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diff --git a/old/54562-0.txt b/old/54562-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1f6e6c4..0000000 --- a/old/54562-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3241 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. I, No. -1, September, 1909, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. I, No. 1, September, 1909 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: April 18, 2017 [EBook #54562] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE, SEPT 1909 *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Craig Kirkwood, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_), and text -enclosed by equal signs is in bold (=bold=). - -Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end. - - * * * * * - -The History Teacher’s Magazine - - Volume I. - Number 1. - - PHILADELPHIA, SEPTEMBER, 1909 - - $1.00 a year - 15 cents a copy - - * * * * * - -Announcements for 1909-1910 - -◖ The History Teacher’s Magazine is devoted to the interests of teachers -of History, Civics, and related subjects in the fields of Geography and -Economics. - -◖ It aims to bring to the teacher of these topics the latest news of his -profession. It will describe recent methods of history teaching, and -such experiments as may be tried by teachers in different parts of the -country. - -◖ It will give the results of experimentation in such form that they may -be of value to every teacher. It will keep the teacher in touch with -the recent literature of history by giving an impartial judgment upon -recent text-books. - -◖ It will give announcements of meetings of Teachers’ Associations and -accounts of their work. It will furnish personal facts when these will -be of interest to the teacher. - -◖ Its columns being open to the questions and contributions of every -history teacher, it will serve as a clearing-house of ideas and ideals -in the profession of history teaching. - -Published monthly, except July and August, by McKinley Publishing Co., -Philadelphia, Pa. - -Copyright, 1909, McKinley Publishing Co. - - * * * * * - -STRONG TEXT-BOOKS IN HISTORY - -ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY - -Edited under the supervision of ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. - - =Wolfson’s Essentials in Ancient History.= By A. M. WOLFSON, PH.D., - First Assistant in History, DeWitt Clinton High School, New York - City, =$1.50= - - =Walker’s Essentials in English History. = By A. P. WALKER, A.M., - Master in History, English High School, Boston. =$1.50= - - =Harding’s Essentials in Mediæval and Modern History.= By S. B. - HARDING, PH.D., Professor of European History, Indiana University. - =$1.50= - - =Hart’s Essentials in American History.= By A. B. HART, LL.D., - Professor of History, Harvard University. =$1.50= - -Each of these writers is a trained historical scholar, familiar -through direct personal relations with the conditions and needs of -secondary schools. Special attention is paid to social history, to the -characteristic life and standards of the people, as well as to the -movements of sovereigns and political leaders. The books are readable -and teachable, and furnish helpful maps, illustrations and pedagogical -apparatus. - -HARDING’S ESSENTIALS IN MEDIÆVAL HISTORY - -By S. B. HARDING, Ph.D., Professor of European History, Indiana -University. =$1.00= - -A book for elementary college classes which gives a general survey -of mediæval history from Charlemagne to the close of the fifteenth -century. Whatever is of little importance has been eliminated in -order to save the student’s time. The continuity of history has been -preserved from beginning to end, and the fundamental features of -mediæval life and institutions are clearly brought out. - -NEWTON AND TREAT’S OUTLINES FOR REVIEW IN HISTORY - -By C. B. NEWTON. A.B., Head of the Department of History in -Lawrenceville School, and E. B. TREAT, A.M., Master in Lawrenceville -School. Each, =$0.25= - - American History - English History - Greek History - Roman History - -Each outline brings out the subject as a whole, and makes the picture -clear-cut and vivid in the pupil’s mind. By its use the prominent -figures and the smaller details, the multitude of memories and -impressions, will be fixed and established in the proper perspective. -Brief summaries of the leading facts and events are given in -chronological order. Ease of reference is made of primary importance -throughout. - -OGG’S SOURCE BOOK OF MEDIÆVAL HISTORY - -Edited by FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG, A.M., Assistant in History, Harvard -University, and Instructor in Simmons College. =$1.50= - -A collection of documents illustrative of European life and -institutions from the German invasions to the Renaissance. Great -discrimination has been exercised in the selection and arrangement -of these sources, which are intended to be used in connection with -the study of mediæval history, either in secondary schools, or in the -earlier years of college. Throughout the controlling thought has been -to present only those selections which are of real value and of genuine -interest. This book can be used to very great advantage in connection -with Harding’s Mediæval History. - -Send for the History Section of our Descriptive Catalogue of Text-Books -for High Schools and Colleges. - -AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - -NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO BOSTON SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA - - * * * * * - -The History Teacher’s Magazine - -Published monthly, except July and August, at 5805 Germantown Ave., -Phila., Pa., by - -McKINLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY - -A. E. McKINLEY, Proprietor - -SUBSCRIPTION PRICE. One dollar a year; single copies, 15 cents each. - -POSTAGE PREPAID in United States and Mexico; for Canada, 20 cents -additional should be added to the subscription price, and to other -foreign countries in the Postal Union, 30 cents additional. - -CHANGE OF ADDRESS. Both the old and the new address must be given when -a change of address is ordered. - -ADVERTISING RATES furnished upon application. - - * * * * * - -Editors of the History Teacher’s Magazine - -=History in the College and the School=, Arthur C. Howland, Ph.D., -Assistant Professor of European History, University of Pennsylvania. - -=The Training of the History Teacher=, Norman M. Trenholme, Professor -of the Teaching of History, School of Education, University of Missouri. - -=Some Methods of Teaching History=, Fred Morrow Fling, Professor of -European History, University of Nebraska. - -=Reports from the History Field=, Walter H. Cushing, Secretary, New -England History Teachers’ Association. - -=American History in Secondary Schools=, Arthur M. Wolfson, Ph.D., -DeWitt Clinton High School, New York. - -=The Teaching of Civics in the Secondary School=, Albert H. Sanford, -State Normal School, La Crosse, Wis. - -=European History in Secondary Schools=, Daniel C. Knowlton, Ph.D., -Barringer High School, Newark, N. J. - -=English History in Secondary Schools=, C. B. Newton, Lawrenceville -School, Lawrenceville, N. J. - -=Ancient History in Secondary Schools=, William Fairley, Ph.D., -Commercial High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. - -=History in The Grades=, Armand J. Gerson, Supervising Principal, -Robert Morris Public School, Philadelphia, Pa. - -Managing Editor, Albert E. McKinley, Ph.D. - - * * * * * - - - - -The History Teacher’s Magazine - - - Volume I. - Number 1. - - PHILADELPHIA, SEPTEMBER, 1909 - - $1.00 a year - 15 cents a copy - - -THE MAGAZINE. - -Editorial comment upon the plans for the conduct of the MAGAZINE is -unnecessary. A general statement of the character of the paper will -be found on the first page of the cover, and a list of the editors -is given on the second page. Professor McLaughlin’s letter shows the -existing need, and the field which the paper should occupy. But the -best introduction to their fellow teachers of history and civics which -the editors can have, is to be found in the nature of the articles -printed in this number. It has been the aim to make these articles -stimulating, leading to higher professional standards; to make them -practical, leading to valuable suggestions for the conduct of history -classes; and to have them conduce to the formation of a stronger union, -a better _esprit de corps_, among history teachers. - - -THE HISTORY TEACHER. - -Leaving normal school, college, or graduate school, the young teacher -of history, if he or she is fortunate enough to get a chance to teach -his own subject at once, enters a high school, or small college, -where, in many cases, he is permitted to work out his own pedagogical -salvation. From alma mater he has brought a knowledge of certain -methods of history teaching practised upon him by his own instructors, -together with detailed information respecting several narrow fields -of human history. Rarely has he received in college or graduate -school any intimation of the best methods to be pursued in secondary -school history teaching. Rarely does he in his new position receive -much inspiration or advice concerning his actual class work from his -administrative superiors. - -Left to his own resources, often losing contact with his former -instructors and intellectual leaders, he may lose energy, ambition, -outlook, and become at last a dreaded teacher of a dreadful subject. - -On the other hand the young teacher, if he succeeds, keeps in contact -with the best thought in his profession, and grows as the profession -grows. He will seek the acquaintance of other and more experienced -history teachers, as a business man must be acquainted in his own line -of business; he will keep in touch with new historical works, the -latest reviews and magazines; and, if he can do it without sacrificing -his duty to his class, he will engage in some original historical work. -But best of all, he will remain a good teacher, opening the doors upon -vistas which will delight and lure the student into many an untraveled -intellectual path. - - -THE OPENING DAYS OF A HISTORY COURSE. - -There is no more important time in the whole year’s work than the -first few class exercises. In these days administrative details are to -be attended to, new students are coming in late, the weather is hot, -and the students are unaccustomed to study; all these and many other -distractions tend to prevent the smooth running of the class work. -There is a temptation to laxness both on the part of student and of -instructor; and many a good instructor’s work is made more difficult -in the next few weeks because he and his class did not begin aright. -Instead of slighting the work of these opening days, the teacher should -treat it more carefully, and plan it more definitely than any other -part of the course. - -In the first place the teacher must be sure to make a good impression -upon his class in the opening days,--a good impression not in the -purely personal sense, but in the pedagogical sense of winning respect -for his position, maintaining the dignity of his subject, and awakening -the interest of his students. Such a good impression is to be gained -not by amusing the students, nor by witty cynicisms, nor by severe -discipline alone. There must be a combination of tact and strength, of -sympathy and precision; above all there should be nothing in the dress, -attitude, or language of the teacher which will lead the students to -ridicule him. - -Secondly, the opportunity should be taken in the opening days to -impress clearly upon the class the character of the work to be required -of them. There should be a frank understanding between teacher and -scholar upon the methods of acquiring knowledge, the methods of keeping -notes, the forms of recitations, tests, and examinations, and the -occasional use of reports, maps, debates, or lectures. The teacher -should know exactly what he or she intends doing, and he should, so far -as is necessary for the proper conduct of the class, explain his plans -to the class. Better be too definite upon this point, than not to give -enough. Of course, it is not best to take out altogether the element -of surprise from the work; but this element can best be given by the -nature of the subject matter as it unfolds before the class, rather -than by sudden changes in the method of conducting the class. - -Another important topic to be considered at the beginning of the course -is the reason for the study of the chosen field of history. Of what -value is this particular story? What influence has this country had -upon the world’s history? How has this influence persisted down into -the student’s own life? The pupil’s interest should be aroused by -showing the relation of the period to be studied to the civilization -of his own nation. If the study is Grecian history, for instance, the -teacher can show the influence of Greek literature and religion upon -our own literature; the influence of Greek philosophy and science -upon the Middle Ages and ultimately upon ourselves; and the influence -of Greek art, particularly in architecture, throughout this country, -which, through its passion for Greek democracy, has copied extensively -not only Greek names of persons and places, but also all of its styles -of architecture and decoration. - -Next, the teacher should take up the geography of the country to be -studied; pointing out its situation upon the general map of the world, -its coast-lines, its rivers and mountains, its natural products, its -lines of trade and communication. In nearly all the countries he must -study there will be seen a geographical unity which can be easily -comprehended by the student. Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, Greece, the -Mediterranean world, and England all possess a geographical simplicity -which appeals to the weakest student. In the case of European history -and American history the case is somewhat complicated by the variety of -geographical conditions; but this very variety should be shown to be -one of the reasons for the subsequent splitting of Europe into separate -states, and for the variation of political and social ideals throughout -the United States. - -Lastly, before approaching his proper subject, the history teacher -should relate his chosen field of history to that of previous nations. -This work is usually done for the teacher by the text-book makers. In -English history we have chapters upon pre-historic man, the Britons, -and the Romans, before the Anglo-Saxons are reached; in ancient history -the relation of the Greeks to earlier civilizations is discussed; in -European history, the Roman Empire or Charlemagne’s Empire will be -presented; while in American history we have the great problem of the -European background. - -If the teacher has successfully thought out these several introductory -topics, and presented them well to the class, then the pupils will be -ready to enter upon their study with force and interest. They should -have acquired respect for the instructor; have become certain of what -is expected of them; have gained interest because the study touches -their own life; and have obtained the antecedent geographical and -historical knowledge necessary to a good understanding of the subject. - - - - -The Field of the Magazine - - DISCUSSED IN A LETTER FROM PROFESSOR ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN, HEAD OF - HISTORY DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO - - -Editor THE HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE: - -A magazine devoted to the interests and the problems of the history -teacher ought to be of service. We all have so much to learn, our -tasks are so perplexing and trying, that we can profit much by the -experience of others and gain something by discussion and exchange of -opinions. This is true even if we admit that all can not follow the -same route and use the same methods, and that, in history teaching, -success depends in a peculiar degree on character, aptitude, and native -skill. We are in special need of helpful discussion, because we are -still considering the elementary phases of our profession; we are not -confident of the curriculum; we have no clear common opinion as to the -purpose and end of historical instruction; we are pondering dubiously -the problems that have long since been solved for other studies in the -program. In such respects we are notably far behind the teachers of the -classics, mathematics or physics; in fact, we are probably behind the -teachers of all other subjects commonly taught in the schools, for, -despite the grumblings and complaints of the ubiquitous critic, English -itself, our former companion in unhappiness, has found a régime and a -method and is gaining in confidence and self-respect. We are further -along, it is true, than we were a decade ago; but we are far from -agreement and still further from perfection. - -I sometimes think when I grow weary of the interminable discussion -of the history curriculum that there is no need of our trying to -establish anything like uniformity, and that the safest and easiest way -is to tell every program-maker to go his own way and every teacher to -do what he likes; but I know that such despondency is weakness, that -in all probability we can reach substantial agreement, and that, until -we have a general, if incomplete, consensus concerning the sequence -of studies from kindergarten to university, we cannot discuss, as we -should, many other topics that demand consideration. We must remember, -too, when we find ourselves involved in wearying argument about the -mere framework of the curriculum, that history as an educational -subject is but a child of yesterday--or to-morrow; and that it has -to find its place and justify itself by results, in competition with -subjects like Latin, which have been taught ever since the Renaissance, -or indeed ever since flogging Orbilius applied the stimulating birch to -Horace. And so, we must be patient as well as eager and appreciate the -difficulties of our problem. - -There are so many topics pressing for immediate consideration that I am -tempted to prolong what I mean to be a brief letter into a catalogue -of our necessities; but I will allow myself only one word. There is -a wide-spread complaint that, with all the time given to history, -much more time than was commonly given ten years ago, pupils leave -the high schools with indefinite knowledge--I had almost said with -indefinite ignorance--of the subject. College teachers are perplexed -and discouraged by the frailty and inaccuracy of the students’ -attainments when the students first appear in their classes; perhaps -there is like cause for discouragement when they disappear from their -classes. The cold fact is that our boys and girls too often do not -have distinct, decided, accurate information; but have aptitude in -guessing, supposing, and approximating. The first thing, then, that we -need to consider is this: Can we make the most and get the best from -the newer methods of teaching? Can we teach students to handle books -and to think as well as remember? Can we give them the historical idea -and the historical point of view? Can we stimulate them to read and -arouse their imagination? Can we do these things, and still be sure -that this information is exact, that they have reverence for truth, and -that what they have learned is firmly fastened in their minds? If we -cannot, I fear that sooner or later we shall all slip back quickly into -the old rote method and make each day’s lesson an unalloyed grind on an -unvarying modicum of unadorned and unadorning fact; and when we do slip -back thus far, we might as well slip out of the school room altogether, -for there is no time or place in the school for history instruction -that is content with stuffing minds with dates and names. Our task, -then, is to get and to give all the educational value of history; and -experience proves that the task is a heavy one. We all hope that the -new journal will help us lift the load and carry it. - - Cordially, A. C. MCLAUGHLIN. - - - - -History in the Summer Schools - - -The summer school admittedly is organized for the benefit of teachers -who wish to gain intellectually, or advance themselves in their -profession by study in the vacation time. There are indeed in the -summer school regular students who are making up conditions, or -ambitious undergraduates seeking to shorten their course; but these are -a negligible quantity. - -Glancing through the announcements of some twenty-five of these summer -schools, located from Maine to California and from Minnesota to -Louisiana, one notices that the history courses fall into three groups. -First, and most numerous is the group containing the usual college -work in history. In many respects these courses are valuable for the -teacher-student; they ignore his official position, and treating -him impersonally, simply place him as student before the historical -material. He gains not only by virtue of the cultural value of his -study, but by the reversal of his usual position. - -In the second group of courses may be mentioned those which deal with -American local history. Professor Dodd at the University of Chicago -gives a course in the history of the South, and a seminar in the -history of Secession; Professor J. L. Couger at the University of -Illinois, gives a history of nullification; Professor W. L. Fleming, -of the University of Louisiana, gives a course in the history of -Louisiana, and Professor U. B. Phillips, at Tulane University, one in -the history of the South. There are several announcements of classes -in the Reconstruction period. The history of the West is presented -by Professor Turner at Wisconsin, and Professor F. L. Paxson at the -University of Chicago. Courses in the history of Mexico and of Spain -are given by Prof. E. A. Chavey at the University of California. - -The courses in the third group are concerned with the methods of -teaching history and civil government. The purpose of such work is well -expressed in Professor G. C. Sellery’s announcement of his course in -the University of Wisconsin: “The primary object of the course is to -lay the foundation for a method which will enable high-school teachers -to assign and pupils to prepare history work with definiteness and -effectiveness.” Broader in plan is the course of Professor George L. -Burr at Cornell, which discusses “what history is, what it is for, -what are its materials and its methods, what its relations to neighbor -studies, how to read history, how to study it, how to teach it, how -to write it.” Less of the theory and more of the practical is given -in such courses as those of Dr. James Sullivan, at Harvard; Professor -Scholz, at the University of California; Professor Trenholme, at -University of Missouri; Professor Robertson, at Indiana University; -Dr. Arthur M. Wolfson, at Tennessee, and that of Professor Fleming, at -Louisiana. - -Methods of teaching civil government are discussed by Dr. Reed, at -California; Dr. Lunt, at Harvard; Professor Woodburn, at Cornell, and -Prof. Schaper, at Minnesota. - - - - -One Use of Sources in the Teaching of History - - PROFESSOR FRED MORROW FLING, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. - - -I have been asked to write an article explaining “just how a source -book is to be used, its relation to the text-book, the kind of -information and the kind of training a careful teacher can impart -through it and the advantage it offers over the exclusive use of -secondary material.” Instead of answering the whole question and -treating of all the uses of the source book, it seemed wise to treat -but one, the most characteristic use to which the sources could be put, -namely, the critical study of sources as evidence, for the purpose of -training the pupil in the methods of historical proof. The importance -that I attach to this matter of method is due to my conception of -educational theory and of the logic of historical science. About this -broader basis upon which the teaching of history must rest, it may be -well to say a word by way of preface. - - -Method the Object Sought. - -Personally I am in hearty sympathy with the new educational theory that -attributes more importance to method than to matter. Professor Lanson, -of the University of Paris, the distinguished historian of French -literature, has given so satisfactory a formulation of the aims of -this theory in its application to secondary education that I cannot do -better than reproduce his statement.[1] - -“Now it is necessary,” he writes, “to prove that what we need to-day -is minds scientifically trained. Let us understand by this word -(scientifically) that sounds so ambitious, minds that have the taste -or the sense for the true, that carry into all their actions a serious -desire for clear and exact knowledge, that are conscious of the -difficulties and dangers that one encounters in the pursuit of or in -the elaboration of truth, that distrusting everybody, themselves as -well as others, take all the precautions indicated in each case in -order not to deceive themselves or to be deceived: these precautions -are what we call methods. _The methodical search for truth?_ There, in -a word, is what the scientific spirit means and to make it dominate -in secondary education is to subordinate all studies to the idea that -their common end, their convergent directions ought to be to fashion -minds that all their lives, in all things will know how to practice the -methodical search for truth.... In every study and exercise, the aim of -the master ought to be to develop in the minds of his pupils the sense -and the taste for truth, to cause them to note how in each subject -the truth is found or missed, to put them, finally, in possession of -a certain method or discipline appropriate to a certain object. It is -not a matter of having them learn a large number of laws or facts, -but, by well-chosen examples, to learn what a mathematical truth is -and how it is elaborated; likewise a chemical truth, a physiological -truth, an astronomical truth and a historical truth. How does each of -these truths of different orders come into existence? By what means -does it separate itself from other truths? What are the signs by which -we recognize it as truth? There is the knowledge that ought to be the -principal result of their studies. The young people ought to leave the -high school having learned well what the principal methods are by which -human knowledge is formed and to what objects, for what results, each -method is applied. They ought, on leaving school, to be trained to -do nothing without method, without a method chosen with discernment, -according to the object to be known or the end to be attained.” - -This appeals to me as the application to education of the best recent -thought in philosophy and logic. Now the interesting thing is that in -this country, where the mass of the teachers would probably reject the -theory and where supreme emphasis is being laid on the acquisition of -information as the goal of educational effort, the teachers of natural -science are doing the very thing the theory demands, namely, _teaching -methods or processes by which one can get at the truth or test what -is supposed to be the truth in natural science, and giving along -with the knowledge of these processes but a modicum of information_. -The _information_ acquired in a laboratory course is not sufficient -to justify the time given to the course. But it is not necessary to -justify it on any such ground. M. Lanson has given the theory of which -this natural science laboratory work is the application. It only -remains to become conscious of what it means, to extend the same method -to other studies and a great revolution has been wrought in education, -perhaps the greatest in the history of pedagogy. - - -The Historical Method. - -No subject would be more transformed in its teaching by the -introduction of method work than history. But what is history? What -are the materials with which the student works and what the method by -which he arrives at historical truth? What is _proof_ in historical -study? The teacher of history must be able to give an answer to these -questions, if he would do his work intelligently and effectively. - -What is history? How does it differ in its aims and methods from -natural science, from political and economic science, from sociology? -According to the new logic, the differences are fundamental. History -concerns itself with the unique evolution of man in his activities as a -social being. It deals with human potentialities in their teleological -connections. Out of past social facts it selects the unique facts -that have a value for the period that is being studied and groups -these facts in complex, evolving wholes. History does not seek for -what is common to the social facts of the past; it does not attempt to -generalize, to establish laws. It could not if it would, for it deals -with facts that have occurred but once, that will not occur again, -and a generalization assumes repetition. The natural sciences, on the -other hand, including economics, political science and sociology, deal -with substances and causal law. They select for their syntheses what -is common to a group of facts; they generalize, they aim to establish -laws, to formulate the conditions under which a thing will repeat -itself. Their ideal is the organization of reality under the point of -view of the general. There is, of course, but one reality and natural -science and history are simply two logical methods evolved by the human -mind for the purpose of organizing it that it may be comprehended. The -ends of the two methods are different, and their methods of getting at -the truth are different. The student trained in the one method is not -necessarily acquainted with the other. - - -The Historian’s Work. - -The natural science method consists of a direct study of the facts, -and, as it is not concerned with the unique as unique, it may -create situations and conditions, thus securing abundant data for -generalization. For the historian this is impossible. He studies -not the fact, as the natural scientist studies plants, animals and -chemicals in the laboratory; he has only the record of the fact, the -fact itself having gone never to return. His knowledge of the fact -will depend upon the abundance and value of the records the fact has -left behind it. Such records we call sources. Sources, then, are the -remains of man’s social activities. They fall naturally into two -groups: remains and tradition. Remains consist of objects that were -parts of the past event, and have survived the destructive action -of time; tradition embraces the impressions of the event recorded -by witnesses, and may be oral, written or pictorial in form. The -historical reconstruction, found in the narrative text, is based, in a -large majority of cases, upon written tradition. - -What is the method employed by the historian in restoring the past -from a study of the sources? In simple language what he does is -this: he selects a subject for investigation, searches for all the -sources that can throw any light upon it, criticises these sources -to determine their value and relationship, compares the affirmations -contained in them to learn what the fact was, and, finally, groups -these facts in a complex whole. It is only through an acquaintance with -this process, through the practical application of it, that the pupil -really learns what the grounds for historical belief are and is able -to distinguish between fact and fiction. No amount of reading, even -of the sources, can ever take the place of this critical training in -the historical method, just as no amount of text-book work in natural -science can ever take the place of the knowledge of method obtained -by actual work at the laboratory table. I am aware that there are -well-known teachers and even very distinguished writers of history in -this country who treat this idea of training in historical method, -even for undergraduates in colleges, as a matter not worthy of serious -consideration. Notwithstanding this opposition in high places, I am of -the opinion that the method can be taught and that it should be taught -and that in teaching it results have been obtained that are quite as -encouraging, it seems to me, as those obtained in the laboratories of -the natural sciences. Most of the arguments made against the teaching -of method in the secondary schools are quite aside from the question. -It is not to the point to emphasize the difficulties of historical -work, the impossibility of obtaining from young people results that -can be obtained only by trained investigators, or the unwisdom of -investigating subjects that have never been investigated before, -although, for my part, I can see no serious objection to this last -course. All that the sensible teacher, who knows what he is about, -expects to accomplish by the critical study of the sources is to -open the eyes of his students to the meaning of proof in history, to -create an attitude of healthy scepticism and to put into their hands -an instrument for getting at the truth that they will have occasion -to use every hour in the day. If it is worth while to acquaint the -student with the methods of the natural sciences--and I believe that it -is--it is certainly imperatively important to give him some training -in the use of proof touching the truth of things that he is constantly -concerned with, namely, the facts of social life. This position seems -so self-evident to me that I can hardly conceive it possible that a -teacher, who accepts the new theory of education and realizes the -meaning of historical method, would take any exceptions to it. It -might, however, be objected that, while the method ought to be taught, -it is not practicable to teach it. It is to this objection that the -rest of the paper will be addressed. - - -Equipment for Source Work. - -It is well to concede at the outset that historical method cannot be -taught _successfully_ by a teacher who does not know what it means -or who has never applied the method, i. e., done some research work. -But perhaps nothing would contribute more to the development of a -poorly-trained history teacher than to _oblige him to teach the method; -he would be forced to learn something about it_! It is because we have -not emphasized the method, because we have not required our candidates -for positions as teachers of history to know how to investigate--what -would we think of a teacher of chemistry who could not direct the -work in the laboratory!--that we have so much absolutely impossible -history teaching. The question is, then, can a teacher who knows what -historical proof means successfully conduct exercises in historical -method in a high school? I think there can be no doubt of it. It is -being done. - -To conduct the work successfully a source book, differing in some -respects from the majority of source books, is needed. There are two -kinds of historical facts: one class can be established by a single -source, the other--and this is the more difficult, but at the same -time the more valuable as training--can be proved to be true only -by the agreement of independent sources or witnesses. For this last -kind of work more than two sources treating of the same event are -necessary. As the most of the source books are only intended to supply -collateral reading, they contain little material that could be used -for critical exercises. My source book on Greek history contains some -such exercises, and it would be a matter of no great difficulty to -supplement the sources in any of the books by two or three extracts -dealing with the same topic. - - -Sources in the Class Room. - -Two exercises a week would be enough for intensive critical work. -The sources should, of course, be in the hands of the pupils and the -attention of the class should never be allowed to stray from the -evidence in the text. It is not necessary that the work should be -systematic at the outset or that it should be forced. It might be -introduced in a very simple and natural way by an attempt to settle -the truth of some point upon which two school texts disagree. It is -a common practice, in schools where several narratives are used, to -assign different texts to different pupils and in the recitation hour, -to compare the statements of the writers. Suppose they disagree? I once -asked a teacher who employs this method what she did in such a case. -She answered that they discussed the matter, and, if they could reach -no agreement as to which statement was correct, they dropped it. A more -pernicious practice could hardly be imagined. The class was run into a -blind alley and left there! The escape was easy enough, if the teacher -had been master of the situation. It offered an excellent point of -departure for the introduction of the study of historical method. - -The problem should have been selected by the teacher, as one easy of -solution, the trap laid and the class led into it. The texts disagree; -which states the truth? Who wrote the texts? Suppose the event treated -is from the French Revolution. How did the writers know anything about -it? What were their sources? How could we find out what actually -happened a century ago? Evidently through the records made by witnesses -of the events. Have we any such on this topic and who are they? This -question may be answered by the teacher, who might put the sources into -the hands of the pupils, or a simple problem in bibliography might be -set the class and the exercise postponed until the next meeting. Let -the pupils bring into the class the statement of at least one man who, -they assume, knew something about this event. Take up these sources -in turn. How do the pupils know that this account was really written -by this man? (Genuineness.) How do they know that the man really knew -anything about the event? (Localization.) How do they know that he -made a correct record of what he saw? (Value of the source, based -on perception and memory.) Even if the man is a good witness, does -his unsupported statement (affirmation) prove the fact? Dwell on the -possibilities of error; show that even if he wishes to tell the truth, -no man can be certain that his uncontrolled memory is not playing him -false or that he saw the thing correctly in the first place. Will the -agreement of two witnesses be sufficient to give us certainty? Show -that this is true only when the witnesses are independent of each -other. In the problem taken up by the class, are there two or more -independent witnesses? Is the fact upon which the school texts disagree -settled by the agreement of two independent witnesses? If so, why do -the texts disagree? It may be due to the fact that each writer used but -one source, and that the statement in that source was incorrect, or the -witnesses may disagree and one writer may have accepted one statement, -the other another. If the conclusions are not equally probable, try to -show on which side the weight of probability lies. Point out, further, -in conclusion, that where we are not certain as to what happened--where -the witnesses disagree--we have only probability, not certainty, and -the secondary text ought to make this clear. - - -Pupils Handling Sources. - -The work may be continued in this way, the secondary text supplying the -weekly problem, or the teacher may cut loose from the text and supply -graded problems that increase in difficulty. In the latter case, the -class should be supplied with the problem, the sources (two or three) -and such biographical data as will enable the pupils to criticise the -sources. Take each source up in turn and require written answers, with -citation of proof, to the following questionnaire: 1. Is this source -genuine? 2. Who wrote it and when and where was it written? 3. How much -of it is first-hand evidence and how much second-hand, i. e., how much -did the witness see and hear himself and how much did he get from some -other person? 4. What is the value of the source as a whole, judged -by the character of the source (speech, letter, newspaper, pamphlet, -song, poem, etc.), the personality of the witness (intellectually and -morally) and the time and place of making the records. 5. Make a note -of what the witness affirms concerning the event (interpretation.) Let -the independent criticism of the sources be followed by a comparison -of them to learn whether or not they are independent. Finally, request -the pupils to bring together under one head the affirmations of the -different witnesses on the point under investigation and endeavor to -determine by a comparison of their statements what the truth is. The -result should be formulated in writing in the shape of a definite -assertion, if the agreement of the independent witnesses justify us -in regarding the fact as certain; otherwise it should be represented -simply as probable. - - -Specific Illustration--Salamis. - -As a specific illustration, take the extracts on the battle of -Salamis given in my “Source Book of Greek History” (pp. 118-127). -Here are three sources, Æschylus’ “Persians,” Herodotus’ “History” -and Plutarch’s “Life of Themistocles,” containing almost all the -information we possess upon the portion of the battle dealt with -in the source book. The extracts are accompanied by the following -questions that should be answered in writing by the pupils and form the -foundation of the classroom exercise: “1. Compare the three accounts of -the battle of Salamis given by Æschylus, Herodotus and Plutarch, noting -in what they agree and in what they disagree. Are they independent? 2. -Which account is the most valuable, and why? 3. Point out the myths in -these accounts, i. e., things that could not have happened. 4. Make an -outline of the battle, using the sources, and write a brief narrative, -citing the sources. Where they disagree, explain why you follow one -source rather than another.” - -The answer to the first question should be given in the form of three -parallel columns containing all the single affirmations found in the -different sources, references to similar details appearing on the same -line in the different columns, thus facilitating comparison. These -columns should be followed by (1) a column containing the common -details found in all the sources, (2) a second column of details -referred to by two sources, and (3) other columns containing details -given by but one source. In going through this operation all the -pupils will have noticed that Plutarch made use of the “Persians,” -and, consequently is not independent of Æschylus. Before the questions -concerning the independence and value of the sources can be answered, -the sources must be localized. Æschylus probably fought in the battle -of Salamis and was thus an eyewitness. Note, however, the character -of this source; a play performed before the Athenian people and -presented some seven years after the event. A play does not offer a -good opportunity to describe a battle in detail; the dramatist would be -influenced by his desire to produce a work of art and to impress his -audience; he would have forgotten much in the years that had passed -since the battle. Although the record of an eyewitness, we cannot look -upon this play as the best kind of evidence. - -Herodotus was an infant, playing in the streets of Halicarnassus, -when the battle of Salamis was fought. He wrote his account nearly -fifty years later, basing it largely, almost wholly, upon oral -tradition, although it is highly probable that he was acquainted with -the “Persians” when he wrote. Nothing that Herodotus tells us here -came from personal observation, nor do we know where he obtained -his information, i. e., whether it was simply common report that he -gathered up, or whether he talked with the most reliable witnesses -of the battle. His account is less valuable than that of Æschylus -as a second-hand record, but its form--a direct, detailed prose -narrative--is more favorable to truth. - -Plutarch lived _five hundred years_ after the battle and obtained -his information about it as a reader to-day would obtain information -about the voyages of Columbus, namely, by reading what later writers -had to say about them. He was not a critical historian--neither -was Herodotus--and often based his narrative upon the poorest kind -of evidence. He refers in this extract to four of the men of whose -writings he has made use, and one of them is Æschylus. - - -Unsatisfactory Evidence. - -The evidence is not, as a whole, of a satisfactory kind; the one -_witness_ says little, and that in an unfortunate form, written seven -years after the battle; the second writer depends upon oral tradition, -reproduced when it was so old that it had become unreliable; the third -writer is five centuries removed from the event and an uncritical -compiler. How much certainty can we reach about the battle of Salamis -from such evidence as this? Possibly only the fact that the battle took -place, for it is not even certain that the Greeks won the sweeping -victory that is claimed in the “Persians.” The details of the battle -are only probable, and the degree of probability is decidedly low. This -will become very clear when the outline is made and it is realized how -much of our information comes from Herodotus’ late oral tradition. The -only safe basis of historical certainty, the agreement of independent -witnesses, is lacking here. - -After the class has written a narrative of the battle, let them compare -it with the narrative in two or three of the best school histories. -They will be somewhat surprised to learn that these accounts contain no -suggestion of the uncertainty that surrounds the history of the battle, -but describe it with all the confidence that might be displayed by a -historian of events established by a cloud of witnesses. - -It may be objected that this sort of source work will raise very -serious doubts in the pupils’ minds as to whether we know anything -with certainty about the history of the early centuries. But what if -it does? What harm has been done, if the impression is a correct one? -Is not much of our knowledge concerning the history of the Greeks -and the Romans of the most fragile character? Why attempt to conceal -it? Should not the pupils be taught by this kind of critical study -that much of what is repeated with confidence as history has hardly a -shred of valuable evidence to rest on? It is the first step toward the -attainment of the ideal that M. Lanson has so clearly and convincingly -set before us. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] Lanson, Gustave. L’université et la société moderne (Paris, 1902), -p. 97. - - - - -Ancient History in the Secondary School - - WILLIAM FAIRLEY, Ph.D., Editor. - - -Initial Problems. - -What is said in the editorial of this number on “The Opening Days of a -History Course” has a deep significance at the beginning of the work -in Ancient History. Such work normally comes in the first year of the -high school course. The pupils are fresh from the grammar schools, and -unused to the kind of work they will have to do in the high school. The -child of educated parents, from a more or less cultivated home, will -take to the work readily enough. What about some of the others, who may -ask, “Why do we have to study this stuff? We do not care about these -old people.” The writer has to confess that, owing to a visit to the -British Museum when he was about five years old, the first association -of ideas that comes to his mind when the Egyptians are mentioned is -of a lot of mummies. To many of our pupils is there not a danger that -ancient history shall seem to them like an exhibition of mummies rather -than of people who lived and moved and worked like ourselves? - -It would seem, therefore, that the wise teacher will begin, not by -plunging into a recitation on the first five or ten pages (I have -heard of thirty-five pages being assigned in a city high school), but -by being polite, and introducing the young strangers to their task -and its meaning. Tell them that they have come to the high school to -become educated people; that all educated people read a great deal; -that in their later reading they will very often come across references -to the old world peoples; with the rise and fall of their empires; -their creeds, their superstitions, the wicked things some of them -did, the good that is to be found in many of their codes. Above all, -the young student is to be taught that from these early peoples have -come directly the majority of the things that make up civilized life -of to-day; we are their debtors. The antiquity of civilization needs -to be impressed. Owing to the great mechanical advances of the time -since steam power came in to use, I find that young people are prone -to think of all the ages back of the nineteenth century as very crude -and comfortless. But they should be made to feel that in many ways -this is untrue. George Washington lived a comfortable life without -the telephone and the Pullman car. And it is a fact that, barring -the printed page and the use of gunpowder and the advantages of the -compass, a high-class Citizen of ancient Babylon, Nineveh or Memphis, -probably lived nearly as comfortably as did Washington; certainly the -men of the Roman Empire had many more conveniences and refinements than -he had. - -The young pupil, then, needs to be stimulated to his task by a wise -presentation of such facts as those cited. - - -The Dim Background. - -This great development of civilization among the peoples we are to -study, of course implies long preparatory ages of slow and bitter -struggle upward from savagery. These stages may be hinted at enough -to make the pupils reflect that there has been such a weary fight in -unrecorded days. And now our story begins in the middle and not at the -beginning of things. In our year’s work we are to take up the study of -some eight or ten of the great peoples who have helped make our modern -world what it is. We are to note what is like and what unlike our own -ways of doing things; what we owe to these bygone folk. - -Many mighty peoples are to be passed by. Why do we begin west of the -Indian peninsula, and ignore the Hindoos, the Chinese, the Japanese? -Because these peoples are out of the great stream of development. The -progressive life of to-day’s world owes little to them, if anything. -But the nations we are to take up have had a direct connection with us. -One has handed on to another the torch of progress which now burns with -electric splendor in our hands. - - -The Race Question. - -The old confident classifications of mankind into races, save for -those made by the obvious test of color, have been given up. Yet it -is wise to use the main lines of cleavage as a working basis. The -Hamitic, Semitic and Indo-European distinctions are useful as guides. -And the primacy of the last named must be taught, not as a thing whose -causes we can trace, but as a sober fact. And while there is such a -primacy I think one of the worthiest things the history teacher can -do all through his work is to emphasize the good that has come from -other races than our own. Probably every good history teacher has been -appalled by the Chauvinism of Young America. The study of history is -its best corrective. - - -The Use of Geography. - -To make these people of antiquity anything but mummies we must compare -them and their doings constantly with ourselves. We speak much of our -American resources: our broad prairies, our mighty water-powers, our -fine harbors, our majestic rivers. These largely condition our lives. -Before the coming of modern means of communication and transportation, -natural surroundings had even more to do with the destiny of nations. -The use of the map (preferably, by all means, the outline map, whether -on board or paper, so that it may be drawn on) will be an early -essential. And the study of the two great valleys, the Tigris-Euphrates -and the Nile, will be emphasized. A good subject for special report in -these connections would be a comparison of the Nile with the Hudson; of -the Tigris and Euphrates with the Mississippi and the Missouri. - - -A Few Concrete Bits of Knowledge. - -In many of our schools the whole Oriental period is merely skimmed, -with the idea of leaving simply a general impression. The demand on -time seems to render this imperative. What can we pick out from these -earlier lessons and insist on its being retained? - -The latest fashion is to regard the Babylonian or Chaldean Empire as -antedating the Egyptian. Beginning with that, then dwell on the fact -that this was a Semitic race. Relate them to the Jews of to-day, and -to Abraham, a Semite from “Ur of the Chaldees.” Place Sargon the Elder -at 3800 B.C. as marking, so we are told, the earliest verified date of -history. Coming down to 2250 B.C., we reach Hammurabi, certainly the -most interesting character of his people. Here again is a good occasion -for special report. Some of the text-books give extracts from his code. -Let one pupil find out from such extracts, or better yet, from the -school library, some of the highly moral and kindly edicts. Let another -show what trades and businesses these Babylonians had corresponding -to our own, making special note of the fact that the commercial and -business practices were highly developed. - -The essential thing about the Assyrian Empire is that it was the first -power to reach out broadly for world control and to subjugate its -neighbors. - -The Phœnicians are notable as the great traders of antiquity. Their -skill in the arts gave them something to sell, and their location -on the Mediterranean developed their powers of navigation. They -seem to have been the first over-sea colonizers. Their trade routes -and colonies would form a good report topic. By way of anticipation -note Carthage, the coming rival of Rome. And our great debt to the -Phœnicians is for the phonetic alphabet. - -Religious prejudice, or the fear of touching in public schools anything -bearing on religion should not be allowed to make us neglect the Hebrew -people. True or false, right or wrong, religion is one of the prime -forces with mankind. And here we have another Semitic race developing -as a matter of fact, regardless of any theories as to its origin, the -most sublime monotheism and the purest code of morals which the world -had yet seen. Why this should have been so is as mysterious as was the -flowering of Greece in the Periclean age. But there is the fact, and -every young student should be made familiar with it. - - -Suggestions for a Lesson on Egypt. - -What follows is simply an illustration of one method sometimes used. -The whole class is directed to read the account of Egypt. The work is -then subdivided for more minute study. Depending on the size of the -class, it is divided into topics, one of which is assigned for special -preparation to a student or a group of students. At the recitation -period ten minutes are given in which each student or group is to write -out what has been learned on the particular topic. It will probably -not be possible in a large class for each pupil to read the work thus -written. But one or two treatments of each topic may be read, and a -different set of pupils called on at some other time. Thus the work -will be participated in by all. As each topic is read criticisms and -suggestions from the class are called for; and first of all from those -who have not had that special topic; then in closing, from some student -who has written but not read on that particular field. If note-books -are used, the teacher may guide as to what shall be written down as the -summary of each topic after it is read. A variation of the foregoing -scheme is to send as many pupils as possible to the board to write -out their topics. Appoint to each writer one or two critics. Let one -criticize the English, the spelling, the punctuation (every lesson in -history may be a lesson in English); and another the facts. A sample -list of such topics for a lesson on Egypt is offered. - - 1. The Nile Valley. - - 2. The people; the one Hamitic race of prominence. - - 3. Periods of political history; the two capitals. - - 4. The government. - - 5. Classes of society. - - 6. Occupations and products. - - 7. Arts and sciences; specially architecture and sculpture. - - 8. Religion; ideas of immortality. - - 9. Decay of moral ideals. - - 10. Foreign conflicts. - - 11. Subjugation by Persia. - -With the coming into view of Media and Persia, we get our first glimpse -of a conquering Indo-European people. Their struggle to get into Europe -is foreshadowed and we are brought to the threshold of the Greek story. - - - - -The College Teaching of History - - PROFESSOR GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, OF YALE UNIVERSITY. - - -There are many things which the college teacher of history may set -before him to do: He may say, “the things most fundamental are the -facts of history,” and devote his work to thorough drill in names and -dates. He may have a keen sense of the valuable discipline of mind -and faculties to be obtained in historical study and give himself to -this. He may perhaps be under the influence of the reaction which has -begun and seems certain to continue and believe in reviving the ancient -maxim, “history is philosophy teaching by example,” seeking primarily -in his teaching to enforce lessons of statecraft and political wisdom. -More likely he may be imbued with the spirit of the generation just -closing and be disposed to insist that the only proper method of -instruction is that by which the scholar and specialist are trained. Or -he may believe that the opportunity offered him in history to impart -a broad and liberal culture is the one which he should least of all -neglect. Any of these purposes, or more than one of them at once, are -possible to the college instructor in history. His field of choice is -bewilderingly wide. Is there any one of them which is more than another -the proper object of college instruction? - -Any satisfactory answer to this question must be sought by determining -in the first place what is the proper object of the college course -itself. Such a preliminary question would be absurd had we not by -our educational reforms of the past fifty years gone far to put the -college into a place in advanced education which does not belong to -it, and in consequence to confuse all our ideas as to its natural -functions. I am not finding any fault with these reforms. They were so -necessary and have proved so valuable that they can never be called -in question. But in bringing them about, some things were done, -unnecessary and ill-advised. In consequence for one thing the duty -lies upon the next generation, as one of its most important tasks, of -restoring the college to its historical and to its logical position in -the university. For the present purpose it suffices to say that the -function of the college is general training and general preparation. -It is the one department of the university which has, and which should -have, no special object. Or it is more accurate to say that it can -be adapted at the same time to a number of different objects to meet -the needs of students whose ultimate purposes are different, and the -possibility of doing this wisely and efficiently is one of the happiest -results we have gained from the changes of the last generation. The -work of the college is fundamental to that of all the other departments -of the university, and in the normal university they should all -require and build upon it. But it should also not be forgotten that -the work of the college is not of necessity fundamental to any special -line of advanced study. The number of students in our colleges who are -not looking forward to professional or specialist work, but who are -expecting to go into various lines of commercial activity, is already -large and constantly increasing. They have no desire to follow out a -course of study whose purpose is a technical preparation, nor is such -a course well adapted for them. The demand which their presence in -the college makes is for what we may call a general preparation for -life, some knowledge of facts, some training of judgment and taste, -sympathy with a variety of intellectual interests, such broadening and -liberalizing of mind as is possible. To the instructor who teaches in -the eager atmosphere of an active university such a demand may seem -illegitimate, because it seems vague and weak. But this opinion is -proper only to the narrow specialist who cannot see beyond the limits -of his own field. The demand is perfectly legitimate; it is certain to -be increasingly heard; and it is the duty of the college to meet it. It -is to be remembered also that the best preparation for technical work -does not omit all studies which are cultural merely, just as the best -general preparation for life should embrace some training in technical -lines. - -With these considerations in mind let us ask to which of the two ways -by which the college discharges its preparatory function, technical -preparation or general preparation, the study of history is most -naturally adapted, and which of the purposes already stated as those -the instructor may have in mind is most likely to secure the desired -end. It is not easy to specify a line of professional work to which the -study of history stands in a technical relation, except that of the -history teacher, whose numbers are at present so small, in proportion -to the college as a whole, as to be almost negligible, and who perhaps -needs above all others that point of view in regard to history which a -general rather than a special training will give. Law and theology come -the nearest perhaps to having a technical need of historical study, -and yet it is also true of them that what they need of history is not -technical but general preparation. The clergyman or lawyer may need a -more permanent hold upon the facts of history than does the business -man. They are to him more an end in themselves rather than chiefly -a means for producing a result, as in the case of the other. But -preacher and business man alike need to study the same facts in the -same way each for his own purpose. It is in truth the later studies of -the professional man which serve to keep alive the facts which he and -his classmate in business once learned in the same class room. - -The proper purpose then of the study of history in the college course -is general preparation--preparation for life in general rather than for -some special line of later study which builds upon it. To accomplish -this purpose, and indeed every other, a certain amount of drill in -names and dates is indispensable. Without it every result is insecure -and all the instructor’s lessons hang in the air with no foundation to -rest upon. But the teacher who makes drill in the facts his main object -overlooks the almost universal experience that no matter how well a -body of details may once have been learned they inevitably fade out of -mind in later years unless the necessities of one’s daily occupation -keep them fresh. What remains a constant possession is the general -effect, the general impression once made by means of the details. The -teacher who makes the general his main object, drawn from and enforced -by a knowledge of the special which is for the moment clear and sound, -deals with the most abiding of educational results. - -The effectiveness of history as a means of mental discipline is so -great that the teacher is constantly tempted to make this his main -object. With one who does I have no great quarrel. I have only to -say that at best it is the choice of an inferior good and that it is -devoting oneself to what is already abundantly provided for in the -curriculum of studies. There is so much in any college course with -which discipline of the mental faculties is necessarily connected, -mathematics, elementary language studies, many of the sciences, that -it seems a flagrant waste of opportunities to use history for the same -purpose. - -Of the maxim, “history is philosophy teaching by example,” two -different things are to be said. For the scholar and investigator it is -a maxim full of danger, adding gratuitous perils to those which must -beset his way, and it should be summarily discarded. For the teacher -of history the danger is not so great, but he would be a very unusual -man who could interpret the facts of history into political lessons -for others without a very decided personal bias, or even succeed in -disguising the influence of his private convictions upon his doctrines. -It is doubtless more effective in most cases to let the facts speak for -themselves, after a presentation of them which honestly endeavors to -make them clear and to state them exactly as they are. - -The belief that graduate and undergraduate students should be taught -alike, that the best method for all is the method by which the scholar -should be formed, that there should be no distinction in the study -of history between general and special preparation, is in my opinion -one of the most pestilent heresies accompanying the changes of recent -years. It is a belief no more likely to be true because the particular -change which produced it is that by which the true university has been -created. There are certain studies in which I am ready to admit its -truth. They are, however, those studies only in which training in the -method of advance peculiar to the given subject is so necessary to an -understanding of its nature that no real knowledge is possible without -it, and their number is, I believe, decidedly less than is commonly -asserted. Assuredly history is not one of them. To acquire a knowledge -of the human past, especially if that knowledge is enriched, as it -should be, with an imaginative conception of the process of the ages, -is a large and worthy intellectual task for teacher and taught, indeed -for the lifetime of a man. To confuse it for the great mass of college -students with the effort to impart to them the method of the scholar, -which is the proper technical training of the graduate school, is, I -firmly hold, morally little short of a breach of trust. - -This is only affirming in other terms my belief in the transcendent -importance of that one of the special purposes which the teacher may -set before himself which remains, the effort to make the study of -history one that is directed to the broadening and liberalizing of the -mind. The claim which I make for history is that of all college studies -it most naturally and simply produces these results. Did instructors -in physics and chemistry realize more clearly than they seem to me to -do what they might accomplish of this sort, I should be disposed to -admit their right to dispute this claim, but for the average of college -students, as they come to us in masses, I am not now ready to allow any -other exception. If history be taught with that degree of imagination -without which no man should enter the teaching profession, it is not -difficult to open the mind of the student to two impressions. One is -of what may be called in simplest phrase the continuity of history, -meaning thereby no mechanical continuity, but an organic and living -unity--the continuous and cumulative progress of civilization which -makes us to-day not in a poetic sense, but as a bald and literal fact, -the heirs of all the ages. This needs especially to be imaginatively -presented to induce an imaginative conception of it. The other is of -the fact that somewhere in the past humanity has worked through crises -which are essentially the same as those which now confront it. It is -the especial privilege of the teacher of history to bring the mind -of the student successively into contact with almost every species -of political effort, of intellectual interest, and of moral struggle -of which the race is capable. To the great majority of minds the -optimistic inference is more natural than the pessimistic, and the -conclusion almost draws itself that endeavor is not in vain, that the -good result is in the end secure. If the student can be given in some -degree these two things, a conception not merely intellectual, but -imaginative, it may be more or less emotional, of the sweep of humanity -onward, and a calm assurance of the ultimate good, I certainly believe -he will confess that no step of his mental advancement has opened to -him so wide a horizon or brought him to so steadying a confidence in -the worth of individual effort and the final outcome of things. - -I am perfectly well aware that in this I am stating the ideal. I am not -foolish enough to believe that these results can be imparted to whole -classes, or immediately in full perhaps to anyone, nor would I claim -for every instructor the power to produce them. But though the ideal -is unattainable, I do wish to say clearly three things. One is that to -some students very much of these results, more probably than would at -first be thought possible, can be given, and to nearly all something. -Another is that history of all college studies leads to them most -directly and naturally. The third is that the teacher who labors for -them wisely and with proper balance of interest is laboring not merely -for what is likely to be most permanent, but for the highest and best -possible to him. - - - - -American History in the Secondary School - - ARTHUR M. WOLFSON, PH.D., Editor. - - -Dignity of the Course. - -American history in the secondary schools is, we feel safe in assuming, -the crown of a course extending over at least three or more years. -Students approach it after having devoted time and thought to an -elementary course in American history--possibly even a course in -English and European history--to a secondary course in some one or -more phases of European history and to a course in English history. -The teacher who undertakes to lead a class in American history in the -secondary school should, therefore, approach this subject with higher -ideals and broader purposes than he would set in any other history -course in the curriculum. Here, if ever, the teacher may hope to train -his students in the use of judgment and reasoning in the examination of -facts. - -From the beginning, the teacher should assume that his students have -a fair knowledge of the elementary facts of American and of European -history. The teacher will waste time if he attempts to teach the mere -facts of American history without attempting to relate them one to -another. American history in the secondary school should be a study of -the relations of American history to the history of the rest of the -world, and of the steady development of American political, social, and -economic institutions. What we mean by this we trust will become clear -as we go on in this work. - - -Text-Books. - -As to the methods by which these ends should be accomplished, it is our -firm conviction that each teacher can best work these out for himself. -Certain broad generalizations may, however, be of value. First, no -text-book is so perfect that it can be accepted as a complete, an -infallible guide. Of necessity, every text-book will approach the -subject from the point of view of a single individual. The teacher, at -least, should therefore be acquainted with the point of view of several -other writers on the same subject. Again, because it is designed to -meet the needs of many different minds, it will inevitably contain many -facts that the teacher will want to omit; it will omit some things that -the teacher may want to include. Finally, it will often present facts -in an order or in a way that the teacher may desire to change. For -these reasons, while we believe that a single text-book should be in -the hands of every pupil, the teacher should insist from the beginning -that the book is to be used merely as a guide, not as a Scripture, -every page and line of which is to be accepted as infallible. - -Second, both the teacher and the student, especially the teacher, -should be familiar with the most important sources of American history -and with the best secondary authorities on the period under discussion. -It will be our aim as we go along to indicate from month to month what -are generally considered as the best books in each period. - - -Periods of American History. - -With these few generalizations in mind, we may now approach the -particular subject of this article. The early history of North America -divides itself into three more or less well-defined epochs. First, -there is the period of discovery, exploration, and settlement extending -over the two centuries from the time of Columbus to the end of the -seventeenth century. Second, there is the century from 1664 to 1763 -during which the various nations which had planted colonies in North -America were struggling for dominion and supremacy on the continent. -Third, there is the period of twenty years during which the English -colonies were moving steadily, step by step, toward their complete -independence. - -Needless to say, none of these epochs is clear and distinct. Discovery, -exploration, and settlement go on far into the eighteenth century, -even into the nineteenth; colonial wars have their roots in national -differences which have their beginnings in Europe and America long -before the year 1700; and the causes for the American Revolution must -be sought in colonial institutions which were in process of development -from the day that the first Englishman landed on the continent. -Nevertheless, for purposes of class room discussion, the teacher may -safely insist upon this threefold division of colonial history. - - -The European Background. - -In the study of the first epoch, certain subdivisions again become -clear. First, it is necessary, if the student is to understand the -meaning of early American history, that he be made to comprehend the -conditions in Europe which led the Spaniard, the Frenchman and the -Englishman forth on their voyages of discovery and colonization. Far -too many teachers neglect almost entirely what Cheyney calls “The -European Background of American History.” - -Every one who has studied the history of the first voyage of Columbus -knows that this voyage was but the culmination of more than four -centuries of European commercial history. Ever since the time of the -crusades, and even before, there had gone on in Europe an extensive -trade in Asiatic wares; spices and gums, drugs, medicaments and -perfumes, diamonds, pearls, rubies and ivories, silk, cotton and woolen -fabrics had been imported in ever-increasing quantities by the Italian -towns and distributed through them from Seville to Novgorod. Then in -the fifteenth century came a time when the eastern trade routes were -closed by the conquering Turks and the nations of Western Europe were -forced in consequence to seek these luxuries by new and unaccustomed -routes. The discovery of America was not an accident, nor was Columbus -the only hero of his age--this the student should be made thoroughly to -comprehend. - -Second, a slight knowledge of the aborigines must be insisted upon. -Here, however, the teacher will need to exercise care and judgment lest -he waste time on unessential details. - -Third in order comes the geography of the new continent. The study of -the physiography of the North American continent, if properly handled, -will prove to the students a fascinating, an almost inexhaustible -subject. If properly led, boys and girls will study their maps with -even greater interest than they do their text-books. One lesson at -least the teacher should devote to the shore line, the water courses, -the gaps and mountain passes, the portages and the wood roads, else -the story of the exploration of the continent must ever remain to -the students a blind story of purposeless wanderings in a trackless -wilderness. (See Farrand “Basis of American History,” Chaps. I to IV.) - -When the student has grasped these fundamentals it will be time, and -then only, to begin to thread with him the labyrinth of voyages and -explorations which mark the first century of American history. Here -the teacher will need to exercise great ingenuity and considerable -caution. Rather a few facts well co-ordinated, than a multitude of -details without any unifying principle is the one infallible rule. -The Norsemen, for instance, one is tempted to say, may with profit -be entirely neglected. “Nothing is clearer,” say Fiske (“Discovery -of America,” I, pp. 235-254), “from a survey of the whole subject, -than that these pre-Columbus voyages were quite barren of results of -historic importance.... [That they constituted] in any legitimate sense -of the phrase, a discovery of America is simply absurd.” Columbus, De -Soto, Cortez, Coronado are really the only Spaniards whose names the -student need remember. Equally, the voyages of Verrazano, Ribault, -Cartier, Champlain, La Salle, Marquette and Joliet tell the whole tale -of French activities over a hundred and fifty years. - -Throughout this period, the teacher should keep these guiding posts -constantly before the eyes of his students: First, that the Spaniards, -when once they realized that they had discovered a new continent and -had not reached the longed for shores of Cathay, were lured farther -and farther into the heart of the continent in search of gold; second, -that, owing to the direction of their approach, they occupied the -southern and southwestern part of the continent only; third, that -their forward movement ended in the end of the sixteenth century -because of (a) their loss of naval supremacy (the Armada), (b) their -narrow internal national policy (the expulsion of the Moriscos and the -Inquisition), (c) their struggle to subdue the revolted Netherlands. - - -French Explorations. - -Of the French, it should be noted: First, that they approached the -continent from the north, entering it through the Gulf of St. Lawrence; -second, that they rapidly turned their entire attention to the search -for furs and to the conversion of the heathen Indian, “the quaint -alliance of missionary and merchant, the black-robed Jesuit and the -dealer in peltries,” as Fiske calls it (“Discovery,” II, p. 529); -third, that the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes led them farther -and farther into the continent, and consequently that the French -settlements lacked the unity and compactness which is characteristic of -the later English settlements with which they were soon to come into -hostile contact. - -Finally, of the history of this period of Spanish and French -settlements, it may be said that it is better to follow the history of -both nations down to the end of the seventeenth century before entering -upon the English and Dutch settlements. - - -English and Dutch Settlements. - -In studying the history of the English and Dutch settlements the way -will again be a way through a trackless wilderness unless the teacher -is bold enough to make a judicious selection among the many details -which must appear in every text-book, neglecting all the others and -insisting that his students obtain a clear comprehension of the two or -three leading motives which are ever present in the colonizing efforts -of both these nations. First, the student should be compelled to grasp -clearly the significance of the trading and colonizing companies which -were formed in such profusion in both England and Holland in the -end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century. -Cheyney (“European Background,” pp. 137-139), mentions seventy of -them. If teacher and student will follow carefully the activities of -these companies in America they will find a key to the history of the -founding of most of the Atlantic coast colonies. - -Second, before attempting to follow the history of the English colonies -in America, the history of the Protestant revolution in Europe must be -reviewed and the attitude of James I toward all dissenters, Protestant -and Catholic alike, must be made clear. - -These two finger posts, the trading companies and the religious -agitation in England will serve to guide many a student who might -otherwise lose his way. To attempt at this time to introduce into the -history of the colonies anything about the boundary disputes, the -attempts at colonial union, the growth of colonial institutions or even -the economic conditions which surrounded the life of the colonists is, -it seems to us, a mistake. - - -Literature of the Period. - -A word or two in closing about the literature of this period. Of -sources, here, as throughout American history, there are four -collections which are extremely valuable for use in the secondary -schools: (a) Hart’s American History Told by Contemporaries, (b) -Macdonald’s Documents of American History, (c) The American History -Leaflets, (d) The Old South Leaflets. - -Of the works of secondary authorities, those especially fitted for -use in secondary schools are (a) Thwaites, “Colonies,” (b) Fisher’s -“Colonial Era,” (c) Fiske’s “Discovery of America” and his other works -on the settlement and history of the Atlantic coast colonies, (d) -Parkman’s “Pioneers of France in America” and his other works on the -explorations of the French, (e) the earlier volumes of Harper’s “The -American Nation,” and (f) the earlier chapters of Doyle’s and Lodge’s -histories of the English colonies in America. - - - - -European History in the Secondary School - - D. C. KNOWLTON, PH.D., Editor. - - -Medieval History a Problem. - -It may be superfluous to remind the reader at the beginning of the -difficulties inherent in the presentation of medieval history. The -appreciation of this fact, however, may serve somewhat to compensate -the conscientious teacher who looks back upon his successive efforts to -present the subject with anything but a feeling of satisfaction. When -the German schoolmaster admits, as does Dr. Jaeger, after the reading -of thousands of pages in preparation for his work that “the medieval -world is essentially alien to our comprehension, and that vivid and -realistic description--the most fruitful part of our instruction--is -only possible here to a very moderate extent,[2]” the teacher on -this side of the Atlantic has no reason to feel chagrined over his -own failures. On the contrary he can approach his task with the -satisfaction which comes from the feeling that he is assisting others -in the solution of a most difficult problem. It must also be remembered -that the German teacher has this advantage--of which he makes full -use--that he is presenting the middle ages as the American teacher -presents the colonial period, to furnish a background for the proper -understanding of his own history. - - -Medieval Culture. - -The middle ages do not require the elaborate, detailed treatment of -later periods; and yet it must be admitted that much time will often -be consumed in securing anything like an intelligent comprehension of -the rudiments or elements of the subject. The period may be approached -from many points of view. Possibly the most fruitful are the culture -side and the idealistic side. It is indeed possible to combine these -two ideas. So much of our literature pictures medieval society, -especially as it has to do with the castle and the monastery, that the -first phase cannot fail to prove attractive. Dr. Jaeger further points -out that the men of this period, intellectually so narrow minded, so -uncultured and so limited, would go to any extreme, sacrificing their -personal comfort, aye, even their lives in their devotion to an idea. -At one extreme stands the warrior, at the other the monk, and yet how -much they resemble each other. The monk penetrates the forests of -Germany and braves unknown dangers in his devotion to mother church; -the crusader, no less of a devotee, lays down his life under a foreign -sky, far removed from home and friends. There is then much that is -attractive in the period if we follow it with this second thought in -mind. Although these men were living embodiments of ideas which may -be “alien to our comprehension,” their very ardor and enthusiasm -become contagious, once the teacher catches a little of the spirit -which animated them. Around some of these great personalities, too, -can be woven much of the life of the times. A Charlemagne not only -becomes the embodiment of the imperial idea, but behind him looms the -shadowy outlines of the imperial system; a Richard I suggests the -castle, the tournament, the flower of chivalry, the knight-errant; -finally a Gregory VII becomes the incarnation of a great ecclesiastical -hierarchy, more terrible with its anathemas maranathas than the -bloodiest battlefields. The culture phase is admirably presented in -the recent text-books, _e. g._, in Robinson, Munro, West, Harding, and -Myers. When once the teacher becomes saturated with the life and habits -of thought of these times, it will not prove such a difficult task -to point out and emphasize the ideals of the men of the period, many -of which should enter into the warp and woof of American character. -In this connection the teacher will find Professor Emerton’s address -before the New England History Teachers’ Association on the Teaching of -Mediæval History in the Schools most helpful and inspiring.[3] - - -The Old Empire and the New. - -The discussion for the first few weeks of the course must of necessity -center largely about the new field upon which history is in the process -of making, the empire of Charlemagne, its disruption as the result of -its own inherent weaknesses and the renewed attacks of the barbarians -and the growth of feudalism as a partial result of these and other -forces which have been at work in the Europe of the early middle ages. - -Three points will call for special emphasis: the field, the essential -forces at work in this field, and the people who are responsible for -their development. The student can best realize conditions in 800 -A.D. by contrasting this new empire with the old Roman empire with -which he is already familiar. Two maps might be made, one of the Roman -empire at its greatest extent, the other of Charlemagne’s possessions, -showing its Slavic neighbors on the east and its Saracenic on the -south. The student should then grasp the fact that for the next five -hundred years, with the exception of tiny England, the history of -European progress is circumscribed by the narrow limits of this new -empire, which although including portions of the old, has transferred -the center of interest to the plains of central Europe. To the east -and southeast are the Slavs and the remains of the eastern half of the -Roman empire, which having played its part in history, remains merely -as the storehouse of the intellectual, literary and artistic treasures -of the remote past; to the south are the Saracens who one hundred years -before had threatened to place the crescent above the cross, but were -beaten back upon the sunny plains of France. - -Out of this empire are to emerge the France, Germany and Italy of the -distant future. Spain is not to be rescued from her infidel conquerors -until a new and far distant era dawns, that of Columbus, Cortez and -Pizarro. Christendom, as it is known will have no interests beyond -these confines except as it is obliged to beat off the daring Northmen -or to admit them as unwelcome guests; or as it forces its way eastward -throwing out its outposts to check the Slavic tide moving westward; -or as its enthusiasm is kindled by mother church to undertake the -rescue of Palestine from heathen hands; or as the zeal of its traders, -who even at this early date begin to long for new fields to conquer, -stimulates them to open communication with the strange and distant East. - -The two great forces at work are the two ideas of a universal church -and a universal empire. The rise of the Christian church, its relations -with Rome and the German invaders might profitably be reviewed here, -especially its connection with the founding of this new empire, which -differs from the old in its dependence on and union with the papal -power. These are the ideals which men set before them; this will o’ the -wisp of universal dominion was destined to lead many a man to his own -ruin and that of the power upon which he relied to attain his end. - - -Charlemagne. - -The personality of Charlemagne, so naïvely portrayed by Einhard, -his desire not only to conquer but to serve the higher ideal of -establishing a Christian state, cannot fail to attract the student, -especially if the teacher emphasizes the fact that he was the hero -par excellence of the middle ages. Ample material for a study of his -arrangements can be found in the source books, and his system can -easily be compared with the organization of the older empire. - -Although the people who were working out these new problems were -largely of German blood, it must not be forgotten that Rome’s influence -had not been for naught, but was still to be seen in the survival of -the Latin language and literature and the material aspects of its -civilization--its roads, bridges, aqueducts and walled towns,--and -above all in this very tradition of universal dominion. This last idea -had been inherited on the one hand by the pope at Rome and on the other -by the king of the Germans. - -There is no one book which emphasizes the treatment which has -been suggested for this first period. The teacher can easily -follow this line of development with any of the better text-books. -Freeman, “Historical Geography of Europe,” has a good chapter on the -geographical development (Chapter VI), also Emerton, “Mediæval Europe,” -Chapter I; Seignobos, “History of Mediæval and Modern Civilization,” -Chapter VI, will be found very helpful on feudalism; also Emerton, -“Introduction to the Middle Ages,” Chapter XV, and Adams, “Civilization -during the Middle Ages,” Chapter IX. A good life of Charlemagne -in English is Hodgkin, “Charles the Great.” There is an abundance -of source material. Special mention might be made of Thatcher and -McNeal, Nos. 7-9, 16-19, 191-194, 209-217; Robinson, Chapter VII, -on Charlemagne, Chapter VIII on the Disruption of Charlemagne’s -Empire, and Chapter IX on Feudalism; Ogg, Chapter IX, on the “Age of -Charlemagne,” Chapter X on the “Era of the Later Carolingians,” and -Chapter XIII on the “Feudal System.” Good maps may be found in such -atlases as Freeman, Putzger, and Dow, which should be in the hands of -every live teacher. - - -College Entrance Questions. - -The following questions are selected from some of the recent -examinations: - -State as definitely as possible what you conceive to be the place of -Charlemagne in European history. - -What did the Holy Roman Empire include? How was it governed? - -Trace the connection between the break-up of the Empire of Charlemagne -and the beginnings of (a) France, (b) Germany, (c) Italy. - -What connection was there between the break-up of the Carolingian -Empire and the rise of feudalism? - - -Some Suggestions on Feudalism. - -A good vantage point from which to approach the subject is to look -upon feudalism as the result of the need of protection in an age of -disorder and confusion; then to follow this idea with an explanation of -its relation to the holding of land. When these elementary facts have -been made reasonably clear, they will serve as an excellent basis for -what must necessarily follow, namely, an explanation of how the various -factors involved each played its part in building up an organization -which though called a system is very often extremely puzzling for its -very lack of the same. The “feudal grant” has now been made clear and -the entering wedge has been driven for an understanding of vassalage. -It is now easy to explain immunity and to pass from this to the -practice of subinfeudation, and the mutual responsibilities involved -in the feudal relation. The diagram on page 115 of Robinson’s “Western -Europe” will serve to give the student an excellent notion of the -complexity of the feudal relation. - - -Syllabi. - -Finally it is suggested that before taking up the medieval period with -the class the teacher make a careful study of every available analysis, -_e. g._, the Syllabus of the New England History Teachers’ Association, -or the Syllabus of the Regents of the State of New York (which contains -the same outline), or the History Syllabus of the State of New Jersey -(in press) or the numerous outlines of college lecture courses which -have appeared in printed form from time to time as Richardson, -“Syllabus of Continental European History,” and Shepherd, “Syllabus of -the Epochs of History.” - -[Illustration: EXPLANATION OF CHART: EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT, 800 TO 962. - -The vertical lines represent dates and important events; the -horizontal lines, political divisions. Events of European importance -as distinguished from those of purely local interest are indicated by -lines intersecting the countries concerned. - -In 800 there are two main divisions, England and the Empire. (Egbert -and Charlemagne were contemporaries.) In 843, on account of the -division of the Empire at Verdun, it becomes necessary to follow the -fortunes of four units, England, Germany, France and the “Middle -Kingdom,” sometimes called Lotharingia. The Middle Kingdom practically -disappears by the Partition of Meersen (870). Soon after this event the -empire of Charlemagne is temporarily reunited under Charles the Fat. At -his deposition the two larger units, France and Germany, reappear with -several smaller ones, the most important being Burgundy and Italy. In -962 the latter is absorbed in the new German empire of Otto the Great. -Meanwhile England is working out its local problems, influenced as is -the rest of Europe by the coming of the Northmen and the conditions -attendant on the development of feudalism. Although Odo was elected -king of France by the nobles as early as 887, the throne passed back -and forth between his house and the Carolingians, so that Germany came -under a permanent native dynasty much earlier than did France. As -will be seen by the diagram, Germany and Italy, rather than France, -are sacrificed to the ambition of the German rulers to restore and -perpetuate the Roman empire in the West.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[2] Jaeger, Oskar, “Teaching of History,” translated by H. J. Chaytor. -Oxford and London, 1908. - -[3] Report of the Fall Meeting of The New England History Teachers’ -Association, 1904, published by the Association in 1905. - - - - -English History in the Secondary School - - C. B. NEWTON, Editor. - -I. Through the Norman Conquest[4] - - -I have just finished reading “A Centurion of the Thirtieth,” “On the -Great Wall,” and “The Winged Hats”--all from Kipling’s “Puck of Pook’s -Hill” and I now feel in the proper frame of mind to begin the year’s -work in English History. By the proper frame of mind I mean that what -I know, and what I would fain have my class know, is illuminated -and enlivened by a sense of reality without which my teaching and -their learning would be as sounding brass and tinkling cymbals. The -fundamental importance of beginning with this “proper frame of mind” -is the first matter which I wish to emphasize, the starting point of -the many matters which we may profitably consider together in our -monthly discussions. For ponder the magnitude of the task before us, -as we return from our vacation in this very modern world of ours to -our very modern pupils. How shall we be true interpreters of the life -of an early day, so remote, so utterly removed, so unreal, unless we -can by some magic touch invest it all with reality? It is a solemn -thing, fellow workmen in this noble field of English history, to think -how many thousands of us shall endeavor, during the next few weeks, -to impart some knowledge, some realizing sense of prehistoric man’s -dwelling in the so different Albion which was the mother of England; -of Celt and Roman and Saxon and Dane; of imperial Cæsar landing on -the unknown barbarous coast of Britain; of Druids and of monks; and -so on through those long, mysterious thousand years which bring us to -a somewhat clearer day (though still remote enough for every exercise -of the imagination!), when the great Duke became the last conqueror of -the little island. A solemn thing, I say, for if we fail to illumine -this mass of material with any ray of the imagination, if we merely -cram facts and theories into the miserable minds of our victims until -they are stuffed with names and dates, then are we become blind leaders -of the blind of whom it may be said, as I once heard it said of a -professor in one of our great colleges, “Think of the hundreds for whom -he has _ruined_ history.” - -So I believe, in all seriousness, it shall profit us more to take down -our Kipling or to cull out some of the very human episodes from our -Green, or from Dr. Warren’s little book of selections, and to saturate -our minds therein--insulating them, as it were, from the quick -currents of the present--than to refresh our memories laboriously and -conscientiously from sources and authorities until we are merely primed -with facts. Need I say that this is no slur nor sneer at authorities -and sources? Of course we have not neglected these--we must not, and we -shall not, neglect them. My emphasis is simply on what _is_, too often -neglected; my plea is for setting free the imagination, for letting the -“magic” work which will help us to clothe the dry bones of fact with -the flesh of _life_! We have all been taught to be conscientious and -faithful and painstaking; that is the modern historian’s creed. But all -conscience and no imagination make a mighty dull teacher! Let us never -forget that. - - -Sincerity and Frankness Indispensable. - -If the imagination needs all the arousing and vivifying it can get in -dealing with the early Britons and Romans of whom we receive vivid -impressions in “Puck of Pook’s Hill,” how much more must it cry for -help in beginning, as most text-books of English history do, with -primitive man! I must confess I dread those opening lessons which -deal with the origins of things. “Paleolithic, neolithic, metal -age”--how glibly the names may be reeled off, but what do we really -know about them, and who are we to try to penetrate the seclusion of -those unfathomed ages! I confess my imagination gropes blindly here, -and I must simply admit that I am baffled, that here I can summon up -very little sense of reality. This should be made clear enough to the -class--both that our sources of knowledge are limited, and that the -“backward and abysm” of time baffles the staunchest traveler to the far -past. Our pupils will value our sincerity from the outset if we make -it plain that there is no humbug about us, that we are not pretending -to a knowledge which their quick intelligence tells them must in the -nature of things be very limited. Don’t let us be too “cock sure” about -anything--still less about prehistoric times. For be sure the youthful -mind, if it is worth anything, asks itself how “they” know so much when -by our own admission there are no written records. You will permanently -undermine confidence if you make a false start here. So it appears to -me that all the period before the Romans came should be clothed in a -haze of mystery, a few looming facts in the gloom, but nothing too -clear cut or definite. So, too, throughout the course, let us be frank -in acknowledging the many uncertainties which beset us, so setting an -invaluable example of sincerity, and unconsciously inducing a spirit of -honesty in the attitude of our pupils toward history. - - -As to Dates and Discipline. - -With the landing of Julius Cæsar the fog begins to lift, and certain -clear headlands of knowledge appear. This may be brought out very -sharply by reading to the class, or getting the class to read to you, -an extract or two from “De Bello Gallico,” say Chapter 8 of Book V, -or a chapter from the end of Book IV. This brings home to the class -the “barbarianness” of the Britons in contrast with civilized Rome, -and incidentally gives the average pupil a new and almost startling -view of “Cæsar”! This done, the next task is to prevent the class -from unanimously jumping at the conclusion that Cæsar began the Roman -conquest. The only thing to do is to hammer in the four conquests -or invasions with their dates as landmarks, and to try heroically -to get straight the difference between Celt and Roman and Teuton. -No imagination here, but the sterner side of the year’s work--the -_absolute definite learning by rote of the essential dates and facts_ -which must in no wise be slurred or passed by. I do not believe history -to be a “disciplinary study,” but there is plenty of discipline in -it, as there is in all substantial work, and the boy or girl who has, -perhaps, had only some smatterings of elementary history before, might -as well realize in the beginning that entering this large field of -English history means, not only large opportunities for the imagination -and for abounding intellectual interest, but means also real work for -the memory and for the understanding. How to bring this about against -the inertia, inaccuracy, and inefficiency of the class? There is no -royal road--patience, reiteration, insistence on accuracy, and finally, -where necessary, the rod, or whatever substitute our American delicacy -along punitive lines allows, are the only methods open to us. A good -means of reiteration in the matter of dates is to have one pupil put -a set of dates on the board each day--for example, the dates of the -invasions (marking the approximate dates with a plus or minus sign), -and of such landmarks as the Landing of Augustine, the Treaty of -Wedmore, etc., may well be put on the board every day while the class -is studying the period before the Normans. The same thing may well be -done during each dynasty, keeping the dates of that dynasty before the -class without spending much time on them. The recitation of the class -should not, of course, be halted while the dates are being written; a -glance will serve to correct them when they are done. - - -Concerning Maps and Note Books. - -A word in regard to map work and note books. The correlation of -geography with history is, of course, indispensable. In certain places -throughout our subject, which I shall point out from time to time, it -is necessary that the geography of England and of Europe should be -clearly in mind. During this early period these notable points are (1) -the probable geographical conditions before “the channel” was cut; -(2) the divisions of Great Britain and Ireland at the time of Roman -occupation, showing the great walls and the Roman roads; (3) the Saxon -period--the homes of the Saxons, and the Heptarchy; (4) the Danelaw -and Alfred’s kingdom; (5) locations of battles and other points of -historical interest (such as the “holy isle” of St. Columba, Wedmore, -etc.) through 1066. I know no better way to make these five or more -topics clear than by outline maps. In using outline maps, neatness and -clearness are the two points to emphasize. Unless your text-book has -good maps your pupils should get Gardiner’s “School Atlas of English -History” (Longmans, Green & Co.). - -As to note books, I believe they are very helpful in teaching English -history; but do not overdo their use. If we insist on their being -very elaborate we make a fetish of them. They have two very simple -uses--(a) to emphasize important matters in each lesson; (b) to contain -any points outside the text-book which the teacher gives the class. -Also their by-products of concentration and accuracy and practice for -college work are by no means to be despised. At the beginning, when -a pupil is possibly taking notes for the first time, we must be very -patient, speaking slowly and practically dictating the things to be -“put down.” As a rule I would not put facts on the board to be copied. -That is too easy. A class must learn to take notes from the voice, and -gradually to catch matters worth setting down without special direction. - - -Reference Books. - -Two very useful books to which constant reference will be made during -the coming months are Beard’s “Introduction to the English Historians” -(MacMillan), and Cheyney’s “Readings in English History” (Ginn & -Co.). Both of these volumes give well-selected quotations from many -sources inaccessible to many of us, and with one or both of them in our -possession we shall be tolerably well equipped for the year’s work. -Then there are two old “standards” which most of us possess or may -easily get at. First of all, in my opinion, is Green’s “Short History -of the English People” (Harper’s one volume edition); and second, -Gardiner’s “Student’s History of England” (Longmans, Green & Co.) -is not only a good one-volume history, but is particularly rich in -pictures of value and interest. - -In explaining the missionary efforts of the Irish church, the -fascinating career of St. Patrick should not be neglected. See -“Ireland” in the “Stories of the Nations,” series, by Lawless, Chapter -IV. - -Anglo-Saxon government is an important subject. Gardiner has a good -brief explanation of terms, pp. 29-33, and 72-75 of the “Students’ -History.” Beard and Cheyney may be read quickly and with helpful -results on this subject. - -Alfred the Great, the noblest figure, shall we not say in all English -history--certainly in this period, should be sympathetically studied. -Of course Green paints him vividly, pp. 48-52, but if possible get -Walter Besant’s “Story of King Alfred,” in the “Library of Useful -Stories” (D. Appleton & Co.). - -The colossus of the tenth century was Dunstan. Some text-books slight -him. See Green, pp. 55-58 for his remarkable many sidedness. - -Of course Freeman’s “Norman Conquest” is full of meat on this period -before the Normans, as well as on the Normans themselves. A judicious -use of the index will make these volumes of Freeman very useful if you -have time for the search. The rise of Normandy and the wonderful career -of Duke William should of course be made sunlight clear. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] Subsequent topics: II. The Development of the English Nation; to -Edward I. III. Advance and Retrogression; the Hundred Years’ War. IV. -Various Phases of the 14th and 15th Centuries. V. The Tudors and the -Renaissance. VI. The Great Parliamentary Struggle. VII. Restoration -and Reaction; Many Beginnings. VIII. The Eighteenth Century. IX. The -Napoleonic Era; Pre-Victorian Reforms. X. The Victorian Era. - - - - -MISSOURI SOCIETY OF TEACHERS OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. - - -This society was organized out of the Department of History of the -Missouri State Teachers’ Association at the Christmas meeting of that -body in 1908. It is also affiliated with the State Historical Society, -and a number of its members belong to the North Central History -Teachers’ Association. The object of the society is to promote and -improve the study and teaching of history in the State of Missouri -through semi-annual meetings, with papers and discussions, of history -teachers, investigations into the condition of history in the State -schools, and the publication in the “Missouri Historical Review,” in -which space is officially reserved for the society, of papers on the -study and teaching of history, reports of meetings, and notes and news -of interest to history teachers. - -The society has held three successful meetings since its organization, -the most recent being the spring meeting of 1909, held May 1, at -the State University. At this meeting valuable papers were read by -Professor E. M. Violette, of the State Normal School at Kirksville, -on “Setting the Problem,” and by Professor C. A. Ellwood, of the -Department of Sociology of the University of Missouri, on “How History -Can be Taught from a Sociological Point of View.” The meetings ended by -the election of the following officers: President, Mr. H. R. Tucker, -McKinley High School, St. Louis; vice-president, Mr. J. L. Shouse, -Westport High School, Kansas City; secretary-treasurer, Professor -Eugene Fair, Normal School, Kirksville, and editor, Professor N. M. -Trenholme, University of Missouri, Columbia. The next meeting of the -society will be held at Christmas time in St. Louis in connection with -the State Teachers’ Association meeting. - - - - -THE MEETING OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION AT ST. -LOUIS, JUNE 17-19. - - -The semi-annual meeting of this organization was held in the rooms of -the Missouri Historical Society at St. Louis, June 17-19. - -The general subject of discussion was the historical importance of -the physiography and ethnology of the Mississippi Valley, and the -papers, presented by well-known middle western scholars, served to -bring out the great importance of physical and racial factors in -American development. This association is affiliated with the American -Historical Association in an unofficial way, and is doing excellent -work for the history of the region in which it is specially interested. -The secretary-treasurer is Clarence S. Paine, of Lincoln, Neb. - - * * * * * - -Alive to the Student’s Need - -For stirring, gripping work in American history look to Professor Mace. -He comes to the task with every sense alert for the student’s help, -and with every means in hand to give the truest and most intelligent -conception of history. The impression he makes is unforgettable. - -In - -Mace’s Primary History Stories of Heroism - -the author takes our great men in every line of life by periods--men -who fought for the good against the bad; he shows them living, -throbbing with power, _doing_. He cuts them into the child’s memory. -And when the student comes to the later grades, he knows his people, -chooses his leaders, and follows them. - -In - -Mace’s School History of the United States - -the treatment of periods broadens, and the men the child now knows live -their big stirring lives through the family, social and industrial -development, through the religious, educational and governmental -progress. They thrill and move the child, steady his thought and build -up his respect for the greatness gone before--they teach him to know -his own responsibility in the affairs of the world to-day. - -Illustrated with pen-drawings that mean something - -Rand McNally & Company - -CHICAGO NEW YORK - - * * * * * - - - - -History in the Grades - - ARMAND J. GERSON, Editor. - -The “Type Lesson” in History. - - -Whatever may be said as to the evil effects of the present overcrowding -of the elementary school curriculum, this condition has brought about -at least one lasting benefit in that it has led through sheer stress of -need to the invention of numerous pedagogic devices for the saving of -time. As subject after subject has been added to the work required to -be covered in the grades, stern necessity has developed in the grade -teacher a wonderful faculty of class-room economy. While it is true -that many of the time-saving devices which have thus found their way -into our public schools have been unquestionably harmful, there are -some among them which have proved themselves efficacious and which -may be said to have constituted a permanent advance in educational -practice. Among this class we must include the “type lesson” idea. - -The idea of the type lesson is based upon the principle that since the -increasing complexity of the modern elementary curriculum precludes -the possibility of teaching with proper thoroughness all the details -of the various subjects laid down in our courses of study, it behooves -the teacher to select a few typical phases of his subject, teach -these thoroughly, and use them as the basis for the rest of the work. -Instead of a superficial survey of the entire field, which at best -can leave but a hazy resultant in the child’s mind, let the teacher -lead the pupil to evolve a certain number of consistent and intensive -“type-ideas” to serve as the nuclei of the year’s instruction. To -express this pedagogic principle in terms of psychology, this method -will develop in the child’s mind certain fundamental concepts to which -all later reading and instruction will naturally relate and in the -light of which he may interpret all subsequent mental experiences. - -In recent years the type lesson idea has found its chief exponents in -the field of geography. Possibly the overwhelming mass of detail of -which elementary geography is composed and the apparent separateness -of the facts which constitute its subject matter have led educators -to seek for their “short cuts” in this subject first. Be the reason -for this activity what it may, teachers of geography have evolved an -effective type lesson system for the teaching of their subject. The -geographer has asked, “Why burden the minds of our young pupils with -description of ALL the great rivers of the world, of ALL the great -mountain systems, of ALL the great cities? Why not carefully select -one or two typical rivers, two or three typical cities? In these we -can interest the children without any difficulty. Moreover we can then -require and expect a definite amount of definite information to be -retained. For the rest, let us teach our pupils to read widely, let -us cultivate a broad geographical interest, and trust to the seeds we -have planted so carefully to yield in the course of time a plenteous -harvest.” And the geographer’s forecast has not been far amiss. - -Why should not the teacher of history apply the same mode of thinking? -At first glance it is evident that the subject matter of history lends -itself most admirably to the type lesson method of development. The -average grade teacher is frankly dissatisfied with his results in -history. In spite of his best efforts to string historical facts along -the chain of cause and effect, in spite of his most carefully prepared -topical outlines, the teacher of history in the grades is too often -obliged at the end of his year’s work to acknowledge that his efforts -to make the facts of history a real part of the child’s mental content -have been largely futile. Let us see to what extent the type lesson -might simplify the problem. - -Let the teacher of a particular grade make a selection of a series of -type lessons which shall constitute the core of the year’s work in -history. Ten or a dozen such lesson units can be carefully planned -in such a way that the rest of the work may be grouped about them. -These type lessons are to be used throughout as bases for comparisons, -relations and generalizations; in other words, they will constitute the -framework of the history instruction for the year. - -To take a specific instance, the teacher of a certain grade finds by -reference to the course of study that his pupils are supposed to cover -in more or less detail the period of American history from 1492 to -1763. This period falls naturally into three divisions: (1) the period -of exploration, (2) the period of colonization, (3) the period of -intercolonial wars. In teaching the period of exploration the various -explorers naturally group themselves according to nationalities. One or -two type lessons should suffice for each group. - -Columbus might be chosen as the typical Spanish explorer. In that case -his explorations should be taught with considerable detail, bringing -out particularly those phases of his life and work which form the basis -for the teaching of other Spaniards who took an active part in opening -up the New World. This type lesson should furnish the pupils with -definite notions of Spanish life, Spanish policies, Spanish motives, -Spanish methods of navigation, etc. With this basis the subsequent -Spanish explorations could be gone over very rapidly, the matter of -results alone being emphasized. - -Similarly the teacher might give a type lesson on Sir Francis Drake -to form the basis for the English explorations of the sixteenth -century. Marquette might be selected to represent the French missionary -activity. - -For the period of colonization one typical colony in each of the -three groups could easily be selected. Virginia, Pennsylvania, and -Massachusetts at once suggest themselves. For the period of the -intercolonial wars a typical battle or two might be taught intensively -and realistically. Maps, pictures, literary descriptions will all help -to vivify the picture so that the resulting concept may form a type or -pattern for the comprehension of all other battles to which reference -may subsequently be made. - -The instance just cited will indicate the way in which the teacher of -history in any particular grade may make a choice of topics for type -lessons. More important, however, than the choosing of the topics will -be the actual planning of the lessons so that they may be type lessons -indeed. This department of the HISTORY TEACHER’S MAGAZINE will from -time to time publish illustrative type lessons in history which it is -hoped may be found of practical value. While the method is not put -forward as something entirely novel, nor as by any means a panacea -for all the troubles of the history teacher, it is our earnest hope -that the lessons to be outlined in subsequent issues may contain some -suggestions which teachers of history in the grades may find applicable -in their daily work. - - * * * * * - -A LIBRARY OF History and Exploration Invaluable for Every School. - -The Trail Makers - - Prof. JOHN BACH McMASTER, Consulting Editor. Each Volume Small 12mo. - Cloth. Illustrated. With Introductions, Illustrations and Maps. 17 - volumes. Each $1.00 net. - -=The Journey of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca=, and his companions from -Florida to the Pacific, 1528-1536. - - Translated by Fanny Bandelier. Edited with an Introduction by Ad. F. - Bandelier. - -=Narratives of the Career of Hernando De Soto in the Conquest of -Florida=, 1539-1542, as told by a gentleman of Elvas, by Luys Hernandez -De Biedma and by Rodrigo Ranjel. - - Edited with an Introduction by Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, of - Yale University. In two volumes. - -=The Journey of Coronado, 1540-42.= From the City of Mexico to the -Buffalo Plains of Kansas and Nebraska. - - Translated and Edited with an Introduction by George Parker Winship. - -=Voyages and Explorations of Samuel de Champlain, narrated by himself.= - - Translated by Annie Nettleton Bourne. Edited with an Introduction by - Edward Gaylord Bourne, Professor of History in Yale University. In - two vols. - -=The Journeys of La Salle and His Companions, 1678-1687. As related by -himself and his followers.= - - Edited with an Introduction by Prof. I. J. Cox, of the University of - Cincinnati. In two volumes. - -=Voyages from Montreal Through the Continent of North America to the -Frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and 1793.= By Alexander Mackenzie. - - In two volumes. - -=History of the Expedition Under the Command of Captains Lewis and -Clark.= With an account of the Louisiana Purchase, by Prof. John Bach -McMaster, and an Introduction Identifying the Route. - - In three volumes. - -=History of Five Indian Nations of Canada which are Dependent upon the -Province of New York.= - - By Cadwallader Colden, Surveyor-General of the Colony of New York. In - two volumes. - -=A Journal of Voyage and Travels in the Interior of North America.= - - By Daniel Williams Harmon, a partner in the Northwest Company - (beginning in 1800). - -=The Wild Northland.= - - By Gen. Sir Wm. Francis Butler, K. C. B. - -Descriptive Circular on Application to the Publishers - -A. S. BARNES & CO. - -11-15 East 24th Street, New York - - * * * * * - - - - -Stories of Heroism - - PROFESSOR MACE’S NEW BOOK REVIEW BY CHARLES A. COULOMB. - - -In spite of repeated attempts at producing a history suitable for -class-room work in the fourth or fifth grades of the elementary school, -the teaching public still awaits a satisfactory book. Children cannot -be interested in a mere chronological narrative, nor are they capable -of forming sound judgments from groups of facts. Since the days of -“Peter Parley,” therefore, the most satisfactory histories of the -United States for children have been biographical. In the present work -Professor Mace has so far followed tradition. But in the endeavor to -secure more continuity of narrative than would otherwise be possible, -the stories have been gathered together in groups of two or three -or more. Each man in the group appears in his proper historical -perspective instead of being partially eclipsed by the fame of some -great personage whose biography is used to cover a long period of time -or several historical movements. The author has selected his stories -from those in which he finds a certain element of heroism, the term -being broad enough, however, to cover the lives of Penn and Samuel F. -B. Morse, as well as those of Drake and John Paul Jones. - -The heroism of some of our great men is shown by overcoming great -obstacles just as that of others is indicated by fighting the enemies -of their country. So we find William Penn and James Oglethorpe -associated with Hudson, the explorer, and Stuyvesant, the fighting -Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, in the chapter about “The Men Who -Planted Colonies for Many Kinds of People.” - -Out of the three hundred and ninety-six pages in the book, two hundred -and twenty-nine are devoted to our history prior to 1789, leaving but -one hundred and sixty-seven to our history under the Constitution. -The division seems to give a disproportionate amount of space to our -Colonial and Revolutionary history. This is justified to some extent -by the plan of the author. There is no question as to the romance to -be found in the voyages of Polo and Drake, and in the life of Captain -Smith. At the same time there are other equally dramatic features of -our later history that might have been included, and so have given -a better distribution of space. More room is given to Washington’s -activities before the Revolution than to the rest of his life, which -did not, it is true, cover so many years, but is certainly of more -importance. With the exception of the statement that Grant was twice -elected president, and the story of Edison and his inventions, the -history of our country from 1865 to the battle of Manila Bay contains -nothing worth recording, so far as this book is concerned. Out of the -sixty-six names we do not find one jurist; one feels that Chief Justice -Marshall’s name is certainly not sixty-seventh in our history. - -The attempt to fix the facts of each chapter by a list of questions -for study is to be commended, as is the unusually satisfactory index. -Professor Mace has, besides, done what few scholars succeed in doing. -He has written his book in such simple, clear English that the pupils -for whom it is intended will have little difficulty in understanding it. - -Most of the pictures have been selected for their dramatic value, but -many portraits and pictures of places and things of historic interest -are included in the book. On the whole, the book is a step forward, and -the inequalities in it are no greater than those of other books that -have otherwise less to commend them. In classes where the course of -study in history does not extend beyond the Revolution, the book should -have a wide use. - -[A Primary History: Stories of Heroism. By William H. Mace, Professor -of History in Syracuse University. Cloth, 8vo. xxv+ 396 pp. Rand, -McNally & Co. Chicago, New York.] - - * * * * * - -Translations and Reprints - -FROM THE ORIGINAL SOURCES OF EUROPEAN HISTORY - - “An invaluable series of Sources, still in course of - publication.”--Report of the Committee of New England Teachers’ - Association, p. 63. - -This series contains translations from the original sources of European -history from Roman times to the reorganization of Europe by the -Congress of Vienna in the nineteenth century. Complete, the set is in -six volumes, but the separate numbers can be had in pamphlet form at -from fifteen to twenty-five cents. - -The value of original source material to aid the pupil in obtaining a -vivid sense of the life and manners of past ages is felt by all history -teachers. But it cannot be emphasized too much. - -How much more realistic and impressive than the cut-and-dried statement -on the Crusades of the average text-book, are actual accounts by -contemporaries and Crusaders themselves, as, for example, the statement -by Fulcher of Chartres of the start: - - “One saw an infinite multitude speaking different languages and come - from divers countries.” ... “Oh, how great was the grief ... when - husband left the wife so dear to him, his children also....” - -Or the letter by Count Stephen from before the walls of Antioch, March -29, 1098: - - “These which I write you are only a few things, dearest, of the many - which we have done, and because I am not able to tell you, dearest, - what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to carefully watch over - your land, to do your duty as you ought to your children and your - vassals. You will certainly see just as soon as I can possibly return - to you. Farewell.” - -The Crusaders thus appear as real men and women to the pupil. Or let -him read the text of the Act of Supremacy: “An act concernyinge the -kynges Highness to be supreme head of the Churche of Englande and to -have auctoryte to reforme and redresse all errours, heresyes and abuses -in the same,” and he cannot but feel that he has gotten back to the -source upon which the statements of the text-book are based. - -It is this kind of material in convenient form that Translations and -Reprints contain. The pamphlet form commends them especially for -classroom use. In the bound form the six volumes are very well adapted -for reference work in the school library. - -Besides these extracts from the original sources, there are published -by the Department of History of the University of Pennsylvania the -“Source Book of the Renaissance,” by Professor Merrick Whitcomb, -“Documents on Federal Relations,” by Professor H. V. Ames, and various -Syllabuses, those of special interest to teachers being Munro and -Sellery’s Syllabus of the History of the Middle Ages, 1909, and Ames’s -Syllabus of American Colonial History, revised edition, 1908. - - Published by - Department of History - University of Pennsylvania - PHILADELPHIA - - * * * * * - - - - -A Source-Book of American History - - -Ten years ago had a high school teacher received a copy of such a -work as Professor MacDonald’s “Documentary Source-Book of American -History” he would have read it with wonder that so many really -significant historical documents could be bound together between the -covers of one small volume. To-day, thanks to the efforts of Professor -MacDonald himself, of Professor Hart, and of many others, we are well -supplied with source-books for several periods of American history. -Consequently, the latest volume of Professor MacDonald has been -accepted as a matter of course; and frequently reviewers have contented -themselves with saying that it contained some of the materials already -printed in the author’s earlier volumes--“Select Charters,” “Select -Documents,” and “Select Statutes.” Such passing notice fails to do the -new work justice, and it is the purpose of this short review to tell -the reader the classes of material which are contained within the six -hundred pages of the Documentary Source-Book. - -The extracts contained in the volume consist, in the main, of -constitutional or statutory documents, and in this respect differ -from the material which has been printed by Professor Hart in his -“Source-Readers,” and his “History by Contemporaries,” where the -emphasis is placed upon narratives, descriptions, and personal -contemporary opinions. - - -Colonial and Revolutionary Documents. - -Out of 187 documents, 32 are devoted to the colonial period down to -1764; about 22 deal with the revolutionary period from 1765 to 1789; -and the remaining 133 numbers are concerned with the national period. -For the colonial period, there are charters of eleven of the thirteen -colonies; there are documents illustrative of popular government, such -as the Mayflower Compact, the ordinance establishing representative -government in Virginia, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, and -of New Haven. The relation of the colonies to England is shown by -the Navigation Acts, the Molasses Act, the Sugar Act, and the royal -proclamation of 1763. The relation to other countries is shown by -extracts from the treaty of Utrecht and the treaty of Paris in 1763. No -person who is teaching the colonial period even to elementary students -should be without the fresh contact with the documents which these -extracts make possible. - -On the Revolutionary epoch, Professor MacDonald gives us the Stamp -Act, the Intolerable Acts, the Massachusetts Circular Letter of 1768, -the resolves of the Stamp Act Congress, the Association and resolves -of the Continental Congress, the principal acts of Parliament for the -prosecution of the American war, and, of course, the Declaration of -Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the Ordinance of 1787, and -the Constitution. - - -The National Period. - -The declarations of war and treaties of peace are given in all -cases; and there is a complete documentary history of territorial -acquisitions, for extracts are given from all treaties agreeing -to the cession of territory to the United States, with the single -exception of the treaty with England and Germany respecting the Samoan -Islands. National problems which have entered into politics are fully -illustrated. It is satisfying to find here in convenient form the -Alien and Sedition Acts, and the counter-blast of the Republicans, the -Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. The Missouri Compromise documents -number seven, and are prefaced by an excellent introduction which -gives the congressional history of the compromise measures. A similar -treatment is given the six documents on the Compromise of 1850. The -Civil War period furnishes twenty-three documents including secession -ordinances, the Confederate States Constitution, military affairs, -finance, and other matters. The difficult subject of reconstruction, -with its ramifications in the impeachment of the President and the care -of the freedmen, receives thirty-three extracts. - - -Valuable Introductions. - -This short statement gives an idea of the scope of the book and the -nature of the extracts. In addition to the documents themselves, -another feature gives great value to the book. Many, almost all, of the -documents are prefaced by short introductions which give the historical -setting of the extracts. In the case of the United States statutes the -account of congressional action is very valuable, and in many cases -furnishes a succinct narrative of the movement culminating in the act -under consideration. Abundant references to secondary works and primary -sources are to be found in these introductory remarks. - -Thus the book contains a large amount of pedagogical material; sources, -bibliography, and analytical introductions combining to add to its -usefulness. Such a work will protect the teacher and the scholar, -whether in elementary school, in high school, or in college, from loose -thinking and careless statements about the facts of American history. -There need be few errors in class if such a work is on the teacher’s -desk, or, better still, in the student’s hand. And, incidentally, many -of our newspapers would profit by the addition of the Source-Book to -their libraries. To teachers, journalists, and statesmen, who have not -easy access to the Statutes at Large, the collections of treaties, and -the congressional documents, or, who, having such access, desire the -material in convenient desk form, this book will prove invaluable. - -[Documentary Source-Book of American History. 1606-1898. By William -MacDonald. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1908, pp. xii-616. Price, -$1.75.] - - - - -Cheyney’s Readings in English History - - REVIEWED BY PROFESSOR N. M. TRENHOLME, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI. - - -The movement towards utilizing the remarkably rich and continuous -source literature of English history in the secondary and higher -teaching of the subject is well illustrated in the appearance of this -full and interesting collection of source readings. Leaving aside the -early and rather advanced collections of documentary sources by Stubbs, -Prothero, Gardiner and other English historians, we have had during -the last decade a succession of source-books for English history. No -book, however, has brought together and organized for purposes of -study and instruction so large an amount of diverse material as is -to be found in Professor Cheyney’s “Readings in English History.” -Although but recently published, it is becoming most popular and is -proving invaluable to the earnest and enthusiastic teacher in search of -profitable collateral reading. - -The volume is a substantial one of nearly eight hundred pages, and is -divided into chapters to correspond with the author’s “Short History -of England,” which the “Readings” is primarily intended to illustrate. -Right here, however, it should be said that the “Readings” can be used -advantageously with any standard text-book of English history and that -teachers who do not use Professor Cheyney’s text-book will find the -“Readings” almost as valuable for illustrative purposes and collateral -reference as those who do. The “Readings” can stand on its own merits -as a book in every way. Each general chapter is divided into excellent -topical divisions, while the extracts used are numbered consecutively -throughout, showing a total of four hundred and fifty-seven selections, -beginning with Julius Cæsar’s description of Britain and ending with -an editorial from the “New York Times” on the significance of Queen -Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee. Could anything be more comprehensive? - -In regard to the special contents of the volume, space will permit of -only a very brief survey and mention. The selections to illustrate -the geography of England, prehistoric and Celtic Britain, and Roman -Britain have been admirably made and furnish enough collateral reading -for any high school class studying this early period. Classical and -early English sources have been skilfully drawn on and interestingly -presented. For Anglo-Saxon England the great literary and historical -writings such as Tacitus’ “Germania,” Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History,” -the “Beowulf,” the “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,” Asser’s “Life of Alfred,” -and various collections of Anglo-Saxon laws and documents, have -been freely used and furnish a scholarly and yet not too advanced -a background for the ordinary narrative history. In selecting and -organizing his material for Norman and Plantagenet England Professor -Cheyney has likewise shown remarkable judgment and discrimination. It -is in the modern part, however, that his skilful editorial work is -seen to fullest advantage and the variety and breadth of selection -is really remarkable. The light thrown on the great Puritan movement -of the seventeenth century and on the struggle between the Stuarts -and their parliaments is so interesting and valuable that no American -teacher of English history can afford to ignore or overlook Chapter -XIV on “The Personal Monarchy of the Early Stuarts.” Equally, if not -more, important are the extracts contained in the three last chapters -illustrating the foundation of the British Empire of to-day, the period -of revolution in industry and in politics and government, and the -growth of real democracy and social equality through the great reforms -of the nineteenth century. All forms of public and private record have -been drawn on for illustration, and it will be a poor teacher who -cannot make more vital and interesting any lesson in modern English -history by the aid of these illuminating and interesting selections. If -any criticism is to be made of the contents of the “Readings,” it is -of the sort that is sometimes made after too elaborate and substantial -a dinner--that we have been perhaps a little over-supplied with rich -and savory intellectual food by the efforts and industry of Professor -Cheyney. - - -How Teachers Can Best Use the “Readings.” - -Teachers of English history in high schools and colleges can make most -effective use of the “Readings” by having a copy in the hands of each -pupil and requiring regular study of assignments in conjunction with -the text-book. In this way the “Readings” will furnish a library of -valuable illustrative material supplementary to the text-book and will -meet the problem of outside reading. The extracts have been so selected -and arranged that those for any given topic are not excessive in number -or length. If for any reason, however, it is not possible or advisable -to have each pupil own a copy of the book, a good plan would be to -have available in the school reference library a considerable number -of duplicate copies, which members of the class can study and consult. -The teacher will, of course, be thoroughly conversant with the material -in the “Readings” and can introduce it as a part of the recitation or -discussion. An interesting and important extract read aloud in class -is frequently of great value in giving life and meaning to the subject -matter. The least desirable way for any teacher to use the “Readings” -is that of restricting it to personal use alone, as many teachers are -prone to do in connection with source-books and other reference works. -In order to fulfil its proper function in education a book should reach -both teachers and students and be the basis for discussion in the class -room. A well-trained and efficient teacher is always anxious that the -members of the class shall have every opportunity for reading and study -outside of the text-book. We would, therefore, urge on all teachers -of English history the great desirability of introducing into general -class use this new and exceedingly valuable collection of source -readings. - -[“Readings in English History Drawn from the Original Sources,” -intended to illustrate “A Short History of England,” by Edward Potts -Cheyney, Boston, New York, etc.: Ginn & Co. Pp. xxxvi, 781. $1.60.] - - - - -Reports from the Historical Field - - WALTER H. CUSHING, Editor. - - -Associations of History Teachers. - -An important result of the increased interest in history teaching -produced by the publication of the report of the Committee of Seven -was the formation of associations of history teachers. In addition -to various local and State groups, three associations, comprising -history teachers of different sections of the country, are doing -much to raise the standard of teaching in this subject: The North -Central History Teachers’ Association, the Association of History -Teachers of the Middle States, and the New England History Teachers’ -Association. Besides these, there is the Nebraska Association, a -branch of the State Teachers’ Association, probably the oldest of the -history teachers’ organizations; the Mississippi Association of History -Teachers, organized last year as an auxiliary of the Mississippi -Historical Society; and the Missouri Society of Teachers of History -and Government. In California there is under way a movement to create -an association of history teachers, particularly of those engaged in -primary and secondary work, and some definite results are expected this -fall. In Washington it is proposed to establish a history teachers’ -section of the Washington State Teachers’ Association at its next -annual session. The Nebraska association, to focus its work more -closely, is planning a separate and independent meeting for two days in -April. - -Of strictly local associations the Boston History Council may be taken -as an example. This Council is made up of the heads of departments in -the various high schools of Boston, and discusses such questions as -changes in text-books, courses of study, fundamental aims and methods. -During the past year the question of introducing English history in the -first year of the high school has been discussed. - - -Work of the Associations. - -Membership in these associations is almost indispensable to the best -work. Not only are the live questions of the classroom discussed, -but reports of greater length are presented by special or regular -committees; while not the least valuable benefit is that derived from -personal association with other workers in the field. The social side -of the meeting as found in informal receptions and luncheons is, -however, capable of much greater development, especially to the end of -reaching the new member. - -The three sectional associations have effected an interchange of -publications whereby a member of one association receives without -additional expense the reports of the other two. Many of the articles -and discussions of these associations are of more than local or -temporary value. Space does not permit publication of a complete list, -but mention should be made of a few: Middle States, 1907, “The Study -of History,” Prof. W. M. Sloane; “Methods of Stimulating and Testing -the Work of History Students in College,” Prof. Eleanor L. Lord; -1908, “History and Geography,” Rt. Hon. James Bryce; “Correlation -of History with Other Subjects,” Sarah C. Brooks and others; North -Central Association, 1907, “Influence of the Foreign Population on the -Teaching of History and Civics,” Jane Addams and others; “Teaching -of American History in Schools and Colleges,” Prof. Edward Channing; -“Causes of Immigration During the Period 1830-1850,” Dr. W. V. Pooley; -“An Illustration of Research Methods in the Study of English -History,” Prof. N. M. Trenholme; 1908, “Results to be Obtained in the -College Study of American History,” Prof. W. M. West; “History and Its -Neighbors,” Prof. G. L. Burr; “Geography and American History,” Mr. W. -H. Campbell and Mr. H. R. Tucker. New England Association, 1907, “The -Fall of Rome,” Prof. J. H. Robinson; 1908, “Geography and History,” -Prof. G. L. Burr; “Are Modifications in the Report of the Committee of -Seven Desirable?” Blanche E. Hazard, chairman. - -These associations meet annually in the spring, except the New England, -which also meets in October. Information regarding membership, -publications, and other details may be obtained from the secretaries: -Mr. G. H. Gaston, Wendell Phillips High School, Chicago, Ill. (North -Central); Professor Henry Johnson, Columbia University, New York -City (Middle States); Mr. W. H. Cushing, South Framingham, Mass. -(New England); Mr. H. M. Ivy, Jr., Flora, Miss. (Miss. Association); -Professor C. N. Anderson, Kearney, Neb. (President, Nebraska -Association). - - -Recent Meetings. - -The eleventh annual meeting of the North Central History Teachers’ -Association was held at the Reynolds Club, Chicago, on Friday and -Saturday, April 2 And 3, 1909. The Friday afternoon session was opened -by Professor Samuel B. Harding, of Indiana University, who read a paper -on “Some Concrete Problems in the Teaching of Medieval and Modern -History.” The discussion was opened by Professor George C. Sellery, -of the University of Wisconsin. In the evening a paper on “The Study -of the Present as an Aid in the Interpretation of the Past” was read -by Professor Edward A. Ross, of the University of Wisconsin, and -discussed by Dean A. W. Small, of the University of Chicago; Professor -Paul Shorey, of the University of Chicago, and Dean E. B. Greene, of -the University of Illinois. The session of Saturday was devoted to -the annual business meeting and to the presentation of the report on -the Annual Bibliography and the Report of the Committee of Eight. -Professor A. C. McLaughlin, of the University of Chicago, a member of -the Committee of Seven, read a paper on “What Changes Should be Made in -the Report of the Committee of Seven.” - -The April meeting of the New England Association was held in the -rooms of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston. The subject -for consideration was the “Syllabus for the Study of American -Civil Government in Secondary Schools.” A special committee of the -association has been at work for several years in the preparation of a -syllabus, which will be discussed in the next issue of this magazine. - -At the last meeting of the Nebraska History Teachers’ Association a -committee was appointed to consider the question of American history in -the Grammar grades, with special reference to Nebraska history. - - * * * * * - -LEADING HISTORIES OF THE DAY - -Robinson--Introduction to the History of Western Europe - - By Professor James Harvey Robinson, of Columbia University. In a one - volume edition and a two volume edition. - -Robinson--Readings in European History - - Designed to supplement the “Introduction to the History of Western - Europe.” In a two volume edition and an abridged edition. - -Robinson and Beard--The Development of Modern Europe - - An introduction to the study of current history. By James Harvey - Robinson and Charles A. Beard, Adjunct Professor of Politics in - Columbia University. - - _Volume I._ The Eighteenth Century: The French Revolution and the - Napoleonic Period. - - _Volume II._ Europe since the Congress of Vienna. - -Robinson and Beard--Readings in Modern European History - - A collection of extracts from sources chosen with the purpose of - illustrating some of the chief phases of the development of Europe - during the last two hundred years. In two volumes arranged to - accompany those of “The Development of Modern Europe.” - -Montgomery’s Histories - - Clear, accurate, scholarly--Montgomery’s Histories to-day afford - up-to-date courses in history for practically every grade. Their - simple, narrative style has made them especially attractive to pupils - and teachers. - - _Beginner’s American History._ - - _An Elementary American History._ - _Leading facts of American History._ - - _Student’s American History._ - - _Leading facts of English History._ - _Leading Facts of French History._ - -Myers’s Histories - - Myers’s Histories are to-day, more than ever before, the standard - texts for the secondary schools of this country. They are used - in more than twice as many schools as any competing books in - corresponding subjects. - - _Ancient History._ (Revised edition.) - - _General History._ In a one volume edition and a two volume edition. - - _Mediæval and Modern History._ - -GINN AND COMPANY have on their list of publications histories for -practically every course usually taught from the primary school to the -university. Correspondence with the nearest office in regard to any of -our books will be given prompt attention. - -Ginn and Company, Publishers - -BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON ATLANTA DALLAS COLUMBUS SAN FRANCISCO - - * * * * * - -A New Book on American History - -By PROF. H. W. CALDWELL Of the University of Nebraska - -For a number of years we have published Professor Caldwell’s books, -“Survey of American History,” “Great American Legislators” and -“American Territorial Development,” which were originally issued in -the form of leaflets consisting practically of lectures delivered by -the author. In the making of the new book we propose to make it as -nearly perfect as possible, typographically and mechanically. It has -been decided to insert maps, the book being intended for advanced work -in high schools and for students taking a special course in American -History. It is proposed to divide the book into four chapters as -follows: - -CHAPTER I.--The Making of Colonial America, 1492-1763 - -CHAPTER II.--The Revolution and Independence, 1763-1786 - -CHAPTER III.--The Making of a Democratic Nation, 1786-1841 - -CHAPTER IV.--The Slavery and Sectional Struggle, 1841-1877 - -The tentative plan of the book as proposed is given above and includes -the material as now prepared. It is estimated the book will contain -about 600 pages. - -Price, $1.40 - -AINSWORTH & COMPANY PUBLISHERS - -378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Footnotes have been moved to the end of each article and relabeled -consecutively through the document. - -The one illustration has been moved to a paragraph break near -where it is mentioned. - -Advertisements have been moved to the end of the article where they -appear in the original text. - -Punctuation has been made consistent. - -Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in -the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors have -been corrected. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. -I, No. 1, September, 1909, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE, SEPT 1909 *** - -***** This file should be named 54562-0.txt or 54562-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/5/6/54562/ - -Produced by Larry B. 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