands and lawn ruffs, - Or else in silk which was imported - For woollen goods which we exported; - Which silk our English weavers bought - And into various figures wrought. - That scarce a child was to be seen - Without Say frock, that was of green. - Our hangings, beds, our coats and gowns - Made of our wool in clothing towns, - This nation then was rich and wealthy - And in a state which we call’d healthy. - But since the men of Gath arose, - And for their chief Goliath chose, - And since that mighty giant’s reign - Whose chiefest aim was private gain, - This trade was drove on by such measures - As soon exhausted much our treasures; - For then our chiefest artists went - With patterns, and with money sent, - To make and purchase Indian ware, - For which this nation pays full dear. - Then by great gifts of _finest_ touches - To lords and ladies, dukes and duchess, - So far prevailed as set the fashion - Which, plague-like, soon spread o’er the nation. - Our ladies all were set a gadding, - After these toys they ran a madding; - And nothing then would please their fancies, - Nor Dolls, nor Joans, nor wanton Nancies - Unless it was of Indians’ making; - And if ‘twas so, ‘twas wondrous taking. - This antick humour so prevailed, - Tho’ many ‘gainst it _greatly_ railed, - ‘Mongst all degrees of female kind - That nothing else could please their mind. - Tell ‘em the following of such fashion - Wou’d beggar and undo the nation - And ruin all our labouring poor - That must or starve, or beg at door, - They’d not at all regard your story, - But in their painted garments glory; - And such as were not Indian proof - They scorn’d, despised, as paltry stuff; - And like gay peacocks proudly strut it, - When in our streets along they foot it. - - * * * * * - - And happy thrice would England be, - If, while they’re living, we could see - Our noble ladies but beginning - To wear our wool of finest spinning, - Or in such silks our workmen make, - For which our merchants cloth to take; - Which soon would bring them in such fashion - As they’d be worn throughout this nation, - By all degrees, and sex, and ages, - From highest peers to lowest pages; - Nor would the meanest trull, or besses, - Delight to wear these Indian dresses, - Which certainly would profit bring - To them, their tenants, and their king. - -To show how enormous was the trade with the East Indies at the end of -the century, we need only examine the records of sales of the cargoes of -three ships at the East India House in 1700. In this we omit all mention -of sugar, tea, coffee, bezoar stones, ambergris, drugs of all sorts, -sweetmeats, gems, musk, aloes, carpets, rugs, and all kinds of woven -silk and cotton goods. The other goods, “besides great quantities unsold -of toyes and small goods,” fetched over £200,000, which at the present -day might represent three-quarters of a million sterling: - - £ - China-ware pieces 150,000 - Fans 38,557 - Lacquer’d sticks for fans 13,470 - Lacquer’d trunks, escretors, bowls, cups, dishes, etc. 10,500 - Lacquer’d tables inlaid 189 - Lacquer’d panels in frames, painted and carved for rooms 47 - Lacquer’d boards 178 - Lacquer’d brushes 3,099 - Lacquer’d tables not inlaid 277 - Lacquer’d fans for fire 174 - Lacquer’d boards for screens 54 - Screens set in frames 71 - Paper josses 1,799 - Shells painted double gilt 281 - Paper painted for fans 377 - Images of copper, stone, wood and earth 600 - Pictures 669 - Brass and iron leaves for lanthorns - Brass hinges in chests - Embroideries for curtains, valloons and counterpanes - -Among the textiles that were imported from the East Indies, Persia and -China at the end of the seventeenth century, and used for curtains, -upholstery, cushions, etc., were many varieties of wrought silks, “dyed -Bengals,” and printed or stained “callicoes,” known under the following -names: - - Allibanies. - Allejaes. - Ammores. - Addecannees. - Agentbannies. - Atlasses. - Addaties. - Brawles. - Bengalis or Nilas. - China silks. - Chawters. - Cherconnees. - Chucklaes. - Checquered silks. - Carpetts. - Callawaypoose. - Canvas bolts. - Cuttannees. - Cuttannees, Striped. - Cuttannees, Flowered. - Cuttannees, Wrought. - Culgees. - Chints, Serunge. - Chints, Caddy. - Chints, Surrat. - Chints, Brampore. - Chints, Culme. - Chints, Pattanna, - Chints, Gulconda. - Chints, Wrought. - Damasks. - Derribasts. - Damask nankeens. - Elatches. - Elatches, Lingua. - Ginghams coloured. - Gelongs. - Gelongs, printed and painted. - Gelongs, striped. - Gorgoreas. - Gauzes. - Goachon Cherulas. - Guiney stripes. - Girdles. - Herba Taffeties. - Herba Lungees. - Hockings. - Jammawars. - Longes Flowered. - Mahobutt Bannes. - Mocha silks. - Muttrasses. - Nankeen Taffeties. - Nillaes. - Niccannees. - Paunches. - Pelongs. - Putkaes. - Peniascoes. - Phota Lungees. - Pallungpores. - Peniascoes or Penasses. - Pholcarees. - Quilts. - Romalls silk. - Romalls cotton. - Romalls serunge. - Rastaes. - Shalbasts. - Soofeys. - Sattins plain. - Satin nankeens. - Soops. - Seersuckers. - Sacerguntees. - Sooseys. - Shaulbasts. - Silk Lungees. - Taffeties. - Taffety nankeens. - Velvets. - -The above list is copied from a tract protesting against foreign -importations that was printed about 1700. - - - - - CHAPTER X - FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES - - Lacquer—Oriental Methods—European Importations and Limitations—Prices— - An Ambassador’s Report—_Singerie_, _Chinoiserie_ and _Rocaille_— - The Dutch Decadence—Interiors of Cornelis Troost—Mirrors—Wealth - and Luxury of Dutch Merchants—Court Contrast—Tapestry—Brussels as - a Centre of Art and Luxury—Eighteenth Century Furniture—The Empire - Style in the Low Countries—Dutch Homes of the Nineteenth Century— - The Maarken House and Furniture—Typical Farmhouse and Furniture— - Country Seats and Town Houses—Hindeloopen Houses and Furniture—A - Friesland House—Canal Boat Furniture—Dutch Love of Symmetry— - Collectors and Collections. - - -So far little attention has been paid in these pages to lacquer, though -important articles of household furniture that owed their beauty and -value to this species of ornamentation have appeared in inventories and -diaries under the designation of “vernish,” “japan” or “japanned.” -Sometimes this work was referred to as “black” merely, as in the case of -John Hervey’s “dear wife’s” boudoir. - -The Oriental method of lacquering requires a vast amount of patience and -skill. After the wood has been smoothly planed, it is covered with a -thin sheet of paper or silk gauze. Over this is spread a thick coating -of buffalo’s gall and powdered red sandstone. When dry, this is rubbed -with wax and polished, or washed over with gum and chalk. The varnish is -laid on with a flat brush. The article is now thoroughly dried, and -again moistened and polished with a piece of soft slate, or the stalks -of a special grass. The workman then repeats the process, giving it a -second coating of lacquer, and again dries and polishes it. Sometimes as -many as eighteen or twenty coatings are applied, but never less than -three. - -The lacquer used by the Chinese and Japanese is derived from the juice -of the “varnish tree.” This juice, a natural secretion, is acrid, and -soon hardens into a black resin. To obtain it, pieces of bamboo are -inserted into the bark and allowed to remain all night, for the juice -flows more freely at night than during the day. This is boiled with -equal parts of oil obtained from the fruit of the _mimusops elengi_. The -chief trees that yield this gum are the black varnish tree -(_melanorrhoea usitata_) and the Japan varnish tree (_rhus -vernicifera_). - -There are grades in lacquer. Lacquer on a gold ground is the most highly -prized; and the first examples of this kind that reached Europe were -gifts to Dutch officials from Japanese princes. This sort of lacquer is -seldom found on furniture, with the exception of delicate little boxes -and occasionally plaques that were inserted into furniture. - -Lacquered wares were brought into Holland, England and France in large -quantities all through the seventeenth century, as the bills of lading -(see page 292) show. We have seen that the European merchants sent out -designs for forms and decorations of Oriental porcelain; and they did -the same for carved ebony, teak and ivory, and especially lacquer. Many -of the screens, clocks, bedsteads, cabinets, panels, tables, etc., of -the period show unmistakable signs of Oriental attempts to supply -European demands. In textiles also, especially in screen-fillings, and -other textiles used in upholstery for couches, chairs and hangings, we -frequently find views of Dutch towns and social life, indoors and -outdoors. - -The framework of large pieces of furniture was sometimes both carved on -the edges, and the flat surfaces were lacquered. Sometimes the frames of -screens were of carved rosewood (home-made), and the apertures were -filled with genuine Eastern textiles. Tables of inlaid ivory and -mother-of-pearl were also in general vogue. - -Lacquered furniture was highly prized and very costly during the days of -William of Orange, our “Dutch William.” “A grand Japan cabinet” -(probably a wardrobe) in the bedroom of a Countess in 1675 was valued at -£200 in present money. In 1698 an “Indian trunk” is listed at £35 in -money of that date. In valuations that might be perhaps multiplied -fivefold to-day in actual cash, apart from appreciation in art or -sentimental value, we find also: a pair of India cut Japan screens, £60; -a black bureau, £6; a Japan scrutoire, £60; a Japan cabinet, £35; and -India-cut Japan frame and glasses, £10 10_s._ - -We have seen from the complaint of the japanners in England that strong -attempts had been made to imitate the home demands; and considerable -success had rewarded the efforts of the artists and cabinetmakers. The -trouble was that they could not obtain the proper lacquer or “vernish” -in England, France or Holland for many years. The Dutch, holding such a -dominant position in the East Indies, practically throughout the -seventeenth century, naturally had the best chance to discover the -secret of the constitution and manufacture of the far-famed varnish. -They tried to reproduce the Oriental product of lacquer just as -persistently as they did the porcelain with delft. Good as their -imitations were, however, they could not produce a lacquer that could -compete with the Japanese any more than the English could. They used -native varnishes, therefore, and produced beautiful work which, alas! -was not destined to last. The surface soon cracked, scaled off and left -the framework decrepit and friendless,—relegated to the attic, kitchen -or wood pile. - -As Dutch enterprise led the way in imitations of Oriental wares, of -porcelain in delft, so also imitations of lacquer first found fame in -the Netherlands. A Dutchman named Huygens was famous for his japanned -work early in the eighteenth century. He was called to France, and was -probably largely instrumental in the invention or perfection of the -celebrated _Vernis Martin_. This was a species of lacquer that -beautifies many sumptuous examples of Louis Quinze furniture, and is -highly prized by collectors. - -The character of lacquered and other Oriental wares obtainable early in -the eighteenth century may be gathered from the report of an ambassador -to Pekin in 1721. Among other things he says: - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LIV.—_Interior, by Cornelis Troost._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -“The most valuable furniture of lackered ware, viz., cabinets, chairs, -tables, baskets, and other things of that sort, as also the richest -porcelain ware, come from Japan. For when the Emperor sends any person -to Japan in a public character, most of the princes and great men of the -court seldom fail to engage him to bring them some of those things at -his return.... - -“After the lackered ware of Japan, that of the province of Fokien, is -looked upon as the best; but none of it comes to Pekin because the great -lords of China oppress the merchants to a great degree and take their -goods from them upon many frivolous pretences, without leaving them the -least hopes of ever obtaining any payment. - -“They have at Pekin a people dexterous enough at lackering, but their -works fall short of those of Japan and Fokien, which may be attributed -to the difference of climate; and it is for this reason that the -lackered work made at Pekin is always much cheaper than the other. -Nevertheless, the lackered work made at Pekin infinitely exceeds any -work of that kind made in Europe.... The European merchants carry away -from Canton raw silk; damasks wrought according to draughts furnished to -them; wrought silks; lackered ware; tea, green and bohea; badians, a -seed having a taste like aniseed; canes and china-ware, made according -to models given them. - -“For the rest they carry to China from Europe, and bring back from -China, a very great variety of toys and different sorts of curiosities, -upon which they make a very considerable profit; but these are so -numerous that it is not possible to furnish a complete specification of -them.” - -During the eighteenth century Dutch and Belgian furniture, in common -with English and German, humbly submitted to the dictates of the great -French designers. The _Singerie_, _Chinoiserie_ and _Rocaille_ work of -Watteau, Boucher, Meissonnier, Oppenord, Cressent, Huet, Gillot and -others were welcomed and adapted to local tastes in the Low Countries. -Many of the most beautiful cabinets and china-closets of the _Régence_ -and _Louis Quinze_ period that are preserved in Continental museums owe -their origin to the skilled workmen of Belgium, especially of the School -of Lille. Many fine specimens of the decorative work of this period may -be seen in the Lille Museum. A typical example from Liège appears in -Fig. 46. This shows the use as an ornamental feature of the broken -curve, the auricle, a more sober descendant of the _style auriculaire_. -The use of this ornament encountered rabid opposition in Regency days in -France, England and the Low Countries, but it forced its way into favour -shoulder to shoulder with the _Chinoiserie_, _Singerie_ and _Rocaille_ -ornamentation. This double-bodied cabinet is made for the preservation -and display of delft and porcelain. Ledges at the top are also provided -for urns and jars as decorative accessories. - -It may be interesting to see what a typical china-cabinet contained at -the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1700, we note one of carved -walnut with four doors. In the lower compartment there were twenty vases -of red India ware, a porcelain vinaigrette, a cup of enamelled glass, a -little horn cup and a multitude of miscellaneous curios. Another cabinet -having two lower doors, a middle drawer and one glass door above, -contained fine delft vases, two cups and saucers, a big faïence jug and -two little ones, six big rare sea-shells and other Oriental curios. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 46.—_Cabinet from Liège._ Fig. 47.—_Dutch Mirror Frame._ -] - -Dutch art was now in its decadence; it had lost its pre-eminence. The -French artists set the fashion. The painter who is commonly held -responsible for the decadence is Gérard de Lairesse (Liège, 1641–1711). -He shows all the technique of the old school, and arranges his -compositions in accordance with the laws of Italian taste, but he is -decidedly artificial. His contemporaries and successors are feeble -imitators of the Great and Little masters, and those who have the -greatest reputations are miniaturists and still-life painters. - -For Dutch interiors we now have to go to the pastels of Cornelis Troost -(Amsterdam, 1697–1750), whose compositions gained for him the name of -the “Dutch Hogarth.” Two reproductions of interiors by this artist are -shown in Plates LIV and LV. The chairs, tables, sideboards, -candlestands, chandeliers, buffets and chimney-pieces in these pictures -in nowise differ from those used in England during the early Georgian -era. - -Dutch taste ran to heaviness and over-loading in ornamentation. During -the _Louis Quinze_ period, Schubler was more in favour in wealthy Dutch -houses, as he was in Germany, than were the French designers of a -lighter touch. - -A handsome example of Dutch carving of the early eighteenth century is -shown in the mirror frame in Fig. 47. This is of carved and gilded wood, -representing scrolls, leaves, flowers, a mascaron and a female figure -issuing from one of the scrolls. “This kind of mirror, made to be hung -upon the woodwork or tapestries of the rooms, is often of a rather heavy -and inelegant execution,” writes a critic, who referring to this special -example continues, “but in this specimen where the outlines are so -accentuated the effect is quite happy. The hooks intended for the metal -sconces in the lower part of the frame should be noticed.” - -Holland was profiting so much by her mercantile ventures and, perhaps, -unscrupulous trade dealings as to arouse bitter envy, jealousy and -animosity. The famous despatch of Canning: - - “In matters of business the fault of the Dutch - Lies in giving too little and asking too much,” - -would have been investigated a century earlier by both English and -French merchants if they could have forced their Governments’ hands. -Thus in _The Trade and Navigation of Great Britain Considered_ the -following occurs: - -“Trade with Holland: the balance paid us is thrice as much as we receive -from either Portugal or Spain. But when we consider the great number of -smuggling ships that are employed between this country and Holland, and -the supply we have from them of pepper and all other sorts of India -spice, with callicoes, muslins, India silks and romals, and other -manufactures of India, coffee, tea, China-ware, and very great -quantities of Hollands and fine lace, etc., it is apt to furnish the -thinking part of mankind with other notions.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LV.—_Interior, by Cornelis Troost._ - - RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM. -] - -The Dutch merchants were able to indulge all their artistic and -luxurious tastes in furnishing their houses. Some of them were wildly -lavish and ostentatious in interior decoration and furniture years -before the frenzied finance of the Mississippi Scheme and South Sea -Bubble, when valets became millionaires while they slept and senselessly -squandered their gains in a month. As early as 1709, in Shaw’s _Travels -Through Holland_, we read: “Glorious monuments of the excessive wealth -acquired in trade are to be seen at Mr. Tripp’s and Pinto, the rich -Jew’s houses; in this last is a room pav’d with ducatoons, or -crown-pieces, and these laid edgewise. But, indeed, the whole new Heer -Graff is fronted with houses like the palaces of princes, where -glittering guildings, exquisite paintings, rich china, screens, gold, -pearls, diamonds enchant you, and rival the apartments of monarchs in -haughty magnificence.” - -It is no exaggeration to say that the establishments of opulent -merchants of the Low Countries at this period could match and sometimes -even outshine those of princely courts. Life was very dull in Belgium at -the court of the Austrian princess who ruled the Netherlands when George -II came to the throne. Marie Elizabeth was forty-five when her brother -gave her the rule of the Low Countries in 1725. She was very pious, and -eschewed all gaiety. The only description of a festival given during her -reign is that of the _Fête de l’oiseau_ given in Brussels, October 10, -1729, on the occasion of the birth of Monseigneur le Dauphin (born -September 4, 1729), and was written by the minister from France, -Chaillon de Joinville, who arranged it, to the Marquis de Chauvelin. -After the ball they went to supper at half-past ten, and we learn that -“In the ‘_grande gallerie_’ there was a long table of ninety covers with -two large buffets at the two ends, and in the balcony of the -‘_gallerie_’ there were four trumpeters and a drummer, who played all -through supper; and there were eighteen instrumental players for the -ball.” - -The Flemish tapestries of the eighteenth century are of slight -importance, for the great workshops of the Low Countries have now fallen -into evil days. At the beginning of this century, Brussels has only -eight manufacturers, fifty-three looms and about a hundred and fifty -workmen, and by 1768 only one manufacturer is left—Jacques van der -Borcht. The last loom perishes at his death in 1794. The Oudenarde looms -are stilled for ever in 1772, and those of Ghent about the same time. - -Flemish workmen are, however, still employed at Beauvais, of which Oudry -becomes director in 1726; and their services are valued throughout -Europe. Adrian Neusse of Oudenarde, a former workman at Beauvais, -establishes a workshop at Gisors in 1703, and Jean Baert and his son one -at Cambrai in 1724. Until 1738, when Boucher takes charge of them, -Lille’s workshops are directed by Wernier of Brussels. When the first -high-warp loom was established at Madrid in 1720, the first director was -Jacques van der Goten, a tapestry-weaver of Antwerp, who aided in -founding that of Seville in the same year; and the tapestry manufactory, -founded by Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, employed workmen from -Brussels in 1777–8. - -During the eighteenth century, tapestry is put to a new use, which makes -it especially important in connexion with the study of furniture. In the -Middle Ages, we found it was a custom for the rich to throw over their -carved chairs and benches, sumptuous pieces of tapestry and other -handsome textiles; in this age we now find the weavers making covers for -the backs and seats of chairs, sofas and screens, the patterns or -pictures for which are specially designed. Throughout Europe, the -drawing-rooms are furnished with these beautiful sets of tapestry -furniture, always consisting of two sofas, armchairs and chairs. This -new fashion practically made the fortune of the Beauvais manufactory. -The most delicate pictures, artistically framed, were woven: landscapes, -scenes from _Æsop’s Fables_, pastorals, emblems, mythological stories, -baskets of fruit, baskets of flowers, garlands of flowers, bird cages, -shepherds and shepherdesses, monkeys, swings, children playing, animals, -birds, etc., etc. - -The majestic style of Le Brun gives place to the airy charm of Watteau, -Boucher and Van Loo. _The Hunts of Louis XV_, _The Adventures of Don -Quixote_, _The Gardens of Armida_, _Aurora and Cephalus_, _Venus on the -Waters_, _Venus at the Forge of Vulcan_, _Cupid and Psyche_, _Children -Playing_, _The Swing_, _Genii of the Arts_, _Endymion_, _Rustic -Festivals_, _Fortune Tellers_, _Fishing_, _Rural Amusements_, scenes -from Molière’s comedies, Indian hangings, Chinese hangings and scenes in -which monkeys appear in grotesque attitudes and costumes, supplant -heroic triumphs and religious pictures as subjects for wall decorations. - -Some of the last historical pieces that were made in Brussels were _The -Campaigns of the Duke of Marlborough_, _The History of the Duchy of -Brabant_ and _Victories of Prince Eugene_. - -The Flemings of the early eighteenth century still maintained their -ancient eminence in Decorative Art. Their weavers were still sought -after, and their craftsmen produced many pieces of carved furniture of -the _Régence_ and _Louis Quinze_ periods that are still preserved and -admired. The schools of Liège, Brussels and Lille (the latter just -across the border in France, being practically still in Belgium, as -originally it was) were famous for the high excellence of workmanship -produced. Jacques Verberckt, who was born in Antwerp and died in Paris -in 1771, was accepted at the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and -executed or planned the greatest number of decorative sculpture made -during the reign of Louis XV at Versailles. He was also employed by the -Marquise de Pompadour to decorate her _château_ of Bellevue. Verberckt -worked with a delicate touch in marble, wood, or metal. - -Brussels was an important centre of industry and art throughout the -century. Its citizens included many men of wealth who took interest in -art, science and literature. - -In his _Journey in the Year 1793 through Flanders, Brabant and Germany_, -the Rev. C. Este says: “The town is tolerably well built as to the walls -of the houses; but their windows and doors are after the manner of the -French. The lower windows are also deformed with iron bars, offensive -even beyond the eye, as implying something wrong in the place, either -from real danger, or from false fear. - -“The buildings at Bruxelles compare in one point advantageously with -Paris. For the houses having fewer floors, but three or four, generally -have but one family under one roof.... The places for a traveller to -see, if he has time, are the Archduke’s Château de Schoemburg (in the -village of Lack), and the villa of M. Walkiers the banker. They are not -half an hour’s drive from Bruxelles and close to one another; besides -the way is through the _Allée Verte_, those beautiful vistas of elms and -limes, where the canal goes to join the Scheldt.... - -“The Archduke’s _château_ is a modern building, Ionic without, -Corinthian within, with two fronts of 260 feet, the depth 150, with a -central portico at the entrance and a bow in the centre behind. The -effect of the building at a distance is gay and imposing enough; when -close to it the effect is maimed by bad figures at the top of the -building, and the pediment of the portico being filled by a clock, which -seems fit only where the character of the building is appropriate, as at -Inigo’s church at Covent Garden, to simplicity and use. The gate of -approach, loaded with bad ornaments, cupids and what not, is at once -lofty and trifling, elaborate and dull. - -“In the internal distribution the best rooms are forty feet square—a -dining-room 52 by 40—a chapel 27 by 22—and the state room a circle 54 -feet in diameter; the dome is the ceiling of the room, and midway -between the bottom and the top there is a small gallery on twelve -Corinthian pillars. The floors in the other rooms are inlaid mixture, -angular shapes of oak, mahogany and petrified cedar. In the circular -room the floor is shewy, formed of various marbles. There are five -windows, which should have five looking-glasses opposite—there are but -two, with three glass doors, but not looking-glass. The looking-glasses -are the manufacture of Venice. And these, eight feet by six, are among -the largest ever blown there. For that is the Venetian process; not by -the mould as in France and England. - -“There are few objects of art. The only pictures are four large ones by -De Lance of Antwerp. They are mythological subjects; of course, the -worst in the world. Le Roi of Namur supplied the five feet full length -of the Virgin in the chapel. It is not bad statuary, for it has, which -is very rare, thought and emotion. - -“The architect was Montoyer. He built also the Vauxhall in the park at -Bruxelles. The house was begun in 1782—it was finished in 1788. A small -temple and the pagoda, the only buildings in the garden, are also by -him.’ The pagoda has eleven floors. And there, as in Kew, it may be -considered as a well-placed trifle.... - -“The grounds the Archbishop keeps in his hands are between two and three -hundred acres. There is an artificial water, fifty _toises_ across and a -quarter of a league long—the lawn sloping down to it from the house, -with the uplands on the other side, and the fine woody hill form the -prettiest scene. - -“The adjoining villa of M. Walkiers, the banker, is another more pretty -building by Montoyer, amidst the same little fertile scenery. The -architecture is Ionic. With a _loggio_ throughout the middle floor of -one front, like an Italian villa, the ground plan of the house is about -150 feet by 50. There is a small grass plot before and behind with side -walks, through very small trees, in half a dozen strait alleys: not one -of the trees are worth five shillings. There is no gravel for the feet, -no water for the eye, and the inclosure is a flimsy two-feet hedge which -a child may either pass through or step over.” - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LVI.—_Room in the Stedelijk Museum._ -] - -The new style of ornamentation of the _Régence_ and _Louis Quinze_ -periods, with its broken curves, auricles, rococo and _rocaille_ work, -was carried to greater extremes in Germany and Holland than in France. -The school of Borromini, Oppenord and Meissonier carried everything -before it, in spite of great opposition on the part of those who clung -stubbornly to the traditions of Renaissance art. Carved panelling -adorned the walls of rooms, and ceilings, picture and mirror frames, -chairs, beds, tables, etc., all submitted to the new designs for -chisel-work. A room with furniture of the early eighteenth century is -illustrated in Plate LVI. This is in the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, -and the woodwork and painted ceiling come from an old Dutch _château_. -The chairs, with their carved frames and stretchers, were in vogue in -the last years of Louis XIV and under the Regency. The cabinet with its -graded top for the accommodation of porcelain vases is characteristic of -the period. The frames of the mirror and picture and the mantelpiece are -also fine examples of Decorative Art of the days immediately after -British soldiers used such bad language in the Low Countries. In passing -it may be noticed that Marlborough’s campaigns in the Netherlands had -considerable influence on English taste of the day and forming the -“Queen Anne” style, by familiarizing British officers with the -Decorative Arts of the United Provinces. The Peace of Utrecht (1713) -left the Netherlands free to pursue the arts of peace, which they did, -so far as internal decoration is concerned, in the wake of the foe they -had so bitterly combated. We may note here that the richly carved table -on which the Peace of Utrecht is said to have been signed is preserved -in the Antiquarian Museum of Utrecht. - -The course of Dutch and Flemish furniture during the rest of the -eighteenth century tamely follows the channels of French design. - -At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Empire style was in -vogue in Holland, as it was throughout Europe. When the Town Hall on the -Dam in Amsterdam was presented by the city to the King of Holland, Louis -Napoleon, in 1808, the Royal apartments were fitted up in the Empire -style, and these hangings and furniture may be seen to-day. A great deal -of Empire furniture is scattered through the museums of Belgium and -Holland, as well as in the castles and mansions of the nobles and -merchants who followed the fashions. A trace of the Empire style is -found in the following description of the palace of Laeken, the -residence of the royal family, near Brussels, by Robert Hill (_Sketches -in Flanders and Holland_, 1816): - -“The apartments had very little of royal magnificence about them: there -were no pictures. A few pieces of indifferent tapestry, pier glasses -economically put up in three pieces each, and tables, chairs, etc., -which might only be called handsome, made up all that I recollect of -their furniture. This palace has undergone strange vicissitudes. It was -built for an Austrian archduchess; in one of the rooms a sky blue -canopied bed was shown, which had belonged to the late Empress -Josephine, had next been occupied by Maria Louisa, and, shortly before -my visit, had been slept in by the Queen of the Netherlands.” - -Mr. Hill was not greatly impressed with the Dutch house of the middle -class. He says: - -“I saw few things about their furniture and household arrangements worth -noticing. The lower parts of their houses were commonly lined with -glazed Dutch tiles, and stoves made of the same kind of clay were as -commonly used to warm their apartments.... - -“There are two singularities about the houses of the Dutch which must -not be forgotten. The first is that every country seat from the -merchant’s domain to the little peddling tradesman’s smoking-box, though -surrounded perhaps by nothing but marshes, damps and duckweed, is almost -sure to bear on its front or over its entrance the words _Land Lust_ -(Country Delight), or _Land Zight_ (Country Prospect), _Belle Vue_, or -some other title expressive of the beauties of the situation, or the -comforts and ornaments which are to be found within. The other is that -the windows of these _Land Lusts_ and _Zights_, as well as those of -houses in the midst of towns, are generally furnished with little -looking-glasses, which, projecting from their sides, command every -passing object. These are by no means to be considered as ornamental, -but they are so placed (sometimes two or three on each side) that they -indulge the curiosity of their owners without putting them to the -expense of showing themselves in return.” - -He also notes the peculiar custom of breakfasting and dining in -bedrooms. “At the country box of one of the most respectable tradesmen -in Holland,” he writes, “I dined with his family in the principal room, -which had beds concealed behind parts of its wainscoting.” This was in -Rotterdam. He says: “At the end of this garden stood a pretty little -summer residence, among whose lower apartments was a kitchen with -furniture that displayed all the brightness and neatness for which the -culinary arrangements of the Dutch have been celebrated, and above which -was a large bay windowed room in which we dined. A natural inquiry -respecting bed-chambers was here answered by opening parts of the -wainscot, behind which were concealed canopies of the master, mistress -and their children.” - -The homes of Holland changed little during the century, and the -cottages, farmhouses and homes of the peasants may be said to have -changed not at all. Take, for instance, the fishing village of Maarken, -in the Zuyder Zee, of which Esquiros writes: - -[Illustration: - - PLATE LVII.—_In Bruitlaen, by Artz._ -] - -“Most frequently the same room serves at once as bedroom, kitchen and -storehouse for the fishing utensils. Some houses, however, have a second -and separate room, called here the saloon, in which furniture and -clothes are kept, but that is almost aristocratic luxury. The rooms -which are flush with the ground have no ceiling, and communicate with -the garret, over which the tile or thatch roof rises at right angles. -The houses are equally deficient in chimneys as a rule, but before the -principal window there is a large flat stone surrounded by a row of -bricks. A piece of iron is fastened at the back of this stone, against -which the fire is kindled. An opening in the roof allows exit to the -smoke, which, before emerging, spreads through the loft, where the nets -are dried. Only thirty houses are remarkable for possessing chimneys. -Several times a year the interior is cleaned and whitewashed. A table -surrounded by very low chairs, an old _escritoire_ loaded with pretty -china, an eight-day clock, milk tubs whose copper rings shine like gold, -produce in the houses of the island an alliance of facts rarely found -among other races, namely, of cleanliness with poverty. This taste for -china, old glass, curtains and flowered counterpanes is a delicate -feature in the Batavian character. Art sits down by the side of Misery -at the fireside, which it enlivens with a consolatory beam.” - -Plate LVII, entitled _In Bruitlaen_, by Artz, in the Rijks Museum, shows -the modern artist’s conception of a peasant room and furniture. First we -notice a large _kas_ or _armoire_, with heavy ball feet and pieces of -china arranged on the top. More china adorns the chimney-shelf, and the -chimney-piece with its valance is characteristic. The heavy carved -beams, the windows with small leaded panes decorated with coats-of-arms, -the tiled floor spread with a carpet, give an air of comfort to the -room. The chairs are of the four-backed variety, the table is square, -the stool has turned legs and stretchers, and there is a Bible on a -stand and a Friesland clock on the wall. - -The old farmhouse of which the modern traveller sees so many examples, -with its red-tiled or thatched roof visible beneath its sentinel -poplars, usually consists of a large living-room, a kitchen, a -cheese-room, a dairy, two small bedrooms in the garret, a big cow-stable -at the back, and an outside kitchen called the “baking-house.” - -A native writer says: - -“The ‘baking-house’ is often used as a living-room in summer, which is -more cheerful than the solemn apartment into which the visitor is -invariably ushered. A wide chimney lined with tiles stretches nearly -across one side of this room; but the open fire on the hearth has long -ago disappeared and given place to an ugly stove. Quaint brass -fire-irons hang behind it, and on either side is an armchair, differing -from its humbler brethren only in the possession of wooden arms. If -there is a baby in the family, it is likely to be reposing in a cradle -with green baize curtains as near as possible to the fireplace, in -defiance of all laws of health. Two or three large cupboards, sometimes -handsomely carved, always kept well polished, stand against the -whitewashed walls. One of them generally has glass doors in the upper -part; and on its shelves the family china—often of great value—is -exposed to view. Unfortunately, these heirlooms in old families have -been largely bought up by enterprising Jews. Sometimes, however, -sentiment has proved stronger than the love of money, and the farmer has -not parted with his family possessions. In a corner of the room a chintz -curtain, or sometimes a double door, shows where the big press-bed is—an -institution of pre-hygienic times which, to the peasant mind, has no -inconveniences whatever. In the middle of the room a table stands on a -carpet; and, as people take off their shoes at the door and go about in -their thick woollen stockings, neither it nor the painted floor ever -shows signs of mud. Another table stands near one of the windows, of -which there are two or three. The linen blinds so closely meet the -spotless muslin curtains, which are drawn stiffly across the lower panes -on two horizontal sticks, that a stray sunbeam can hardly make its way -into the room, even if it has been able to struggle through the thick -branches of the clipt lime-trees that adorn the front of the house. On -one of the tables a tray stands, with a hospitable array of cups and -saucers, teapot, etc., and is protected from the dust by a crochet or -muslin cover. The huge family Bible, with its huge brass clasps, has an -honourable place, often on a stand by itself. Rough woodcuts or cheap -prints, and a group of family photographs, which do not flatter the -originals, are hung on the walls. The framed and glazed sampler, worked -in wools by the farmer’s wife in her young days, usually makes a _dessus -de porte_. The alphabet is the principal part of this extraordinary work -of art; but it bears various other figures, which, on patient -investigation, appears to have some resemblance to certain birds and -flowers.” - -The country home of wealth is usually built of small, hard, -reddish-brown bricks resembling those used in the Elizabethan houses in -England. The front entrance is often embellished with a handsome -pediment and a stone _loggia_ and steps. Flower beds, canals and woods -surround the house, which has a dignified and attractive air. It is no -less so within, for many Dutch houses, both in the country and city, are -beautifully finished. The woodwork, whether of oak or mahogany, is often -exquisitely carved and highly polished, and consists of broad staircases -with ornate banisters, doors, panelled walls, mantelpieces and mirror -frames. Many of the doors and windows are decorated with carvings of -garlands of fruits, flowers and other devices, according to the period -in which the house was built. In some of the old houses the walls are -still hung with the old gilt leather of the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries. - -Suburban houses as well as country seats bear fanciful names; and on the -outskirts of The Hague, Rotterdam, Amsterdam and other large cities you -may read _Lust en Rust_ (Pleasure and Repose), _Buiten Zorg_ (Without -Care), _Myn Rust_ (My Repose), _Mon Bijou_ (My Jewel), _Rosen Lust_ -(Rose Pleasure), _Honigbij_ (Honey Bee), _Mijn Lust en Leven_ (My -Pleasure and Life), _Vriendschap en Gezelschap_ (Friendship and -Sociability), and other such names. These retreats are often covered -with creepers, and are situated in the centre of a lawn made gay with -flower beds, arbours and sometimes strange ornaments of painted clay— -gnomes trundling wheelbarrows, curious vases, windmills, etc., etc. - -The town houses and such country houses as are built on reclaimed land -are constructed on piles. They begin to build in Holland by digging to -the depth of two or three feet. This excavation soon fills with water. -Piles are then driven into the ground, and the ends are cut off evenly; -and on this level surface beams of oak are laid. The back and front of -the house are not added until long after the roof is laid on, so that -the air may pass through and dry the walls thoroughly. The houses are -lightly constructed of brick, iron or wood, with outer casings of stone -or marble, intended for show and not for solidity. At the back of the -house there is usually a little garden, to which it is necessary to -bring every year earth and gravel to replace the soil that the water has -carried away. - -Frequently the Dutch town house consists of two apartments; for land is -dear, and so are house rents in the cities. The lower apartment is -called _benedenhuis_, which comprises a cellar and the ground floor; -while the second apartment, called _bovenwoning_, is composed of the -first and second floors and a garret. Each apartment has its separate -entrance. - -The houses are deeper than they are wide, and the ordinary arrangement -consists of a drawing-room in the front, a dining-room in the back, and -a dark room in the middle. The latter is the family sitting-room, -particularly in winter evenings, for its complete isolation from the -outside protects the inhabitants from the cold air. Of late years this -middle room has become less popular, and every room in recently built -dwellings contains one or two windows. The houses are comfortable, and -are heated throughout. - -The outsides of the houses, with their cheerful white cornices on -windows and doors, ornamental roofs and large windows with Flemish -shades and adorned with blooming plants and boxes of flowers, give an -impression of comfort and prosperity. - -These homes are comfortably or luxuriously furnished, according to the -purses and tastes of the dwellers, with the ordinary modern furniture; -but every prosperous family possesses a few inherited pieces of -furniture. Nearly every home contains one _kas_, if not more, and a -small collection of porcelain, earthenware and silver. Oriental goods -from the Dutch colonies are not rare. - -One peculiarity of the Dutch home is the arrangement for storing and -washing household linen. From the moment of a little girl’s birth her -female relatives begin to collect the household linen she will have as a -portion of her dowry; and the large cupboards and presses of every -well-to-do home are stored with linen and damask. As the family washing -is done but four times a year, great hampers are used as receptacles for -the soiled linen. These are lowered by ropes from the cranes at the top -of the house, placed in the canal boats, and carried to the meadows, -where they are washed in the canals and laid on the grass. There they -are sprinkled by means of curiously shaped wooden spoons with long -handles that are dipped in the canal. The clothes, again packed in the -hampers, are carried to the house, where they are mangled. The mangle -and the napkin-press are found in every house, and the press is not -unfrequently a decorative piece of furniture. - -One of the most interesting provinces in Holland is Friesland—as yet -unspoiled by tourists and rich in old buildings, quaint villas and -picturesquely costumed inhabitants. Workum and Hindeloopen (celebrated -for its gaily-painted houses) both contain some good buildings of the -seventeenth century; while at Leeuwarden, the residence of the governors -of Friesland (of the Nassau-Dietz family, and ancestors of the reigning -house of Holland), the Frisian Museum, with its fine collection of -antiquities and porcelain, repays more than a brief visit. Here are two -rooms from Hindeloopen, correctly furnished; and many houses with -similar rooms still exist in that town. The walls of the smaller room -are encased with blue and white Dutch tiles, ornamented with Scriptural -or other subjects. The floor is laid with red and brown tiles. A cabinet -containing articles of porcelain and curious little silver ornaments -hangs upon the wall; and, hidden behind the painted woodwork, is a bed, -like a bunk in a steamer, to which access is gained by means of a small -and gaily painted ladder. The tables, chairs and other furniture are of -simple form, and are painted with bright flowers on a cream or white -background. The other room is similarly furnished, and has a number of -wax figures of men, women and children dressed in the Hindeloopen -costume. - -The Rijks Museum also contains a Hindeloopen room with characteristic -furniture. - -We may, perhaps, be permitted to quote an extract from _On Dutch -Waterways_, by G. Christopher Davies, as a vivid picture of the modern -Frisian home. - -“We crossed a tiny little bridge, over a tiny moat, passed through a -tiny and spotlessly clean yard to the back door. The front door of a -Dutch house in the country is for ornament only, and not for use, and is -rarely opened save to be cleaned and painted afresh. This house was the -most minutely clean and unique any of us had ever seen, and was a -perfect and rich museum of the wealthier side of Frisian life. In the -passage by the house door was a well, and the polish on its mahogany -cover was only exceeded by the glisten on the copper bucket, with brass -bands, and the shining brass chain which took the place of the ordinary -rope. The floor of the hall as well as the doors leading from it looked -as if they had only been painted yesterday. - -“The kitchen, the living-room on the ground floor, the hall, a passage -and a staircase were lined with Dutch tiles, those in the passage and -dark staircase and corridors being white, or with a pattern or figure of -an animal painted on them. At the foot of the stairs were hung several -wooden bowls, painted with cupids and flowers in many colours. Climbing -up the narrow staircase, we were ushered into the sacred front room, -which would rarely be used for any purpose but show. It was the museum -of the house, where a collection of antique treasures were preserved in -a place which was worthy of them. - -“The room was so jealously guarded from daylight by drawn inner and -outer blinds that we could see nothing distinctly until one shutter was -opened, and as we crept about cautiously over the highly polished oaken -floor we had an uneasy feeling that we ought to have taken our shoes -off, and, in fact, did debate in whispers whether we should do so or -not. - -“Three sides of the room were completely lined with tiles. Up to the -height of six feet or so the tiles were adorned with various Biblical -subjects, the Dutch conception of which was, in many instances, -extremely comical. Above this dado the tiles were plain white, except -that a blue bordering went round the oaken beams which supported the -roof. On the fourth side was a range of magnificent oak cabinets, with -lattice or fretwork doors, through the interstices of which the contents -were visible. These consisted of rare old china and antique silver -articles of every kind, spoons, teapots, pins, brooches, and even a -silver birdcage. - -“Many of the things were so curious that we could assign neither use nor -ornament to them, and much of the interest of the collection was lost to -us for want of some one to explain the uses of what we saw. Probably the -following paragraph, which I have just seen in a weekly newspaper, may -give the true explanation of the small size of some of the objects: The -rich Dutch burghers of old believed very much in teaching children by -means of their playthings, and used to give them elaborate dolls’ houses -furnished with utensils in solid silver that worked perfectly, and were -exact models of those in daily use in the family. There were silver -lamps and coffee pots, dishes, spice boxes and everything in miniature. -Thus the little Dutch girls were housewives from their babyhood. - -“Along the top of this rare old piece of furniture was suspended a row -of porcelain plates. About the room were curiously carved and designed -chairs and tables, some of the latter finely inlaid; and on the wall I -particularly noticed mirrors with tortoiseshell frames. The waning light -left us too little time to examine the contents of the room in detail, -but we all thought it the choicest thing of the kind we had ever seen in -public or private.” - -In a study of Dutch furniture the canal boat should not be overlooked. -More than two centuries ago an English traveller asked if there were not -more people living on the water in Holland than on the land. In that -country canals lead from town to town and village to village, and boats -perform transport service. Vegetables, fruits, flowers and dairy -produce, flour and all kinds of merchandise are transported in boats; -furniture is moved from house to house by means of the canal boats, and -passengers are also carried. - -Many families know no other home than the _trekschuyt_: cradled on the -drowsy waters the inmates grow to manhood and womanhood, and die in -these floating homes. - -The traveller in Holland never fails to be interested in the canal boats -that are constantly arriving and departing in the _grachten_ of the -large cities; but he rarely sees their interiors. The following -description by Alphonse Esquiros shows how these canal homes are -furnished, and gives us an idea of the life spent there: - -“Along nearly the whole length, which is about thirty feet, runs a box -or wooden house, frequently painted green; the roof, on which the -sailors walk to perform sundry operations, being covered with a layer of -pounded cockle shells. This house is divided into two compartments or -cabins; the larger one, situated near the prow, is common to passengers -and luggage. Here, during the winter, the worthy people, shut up as in a -box, swim along in a cloak of tobacco smoke, which relieves the tedium -of the voyage. In summer the wooden shutters are removed, and the hatch -is raised from the orifice by which the travellers descend. The second -compartment is the cabinet, called in Dutch the _roef_, which is entered -through folding doors. The second cabin is small, but fitted up with -some degree of taste. The windows, four or six in number, are glazed and -have red or white curtains, according to the season. In the centre is a -table with a copper vessel containing fire, and another smaller one to -receive cigar ash, both cleaned and polished in a manner only found in -Holland. Add to this, to complete the furniture, a mat, a looking-glass, -and, in winter for the ladies, a foot-warmer, called the _stoef_, -containing a small earthenware vessel with two or three lumps of lighted -peat in it. Along two sides of this cabin run cushioned benches, on -which the travellers sit down opposite to each other. Sometimes there -are on a shelf a few volumes belonging to the boat and forming a -floating library at the service of the studious passengers. The whole -national character is revealed in this simple and minute attention to -comfort. At the bows, the space not occupied by the cabinet is filled -with merchandise, bales, and barrels; while the poop is left to -travellers who wish to take the fresh air, and the helmsman, who steers -and smokes the while with the regularity of a steamer.... - -“On the _trekschuyten_ floats old Holland, with its language, manners -and conscientious and powerful originality. There are some -_trekschuyten_ in which you pass the night; at about six in the evening, -in the event of the master being polite (and we never met any who were -not so), he invites you to take tea. You then see a little cabinet -produced, containing cups, sugar-basin, and teapot of black earthenware, -which is not inelegant. The kettle is placed on a species of stove -covered with Chinese designs, and containing a vessel filled with -burning peat. At night the _roef_ is divided into two parts—a saloon and -a small sleeping-room, of which the curtains are raised. A common bed, -occupying the entire width of the cabin, and on which men and women -sleep honestly side by side, invites you to take your share of the -universal calm and rest of nature. This bed is composed of a mattress -and counterpane, and you lie down on it full dressed. During this period -the boat continues its noiseless voyage through the waters, which divide -in a silver furrow on either side the prow.” - -The Dutchman has always been famous for his clinging to cleanliness, -order and symmetry. Cleanliness in the house and order in the garden, -with its clipped trees and hedges of formal designs and stiff flower -beds, still persist. The Dutch house of the present day is described by -the Rev. J. Ballingal _In the North Holland Polders_ as follows: “Their -houses are as often furnished in very modern style, though the furniture -is sure to be solid and good. They have the utmost contempt for anything -sham and flimsy. In their jewellery, of which a great deal is worn, they -would never think of buying false diamonds or imitation coral. Their -houses are models of neatness and cleanliness, but there is no trace of -aesthetic feeling. Symmetry is admired above everything. Trees planted -round the house at equal distances, trimmed to an exact height, and -whitewashed to a certain height of the trunk, windows and doors to -correspond, gates freshly painted, and gravel walks without a -foot-print—that is the country ideal. There is a story of a Boer who -fancied a piano would be a handsome addition to his best room, and -having bought one and got it placed, he returned a few weeks after to -the piano warehouse. ‘Did the instrument give satisfaction?’ the dealer -anxiously inquired. Oh, yes! yes! I’ve no complaint to make, for nobody -has even touched it. What annoys us is we don’t like the look of it in -the room. It is not _symmetrisch_, so I’ve come to buy another, exactly -the same, to stand in the opposite corner.’ Such a story is credible -enough when one sees the exactly similar way in which, through a large -district, houses are built, and trees planted round them, as if every -detail were compulsory. The love of cleanliness, too, has its -extravagances, as, for instance, in the neighbourhood we speak of we -once enjoyed the comic spectacle of a man sitting astride on the ridge -of his house, with a pail slung round his neck, scrubbing away at the -tiles.” - -Holland has not escaped the present taste for the collection of -antiquities; but in that country where there is so deep a love of home, -and where the peasants guard their possessions with the same tenacity -and affection as the rich do their heirlooms, the collector is only -rewarded after long years of patient search. However, many of the -wealthy merchants and travellers, who are spending the well-earned -afternoon and evening of their lives in their country seats near Arnhem, -Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leyden, Dordrecht, Middelburg, Maestricht -and other large cities and small towns, are able to show rare and -interesting relics of the past. A house of a rich traveller will reflect -naturally enough the wanderings as well as the taste of its owner. The -spoils of Java, Dutch Guiana, the West Indies and other colonies, not to -mention those of Egypt, Spain and Italy, adorn his rooms and render his -cabinets highly interesting. - -As a rule his study and the boudoirs of his wife and daughters, his -drawing-room with its adjoining conservatory, his library and his -bedrooms are furnished in the latest French taste. The dining-room is -frequently painted in pale green, and here are displayed in the -cupboards _vitrines_, cabinets, and on the hanging shelves his family -treasures, consisting of curious and beautifully engraved glass, silver, -and choice sets and individual pieces of porcelain. If, however, as is -often the case, the owner is the collector, then he takes especial -delight in the “antique-room,” which he has fitted up in the style of a -cabinet of the seventeenth century. The general impression of this -apartment is brown, derived not only from the panelled ceiling, high -wainscot and carved chimney-piece, but from the wall hangings of leather -with its raised patterns of faded gold and the high-backed carved -furniture. - -Brightness is contributed by the array of brass, porcelain, delft, rugs, -cushions and tiled fireplace, with its fine brass andirons, bellows and -other equipments. On the ledge of the wainscot handsome jars and vases -and other specimens of porcelain and delft are symmetrically arranged, -and on the wall hang plaques and brass sconces. The room receives -additional light from old brass chandeliers. A cabinet full of curios, a -large _kas_, a Bible on a stand, a spinning-wheel, foot-warmers, pipes -and old kitchen utensils are sure to be found here; and to these -articles we may add a carved napkin-press, a mangle, an old carved board -and rolling-pin for doing up fine linen, and an ancient carved, gilded -and painted sled. - -Collecting is not confined to the individual; for the study of old -furniture and other antiquities that contribute so great an aid to the -historian in constructing the social life of the past and so great an -aid to the artist, architect and decorator, is widespread in Holland. -The great museums of the large cities contain many superb and valuable -specimens, and display them with great taste. In some cases whole rooms -have been removed from some old palace or _stadhouder’s_ house with -their original ceilings, chimney-pieces, hangings and furniture; and, -again, entire rooms have been fitted up in the characteristic style of -some province whose individual manners and customs are fast -disappearing. Many of the small towns have a collection of local -antiquities, which are, as a rule, attractively displayed; for the -members of the numerous Dutch antiquarian societies take great pride in -the history of their country. Sometimes, as in the case of the “Museum -van Kunstnyverheid” in Haarlem, the collection embraces the artistic -industries of ancient and modern times. This museum contains a -particularly fine collection of kitchen utensils and other articles and -furniture familiar to us in the pictures of Jan Steen, Maes and other -Dutch masters. - -The museums of Belgium are equally rich in old furniture, tapestries and -other treasures. - - - THE END - - - - - INDEX - - - Abbaye de Montréal, 50; - —— d’ Oignies, 25 - - Abbey of Charlieu, 50; - —— of Citeaux, 50; - —— of Clairvaux, 50; - —— of Cluny, 50; - —— of Saint Maximin, 39; - —— of Vézélay, 50 - - Abbeys of Burgundy, 50 - - Aelst, Peter van, 75 - - _Æsop’s Fables_, 305 - - Agnes Sorel, 22 - - _Aiguière_, _Aiguières_, 10, 150, 151, 166 - - Alart du Hameel, 62 - - Albert, Archduke, 135, 137; - —— and Isabella, Court of, 132 - - Aliénor of Poitiers, quoted, 43–5, 46–7 - - Alost, looms, 58 - - Amsterdam, 136, 203, 208, 215, 239, 249, 270; - ——, stores in, 237; - ——, Leonard van, 221 - - Amber, 72 - - Andirons, 129 - - Anil, 225 - - Antwerp, 23, 73, 203, 135–6; - ——, artists of, 101–3; - ——, cabinets of, 114; - ——, clavecin-makers of, 124–8; - ——, wealth of, 101 - Arabesques, 65–6, 93 - - _Arche_, 13 - - Architecture, Early Renaissance, 177–8 - - Ards, W., 51 - - Armchairs, 7 - - _Armoire_, _Armoires_, 11, 12, 13, 113–4, 204, 261 - - Arphe, Juan de, 52 - - Arras, 20, 21, 53; - —— looms, 35–6 - - Artisans, 1–3, 28, 47–8, 52, 53, 101–3 - - Artists, 28, 67–8, 95–6, 103, 106–7, 118–20 - - Artz, picture by, 313 - - Aspruck, Franz, 165 - - Asselijn, quoted, 182 - - Auricular style, 111, 166–7, 300. - _See_ _Genre auriculaire_ - - Avignon, 58 - - Avont, Peter van den, 165 - - - Babou, Philibert, 74 - - Baby’s outfit, 199–200 - - Baert, Jean, 304 - - Baerze, Jacques de, 48 - - _Bahut_, _Bahuts_, 12, 13, 66, 116, 140 - - Baldwin, Count of Flanders, 19 - - Ballingal, J., quoted, 324–5 - - Banbosa, D. 212 - - _Banc_, _Bancs_, 13–14, 140–1 - - Banderole, 94 - - _Banquiers_, 47 - - Barbé, J. B., 165 - - Bass viol, 129 - - Bataille, Colin. _See_ Bataille, Nicholas; - ——, Nicholas, 20, 37 - - Battle of Nancy, 39; - —— of Nicopolis, 36; - —— of Pavia, 79 - - Beaugrant, Guyot de, 52, 78 - - Beaumetz, John de, 48, 50 - - Beauneveu, André, 50 - - Beauvais, tapestry of, 155–6, 304–5 - - Becius, Joh., quoted, 259 - - Bed, Beds, 43, 44, 70, 108–11, 147, 150, 151, 198, 266, 312; - —— chest, 12; - ——, folding, 70; - ——, Josephine’s, 311; - ——, Mary of Burgundy’s, 56; - ——, Queen Anne’s, 274, 275, 276; - ——, panelled, 191 - ——, from Rijks Museum, 110; - —— tapestry, 56; - ——, William’s, 274 - - Bedroom, 9, 43–4,104–5. 190–1, 197–8; - ——, Marot’s, 275–6; - ——, Mary’s, 274, 275, 276 - - Bedsteads, 266 - - Beef-wood, 268 - - Béhagle, Philippe, 156 - - Bein, Heinrich van, 166 - - Belgium, buildings in, 145–6; - ——, museums of, 327 - - Benches, 7 - - Bérain, 164 - - Berent, 62 - - Berenberge, Pierre van, 51 - - Bernagie, quoted, 194 - - Bernard, Michel, 21 - - Bernard, Pierre, quoted, 99–100 - - Berruguete, 52 - - Beughem, Louis van, 68 - - Beveren, Cornelius van, 256 - - Blommaert, Georges, 156 - - Blondeel, Lancelot, 53, 79–80 - - Blyenborgh, Adrian, 257; - ——, Vrouwe van, 257–9, 259–60 - - Board and trestles, 6, 15, 141 - - Boegarden, Henry van, 51 - - Bol, F., 170 - - Bolsward, Church of, 5 - - Bonaffé, quoted, 158–9 - - Bonte, C. de, 61 - - Borromini, 131, 309 - - Borcht, Jacques van der, 304 - - Bos, Cornelius, 95, 107 - - Bosse, Abraham, 142, 147 - - Boteram, Rinaldo, 59 - - Bouche, P. P., 166 - - Boucher, 300, 304, 305 - - Boulle, A. C., 115, 271; - ——, Pierre, 115 - - Bouts, Derick, 15 - - Bouttats, Gaspard, 166 - - Brackets, 278, 279 - - Brassware, 129 - - Breda, Church of, 5 - - Breughel, Pierre, the Elder, 88; - ——, Peter, 175 - - Bride’s basket, 200; - —— crown, 200; - —— house-furnishing, 255; - —— throne, 200 - - Broederlam, M., 48 - - Broederkerk. _See_ Bolsward - - Broec, L. van den, 51 - - Bronchorst, J. G., 170 - - Bronzino, 73 - - Bruges, 25, 32, 40; - ——, looms of, 58; - ——, Palais de Justice, 79; - ——, St. Anne, 139; - ——, St. Walburge (pulpit), 138 - - Brulh, Van der, 52 - - Brussels, 20, 21, 23, 25, 32, 306; - —— looms, 57, 304; - —— museum, 198, 254; - —— school of, 306; - —— tapestries, 73, 304 - - Bruyn, Charles de, 51 - - Bry, Theodore de, 94 - - Buffet, 14–5,43; - à deux corps, 140 - - Bulteel, John, 51 - - Burgundian etiquette, 98; - —— style, the, 85–7 - - Burgundy, Dukes of, 16, 31–2, 272; - ——, House of, 31–2 - - Buten, Martin van, 165 - - Buytenweg, William, 165 - - - Cabinet, Cabinets, 11, 62, 89–90, 107, 114–5, 116, 204, 211, 226, - 238–9, 244, 245, 246, 262, 284, 300 - - Cabinet-makers, 7, 8, 13, 159, 297 - - Calin, 211 - - Cambrai, Peace of, 79 - - Cameryck, C. van, 122 - - Campen, J. van. _See_ Kampen - - Canal-boats, furniture of, 321–4 - - Candlesticks, 44–5, 60, 129 - - Canning, quoted, 302 - - Cape of Good Hope, 208 - - Carest, Josse, 125 - - Caron, 73 - - Carpenter, 8 - - Carpets, 19, 70, 243; - ——, table, 263 - - Carracks, 208–9 - - Cartoons, tapestry, 58, 59, 73, 137, 156, 157 - - Cartouche, 94 - - Carvers, 2, 5, 50–3, 122 - - Carving, Carvings, 2–6, 7, 80–3, 115, 171, 138–40, 279, 282, 301–2 - - Caryatid, 94 - - Cathedral of Antwerp, 27; - —— of Dietz, 27; - —— of Tournay, 27 - - Catherine of Braganza, 284 - - Cats, 269; - —— head, 190 - - Cavalli, M., 101 - - Cecil, 214 - - Cedar, 268 - - Ceilings from the Binnenhof, 171, 172 - - Cellini, 91, 92 - - Ceramics, 107, 116–7, 284 - - Chair, Chairs, 15, 16, 112–3, 142, 160–4, 266–7, 276–7 - - Chambre, 17; - —— de parade, 45 - - Champeaux, 86 - - Chandelier, Chandeliers, 10, 60, 129, 166, 283 - - Charles I. (England), 136; - —— II.(England), 201, 280, 284; - —— —— chair, 163; - —— V. (France), 20, 22, 26–7; - —— V. (Emperor of Germany), 65, 75, 76, 79, 87, 97, 98, 198; - —— VI. (France), 20, 22; - —— VIII.(France), 65, 68; - —— the Bold, 27, 40, 39–43, 54, 60, 61 - - Chastelain, Georges, quoted, 35–6, 38 - - Château de Schoemburg, 307 - - Chest, chests, 6, 12–13, 15, 116, 139, 256, 257; - —— bed, 12; - —— -upon-chest, 12 - - Chimney-pieces, 49, 53, 78–9, 88, 122, 170, 171, 181, 278 - - China, 216, 299; - —— mania, 281; - —— -cabinets, 285, 300; - —— -ware, 225, 239, 240, 245, 246, 247, 261, 281, 283. _See_ - Porcelain - - Chinese boudoir, 172; - —— style, 127, 305. _See_ _Chinoiserie_ - - _Chinoiserie_, 273, 300 - - Chippendale, 278 - - Choir-stalls, 3–6, 77–8, 80–3, 122, 139 - - Chronicle of St. Trond, 57 - - Claas, Alaert, 95, 96 - - Claire, Godefroid de, 6 - - Classic architecture in furniture, 140; - —— orders, 91; - —— style, 65 - - Clavecin, 124; - —— makers, 124–8 - - Clavichord, 124 - - Clays, Pierre, 88 - - Cleaning-utensils, 187 - - Clerc, G. de, 24 - - Clocks, 267, 278 - - Cluny Museum, 13, 15, 48, 66, 160, 162, 163, 261, 267 - - Coach-bed, 266 - - Cock, Jerome, 94, 102, 103 - - Cockatoo, 270 - - Cocques, 153, 250 - - Coeck of Alost, Peter, 87–8, 94, 103 - - Coffers, 66, 257 - - Colars, N., 5 - - Colima, John van, 285 - - Collaert, Adrian, 103, 121; - —— Hans, 103 - - Collan, J., 165 - - Collection of porcelain, 206–7 - - Collectors of tapestry, 20–2 - - Cologne, 28 - - Comans, Marc, 155 - - Communes, The, 1, 2 - - _Compartiment_, 93, 94 - - Comptoir, 179, 188 - - Constant, quoted, 225–6 - - Constantinople, fall of, 64 - - Cooking-utensils, 11, 151, 196, 268–9 - - Coral, 72, 174 - - Cordova, 23, 99 - - Cosmo I., 77 - - Cotgrave, 12 - - Court-cupboard, 140 - - _Court pointerie_, 17 - - Coxie, Michel, 73 - - Cradles, 198 - - Credence, 12, 14–15, 140 - - Cressent, 300 - - Crispin de Passe, the Elder. _See_ Passe, Crispin van de - - Croissy, Fouquet de, 270 - - Crusade, the First, 18 - - Crusades, 1, 7 - - Crusaders, 23 - - _Cubiculum_, 141 - - _Cuirs_, 93, 94, 103, 104, 114 - - Cupboards, 62, 256, 257–8, 260 - - Curios, 69, 71–2, 89, 114–5, 143, 204–5, 300–1 - - Curtains, 17–8 - - Cushions, 6, 13, 16, 69, 70, 71, 141 - - Custode, Dominic, 107; - ——, Raphael, 165 - - - _Daïs_, 4 - - Dale, Lucas van, 221 - - Dam, The, 145, 169 - - Damme, 19 - - Dangeau, quoted, 249 - - Daret, Jehan, 39 - - Davies, G. C., quoted, 319–21 - - Decadence, The, 107, 131, 158–9, 165; - —— of Dutch Art, 301; - ——, Flemish, 203 - - Decorations, 29, 200 - - Decorative designers, 103, 106–7, 165–6 - - D’Erembert, 25 - - Defoe, quoted, 281 - - Delft, looms, 77; - —— ware, 204, 216, 220–2, 300; - —— ware, Closett, 285; - —— ware, Mary’s, 281 - - De Parival, quoted, 185 - - Develstein, Castle of, 228, 256, 260–1, 262 - - De Vries. _See_ Vries, Hans V. de - - Dextras, The, 221 - - Dijon, 32, 47; - —— Museum, 48, 49, 51, 112; - —— Palais de Justice, 85–6; - —— St. Michel’s, 85 - - Dinant, 10, 16, 32 - - _Dinanderie_, 10–1, 129 - - _Dinantairs_, 11 - - Dixmuiden, St. Nicholas, 83 - - Dogs, 269 - - Dolls, 173, 176–7; - —— houses, 172–6 - - Don Juan of Austria, 100 - - Dordin, Jacques. _See_ Dourdain - - Dordrecht, 256; - ——, Groote Kerk, 80 - - Dou, 250, 254 - - Douay, looms, 58 - - Dourdain, Jacques, 20 - - _Dragée_, 45–6 - - _Drageoir_, 45, 46–7 - - _Dragonnades_, The, 272 - - Drawing-table, The, 111–2, 141–2 - - Dressing-cloth, 262; - —— table, 262–3 - - _Dressoir_, 9, 12, 14–5, 34, 37, 38, 40, 44, 45, 53, 105, 261, 278 - - Du Cerceau, 104; - ——, “the Dutch,” _See_ Vries, H. V. de - - Duke of Alva, 157; - —— of Anjou, 20; - —— of Berry, 20, 22, 50; - —— of Orleans, 20, 22 - - Dukes of Burgundy. _See_ Burgundy - - Dulcken, Peter van, 122 - - Dürer, Albrecht, 76, 82, 93 - - Dussen, Mrs. Lidia van der, 197–8 - - Dutch, The, 203–4; - —— Art, Decadence of, 301; - —— artisans in London, 284; - —— artists, 165, 166; - —— beds, 312; - —— carving, 301–2; - —— collectors, 325–7; - —— country houses, 315–6; - —— in the East, 215–6, 237–8; - —— farmhouses,313–5; - —— furniture, 255, 317–8; - —— homes and houses, 177–98, 188–91, 197–8, 311–2, 316–7; - —— love of home, 172–3, 182–3; - —— love of marquetry, 160; - —— love of porcelain, 238–9; - —— love of symmetry, 324–5; - —— luxury, 249, 255–6, 302–3; - —— mania for cleaning, 183–7, 194–5, 324; - —— and English marriages, 279–80; - —— navigators, 214–6; - —— ships, 215, 226; - —— taste, 204, 279, 280, 282, 284–5, 287 - - Duysbourg, H. van, 51 - - - Ear, as decorative motive, 166. _See_ Auricular style - - Earl of Pembroke, 57; - —— of Warwick, 57 - - East India Company, 270; - —— of England, 237, 284, 290 - - East, trade with the, 64 - - _Ébéniste_, 159 - - Ebn’ Abd el Noûr el Hamîri et Toûnsi, 23 - - Ebony, 7, 115, 268 - - Ecclesiastical Art, 1–6, 7; - —— hangings, 18–9 - - Edrisi, 205 - - Eeckhout, G. van der, 166 - - Eenhoorn, L., 221 - - Egmont, Counts of, 100 - - Elizabeth, Queen, 117, 125, 214; - —— Queen of Bohemia, 279 - - Embroiderers, 56 - - Embroideries, 17, 56, 69, 70, 71 - - Empire Style, The, 310 - - _Encoinçons_, 93, 104 - - Engravers, 165 - - England and Holland, relations of, 241 - - English workmen, complaints of, 288; - —— and Dutch pirates, 238 - - Entrecolles, Father d’, quoted, 223–5 - - _Escarbeau_, 16, 47, 266 - - _Escritorios de la Chine_, 211 - - Esquiros, Alphonse, quoted, 312–3, 322–4 - - Este, C., quoted, 306–9 - - Etiquette, 14, 33, 46–7, 98 - - European patterns sent to the East, 223–5, 287, 288, 290, 296–7 - - Evelyn, 249, 282, 284 - - Eycken, John van der, 62 - - - _Faerie Queen, The_, quoted, 21 - - Faïence, 91, 206, 301 - - Faldstools, 7, 16 - - Falkema, J. S., 166 - - Faydherbe, L., 136 - - Feast of the Pheasant, 33–4 - - Feltham, Owen, 183, 185, 264 - - Ferdinand of Aragon, 79 - - Ferrara, 59 - - _Fête de l’oiseau_, 303–4 - - Fictoor, Lowys, 221 - - Fire-basket, 199 - - Fireplace, 62 - - Flanders, 79, 203 - - Flemings, artistic character of the, 84–5 - - Flemish artisans, 306; - —— artisans abroad, 52, 58–9, 74–5, 85, 117–8, 155, 156, 304; - —— carvers, 50–3; - —— glass-workers, 26–7; - —— teachers, 24; - —— looms, 58, 71, 74, 76–7, 304–5 - - “Flemish Raphael,” The, 88 - - Floreins, John, 52 - - Florence, 28 - - Floris, Cornelius, 102; - ——, Francis, 88; - ——, James, 102; - —— Style, the, 102–3 - - Flowers, 200, 201 - - Folding-beds, 111; - —— tables, 112 - - Fontainebleau, 74; - —— School of, 92 - - Foot-stove, 263–4 - - Forbin, Count de, quoted, 249 - - Forms, 7 - - Fouquet, 154 - - Francis I., 74, 97 - - François de la Planche, 155 - - Francouart, 94 - - Franquart, Jacques, 137 - - French influence in Low Countries, 299–300 - - Friar Hugo, 25 - - Friesland, 318 - - Frytom, F. van, 221 - - Furnes, St. Walburge, 139 - - Furnishing, house, 255 - - Furnishings of Banquet Hall, 40–3 - - Furniture, 141–2, 244–5; - ——, canal boat, 322–4; - ——, Duchess of Burgundy’s, 43–5; - ——, Dutch painted, 319; - ——, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Century, 61–2; - —— at Hampton Court, 282–4; - ——, inlaid, 90, 107, 158–60; - ——, Italian, 90–92; - ——, Japanned, 297; - ——, lacquered, 297, 298–9; - ——, Margaret of Austria’s, 69–72; - ——, mediaeval, 2, 6–7, 7–8, 11; - —— mounts, 159; - ——, Renaissance, 83–4, 92–5, 105, 107, 108–17, 139–42; - ——, Seventeenth century, 146–52, 158–64; - —— tapestry, 304–5. _See_ Cluny, Marquetry, Rijks - - - Gaîne, 94 - - Galle, Theodore, 107 - - Galles, Phillip, 107 - - Gance, J. van den, 51 - - Gardens, Dutch, 279, 282 - - Gazoni, quoted, 99 - - _Genre auriculaire_, 111, 166–7, 300 - - Geraerts, M., 106, 107 - - Gerard, Marc, 93 - - Gerbier, B., 127 - - Ghent, 25, 32, 98; - —— tapestry, 304 - - Gheyn, Jacques de, 165 - - Giacomo d’Angelo, 59 - - Gibbons, Grinling, 279, 282 - - Gilbert, Sir John, 214 - - Gillot, 300 - - Giovanna, Francesca, 59 - - Giovanni da Udine, 73 - - Glass, 26, 117–8, 207, 246; - —— blowers, 117–8; - —— makers, 101; - ——, painted, 159; - ——, painting on, 118; - —— windows, 27 - - Glosencamp, L., 53 - - Glusomack, Henry, 48 - - Goa, 209, 210, 214, 216 - - Gobelins, 76, 154, 155, 157, 158, 272 - - Godewijck, Margaretha, quoted, 174–5; - ——, P. van, quoted, 172–3, 182–3 - - Golden Age of Tapestry, 53 - - Golden Fleece, Knights of the, 38; - ——, Order of the, 16, 39, 41, 61, 89 - - Goldsmiths, 5, 6, 61, 65; - ——, Corporation of, 25 - - Goldsmiths’ work, 24–6, 35, 37, 39, 44, 60 - - Goler, Pierre, 115 - - Goltius, Hubert, 88, 89 - - Goten, Jacques van der, 304 - - Gothic Art, 7, 67, 77–8; - —— ornamentation, 3–5, 12; - —— style, the, 62, 65, 77–8, 82–3, 105, 108, 133 - - Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, 100, 106 - - Gruuthuuse, pew, 53 - - Guadameciles, 23 - - Guicciardini, quoted, 73, 87, 101, 118–20, 123, 187 - - Guilds of St. Luke, 28, 88, 120, 124, 125, 126, 128, 220–1 - - Guionet, 26 - - - Haarlem, Groote Kerk, 82 - - Hague, The, 170, 201, 265 - - Hall, 192–3; - ——, furniture of, 15–6 - - Halles (Brussels), 51 - - Hameidan, M. van der, 156 - - Hampton Court Palace, 157, 274, 278, 280, 282–4 - - Handel, clavecin of, 128 - - Hangings, 7 - - Harpsichords, 124, 267 - - Harrewyn, J. J., 166 - - Hee, Gilles de la, 88 - - Hecker, A., 165 - - Heemskerck, M. van, 96 - - Héliot, B., 48 - - Helt-Stocade, N. de, 170 - - Hendricks, L., 165 - - Henri II., style, 83; - —— IV., 115, 154 - - Henry le Backer, 61; - —— VIII., 97 - - Hervey, John, 285–7, 295 - - Hervormde Kerk. _See_ Breda - - Heylbrouck, M., 166 - - Hessels, Gerrit (Gerritz), 94, 165 - - _Het Loo_, 170 - - Hicks, Robert, 77 - - Hill, Robert, quoted, 310–2 - - Hindeloopen, 318, 319 - - Hoevens, The van der, 221 - - “Hogarth, The Dutch,” 301 - - Holland, buildings, 145–6; - ——, jealousy of, 302. _See_ Dutch Holme, Lacy, 279 - - Holsteyn, C., 170 - - _Hoogerhuis_, room from the, 172 - - Hooghe, R. de, 165 - - Hoogstraten, S. van, 250 - - Hosemant, J., 58 - - Houbraken, A., 165 - - Hour-glasses, 268 - - House-in-the-Wood, 170 - - Houses, miniature, 173–6; - Seventeenth century, 145–6 - - Houtman, C., 215 - - Howard, Admiral, 157 - - _Huche_, _Huches_, 13, 66, 166 - - _Huchiers_, 8, 13, 38–9, 53; - —— _menuisiers_, 17 - - Huet, 300 - - Huguenot emigrants, 272, 284 - - _Huis ten Bosch_, 170 - - Hulst, John, 48 - - Huygens, 298 - - Hynart, Louis, 155 - - - Ibn Batuta, 205 - - Importations, 226, 289, 292 - - India, 205, 209, 216; - —— -houses, 281, 285 - - Inlaid furniture, 7, 90, 107, 158–160 - - Interiors of the Great and Little Masters, 250–5 - - Inventories, Dutch, 146–52, 191–2, 231–5, 241–6, 246–8, 257–61, 269 - - Isabella of Bourbon, 43; - —— of Castile, 79; - —— of Portugal, 37 - - _Isle des hermaphrodites, L’_, quoted, 159 - - Italian furniture, 90–2 - - Ivory, 7 - - - Jackenon of Nivelles, 5 - - Jane of Burgundy, 17 - - Janz, House of A. H., 188–91 - - James II., 249, 280 - - Japan, 209, 210, 226 - - Japanned furniture, 297; - —— goods, 289, 295 - - Japanners, complaint of, 289, 297 - - Jaspar, 6 - - Java mahogany, 268 - - Jehan de Bruges, 16, 59; - —— de Dinant, 11 - - Jewel-boxes, 263 - - Jewelry, 242, 243, 262 - - John of Brussels, 68 - - John III., Count of Hainault, 25 - - Johnson, Gerreit, 285 - - Joiners, 8; - —— Company, petition of, 288–9 - - Joinville, C. de, quoted, 303–4 - - Joanna the Mad, 65, 78 - - _Jouées_, 3, 4 - - - Kampen, Jacob van, 145, 165, 169, 170, 172 - - Kampen, Town-hall, 122 - - Kams, The, 221 - - Kamyn, Erasmus, 166 - - Karcher, John, 77; - ——, Nicholas, 77 - - Karel de Moor, 171 - - _Kas_, _Kasten_, 204, 244, 247, 256, 257, 260, 261 - - Keizer, Albrecht de, 221; - ——, Cornelis de, 221 - - Keldermans, M., 62; - ——, R., 78 - - Key, William, 88 - - Keyser, Hendrik de, 165, 169, 171 - - King-wood, 260, 268 - - Kitchen, 151, 189–90, 196, 268–9; - ——, Rembrandt’s, 144; - —— utensils, 11, 96, 151, 268–9 - - Koedyck, 250, 251 - - Kooge, Abraham de, 221 - - - Lacquer, 127, 211, 295–9; - —— imitation of, 298 - - Lacquered furniture, 297, 298–9 - - Laeken, Palace of, 310–1 - - Lairesse, G. de, 172, 301 - - Lame, Jahn de, 101 - - Landenspelder, John, 103 - - Lange, Jacob de, home of, 246–8 - - Launoy, 79 - - Laval, P. de, quoted, 208–11 - - Layens, M. de, 62 - - Leather hangings, 71, 153–4, 171, 172; - ——, paintings on, 3; - ——, Spanish, 267 - - Leathers, gilded. 99, 102, 133, 134, 135, 149, 150 - - Le Brun, 154, 305 - - Leeuwarden, 318 - - Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, 37 - - Le Maître à la Navette, 62 - - Leo X., 75 - - Leonardo da Vinci, 58 - - Lepautre, 272–3 - - Lerambert, 73 - - Leyden, Lucas van, 9, 93, 95, 96 - - Liefrinck, Hans, 103 - - Liège, 23, 24, 25; - ——, School of, 306; - ——, tapestry-weavers of, 57 - - Lievens, Jan, 170, 171 - - Lignum vitæ, 256 - - Lille, 23, 33, 156, 304; - —— looms, 58; - —— Museum, 300; - ——, School of, 300, 306 - - Linen, 192, 256, 257, 258, 318; - ——, paintings on, 13; - ——, printed, 6 - - Linen-fold pattern, 12, 93, 105 - - Linkerk, Peter, 48 - - Linschoten, J. H. van, quoted, 226 - - Lisbon, 99, 117, 208, 214, 215 - - _Lit en housse_, 147 - - Living-room, 189 - - Lochon, M. van, 165 - - Lodeweycke, H. 165 - - Lombard, Lambert, 88–9 - - Looms, Flemish, 16, 19 - - Louis XII., 65, 68; - —— XIII., 142; - —— Napoleon, 170, 310; - —— Quatorze Period, 270–3; - —— Quinze Period, 270, 300, 301, 306, 309 - - Louvain, St. Michael’s, 139; - ——, Town-hall, 62 - - Louvre, 115, 154, 271 - - Lower, Sir John, quoted, 201–2 - - Loyet, Gérard, 61 - - Lucidel, Nicholas, 88 - - _Luifel_, 177, 179 - - Lute, 129 - - Lutma, John, 166 - - Luxury, 32–43, 100–1, 259, 302–3 - - - Maarken, 312 - - Macé, Jean, 115 - - _Mademoiselle, La Grande_, quoted, 287–8 - - Madrid, looms, 304 - - Maes, 327 - - Maestricht, 25 - - Majolica factory, 101 - - Malaca, 209 - - Maldives, 210 - - Mantua, 59 - - Mantegna, Andrea, 58, 59 - - Mantel-piece, 283 - - Maps, Tapestry, 77 - - Marchaut, Countess of Artois, 21 - - Margaret of Austria, 47, 67–72, 78, 79, 87, 89, 97, 99; - —— of York, 40 - - Marguerite of Valois, 99–101 - - Marie Elizabeth, 303–4; - —— de Medici, 137 - - Marot, Daniel, 164, 272, 273–8, 280, 282, 287; - —— style, 267 - - Marquetry, 91, 108, 111, 112, 158–60 - - Marville, John de, 48, 49 - - Mary of Burgundy, 45, 56, 67, 79; - —— of Hungary, 97–8; - —— of Orange, 279; - ——, Queen of England, 171, 280–2, 283, 284, 285 - - Mascarons, 277, 278 - - Masters, The Great, 301; - ——, the Little, 250, 255, 301 - - Matsys, C., 103 - - Matteo del Nassaro, 73 - - Mauritshuis, The, 170, 201 - - Maurice of Nassau, Count John, 170 - - Maussel, Guillaume, 38 - - Maximilian, 79 - - Mazarin, Cardinal, 113, 115, 270, 287 - - Mechlin, 23, 78; - ——, house in, 146–52 - - Mediaeval room, 9 - - Meissonnier, 300, 309 - - Melter, J. de, 156 - - Memling, 9, 54, 58 - - Mendelslo, quoted, 225, 227 - - Mendoza, 211–2 - - Mercurius, 264 - - Metal chairs, 16; - ——, wrought, 13 - - Methwold, quoted, 226 - - Metsu, 250, 253, 254 - - Meyt, Conrad, 68–9 - - Michael Angelo, 85, 131, 132 - - Micker, James, 165 - - Middelburg, looms, 58, 77 - - Mierevelt, Gertrude van, 191–2 - - Milan, 59 - - Mindanao, Queen of, 205–6 - - Miniatures of MSS., importance of, 8 - - Mirrors, 260, 264–5, 268, 277, 283 - - _Miséricorde_, The, 3 - - Moelenere, Thierry de, House of, 88 - - Molensleyer, Godefroy den, 51; - ——, Henry den, 51 - - Monet, 11–2 - - Monkeys, 128, 135, 269–70; - —— in decoration, 128, 305. _See_ _Singerie_ - - Montagu, Lady Mary, quoted, 281 - - Montoyer, 308 - - Moonen, quoted, 238 - - Morales, A., quoted, 99 - - Moretus, 101, 137 - - Mortlake tapestry, 154, 156–7 - - Mosquito net, 71 - - Mostaert, Jean, 87 - - Mosyn, M., 166 - - Moucheron, 166, 173 - - Mounts, Furniture, 159 - - Muntink, A., 165 - - _Museaux_, 3 - - Museum van Kunstnyverheid, 327 - - Music, love of, 122–3 - - Musical instruments, 123–9 - - Musicians, list of, 123 - - - _Nachtbouquet_, 262 - - Nancy, looms, 156 - - Napkin basket, 199 - - Napolitanus, C., quoted, 178, 186–7 - - Natalis, M., 165 - - Needlework, 281. _See_ Embroiderers - - Netherland East India Company, 216 - - Netherlands, Luxury in the, 100–1 - - Neusse, A., 304 - - New Amsterdam, 241 - - New Year’s Gifts to Queen Elizabeth, 214 - - _Niello_, 25–6 - - Nieucasteel, Nicholas de, 88 - - Nispen, Van, 256–7 - - Nivelles, Church of, 5 - - Nolpe, Peter, 166 - - Northampton, Earl of, 240–1 - - Noye, Jacques van, 106; - —— Sebastian van, 106 - - Numismatics, 88, 89 - - Nutwood, 238, 247, 248, 260, 268 - - - Oak, 7, 268 - - Oesterham, Pieter, 221 - - _Old Brechtje_, quoted, 199 - - Olive-wood, 268 - - Olivier de la Marche, quoted, 32, 42–3 - - Oost, Peter van, 51 - - Oppenord, G. M., 272, 300, 309 - - Oppenordt, C. J., 271 - - _Or bazané_, 99 - - _Orfèvres._ _See_ Goldsmiths - - _Orfèvrerie_, 24–6 - - Oriental goods, 7, 209, 240, 242, 243, 244, 246, 285, 286–7 - - Orley, Bernard van, 73, 75, 76, 87 - - Ornamentation, Renaissance, 92–6 - - Ornaments, decorative, 165–6 - - Ort, A. van, 101 - - Oudenarde, 78; - ——, Hôtel de Ville, 122; - ——, looms, 58, 304 - - - Paintings, 69 - - _Palissandre_, 268 - - Palissy, 117 - - Panellings, 11, 12, 93, 105, 171, 172 - - Panelled-bed, 191 - - Pand, Le, 73 - - Pannemaker, André, 156; - ——, François, 156; - ——, William de, 76 - - _Paraclose_, The, 3, 4 - - Paris, 20, 21 - - Parrots, 269, 270 - - Passe, Crispin de, or van de, 94, 106, 107, 120–1, 142, 162, 171, 203 - - Passo, P., 101 - - Paston, John, quoted, 40 - - Pauli, André, 165 - - Patin, Charles, quoted, 249–50 - - Peacocks, 269 - - Pekin, 299 - - Penon, J. H., 38 - - Pentin, J., 61 - - Peter the Great, 304; - —— of Campana, 73 - - Pets, 134, 135, 269–70 - - Perréal, John, 67–8 - - Pewter, 191, 261 - - Pheasants, 269 - - Philibert of Savoy, 67, 68 - - Philip de Comines, 32; - —— the Bold, 20, 31, 47, 49–50, 55; - —— the Good, 33–8, 55–6; - —— (of Spain), 79; - —— II., 88, 89, 98, 100, 116, 215; - —— III., 137; - —— IV., 137 - - Pictures, 245, 247–8 - - Pietersz, Gerrit, 221; - —— Hermann, 220 - - Pietra-dura, 159 - - Pigapheta, A., 205–6, 207 - - Pilaster, 93 - - Pillow, 12 - - Pirates, 238 - - Pitsembourg, The, 146–52 - - Plantin, Christopher, 101 - - Plantin-Moretus house, 101–2 - - Pointed Style, The, 3 - - _Pommes_, 275, 276, 277 - - Porcelain, 116, 117, 177, 181–90, 191,196, 204, 205–8, 210–4, 216–20, - 222–8, 231–5, 237, 238–9, 260, 261, 285, 286–7; - ——, marks on, 228; - ——, Marot’s use of, 278; - ——, prices of, 239; - —— room, verse on, 278–9 - - Pordenone, 73 - - Portugal, trade with, 208–13 - - Portuguese navigators, 205, 208 - - Post, Pieter, 170 - - Pourbus, Peter, 80 - - Primaticcio, 73 - - _Prince Butler’s Tale_, 290–2 - - Princess Amalia of Solms, 170 - - Prindale, J. M. H. van, 48, 51 - - Printing, 64; - —— presses, 101–2 - - Pynackers, The, 221 - - - Quarré, Jean, 117 - - Queen Anne’s bed, 274, 275, 276 - - Queen Anne Style, 274, 276, 309 - - Quellin, Artus, 137–8, 165, 169, 170 - - Quillyn, Artus. _See_ Quellin - - - Rabel, Daniel, 167 - - Raephorst, B. van, 51 - - Rambouillet, Mme. de, 240 - - Raphael, 59, 91, 73, 74, 75, 91, 161 - - Rasch, A., 53 - - _Reasons, The_, quoted, 290 - - _Régence_ period, 270, 300, 306, 309 - - Regency style, 267 - - _Relai_, 11–2 - - Rembrandt, 143–4, 250; - ——, house, furniture and porcelain, 143–4 - - Renaissance, Dawn of the, 63–7; - —— in Flanders, 84; - —— furniture, 92–5, 101, 108–17, 139–42; - —— ornaments, 92–96 - - _Retables_, 48 - - Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 272 - - Reygensbergh, A., 221 - - Rheims, 17, 35 - - Rijks Museum, 61, 62, 110, 124, 129, 147, 154, 160, 162, 164, 171, 172, - 175, 250, 252, 261, 267, 313, 319 - - Richard II., 57 - - Robbia, Luca della, 91 - - Robert, Duke of Albany, 57; - —— of Sicily, 18 - - _Rocaille_, 276, 300, 309 - - Roelants, John, 62 - - _Roman_, The, 19 - - Romano, Giulio, 59, 73 - - Rooms, 134–5, 171, 172 - - Root-wood, 261, 262 - - Roovere, Sara de, 257 - - Rost, John, 77 - - Rozmital, Leo van, 33 - - Rubens, 131, 132–3, 135–7, 157–8, 203; - ——, house of, 132–4; - —— pupils of, 136, 137; - —— School of, 94 - - Ruckers, Andreas, 127–8; - ——, Andreas the Younger, 128; - ——, Christofel, 128; - ——, Hans, 125–6; - ——, Jean, 126–7 - - Rugs, 7 - - - Sablière, Marchioness de, 230 - - Sacerdan. _See_ Sacredaan - - Sacredaan-wood, 143, 189, 197, 198, 229, 255, 256, 257, 266, 268 - - Sadeler, Ægidius, 106, 107 - - Saffron-pots, 228 - - Saint-Florent of Saumur, Monastery of, 19; - —— Gertrude, Louvain, 77–8; - —— Waltrude in Herentals, altar-piece, 5 - - _Salutation angélique_, The, 9–10 - - Salviati, 73 - - Sambin, Hughes, 85–6 - - Samedo, quoted, 218–9 - - Sandom, 53 - - Sarto, A. del, 73 - - Schelden, Paul van, 78; - ——, Peter van, 78 - - Scheldein, Jean van der, 122 - - Schentz, P., 166 - - School of Fontainebleau, 92; - —— of Liège, 306; - —— of Lille, 300, 306; - —— of Rhine, 25; - —— of Rubens, 94 - - Scent-boxes, 263 - - Schubler, 301 - - Serlio, Sebastian, 74, 87, 92 - - _Serviettes_, 72 - - Settle. _See_ _Banc_ - - Shah Rukh, 205 - - Sheldon, William, 77 - - Ships, Portuguese, 208–9 - - Show-rooms, 194, 195–6 - - Sideboards, 12, 14–5, 201 - - Sidney, Henry, 239 - - Silk manufactory, Palermo, 18 - - Silver, 35, 39–40, 41, 45, 60, 150, 199, 201, 242, 243, 260–1, 269 - - _Singerie_, 270, 300. _See_ Monkeys - - Shaw’s _Travels Through Holland_, quoted, 303 - - Sluter, Nicholas, 47, 49, 50 - - Smet, Roger de, 53 - - Smout, Williken, 48 - - Smuggling, 302 - - Sopha, The, 273 - - South Kensington Museum, 24 - - Soutman, Peter, 165 - - Spanish Armada tapestry, 157; - —— chair, 160–1; - —— influence in the Netherlands, 98–9 - - Spenser, 21 - - Spierinck, Franz, 77, 157 - - Spinets, 124, 267 - - Staete, P. de, 51 - - Stavelot, 25 - - Steen, Jon, 250, 252, 253, 254, 327 - - Steen Museum, The, 88 - - Steenberch, Adam, 51 - - Stedelijk Museum, 309 - - _Stoef._ _See_ Foot-stove - - Stool, 16, 47 - - Stradan, J., beds by, 109 - - Stuarts as art connoisseurs, 249, 280 - - Style, Auricular, 111, 166–7, 300; - ——, Chinese, 127, 305 (_see_ _Chinoiserie_); - ——, Classic, 65; - ——, Empire, 310; - ——, Floris, 102–3; - ——, Gothic, 62, 65, 77–8, 82–3, 105, 108, 133; - ——, Henri II., 83; - ——, —— Louis Quatorze, 270 272; - —— Louis Quinze, 270, 300, 301, 306, 309; - ——, Marot, 267; - ——, Pointed, 3; - ——, Queen Anne, 224, 276, 309; - —— Refugié, 272–3, 284; - ——, Regency or Régence, 267; - —— Rubens, 132, 136, 142, 165; - ——, William and Mary, 274 - - Sultan Bajazet, 36–7 - - Sumptuary Laws, 288 - - Sybrandszoon, Diderik, 83 - - - Table in Utrecht Museum, 310 - - Tables, 7, 15, 111–2, 141–2, 266, 277–8; - Table-bell, 268; - —— -carpet, 263; - —— -cover, 263; - —— and trestles, 53 - - Taillebert, V., 122 - - Tapestry, Tapestries, 6, 17–8. 19–22, 36–7, 39, 44, 53–9, 69–70, 72–7, - 100–1, 154–8, 304–5. _See_ Leather. - —— weavers, 19–21, 57–9, 156–7, 304 - - _Tapisserie._ _See_ Tapestry - - Tea, 204, 226, 230; - ——, afternoon, 229–30; - —— buffet, 228; - ——, Dutch poet on, 230; - —— pots, 228; - —— room, 227–9; - —— sets, 228; - —— table, 228 - - _Tenières_, 156 - - Teniers, 156, 250, 254 - - Terburg, 250, 253 - - Terme, 94 - - Tetzel, quoted, 33 - - Textiles, 18, 292–3 - - Theophilus, 23 - - Theorbo, 129 - - Thornhill, Sir James, 276 - - Thuys, J., 166 - - Tiles, 179, 180 - - Titian, 73, 161 - - Toilet-table, 262–3 - - Tournay, 20, 21, 25, 32 - - Toys, 173–4, 176, 242, 244, 321 - - Trade with the East, 64, 207, 208, 213, 214–20, 226, 237–8, 287, - 288–92, 299; - —— _and Navigation of Great Britain Considered_, 302, 303 - - Travellers, 205; - —— in Holland, quoted, 183–7 - - _Trekschuyt_, The, 322 - - Trestles, 7, 53 - - Trèves, 39 - - Troost, Cornelis, 301 - - Trundle-bed, 266 - - Trunk, 12 - - Tulips, 204 - - Turquet, Pierre, 53 - - Turkey-work, 243 - - Tverff, J. van der, 165 - - - Unteutsch, F. 166 - - Upholstery, 234, 274 - - Utrecht Museum, 173, 310; - ——, Peace of, 310 - - - Valance, 245 - - Valenciennes, looms, 58 - - Valentin d’Arras, 59 - - Van Dyck, 157 - - Van Eycks, The, 54, 55, 58 - - Van Varick, Mrs., possessions, 241–6, 260; - ——, toys of, 176 - - Van Loo, 305 - - Varnish-tree, 296 - - Vasari, quoted, 75–6 - - Vases, 278 - - Velasquez, 161 - - Venice, 23, 27, 64, 208 - - Venetian glass, 117, 264, 265 - - Verberckt, Jacques, 306 - - Verbrugghen, Peter, 138 - - _Verdures_, 156 - - Verhagen, 221 - - Vermay, Jan, 76 - - _Vernis Martin_, 298 - - Veronese, Paul, 73 - - Verrio, 282 - - Versailles, 272, 306 - - Vestibule, 179 - - Vigarny, P., 52 - - Villain, Jehan, 61 - - Vilvorde Church, 139 - - Vinckboons, Philip, 169, 171 - - _Viol da gamba_, 129 - - Violet-wood, 268 - - Virginals, 126, 127 - - Vischer, G., 166; - - Visscher, Roemer, quoted, 264 - - Vlaenders, Jan, 51 - - Voeren, G. van der, 62 - - _Voorhuis_, The, 179, 194, 227, 257 - - _Voyeuse_, 113 - - Vriendt, Cornelius de, 102; - ——, Floris de, 102 - - Vries, Hans Vredemann de, 94, 95, 103–6, 109, 141, 142, 165, 203; - ——, Paul de, 104, 120 - - Vrij, De, 255 - - Vroom, H. C. de, 157 - - - Waydere, M. de, 78 - - Wall-cabinets, 115 - - Walnut, 84, 158, 268 - - Wars of the Roses, 64 - - Washing of linen, 318 - - Watches, 267 - - Watervliet, Van, 89 - - Watteau, 300, 305 - - Waulsort, 25 - - Waydere, M. de, 78 - - Weenix, 250, 254 - - Wernier, 304 - - Werve, Nicholas van de, 47, 50 - - Westerhem, J. de, 39 - - Westerhen, Roger, 48 - - Weyden Roger, van der, 55 - - Wilhelmina, 170 - - William III. of England, 231, 273, 279, 297; - —— and Mary Style, 274 - - Willow Plate, 287 - - Windebank, Sir F., 127 - - Window-seats, 11 - - Windows, glass, 118; - ——, painted, 181 - - Winter, Antony, 166 - - Wood-carvers, 50–3, 62; - —— -carving, 2, 6, 7, 49, 78, 122, 138, 146; - —— -work, 8, 11–2. - _See_ Panelling - - Woods, 257, 268; - ——, exotic, 158 - - Work-boxes, 263 - - Workmen, 8, 28 - - Workum, 318 - - Wren, Sir Christopher, 280, 282 - - - Ypres, 32; - ——, looms, 58; - ——, St. Martin’s, 122 - - - _Butler and Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London_ - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Did not change the word ‘jouées’ as it was used consistently. The - word ‘joues’ might be more appropriate. - 2. "In Bruitlaen" might be an English-pseudo-phonetic transcription of - "In Bruikleen" (On Loan). Did not change. - 3. Jehan/Jan/Jean Maluel/Malouel and Hennequin/Hannequin van/of/de - Prindale/Prindael are likely two separate individuals. They are - considered sometimes as the same person and sometimes as different - persons. Did not change. - 4. Did not attempt to correct any English translation errors from the - Dutch. - 5. Did not change ‘daïs’ as it is an old spelling of ‘dais’. - 6. Changed ‘Itedelijk’ to ‘Stedelijk’ on p. vii. - 7. Changed ‘Aubri de Bourguinon’ to ‘Aubri de Bourguignon’ on p. 37. - 8. Changed ‘maestra di panni de razza’ to ‘maestra di panni de arazzi’ - on p. 59. - 9. Changed ‘Turween’ to ‘Terween’ on p. 82. -10. Changed ‘Judocus Hondius’ to ‘Jodocus Hondius’ on p. 107. -11. Added ‘in’ before ‘1589’ on p. 116. -12. Changed ‘tart pannen’ to ‘taart pannen’ on p. 151. -13. Did not change the dates (1689–98) provided for Heinrich van Bein on - p. 166. Could not determine the actual lifespan. -14. Changed ‘studied with Diamonds’ to ‘studded with Diamonds’ on p. - 185. -15. Changed ‘They left the Texel’ to ‘They left Texel’ on p. 215. -16. Changed ‘household gods’ to ‘household goods’ on p. 242. -17. Silently corrected typographical errors. -18. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. -19. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. -20. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript - character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in - curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Dutch and Flemish Furniture, by Esther Singleton - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND FLEMISH FURNITURE *** - -***** This file should be named 54552-0.txt or 54552-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/5/5/54552/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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